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**MAX IV Laboratory**
MAX IV Laboratory:
MAX IV is a next-generation synchrotron radiation facility in Lund, Sweden. Its design and planning has been carried out within the Swedish national laboratory, MAX-lab, which up until 2015 operated three accelerators for synchrotron radiation research: MAX I (550 MeV, opened 1986), MAX II (1,5 GeV, opened 1997) and MAX III (700 MeV, opened 2008). MAX-lab supported about 1000 users from over 30 countries annually. The facility operated 14 beamlines with a total of 19 independent experimental stations, supporting a wide range of experimental techniques such as macromolecular crystallography, electron spectroscopy, nanolithography and production of tagged photons for photo-nuclear experiments. The facility closed on 13 December (St Lucia dagen) 2015 in preparation for MAX IV.
MAX IV Laboratory:
On 27 April 2009 the Swedish Ministry of Education and Research, Swedish Research Council, Lund University, Region Skåne and Vinnova, a Swedish government funding agency, decided to fund the research center.The new laboratories, including two storage rings and a full-energy linac is situated in Brunnshög in Lund North East. The inauguration of MAX IV took place 21 June 2016, on the day of summer solstice. The larger of the two storage rings has a circumference of 528 meters, operates at 3 GeV energy, and has been optimized for high-brightness x-rays. The smaller storage ring (circumference 96 meters) is operated at 1.5 GeV energy and has been optimized for UV. There are also plans for a future expansion of the facility that would add a free-electron laser (FEL) to the facility, but is yet to be funded.There are currently 16 beamlines at the facility with 10 of them located around the 3 GeV ring, 5 around the 1.5 GeV ring and one at the of the linear accelerator. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Filtration coefficient**
Filtration coefficient:
In physiology, Filtration coefficient (Kf) is the product of a biological membrane's permeability to water and the surface area of the membrane. Typical units of Kf are mL/min/mmHg. The rate of filtration across the membrane is, by definition, the product of Kf and the net filtration pressure across the membrane. Kf is frequently applied to the glomerular capillaries, which filter water into Bowman's capsule to form urine. Typically, in an adult human, the net filtration pressure is 10mmHg and Kf 12.5mL/min/mmHg, giving a glomerular filtration rate (GFR) of 125mL/min. A decrease in Kf due to reduced number of glomeruli or reduced permeability will reduce the GFR at a given filtration pressure | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Rollin (video game)**
Rollin (video game):
Rollin is a puzzle video game written for MS-DOS by Michael Riedel of SAV Creation and published by Ticsoft.
Rollin (video game):
The object of the game is to maneuver a ball through a level in top-down perspective from start to exit. The ball follows the laws of gravity, momentum and conservation of energy. Levels are composed of tiles with various properties and effects. The game has a single player, two player in turn and two player cooperative modes. The controllers supported are keyboard, mouse and joysticks.
Rollin (video game):
Five "episodes" (level packs) were produced, each having 8 levels with a distinct visual theme. Episodes 2+3 and 4+5 were released as Part 1 and Part 2, correspondingly, with 16 levels each.
Episode 1 was released as freeware, officially named "friendware" and also known as Part 0, containing 8 levels.
The soundtrack in electronic music genre was composed by Karsten Koch. Each released Part contains a different set of in-game tracks and a common main menu track.
Gameplay:
The player character has been transformed into a ball by an evil scientist. Now he has to roll his way through various mazes also designed by that scientist if he hopes to survive. His goal is to roll his marble around the level, collecting items and gold (in order to buy keys and other items at shops) in order to eventually get to the level's exit.
Gameplay:
Obstacles, items and special tiles include monsters, keys, locks, trampolines, acid to destroy some walls, and more. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Exact test**
Exact test:
In statistics, an exact (significance) test is a test such that if the null hypothesis is true, then all assumptions made during the derivation of the distribution of the test statistic are met. Using an exact test provides a significance test that maintains the type I error rate of the test ( α ) at the desired significance level of the test. For example, an exact test at a significance level of α=5% , when repeated over many samples where the null hypothesis is true, will reject at most 5% of the time. This is in contrast to an approximate test in which the desired type I error rate is only approximately maintained (i.e.: the test might reject > 5% of the time), while this approximation may be made as close to α as desired by making the sample size sufficiently large.
Exact test:
Exact tests that are based on discrete test statistics may be conservative, indicating that the actual rejection rate lies below the nominal significance level α . As an example, this is the case for Fisher's exact test and its more powerful alternative, Boschloo's test. If the test statistic is continuous, it will reach the significance level exactly.Parametric tests, such as those used in exact statistics, are exact tests when the parametric assumptions are fully met, but in practice, the use of the term exact (significance) test is reserved for non-parametric tests, i.e., tests that do not rest on parametric assumptions. However, in practice, most implementations of non-parametric test software use asymptotical algorithms to obtain the significance value, which renders the test non-exact.
Exact test:
Hence, when a result of statistical analysis is termed an “exact test” or specifies an “exact p-value”, this implies that the test is defined without parametric assumptions and is evaluated without making use of approximate algorithms. In principle, however, this could also signify that a parametric test has been employed in a situation where all parametric assumptions are fully met, but it is in most cases impossible to prove this completely in a real-world situation. Exceptions in which it is certain that parametric tests are exact include tests based on the binomial or Poisson distributions. The term permutation test is sometimes used as a synonym for exact test, but it should be kept in mind that all permutation tests are exact tests, but not all exact tests are permutation tests.
Formulation:
The basic equation underlying exact tests is Pr exact Pr (y) where: x is the actual observed outcome, Pr(y) is the probability under the null hypothesis of a potentially observed outcome y, T(y) is the value of the test statistic for an outcome y, with larger values of T representing cases which notionally represent greater departures from the null hypothesis,and where the sum ranges over all outcomes y (including the observed one) that have the same value of the test statistic obtained for the observed sample x, or a larger one.
Example: Pearson's chi-squared test versus an exact test:
A simple example of this concept involves the observation that Pearson's chi-squared test is an approximate test. Suppose Pearson's chi-squared test is used to ascertain whether a six-sided die is "fair", indicating that it renders each of the six possible outcomes equally often. If the die is thrown n times, then one "expects" to see each outcome n/6 times. The test statistic is observed expected expected =∑k=16(Xk−n/6)2n/6, where Xk is the number of times outcome k is observed. If the null hypothesis of "fairness" is true, then the probability distribution of the test statistic can be made as close as desired to the chi-squared distribution with 5 degrees of freedom by making the sample size n sufficiently large. On the other hand, if n is small, then the probabilities based on chi-squared distributions may not be sufficiently close approximations. Finding the exact probability that this test statistic exceeds a certain value would then require a combinatorial enumeration of all outcomes of the experiment that gives rise to such a large value of the test statistic. It is then questionable whether the same test statistic ought to be used. A likelihood-ratio test might be preferred, and the test statistic might not be a monotone function of the one above.
Example: Fisher's exact test:
Fisher's exact test, based on the work of Ronald Fisher and E. J. G. Pitman in the 1930s, is exact because the sampling distribution (conditional on the marginals) is known exactly. This should be compared with Pearson's chi-squared test, which (although it tests the same null) is not exact because the distribution of the test statistic is only asymptotically correct. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor subunit alpha-1**
Gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor subunit alpha-1:
Gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor subunit alpha-1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the GABRA1 gene.GABA is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the mammalian brain where it acts at GABA-A receptors, which are ligand-gated chloride channels. Chloride conductance of these channels can be modulated by agents such as benzodiazepines that bind to the GABA-A receptor. At least 16 distinct subunits of GABA-A receptors have been identified.The GABRA1 receptor is the specific target of the z-drug class of nonbenzodiazepine hypnotic agents and is responsible for their hypnotic and hallucinogenic effects. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Micrometre**
Micrometre:
The micrometre (Commonwealth spelling as used by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures; SI symbol: μm) or micrometer (American spelling), also commonly known by the non-SI term micron, is a unit of length in the International System of Units (SI) equalling 1×10−6 metre (SI standard prefix "micro-" = 10−6); that is, one millionth of a metre (or one thousandth of a millimetre, 0.001 mm, or about 0.00004 inch).The nearest smaller common SI unit is the nanometre, equivalent to one thousandth of a micrometre, one millionth of a millimetre or one billionth of a metre (0.000000001 m).
Micrometre:
The micrometre is a common unit of measurement for wavelengths of infrared radiation as well as sizes of biological cells and bacteria, and for grading wool by the diameter of the fibres. The width of a single human hair ranges from approximately 20 to 200 μm.
Examples:
Between 1 μm and 10 μm: 1–10 μm – length of a typical bacterium 3–8 μm – width of strand of spider web silk 5 μm – length of a typical human spermatozoon's head 10 μm – size of fungal hyphae about 10 μm – size of a fog, mist, or cloud water droplet Between 10 μm and 100 μm: about 10–12 μm – thickness of plastic wrap (cling wrap) 10 to 55 μm – width of wool fibre 17 to 181 μm – diameter of human hair 70 to 180 μm – thickness of paper
SI standardization:
The term micron and the symbol μ were officially accepted for use in isolation to denote the micrometre in 1879, but officially revoked by the International System of Units (SI) in 1967. This became necessary because the older usage was incompatible with the official adoption of the unit prefix micro-, denoted μ, during the creation of the SI in 1960.
SI standardization:
In the SI, the systematic name micrometre became the official name of the unit, and μm became the official unit symbol.
SI standardization:
Additionally, in American English, the use of "micron" helps differentiate the unit from the micrometer, a measuring device, because the unit's name in mainstream American spelling is a homograph of the device's name. In spoken English, they may be distinguished by pronunciation, as the name of the measuring device is often stressed on the second syllable ( my-KROM-it-ər), whereas the systematic pronunciation of the unit name, in accordance with the convention for pronouncing SI units in English, places the stress on the first syllable ( MY-kroh-meet-ər).
SI standardization:
The plural of micron is normally microns, though micra was occasionally used before 1950.
Symbol:
The official symbol for the SI prefix micro- is a Greek lowercase mu. In Unicode, there is also a micro sign with the code point U+00B5 (µ), distinct from the code point U+03BC (μ) of the Greek letter lowercase mu. According to the Unicode Consortium, the Greek letter character is preferred, but implementations must recognize the micro sign as well. Most fonts use the same glyph for the two characters. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Hair conditioner**
Hair conditioner:
Hair conditioner is a hair care cosmetic product used to improve the feel, texture, appearance and manageability of hair. Its main purpose is to reduce friction between strands of hair to allow smoother brushing or combing, which might otherwise cause damage to the scalp. Various other benefits are often advertised, such as hair repair, strengthening, or a reduction in split ends.
Hair conditioner:
Conditioners are available in a wide range of forms, including viscous liquids, gels and creams, as well as thinner lotions and sprays. Hair conditioner is usually used after the hair has been washed with shampoo. It is applied and worked into the hair and may either be rinsed out a short time later or left in.
History:
For centuries, natural oils have been used to condition human hair. A conditioner popular with men in the late Victorian era was Macassar oil, but this product was quite greasy and necessitated the pinning of a small cloth, known as an antimacassar, to the headrests of chairs and sofas to preserve the upholstery from being damaged by the oil.
History:
Modern hair conditioner was created at the turn of the 20th century when the Edouard Pinaud company presented a product he called Brilliantine at the 1900 Exposition Universelle in Paris. His product was intended to soften men's hair, including beards and moustaches. Since the invention of Pinaud's early products, modern science has advanced the hair conditioner industry to include those made with silicone, fatty alcohols and quaternary ammonium compounds. These chemical products have the benefits of hair conditioner without feeling greasy or heavy.
Mechanism of action:
The outermost layer of a hair follicle is called the cuticle and is composed largely of keratin. This is rich in cysteine groups which are mildly acidic. When the hair is washed these groups can deprotonate, giving the hair a negative charge.The ingredients in conditioner, especially positively charged quaternary ammonium species, such as behentrimonium chloride or polymers that are known as Polyquaternium-XX, where XX is an arbitrary number, can then become attached to the hair via electrostatic interactions. Once attached these compounds have several effects. Their long hydrocarbon backbone helps to lubricate the surface of each hair follicle, reducing the sensation of roughness and assisting combing. The surface coating of cationic groups means that hairs are repelled from each other electrostatically, which reduces clumping. The compounds can also act as antistatic agents, which helps to reduce frizzing.
Types:
Conditioners, also called deep conditioners or hair masks, are heavy and thick, with a high content of cationic surfactants that are able to bind to the hair structure and "glue" the hair surface scales together. This type of conditioner is designed to restore hair's moisture levels and reduce breakage. These are usually applied to the hair for a longer time (30–45 minutes).
Types:
Leave-in conditioners are thinner and have different surfactants, which add only a little material to the hair to avoid weighing down the hair or causing greasiness. They are based on unsaturated fatty acid chains, which are bent, not straight. Leave-in conditioner is designed to be used in a similar way to hair oil, preventing the tangling of hair and keeping it smooth. Its use is particularly prevalent among those with naturally curly or kinky hair.
Types:
Rinse-out/rinse-through conditioners are the most common or generic on the market. Ordinary conditioners are generally applied directly after using shampoo, and manufacturers usually produce a conditioner counterpart for different types of shampoo for this purpose.
Hold conditioners, based on cationic polyelectrolyte polymers, hold the hair in a desired shape. These have a function and composition similar to diluted hair gels.
Cleansing conditioners are a newer category, typically based on a combination of amphoteric and cationic surfactants that can be used either in place of shampoo or as a pretreatment before shampooing for hair that is damaged or very curly.
Ingredients:
There are several types of hair conditioner ingredients, differing in composition and functionality: Acidifiers are acidity regulators that maintain the conditioner's pH at about 3.5. In contact with an acidic environment, the hair's somewhat scaly surface tightens up as the hydrogen bonds between the keratin molecules are strengthened.
Antistatic agents, which bind to the hair and reduce the static, can include cationic polymers such as Polyquaternium-10 and Guar Hydroxypropyltrimonium Chloride.
Detanglers modify the hair surface pH as acidifiers or coat it with polymers as glossers.
Glossers are light-reflecting chemicals that bind to the hair surface and are usually polymers, usually silicones (e.g., Dimethicone or Cyclopentasiloxane).
Lubricants such as fatty alcohols, Panthenol, Dimethicone, etc.
Moisturizers, whose role is to hold moisture in the hair, usually contain high proportions of humectants. These could also be provided by natural oils such as Prunus Amygdalus Dulcis (sweet almond) oil.
Oils (EFAs – essential fatty acids) can help dry/porous hair become more soft and pliable. The scalp produces a natural oil called sebum. EFAs are the closest thing to natural sebum (sebum contains EFAs).
Preservatives protect the product from spoilage by microorganisms during the product's shelf life.
Reconstructors, usually containing hydrolyzed protein, supposedly penetrate the hair and strengthen its structure through polymer cross-linking.
Sequestrants improve function in hard water.
Sunscreen provides protection against protein degradation and color loss. Currently, Benzophenone-4 and Ethylhexyl Methoxycinnamate are the two sunscreens most commonly used in hair products. Cinnamidopyltrimonium Chloride and a few others are used to a much lesser degree. The common sunscreens used on the skin are rarely used for hair products due to their texture and weight effects.
Ingredients:
Surfactants – approximately 97% of hair consists of a protein called keratin. The surface of keratin contains negatively charged amino acids. Hair conditioners therefore usually contain cationic surfactants, which don't wash out completely, because their hydrophilic ends strongly bind to keratin. The hydrophobic ends of the surfactant molecules then act as the new hair surface. Examples are Behentrimonium Chloride and Cetrimonium Chloride.
Ingredients:
Thermal protectors, usually heat-absorbing polymers, shield the hair against excessive heat caused by blow-drying, curling irons, hot rollers, etc.
pH Conditioners are frequently acidic, as low pH protonates the keratin's amino acids. The hydrogen ions give the hair a positive charge and create more hydrogen bonds among the keratin scales, giving the hair a more compact structure. Organic acids such as citric acid are usually used to maintain acidity. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Analysis of covariance**
Analysis of covariance:
Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) is a general linear model which blends ANOVA and regression. ANCOVA evaluates whether the means of a dependent variable (DV) are equal across levels of one or more categorical independent variables and across one or more continuous variables. For example, the categorical variable(s) might describe treatment and the continuous variable(s) might be covariates or nuisance variables; or vice versa. Mathematically, ANCOVA decomposes the variance in the DV into variance explained by the CV(s), variance explained by the categorical IV, and residual variance. Intuitively, ANCOVA can be thought of as 'adjusting' the DV by the group means of the CV(s).The ANCOVA model assumes a linear relationship between the response (DV) and covariate (CV): yij=μ+τi+B(xij−x¯)+ϵij.
Analysis of covariance:
In this equation, the DV, yij is the jth observation under the ith categorical group; the CV, xij is the jth observation of the covariate under the ith group. Variables in the model that are derived from the observed data are μ (the grand mean) and x¯ (the global mean for covariate x ). The variables to be fitted are τi (the effect of the ith level of the categorical IV), B (the slope of the line) and ϵij (the associated unobserved error term for the jth observation in the ith group).
Analysis of covariance:
Under this specification, the categorical treatment effects sum to zero (∑iaτi=0).
The standard assumptions of the linear regression model are also assumed to hold, as discussed below.
Uses:
Increase power ANCOVA can be used to increase statistical power (the probability a significant difference is found between groups when one exists) by reducing the within-group error variance. In order to understand this, it is necessary to understand the test used to evaluate differences between groups, the F-test. The F-test is computed by dividing the explained variance between groups (e.g., medical recovery differences) by the unexplained variance within the groups. Thus, F=MSbetweenMSwithin If this value is larger than a critical value, we conclude that there is a significant difference between groups. Unexplained variance includes error variance (e.g., individual differences), as well as the influence of other factors. Therefore, the influence of CVs is grouped in the denominator. When we control for the effect of CVs on the DV, we remove it from the denominator making F larger, thereby increasing our power to find a significant effect if one exists at all.
Uses:
Adjusting preexisting differences Another use of ANCOVA is to adjust for preexisting differences in nonequivalent (intact) groups. This controversial application aims at correcting for initial group differences (prior to group assignment) that exists on DV among several intact groups. In this situation, participants cannot be made equal through random assignment, so CVs are used to adjust scores and make participants more similar than without the CV. However, even with the use of covariates, there are no statistical techniques that can equate unequal groups. Furthermore, the CV may be so intimately related to the categorical IV that removing the variance on the DV associated with the CV would remove considerable variance on the DV, rendering the results meaningless.
Assumptions:
There are several key assumptions that underlie the use of ANCOVA and affect interpretation of the results. The standard linear regression assumptions hold; further we assume that the slope of the covariate is equal across all treatment groups (homogeneity of regression slopes).
Assumption 1: linearity of regression The regression relationship between the dependent variable and concomitant variables must be linear.
Assumption 2: homogeneity of error variances The error is a random variable with conditional zero mean and equal variances for different treatment classes and observations.
Assumption 3: independence of error terms The errors are uncorrelated. That is, the error covariance matrix is diagonal.
Assumption 4: normality of error terms The residuals (error terms) should be normally distributed ϵij ~ N(0,σ2) Assumption 5: homogeneity of regression slopes The slopes of the different regression lines should be equivalent, i.e., regression lines should be parallel among groups.
The fifth issue, concerning the homogeneity of different treatment regression slopes is particularly important in evaluating the appropriateness of ANCOVA model. Also note that we only need the error terms to be normally distributed. In fact both the independent variable and the concomitant variables will not be normally distributed in most cases.
Conducting an ANCOVA:
Test multicollinearity If a CV is highly related to another CV (at a correlation of 0.5 or more), then it will not adjust the DV over and above the other CV. One or the other should be removed since they are statistically redundant.
Test the homogeneity of variance assumption Tested by Levene's test of equality of error variances.
This is most important after adjustments have been made, but if you have it before adjustment you are likely to have it afterwards.
Conducting an ANCOVA:
Test the homogeneity of regression slopes assumption To see if the CV significantly interacts with the categorical IV, run an ANCOVA model including both the IV and the CVxIV interaction term. If the CVxIV interaction is significant, ANCOVA should not be performed. Instead, Green & Salkind suggest assessing group differences on the DV at particular levels of the CV. Also consider using a moderated regression analysis, treating the CV and its interaction as another IV. Alternatively, one could use mediation analyses to determine if the CV accounts for the IV's effect on the DV.
Conducting an ANCOVA:
Run ANCOVA analysis If the CV×IV interaction is not significant, rerun the ANCOVA without the CV×IV interaction term. In this analysis, you need to use the adjusted means and adjusted MSerror. The adjusted means (also referred to as least squares means, LS means, estimated marginal means, or EMM) refer to the group means after controlling for the influence of the CV on the DV.
Conducting an ANCOVA:
Follow-up analyses If there was a significant main effect, it means that there is a significant difference between the levels of one categorical IV, ignoring all other factors. To find exactly which levels are significantly different from one another, one can use the same follow-up tests as for the ANOVA.
If there are two or more IVs, there may be a significant interaction, which means that the effect of one IV on the DV changes depending on the level of another factor. One can investigate the simple main effects using the same methods as in a factorial ANOVA.
Power considerations:
While the inclusion of a covariate into an ANOVA generally increases statistical power by accounting for some of the variance in the dependent variable and thus increasing the ratio of variance explained by the independent variables, adding a covariate into ANOVA also reduces the degrees of freedom. Accordingly, adding a covariate which accounts for very little variance in the dependent variable might actually reduce power. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Lesbophobia**
Lesbophobia:
Lesbophobia comprises various forms of prejudice and negativity towards lesbians as individuals, as couples, or as a social group. Based on the categories of sex, sexual orientation, identity, and gender expression, this negativity encompasses prejudice, discrimination, hatred, and abuse; with attitudes and feelings ranging from disdain to hostility. Lesbophobia is misogyny that intersects with homophobia, and vice versa.
Terminology:
The first usage of the term lesbophobia listed in the Oxford English Dictionary is in The Erotic Life of the American Wife (1972), a book by Harper's Bazaar editor Natalie Gittelson. While some people use only the more general term homophobia to describe this sort of prejudice or behavior, others believe that the terms homosexual and homophobia do not adequately reflect the specific concerns of lesbians, because they experience the double discrimination of both homophobia and sexism.
Extent:
The idea that lesbians are dangerous—while heterosexual interactions are natural, normal, and spontaneous—is a common example of beliefs which are lesbophobic. Like homophobia, this belief is classed as heteronormative, as it assumes that heterosexuality is dominant, presumed, and normal, and that other sexual or relationship arrangements are abnormal and unnatural. A stereotype that has been identified as lesbophobic is that female athletes are always or predominantly lesbians. Lesbians encounter lesbophobic attitudes not only in straight men and women, but from gay men, as well as bisexual people. Lesbophobia in gay men is regarded as manifest in the perceived subordination of lesbian issues in the campaign for gay rights.
Extent:
Anti-lesbian violence Lesbophobia is sometimes demonstrated through crimes of violence, including corrective rape and even murder. In South Africa, Sizakele Sigasa (a lesbian activist living in Soweto) and her partner Salome Masooa were raped, tortured, and murdered in July 2007 in an attack that South African lesbian-gay rights organizations, including the umbrella-group Joint Working Group, said were driven by lesbophobia. Two other rape/murders of lesbians occurred in South Africa earlier in summer 2007: Simangele Nhlapo, member of an HIV-positive support group, was raped and murdered in June, along with her two-year-old daughter; and Madoe Mafubedu, aged 16, was raped and stabbed to death.In 2006, Zoliswa Nkonyana, aged 19, was killed for being openly lesbian by four men in the Cape Town township of Khayelitsha, who stabbed and stoned her to death. Banyana Banyana soccer player Eudy Simelane and LGBT activist Noxolo Nogwaza were raped and murdered in the Gauteng township of KwaThema. Zanele Muholi, community relations director of a lesbian rights group, reports having recorded 50 rape cases over the past decade involving black lesbians in townships, stating: "The problem is largely that of patriarchy. The men who perpetrate such crimes see rape as curative and as an attempt to show women their place in society."In its 2019 annual report, SOS Homophobie found that anti-lesbian violence increased 42 percent in France in 2018, with 365 attacks reported.
Erotic plasticity and sexual fluidity:
Some argue that since sexual orientation change efforts aimed at women often include rape, they are worse than those aimed at men. Others suggest that the notion of female erotic plasticity is wishful thinking on the part of men who want to have sex with lesbians, and should be criticized for not being objective. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Abhenry**
Abhenry:
The abhenry is the CGS (centimetre–gram–second) electromagnetic unit of inductance, corresponding to one billionth of a henry (1 nH). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Sacrifice (chess)**
Sacrifice (chess):
In chess, a sacrifice is a move that gives up a piece with the objective of gaining tactical or positional compensation in other forms. A sacrifice could also be a deliberate exchange of a chess piece of higher value for an opponent's piece of lower value.
Sacrifice (chess):
Any chess piece except the king may be sacrificed. Because players usually try to hold on to their own pieces, offering a sacrifice can come as an unpleasant surprise to one's opponent, putting them off balance and causing them to waste precious time trying to calculate whether the sacrifice is sound or not, and whether to accept it. Sacrificing one's queen (the most valuable piece), or a string of pieces, adds to the surprise, and such games can be awarded brilliancy prizes.
Types of sacrifice:
Real versus sham Rudolf Spielmann proposed a division between sham and real sacrifices: In a real sacrifice, the sacrificing player will often have to play on with less material than their opponent for quite some time.
Types of sacrifice:
In a sham sacrifice, the player offering the sacrifice will soon regain material of the same or greater value, or else force mate. A sham sacrifice of this latter type is sometimes known as a pseudo sacrifice.In compensation for a real sacrifice, the player receives dynamic, positional, or other non-material advantages which they must capitalize on, or risk losing the game due to the material deficit. Because of the risk involved, real sacrifices are also called speculative sacrifices.
Types of sacrifice:
Real sacrifices Attack on the king A player might sacrifice a pawn or piece to get open lines around the vicinity of the opponent's king, to get a kingside space advantage, to destroy or damage the opposing king's pawn cover, or to keep the opposing king in the center. Unless the opponent manages to fend off the attack, they are likely to lose. The Greek gift sacrifice is a canonical example.Development It is common to give up a pawn in the opening to speed up one's development. Gambits typically fall into this category. Developing sacrifices are frequently returned at some point by the opponent before the development edge can turn into a more substantial threat such as a kingside attack.Strategic/positional In a general sense, the aim of all real sacrifices is to obtain a positional advantage. However, there are some speculative sacrifices where the compensation is unrelated to an ensuing attack and may come instead in the form of an open file or diagonal, a weakness in the opponent's pawn structure, a blockade, or some other positional asset. These are the hardest sacrifices to make, requiring deep strategic understanding.
Types of sacrifice:
Sham sacrifices Checkmate A common benefit of making a sacrifice is to allow the sacrificing player to checkmate the opponent. Since checkmate is the ultimate goal of chess, the loss of material (see Chess piece relative value) does not matter in a successful checkmating attack. Sacrifices leading to checkmate are typically forcing, and often checks, leaving the opponent with only one or a few options.Avoiding loss The counterpart to the above is saving a lost game. A sacrifice could be made to force stalemate or perpetual check, to create a fortress, or otherwise force a draw, or to avoid even greater loss of material.Material gain A sacrifice might initiate a combination that results in an overall material gain, making the upfront investment of the sacrifice worthwhile. A sacrifice leading to a pawn promotion is a special case of this type of sacrifice.Simplification Even if the sacrifice leads to net material loss for the foreseeable future, the sacrificing player may benefit because they are already ahead in material and the exchanges simplify the position making it easier to win. A player ahead in material may decide that it is worthwhile to get rid of one of the last effective pieces the opponent has.The tactical sham sacrifices can be categorized further by the mechanism by which the sacrifice is made. Some sacrifices may fall into more than one category.
Types of sacrifice:
In deflection sacrifices, the aim is to distract one of the opponent's pieces from a square where it is performing a particular duty.
In destruction sacrifices, a piece is sacrificed in order to knock away a materially inferior—but tactically more crucial piece—so that the sacrificing player can gain control over the squares the taken chessman controlled.
A magnet sacrifice is similar to a deflection sacrifice, but the motivation behind a magnet sacrifice is to pull an opponent's piece to a tactically poor square, rather than pulling it away from a crucial square.
In a clearance sacrifice, the sacrificing player aims to vacate the square the sacrificed piece stood on, either to open up lines for his own pieces, or to put another, more useful piece on the same square.
In a tempo sacrifice, the sacrificing player abstains from spending time to prevent the opponent from winning material because the time saved can be used for something even more beneficial, for example pursuing an attack on the king or guiding a passed pawn towards promotion.
In a suicide sacrifice, the sacrificing player aims to rid themselves of the remaining pieces capable of performing legal moves, and thereby obtain a stalemate and a draw from a poor position.
Types of sacrifice:
Other types of sacrifices Forced versus non-forced Another way to classify sacrifices is to distinguish between forcing and non-forcing sacrifices. The former type leave the opponent with no option but acceptance, typically because not doing so would leave them behind in material with no compensation. Non-forcing sacrifices, on the other hand, give the opponent a choice. A common error is to not recognize when a particular sacrifice can be safely declined with no ill-effects.
Examples:
Deflection sacrifice In the diagram, GM Aronian has mistakenly played 24. exd4??, opening up the e-file for Black's rook. After Svidler played 24... Re1+!, Aronian resigned, because Black's move forces the reply 25.Rxe1 (or 25.Qf1 Qxf1#), after which White's queen is undefended and therefore lost.
This particular type of sacrifice has also been called the "Hook and Ladder trick", for the white queen is precariously at the top of the "ladder", while the rook is at the bottom, supporting it.
Suicide sacrifice Black played 1... Qxg3? and White drew with 2. Qg8+! Kxg8 (on any other move Black will get mated) 3. Rxg7+!. White intends to keep checking on the seventh rank, and if Black ever captures the rook it is stalemate.
This save from Evans has been dubbed "The Swindle of the Century". White's rook is known as a desperado.
Non-forcing sacrifice This time Reshevsky is at the receiving end of a sacrifice. White has just played h2–h4. If Black takes the knight he has to give up his own knight on f6 to avoid mate on h7. Instead, he simply ignored the bait and continued developing.
Positional sacrifice In this game Black played 14... d4! 15. Nxd4 Nd5. In exchange for the sacrificed pawn, Black has obtained a semi-open file, a diagonal, an outpost on d5 and saddled White with a backward pawn on d3. The game was eventually drawn.
Examples:
Sacrifice to checkmate The following example features a forced bishop sacrifice by White. White can force mate in two moves in the diagram at left as follows: 1. Bg6+ hxg6 2. Qxg6# Queen sacrifice leads to smothered mate In this position, Black moves 22... Qg1+ forcing the white rook to take black's queen by 23. Rxg1; the king cannot take the queen because it would have been in check from the knight on h3. Having forced the rook out of a position where it was defending the f-file and into a position where it blocked the king from making any move, the black knight delivers a smothered mate by 23... Nf2#.
Examples:
Philidor sacrifice A Philidor sacrifice, recommended and practiced by Philidor, is the sacrifice of a minor piece for one or two pawns for greater pawn mobility as compensation. An example of this real, strategic/positional sacrifice can occur in Petrov's Defense after 1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nf6 3.Nxe5 d6 where White elects 4.Nxf7 Kxf7 (diagram). Another openings example is the Halloween Gambit. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Riemann's differential equation**
Riemann's differential equation:
In mathematics, Riemann's differential equation, named after Bernhard Riemann, is a generalization of the hypergeometric differential equation, allowing the regular singular points to occur anywhere on the Riemann sphere, rather than merely at 0, 1, and ∞ . The equation is also known as the Papperitz equation.The hypergeometric differential equation is a second-order linear differential equation which has three regular singular points, 0, 1 and ∞ . That equation admits two linearly independent solutions; near a singularity zs , the solutions take the form xsf(x) , where x=z−zs is a local variable, and f is locally holomorphic with f(0)≠0 . The real number s is called the exponent of the solution at zs . Let α, β and γ be the exponents of one solution at 0, 1 and ∞ respectively; and let α', β' and γ' be those of the other. Then 1.
Riemann's differential equation:
By applying suitable changes of variable, it is possible to transform the hypergeometric equation: Applying Möbius transformations will adjust the positions of the regular singular points, while other transformations (see below) can change the exponents at the regular singular points, subject to the exponents adding up to 1.
Definition:
The differential equation is given by d2wdz2+[1−α−α′z−a+1−β−β′z−b+1−γ−γ′z−c]dwdz 0.
The regular singular points are a, b, and c. The exponents of the solutions at these regular singular points are, respectively, α; α′, β; β′, and γ; γ′. As before, the exponents are subject to the condition 1.
Solutions and relationship with the hypergeometric function:
The solutions are denoted by the Riemann P-symbol (also known as the Papperitz symbol) w(z)=P{abcαβγzα′β′γ′} The standard hypergeometric function may be expressed as 2F1(a,b;c;z)=P{0∞10a0z1−cbc−a−b} The P-functions obey a number of identities; one of them allows a general P-function to be expressed in terms of the hypergeometric function. It is P{abcαβγzα′β′γ′}=(z−az−b)α(z−cz−b)γP{0∞10α+β+γ0(z−a)(c−b)(z−b)(c−a)α′−αα+β′+γγ′−γ} In other words, one may write the solutions in terms of the hypergeometric function as w(z)=(z−az−b)α(z−cz−b)γ2F1(α+β+γ,α+β′+γ;1+α−α′;(z−a)(c−b)(z−b)(c−a)) The full complement of Kummer's 24 solutions may be obtained in this way; see the article hypergeometric differential equation for a treatment of Kummer's solutions.
Fractional linear transformations:
The P-function possesses a simple symmetry under the action of fractional linear transformations known as Möbius transformations (that are the conformal remappings of the Riemann sphere), or equivalently, under the action of the group GL(2, C). Given arbitrary complex numbers A, B, C, D such that AD − BC ≠ 0, define the quantities and η=Aa+BCa+D and and θ=Ac+BCc+D then one has the simple relation P{abcαβγzα′β′γ′}=P{ηζθαβγuα′β′γ′} expressing the symmetry.
Exponents:
If the Moebius transformation above moves the singular points but does not change the exponents, the following transformation does not move the singular points but changes the exponents: (z−az−b)k(z−cz−b)lP{abcαβγzα′β′γ′}=P{abcα+kβ−k−lγ+lzα′+kβ′−k−lγ′+l} | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Isolates**
Isolates:
Isolates is a term used in developmental psychology and family studies, to describe members of a study group, usually child through young adult, who do not actively participate in cliques or friendship groups. Isolates are one of four types of participants in friendship networks, the other three being dyads, liaisons and cliques.Isolates may have friendly relations with members of cliques and friendship groups, but they do not associate their identity with any particular group. Isolates can be voluntarily or involuntarily isolated from peer groups, cliques or friendship groups. Isolates, overall, may experience higher levels of depression than same-age peers. Studies by Ennett and Bauman (1993), found that isolates were more prone to smoke than members of friendship groups. A study by Henrich et al. (2000), shows isolates, male and female, have more internalizing problems than non-isolates. The study also shows female isolates have significantly lower GPAs than members of cliques. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Tee Off**
Tee Off:
Tee Off, known in Japan as Golf Shiyō Yo (ゴルフしようよ, Gorufu Shiyō Yo), is a video game developed and published by Bottom Up and Acclaim Entertainment in 1999-2000.
Reception:
The game received average reviews according to the review aggregation website GameRankings. In Japan, Famitsu gave it a score of 28 out of 40. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Small ditrigonal dodecicosidodecahedron**
Small ditrigonal dodecicosidodecahedron:
In geometry, the small ditrigonal dodecicosidodecahedron (or small dodekified icosidodecahedron) is a nonconvex uniform polyhedron, indexed as U43. It has 44 faces (20 triangles, 12 pentagrams and 12 decagons), 120 edges, and 60 vertices. Its vertex figure is a crossed quadrilateral.
Related polyhedra:
It shares its vertex arrangement with the great stellated truncated dodecahedron. It additionally shares its edges with the small icosicosidodecahedron (having the triangular and pentagrammic faces in common) and the small dodecicosahedron (having the decagonal faces in common). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Eclectic shorthand**
Eclectic shorthand:
Eclectic shorthand (sometimes called "Cross shorthand" or "Eclectic-Cross shorthand" after its founder, J. G. Cross) is an English shorthand system of the 19th century. Although it has fallen into disuse, it is nonetheless noteworthy as one of the most compact (and complex) systems of writing ever devised.
Overview:
While most later responses to Pitman shorthand aimed for greater simplicity and an elimination of such characteristics as shading and positional writing (cf Gregg shorthand), Cross took his system in the opposite direction. Noting that English spelling is able to express all its many vowel sounds using only five vowel symbols, Cross adopted a five-position system for expressing vowels in his system (Pitman uses three). From there he went on to apply the five positions to consonant symbols as well, and to eliminate perpendicular strokes to make the writing more cursive. Curiously for a symbol system, the writing is based on English spelling rather than phonetics — there are symbols for q and c, for instance, and a wh symbol which is different from w (or h).
Overview:
Many tricks are employed to make writing more compact: shading a vowel at the beginning of the stroke denotes that it is preceded by an r; shading the whole stroke denotes a diphthong, while shading the end of the stroke denotes a following r. An l can be indicated by making the outline of the preceding letter smaller, and a following w by deepening the curve of the preceding stroke.
Overview:
All in all, the system contains far more rules than any other widespread system of English shorthand, and the resulting notes are incredibly concise. However, the amount of practice required to make use of all these techniques without hesitation while taking dictation was undoubtedly quite burdensome. In addition, the heavy use of shading, common in nineteenth century systems when ink pens were the normal instrument of writing and the notion of thin and thick strokes was familiar to those accustomed to the copperplate script of the time, became difficult and counterintuitive in the 20th century. In sum, the system's complexity and the great investment of time that would have been needed to master it were most likely the causes for its downfall.
Overview:
An interesting experiment used by Cross was to use paper with slightly curved lines for note-taking, on the assertion that as the hand could move more naturally in an arc across the page than in a straight line; this would improve speed. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**STS-135 (drug)**
STS-135 (drug):
STS-135 (N-(adamantan-1-yl)-1-(5-fluoropentyl)-1H-indole-3-carboxamide, also called 5F-APICA) is a designer drug offered by online vendors as a cannabimimetic agent. The structure of STS-135 appears to use an understanding of structure-activity relationships within the indole class of cannabimimetics, although its design origins are unclear. STS-135 is the terminally-fluorinated analogue of SDB-001, just as AM-2201 is the terminally-fluorinated analogue of JWH-018, and XLR-11 is the terminally-fluorinated analogue of UR-144. STS-135 acts a potent cannabinoid receptor agonist in vitro, with an EC50 of 51 nM for human CB2 receptors, and 13 nM for human CB1 receptors. STS-135 produces bradycardia and hypothermia in rats at doses of 1–10 mg/kg, suggesting cannabinoid-like activity.
Legal status:
As of October 2015 STS-135 is a controlled substance in China. It is also illegal in the UK.
Detection:
A forensic standard of STS-135 is available, and the compound has been posted on the Forendex website of potential drugs of abuse. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**JSDoc**
JSDoc:
JSDoc is a markup language used to annotate JavaScript source code files. Using comments containing JSDoc, programmers can add documentation describing the application programming interface of the code they're creating. This is then processed, by various tools, to produce documentation in accessible formats like HTML and Rich Text Format. The JSDoc specification is released under CC BY-SA 3.0, while its companion documentation generator and parser library is free software under the Apache License 2.0.
History:
JSDoc's syntax and semantics are similar to those of the Javadoc scheme, which is used for documenting code written in Java. JSDoc differs from Javadoc, in that it is specialized to handle JavaScript's dynamic behaviour.An early example using a Javadoc-like syntax to document JavaScript was released in 1999 with the Netscape/Mozilla project Rhino, a JavaScript run-time system written in Java. It included a toy "JSDoc" HTML generator, versioned up to 1.3, as an example of its JavaScript capabilities.All main generations of "JSDoc" were headed by micmaths (Michael Mathews). He started with JSDoc.pm in 2001, a simple system written in Perl, in cooperation with Canadian programmer Gabriel Reid. It was hosted on SourceForge in a CVS repository. By JSDoc 1.0 (2007) he rewrote the system in JavaScript (again for Rhino), and after a set of expansions JSDoc 2.0 (2008) gained the name "jsdoc-toolkit". Released under the MIT License, it was hosted in a Subversion repository on Google Code. By 2011 he has refactored the system into JSDoc 3.0 and hosted the result on GitHub. It now runs on Node.js.
JSDoc tags:
Some of the more popular annotation tags used in modern JSDoc are:
Example:
Note that the @class and @constructor tags can in fact be omitted: the ECMASyntax is sufficient to make their identities clear, and JSDoc makes use of that. @override can be automatically deduced as well.
JSDoc in use:
Google's Closure Linter and Closure Compiler. The latter extracts the type information to optimize its output JavaScript.
TypeScript can perform type checking for JavaScript files with JSDoc type annotations. Microsoft has specified a new TSDoc language with extensible tags.
Popular editor Sublime Text supports JSDoc through the DocBlockr or DoxyDoxygen plugin The JSDoc syntax has been described at length in the Apress book Foundations of Ajax ISBN 1-59059-582-3.
IntelliJ IDEA, NetBeans, Visual Studio Code and RubyMine understand JSDoc syntax.
Eclipse-based Aptana Studio supports ScriptDoc.
Mozile Archived 2018-10-06 at the Wayback Machine, the Mozilla Inline Editor uses JSDoc.pm.
The Helma application framework uses JSDoc.
SproutCore documentation was generated using JSDoc. [1] Visual Studio, WebStorm and many other Integrated development environments or Text Editors offer Code Completion and other assistance based on JSDoc comments.
Open source Atom editor supports JSDoc via the atom-easy-jsdoc plugin. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Preparedness (learning)**
Preparedness (learning):
In psychology, preparedness is a concept developed to explain why certain associations are learned more readily than others. For example, phobias related to survival, such as snakes, spiders, and heights, are much more common and much easier to induce in the laboratory than other kinds of fears. According to Martin Seligman, this is a result of our evolutionary history. The theory states that organisms which learned to fear environmental threats faster had a survival and reproductive advantage. Consequently, the innate predisposition to fear these threats became an adaptive human trait.The concept of preparedness has also been used to explain why taste aversions are learned so quickly and efficiently compared with other kinds of classical conditioning. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Routing diagram**
Routing diagram:
A routing diagram or route diagram in the field of management engineering is a type of diagram, that shows a route through an accessible physical space. Routing diagrams are used in plant layout study, and manufacturing plant design.
Overview:
A routing diagrams shows a route through a physical space. They are often considered a type of flow diagram, but they differ from flowcharts, that a routing is pictured in a physical layout. There is a similarity with design of Electrical equipment, where routing diagrams also in show "the physical layout of the facility and equipment and how the circuit how the circuit to the various equipment is run."A picture with a routing in geographical space is often called a route map. While the road map and transit map (such as the railway map, metro map, bus map, etc.) show all the roads or lines, the route map regularly shows one rad for a particular occasion. Likewise a ground plan or site map show all the space, buildings and/or rooms, the routing map shows one specific route on site. Routing diagrams are used in plant layout study. The routing diagram can consist of a floor plan with a trace attached, or a 3d cross section of a building with a trace. The routing diagram transforms into a flow diagram when the physical dimensions are taken out of the equation. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Electrohomeopathy**
Electrohomeopathy:
Electrohomeopathy, Electrohomoeopathy, or Mattei cancer cure is a derivative of homeopathy invented in the 19th century by Count Cesare Mattei. The name is derived from a combination of electro (referring to an electric bio-energy content supposedly extracted from plants and of therapeutic value, rather than electricity in its conventional sense) and homeopathy (referring to an alternative medicinal philosophy developed by Samuel Hahnemann in the 18th century). Electrohomeopathy has been defined as the combination of electrical devices and homeopathy.Lucrative for its inventor and popular in the late nineteenth century, electrohomeopathy has been described as "utter idiocy". Like traditional homeopathy, it is regarded by the medical and scientific communities as pseudoscience and its practice as quackery.
History and criticism:
Electrohomeopathy was devised by Cesare Mattei (1809–1896) in the latter part of the 19th century. Mattei, a nobleman living in a castle in the vicinity of Bologna, studied natural science, anatomy, physiology, pathology, chemistry and botany. He ultimately focused on the supposed therapeutic power of "electricity" in botanical extracts. Massei made bold, unsupported claims for the efficacy of his treatments, including the claim that his treatments offered a nonsurgical alternative to cancer. His treatment regimens were met with scepticism by mainstream medicine:The electrohomeopathic system is an invention of Count Mattei who prates of "red," "blue," and "green" electricity, a theory that, in spite of its utter idiocy, has attracted a considerable following and earned a large fortune for its chief promoter.
History and criticism:
Notwithstanding criticisms, including a challenge by the British medical establishment to the claimed success of his cancer treatments, electrohomeopathy (or Matteism, as it was sometimes known at the time) had adherents in Germany, France, the USA and the UK by the beginning of the 20th century; electrohomeopathy had been the subject of approximately 100 publications and there were three journals dedicated to it.
Philosophy:
Remedies are derived from what are said to be the active micro nutrients or mineral salts of certain plants. One contemporary account of the process of producing electrohomeopathic remedies was as follows:As to the nature of his remedies we learn...that...they are manufactured from certain herbs, and that the directions for the preparation of the necessary dilutions are given in the ordinary jargon of homeopathy. The globules and liquids, however, are " instinct with a potent, vital, electrical force, which enables them to work wonders." This process of "fixing the electrical principle" is carried on in the secret central chamber of a Neo-Moorish castle which Count Mattei has built for himself in the Bolognese Apennines...The "red electricity" and "white electricity" supposed to be "fixed" in these "vegetable compounds" are in their very nomenclature and suggestion poor and miserable fictions.
Philosophy:
According to Mattei's own ideas however, every disease originates in the change of blood or of the lymphatic system or both, and remedies can therefore be mainly divided into two broad categories groups to be used in response to the dominant affected system. Mattei wrote that having obtained plant extracts, he was "able to determine in the liquid vegetable electricity". Allied to his theories and therapies were elements of Chinese medicine, of medical humours, of apparent Brownianism, as well as modified versions of Samuel Hahnemann's homeopathic principles. Electrohomeopathy has some associations with spagyric medicine, a holistic medical philosophy claimed to be the practical application of alchemy in medical treatment, so that the principle of modern electrohomeopathy is that disease is typically multi-organic in cause or effect and therefore requires holistic treatment that is at once both complex and natural.
Modern usage:
A symposium took place in Bologna in 2008 to mark the 200th anniversary of the birth of Cesare Mattei, with attendees from India, Pakistan, Germany UK, and the USA. Electrohomeopathy is practised predominantly in India and Pakistan (although it is not a recognised healthcare discipline in India), but there are also a number of electrohomeopathy organisations and institutions worldwide. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**AFDX-384**
AFDX-384:
AFDX-384 (BIBN-161) is a drug which acts as a selective antagonist of the muscarinic acetylcholine receptors, with selectivity for the M2 and M4 subtypes. It is used mainly for mapping the distribution of M2 and M4 muscarinic receptors in the brain, and studying their involvement in the development and treatment of dementia and schizophrenia. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Allyltestosterone**
Allyltestosterone:
Allyltestosterone, or 17α-allyltestosterone, also known as 17α-allylandrost-4-en-17β-ol-3-one, is a steroid derived from testosterone that was first synthesized in 1936 and was never marketed. Along with propyltestosterone (topterone), it has been patented as a topical antiandrogen and hair growth inhibitor. Allyltestosterone is the parent structure of two marketed 19-nortestosterone progestins, allylestrenol and altrenogest. These progestins are unique among testosterone derivatives in that they appear to be associated with few or no androgenic effects. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Mars Multispectral Imager for Subsurface Studies**
Mars Multispectral Imager for Subsurface Studies:
Mars Multispectral Imager for Subsurface Studies (MA-MISS) is a miniaturized imaging spectrometer designed to provide imaging and spectra by reflectance in the near-infrared (NIR) wavelength region and determine the mineral composition and stratigraphy. The instrument is part of the science payload on board the European Rosalind Franklin rover, tasked to search for biosignatures, and scheduled to land on Mars in spring 2023. MA-MISS is essentially inside a drill on the Rover, and will take measurements of the sub-surface directly.
Mars Multispectral Imager for Subsurface Studies:
MA-MISS will help on the search for biosignatures by studying minerals and ices in situ before the collection of samples. The instrument is integrated within the Italian core drill system called DEEDRI, and it will be dedicated to in situ studies of the mineralogy inside the excavated holes in terms of visible and infrared spectral reflectance.The Principal Investigator is Maria Cristina De Sanctis, from the INAF (Istituto di Astrofisica Spaziale e Fisica Cosmica) in Italy.
Overview:
The instrument is based on the design conceived by planetary scientist Angioletta Coradini in 2001. MA-MISS is integrated in the Rosalind Franklin rover 2-metre DEEDRI core drill and shares its structure and electronics. It will perform visible and near-infrared spectroscopy (NIR) in the 0.4 to 2.2 μm range of the excavated borehole wall. A 5 watt lamp and an optical fiber array will provide the illumination of the target (about 100 μm spot) as well as collect the scattered light from the target. An optical fiber carries the light to the spectrometer.It will be operated periodically during the pauses of the drilling activity and will also be able to provide images of the hole wall by a sapphire window connected to an array of optical fibres. MA-MISS will provide important information about mineralogy, petrology, and geological processes of sedimentary materials of the Martian subsurface. It will also give insights about materials that have not been altered by surface processes such as erosion, weathering or oxidation.The instrument is noted for its location inside the drill where it will have close contact with the Martian sub-surface. There is a window on the side of the drill, and as the drill turns it can take measurements around the circumference of the bore hole.
Objectives:
The ExoMars programme is an astrobiology project focused on the search for biosignatures in the subsurface of Mars, and to better understand the geological evolution and habitability of Mars. The study of the Martian subsurface will provide important constraints on the nature, timing and duration of alteration and sedimentation processes on Mars, as well as on the complex interactions between the surface and the atmosphere. The stated objectives of the MA-MISS experiment are: Determine the composition of subsurface materials.
Objectives:
Map the distribution of subsurface water and CO2 ices.
Characterize grain size.
Reconstruct a stratigraphic column for clues on subsurface geological processes. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Interpolation space**
Interpolation space:
In the field of mathematical analysis, an interpolation space is a space which lies "in between" two other Banach spaces. The main applications are in Sobolev spaces, where spaces of functions that have a noninteger number of derivatives are interpolated from the spaces of functions with integer number of derivatives.
History:
The theory of interpolation of vector spaces began by an observation of Józef Marcinkiewicz, later generalized and now known as the Riesz-Thorin theorem. In simple terms, if a linear function is continuous on a certain space Lp and also on a certain space Lq, then it is also continuous on the space Lr, for any intermediate r between p and q. In other words, Lr is a space which is intermediate between Lp and Lq.
History:
In the development of Sobolev spaces, it became clear that the trace spaces were not any of the usual function spaces (with integer number of derivatives), and Jacques-Louis Lions discovered that indeed these trace spaces were constituted of functions that have a noninteger degree of differentiability.
Many methods were designed to generate such spaces of functions, including the Fourier transform, complex interpolation, real interpolation, as well as other tools (see e.g. fractional derivative).
The setting of interpolation:
A Banach space X is said to be continuously embedded in a Hausdorff topological vector space Z when X is a linear subspace of Z such that the inclusion map from X into Z is continuous. A compatible couple (X0, X1) of Banach spaces consists of two Banach spaces X0 and X1 that are continuously embedded in the same Hausdorff topological vector space Z. The embedding in a linear space Z allows to consider the two linear subspaces X0∩X1 and X0+X1={z∈Z:z=x0+x1,x0∈X0,x1∈X1}.
The setting of interpolation:
Interpolation does not depend only upon the isomorphic (nor isometric) equivalence classes of X0 and X1. It depends in an essential way from the specific relative position that X0 and X1 occupy in a larger space Z.
One can define norms on X0 ∩ X1 and X0 + X1 by := max (‖x‖X0,‖x‖X1), := inf {‖x0‖X0+‖x1‖X1:x=x0+x1,x0∈X0,x1∈X1}.
Equipped with these norms, the intersection and the sum are Banach spaces. The following inclusions are all continuous: X0∩X1⊂X0,X1⊂X0+X1.
Interpolation studies the family of spaces X that are intermediate spaces between X0 and X1 in the sense that X0∩X1⊂X⊂X0+X1, where the two inclusions maps are continuous.
The setting of interpolation:
An example of this situation is the pair (L1(R), L∞(R)), where the two Banach spaces are continuously embedded in the space Z of measurable functions on the real line, equipped with the topology of convergence in measure. In this situation, the spaces Lp(R), for 1 ≤ p ≤ ∞ are intermediate between L1(R) and L∞(R). More generally, when 1≤p0≤p≤p1≤∞, with continuous injections, so that, under the given condition, Lp(R) is intermediate between Lp0(R) and Lp1(R).
The setting of interpolation:
Definition. Given two compatible couples (X0, X1) and (Y0, Y1), an interpolation pair is a couple (X, Y) of Banach spaces with the two following properties: The space X is intermediate between X0 and X1, and Y is intermediate between Y0 and Y1.
The setting of interpolation:
If L is any linear operator from X0 + X1 to Y0 + Y1, which maps continuously X0 to Y0 and X1 to Y1, then it also maps continuously X to Y.The interpolation pair (X, Y) is said to be of exponent θ (with 0 < θ < 1) if there exists a constant C such that ‖L‖X,Y≤C‖L‖X0,Y01−θ‖L‖X1,Y1θ for all operators L as above. The notation ||L||X,Y is for the norm of L as a map from X to Y. If C = 1, we say that (X, Y) is an exact interpolation pair of exponent θ.
Complex interpolation:
If the scalars are complex numbers, properties of complex analytic functions are used to define an interpolation space. Given a compatible couple (X0, X1) of Banach spaces, the linear space F(X0,X1) consists of all functions f : C → X0 + X1, that are analytic on S = {z : 0 < Re(z) < 1}, continuous on S = {z : 0 ≤ Re(z) ≤ 1}, and for which all the following subsets are bounded: { f (z) : z ∈ S} ⊂ X0 + X1, { f (it) : t ∈ R} ⊂ X0, { f (1 + it) : t ∈ R} ⊂ X1.
Complex interpolation:
F(X0,X1) is a Banach space under the norm max sup sup t∈R‖f(1+it)‖X1}.
Definition. For 0 < θ < 1, the complex interpolation space (X0, X1)θ is the linear subspace of X0 + X1 consisting of all values f(θ) when f varies in the preceding space of functions, (X0,X1)θ={x∈X0+X1:x=f(θ),f∈F(X0,X1)}.
The norm on the complex interpolation space (X0, X1)θ is defined by inf {‖f‖F(X0,X1):f(θ)=x,f∈F(X0,X1)}.
Equipped with this norm, the complex interpolation space (X0, X1)θ is a Banach space.
Complex interpolation:
Theorem. Given two compatible couples of Banach spaces (X0, X1) and (Y0, Y1), the pair ((X0, X1)θ, (Y0, Y1)θ) is an exact interpolation pair of exponent θ, i.e., if T : X0 + X1 → Y0 + Y1, is a linear operator bounded from Xj to Yj, j = 0, 1, then T is bounded from (X0, X1)θ to (Y0, Y1)θ and The family of Lp spaces (consisting of complex valued functions) behaves well under complex interpolation. If (R, Σ, μ) is an arbitrary measure space, if 1 ≤ p0, p1 ≤ ∞ and 0 < θ < 1, then (Lp0(R,Σ,μ),Lp1(R,Σ,μ))θ=Lp(R,Σ,μ),1p=1−θp0+θp1, with equality of norms. This fact is closely related to the Riesz–Thorin theorem.
Real interpolation:
There are two ways for introducing the real interpolation method. The first and most commonly used when actually identifying examples of interpolation spaces is the K-method. The second method, the J-method, gives the same interpolation spaces as the K-method when the parameter θ is in (0, 1). That the J- and K-methods agree is important for the study of duals of interpolation spaces: basically, the dual of an interpolation space constructed by the K-method appears to be a space constructed from the dual couple by the J-method; see below.
Real interpolation:
K-method The K-method of real interpolation can be used for Banach spaces over the field R of real numbers.
Definition. Let (X0, X1) be a compatible couple of Banach spaces. For t > 0 and every x ∈ X0 + X1, let inf {‖x0‖X0+t‖x1‖X1:x=x0+x1,x0∈X0,x1∈X1}.
Changing the order of the two spaces results in: K(x,t;X0,X1)=tK(x,t−1;X1,X0).
Let sup 1.
The K-method of real interpolation consists in taking Kθ,q(X0, X1) to be the linear subspace of X0 + X1 consisting of all x such that ||x||θ,q;K < ∞.
Real interpolation:
Example An important example is that of the couple (L1(R, Σ, μ), L∞(R, Σ, μ)), where the functional K(t, f ; L1, L∞) can be computed explicitly. The measure μ is supposed σ-finite. In this context, the best way of cutting the function f ∈ L1 + L∞ as sum of two functions f0 ∈ L1 and f1 ∈ L∞ is, for some s > 0 to be chosen as function of t, to let f1(x) be given for all x ∈ R by otherwise The optimal choice of s leads to the formula K(f,t;L1,L∞)=∫0tf∗(u)du, where f ∗ is the decreasing rearrangement of f .
Real interpolation:
J-method As with the K-method, the J-method can be used for real Banach spaces.
Real interpolation:
Definition. Let (X0, X1) be a compatible couple of Banach spaces. For t > 0 and for every vector x ∈ X0 ∩ X1, let A vector x in X0 + X1 belongs to the interpolation space Jθ,q(X0, X1) if and only if it can be written as x=∫0∞v(t)dtt, where v(t) is measurable with values in X0 ∩ X1 and such that Φ(v)=(∫0∞(t−θJ(v(t),t;X0,X1))qdtt)1q<∞.
Real interpolation:
The norm of x in Jθ,q(X0, X1) is given by the formula := inf v{Φ(v):x=∫0∞v(t)dtt}.
Relations between the interpolation methods The two real interpolation methods are equivalent when 0 < θ < 1.
Real interpolation:
Theorem. Let (X0, X1) be a compatible couple of Banach spaces. If 0 < θ < 1 and 1 ≤ q ≤ ∞, then with equivalence of norms.The theorem covers degenerate cases that have not been excluded: for example if X0 and X1 form a direct sum, then the intersection and the J-spaces are the null space, and a simple computation shows that the K-spaces are also null.
Real interpolation:
When 0 < θ < 1, one can speak, up to an equivalent renorming, about the Banach space obtained by the real interpolation method with parameters θ and q. The notation for this real interpolation space is (X0, X1)θ,q. One has that (X0,X1)θ,q=(X1,X0)1−θ,q,0<θ<1,1≤q≤∞.
For a given value of θ, the real interpolation spaces increase with q: if 0 < θ < 1 and 1 ≤ q ≤ r ≤ ∞, the following continuous inclusion holds true: (X0,X1)θ,q⊂(X0,X1)θ,r.
Theorem. Given 0 < θ < 1, 1 ≤ q ≤ ∞ and two compatible couples (X0, X1) and (Y0, Y1), the pair ((X0, X1)θ,q, (Y0, Y1)θ,q) is an exact interpolation pair of exponent θ.A complex interpolation space is usually not isomorphic to one of the spaces given by the real interpolation method. However, there is a general relationship.
Real interpolation:
Theorem. Let (X0, X1) be a compatible couple of Banach spaces. If 0 < θ < 1, then Examples When X0 = C([0, 1]) and X1 = C1([0, 1]), the space of continuously differentiable functions on [0, 1], the (θ, ∞) interpolation method, for 0 < θ < 1, gives the Hölder space C0,θ of exponent θ. This is because the K-functional K(f, t; X0, X1) of this couple is equivalent to sup {|f(u)|,|f(u)−f(v)|1+t−1|u−v|:u,v∈[0,1]}.
Real interpolation:
Only values 0 < t < 1 are interesting here.
Real interpolation:
Real interpolation between Lp spaces gives the family of Lorentz spaces. Assuming 0 < θ < 1 and 1 ≤ q ≤ ∞, one has: where 1p=1−θ, with equivalent norms. This follows from an inequality of Hardy and from the value given above of the K-functional for this compatible couple. When q = p, the Lorentz space Lp,p is equal to Lp, up to renorming. When q = ∞, the Lorentz space Lp,∞ is equal to weak-Lp.
The reiteration theorem:
An intermediate space X of the compatible couple (X0, X1) is said to be of class θ if (X0,X1)θ,1⊂X⊂(X0,X1)θ,∞, with continuous injections. Beside all real interpolation spaces (X0, X1)θ,q with parameter θ and 1 ≤ q ≤ ∞, the complex interpolation space (X0, X1)θ is an intermediate space of class θ of the compatible couple (X0, X1).
The reiteration theorems says, in essence, that interpolating with a parameter θ behaves, in some way, like forming a convex combination a = (1 − θ)x0 + θx1: taking a further convex combination of two convex combinations gives another convex combination.
The reiteration theorem:
Theorem. Let A0, A1 be intermediate spaces of the compatible couple (X0, X1), of class θ0 and θ1 respectively, with 0 < θ0 ≠ θ1 < 1. When 0 < θ < 1 and 1 ≤ q ≤ ∞, one has It is notable that when interpolating with the real method between A0 = (X0, X1)θ0,q0 and A1 = (X0, X1)θ1,q1, only the values of θ0 and θ1 matter. Also, A0 and A1 can be complex interpolation spaces between X0 and X1, with parameters θ0 and θ1 respectively.
The reiteration theorem:
There is also a reiteration theorem for the complex method.
The reiteration theorem:
Theorem. Let (X0, X1) be a compatible couple of complex Banach spaces, and assume that X0 ∩ X1 is dense in X0 and in X1. Let A0 = (X0, X1)θ0 and A1 = (X0, X1)θ1, where 0 ≤ θ0 ≤ θ1 ≤ 1. Assume further that X0 ∩ X1 is dense in A0 ∩ A1. Then, for every 0 ≤ θ ≤ 1, The density condition is always satisfied when X0 ⊂ X1 or X1 ⊂ X0.
Duality:
Let (X0, X1) be a compatible couple, and assume that X0 ∩ X1 is dense in X0 and in X1. In this case, the restriction map from the (continuous) dual Xj′ of Xj, j = 0, 1, to the dual of X0 ∩ X1 is one-to-one. It follows that the pair of duals (X0′,X1′) is a compatible couple continuously embedded in the dual (X0 ∩ X1)′.
Duality:
For the complex interpolation method, the following duality result holds: Theorem. Let (X0, X1) be a compatible couple of complex Banach spaces, and assume that X0 ∩ X1 is dense in X0 and in X1. If X0 and X1 are reflexive, then the dual of the complex interpolation space is obtained by interpolating the duals, In general, the dual of the space (X0, X1)θ is equal to (X0′,X1′)θ, a space defined by a variant of the complex method. The upper-θ and lower-θ methods do not coincide in general, but they do if at least one of X0, X1 is a reflexive space.For the real interpolation method, the duality holds provided that the parameter q is finite: Theorem. Let 0 < θ < 1, 1 ≤ q < ∞ and (X0, X1) a compatible couple of real Banach spaces. Assume that X0 ∩ X1 is dense in X0 and in X1. Then where 1q′=1−1q.
Discrete definitions:
Since the function t → K(x, t) varies regularly (it is increasing, but 1/tK(x, t) is decreasing), the definition of the Kθ,q-norm of a vector n, previously given by an integral, is equivalent to a definition given by a series. This series is obtained by breaking (0, ∞) into pieces (2n, 2n+1) of equal mass for the measure dt/t, ‖x‖θ,q;K≃(∑n∈Z(2−θnK(x,2n;X0,X1))q)1q.
Discrete definitions:
In the special case where X0 is continuously embedded in X1, one can omit the part of the series with negative indices n. In this case, each of the functions x → K(x, 2n; X0, X1) defines an equivalent norm on X1.
Discrete definitions:
The interpolation space (X0, X1)θ,q is a "diagonal subspace" of an ℓ q-sum of a sequence of Banach spaces (each one being isomorphic to X0 + X1). Therefore, when q is finite, the dual of (X0, X1)θ,q is a quotient of the ℓ p-sum of the duals, 1/p + 1/q = 1, which leads to the following formula for the discrete Jθ,p-norm of a functional x' in the dual of (X0, X1)θ,q: inf max (‖xn′‖X0′,2−n‖xn′‖X1′))p)1p:x′=∑n∈Zxn′}.
Discrete definitions:
The usual formula for the discrete Jθ,p-norm is obtained by changing n to −n.
Discrete definitions:
The discrete definition makes several questions easier to study, among which the already mentioned identification of the dual. Other such questions are compactness or weak-compactness of linear operators. Lions and Peetre have proved that: Theorem. If the linear operator T is compact from X0 to a Banach space Y and bounded from X1 to Y, then T is compact from (X0, X1)θ,q to Y when 0 < θ < 1, 1 ≤ q ≤ ∞.Davis, Figiel, Johnson and Pełczyński have used interpolation in their proof of the following result: Theorem. A bounded linear operator between two Banach spaces is weakly compact if and only if it factors through a reflexive space.
Discrete definitions:
A general interpolation method The space ℓ q used for the discrete definition can be replaced by an arbitrary sequence space Y with unconditional basis, and the weights an = 2−θn, bn = 2(1−θ)n, that are used for the Kθ,q-norm, can be replaced by general weights min (an,bn)<∞.
Discrete definitions:
The interpolation space K(X0, X1, Y, {an}, {bn}) consists of the vectors x in X0 + X1 such that sup m≥1‖∑n=1manK(x,bnan;X0,X1)yn‖Y<∞, where {yn} is the unconditional basis of Y. This abstract method can be used, for example, for the proof of the following result: Theorem. A Banach space with unconditional basis is isomorphic to a complemented subspace of a space with symmetric basis.
Interpolation of Sobolev and Besov spaces:
Several interpolation results are available for Sobolev spaces and Besov spaces on Rn, Hpss∈R,1≤p≤∞Bp,qss∈R,1≤p,q≤∞ These spaces are spaces of measurable functions on Rn when s ≥ 0, and of tempered distributions on Rn when s < 0. For the rest of the section, the following setting and notation will be used: 0<θ<1,1≤p,p0,p1,q,q0,q1≤∞,s,s0,s1∈R,sθ=(1−θ)s0+θs1,1pθ=1−θp0+θp1,1qθ=1−θq0+θq1.
Complex interpolation works well on the class of Sobolev spaces Hps (the Bessel potential spaces) as well as Besov spaces: (Hp0s0,Hp1s1)θ=Hpθsθ,s0≠s1,1<p0,p1<∞.(Bp0,q0s0,Bp1,q1s1)θ=Bpθ,qθsθ,s0≠s1.
Real interpolation between Sobolev spaces may give Besov spaces, except when s0 = s1, (Hp0s,Hp1s)θ,pθ=Hpθs.
When s0 ≠ s1 but p0 = p1, real interpolation between Sobolev spaces gives a Besov space: (Hps0,Hps1)θ,q=Bp,qsθ,s0≠s1.
Also, (Bp,q0s0,Bp,q1s1)θ,q=Bp,qsθ,s0≠s1.(Bp,q0s,Bp,q1s)θ,q=Bp,qθs.(Bp0,q0s0,Bp1,q1s1)θ,qθ=Bpθ,qθsθ,s0≠s1,pθ=qθ. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Mobile VoIP**
Mobile VoIP:
Mobile VoIP or simply mVoIP is an extension of mobility to a voice over IP network. Two types of communication are generally supported: cordless telephones using DECT or PCS protocols for short range or campus communications where all base stations are linked into the same LAN, and wider area communications using 3G or 4G protocols.
Mobile VoIP:
There are several methodologies that allow a mobile handset to be integrated into a VoIP network. One implementation turns the mobile device into a standard SIP client, which then uses a data network to send and receive SIP messaging, and to send and receive RTP for the voice path. This methodology of turning a mobile handset into a standard SIP client requires that the mobile handset support, at minimum, high speed IP communications. In this application, standard VoIP protocols (typically SIP) are used over any broadband IP-capable wireless network connection such as EVDO rev A (which is symmetrical high speed — both high speed up and down), HSPA, Wi-Fi or WiMAX.
Mobile VoIP:
Another implementation of mobile integration uses a soft-switch like gateway to bridge SIP and RTP into the mobile network's SS7 infrastructure. In this implementation, the mobile handset continues to operate as it always has (as a GSM or CDMA based device), but now it can be controlled by a SIP application server which can now provide advanced SIP-based services to it. Several vendors offer this kind of capability today.
Mobile VoIP:
Mobile VoIP will require a compromise between economy and mobility. For example, voice over Wi-Fi offers potentially free service but is only available within the coverage area of a single Wi-Fi access point. Cordless protocols offer excellent voice support and even support base station handoff, but require all base stations to communicate on one LAN as the handoff protocol is generally not supported by carriers or most devices.
Mobile VoIP:
High speed services from mobile operators using EVDO rev A or HSPA may have better audio quality and capabilities for metropolitan-wide coverage including fast handoffs among mobile base stations, yet may cost more than Wi-Fi-based VoIP services.
Mobile VoIP:
As device manufacturers exploited more powerful processors and less costly memory, smartphones became capable of sending and receiving email, browsing the web (albeit at low rates) and allowing a user to watch TV. Mobile VoIP users were predicted to exceed 100 million by 2012 and InStat projects 288 million subscribers by 2013.The mobile operator industry business model conflicts with the expectations of Internet users that access is free and fast without extra charges for visiting specific sites, however far away they may be hosted. Because of this, most innovations in mobile VoIP will likely come from campus and corporate networks, open source projects like Asterisk, and applications where the benefits are high enough to justify expensive experiments (medical, military, etc.).
Technologies:
Mobile VoIP, like all VoIP, relies on SIP — the standard used by most VoIP services, and now being implemented on mobile handsets and smartphones and an increasing number of cordless phones.
UMA — the Unlicensed Mobile Access Generic Access Network allows VoIP to run over the GSM cellular backbone.
Technologies:
When moving between IP-based networks, as is typically the case for outdoor applications, two other protocols are required: IEEE 802.21 handoff, permitting one network to do call setup and initial traffic, handing off to another when the first is about to fall out of range - the underlying network need not be IP-based, but typically the IP stream is guaranteed a certain quality of service (QoS) during the handoff process IEEE 802.11u call initiation when the initial contact with a network is not one that the user has subscribed to or been in contact with before.For indoor or campus (cordless phone equivalent) use, the IEEE P1905 protocol establishes QoS guarantees for home area networks: Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, 3G, 4G and wired backbones using AC powerline networking/HomePlug/IEEE P1901, Ethernet and Power over Ethernet/IEEE 802.3af/IEEE 802.3at, MoCA and G.hn. In combination with IEEE 802.21, P1905 permits a call to be initiated on a wired phone and transferred to a wireless one and then resumed on a wired one, perhaps with additional capabilities such as videoconferencing in another room. In this case the use of mobile VoIP enables a continuous conversation that originates, and ends with, a wired terminal device.
Technologies:
An older technology, PCS base station handoff, specifies equivalent capabilities for cordless phones based on 800, 900, 2.4, 5.8 and DECT. While these capabilities were not widely implemented, they did provide the functional specification for handoff for modern IP-based telephony. A phone can in theory offer both PCS cordless and mobile VoIP and permit calls to be handed off from traditional cordless to cell and back to cordless if both the PCS and UMA/SIP/IEEE standards suites are implemented. Some specialized long distance cordless vendors like Senao attempted this but it has not generally caught on. A more popular approach has been full-spectrum handsets that can communicate with any wireless network including mobile VoIP, DECT and satellite phone networks, but which have limited handoff capabilities between networks. The intent of IEEE 802.21 and IEEE 802.11u is that they be added to such phones running iPhone, QNX, Android or other smartphone operating systems, yielding a phone that is capable of communicating with literally any digital network and maintaining a continuous call at high reliability at a low access cost.
Technologies:
Most VoIP vendors implement proprietary technologies that permit such handoff between equipment of their own manufacture, e.g. the Viera system from Panasonic. Typically providing mobility costs more, e.g., the Panasonic VoIP cordless phone system (KX-TGP) costs approximately three times more than its popular DECT PSTN equivalent (KX-TGA). Some companies, including Cisco, offer adapters for analog/DECT phones as alternatives to their expensive cordless.
Industry history:
2005 Early experiments proved that VoIP was practical and could be routed by Asterisk even on low-end routers like the Linksys WRT54G series. Suggesting a mesh network (e.g. WDS) composed of such cheap devices could similarly support roaming mobile VoIP phones. These experiments, and others for IP roaming such as Sputnik, were the beginning of the 5G protocol suite including IEEE 802.21 and IEEE 802.11u. At this time, some mobile operators attempted to restrict IP tethering and VoIP use on their networks, often by deliberately introducing high latency into data communications making it useless for voice traffic.
Industry history:
2006 In the summer of 2006, a SIP (Session Initiation Protocol) stack was introduced and a VoIP client in Nokia E-series dual-mode Wi-Fi handsets (Nokia E60, Nokia E61, Nokia E70). The SIP stack and client have since been introduced in many more E and N-series dual-mode Wi-Fi handsets, most notably the Nokia N95 which has been very popular in Europe. Various services use these handsets.
Industry history:
2008 In spring 2008 Nokia introduced a built in SIP VoIP client for the very first time to the mass market device (Nokia 6300i) running Series 40 operating system. Later that year (Nokia 6260 Slide was introduced introducing slightly updated SIP VoIP client. Nokia maintains a list of all phones that have an integrated VoIP client in Forum Nokia.Aircell's battle with some companies allowing VoIP calls on flights is another example of the growing conflict of interest between incumbent operators and new VoIP operators.
Industry history:
2009 By January 2009 OpenWRT [1] was capable of supporting mobile VoIP applications via Asterisk running on a USB stick. As OpenWRT runs on most Wi-Fi routers, this radically expanded the potential reach of mobile VoIP applications. Users reported acceptable results using G.729 codecs and connections to a "main NAT/Firewall router with a NAT=yes and canreinvite=no.. As such, my asterisk will stay in the audio path and can't redirect the RTP media stream (audio) to go directly from the caller to the callee." Minor problems were also reported: "Whenever there is an I/O activities ... i.e. reading the Flash space (mtdblockd process), this will create some hick-ups (or temporarily losing audio signals)." The combination of OpenWRT and Asterisk is intended as an open source replacement for proprietary PBXes.
Industry history:
The company xG Technology, Inc. had a mobile VoIP and data system operating in the license-free ISM 900 MHz band (902 MHz – 928 MHz). xMax is an end-to-end Internet Protocol (IP) system infrastructure that is currently deployed in Fort Lauderdale, Florida.
2010 In January 2010 Apple Inc. updated the iPhone developer SDK to allow VoIP over cellular networks. iCall [2] became the first App Store app to enable VoIP on the iPhone and iPod Touch over cellular 3G networks.
In second half of 2010 Nokia introduced three new dualmode Wi-Fi capable Series40 handsets (Nokia X3-02, Nokia C3-01 and, Nokia C3-01 Gold Edition) with integrated SIP VoIP that supports HD voice (AMR-WB).
2011 The mainstreaming of VoIP in the small business market led to the introduction of more devices extending VoIP to business cordless users.
Industry history:
Panasonic introduced the KX-TGP base station supporting up to 6 cordless handsets [3], essentially a VoIP complement to its popular KX-TGA analogue phones which likewise support up to 4 cordless handsets. However, unlike the analogue system which supports only four handsets in one "conference" on one line, the TGP supports 3 simultaneous network conversations and up to 8 SIP registrations (e.g. up to 8 DID lines or extensions), as well as an Ethernet pass-through port to hook up computers on the same drop. In its publicity Panasonic specifically mentions Digium (founded by the creator of Asterisk), its product Switchvox and Asterisk itself.
Industry history:
Several router manufacturers including TRENDnet and Netgear released sub-$300 Power over Ethernet switches aimed at the VoIP market. Unlike industry standard switches that provided the full 30 watts of power per port, these allowed under 50 watts of power to all four PoE ports combined. This made them entirely suitable for VoIP and other low-power use (Motorola Canopy or security camera or Wi-Fi APs) typical of a SOHO application, or supporting an 8-line PBX, especially in combination with a multi-line handset such as the Panasonic KX-TGP (which does not require a powered port).
Industry history:
Accordingly, by the end of 2011, for under US$3000 it was possible to build an office VoIP system based entirely on cordless technology capable of several hundred metres reach and on Power over Ethernet dedicated wired phones, with up to 8 DID lines and 3 simultaneous conversations per base station, with 24 handsets each capable of communicating on any subset of the 8 lines, plus an unlimited number of softphones running on computers and laptops and smartphones. This compared favourably to proprietary PBX technology especially as VoIP cordless was far cheaper than PBX cordless.
Industry history:
Cisco also released the SPA112, an Analogue Telephone Adapter (ATA) to connect one or two standard RJ-11 telephones to an Ethernet, in November 2011, retailing for under US$50. This was a competitive response to major cordless vendors such as Panasonic moving into the business VoIP cordless market Cisco had long dominated, as it suppressed the market for the cordless makers' native VoIP phones and permitted Cisco to argue the business case to spend more on switches and less on terminal devices. However, this solution would not permit the analogue phones to access every line of a multi-line PBX, only one hardwired line per phone.
Industry history:
As of late 2011, most cellular data networks were still extremely high latency and effectively useless for VoIP. IP-only providers such as Voipstream had begun to serve urban areas, and alternative approaches such as OpenBTS (open source GSM) were competing with mobile VoIP.
In November 2011, Nokia introduced Nokia Asha 303 with integrated SIP VoIP client that can operate both over Wi-Fi and 3G networks.
2012 In February 2012, Nokia introduced Nokia Asha 302 and in June Nokia Asha 311 both with integrated SIP VoIP client that can operate both over Wi-Fi and 3G networks.
Industry history:
2014 By September 2014, mobile-enabled VoIP (VoLTE) had been launched by T-Mobile US across its national network and by AT&T Mobility in a few markets.Verizon plans to launch its VoLTE service "in the coming weeks," according to media reports in August, 2014. It provides HD Voice, which increases mobile voice quality, and permits optional use of video calling and front and rear-facing cameras. In the future, Verizon's VoLTE is expected to also permit video sharing, chat functionality, and file transfers. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Veronica bucket**
Veronica bucket:
The Veronica bucket is a mechanism for hand washing originating in Ghana which consists of a bucket of water with a tap fixed at the bottom, mounted at hand height, and a bowl at the bottom to collect waste water. The Veronica bucket was developed by Veronica Bekoe. The Veronica bucket serves as a simple way to encourage proper hand washing using flowing water. Bekoe in an interview stated that the bucket was originally made to help her and her colleagues wash their hands under running water after each lab session. She said, "We are used to washing hands in a bowl with others washing in the same water, which will do more harm than good." These colleagues were contaminating their hands rather than decontaminating them. In addition to the COVID benefit of hand washing, the Veronica bucket is also essential for areas where potable water is not readily available.
Uses:
The bucket is also used in other African countries. It is common in places such as schools, hospitals, churches and areas with no running taps. It has become very popular in Ghana following the outbreak of the novel coronavirus (COVID-19) as citizens engage in frequent hand washing to stem its spread. In Ekiti State, Nigeria, the governor Kayode Fayemi directed all public places to provide running tap water or Veronica buckets "to encourage frequent handwashing" as part of the measures to contain COVID-19.Before the COVID-19 outbreak, the invention was used in some schools and hospitals but now it is in high demand due to its role in curbing the outbreak. Now, the setup could be spotted in places like malls, hospitals, corporate institutions and government offices. It was invented by a Ghanaian, Veronica Bekoe, whom the invention was named after. She claimed the bucket was named after her in 1993 by Joan Hetrick. Bekoe is a biologist who has worked at the Public Health and Reference Laboratory of the Ghana Health Service from 1972 to 2008.
Production:
The invention was initially produced by local artisans with aluminium utensils used in selling Hausa koko attached with a tap which was a prototype, popularly known as Akorlaa gyae su and is currently made of plastic with a tap attached to it which has an area for holding soap and towels. Variations available today come in all colours.In February 2021, Veronica Bekoe launched an updated version of the bucket to reduce physical contact with the unit and further help halt the spread of COVID-19. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Physical health in schizophrenia**
Physical health in schizophrenia:
People with schizophrenia are at a higher than average risk of physical ill health, and earlier death than the general population. The fatal conditions include cardiovascular, respiratory and metabolic disorders.Although death by suicide in schizophrenia has received much needed attention, and is the leading cause of death among males, death from cardiovascular disease is more common in females, accounting for up to 75 percent of deaths. The causes of physical health problems include factors associated with mental illness and its treatment, poverty, poor housing, higher rates of smoking, poor diet and lack of exercise.
Dynamics:
Despite the high rates of physical health problems, mental health service users report that health care workers overlook their physical health needs. Service users would like mental health practitioners to do more for their physical health. Rethink interviewed 2,998 mental health service users, over half of whom lived with a diagnosed severe mental illness. Nearly one third said regular physical health checks were in their top three priorities for improving services. Mental health practitioners may feel unable to provide physical health input. Also there may be a feeling that people with mental health problems will not be interested in physical health education and support. In fact, much health promotion is simple and well received by service users. One review showed that people with schizophrenia benefited from a variety of behavioural interventions and achieved weight loss and lifestyle change.Schizophrenia also affects the attendance to cancer screening which is seen as one of the factors leading to shorter life expectancy. For example, women with schizophrenia are half as likely to attend breast cancer screening compared to the general population.Another study found little evidence to support one intervention over another, but argued that moderately strenuous exercise was important.
Health policy:
Many guidelines reflect the need to incorporate physical health care into mental health provision, including NICE in the UK. In primary care, the prodigy website provides practical and accessible advice.However, a review of international guidelines for physical wellbeing in SMI has found that recommendations are variable. UK guidelines failed to address the specifics of physical health monitoring and lifestyle intervention, while United States guidelines were more descriptive. Field studies suggested that all guidelines were inadequately implemented in practice.
Health policy:
The DoH in the UK has recommended wide-ranging action to enable the general population to choose healthier lifestyles in the Choosing Health white paper.In the UK the National Health Service (NHS) is deeply split along physical/mental lines. Instead of treating whole people, services tend to treat parts of people separately.
The commissioning framework to support the physical health needs of people with severe mental illness recommends a holistic approach with interagency collaboration.
Medication:
The current medical view is that all people with schizophrenia must take medications for the disorder. These antipsychotic medications have adverse effects such as weight gain and induce feelings of fatigue that inhibit physical activity. The request for the people with schizophrenia to exercise for cardiovascular health then take medications (originally named "major tranquilizers") that inhibit activity is a double bind. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Retail marketing**
Retail marketing:
Once the strategic plan is in place, retail managers turn to the more managerial aspects of planning. A retail mix is devised for the purpose of coordinating day-to-day tactical decisions. The retail marketing mix typically consists of six broad decision layers including product decisions, place decisions, promotion, price, personnel and presentation (also known as physical evidence). The retail mix is loosely based on the marketing mix, but has been expanded and modified in line with the unique needs of the retail context. A number of scholars have argued for an expanded marketing, mix with the inclusion of two new Ps, namely, Personnel and Presentation since these contribute to the customer's unique retail experience and are the principal basis for retail differentiation. Yet other scholars argue that the Retail Format (i.e. retail formula) should be included. The modified retail marketing mix that is most commonly cited in textbooks is often called the 6 Ps of retailing (see diagram at right).
Product:
See Product management The primary product-related decisions facing the retailer are the product assortment (what product lines, how many lines and which brands to carry); the type of customer service (high contact through to self-service) and the availability of support services (e.g. credit terms, delivery services, after sales care). These decisions depend on careful analysis of the market, demand, competition as well as the retailer's skills and expertise.
Product:
Product assortment The term product assortment refers to the combination of both product breadth and depth. The main characteristics of a company's product assortment are: (1) the length or number of products lines the number of different products carried by a store (2) the breadth refers to the variety of product lines that a store offers. It is also known as product assortment width, merchandise breadth, and product line width.: (3) depth or number of product varieties within a product line the number of each item or particular styles carried by a store (4) consistency how products relate to each other in a retail environment.For a retailer, finding the right balance between breadth and depth can be a key to success. An average supermarket might carry 30,000–60,000 different product lines (product length or assortment), but might carry up to 100 different types of toothpaste (product depth). Speciality retailers typically carry fewer product lines, perhaps as few as 20 lines, but will normally stock greater depth. Costco, for example, carries 5,000 different lines while Aldi carries just 1,400 lines per store.
Product:
Large assortments offer consumers many benefits, notably increased choice and the possibility that the consumer will be able to locate the ideal product. However, for the retailer, larger assortments incur costs in terms of record-keeping, managing inventory, pricing and risks associated with wastage due to spoiled, shopworn or unsold stock. Carrying more stock also exposes the retailer to higher risks in terms of slow-moving stock and lower sales per square foot of store space. On the other hand, reducing the number of product lines can generate cost savings through increased stock turnover by eliminating slow-moving lines, fewer stockouts, increased bargaining power with suppliers, reduced costs associated with wastage and carrying inventory, and higher sales per square foot which means more efficient space utilisation.
Product:
When determining the number of product lines to carry, the retailer must consider the store type, store's physical storage capacity, the perishability of items, expected turnover rates for each line and the customer's needs and expectations.
Product:
Customer service and supporting services Customer service is the "sum of acts and elements that allow consumers to receive what they need or desire from [the] retail establishment." Retailers must decide whether to provide a full service outlet or minimal service outlet, such as no-service in the case of vending machines; self-service with only basic sales assistance or a full service operation as in many boutiques and speciality stores. In addition, the retailer needs to make decisions about sales support such as customer delivery and after sales customer care.
Product:
Retailing services may also include the provision of credit, delivery services, advisory services, exchange/ return services, product demonstration, special orders, customer loyalty programs, limited-scale trial, advisory services and a range of other supporting services. Retail stores often seek to differentiate along customer service lines. For example, some department stores offer the services of a stylist; a fashion advisor, to assist customers selecting a fashionable wardrobe for the forthcoming season, while smaller boutiques may allow regular customers to take goods home on approval, enabling the customer to try out goods before making the final purchase. The variety of supporting services offered is known as the service type. At one end of the spectrum, self-service operators offer few basic support services. At the other end of the spectrum, full-service operators offer a broad range of highly personalised customer services to augment the retail experience.When making decisions about customer service, the retailer must balance the customer's desire for full-service against the customer's willingness to pay for the cost of delivering supporting services. Self-service is a very cost efficient way of delivering services since the retailer harnesses the customers labour power to carry out many of the retail tasks. However, many customers appreciate full service and are willing to pay a premium for the benefits of full-service.A sales assistant's role typically includes greeting customers, providing product and service-related information, providing advice about products available from current stock, answering customer questions, finalising customer transactions and if necessary, providing follow-up service necessary to ensure customer satisfaction. For retail store owners, it is extremely important to train personnel with the requisite skills necessary to deliver excellent customer service. Such skills may include product knowledge, inventory management, handling cash and credit transactions, handling product exchange and returns, dealing with difficult customers and of course, a detailed knowledge of store policies. The provision of excellent customer service creates more opportunities to build enduring customer relationships with the potential to turn customers into sources of referral or retail advocates. In the long term, excellent customer service provides businesses with an ongoing reputation and may lead to a competitive advantage. Customer service is essential for several reasons. Firstly, customer service contributes to the customer's overall retail experience. Secondly, evidence suggests that a retail organization that trains its employees in appropriate customer service benefits more than those who do not. Customer service training entails instructing personnel in the methods of servicing the customer that will benefit corporations and businesses. It is important to establish a bond amongst customers-employees known as Customer relationship management.
Product:
Types of customer service There are several ways the retailer can deliver services to consumers: Counter service, where goods are out of reach of buyers and must be obtained from the seller. This type of retail is common for small expensive items (e.g. jewellery) and controlled items like medicine and liquor.
Product:
Curbside pickup, where orders are placed online, via a mobile app, or called in, then the customer picks up the product on the property of but outside of the physical store. The coronavirus pandemic is making curbside pickup much more valuable to customers Ship to Store, where products are ordered online and can be picked up at the retailer's main store Delivery, where goods are shipped directly to consumer's homes or workplaces.
Product:
Mail order from a printed catalogue was invented in 1744 and was common in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Ordering by telephone was common in the 20th century, either from a catalog, newspaper, television advertisement or a local restaurant menu, for immediate service (especially for pizza delivery), remaining in common use for food orders. Internet shopping – a form of delivery – has eclipsed phone-ordering, and, in several sectors – such as books and music – all other forms of buying. There is increasing competitor pressure to deliver consumer goods – especially those offered online – in a more timely fashion. Large online retailers such as Amazon.com are continually innovating and as of 2015 offer one-hour delivery in certain areas. They are also working with drone technology to provide consumers with more efficient delivery options. Direct marketing, including telemarketing and television shopping channels, are also used to generate telephone orders. started gaining significant market share in developed countries in the 2000s.
Product:
Door-to-door sales, where the salesperson sometimes travels with the goods for sale.
Self-service, where goods may be handled and examined prior to purchase.
Product:
Digital delivery or Download, where intangible goods, such as music, film, and electronic books and subscriptions to magazines, are delivered directly to the consumer in the form of information transmitted either over wires or air-waves and is reconstituted by a device which the consumer controls (such as an MP3 player; see digital rights management). The digital sale of models for 3D printing also fits here, as do the media leasing types of services, such as streaming.
Place:
Place decisions are primarily concerned with consumer access and may involve location, space utilisation and operating hours.
Place:
Location Also see Site selection The perspective of marketing in large-scale enterprises is based on the theory of supply chain management; it emphasizes that the suppliers, large-scale retail enterprises, and customers form a chain of cooperative marketing that establishes mutually beneficial long-term relationships. Relationship marketing of huge retail enterprises from the perspective of supply chain mainly includes two relationship markets, supplier relationships, and customer relationships, as the two greatest influences on retail profits are suppliers and customers. First, as the supplier of commodities to retail enterprises, it directly determines the procurement cost of commodities to retail enterprises, which is mainly reflected in the purchase price of commodities themselves, the cost incurred in the procurement process, and the loss cost caused by unstable supply of commodities. In addition, the good relationship with supplier interaction, large retail enterprises can also promote the suppliers timely grasp the market information, improved or innovative products according to customer demand, which contributed to the retail enterprises improve the market competitiveness of the goods are sold, so the retail enterprise's relationship with the supplier directly affects the retail enterprises in the commodity market competitive. Second, due to the transfer of advantages between buyers and sellers, the retail industry has turned to the buyer's market, and consumers have become the key resources for major retailers to compete with each other. Therefore, it is very important to establish a good relationship with clients and improve customer loyalty. The relationship marketing of customer relationship market regards the transaction with clients as a long term activity. Retail enterprises should pursue long-term mutual benefit maximization rather than a single transaction sales profit maximization. This requires large retail enterprises to establish a customer-oriented trading relationship with the customer relationship market. Retail stores are typically located where market opportunities are optimal – high traffic areas, central business districts. Selecting the right site can be a major success factor. When evaluating potential sites, retailers often carry out a trade area analysis; a detailed analysis designed to approximate the potential patronage area. Techniques used in trade area analysis include: Radial (ring) studies; Gravity models and Drive time analyses.
Place:
In addition, retailers may consider a range of both qualitative and quantitative factors to evaluate to potential sites under consideration: Macro factors Macro factors include market characteristics (demographic, economic and socio-cultural), demand, competition and infrastructure (e.g. the availability of power, roads, public transport systems) Micro factors Micro factors include the size of the site (e.g. availability of parking), access for delivery vehicles Channels A major retail trend has been the shift to multi-channel retailing. To counter the disruption caused by online retail, many bricks and mortar retailers have entered the online retail space, by setting up online catalogue sales and e-commerce websites and apps. However, many retailers have noticed that consumers behave differently when shopping online. For instance, in terms of choice of online platform, shoppers tend to choose the online site of their preferred retailer initially, but as they gain more experience in online shopping, they become less loyal and more likely to switch to other retail sites. Online stores are usually available 24 hours a day, and many consumers in Western countries have Internet access both at work and at home.
Place:
The COVID-19 pandemic has greatly accelerated shoppers move to online grocery shopping, and has led substantial growth in online grocery shopping. As a result, retailers have began to invest more in their online platforms and to use the benefits of online shopping such as personalizations, AI, and machine-learning models to help them better understand their customer in all the various channels users can now shop from.
Pricing strategy and tactics:
See also Pricing Strategies The broad pricing strategy is normally established in the company's overall strategic plan. In the case of chain stores, the pricing strategy would be set by head office. Broadly, there are six approaches to pricing strategy mentioned in the marketing literature: Operations-oriented pricing: where the objective is to optimise productive capacity, to achieve operational efficiencies, or to match supply and demand through varying prices. In some cases, prices might be set to demarket.Revenue-oriented pricing: (also known as profit-oriented pricing or cost-based pricing) – where the marketer seeks to maximise the profits (i.e., the surplus income over costs) or simply to cover costs and break even.Customer-oriented pricing: where the objective is to maximise the number of customers; encourage cross-selling opportunities or to recognise different levels in the customer's ability to pay.Value-based pricing: (also known as image-based pricing) occurs where the company uses prices to signal market value or associates price with the desired value position in the mind of the buyer. The aim of value-based pricing is to reinforce the overall positioning strategy e.g. premium pricing posture to pursue or maintain a luxury image.Relationship-oriented pricing: where the marketer sets prices in order to build or maintain relationships with existing or potential customers.Socially-oriented pricing: Where the objective is to encourage or discourage specific social attitudes and behaviours. e.g. high tariffs on tobacco to discourage smoking.
Pricing strategy and tactics:
Pricing tactics When decision-makers have determined the broad approach to pricing (i.e., the pricing strategy), they turn their attention to pricing tactics. Tactical pricing decisions are shorter term prices, designed to accomplish specific short-term goals. The tactical approach to pricing may vary from time to time, depending on a range of internal considerations (e.g. the need to clear surplus inventory) or external factors (e.g. a response to competitive pricing tactics). Accordingly, a number of different pricing tactics may be employed in the course of a single planning period or across a single year. Typically store managers have the necessary latitude to vary prices on individual lines provided that they operate within the parameters of the overall strategic approach.
Pricing strategy and tactics:
Retailers must also plan for customer preferred payment modes – e.g. cash, credit, lay-by, Electronic Funds Transfer at Point-of-Sale (EFTPOS). All payment options require some type of handling and attract costs. If credit is to be offered, then credit terms will need to be determined. If lay-by is offered, then the retailer will need to take into account the storage and handling requirements. If cash is the dominant mode of payment, the retailer will need to consider small change requirements, the number of cash floats required, wages costs associated with handling large volumes of cash and the provision of secure storage for change floats. Large retailers, handling significant volumes of cash, may need to hire security service firms to carry the day's takings and deliver supplies of small change. A small, but increasing number of retailers are beginning to accept newer modes of payment including PayPal and Bitcoin. For example, Subway (US) recently announced that it would accept Bitcoin payments.Contrary to common misconception, price is not the most important factor for consumers, when deciding to buy a product.
Pricing strategy and tactics:
Pricing tactics that are commonly used in retail include: Discount pricingDiscount pricing is where the marketer or retailer offers a reduced price. Discounts in a variety of forms – e.g. quantity discounts, loyalty rebates, seasonal discounts, periodic or random discounts etc.
Everyday low prices (EDLP)Everyday low prices refers to the practice of maintaining a regular low price-low price – in which consumers are not forced to wait for discounting or specials. This method is extensively used by supermarkets.
Pricing strategy and tactics:
High-low pricingHigh-low pricing refers to the practice of offering goods at a high price for a period of time, followed by offering the same goods at a low price for a predetermined time. This practice is widely used by chain stores selling homewares. The main disadvantage of the high-low tactic is that consumers tend to become aware of the price cycles and time their purchases to coincide with a low-price cycle.
Pricing strategy and tactics:
Loss leaderA loss leader is a product that has a price set below the operating margin. Loss leaders are widely used in supermarkets and budget-priced retail outlets where it is intended to generate store traffic. The low price is widely promoted and the store is prepared to take a small loss on an individual item, with an expectation that it will recoup that loss when customers purchase other higher priced-higher margin items. In service industries, the practice sometimes consists charging a reduced price on the first order as an inducement and with anticipation of charging higher prices on subsequent orders.
Pricing strategy and tactics:
Price bundlingPrice bundling (also known as product bundling) occurs where two or more products or services are priced as a package with a single price. There are several types of bundles: pure bundles where the goods can only be purchased as a package or mixed bundles where the goods can be purchased individually or as a package. The prices of the bundle are typically less than when the two items are purchased separately. Price bundling is extensively used in the personal care sector to price cosmetics and skincare.
Pricing strategy and tactics:
Price liningPrice lining is the use of a limited number of prices for all products offered by a business. Price lining is a tradition started in the old five and dime stores in which everything cost either 5 or 10 cents. In price lining, the price remains constant but the quality or extent of product or service adjusted to reflect changes in cost. The underlying rationale of this tactic is that these amounts are seen as suitable price points for a whole range of products by prospective customers. It has the advantage of ease of administering, but the disadvantage of inflexibility, particularly in times of inflation or unstable prices. Price lining continues to be widely used in department stores where customers often note racks of garments or accessories priced at predetermined price points e.g. separate racks of men's ties, where each rack is priced at $10, $20 and $40.
Pricing strategy and tactics:
Promotional pricingPromotional pricing is a temporary measure that involves setting prices at levels lower than normally charged for a good or service. Promotional pricing is sometimes a reaction to unforeseen circumstances, as when a downturn in demand leaves a company with excess stocks; or when competitive activity is making inroads into market share or profits.
Psychological pricingPsychological pricing is a range of tactics designed to have a positive psychological impact. Price tags using the terminal digit "9", ($9.99, $19.99 or $199.99) can be used to signal price points and bring an item in at just under the consumer's reservation price. Psychological pricing is widely used in a variety of retail settings.
Personnel and staffing:
Because patronage at a retail outlet varies, flexibility in scheduling is desirable. Employee scheduling software is sold, which, using known patterns of customer patronage, more or less reliably predicts the need for staffing for various functions at times of the year, day of the month or week, and time of day. Usually needs vary widely. Conforming staff utilization to staffing needs requires a flexible workforce which is available when needed but does not have to be paid when they are not, part-time workers; as of 2012 70% of retail workers in the United States were part-time. This may result in financial problems for the workers, who while they are required to be available at all times if their work hours are to be maximized, may not have sufficient income to meet their family and other obligations.
Personnel and staffing:
Selling and sales techniques Also see Personal selling Retailers can employ different techniques to enhance sales volume and to improve the customer experience: Add-on, Upsell or Cross-sell.
Personnel and staffing:
Upselling and cross-selling are sometimes known as suggestive selling. When the consumer has selected their main purchase, sales assistants can try to sell the customer on a premium brand or higher quality item (up-selling) or can suggest complementary purchases (cross-selling). For instance, if a customer purchases a non-stick frypan, the sales assistant might suggest plastic slicers that do not damage the non-stick surface.
Personnel and staffing:
Selling on value Skilled sales assistants find ways to focus on value rather than price. Selling on value often involves identifying a product’s unique features. Adding value to goods or services such as a free gift or buy 1 get 1 free adds value to customers whereas the store is gaining sales Know when to close the sale Sales staff must learn to recognise when the customer is ready to make a purchase. If the sales person feels that the customer is ready, then they may seek to gain commitment and close the sale. Experienced sales staff soon learn to recognise specific verbal and non-verbal cues that signal the client's readiness to buy. For instance, if a customer begins to handle the merchandise, this may indicate a state of buyer interest. Clients also tend to employ different types of questions throughout the sales process. General questions such as, "Does it come in any other colours (or styles)?" indicate only a moderate level of interest. However, when clients begin to ask specific questions, such as "Do you have this model in black?" then this often indicates that the prospect is approaching readiness to buy. When the sales person believes that the prospective buyer is ready to make the purchase, a trial close might be used to test the waters. A trial close is simply any attempt to confirm the buyer's interest in finalising the sale. An example of a trial close, is "Would you be requiring our team to install the unit for you?" or "Would you be available to take delivery next Thursday?" If the sales person is unsure about the prospect's readiness to buy, they might consider using a 'trial close.' The salesperson can use several different techniques to close the sale; including the ‘alternative close’, the ‘assumptive close’, the ‘summary close’, or the ‘special-offer close’, among others.
Promotion:
In the 1980s, the customary sales concept in the retail industry began to show many disadvantages. Many transactions cost too much, and the industry was unable to retain customers as it only paid attention to the process of a single transaction rather than to marketing for customer development and maintenance. The traditional marketing theory holds that transactions are one-time value exchange processes and the means of exchanging goods needed by both parties. Accordingly, when the transaction is completed, the relationship between the two parties will also end, so the theory is called "transactional marketing". Transactional marketing aims to find target consumers, then negotiate, trade, and finally end relationships to complete the transaction. In this one-time transaction process, both parties aim to maximize their own interests. As a result, transactional marketing raises follow-up problems such as poor after-sales service quality and a lack of feedback channels for both parties. In addition, because retail enterprises needed to redevelop client relationships for each transaction, marketing costs were high and customer retention was low. All these downsides to transactional marketing gradually pushed the retail industry towards establishing long-term cooperative relationships with customers. Through this lens, enterprises began to focus on the process from transaction to relationship. While expanding the sales market and attracting new customers is very important for the retail industry, it is also important to establish and maintain long term good relationships with previous customers, hence the name of the underlying concept, "relational marketing". Under this concept, retail enterprises value and attempt to improve relationships with customers, as customer relationships are conducive to maintaining stability in the current competitive retail market, and are also the future of retail enterprises.
Promotion:
One of the unique aspects of retail promotions is that two brands are often involved; the store brand and the brands that make up the retailer's product range. Retail promotions that focus on the store tend to be ‘image’ oriented, raising awareness of the store and creating a positive attitude towards the store and its services. Retail promotions that focus on the product range, are designed to cultivate a positive attitude to the brands stocked by the store, in order to indirectly encourage favourable attitudes towards the store itself. Some retail advertising and promotion is partially or wholly funded by brands and this is known as co-operative (or co-op) advertising.Retailers make extensive use of advertising via newspapers, television and radio to encourage store preference. In order to up-sell or cross-sell, retailers also use a variety of in-store sales promotional techniques such as product demonstrations, samples, point-of-purchase displays, free trial, events, promotional packaging and promotional pricing. In grocery retail, shelf wobblers, trolley advertisements, taste tests and recipe cards are also used. Many retailers also use loyalty programs to encourage repeat patronage.
Presentation:
See Merchandising; Servicescapes; Retail design Presentation refers to the physical evidence that signals the retail image. Physical evidence may include a diverse range of elements – the store itself including premises, offices, exterior facade and interior layout, websites, delivery vans, warehouses, staff uniforms.
Presentation:
Designing retail spaces The environment in which the retail service encounter occurs is sometimes known as the retail servicescape. The store environment consists of many elements such as smells, the physical environment (furnishings, layout and functionality), ambient conditions (lighting, temperature, noise) as well as signs, symbols and artifacts (e.g. sales promotions, shelf space, sample stations, visual communications). Collectively, these elements contribute to the perceived retail servicescape or the overall atmosphere and can influence both the customer's cognitions, emotions and their behaviour within the retail space.
Presentation:
Relationship between market Large retail enterprises of relationship marketing refers to a large retail enterprise with suppliers, customers, internal organization, channel distributors, market impact, and other competitors such as the interests of the enterprise marketing process related everything to establish and maintain good relations, thus maximizing the interests of the large retail enterprise in the long-term marketing activities, it was based on the relationship marketing concept as the core of innovation. Different from traditional marketing concepts, relationship marketing focuses on maintaining long-term good relations with relevant parties on marketing activities. The ultimate goal of relationship marketing is tantamount to maximize the long term interests of enterprises.
Presentation:
The marketing activities of large retail enterprises mainly have six relationship markets, which are supplier relationship market, customer relationship market, enterprise internal relationship market, intermediary relationship market at all levels, enterprise marketing activities influence relationship market and industry competitor relationship market. Among these six relational markets, supply relational market and customer relational market are the two markets that have the greatest influence on the relationship marketing of large retail enterprises. Substantial retail enterprises usually have two sources of profit. The principal source of profit is to reduce the purchase price from suppliers. The other is to develop new customers and keep old clients, so as to expand the market sales of goods. In addition, the extra four related markets have an indirect impact on the marketing activities of large retail enterprises. The internal relationship market of an enterprise can be divided into several different types of relationships according to distinct objects, such as employee relationship market, department relationship market, shareholder relationship market and the mutual relations among the relationship markets. The purpose of carrying out relationship marketing is to promote the cohesion and innovation ability of enterprises and maximize the long term interests of enterprises. Another relationship of relationship marketing middlemen is the relationship between market and intermediary in the process of corporate marketing is playing the intermediary role between suppliers and customers, in the current increasingly fierce market competition, more important distribution channels for enterprises, but for retail enterprises, too much sales levels will increase the cost of sales of the enterprise. Therefore, large retail enterprises should realize the simplification of sales channel level by reasonably selecting suppliers. Large-scale retail enterprises purchasing goods to suppliers with procurement scale advantage, can directly contact with the product manufacturing, with strong bargaining power, therefore, direct contact with the manufacturer is a large retail enterprise to take the main purchasing mode, it is a terminal to the starting point of zero level channel purchasing mode, therefore, the elimination of middlemen, so as to make the large retail enterprise in the marketing activity, the dealer relationship market is not so important. Then there is the enterprise influence relationship market, which is a relational marketing influence in the enterprise supply chain. It mainly guides and standardizes the advance direction of enterprises through formulating systems at the macro level. The relationship market mainly includes the relationship between the relevant government departments at all levels where the enterprise is located, the relationship with the industry association to which the enterprise belongs, and the relationship with all kinds of public organizations, etc., and the enterprise influence itself cannot directly affect the marketing activities of the enterprise. The final relational market is the industry's competitors, potential competitors, alternative competitors and so on. How to correctly deal with the relationship between competitors and the market has become a problem that large retail enterprises need to solve.
Presentation:
Retail designers pay close attention to the front of the store, which is known as the decompression zone. This is usually an open space in the entrance of the store to allow customers to adjust to their new environment. An open-plan floor design is effective in retail as it allows customers to see everything. In terms of the store's exterior, the side of the road cars normally travel, determines the way stores direct customers. New Zealand retail stores, for instance, would direct customers to the left.
Presentation:
In order to maximise the number of selling opportunities, retailers generally want customers to spend more time in a retail store. However, this must be balanced against customer expectations surrounding convenience, access and realistic waiting times. The overall aim of designing a retail environment is to have customers enter the store, and explore the totality of the physical environment engaging in a variety of retail experiences – from browsing through to sampling and ultimately to purchasing. The retail service environment plays an important role in affecting the customer's perceptions of the retail experience.
Presentation:
The retail environment not only affects quality perceptions, but can also impact on the way that customers navigate their way through the retail space during the retail service encounter. Layout, directional signage, the placement of furniture, shelves and display space along with the store's ambient conditions all affect patron's passage through the retail service system. Layout refers to how equipment, shelves and other furnishings are placed and the relationship between them. In a retail setting, accessibility is an important aspect of layout. For example, the grid layout used by supermarkets with long aisles and gondolas at the end displaying premium merchandise or promotional items, minimises the time customers spend in the environment and makes productive use of available space. The gondola, so favoured by supermarkets, is an example of a retail design feature known as a merchandise outpost and which refers to special displays, typically at or near the end of an aisle, whose purpose is to stimulate impulse purchasing or to complement other products in the vicinity. For example, the meat cabinet at the supermarket might use a merchandise outpost to suggest a range of marinades or spice rubs to complement particular cuts of meat. As a generalisation, merchandise outposts are updated regularly so that they maintain a sense of novelty.According to Ziethaml et al., layout affects how easy or difficult it is to navigate through a system. Signs and symbols provide cues for directional navigation and also inform about appropriate behaviour within a store. Functionality refers to extent to which the equipment and layout meet the goals of the customer. For instance, in the case of supermarkets, the customer's goal may be to minimise the amount of time spent finding items and waiting at the check-out, while a customer in a retail mall may wish to spend more time exploring the range of stores and merchandise. With respect to functionality of layout, retail designers consider three key issues; circulation – design for traffic-flow and that encourages customers to traverse the entire store; coordination – design that combines goods and spaces in order to suggest customer needs and convenience – design that arranges items to create a degree of comfort and access for both customers and employees.The way that brands are displayed is also part of the overall retail design. Where a product is placed on the shelves has implications for purchase likelihood as a result of visibility and access. Products placed too high or too low on the shelves may not turn over as quickly as those placed at eye level. With respect to access, store designers are increasingly giving consideration to access for disabled and elderly customers.
Presentation:
Through sensory stimulation retailers can engage maximum emotional impact between a brand and its consumers by relating to both profiles; the goal and experience. Purchasing behaviour can be influenced through the physical evidence detected by the senses of touch, smell, sight, taste and sound. Supermarkets offer taste testers to heighten the sensory experience of brands. Coffee shops allow the aroma of coffee to waft into streets so that passers-by can appreciate the smell and perhaps be lured inside. Clothing garments are placed at arms' reach, allowing customers to feel the different textures of clothing. Retailers understand that when customers interact with products or handle the merchandise, they are more likely to make a purchase.
Presentation:
Within the retail environment, different spaces may be designed for different purposes. Hard floors, such as wooden floors, used in public areas, contrast with carpeted fitting rooms, which are designed to create a sense of homeliness when trying on garments. Peter Alexander, retailer of sleep ware, is renowned for using scented candles in retail stores.
Presentation:
Ambient conditions, such as lighting, temperature and music, are also part of the overall retail environment. It is common for a retail store to play music that relates to their target market. Studies have found that "positively valenced music will stimulate more thoughts and feeling than negatively valenced music", hence, positively valenced music will make the waiting time feel longer to the customer than negatively valenced music. In a retail store, for example, changing the background music to a quicker tempo may influence the consumer to move through the space at a quicker pace, thereby improving traffic flow. Evidence also suggests that playing music reduces the negative effects of waiting since it serves as a distraction. Jewellery stores like Michael Hill have dim lighting with a view to fostering a sense of intimacy.
Presentation:
The design of a retail store is critical when appealing to the intended market, as this is where first impressions are made. The overall servicescape can influence a consumer's perception of the quality of the store, communicating value in visual and symbolic ways. Certain techniques are used to create a consumer brand experience, which in the long run drives store loyalty. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Cognos ReportNet**
Cognos ReportNet:
Cognos ReportNet (CRN) was a web-based software product for creating and managing ad hoc and custom-made reports. ReportNet was developed by the Ottawa-based company Cognos (formerly Cognos Incorporated), an IBM company. The web-based reporting tool was launched in September 2003. Since IBM's acquisition of Cognos, ReportNet has been renamed IBM Cognos ReportNet like all other Cognos products.
Cognos ReportNet:
ReportNet uses web services standards such as XML and Simple Object Access Protocol and also supports dynamic HTML and Java. ReportNet is compatible with multiple databases including Oracle, SAP, Teradata, Microsoft SQL server, DB2 and Sybase. The product provides interface in over 10 languages, has Web Services architecture to meet the needs of multi-national, diversified enterprises and helps reduce total cost of ownership. Multiple versions of Cognos ReportNet have since been released by the company. Cognos ReportNet was awarded the Software and Information Industry Association (SIIA) 2005 Codie awards for the "Best Business Intelligence or Knowledge Management Solution" category. CRN's capabilities have been further used in IBM Cognos 8 BI (2005), the latest reporting tool. CRN comes with its own software development kit (SDK).
Launch:
Early adopters of Cognos ReportNet for their corporate reporting needs included Bear Stearns, BMW and Alfred Publishing. Around this same time of launch, Cognos competitor Business Objects released version 6.1 of its enterprise reporting tool. Cognos ReportNet has been successful since its launch, raising revenues in 2004 from licensing fees. Subsequently, other major corporations like McDonald's adopted Cognos ReportNet.
Controversy:
Cognos rival Business Objects announced in 2005 that BusinessObjects XI significantly outperformed Cognos ReportNet in benchmark tests conducted by VeriTest, an independent software testing firm. The tests performed showed Cognos ReportNet performed poorly when processing styled reports, complex business reports and combination of both. The tests reported a massive 21 times higher report throughput for BusinessObjects XI than Cognos ReportNet at capacity loads. Cognos soon dismissed the claims by stating Business Objects dictated the environment and testing criteria and Cognos did not provide the software to participate in benchmark test. Cognos later performed their own test to demonstrate Cognos ReportNet capabilities.
Components:
Cognos Report Studio – A Web-based product for creating complex professional looking reports.
Cognos Query Studio - A Web-based product for creating ad-hoc reports.
Cognos Framework Manager – A metadata modeling tool to create BI metadata for reporting and dashboard applications.
Cognos Connection – Main portal used to access reports, schedule reports and perform administrator activities.
Versions:
Cognos ReportNet 1.1 – Java EE-style professional web-based authoring tool. (base version) Cognos ReportNet IBM Special Edition – comes with an embedded version of IBM WebSphere as its application server and IBM DB2 as its data store.
Cognos Linux – for Intel-based Linux platforms. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Tris(8-hydroxyquinolinato)aluminium**
Tris(8-hydroxyquinolinato)aluminium:
Tris(8-hydroxyquinolinato)aluminium is the chemical compound with the formula Al(C9H6NO)3. Widely abbreviated Alq3, it is a coordination complex wherein aluminium is bonded in a bidentate manner to the conjugate base of three 8-hydroxyquinoline ligands.
Structure:
Both the meridional and facial isomers are known as well as several polymorphs (different crystalline forms).
Synthesis:
The compound is prepared by the reaction of 8-hydroxyquinoline with aluminium(III) sources Al3+ + 3 C9H7NO → Al(C9H6NO)3 + 3 H+
Applications:
Alq3 is a common component of organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs). Variations in the substituents on the quinoline rings affect its luminescence properties. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Smart Battery System**
Smart Battery System:
Smart Battery System (SBS) is a specification for managing a smart battery, usually for a portable computer. It allows operating systems to perform power management operations via a smart battery charger based on remaining estimated run times by determining accurate state of charge readings. Through this communication, the system also controls the battery charge rate. Communication is carried over an SMBus two-wire communication bus. The specification originated with the Duracell and Intel companies in 1994, but was later adopted by several battery and semiconductor makers.The Smart Battery System defines the SMBus connection, the data that can be sent over the connection (Smart Battery Data or SBD), the Smart Battery Charger, and a computer BIOS interface for control. In principle, any battery operated product can use SBS.
Smart Battery System:
A special integrated circuit in the battery pack (called a fuel gauge or battery management system) monitors the battery and reports information to the SMBus. This information might include battery type, model number, manufacturer, characteristics, charge/discharge rate, predicted remaining capacity, an almost-discharged alarm so that the PC or other device can shut down gracefully, and temperature and voltage to provide safe fast-charging. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Strat-O-Matic Computer Baseball**
Strat-O-Matic Computer Baseball:
Strat-O-Matic Computer Baseball is a 1986 video game published by Strat-O-Matic.
Gameplay:
Strat-O-Matic Computer Baseball is a game in which the Strat-O-Matic Baseball board game is adapted.
Reception:
Duane E. Widner reviewed the game for Computer Gaming World, and stated that "For statistical accuracy, few games have ever reached the level enjoyed by Strat-O-Matic."Win Rogers reviewed version 3.0 of the game for Computer Gaming World, and stated that "Any baseball enthusiast with a strong interest in statistics should take a look at this absorbing program, if only to understand other computer simulations better. In fact, those who have no interest in graphics and simply want a satisfying statistical simulation may find Strat-O-Matic Computer Baseball (Version 3.0) to be the best baseball program of all."
Reviews:
Computer Gaming World #94 Game Players PC Entertainment (May 1993) Electronic Entertainment (April 1994) | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Turbofan**
Turbofan:
The turbofan or fanjet is a type of airbreathing jet engine that is widely used in aircraft propulsion. The word "turbofan" is a portmanteau of "turbine" and "fan": the turbo portion refers to a gas turbine engine which achieves mechanical energy from combustion, and the fan, a ducted fan that uses the mechanical energy from the gas turbine to force air rearwards. Thus, whereas all the air taken in by a turbojet passes through the combustion chamber and turbines, in a turbofan some of that air bypasses these components. A turbofan thus can be thought of as a turbojet being used to drive a ducted fan, with both of these contributing to the thrust.
Turbofan:
The ratio of the mass-flow of air bypassing the engine core to the mass-flow of air passing through the core is referred to as the bypass ratio. The engine produces thrust through a combination of these two portions working together; engines that use more jet thrust relative to fan thrust are known as low-bypass turbofans, conversely those that have considerably more fan thrust than jet thrust are known as high-bypass. Most commercial aviation jet engines in use today are of the high-bypass type, and most modern military fighter engines are low-bypass. Afterburners are used on low-bypass turbofan engines with bypass and core mixing before the afterburner.
Turbofan:
Modern turbofans have either a large single-stage fan or a smaller fan with several stages. An early configuration combined a low-pressure turbine and fan in a single rear-mounted unit.
Principles:
The turbofan was invented to improve the fuel consumption of the turbojet. It achieves this by pushing more air, thus increasing the mass and lowering the speed of the propelling jet compared to that of the turbojet. This is done mechanically by adding a ducted fan rather than using viscous forces by adding an ejector, as first envisaged by Whittle.Frank Whittle envisioned flight speeds of 500 mph in his March 1936 UK patent 471,368 "Improvements relating to the propulsion of aircraft", in which he describes the principles behind the turbofan, although not called as such at that time. While the turbojet uses the gas from its thermodynamic cycle as its propelling jet, for aircraft speeds below 500 mph there are two penalties to this design which are addressed by the turbofan.
Principles:
Firstly, energy is wasted as the propelling jet is going much faster rearwards than the aircraft is going forwards, leaving a very fast wake. This wake contains kinetic energy that reflects the fuel used to produce it, rather than the fuel used to move the aircraft forwards. A turbofan harvests that wasted velocity and uses it to power a ducted fan that blows air in bypass channels around the rest of the turbine. This reduces the speed of the propelling jet while pushing more air, and thus more mass. The other penalty is that combustion is less efficient at lower speeds. Any action to reduce the fuel consumption of the engine by increasing its pressure ratio or turbine temperature to achieve better combustion causes a corresponding increase in pressure and temperature in the exhaust duct which in turn cause a higher gas speed from the propelling nozzle (and higher KE and wasted fuel). Although the engine would use less fuel to produce a pound of thrust, more fuel is wasted in the faster propelling jet. In other words, the independence of thermal and propulsive efficiencies, as exists with the piston engine/propeller combination which preceded the turbojet, is lost. In contrast, Roth considers regaining this independence the single most important feature of the turbofan which allows specific thrust to be chosen independently of the gas generator cycle.
Principles:
The working substance of the thermodynamic cycle is the only mass accelerated to produce thrust in a turbojet which is a serious limitation (high fuel consumption) for aircraft speeds below supersonic. For subsonic flight speeds the speed of the propelling jet has to be reduced because there is a price to be paid in producing the thrust. The energy required to accelerate the gas inside the engine (increase in kinetic energy) is expended in two ways, by producing a change in momentum ( ie a force), and a wake which is an unavoidable consequence of producing thrust by an airbreathing engine (or propeller). The wake velocity, and fuel burned to produce it, can be reduced and the required thrust still maintained by increasing the mass accelerated. A turbofan does this by transferring energy available inside the engine, from the gas generator, to a ducted fan which produces a second, additional mass of accelerated air.
Principles:
The transfer of energy from the core to bypass air results in lower pressure and temperature gas entering the core nozzle (lower exhaust velocity) and fan-produced temperature and pressure entering the fan nozzle. The amount of energy transferred depends on how much pressure rise the fan is designed to produce (fan pressure ratio). The best energy exchange (lowest fuel consumption) between the two flows, and how the jet velocities compare, depends on how efficiently the transfer takes place which depends on the losses in the fan-turbine and fan.The fan flow has lower exhaust velocity, giving much more thrust per unit energy (lower specific thrust). Both airstreams contribute to the gross thrust of the engine. The additional air for the bypass stream increases the ram drag in the air intake stream-tube, but there is still a significant increase in net thrust. The overall effective exhaust velocity of the two exhaust jets can be made closer to a normal subsonic aircraft's flight speed and gets closer to the ideal Froude efficiency. A turbofan accelerates a larger mass of air more slowly, compared to a turbojet which accelerates a smaller amount more quickly, which is a less efficient way to generate the same thrust (see the efficiency section below).
Principles:
The ratio of the mass-flow of air bypassing the engine core compared to the mass-flow of air passing through the core is referred to as the bypass ratio. Engines with more jet thrust relative to fan thrust are known as low-bypass turbofans, those that have considerably more fan thrust than jet thrust are known as high-bypass. Most commercial aviation jet engines in use today are high-bypass, and most modern fighter engines are low-bypass. Afterburners are used on low-bypass turbofans on combat aircraft.
Principles:
Bypass ratio The bypass ratio (BPR) of a turbofan engine is the ratio between the mass flow rate of the bypass stream to the mass flow rate entering the core. A bypass ratio of 6, for example, means that 6 times more air passes through the bypass duct than the amount that passes through the combustion chamber.
Principles:
Turbofan engines are usually described in terms of BPR, which together with overall pressure ratio, turbine inlet temperature and fan pressure ratio are important design parameters. In addition BPR is quoted for turboprop and unducted fan installations because their high propulsive efficiency gives them the overall efficiency characteristics of very high bypass turbofans. This allows them to be shown together with turbofans on plots which show trends of reducing specific fuel consumption (SFC) with increasing BPR. BPR can also be quoted for lift fan installations where the fan airflow is remote from the engine and doesn't flow past the engine core.
Principles:
Considering a constant core (ie fixed pressure ratio and turbine inlet temperature), core and bypass jet velocities equal and a particular flight condition (ie Mach number and altitude) the fuel consumption per lb of thrust (sfc) decreases with increase in BPR. At the same time gross and net thrusts increase, but by different amounts. There is considerable potential for reducing fuel consumption for the same core cycle by increasing BPR.This is achieved because of the reduction in pounds of thrust per lb/sec of airflow (specific thrust) and the resultant reduction in lost kinetic energy in the jets (increase in propulsive efficiency).If all the gas power from a gas turbine is converted to kinetic energy in a propelling nozzle, the aircraft is best suited to high supersonic speeds. If it is all transferred to a separate big mass of air with low kinetic energy, the aircraft is best suited to zero speed (hovering). For speeds in between, the gas power is shared between a separate airstream and the gas turbine's own nozzle flow in a proportion which gives the aircraft performance required. The trade off between mass flow and velocity is also seen with propellers and helicopter rotors by comparing disc loading and power loading. For example, the same helicopter weight can be supported by a high power engine and small diameter rotor or, for less fuel, a lower power engine and bigger rotor with lower velocity through the rotor.
Principles:
Bypass usually refers to transferring gas power from a gas turbine to a bypass stream of air to reduce fuel consumption and jet noise. Alternatively, there may be a requirement for an afterburning engine where the sole requirement for bypass is to provide cooling air. This sets the lower limit for BPR and these engines have been called "leaky" or continuous bleed turbojets (General Electric YJ-101 BPR 0.25) and low BPR turbojets (Pratt & Whitney PW1120). Low BPR (0.2) has also been used to provide surge margin as well as afterburner cooling for the Pratt & Whitney J58.
Principles:
Efficiency Propeller engines are most efficient for low speeds, turbojet engines for high speeds, and turbofan engines between the two. Turbofans are the most efficient engines in the range of speeds from about 500 to 1,000 km/h (270 to 540 kn; 310 to 620 mph), the speed at which most commercial aircraft operate.In a turbojet (zero-bypass) engine, the high temperature and high pressure exhaust gas is accelerated when it undergoes expansion through a propelling nozzle and produces all the thrust. The compressor absorbs the mechanical power produced by the turbine. In a bypass design, extra turbines drive a ducted fan that accelerates air rearward from the front of the engine. In a high-bypass design, the ducted fan and nozzle produce most of the thrust. Turbofans are closely related to turboprops in principle because both transfer some of the gas turbine's gas power, using extra machinery, to a bypass stream leaving less for the hot nozzle to convert to kinetic energy. Turbofans represent an intermediate stage between turbojets, which derive all their thrust from exhaust gases, and turbo-props which derive minimal thrust from exhaust gases (typically 10% or less). Extracting shaft power and transferring it to a bypass stream introduces extra losses which are more than made up by the improved propulsive efficiency. The turboprop at its best flight speed gives significant fuel savings over a turbojet even though an extra turbine, a gearbox and a propeller are added to the turbojet's low-loss propelling nozzle. The turbofan has additional losses from its greater number of compressor stages/blades, fan and bypass duct.Froude, or propulsive, efficiency can be defined as: where: Vj = thrust equivalent jet velocity Va = aircraft velocity Thrust While a turbojet engine uses all of the engine's output to produce thrust in the form of a hot high-velocity exhaust gas jet, a turbofan's cool low-velocity bypass air yields between 30% and 70% of the total thrust produced by a turbofan system.The thrust (FN) generated by a turbofan depends on the effective exhaust velocity of the total exhaust, as with any jet engine, but because two exhaust jets are present the thrust equation can be expanded as: where: •me = the mass rate of hot combustion exhaust flow from the core engine •mo = the mass rate of total air flow entering the turbofan = •mc + •mf •mc = the mass rate of intake air that flows to the core engine •mf = the mass rate of intake air that bypasses the core engine vf = the velocity of the air flow bypassed around the core engine vhe = the velocity of the hot exhaust gas from the core engine vo = the velocity of the total air intake = the true airspeed of the aircraft BPR = bypass ratio Nozzles The cold duct and core duct's nozzle systems are relatively complex due to the use of two separate exhaust flows. In high bypass engines, the fan is situated in a short duct near the front of the engine and typically has a convergent cold nozzle, with the tail of the duct forming a low pressure ratio nozzle that under normal conditions will choke creating supersonic flow patterns around the core. The core nozzle is more conventional, but generates less of the thrust, and depending on design choices, such as noise considerations, may conceivably not choke. In low bypass engines the two flows may combine within the ducts, and share a common nozzle, which can be fitted with afterburner.
Principles:
Noise Most of the air flow through a high-bypass turbofan is lower-velocity bypass flow: even when combined with the much-higher-velocity engine exhaust, the average exhaust velocity is considerably lower than in a pure turbojet. Turbojet engine noise is predominately jet noise from the high exhaust velocity. Therefore, turbofan engines are significantly quieter than a pure-jet of the same thrust, and jet noise is no longer the predominant source. Turbofan engine noise propagates both upstream via the inlet and downstream via the primary nozzle and the by-pass duct. Other noise sources are the fan, compressor and turbine.Modern commercial aircraft employ high-bypass-ratio (HBPR) engines with separate flow, non-mixing, short-duct exhaust systems. Their noise is due to the speed, temperature, and pressure of the exhaust jet, especially during high-thrust conditions, such as those required for takeoff. The primary source of jet noise is the turbulent mixing of shear layers in the engine's exhaust. These shear layers contain instabilities that lead to highly turbulent vortices that generate the pressure fluctuations responsible for sound. To reduce the noise associated with jet flow, the aerospace industry has sought to disrupt shear layer turbulence and reduce the overall noise produced.Fan noise may come from the interaction of the fan-blade wakes with the pressure field of the downstream fan-exit stator vanes. It may be minimized by adequate axial spacing between blade trailing edge and stator entrance.
Principles:
At high engine speeds, as at takeoff, shock waves from the supersonic fan tips, because of their unequal nature, produce noise of a discordant nature known as "buzz saw" noise.All modern turbofan engines have acoustic liners in the nacelle to damp their noise. They extend as much as possible to cover the largest surface area. The acoustic performance of the engine can be experimentally evaluated by means of ground tests or in dedicated experimental test rigs.In the aerospace industry, chevrons are the "saw-tooth" patterns on the trailing edges of some jet engine nozzles that are used for noise reduction. The shaped edges smooth the mixing of hot air from the engine core and cooler air flowing through the engine fan, which reduces noise-creating turbulence. Chevrons were developed by GE under a NASA contract. Some notable examples of such designs are Boeing 787 and Boeing 747-8 – on the Rolls-Royce Trent 1000 and General Electric GEnx engines.
History:
Early turbojet engines were not very fuel-efficient because their overall pressure ratio and turbine inlet temperature were severely limited by the technology and materials available at the time.
History:
The first turbofan engine, which was only run on a test bed, was the German Daimler-Benz DB 670, designated the 109-007 by the Nazi Ministry of Aviation, with a first run date of 27 May 1943, after the testing of the turbomachinery using an electric motor, which had been undertaken on 1 April 1943. Development of the engine was abandoned with its problems unsolved, as the war situation worsened for Germany.
History:
Later in 1943, the British ground tested the Metrovick F.3 turbofan, which used the Metrovick F.2 turbojet as a gas generator with the exhaust discharging into a close-coupled aft-fan module comprising a contra-rotating LP turbine system driving two co-axial contra-rotating fans.Improved materials, and the introduction of twin compressors, such as in the Bristol Olympus, and Pratt & Whitney JT3C engines, increased the overall pressure ratio and thus the thermodynamic efficiency of engines. They also had poor propulsive efficiency, because pure turbojets have a high specific thrust/high velocity exhaust, which is better suited to supersonic flight.
History:
The original low-bypass turbofan engines were designed to improve propulsive efficiency by reducing the exhaust velocity to a value closer to that of the aircraft. The Rolls-Royce Conway, the world's first production turbofan, had a bypass ratio of 0.3, similar to the modern General Electric F404 fighter engine. Civilian turbofan engines of the 1960s, such as the Pratt & Whitney JT8D and the Rolls-Royce Spey, had bypass ratios closer to 1 and were similar to their military equivalents.
History:
The first Soviet airliner powered by turbofan engines was the Tupolev Tu-124 introduced in 1962. It used the Soloviev D-20. 164 aircraft were produced between 1960 and 1965 for Aeroflot and other Eastern Bloc airlines, with some operating until the early 1990s.
History:
The first General Electric turbofan was the aft-fan CJ805-23, based on the CJ805-3 turbojet. It was followed by the aft-fan General Electric CF700 engine, with a 2.0 bypass ratio. This was derived from the General Electric J85/CJ610 turbojet 2,850 lbf (12,700 N) to power the larger Rockwell Sabreliner 75/80 model aircraft, as well as the Dassault Falcon 20, with about a 50% increase in thrust to 4,200 lbf (19,000 N). The CF700 was the first small turbofan to be certified by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). There were at one time over 400 CF700 aircraft in operation around the world, with an experience base of over 10 million service hours. The CF700 turbofan engine was also used to train Moon-bound astronauts in Project Apollo as the powerplant for the Lunar Landing Research Vehicle.
Common types:
Low-bypass turbofan A high-specific-thrust/low-bypass-ratio turbofan normally has a multi-stage fan behind inlet guide vanes, developing a relatively high pressure ratio and, thus, yielding a high (mixed or cold) exhaust velocity. The core airflow needs to be large enough to ensure there is sufficient core power to drive the fan. A smaller core flow/higher bypass ratio cycle can be achieved by raising the inlet temperature of the high-pressure (HP) turbine rotor.
Common types:
To illustrate one aspect of how a turbofan differs from a turbojet, comparisons can be made at the same airflow (to keep a common intake for example) and the same net thrust (i.e. same specific thrust). A bypass flow can be added only if the turbine inlet temperature is not too high to compensate for the smaller core flow. Future improvements in turbine cooling/material technology can allow higher turbine inlet temperature, which is necessary because of increased cooling air temperature, resulting from an overall pressure ratio increase.
Common types:
The resulting turbofan, with reasonable efficiencies and duct loss for the added components, would probably operate at a higher nozzle pressure ratio than the turbojet, but with a lower exhaust temperature to retain net thrust. Since the temperature rise across the whole engine (intake to nozzle) would be lower, the (dry power) fuel flow would also be reduced, resulting in a better specific fuel consumption (SFC).
Common types:
Some low-bypass ratio military turbofans (e.g. F404, JT8D) have variable inlet guide vanes to direct air onto the first fan rotor stage. This improves the fan surge margin (see compressor map).
Common types:
Afterburning turbofan Since the 1970s, most jet fighter engines have been low/medium bypass turbofans with a mixed exhaust, afterburner and variable area exit nozzle. An afterburner is a combustor located downstream of the turbine blades and directly upstream of the nozzle, which burns fuel from afterburner-specific fuel injectors. When lit, large volumes of fuel are burnt in the afterburner, raising the temperature of exhaust gases by a significant degree, resulting in a higher exhaust velocity/engine specific thrust. The variable geometry nozzle must open to a larger throat area to accommodate the extra volume and increased flow rate when the afterburner is lit. Afterburning is often designed to give a significant thrust boost for take off, transonic acceleration and combat maneuvers, but is very fuel intensive. Consequently, afterburning can be used only for short portions of a mission.
Common types:
Unlike in the main engine, where stoichiometric temperatures in the combustor have to be reduced before they reach the turbine, an afterburner at maximum fuelling is designed to produce stoichiometric temperatures at entry to the nozzle, about 2,100 K (3,800 °R; 3,300 °F; 1,800 °C). At a fixed total applied fuel:air ratio, the total fuel flow for a given fan airflow will be the same, regardless of the dry specific thrust of the engine. However, a high specific thrust turbofan will, by definition, have a higher nozzle pressure ratio, resulting in a higher afterburning net thrust and, therefore, a lower afterburning specific fuel consumption (SFC). However, high specific thrust engines have a high dry SFC. The situation is reversed for a medium specific thrust afterburning turbofan: i.e., poor afterburning SFC/good dry SFC. The former engine is suitable for a combat aircraft which must remain in afterburning combat for a fairly long period, but has to fight only fairly close to the airfield (e.g. cross border skirmishes). The latter engine is better for an aircraft that has to fly some distance, or loiter for a long time, before going into combat. However, the pilot can afford to stay in afterburning only for a short period, before aircraft fuel reserves become dangerously low.
Common types:
The first production afterburning turbofan engine was the Pratt & Whitney TF30, which initially powered the F-111 Aardvark and F-14 Tomcat. Current low-bypass military turbofans include the Pratt & Whitney F119, the Eurojet EJ200, the General Electric F110, the Klimov RD-33, and the Saturn AL-31, all of which feature a mixed exhaust, afterburner and variable area propelling nozzle.
High-bypass turbofan To further improve fuel economy and reduce noise, almost all of today's jet airliners and most military transport aircraft (e.g., the C-17) are powered by low-specific-thrust/high-bypass-ratio turbofans. These engines evolved from the high-specific-thrust/low-bypass-ratio turbofans used in such aircraft in the 1960s. Modern combat aircraft tend to use low-bypass ratio turbofans, and some military transport aircraft use turboprops.
Low specific thrust is achieved by replacing the multi-stage fan with a single-stage unit. Unlike some military engines, modern civil turbofans lack stationary inlet guide vanes in front of the fan rotor. The fan is scaled to achieve the desired net thrust.
Common types:
The core (or gas generator) of the engine must generate enough power to drive the fan at its rated mass flow and pressure ratio. Improvements in turbine cooling/material technology allow for a higher (HP) turbine rotor inlet temperature, which allows a smaller (and lighter) core, potentially improving the core thermal efficiency. Reducing the core mass flow tends to increase the load on the LP turbine, so this unit may require additional stages to reduce the average stage loading and to maintain LP turbine efficiency. Reducing core flow also increases bypass ratio. Bypass ratios greater than 5:1 are increasingly common; the Pratt & Whitney PW1000G, which entered commercial service in 2016, attains 12.5:1.
Common types:
Further improvements in core thermal efficiency can be achieved by raising the overall pressure ratio of the core. Improvements in blade aerodynamics can reduce the number of extra compressor stages required, and variable geometry (i.e., stators) enable high-pressure-ratio compressors to work surge-free at all throttle settings.
Common types:
The first (experimental) high-bypass turbofan engine was the AVCO-Lycoming PLF1A-2, a Honeywell T55 turboshaft-derived engine that was first run in February 1962. The PLF1A-2 had a 40 in diameter (100 cm) geared fan stage, produced a static thrust of 4,320 lb (1,960 kg), and had a bypass ratio of 6:1. The General Electric TF39 became the first production model, designed to power the Lockheed C-5 Galaxy military transport aircraft. The civil General Electric CF6 engine used a derived design. Other high-bypass turbofans are the Pratt & Whitney JT9D, the three-shaft Rolls-Royce RB211 and the CFM International CFM56; also the smaller TF34. More recent large high-bypass turbofans include the Pratt & Whitney PW4000, the three-shaft Rolls-Royce Trent, the General Electric GE90/GEnx and the GP7000, produced jointly by GE and P&W.
Common types:
The lower the specific thrust of a turbofan, the lower the mean jet outlet velocity, which in turn translates into a high thrust lapse rate (i.e. decreasing thrust with increasing flight speed). See technical discussion below, item 2. Consequently, an engine sized to propel an aircraft at high subsonic flight speed (e.g., Mach 0.83) generates a relatively high thrust at low flight speed, thus enhancing runway performance. Low specific thrust engines tend to have a high bypass ratio, but this is also a function of the temperature of the turbine system.
Common types:
The turbofans on twin-engined transport aircraft produce enough take-off thrust to continue a take-off on one engine if the other engine shuts down after a critical point in the take-off run. From that point on the aircraft has less than half the thrust compared to two operating engines because the non-functioning engine is a source of drag. Modern twin engined airliners normally climb very steeply immediately after take-off. If one engine shuts down, the climb-out is much shallower, but sufficient to clear obstacles in the flightpath.
Common types:
The Soviet Union's engine technology was less advanced than the West's, and its first wide-body aircraft, the Ilyushin Il-86, was powered by low-bypass engines. The Yakovlev Yak-42, a medium-range, rear-engined aircraft seating up to 120 passengers, introduced in 1980, was the first Soviet aircraft to use high-bypass engines.
Turbofan configurations:
Turbofan engines come in a variety of engine configurations. For a given engine cycle (i.e., same airflow, bypass ratio, fan pressure ratio, overall pressure ratio and HP turbine rotor inlet temperature), the choice of turbofan configuration has little impact upon the design point performance (e.g., net thrust, SFC), as long as overall component performance is maintained. Off-design performance and stability is, however, affected by engine configuration.
Turbofan configurations:
The basic element of a turbofan is a spool, a single combination of fan/compressor, turbine and shaft rotating at a single speed. For a given pressure ratio, the surge margin can be increased by two different design paths: Splitting the compressor into two smaller spools rotating at different speeds, as with the Pratt & Whitney J57; or Making the stator vane pitch adjustable, typically in the front stages, as with the J79.Most modern western civil turbofans employ a relatively high-pressure-ratio high-pressure (HP) compressor, with many rows of variable stators to control surge margin at low rpm. In the three-spool RB211/Trent the core compression system is split into two, with the IP compressor, which supercharges the HP compressor, being on a different coaxial shaft and driven by a separate (IP) turbine. As the HP compressor has a modest pressure ratio its speed can be reduced surge-free, without employing variable geometry. However, because a shallow IP compressor working line is inevitable, the IPC has one stage of variable geometry on all variants except the −535, which has none.
Turbofan configurations:
Single-shaft turbofan Although far from common, the single-shaft turbofan is probably the simplest configuration, comprising a fan and high-pressure compressor driven by a single turbine unit, all on the same spool. The Snecma M53, which powers Dassault Mirage 2000 fighter aircraft, is an example of a single-shaft turbofan. Despite the simplicity of the turbomachinery configuration, the M53 requires a variable area mixer to facilitate part-throttle operation.
Turbofan configurations:
Aft-fan turbofan One of the earliest turbofans was a derivative of the General Electric J79 turbojet, known as the CJ805-23, which featured an integrated aft fan/low-pressure (LP) turbine unit located in the turbojet exhaust jetpipe. Hot gas from the turbojet turbine exhaust expanded through the LP turbine, the fan blades being a radial extension of the turbine blades. This arrangement introduces an additional gas leakage path compared to a front-fan configuration and was a problem with this engine with higher-pressure turbine gas leaking into the fan airflow. An aft-fan configuration was later used for the General Electric GE36 UDF (propfan) demonstrator of the early 1980s. In 1971 a concept was put forward by the NASA Lewis Research Center for a supersonic transport engine which operated as an aft-fan turbofan at take-off and subsonic speeds and a turbojet at higher speeds. This would give the low noise and high thrust characteristics of a turbofan at take-off, together with turbofan high propulsive efficiency at subsonic flight speeds. It would have the high propulsive efficiency of a turbojet at supersonic cruise speeds.
Turbofan configurations:
Basic two-spool Many turbofans have at least basic two-spool configuration where the fan is on a separate low pressure (LP) spool, running concentrically with the compressor or high pressure (HP) spool; the LP spool runs at a lower angular velocity, while the HP spool turns faster and its compressor further compresses part of the air for combustion. The BR710 is typical of this configuration. At the smaller thrust sizes, instead of all-axial blading, the HP compressor configuration may be axial-centrifugal (e.g., CFE CFE738), double-centrifugal or even diagonal/centrifugal (e.g. Pratt & Whitney Canada PW600).
Turbofan configurations:
Boosted two-spool Higher overall pressure ratios can be achieved by either raising the HP compressor pressure ratio or adding compressor (non-bypass) stages to the LP spool, between the fan and the HP compressor, to boost the latter. All of the large American turbofans (e.g. General Electric CF6, GE90, GE9X and GEnx plus Pratt & Whitney JT9D and PW4000) use booster stages. The Rolls-Royce BR715 is another example. The high bypass ratios used in modern civil turbofans tend to reduce the relative diameter of the booster stages, reducing their mean tip speed. Consequently, more booster stages are required to develop the necessary pressure rise.
Turbofan configurations:
Three-spool Rolls-Royce chose a three-spool configuration for their large civil turbofans (i.e. the RB211 and Trent families), where the booster stages of a boosted two-spool configuration are separated into an intermediate pressure (IP) spool, driven by its own turbine. The first three-spool engine was the earlier Rolls-Royce RB.203 Trent of 1967.
The Garrett ATF3, powering the Dassault Falcon 20 business jet, has an unusual three spool layout with an aft spool not concentric with the two others.
Ivchenko Design Bureau chose the same configuration as Rolls-Royce for their Lotarev D-36 engine, followed by Lotarev/Progress D-18T and Progress D-436.
The Turbo-Union RB199 military turbofan also has a three-spool configuration, as do the military Kuznetsov NK-25 and NK-321.
Turbofan configurations:
Geared fan As bypass ratio increases, the fan blade tip speed increases relative to the LPT blade speed. This will reduce the LPT blade speed, requiring more turbine stages to extract enough energy to drive the fan. Introducing a (planetary) reduction gearbox, with a suitable gear ratio, between the LP shaft and the fan enables both the fan and LP turbine to operate at their optimum speeds. Examples of this configuration are the long-established Garrett TFE731, the Honeywell ALF 502/507, and the recent Pratt & Whitney PW1000G.
Turbofan configurations:
Military turbofans Most of the configurations discussed above are used in civilian turbofans, while modern military turbofans (e.g., Snecma M88) are usually basic two-spool.
High-pressure turbine Most civil turbofans use a high-efficiency, 2-stage HP turbine to drive the HP compressor. The CFM International CFM56 uses an alternative approach: a single-stage, high-work unit. While this approach is probably less efficient, there are savings on cooling air, weight and cost.
In the RB211 and Trent 3-spool engine series, the HP compressor pressure ratio is modest so only a single HP turbine stage is required. Modern military turbofans also tend to use a single HP turbine stage and a modest HP compressor.
Turbofan configurations:
Low-pressure turbine Modern civil turbofans have multi-stage LP turbines (anywhere from 3 to 7). The number of stages required depends on the engine cycle bypass ratio and the boost (on boosted two-spools). A geared fan may reduce the number of required LPT stages in some applications. Because of the much lower bypass ratios employed, military turbofans require only one or two LP turbine stages.
Overall performance:
Cycle improvements Consider a mixed turbofan with a fixed bypass ratio and airflow. Increasing the overall pressure ratio of the compression system raises the combustor entry temperature. Therefore, at a fixed fuel flow there is an increase in (HP) turbine rotor inlet temperature. Although the higher temperature rise across the compression system implies a larger temperature drop over the turbine system, the mixed nozzle temperature is unaffected, because the same amount of heat is being added to the system. There is, however, a rise in nozzle pressure, because overall pressure ratio increases faster than the turbine expansion ratio, causing an increase in the hot mixer entry pressure. Consequently, net thrust increases, whilst specific fuel consumption (fuel flow/net thrust) decreases. A similar trend occurs with unmixed turbofans.
Overall performance:
Turbofan engines can be made more fuel efficient by raising overall pressure ratio and turbine rotor inlet temperature in unison. However, better turbine materials or improved vane/blade cooling are required to cope with increases in both turbine rotor inlet temperature and compressor delivery temperature. Increasing the latter may require better compressor materials.
Overall performance:
The overall pressure ratio can be increased by improving fan (or) LP compressor pressure ratio or HP compressor pressure ratio. If the latter is held constant, the increase in (HP) compressor delivery temperature (from raising overall pressure ratio) implies an increase in HP mechanical speed. However, stressing considerations might limit this parameter, implying, despite an increase in overall pressure ratio, a reduction in HP compressor pressure ratio.
Overall performance:
According to simple theory, if the ratio of turbine rotor inlet temperature/(HP) compressor delivery temperature is maintained, the HP turbine throat area can be retained. However, this assumes that cycle improvements are obtained, while retaining the datum (HP) compressor exit flow function (non-dimensional flow). In practice, changes to the non-dimensional speed of the (HP) compressor and cooling bleed extraction would probably make this assumption invalid, making some adjustment to HP turbine throat area unavoidable. This means the HP turbine nozzle guide vanes would have to be different from the original. In all probability, the downstream LP turbine nozzle guide vanes would have to be changed anyway.
Overall performance:
Thrust growth Thrust growth is obtained by increasing core power. There are two basic routes available: hot route: increase HP turbine rotor inlet temperature cold route: increase core mass flowBoth routes require an increase in the combustor fuel flow and, therefore, the heat energy added to the core stream.
Overall performance:
The hot route may require changes in turbine blade/vane materials or better blade/vane cooling. The cold route can be obtained by one of the following: adding booster stages to the LP/IP compression adding a zero-stage to the HP compression improving the compression process, without adding stages (e.g. higher fan hub pressure ratio)all of which increase both overall pressure ratio and core airflow.
Overall performance:
Alternatively, the core size can be increased, to raise core airflow, without changing overall pressure ratio. This route is expensive, since a new (upflowed) turbine system (and possibly a larger IP compressor) is also required.
Changes must also be made to the fan to absorb the extra core power. On a civil engine, jet noise considerations mean that any significant increase in take-off thrust must be accompanied by a corresponding increase in fan mass flow (to maintain a T/O specific thrust of about 30 lbf/lb/s).
Overall performance:
Technical discussion Specific thrust (net thrust/intake airflow) is an important parameter for turbofans and jet engines in general. Imagine a fan (driven by an appropriately sized electric motor) operating within a pipe, which is connected to a propelling nozzle. It is fairly obvious, the higher the fan pressure ratio (fan discharge pressure/fan inlet pressure), the higher the jet velocity and the corresponding specific thrust. Now imagine we replace this set-up with an equivalent turbofan – same airflow and same fan pressure ratio. Obviously, the core of the turbofan must produce sufficient power to drive the fan via the low-pressure (LP) turbine. If we choose a low (HP) turbine inlet temperature for the gas generator, the core airflow needs to be relatively high to compensate. The corresponding bypass ratio is therefore relatively low. If we raise the turbine inlet temperature, the core airflow can be smaller, thus increasing bypass ratio. Raising turbine inlet temperature tends to increase thermal efficiency and, therefore, improve fuel efficiency.
Overall performance:
Naturally, as altitude increases, there is a decrease in air density and, therefore, the net thrust of an engine. There is also a flight speed effect, termed thrust lapse rate. Consider the approximate equation for net thrust again: With a high specific thrust (e.g., fighter) engine, the jet velocity is relatively high, so intuitively one can see that increases in flight velocity have less of an impact upon net thrust than a medium specific thrust (e.g., trainer) engine, where the jet velocity is lower. The impact of thrust lapse rate upon a low specific thrust (e.g., civil) engine is even more severe. At high flight speeds, high-specific-thrust engines can pick up net thrust through the ram rise in the intake, but this effect tends to diminish at supersonic speeds because of shock wave losses.
Overall performance:
Thrust growth on civil turbofans is usually obtained by increasing fan airflow, thus preventing the jet noise becoming too high. However, the larger fan airflow requires more power from the core. This can be achieved by raising the overall pressure ratio (combustor inlet pressure/intake delivery pressure) to induce more airflow into the core and by increasing turbine inlet temperature. Together, these parameters tend to increase core thermal efficiency and improve fuel efficiency.
Overall performance:
Some high-bypass-ratio civil turbofans use an extremely low area ratio (less than 1.01), convergent-divergent, nozzle on the bypass (or mixed exhaust) stream, to control the fan working line. The nozzle acts as if it has variable geometry. At low flight speeds the nozzle is unchoked (less than a Mach number of unity), so the exhaust gas speeds up as it approaches the throat and then slows down slightly as it reaches the divergent section. Consequently, the nozzle exit area controls the fan match and, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake increases nozzle pressure ratio to the point where the throat becomes choked (M=1.0). Under these circumstances, the throat area dictates the fan match and, being smaller than the exit, pushes the fan working line slightly towards surge. This is not a problem, since fan surge margin is much better at high flight speeds.
Overall performance:
The off-design behaviour of turbofans is illustrated under compressor map and turbine map.
Overall performance:
Because modern civil turbofans operate at low specific thrust, they require only a single fan stage to develop the required fan pressure ratio. The desired overall pressure ratio for the engine cycle is usually achieved by multiple axial stages on the core compression. Rolls-Royce tend to split the core compression into two with an intermediate pressure (IP) supercharging the HP compressor, both units being driven by turbines with a single stage, mounted on separate shafts. Consequently, the HP compressor need develop only a modest pressure ratio (e.g., ~4.5:1). US civil engines use much higher HP compressor pressure ratios (e.g., ~23:1 on the General Electric GE90) and tend to be driven by a two-stage HP turbine. Even so, there are usually a few IP axial stages mounted on the LP shaft, behind the fan, to further supercharge the core compression system. Civil engines have multi-stage LP turbines, the number of stages being determined by the bypass ratio, the amount of IP compression on the LP shaft and the LP turbine blade speed.
Overall performance:
Because military engines usually have to be able to fly very fast at sea level, the limit on HP compressor delivery temperature is reached at a fairly modest design overall pressure ratio, compared with that of a civil engine. Also the fan pressure ratio is relatively high, to achieve a medium to high specific thrust. Consequently, modern military turbofans usually have only 5 or 6 HP compressor stages and require only a single-stage HP turbine. Low-bypass-ratio military turbofans usually have one LP turbine stage, but higher bypass ratio engines need two stages. In theory, by adding IP compressor stages, a modern military turbofan HP compressor could be used in a civil turbofan derivative, but the core would tend to be too small for high thrust applications.
Improvements:
Aerodynamic modelling Aerodynamics is a mix of subsonic, transonic and supersonic airflow on a single fan/gas compressor blade in a modern turbofan. The airflow past the blades has to be maintained within close angular limits to keep the air flowing against an increasing pressure. Otherwise the air will come back out of the intake.The Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC) needs accurate data for controlling the engine. The critical turbine inlet temperature (TIT) is too harsh an environment, at 1,700 °C (3,100 °F) and 17 bar (250 psi), for reliable sensors. Therefore, during development of a new engine type a relation is established between a more easily measured temperature like exhaust gas temperature and the TIT. Monitoring the exhaust gas temperature is then used to make sure the engine does not run too hot.
Improvements:
Blade technology A 100 g (3.5 oz) turbine blade is subjected to 1,700 °C (3,100 °F), at 17 bar (250 psi) and a centrifugal force of 40 kN (9,000 lbf), well above the point of plastic deformation and even above the melting point.
Exotic alloys, sophisticated air cooling schemes and special mechanical design are needed to keep the physical stresses within the strength of the material.
Rotating seals must withstand harsh conditions for 10 years, 20,000 missions and rotating at 10 to 20,000 rpm.
Fan blades Fan blades have been growing as jet engines have been getting bigger: each fan blade carries the equivalent of nine double-decker buses and swallows air the equivalent volume of a squash court every second.
Advances in computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modelling have permitted complex, 3D curved shapes with very wide chord, keeping the fan capabilities while minimizing the blade count to lower costs.
Coincidentally, the bypass ratio grew to achieve higher propulsive efficiency and the fan diameter increased.Rolls-Royce pioneered the hollow, titanium wide-chord fan blade in the 1980s for aerodynamic efficiency and foreign object damage resistance in the RB211 then for the Trent.
GE Aviation introduced carbon fiber composite fan blades on the GE90 in 1995, manufactured today with a carbon-fiber tape-layer process.
GE partner Safran developed a 3D woven technology with Albany Composites for the CFM56 and CFM LEAP engines.
Future progress Engine cores are shrinking as they are operating at higher pressure ratios and becoming more efficient, and become smaller compared to the fan as bypass ratios increase.
Improvements:
Blade tip clearances are harder to maintain at the exit of the high-pressure compressor where blades are 0.5 in (13 mm) high or less; backbone bending further affects clearance control as the core is proportionately longer and thinner and the fan to low-pressure turbine driveshaft is in constrained space within the core.For Pratt & Whitney VP technology and environment Alan Epstein "Over the history of commercial aviation, we have gone from 20% to 40% [cruise efficiency], and there is a consensus among the engine community that we can probably get to 60%".Geared turbofans and further fan pressure ratio reductions will continue to improve propulsive efficiency.
Improvements:
The second phase of the FAA's Continuous Lower Energy, Emissions and Noise (CLEEN) program is targeting for the late 2020s reductions of 33% fuel burn, 60% emissions and 32 dB EPNdb noise compared with the 2000s state-of-the-art.
Improvements:
In summer 2017 at NASA Glenn Research Center in Cleveland, Ohio, Pratt has finished testing a very-low-pressure-ratio fan on a PW1000G, resembling an open rotor with fewer blades than the PW1000G's 20.The weight and size of the nacelle would be reduced by a short duct inlet, imposing higher aerodynamic turning loads on the blades and leaving less space for soundproofing, but a lower-pressure-ratio fan is slower.
Improvements:
UTC Aerospace Systems Aerostructures will have a full-scale ground test in 2019 of its low-drag Integrated Propulsion System with a thrust reverser, improving fuel burn by 1% and with 2.5-3 EPNdB lower noise.Safran can probably deliver another 10–15% in fuel efficiency through the mid-2020s before reaching an asymptote, and next will have to introduce a breakthrough: to increase the bypass ratio to 35:1 instead of 11:1 for the CFM LEAP, it is demonstrating a counterrotating open rotor unducted fan (propfan) in Istres, France, under the European Clean Sky technology program.
Improvements:
Modeling advances and high specific strength materials may help it succeed where previous attempts failed.
Improvements:
When noise levels will be within current standards and similar to the Leap engine, 15% lower fuel burn will be available and for that Safran is testing its controls, vibration and operation, while airframe integration is still challenging.For GE Aviation, the energy density of jet fuel still maximises the Breguet range equation and higher pressure ratio cores; lower pressure ratio fans, low-loss inlets and lighter structures can further improve thermal, transfer and propulsive efficiency.
Improvements:
Under the U.S. Air Force’s Adaptive Engine Transition Program, adaptive thermodynamic cycles will be used for the sixth-generation jet fighter, based on a modified Brayton cycle and Constant volume combustion.
Additive manufacturing in the advanced turboprop will reduce weight by 5% and fuel burn by 20%.Rotating and static ceramic matrix composite (CMC) parts operates 500 °F (260 °C) hotter than metal and are one-third its weight.
With $21.9 million from the Air Force Research Laboratory, GE is investing $200 million in a CMC facility in Huntsville, Alabama, in addition to its Asheville, North Carolina site, mass-producing silicon carbide matrix with silicon-carbide fibers in 2018.
Improvements:
CMCs will be used ten times more by the mid-2020s: the CFM LEAP requires 18 CMC turbine shrouds per engine and the GE9X will use it in the combustor and for 42 HP turbine nozzles.Rolls-Royce Plc aim for a 60:1 pressure ratio core for the 2020s Ultrafan and began ground tests of its 100,000 hp (75,000 kW) gear for 100,000 lbf (440 kN) and 15:1 bypass ratios.
Improvements:
Nearly stoichiometric turbine entry temperatures approaches the theoretical limit and its impact on emissions has to be balanced with environmental performance goals.
Open rotors, lower pressure ratio fans and potentially distributed propulsion offer more room for better propulsive efficiency.
Exotic cycles, heat exchangers and pressure gain/constant volume combustion can improve thermodynamic efficiency.
Additive manufacturing could be an enabler for intercooler and recuperators.
Improvements:
Closer airframe integration and hybrid or electric aircraft can be combined with gas turbines.Current Rolls-Royce engines have a 72–82% propulsive efficiency and 42–49% thermal efficiency for a 0.63–0.49 lb/lbf/h (64,000–50,000 g/kN/h) TSFC at Mach 0.8, and aim for theoretical limits of 95% for open rotor propulsive efficiency and 60% for thermal efficiency with stoichiometric turbine entry temperature and 80:1 overall pressure ratio for a 0.35 lb/lbf/h (36,000 g/kN/h) TSFCAs teething troubles may not show up until several thousand hours, the latest turbofans technical problems disrupt airlines operations and manufacturers deliveries while production rates are rising sharply.
Improvements:
Trent 1000 cracked blades grounded almost 50 Boeing 787s and reduced ETOPS to 2.3 hours down from 5.5, costing Rolls-Royce plc almost $950 million.
PW1000G knife-edge seal fractures have caused Pratt & Whitney to fall way behind in deliveries, leaving about 100 engineless A320neos waiting for their powerplants.
Improvements:
The CFM LEAP introduction was smoother but a ceramic composite HP Turbine coating is prematurely lost, necessitating a new design, causing 60 A320neo engine removal for modification, as deliveries are up to six weeks late.On a widebody, Safran estimates 5–10% of fuel could be saved by reducing power intake for hydraulic systems, while swapping to electrical power could save 30% of weight, as initiated on the Boeing 787, while Rolls-Royce plc hopes for up to 5%.
Manufacturers:
The turbofan engine market is dominated by General Electric, Rolls-Royce plc and Pratt & Whitney, in order of market share. General Electric and Safran of France have a joint venture, CFM International. Pratt & Whitney also have a joint venture, International Aero Engines with Japanese Aero Engine Corporation and MTU Aero Engines of Germany, specializing in engines for the Airbus A320 family. Pratt & Whitney and General Electric have a joint venture, Engine Alliance selling a range of engines for aircraft such as the Airbus A380.
Manufacturers:
For airliners and cargo aircraft, the in-service fleet in 2016 is 60,000 engines and should grow to 103,000 in 2035 with 86,500 deliveries according to Flight Global. A majority will be medium-thrust engines for narrow-body aircraft with 54,000 deliveries, for a fleet growing from 28,500 to 61,000. High-thrust engines for wide-body aircraft, worth 40–45% of the market by value, will grow from 12,700 engines to over 21,000 with 18,500 deliveries. The regional jet engines below 20,000 lb (89 kN) fleet will grow from 7,500 to 9,000 and the fleet of turboprops for airliners will increase from 9,400 to 10,200. The manufacturers market share should be led by CFM with 44% followed by Pratt & Whitney with 29% and then Rolls-Royce and General Electric with 10% each.
Extreme bypass jet engines:
In the 1970s, Rolls-Royce/SNECMA tested a M45SD-02 turbofan fitted with variable-pitch fan blades to improve handling at ultralow fan pressure ratios and to provide thrust reverse down to zero aircraft speed. The engine was aimed at ultraquiet STOL aircraft operating from city-centre airports.
Extreme bypass jet engines:
In a bid for increased efficiency with speed, a development of the turbofan and turboprop known as a propfan engine was created that had an unducted fan. The fan blades are situated outside of the duct, so that it appears like a turboprop with wide scimitar-like blades. Both General Electric and Pratt & Whitney/Allison demonstrated propfan engines in the 1980s. Excessive cabin noise and relatively cheap jet fuel prevented the engines being put into service. The Progress D-27 propfan, developed in the U.S.S.R., was the only propfan engine equipped on a production aircraft.
Terminology:
Afterburner jetpipe equipped for afterburning Augmentor afterburner for turbofan with burning in hot and cold flows Bypass that part of the engine as distinct from the core in terms of components and airflow, eg that part of fan blading (fan outer) and stators which pass bypass air, bypass duct, bypass nozzle Bypass ratio bypass air mass flow /core air mass flow Core that part of the engine as distinct from the bypass in terms of components and airflow, eg core cowl, core nozzle, core airflow and associated machinery, combustor and fuel system Core power also known as "available energy" or "gas horsepower". It is used to measure the theoretical (isentropic expansion) shaft work available from a gas generator or core by expanding hot, high pressure gas to ambient pressure. Since the power depends on the pressure and temperature of the gas (and the ambient pressure) a related figure of merit for thrust-producing engines is one which measures the thrust-producing potential from hot, high pressure gas and known as "stream thrust". It is obtained by calculating the velocity obtained with isentropic expansion to atmospheric pressure. The significance of the thrust obtained appears when multiplied by the aircraft velocity to give the thrust work. The thrust work which is potentially available is far less than the gas horsepower due to the increasing waste in the exhaust kinetic energy with increasing pressure and temperature before expansion to atmospheric pressure. The two are related by the propulsive efficiency, a measure of the energy wasted as a result of producing a force (ie thrust) in a fluid by increasing the speed (ie momentum) of the fluid.
Terminology:
Dry engine ratings/ throttle lever positions below afterburning selection EGT exhaust gas temperature EPR engine pressure ratio Fan turbofan LP compressor Fanjet turbofan or aircraft powered by turbofan (colloquial) Fan pressure ratio fan outlet total pressure/fan inlet total pressure Flex temp At reduced take-off weights commercial aircraft can use reduced thrust which increases engine life and reduces maintenance costs. Flex temperature is a higher than actual outside air temperature (OAT) which is input to the engine monitoring computer to achieve the required reduced thrust (also known as "assumed temperature thrust reduction").
Terminology:
Gas generator that part of the engine core which provides the hot, high pressure gas for fan-driving turbines (turbofan), for propelling nozzles (turbojet), for propeller- and rotor-driving turbines (turboprop and turboshaft), for industrial and marine power turbines HP high-pressure Intake ram drag Loss in momentum of engine stream tube from freestream to intake entrance, ie amount of energy imparted to air required to accelerate air from a stationary atmosphere to aircraft speed.
Terminology:
IEPR integrated engine pressure ratio IP intermediate pressure LP low-pressure Net thrust nozzle thrust in stationary air (gross thrust) – engine stream tube ram drag (loss in momentum from freestream to intake entrance, ie amount of energy imparted to air required to accelerate air from a stationary atmosphere to aircraft speed). This is the thrust acting on the airframe.
Terminology:
Overall pressure ratio combustor inlet total pressure/intake delivery total pressure Overall efficiency thermal efficiency * propulsive efficiency Propulsive efficiency propulsive power/rate of production of propulsive kinetic energy (maximum propulsive efficiency occurs when jet velocity equals flight velocity, which implies zero net thrust!) Specific fuel consumption (SFC) total fuel flow/net thrust (proportional to flight velocity/overall thermal efficiency) Spooling up increase in RPM (colloquial) Stage loading For a turbine, the purpose of which is to produce power, the loading is an indicator of power developed per lb/sec of gas (specific power). A turbine stage turns the gas from an axial direction and speeds it up (in the nozzle guide vanes) to turn the rotor most effectively ( rotor blades must produce high lift), the proviso being that this is done efficiently, ie with acceptable losses. For a compressor stage, the purpose of which is to produce a pressure rise, a diffusion process is used. How much diffusion may be allowed ( and pressure rise obtained) before unacceptable flow separation occurs (ie losses) may be regarded as a loading limit.
Terminology:
Static pressure pressure of the fluid which is associated not with its motion but with its state or, alternatively, pressure due to the random motion of the fluid molecules that would be felt or measured if moving with the flow Specific thrust net thrust/intake airflow Thermal efficiency rate of production of propulsive kinetic energy/fuel power Total fuel flow combustor (plus any afterburner) fuel flow rate (e.g., lb/s or g/s) Total pressure static pressure plus kinetic energy term Turbine rotor inlet temperature maximum cycle temperature, ie temperature at which work transfer takes place | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Oil body**
Oil body:
An oil body is a lipid-containing structure found in plant cells. The term can refer to at least two distinct kinds of structures in different kinds of plants.
Oil bodies in liverworts:
Liverwort complex oil bodies are structures unique to liverworts that contain isoprenoid essential oils and are surrounded by a single membrane. The size, shape, color, and number of oil bodies per cell is characteristic of certain species and may be used to identify these.
Oil bodies in vascular plants:
Some species of vascular plants also contain intracellular structures called oil bodies. Vascular plant oil bodies consist mainly of triacylglycerols surrounded by a layer consisting of phospholipids and the protein oleosin. These oil bodies occur largely in seeds but also occur in other plant parts, including leaves.
Oil bodies in seeds:
Oil Bodies are the organelle that has evolved to hold triglycerides in plant cells. They are therefore the principal store of chemical energy in oleaginous seeds. The structure and composition of plant seed oil bodies has been the subject of research from at least as far back as the 1980s, with several papers published in the 80s and 90s. Recent work, using updated techniques, has given a detailed molecular profile of oil bodies. It now seems that proteins out-number lipids on the surface of oil bodies, and that one protein in particular, called oleosin, dominates. The lipid and protein fractions of oil bodies are remarkable because they maintain a coherent monolayer over a wide temperature and hydration range. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Lindenbaum–Tarski algebra**
Lindenbaum–Tarski algebra:
In mathematical logic, the Lindenbaum–Tarski algebra (or Lindenbaum algebra) of a logical theory T consists of the equivalence classes of sentences of the theory (i.e., the quotient, under the equivalence relation ~ defined such that p ~ q exactly when p and q are provably equivalent in T). That is, two sentences are equivalent if the theory T proves that each implies the other. The Lindenbaum–Tarski algebra is thus the quotient algebra obtained by factoring the algebra of formulas by this congruence relation.
Lindenbaum–Tarski algebra:
The algebra is named for logicians Adolf Lindenbaum and Alfred Tarski. Starting in the academic year 1926-1927, Lindenbaum pioneered his method in Jan Łukasiewicz's mathematical logic seminar, and the method was popularized and generalized in subsequent decades through work by Tarski.
The Lindenbaum–Tarski algebra is considered the origin of the modern algebraic logic.
Operations:
The operations in a Lindenbaum–Tarski algebra A are inherited from those in the underlying theory T. These typically include conjunction and disjunction, which are well-defined on the equivalence classes. When negation is also present in T, then A is a Boolean algebra, provided the logic is classical. If the theory T consists of the propositional tautologies, the Lindenbaum–Tarski algebra is the free Boolean algebra generated by the propositional variables.
Related algebras:
Heyting algebras and interior algebras are the Lindenbaum–Tarski algebras for intuitionistic logic and the modal logic S4, respectively.
Related algebras:
A logic for which Tarski's method is applicable, is called algebraizable. There are however a number of logics where this is not the case, for instance the modal logics S1, S2, or S3, which lack the rule of necessitation (⊢φ implying ⊢□φ), so ~ (defined above) is not a congruence (because ⊢φ→ψ does not imply ⊢□φ→□ψ). Another type of logic where Tarski's method is inapplicable is relevance logics, because given two theorems an implication from one to the other may not itself be a theorem in a relevance logic. The study of the algebraization process (and notion) as topic of interest by itself, not necessarily by Tarski's method, has led to the development of abstract algebraic logic. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**EMBO Membership**
EMBO Membership:
Membership of the European Molecular Biology Organization (EMBO) is an award granted by the European Molecular Biology Organization (EMBO) in recognition of "research excellence and the outstanding achievements made by a life scientist".As of 2018, 88 EMBO Members and Associate Members have been awarded Nobel Prizes in either Physiology or Medicine, Chemistry or Physics. See Category:Members of the European Molecular Biology Organization for examples of EMBO members.
Nomination and election of new members:
Elections for membership are held annually with candidates for membership being nominated and elected exclusively by existing EMBO members, membership cannot be applied for directly. Three types of membership exist: EMBO Member, for scientists living (or who have lived) in a European Molecular Biology Conference (EMBC) Member State EMBO Associate Member, for scientists living outside of the EMBC Member States EMBO Young Investigator | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Adaptive Simulations**
Adaptive Simulations:
Adaptive Simulations is a Sweden-based organization that offers fully automated, cloud-based flow simulations and design optimization in a Software-as-a-Service model.
Background:
Adaptive Simulations was founded in 2015 as a spin-out from the research conducted on automated simulations at Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), Stockholm. The company is led by Sebastian Desand, the CEO.In 2017, Adaptive Simulations was one of the finalists for the Sweden's “Entrepreneur of the Future” award. In the same year, the company was one among the top 50 finalists at the Pioneers500 awards.
Grants and Funding:
Adaptive Simulations has been awarded three grants. In 2014, the team received a grant from European Research Council (ERC). In 2016, the company received two grants from Swedish agency for innovation and growth (VINNOVA) and the EU-commission as a part of Horizon2020-programme for disruptive innovations.In May 2017, the company raised €1.5 million funds from Karma Ventures, and Creathor Venture, along with the participation from KTH Holding.
Platform:
The product innovation behind Adaptive Simulations is enabled by adaptive algorithms, based on the research experiments in the areas of numerical analysis, Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and computer science at KTH Institute. These adaptive algorithms are said to make the simulation process less complex, for the inexperienced users. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Shantanu Chowdhury**
Shantanu Chowdhury:
Shantanu Chowdhury (born 1968) is an Indian structural biologist and a professor at Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research. He is known for developing a mechanism for gene regulation mediated by DNA Secondary-Structure in diverse cellular contexts. An elected fellow of the National Academy of Sciences, India, he is a recipient of the National Bioscience Award for Career Development of the Department of Biotechnology in 2010. The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, the apex agency of the Government of India for scientific research, awarded him the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize for Science and Technology, one of the highest Indian science awards, in 2012, for his contributions to biological sciences.
Biography:
Shantanu Chowdhury, born on 9 September 1968 in the Indian state of West Bengal, completed his master's degree in chemistry at Jadavpur University, Kolkata before securing a PhD from the Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad in 1998. His post-doctoral studies were at the department of biochemistry of University of Nebraska and later at Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology. He returned to India in 2001 and joined Insilico Sciences, Bangalore but his tenure there lasted only one year. His next move was to Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology (IGIB) as a scientist in 2002 where he serves as a professor of functional genomics.Chowdhury established his own laboratory at IGIB and his team is involved in researches in functional genomics. The group focuses its studies on the control of NME2, a metastasis suppressor, on telomerase function and the biological action of DNA secondary structures like G-quadruplex. He and his colleagues are reported to have developed a new mechanism for gene regulation and elucidated the process of gene transcription involving G-quadruplex. His researches have been published in a number of articles and PubMed, an online repository of scientific articles, has listed several of them. He is a member of the scientific advisory board of Bionivid, a Bengaluru-based information technology company involved in microarray data analytics and sequencing. and has delivered keynote addresses which included the discourse on Engineering Reversal of Drug Resistance in Cancer Cells at the Drug Discovery India 2016 conference held in Bengaluru in September 2016 and the address on The Emerging Story of DNA Quadruplexes in Genetic and Epigenetic Regulation at Asian Epigenomics 2016. He sits on the editorial boards of two science journals, Human Genomics and Journal of Biological Chemistry and has served as a peer-reviewer for JBC and PLOS Computational Biology.
Awards and honors:
In 2007, Chowdhury received the Swarnajayanthi Fellowship of the Department of Biotechnology (DBT) and three years later, DBT honored him again with the 2010 National Bioscience Award for Career Development. The Central Drug Research Institute awarded him the Excellence in Drug Research Award for Life Sciences category in 2011 and he also received the Wellcome Trust-DBT Fellowship the same year. He was awarded the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize for Science and Technology, one of the highest Indian science awards, by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research the next year. He was also elected as a fellow by the National Academy of Sciences, India in 2012. Chemical & Engineering News magazine of the American Chemical Society featured his researches twice, in 2007 and in 2009, citing their relevance as future drug targets.
Selected bibliography:
Thakur RK, Kumar P, Halder K, Verma A, Kar A, Parent JL, Basundra R, Kumar A, Chowdhury S (January 2009). "Metastases suppressor NM23-H2 interaction with G-quadruplex DNA within c-MYC promoter nuclease hypersensitive element induces c-MYC expression". Nucleic Acids Res. 37 (1): 172–83. doi:10.1093/nar/gkn919. PMC 2615625. PMID 19033359.
Halder K, Chowdhury S (December 2007). "Quadruplex-coupled kinetics distinguishes ligand binding between G4 DNA motifs". Biochemistry. 46 (51): 14762–70. doi:10.1021/bi701590z. PMID 18052204.
Selected bibliography:
Mani P1 Yadav VK, Das SK, Chowdhury S. (2009). "Genome-wide analyses of recombination prone regions predict role of DNA structural motif in recombination". PLOS ONE. 4 (2): e4399. Bibcode:2009PLoSO...4.4399M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0004399. PMC 2635932. PMID 19198658.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Halder K, Halder R, Chowdhury S (December 2009). "Genome-wide analysis predicts DNA structural motifs as nucleosome exclusion signals". Mol. Biosyst. 5 (12): 1703–12. doi:10.1039/b905132e. PMID 19587895.
Selected bibliography:
Verma A, Halder K, Halder R, Yadav VK, Rawal P, Thakur RK, Mohd F, Sharma A, Chowdhury S (September 2008). "Genome-wide computational and expression analyses reveal G-quadruplex DNA motifs as conserved cis-regulatory elements in human and related species". J Med Chem. 51 (18): 5641–9. doi:10.1021/jm800448a. PMID 18767830.
Rawal P, Kummarasetti VB, Ravindran J, Kumar N, Halder K, Sharma R, Mukerji M, Das SK, Chowdhury S (May 2006). "Genome-wide prediction of G4 DNA as regulatory motifs: role in Escherichia coli global regulation". Genome Res. 16 (5): 644–55. doi:10.1101/gr.4508806. PMC 1457047. PMID 16651665. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**AGN-2979**
AGN-2979:
AGN-2979 is a glutarimide tryptophan hydroxylase activation inhibitor. It shows antidepressant properties in rodent models of depression. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Stratus nebulosus**
Stratus nebulosus:
Stratus nebulosus is a species of low-level stratus cloud.
It is one of only two species that is associated with stratus clouds, other being fractus.
Translated from Latin meaning nebulous, their cloud abbreviations can be respectively written as ‘St neb’. For a cloud to be classified as nebulosus, there has to be zero sign of detail in the cloud.
Low-level fog is an example of stratus nebulosus.
Stratus nebulosus:
Its usual appearance is a sheet of gray sitting above the ground. Very dense fog can be classified as stratus nebulosus opacus, which translates to a stratus cloud that has no detail and is dark enough to block out sunlight. Stratus nebulosus clouds are commonly paired with cloud varieties opacus (opaque) and translucidus (see-through) and can produce precipitation (praecipitatio) on occasion.
Stratus nebulosus:
The nebulosus cloud species is common, and more commonly found in stratus cloud formations relative to cirrostratus clouds. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Technological utopianism**
Technological utopianism:
Technological utopianism (often called techno-utopianism or technoutopianism) is any ideology based on the premise that advances in science and technology could and should bring about a utopia, or at least help to fulfill one or another utopian ideal.
Technological utopianism:
A techno-utopia is therefore an ideal society, in which laws, government, and social conditions are solely operating for the benefit and well-being of all its citizens, set in the near- or far-future, as advanced science and technology will allow these ideal living standards to exist; for example, post-scarcity, transformations in human nature, the avoidance or prevention of suffering and even the end of death. Technological utopianism is often connected with other discourses presenting technologies as agents of social and cultural change, such as technological determinism or media imaginaries.A tech-utopia does not disregard any problems that technology may cause, but strongly believes that technology allows mankind to make social, economic, political, and cultural advancements. Overall, Technological Utopianism views technology's impacts as extremely positive.
Technological utopianism:
In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, several ideologies and movements, such as the cyberdelic counterculture, the Californian Ideology, cyber-utopianism, transhumanism, and singularitarianism, have emerged promoting a form of techno-utopia as a reachable goal. Cultural critic Imre Szeman argues technological utopianism is an irrational social narrative because there is no evidence to support it. He concludes that it shows the extent to which modern societies place faith in narratives of progress and technology overcoming things, despite all evidence to the contrary.
History:
From the 19th to mid-20th centuries Karl Marx believed that science and democracy were the right and left hands of what he called the move from the realm of necessity to the realm of freedom. He argued that advances in science helped delegitimize the rule of kings and the power of the Christian Church.19th-century liberals, socialists, and republicans often embraced techno-utopianism. Radicals like Joseph Priestley pursued scientific investigation while advocating democracy. Robert Owen, Charles Fourier and Henri de Saint-Simon in the early 19th century inspired communalists with their visions of a future scientific and technological evolution of humanity using reason. Radicals seized on Darwinian evolution to validate the idea of social progress. Edward Bellamy’s socialist utopia in Looking Backward, which inspired hundreds of socialist clubs in the late 19th century United States and a national political party, was as highly technological as Bellamy’s imagination. For Bellamy and the Fabian Socialists, socialism was to be brought about as a painless corollary of industrial development.Marx and Engels saw more pain and conflict involved, but agreed about the inevitable end. Marxists argued that the advance of technology laid the groundwork not only for the creation of a new society, with different property relations, but also for the emergence of new human beings reconnected to nature and themselves. At the top of the agenda for empowered proletarians was "to increase the total productive forces as rapidly as possible". The 19th and early 20th century Left, from social democrats to communists, were focused on industrialization, economic development and the promotion of reason, science, and the idea of progress.Some technological utopians promoted eugenics. Holding that in studies of families, such as the Jukes and Kallikaks, science had proven that many traits such as criminality and alcoholism were hereditary, many advocated the sterilization of those displaying negative traits. Forcible sterilization programs were implemented in several states in the United States.H.G. Wells in works such as The Shape of Things to Come promoted technological utopianism.
History:
The horrors of the 20th century – namely Fascist and Communist dictatorships and the world wars – caused many to abandon optimism. The Holocaust, as Theodor Adorno underlined, seemed to shatter the ideal of Condorcet and other thinkers of the Enlightenment, which commonly equated scientific progress with social progress.
From late 20th and early 21st centuries The Goliath of totalitarianism will be brought down by the David of the microchip.
History:
A movement of techno-utopianism began to flourish again in the dot-com culture of the 1990s, particularly in the West Coast of the United States, especially based around Silicon Valley. The Californian Ideology was a set of beliefs combining bohemian and anti-authoritarian attitudes from the counterculture of the 1960s with techno-utopianism and support for libertarian economic policies. It was reflected in, reported on, and even actively promoted in the pages of Wired magazine, which was founded in San Francisco in 1993 and served for a number years as the "bible" of its adherents.This form of techno-utopianism reflected a belief that technological change revolutionizes human affairs, and that digital technology in particular – of which the Internet was but a modest harbinger – would increase personal freedom by freeing the individual from the rigid embrace of bureaucratic big government. "Self-empowered knowledge workers" would render traditional hierarchies redundant; digital communications would allow them to escape the modern city, an "obsolete remnant of the industrial age".Similar forms of "digital utopianism" has often entered in the political messages of party and social movements that point to the Web or more broadly to new media as harbingers of political and social change. Its adherents claim it transcended conventional "right/left" distinctions in politics by rendering politics obsolete. However, techno-utopianism disproportionately attracted adherents from the libertarian right end of the political spectrum. Therefore, techno-utopians often have a hostility toward government regulation and a belief in the superiority of the free market system. Prominent "oracles" of techno-utopianism included George Gilder and Kevin Kelly, an editor of Wired who also published several books.During the late 1990s dot-com boom, when the speculative bubble gave rise to claims that an era of "permanent prosperity" had arrived, techno-utopianism flourished, typically among the small percentage of the population who were employees of Internet startups and/or owned large quantities of high-tech stocks. With the subsequent crash, many of these dot-com techno-utopians had to rein in some of their beliefs in the face of the clear return of traditional economic reality.According to The Economist, Wikipedia "has its roots in the techno-optimism that characterised the internet at the end of the 20th century. It held that ordinary people could use their computers as tools for liberation, education, and enlightenment."In the late 1990s and especially during the first decade of the 21st century, technorealism and techno-progressivism are stances that have risen among advocates of technological change as critical alternatives to techno-utopianism. However, technological utopianism persists in the 21st century as a result of new technological developments and their impact on society. For example, several technical journalists and social commentators, such as Mark Pesce, have interpreted the WikiLeaks phenomenon and the United States diplomatic cables leak in early December 2010 as a precursor to, or an incentive for, the creation of a techno-utopian transparent society. Cyber-utopianism, first coined by Evgeny Morozov, is another manifestation of this, in particular in relation to the Internet and social networking.
Principles:
Bernard Gendron, a professor of philosophy at the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, defines the four principles of modern technological utopians in the late 20th and early 21st centuries as follows: We are presently undergoing a (post-industrial) revolution in technology; In the post-industrial age, technological growth will be sustained (at least); In the post-industrial age, technological growth will lead to the end of economic scarcity; The elimination of economic scarcity will lead to the elimination of every major social evil.Rushkoff presents us with multiple claims that surround the basic principles of Technological Utopianism: Technology reflects and encourages the best aspects of human nature, fostering “communication, collaboration, sharing, helpfulness, and community.” Technology improves our interpersonal communication, relationships, and communities. Early Internet users shared their knowledge of the Internet with others around them.
Principles:
Technology democratizes society. The expansion of access to knowledge and skills led to the connection of people and information. The broadening of freedom of expression created “the online world...in which we are allowed to voice our own opinions.” The reduction of the inequalities of power and wealth meant that everyone has an equal status on the internet and is allowed to do as much as the next person.
Principles:
Technology inevitably progresses. The interactivity that came from the inventions of the TV remote control, video game joystick, computer mouse and computer keyboard allowed for much more progress.
Principles:
Unforeseen impacts of technology are positive. As more people discovered the Internet, they took advantage of being linked to millions of people, and turned the Internet into a social revolution. The government released it to the public, and its “social side effect… [became] its main feature.” Technology increases efficiency and consumer choice. The creation of the TV remote, video game joystick, and computer mouse liberated these technologies and allowed users to manipulate and control them, giving them many more choices.
Principles:
New technology can solve the problems created by old technology. Social networks and blogs were created out of the collapse of dot.com bubble businesses’ attempts to run pyramid schemes on users.
Criticisms:
Critics claim that techno-utopianism's identification of social progress with scientific progress is a form of positivism and scientism. Critics of modern libertarian techno-utopianism point out that it tends to focus on "government interference" while dismissing the positive effects of the regulation of business. They also point out that it has little to say about the environmental impact of technology and that its ideas have little relevance for much of the rest of the world that are still relatively quite poor (see global digital divide).In his 2010 study System Failure: Oil, Futurity, and the Anticipation of Disaster, Canada Research Chairholder in cultural studies Imre Szeman argues that technological utopianism is one of the social narratives that prevent people from acting on the knowledge they have concerning the effects of oil on the environment.Other critics of a techno-utopia include the worry of the human element. Critics suggest that a techno-utopia may lessen human contact, leading to a distant society.
Criticisms:
Another concern is the amount of reliance society may place on their technologies in these techno-utopia settings. For example, In a controversial 2011 article "Techno-Utopians are Mugged by Reality", L. Gordon Crovitz of The Wall Street Journal explored the concept of the violation of free speech by shutting down social media to stop violence. As a result of a wave of British cities being looted, former British Prime Minister David Cameron argued that the government should have the ability to shut down social media during crime sprees so that the situation could be contained. A poll was conducted to see if Twitter users would prefer to let the service be closed temporarily or keep it open so they could chat about the famous television show The X-Factor. The end report showed that every respondent opted for The X-Factor discussion. Clovitz contends that the negative social effect of technological utopia is that society is so addicted to technology that humanity simply cannot be parted from it even for the greater good. While many techno-utopians would like to believe that digital technology is for the greater good, he says it can also be used negatively to bring harm to the public. These two criticisms are sometimes referred to as a technological anti-utopian view or a techno-dystopia.
Criticisms:
According to Ronald Adler and Russell Proctor, mediated communication such as phone calls, instant messaging and text messaging are steps towards a utopian world in which one can easily contact another regardless of time or location. However, mediated communication removes many aspects that are helpful in transferring messages. As it stands as of 2022, most text, email, and instant messages offer fewer nonverbal cues about the speaker's feelings than do face-to-face encounters. This makes it so that mediated communication can easily be misconstrued and the intended message is not properly conveyed. With the absence of tone, body language, and environmental context, the chance of a misunderstanding is much higher, rendering the communication ineffective. In fact, mediated technology can be seen from a dystopian view because it can be detrimental to effective interpersonal communication. These criticisms would only apply to messages that are prone to misinterpretation as not every text based communication requires contextual cues. The limitations of lacking tone and body language in text-based communication could potentially be mitigated by video and augmented reality versions of digital communication technologies.In 2019, philosopher Nick Bostrom introduced the notion of a vulnerable world, "one in which there is some level of technological development at which civilization almost certainly gets devastated by default", citing the risks of a pandemic caused by a DIY biohacker, or an arms race triggered by the development of novel armaments. He writes that "Technology policy should not unquestioningly assume that all technological progress is beneficial, or that complete scientific openness is always best, or that the world has the capacity to manage any potential downside of a technology after it is invented." | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Liquid color**
Liquid color:
The term liquid color or liquid color concentrate describes to a system consisting of a liquid binder (carrier), dyes or pigments and other additives such as process additives, stabilisers or similar. The liquid colors are mixed into the plastic (raw polymer or recyclat) for coloring or changing the properties.In general, there are three groups of liquid colors.
Liquid colors, which are used to color plastic products.Liquid additive concentrates that provide specific properties in the end products, such as UV stabilization, flame retardancy, antistatic or anti-blocking.Combination liquid colors that contain both colorants and additives.
History and market relevance:
So-called liquid colours have been used for colouring plastics since the end of the 1960s / beginning of the 1970s. However, liquid colours are still not used extensively and have a market share of just 7 % in Europe compared to 93 % for masterbatch colouring. This is different in the US, where the market share of liquid colors is about 40 %. This is mainly due to the inadequate dosing technology in the early days and the associated contamination in the production area. As a result, the liquid colorant gained a bad reputation and is still not very popular with processors, although the dosing systems have been adapted to the requirements of users, especially in the last decade, and clean and easy handling is possible.
Fields of application:
It is possible to add liquid colors to a variety of thermoplastic and thermoset processing methods, such as Film extrusion/ thermoforming sheetsFoam extrusionBlown filmsProfile extrusionInjection mouldingInjection blow mouldingSealing compoundsPlastisol hot dipping process The products obtained from the processing methods are used in the following areas, for example: Packaging industryMedical TechnologyAutomotive Industryfurniture industryElectronics industryToy industry
Manufacture:
Depending on the plastic, the choice of the liquid carrier is decisive due to the processing temperatures, compatibility and the later application. In order to prevent migration of the carrier liquid as far as possible, well-tolerated liquid carriers are used which interact with the polymer.
The typical components are: Fatty acid esters or fatty acid ester ethoxylatesPlasticisersParaffin, mineral and natural oilsAlkyd oilsPolyisobutylenePolyhydric alcohols or alcohol ethoxylatesLubricantAntistaticsDifferent mixtures of the components are also used.
Manufacture:
The pigment preparations are produced in batches. For this the formulation components are distributed into a binder previously selected for the respective application and then dispersed. The most optimal breaking up of agglomerates is crucial to ensure a high effectiveness of the colour concentrates and / or functional process additives. Dissolvers, bead mills and roller mills are usually used here. For transparent, thin film applications, particularly well broken down pigments are required. In practice, particle sizes < 5 μm have proven successful for film applications.
Dosing technology:
The liquid colours can be dosed in different ways. The simplest possibility is to use a so-called drum. Here the polymer granulate is wetted with the liquid color, homogenized in a mixing device and usually processed further. In large-scale applications, aggregates such as peristaltic pumps, Progressive Cavity Pumps or gear pumps are usually used. Here, the dosing can take place above the hopper or directly into the melt.
Advantages and Disadvantages:
Advantages Due to batch production, the pigments can be broken down in the liquid carrier medium until they are optimally dispersed. The particles are therefore very finely distributed, which has a positive effect on color intensity and light scattering.
Each batch can be controlled in terms of colour, viscosity and particle size distribution and, if necessary, corrected as a whole.
If the liquid colorant is added to the main hopper together with the raw polymer, the distribution of the liquid colorant is statistically better than that of masterbatch even before melting. Without additional mixing units, a homogeneous, streak-free coloration can be achieved with highly concentrated liquid color from 0.5 % dosage.
Advantages and Disadvantages:
Due to the wetting with liquid carrier, the pigments adhere less strongly to the metal components of the processing machines, which results in sometimes significantly reduced color change times. Especially when using hot runner systems, the number of cleaning cycles can be reduced. In addition, it is possible to inject the liquid colorant downstream into the plastic melt with appropriate dosing technology. This means that only part of the production line has to be flushed when changing colors, which saves a considerable amount of material and time.The production of the liquid colours takes place at room temperature. A maximum of 40 °C is achieved by shearing. This means that heat-sensitive pigments such as fluorescent or daylight pigments are not thermally damaged. Defect patterns such as black specks and streaks are reduced and rejects are minimized.Liquid colors do not have to be pre-dried, which reduces energy costs and handling effort and also further reduces the thermal preload.
Advantages and Disadvantages:
The coloring of bio-based plastics with liquid colors leads to an increase in characteristic values in the notched bar impact test.
Advantages and Disadvantages:
Disadvantages The disadvantages are the high cleaning effort without using suitable dosing equipment. When dosing in the feed zone, very high colouring concentrations are not possible, since above a certain colour dosing level, overlubrication of the plasticizing screw can occur system-related. This means an excessive liquid film on the plasticizing screw, which hinders the uniform conveying of the polymer granulate. The maximum color dosage depends heavily on the polymer used (particle size, surface finish and surface energy), the machine configurations and the pigment load of the liquid color. This can cause problems with very thin-walled parts that must be colored as opaque as possible, or even prevent coloring with liquid color altogether.
Advantages and Disadvantages:
If the liquid colorants are not sufficiently stabilized, the colorants may settle. This can lead to uncontrolled flocculation, i.e. pigment particles are in direct contact with each other and can only be separated from each other by high shear forces. When suitable additives are used, pigment particles are connected to a network via additive molecules. Thus there is no direct pigment-pigment contact. Such flocculates can be destroyed by low shear forces, such as manual stirring. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Electronic trading platform**
Electronic trading platform:
In finance, an electronic trading platform also known as an online trading platform, is a computer software program that can be used to place orders for financial products over a network with a financial intermediary. Various financial products can be traded by the trading platform, over a communication network with a financial intermediary or directly between the participants or members of the trading platform. This includes products such as stocks, bonds, currencies, commodities, derivatives and others, with a financial intermediary, such as brokers, market makers, Investment banks or stock exchanges. Such platforms allow electronic trading to be carried out by users from any location and are in contrast to traditional floor trading using open outcry and telephone based trading. Sometimes the term trading platform is also used in reference to the trading software alone. Electronic trading platforms typically stream live market prices on which users can trade and may provide additional trading tools, such as charting packages, news feeds and account management functions. Some platforms have been specifically designed to allow individuals to gain access to financial markets that could formerly only be accessed by specialist trading firms using direct market access. They may also be designed to automatically trade specific strategies based on technical analysis or to do high-frequency trading.
Electronic trading platform:
Electronic trading platforms are usually mobile-friendly and available for Windows, Mac, Linux, iOS and Android, making market entry easier, and helping with surge in Retail Investing.
Etymology:
The term 'trading platform' is generally used to avoid confusion with 'trading system' which is more often associated with the trading method or strategy rather than the computer system used to execute orders within financial circles. In this case platform is used to mean a type of computing system or operating environment such as a database or other specific software.
Historic development:
Transactions have traditionally been handled manually, between brokers or counterparties. However, starting in the 1970s, a greater portion of transactions have migrated to electronic trading platforms. These may include electronic communication networks, alternative trading systems, "dark pools" and others.The first electronic trading platforms were typically associated with stock exchanges and allowed brokers to place orders remotely using private dedicated networks and dumb terminals. Early systems would not always provide live streaming prices and instead allowed brokers or clients to place an order which would be confirmed some time later; these were known as 'request for quote' based systems.
Historic development:
In 1971, Nasdaq was created by the National Association of Securities Dealers and operated entirely electronically on a computer network. Nasdaq was opened on 8th of February, 1971. It rapidly gained popularity and by 1992, it accounted for 42% of trade volume in the US.With the advent of electronic financial markets, electronic trading platforms were also soon launched. In 1992, Globex became the first electronic trading platform to reach the market. E-Trade, a company that started as an online brokerage service, soon also launched its own platform aimed at the consumer. These platforms rapidly gained popularity with E-Trade's growth rate at 9% per month in 1999. In the late 2000s with the emergence of digital tools, a new generation of investment companies started to appear, which began to offer services to assist non-professional investors in trading. In 2007, a multi-asset investment company eToro was founded, focusing on copy trading, social trading, and other types of trading services. In 2017, the bitcoin exchange Binance was founded.Trading systems evolved to allow for live streaming prices and near instant execution of orders as well as using the internet as the underlying network meaning that location became much less relevant. Some electronic trading platforms have built in scripting tools and even APIs allowing traders to develop automatic or algorithmic trading systems and robots.The client graphical user interface of the electronic trading platforms can be used to place various orders and are also sometimes called trading turrets (though this may be a misuse of the term, as some refer to the specialized PBX phones used by traders).
Historic development:
During the period from 2001 to 2005, the development and proliferation of trading platforms saw the setting up of dedicated online trading portals, which were electronic online venues with a choice of many electronic trading platforms rather than being restricted to one institution's offering.
Regulations:
Information reporting In 1995, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) promulgated Rule 17a-23, which required any registered automated trading platform to report information including participants, orders, and trades every quarter. Requiring platforms to comply with enhanced pre- and post-trade transparency requirements has provided a stronger incentive for users to trust electronic trading platforms.
Regulations:
Order handling rules Market fragmentation led some Nasdaq market makers on Instinet to quote prices that were better than their own quotes on Nasdaq. To address this discrepancy, the SEC introduced the Order Handling Rules in 1996. These rules required stock exchange specialists and Nasdaq market makers to publicly display any price quoted on a proprietary trading system that represented an improvement of their displayed prices. Another Order Handling Rule required a market maker to display the size and price of any customer limit order that either increased size at the quoted price or improved the market maker's quotation.
Regulations:
Decimalization Decimalization was instituted in 2001 by the SEC, requiring market makers to value financial instruments by increments of $0.01 as opposed to the previous standard of $.0625. This change significantly lowered margins, providing an incentive for big dealers to utilize electronic management systems, and eventually lead to lowered trading costs.
Features:
Historical data Electronic trading platforms frequently provide historical data, including graphs, to help their customers make trading decisions. These diagrams may be expanded to contain a large number of dates and are frequently employed in technical analyses of particular instruments.
Current news To help consumers make decisions about their contracts, trading platforms frequently include recent news. Articles on certain businesses may be included, as well as updated ratings provided by independent companies that focus on particular commodities. The same information that professional traders have access to is available to retail traders on different applications due to specialized news.
Portfolio tracking The user's portfolio can be tracked, which is another function that is frequently seen on trading platforms and can have an impact on trades based on a trader's past performance. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Coolhunting**
Coolhunting:
Coolhunting is a neologism coined in the early 1990s referring to a new kind of marketing professionals who make observations and predictions in changes of new or existing "cool" cultural fads and trends. Coolhunting is also referred to as "trend spotting," and is a subset of trend analysis.
Coolhunters resemble the intuitive fashion magazine editors of the 1960s such as Nancy White (Harper's Bazaar 1958–1971). Coolhunters operate mostly in the world of street fashion and design, but their work also blurs into that of futurists such as Faith Popcorn.
Business model:
A coolhunting firm is a marketing agency whose exclusive purpose is to conduct research of the youth demographic. They then compile their data and produce reports detailing emerging and declining trends in youth culture as well as predictions for future trends. These reports are then sold to various companies whose products target the youth demographic. They also offer consulting services. Coolhunting firms often provide services for some of the largest corporations in the world.
Business model:
Rather than outsourcing their market research, some companies opt for in-house youth culture marketing divisions. These divisions act in much the same way as a coolhunting firm but the reports and data collected remain within the company and are used solely to promote its products. A company will often prefer this form of coolhunting as a way to gain an advantage in the valuable youth market since the research conducted by coolhunting firms is available to anyone willing to pay for it. Viacom's MTV television network employs in-house coolhunting.
Methods and practices:
Coolhunting is more than simple market research because of the nature of the subjects. The teen and preteen market is often referred to as a "stubborn" demographic in that they do not respond as well to blatant advertising and marketing campaigns targeted at them. Coolhunters therefore must be more stealthy in their methods of gathering information and data.
Methods and practices:
Focus groups, though quite obvious in their attempts at gathering information, are very popular among coolhunters as they provide direct insight into the thoughts and feelings of their target demographic. Coolhunters will typically gather a group of randomly selected individuals from their target demographic. While one or more market researchers interact with the group, they are often being monitored and recorded by a non-visible group, because not only do coolhunters want to hear what their subjects have to say, they also want to observe their simple mannerisms.
Methods and practices:
Depending on the nature of the study, the methods of the information-gathering during a focus group interview may be extremely broad, with questions relating to lifestyle and youth culture, or more specific, like comparing certain brands and determining which brands the group is most responsive to.
Participants in focus groups are usually rewarded for their participation, whether it be a cash amount, free products, or other rewards.
Methods and practices:
Coolhunters will often seek out individuals from within their target demographic who are regarded as leaders or trendsetters. They will then hire these individuals to be Cool Narcs, who gather information secretly among their peers and report their findings back to their employers. This is a popular method of coolhunting as it provides insight into their target demographic within their natural environment.
Methods and practices:
There are a wide variety of methods for conducting market research online. Popular examples are online surveys where upon completion, the participant will usually receive a prize or monetary compensation. Other times coolhunters will enter chatrooms and webgroups posing as an individual within the target demographic and gather information. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Dynamic data**
Dynamic data:
In data management, dynamic data or transactional data is information that is periodically updated, meaning it changes asynchronously over time as new information becomes available. The concept is important in data management, since the time scale of the data determines how it is processed and stored.
Data that is not dynamic is considered either static (unchanging) or persistent, which is data that is infrequently accessed and not likely to be modified. Dynamic data is also different from streaming data, which is a constant flow of information. Dynamic data may be updated at any time, with periods of inactivity in between.
Examples:
In enterprise data management, dynamic data is likely to be transactional, but it is not limited to financial or business transactions. It may also include engineering transactions, such as a revised schematic diagram or architectural document. In this context static data is either unchanged or so rarely changed that it can be stored remotely ("basement" or far) storage, whereas dynamic data is reused or changed frequently and therefore requires online ("office" or near) storage. An original copy of a wiring schematic will change from dynamic to static as the new versions make it obsolete. It is still possible to reuse the original, but in the normal course of business there is rarely a need to access obsoleted data. The current version of the wiring schematic is considered dynamic or changeable.
Examples:
These two different contexts for "dynamic" are similar, but differ their time scale. Dynamic data can become static. Persistent data is or is likely to be in the context of the execution of a program. Static data is in the context of the business historical data, regardless of any one application or program. The "dynamic" data is the new/updated/revised/deleted data in both cases, but again over different time horizons. Your paycheck stub is dynamic data for 1 week, or 1 day, then it becomes read-only and read-rarely, which would be either or both static and persistent. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Radionuclide angiography**
Radionuclide angiography:
Radionuclide angiography is an area of nuclear medicine which specialises in imaging to show the functionality of the right and left ventricles of the heart, thus allowing informed diagnostic intervention in heart failure. It involves use of a radiopharmaceutical, injected into a patient, and a gamma camera for acquisition. A MUGA scan (multigated acquisition) involves an acquisition triggered (gated) at different points of the cardiac cycle. MUGA scanning is also called equilibrium radionuclide angiocardiography, radionuclide ventriculography (RNVG), or gated blood pool imaging, as well as SYMA scanning (synchronized multigated acquisition scanning).
Radionuclide angiography:
This mode of imaging uniquely provides a cine type of image of the beating heart, and allows the interpreter to determine the efficiency of the individual heart valves and chambers. MUGA/Cine scanning represents a robust adjunct to the now more common echocardiogram. Mathematics regarding acquisition of cardiac output (Q) is well served by both of these methods as well as other inexpensive models supporting ejection fraction as a product of the heart/myocardium in systole. The advantage of a MUGA scan over an echocardiogram or an angiogram is its accuracy. An echocardiogram measures the shortening fraction of the ventricle and is limited by the user's ability. Furthermore, an angiogram is invasive and, often, more expensive. A MUGA scan provides a more accurate representation of cardiac ejection fraction.
History:
The MUGA scan was first introduced in the early 1970s and quickly became accepted as the preferred technique for measurement of left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) with a high degree of accuracy. Several early studies demonstrated an excellent correlation of MUGA-derived LVEF with values obtained by cardiac catheterization contrast ventriculography.
Purpose:
Radionuclide ventriculography is done to evaluate coronary artery disease (CAD), valvular heart disease, congenital heart diseases, cardiomyopathy, and other cardiac disorders. MUGA is typically ordered for the following patients: With known or suspected coronary artery disease, to diagnose the disease and predict outcomes With lesions in their heart valves With congestive heart failure Who have undergone percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty, coronary artery bypass graft surgery, or medical therapy, to assess the efficacy of the treatment With low cardiac output after open-heart surgery Who are undergoing cardiotoxic drug agents such as in chemotherapy e.g., with doxorubicin or immunotherapy (herceptin) Who have had a cardiac transplantRadionuclide ventriculography gives a much more precise measurement of left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) than a transthoracic echocardiogram (TTE). Transthoracic echocardiogram is highly operator dependant, therefore radionuclide ventriculography is a more reproducible measurement of LVEF. Its primary use today is in monitoring cardiac function in patients receiving certain chemotherapeutic agents (anthracyclines: doxorubicin or daunorubicin) which are cardiotoxic. The chemotherapy dose is often determined by the patient's cardiac function. In this setting, a much more accurate measurement of ejection fraction, than a transthoracic echocardiogram can provide, is necessary.
Procedure:
The MUGA scan is performed by labeling the patient's red blood pool with a radioactive tracer, technetium-99m-pertechnetate (Tc-99m), and measuring radioactivity over the anterior chest as the radioactive blood flows through the large vessels and the heart chambers.The introduction of the radioactive marker can either take place in vivo or in vitro.
Procedure:
In the in vivo method, stannous (tin) ions are injected into the patient's bloodstream. A subsequent intravenous injection of the radioactive substance, technetium-99m-pertechnetate, labels the red blood cells in vivo. With an administered activity of about 800 MBq, the effective radiation dose is about 6 mSv.In the in vitro method, some of the patient's blood is drawn and the stannous ions (in the form of stannous chloride) are injected into the drawn blood. The technetium is subsequently added to the mixture as in the in vivo method.
Procedure:
In both cases, the stannous chloride reduces the technetium ion and prevents it from leaking out of the red blood cells during the procedure.The in vivo technique is more convenient for the majority of patients since it is less time-consuming and less costly and more than 80 percent of the injected radionuclide usually binds to red blood cells with this approach. Red blood cell binding of the radioactive tracer is generally more efficient than in vitro labeling, and it is preferred in patients with indwelling intravenous catheters to decrease the adherence of Tc-99m to the catheter wall and increase the efficiency of blood pool labeling.The patient is placed under a gamma camera, which detects the low-level 140 keV gamma radiation being given off by Technetium-99m (99mTc). As the gamma camera images are acquired, the patient's heart beat is used to 'gate' the acquisition. The final result is a series of images of the heart (usually sixteen), one at each stage of the cardiac cycle.Depending on the objectives of the test, the doctor may decide to perform either a resting or a stress MUGA. During the resting MUGA, the patient lies stationary, whereas during a stress MUGA, the patient is asked to exercise during the scan. The stress MUGA measures the heart performance during exercise and is usually performed to assess the impact of a suspected coronary artery disease. In some cases, a nitroglycerin MUGA may be performed, where nitroglycerin (a vasodilator) is administered prior to the scan.The resulting images show that the volumetrically derived blood pools in the chambers of the heart and timed images may be computationally interpreted to calculate the ejection fraction and injection fraction of the heart. The Massardo method can be used to calculate ventricle volumes. This nuclear medicine scan yields an accurate, inexpensive and easily reproducible means of measuring and monitoring the ejection and injection fractions of the ventricles, which are one of many of the important clinical metrics in assessing global heart performance.
Procedure:
Radiation exposure It exposes patients to less radiation than do comparable chest x-ray studies. However, the radioactive material is retained in the patient for several days after the test, during which sophisticated radiation alarms may be triggered, such as in airports. Radionuclide ventriculography has largely been replaced by echocardiography, which is less expensive, and does not require radiation exposure.
Results:
Normal results In normal subjects, the left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) should be about 50%(range, 50-80%). There should be no area of abnormal wall motion (hypokinesis, akinesis or dyskinesis). Abnormalities in cardiac function may be manifested as a decrease in LVEF and/or the presence of abnormalities in global and regional wall motion. For normal subjects, peak filling rates should be between 2.4 and 3.6 end diastolic volume (EDV) per second, and the time to peak filling rate should be 135-212 ms.
Results:
Abnormal results An uneven distribution of technetium in the heart indicates that the patient has coronary artery disease, a cardiomyopathy, or blood shunting within the heart. Abnormalities in a resting MUGA usually indicate a heart attack, while those that occur during exercise usually indicate ischemia. In a stress MUGA, patients with coronary artery disease may exhibit a decrease in ejection fraction.
Results:
For a patient that has had a heart attack, or is suspected of having another disease that affects the heart muscle, this scan can help pinpoint the position in the heart that has sustained damage as well as assess the degree of damage. MUGA scans are also used to evaluate heart function prior to and while receiving certain chemotherapies (e.g. doxorubicin (Adriamycin)) or immunotherapy (specifically, herceptin) that have a known effect on heart function.
Massardo method:
The Massardo method is one of a number of approaches for estimating the volume of the ventricles and thus ultimately the ejection fraction. Recall that a MUGA scan is a nuclear imaging method involving the injection of a radioactive isotope (Tc-99m) that acquires gated 2D images of the heart using a SPECT scanner. The pixel values in such an image represent the number of counts (nuclear decays) detected from within that region in a given time interval. The Massardo method enables a 3D volume to be estimated from such a 2D image of decay counts via: 1.38 M3r32 where M is the pixel dimension and r is the ratio of total counts within the ventricle to the number of counts within the brightest (hottest) pixel. The Massardo method relies on two assumptions: (i) the ventricle is spherical and (ii) the radioactivity is homogeneously distributed.The ejection fraction, Ef , can then be calculated: EDV - ESV EDV 100 where the EDV (end-diastolic volume) is the volume of blood within the ventricle immediately before a contraction and the ESV (end-systolic volume) is the volume of blood remaining in the ventricle at the end of a contraction. The ejection fraction is hence the fraction of the end-diastolic volume that is ejected with each beat.The Siemens Intevo SPECT scanners employ the Massardo method in their MUGA scans. Other methods for estimating ventricular volume exist, but the Massardo method is sufficiently accurate and simple to perform, avoiding the need for blood samples, attenuation corrections or decay corrections.
Massardo method:
Derivation Define the ratio r as the ratio of counts within the chamber of the heart to the counts in the hottest pixel: Total counts within the chamber Total counts in the hottest pixel =NtNm Assuming that the activity is homogeneously distributed, the total count is proportional to the volume. The maximum pixel count is thus proportional to the length of the longest axis perpendicular to the collimator, Dm , times the cross-sectional area of a pixel, M2 . We can thus write: Nm=KM2Dm where K is some constant of proportionality with units counts/cm 3 . The total counts, Nt , can be written Nt=KVt where Vt is the volume of the ventricle and K is the same constant of proportionality since we are assuming a homogeneous distribution of activity. The Massardo method now makes the simplification that the ventricle is spherical in shape, giving Nt=K(π6)D3 where D is the diameter of the sphere and is thus equivalent to Dm above. This allows us to express the ratio r as r=NtNm=πD26M2 finally giving the diameter of the ventricle in terms of r , i.e. counts, alone: D2=(6π)M2r From this, the volume of the ventricle in terms of counts alone is simply 1.38 M3r32 | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Esketamine**
Esketamine:
Esketamine, also known as (S)-ketamine or S(+)-ketamine, is the S(+) enantiomer of ketamine, is a dissociative hallucinogen drug used as a general anesthetic and as an antidepressant for treatment of depression. It is sold under the brand names Spravato (for depression), Ketanest (for anesthesia), among others. Esketamine is the active enantiomer of ketamine in terms of NMDA receptor antagonism and is more potent than racemic ketamine.It is specifically used as a therapy for treatment-resistant depression (TRD) and for major depressive disorder (MDD) with co-occurring suicidal ideation or behavior. Its effectiveness for depression is modest and similar to that of other antidepressants. Esketamine is not used by infusion into a vein for anesthesia as it is only FDA approved for depression in the form of an intranasal spray (the parent compound Ketamine is most often administered intravenously) and under direct medical supervision as a nasal spray.Adverse effects of esketamine include dissociation, dizziness, sedation, nausea, vomiting, vertigo, numbness, anxiety, lethargy, increased blood pressure, and feelings of drunkenness. Less often, esketamine can cause bladder problems. Esketamine acts primarily as a N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist but also has other actions.In the form of racemic ketamine, esketamine was first synthesized in 1962 and introduced for medical use as an anesthetic in 1970. Enantiopure esketamine was introduced for medical use as an anesthetic in 1997 and as an antidepressant in 2019. It is used as an anesthetic in the European Union and as an antidepressant in the United States and Canada. Due to misuse liability as a dissociative hallucinogen, esketamine is a controlled substance.
Medical uses:
Anesthesia Esketamine is used for similar indications as ketamine. Such uses include induction of anesthesia in high-risk patients such as those with circulatory shock, severe bronchospasm, or as a supplement to regional anesthesia with incomplete nerve blocks.
Medical uses:
Depression Esketamine is approved under the brand name Spravato in the form of a nasal spray added to a conventional antidepressant as a therapy for treatment-resistant depression (TRD) as well as major depressive disorder (MDD) associated with suicidal ideation or behavior in adults in the United States. In the clinical trials that led to approval of esketamine, TRD was defined as MDD with inadequate response to at least two different conventional antidepressants. The nasal spray formulation of esketamine used for depression delivers two sprays containing a total of 28 mg esketamine and doses of 56 mg (2 devices) to 84 mg (3 devices) are used. The recommended dosage of Spravato is 56 mg on day 1, 56 or 84 mg twice per week during weeks 1 to 4, 56 or 84 mg once per week during weeks 5 to 8, and 56 or 84 mg every 2 weeks or once weekly during week 9 and thereafter. Dosing is individualized to the least frequent dosing necessary to maintain response or remission. Spravato is administered under the supervision of a healthcare provider and patients are monitored for at least 2 hours during each treatment session. Due to concerns about sedation, dissociation, and misuse, esketamine is available for treatment of depression only from certified providers through a restricted program under a Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategy (REMS) called Spravato REMS.Five clinical studies of esketamine for TRD (TRANSFORM-1, -2, and -3, and SUSTAIN-1 and -2) were submitted to and evaluated by the FDA when approval of esketamine for treatment of TRD was sought by Janssen Pharmaceuticals. Of these five studies, three were short-term (4-week) efficacy studies (the TRANSFORM studies). Two of these three studies (TRANSFORM-1 and -3) did not find a statistically significant antidepressant effect of esketamine relative to placebo. In the one positive short-term efficacy study (TRANSFORM-2), there was a 4.0-point difference between esketamine and placebo on the Montgomery–Åsberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS) after 4 weeks of treatment (P = 0.020). This scale ranges from 0 to 60 and the average score of the participants at the start of the study was about 37.0 in both the esketamine and placebo groups. The total change in score after 4 weeks was –19.8 points in the esketamine group and –15.8 points in the placebo group. This corresponded to a percentage change in MADRS score from baseline of –53.5% with esketamine and –42.4% with placebo (a difference and reduction of depression score of –11.1% potentially attributable to the pharmacological action of esketamine) in these patient samples. Placebo showed 80.0% of the antidepressant effect of esketamine for TRD in this study and hence approximately 20.0% of the antidepressant response was attributable to esketamine. In the two negative short-term efficacy trials that did not reach statistical significance (TRANSFORM-1 and -3), the differences in MADRS reductions between esketamine and placebo were –3.2 (P = 0.088) and –3.6 (P = 0.059) after 4 weeks of treatment.
Medical uses:
The 4.0-point additional reduction in MADRS score with esketamine over placebo in the single positive efficacy trial corresponds to less than "minimal improvement" and has been criticized as being below the threshold for clinically meaningful change. A difference of at least 6.5 points was originally suggested by the trial investigators to be a reasonable threshold for clinical significance. In other literature, MADRS reductions have been interpreted as "very much improved" corresponding to 27–28 points, "much improved" to 16–17 points, and "minimally improved" to 7–9 points. It has additionally been argued that the small advantage in scores with esketamine may have been related to an enhanced placebo response in the esketamine group due to functional unblinding caused by the psychoactive effects of esketamine. In other words, it is argued that the study was not truly a double-blind controlled trial. Dissociation was experienced as a side effect by a majority of participants who received esketamine (61–75% with esketamine and 5–12% with placebo; ~7-fold difference) and "severe" dissociation was experienced by 25%. Deblinding and expectancy confounds are problems with studies of hallucinogens for psychiatric indications in general. The FDA normally requires at least two positive short-term efficacy studies for approval of antidepressants, but this requirement was loosened for esketamine and a relapse-prevention trial was allowed to fill the place of the second efficacy trial instead. This is the first time that the FDA is known to have made such an exception and the decision has been criticized as lowering regulatory standards. In the relapse-prevention trial (SUSTAIN-2), the rate of depression relapse was significantly lower with esketamine continued than with it discontinued and replaced with placebo in esketamine-treated stable responders and remitters (51% rate reduction in remitters and 70% reduction in responders).
Medical uses:
Esketamine was approved for the treatment of MDD with co-occurring suicidal ideation or behavior on the basis of two short-term (4-week) phase 3 trials (ASPIRE-1 and -2) of esketamine nasal spray added to a conventional antidepressant. The primary efficacy measure was reduction in MADRS total score after 24 hours following the first dose of esketamine. In both trials, MADRS scores were significantly reduced with esketamine relative to placebo at 24 hours. The mean MADRS scores at baseline were 39.4 to 41.3 in all groups and the MADRS reductions at 24 hours were –15.9 and –16.0 with esketamine and –12.0 and –12.2 with placebo, resulting in mean differences between esketamine and placebo of –3.8 and –3.9. The secondary efficacy measure in the trials was change in Clinical Global Impression of Suicidal Severity - Revised (CGI-SS-r) 24 hours after the first dose of esketamine. The CGI-SS-r is a single-item scale with scores ranging from 0 to 6. Esketamine was not significantly effective in reducing suicidality relative to placebo on this measure either at 24 hours or after 25 days. At 24 hours, CGI-SS-r scores were changed by –1.5 with esketamine and –1.3 with placebo, giving a non-significant mean difference between esketamine and placebo of –0.20. Hence, while efficacious in reducing depressive symptoms in people with depression and suicidality, antisuicidal effects of esketamine in such individuals have not been demonstrated.Expectations were initially very high for ketamine and esketamine for treatment of depression based on early small-scale clinical studies, with discovery of the rapid and ostensibly robust antidepressant effects of ketamine described by some authors as "the most important advance in the field of psychiatry in the past half century". According to a 2018 review, ketamine showed more than double the antidepressant effect size over placebo of conventional antidepressants in the treatment of depression based on the preliminary evidence available at the time (Cohen's d = 1.3–1.7 for ketamine, Cohen's d = 0.8 for midazolam (active placebo), and Cohen's d = 0.53–0.81 for conventional antidepressants). However, the efficacy of ketamine/esketamine for depression declined dramatically as studies became larger and more methodologically rigorous. The effectiveness of esketamine for the indication of TRD is described as "modest" and is similar in magnitude to that of other antidepressants for treatment of MDD. The comparative effectiveness of ketamine and esketamine in the treatment of depression has not been adequately characterized. A January 2021 meta-analysis reported that ketamine was similarly effective to esketamine in terms of antidepressant effect size (SMD for depression score of –1.1 vs. –1.2) but more effective than esketamine in terms of response and remission rates (RR = 3.01 vs. RR = 1.38 for response and RR = 3.70 vs. RR = 1.47 for remission). A September 2021 Cochrane review found that ketamine had an effect size (SMD) for depression at 24 hours of –0.87, with very low certainty, and that esketamine had an effect size (SMD) at 24 hours of –0.31, based on moderate-certainty evidence. However, these meta-analyses have involved largely non-directly-comparative studies with dissimilar research designs and patient populations. Only a single clinical trial has directly compared ketamine and esketamine for depression as of May 2021. This study reported similar antidepressant efficacy as well as tolerability and psychotomimetic effects between the two agents. However, the study was small and underpowered, and more research is still needed to better-characterize the comparative antidepressant effects of ketamine and esketamine. Preliminary research suggests that arketamine, the R(−) enantiomer of ketamine, may also have its own independent antidepressant effects and may contribute to the antidepressant efficacy of racemic ketamine, but more research likewise is needed to evaluate this possibility.In February 2019, an outside panel of experts recommended in a 14–2 vote that the FDA approve the nasal spray version of esketamine for TRD, provided that it be given in a clinical setting, with people remaining on site for at least two hours after. The reasoning for this requirement is that trial participants temporarily experienced sedation, visual disturbances, trouble speaking, confusion, numbness, and feelings of dizziness during immediately after. The approval of esketamine for TRD by the FDA was controversial due to limited and mixed evidence of efficacy and safety. In January 2020, esketamine was rejected by the National Health Service (NHS) of Great Britain. The NHS questioned the benefits of the medication for depression and claimed that it was too expensive. People who have been already using esketamine were allowed to complete treatment if their doctors considered this necessary.Spravato debuted to a cost of treatment of US$32,400 per year when it launched in the United States in March 2019. The Institute for Clinical and Economic Review (ICER), which evaluates cost effectiveness of drugs analogously to the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) in the United Kingdom, declined to recommend esketamine for depression due to its steep cost and modest efficacy, deeming it not sufficiently cost-effective.Esketamine is the second drug to be approved for TRD by the FDA, following olanzapine/fluoxetine (Symbyax) in 2009. Other agents, like the atypical antipsychotics aripiprazole (Abilify) and quetiapine (Seroquel), have been approved for use in the adjunctive therapy of MDD in people with a partial response to treatment. In a meta-analysis conducted internally by the FDA during its evaluation of esketamine for TRD, the FDA reported a standardized mean difference (SMD) of esketamine for TRD of 0.28 using the three phase 3 short-term efficacy trials conducted by Janssen. This was similar to an SMD of 0.26 for olanzapine/fluoxetine for TRD and lower than SMDs of 0.35 for aripiprazole and 0.40 for quetiapine as adjuncts for MDD. These drugs are less expensive than esketamine and may serve as more affordable alternatives to it for depression with similar effectiveness.
Adverse effects:
The most common adverse effects of esketamine for depression (≥5% incidence) include dissociation, dizziness, sedation, nausea, vomiting, vertigo, numbness, anxiety, lethargy, increased blood pressure, and feelings of drunkenness. Long-term use of esketamine has been associated with bladder disease.
Pharmacology:
Pharmacodynamics Esketamine is approximately twice as potent an anesthetic as racemic ketamine.In mice, the rapid antidepressant effect of arketamine was greater and lasted longer than that of esketamine. The usefulness of arketamine over esketamine has been supported by other researchers.Esketamine inhibits dopamine transporters eight times more than arketamine. This increases dopamine activity in the brain. At doses causing the same intensity of effects, esketamine is generally considered to be more pleasant by patients. Patients also generally recover mental function more quickly after being treated with pure esketamine, which may be a result of the fact that it is cleared from their system more quickly. This is however in contradiction with arketamine being devoid of psychotomimetic side effects.Unlike arketamine, esketamine does not bind significantly to sigma receptors. Esketamine increases glucose metabolism in the frontal cortex, while arketamine decreases glucose metabolism in the brain. This difference may be responsible for the fact that esketamine generally has a more dissociative or hallucinogenic effect while arketamine is reportedly more relaxing. However, another study found no difference between racemic ketamine and esketamine on the patient's level of vigilance. Interpretation of this finding is complicated by the fact that racemic ketamine is 50% esketamine.
Pharmacology:
Pharmacokinetics Esketamine is eliminated from the human body more quickly than arketamine (R(–)-ketamine) or racemic ketamine, although arketamine slows the elimination of esketamine.
History:
Esketamine was introduced for medical use as an anesthetic in Germany in 1997, and was subsequently marketed in other countries. In addition to its anesthetic effects, the medication showed properties of being a rapid-acting antidepressant, and was subsequently investigated for use as such. Esketamine received a breakthrough designation from the FDA for treatment-resistant depression (TRD) in 2013 and major depressive disorder (MDD) with accompanying suicidal ideation in 2016. In November 2017, it completed phase III clinical trials for treatment-resistant depression in the United States. Johnson & Johnson filed a Food and Drug Administration (FDA) New Drug Application (NDA) for approval on 4 September 2018; the application was endorsed by an FDA advisory panel on 12 February 2019, and on 5 March 2019, the FDA approved esketamine, in conjunction with an oral antidepressant, for the treatment of depression in adults. In August 2020, it was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) with the added indication for the short-term treatment of suicidal thoughts.Since the 1980s, closely associated ketamine has been used as a club drug also known as "Special K" for its trip-inducing side effects.
Society and culture:
Names Esketamine is the generic name of the drug and its INN and BAN, while esketamine hydrochloride is its BANM. It is also known as S(+)-ketamine, (S)-ketamine, or (–)-ketamine ((-)[+] ketamine) as well as by its developmental code name JNJ-54135419.Esketamine is sold under the brand name Spravato for use as an antidepressant and the brand names Eskesia, Ketanest, Ketanest S, Ketanest-S, Keta-S for use as an anesthetic (veterinary), among others.
Society and culture:
Availability Esketamine is marketed as an antidepressant in the United States; and as an anesthetic in the European Union.
Legal status Esketamine is a Schedule III controlled substance in the United States. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Re-recording mixer**
Re-recording mixer:
A re-recording mixer in North America, also known as a dubbing mixer in Europe, is a post-production audio engineer who mixes recorded dialogue, sound effects and music to create the final version of a soundtrack for a feature film, television program, or television advertisement. The final mix must achieve a desired sonic balance between its various elements, and must match the director's or sound designer's original vision for the project. For material intended for broadcast, the final mix must also comply with all applicable laws governing sound mixing (e.g., the CALM Act in the United States and the EBU R 128 loudness protocol in Europe).
Re-recording mixer:
The different names of this profession are both based on the fact that the mixer is not mixing a live performance to a live audience nor recording live on a set. That is, the mixer is re-recording sound already recorded elsewhere (the basis of the North American name) after passing it through mixing equipment such as a digital audio workstation and may dub in additional sounds in the process (the basis of the European name). While mixing can be performed in a recording studio or home office, a full-size mixing stage or dubbing stage is used for feature films intended for release to movie theaters in order to help the mixer envision how the final mix will be heard in such large spaces.
Re-recording mixer:
During production or earlier parts of post-production, sound editors, sound designers, sound engineers, production sound mixers and/or music editors assemble the tracks that become raw materials for the re-recording mixer to work with. Those tracks in turn originate with sounds created by professional musicians, singers, actors, or foley artists.
Re-recording mixer:
The first part of the traditional re-recording process is called the "premix." In the dialog premix the re-recording mixer does preliminary processing, including making initial loudness adjustments, cross-fading, and reducing environmental noise or spill that the on-set microphone picked up. In most instances, audio restoration software may be employed. For film or television productions, they may add a temporary/permanent music soundtrack that will have been prepared by the music editor, then the resulting work will be previewed by test audiences, and then the film or television program is re-cut and the soundtrack must be mixed again. Re-recording mixer may also augment or minimize audience reactions for television programs recorded in front of a studio audience. In some cases, a laugh track may augment these reactions.
Re-recording mixer:
During the "final mix" the re-recording/dubbing mixers, guided by the director or producer, must make creative decisions from moment to moment in each scene about how loud each major sound element (dialog, sound effects, laugh track and music) should be relative to each other. They also modify individual sounds when desired by adjusting their loudness and spectral content and by adding artificial reverberation. They can insert sounds into a three-dimensional space of the listening environment for a variety of venues and release formats: movie theaters, home theater systems, etc. that have stereo and multi-channel (5.1, 7.1, etc.) surround sound systems. Today, films may be mixed in 'object-based' audio formats such as Dolby Atmos, which adds height channels and metadata to allow for real-time rendering of audio objects in a three-dimensional coordinate space. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Pre-established harmony**
Pre-established harmony:
The mind–body problem is a philosophical problem concerning the relationship between thought and consciousness in the human mind, and the body.The issue is this. Though it is obvious that mental events and physical events are somehow related, it is not obvious what the nature of this relation is. For example, it is obvious that feelings of sadness (which are mental events) will cause people to cry (which is a physical state of the body), or that finding a joke funny (a mental event) will cause one to laugh (another bodily state), or that feelings of pain (in the mind) will cause avoidance behaviours (in the body), and so on. Similarly, it is well known that changing the chemistry of the body (and the brain especially) via drugs (such as antipsychotics, SSRIs, or alcohol) can change one's state of mind in nontrivial ways. Or, in the other direction, it is known that therapeutic interventions like cognitive behavioural therapy will change cognition in ways that have downstream effects on the bodily health. These are only a few examples of the numerous ways in which the state of the mind and body seem to be intimately tied; many more examples can be found simply by reflecting on one's day-to-day experiences.
Pre-established harmony:
In general, the existence of these mind–body connections seems unproblematic. Issues arise, however, once one considers what exactly we should make of these relations from a metaphysical or scientific perspective. Such reflections quickly raise a number of questions like: Are the mind and body two distinct entities, or a single entity? If the mind and body are two distinct entities, do the two of them causally interact? Is it possible for these two distinct entities to causally interact? What is the nature of this interaction? Can this interaction ever be an object of empirical study? If the mind and body are a single entity, then are mental events explicable in terms of physical events, or vice versa? Is the relation between mental and physical events something that arises de novo at a certain point in development?And so on. These and other questions that discuss the relation between mind and body are questions that all fall under the banner of the 'mind–body problem'.
Mind–body interaction and mental causation:
Philosophers David L. Robb and John F. Heil introduce mental causation in terms of the mind–body problem of interaction: Mind–body interaction has a central place in our pretheoretic conception of agency. Indeed, mental causation often figures explicitly in formulations of the mind–body problem. Some philosophers insist that the very notion of psychological explanation turns on the intelligibility of mental causation. If your mind and its states, such as your beliefs and desires, were causally isolated from your bodily behavior, then what goes on in your mind could not explain what you do. If psychological explanation goes, so do the closely related notions of agency and moral responsibility. Clearly, a good deal rides on a satisfactory solution to the problem of mental causation [and] there is more than one way in which puzzles about the mind's "causal relevance" to behavior (and to the physical world more generally) can arise.
Mind–body interaction and mental causation:
[René Descartes] set the agenda for subsequent discussions of the mind–body relation. According to Descartes, minds and bodies are distinct kinds of "substance". Bodies, he held, are spatially extended substances, incapable of feeling or thought; minds, in contrast, are unextended, thinking, feeling substances. If minds and bodies are radically different kinds of substance, however, it is not easy to see how they "could" causally interact. Princess Elizabeth of Bohemia puts it forcefully to him in a 1643 letter: how the human soul can determine the movement of the animal spirits in the body so as to perform voluntary acts—being as it is merely a conscious substance. For the determination of movement seems always to come about from the moving body's being propelled—to depend on the kind of impulse it gets from what sets it in motion, or again, on the nature and shape of this latter thing's surface. Now the first two conditions involve contact, and the third involves that the impelling thing has extension; but you utterly exclude extension from your notion of soul, and contact seems to me incompatible with a thing's being immaterial...
Mind–body interaction and mental causation:
Elizabeth is expressing the prevailing mechanistic view as to how causation of bodies works. Causal relations countenanced by contemporary physics can take several forms, not all of which are of the push–pull variety.
Mind–body interaction and mental causation:
Contemporary neurophilosopher Georg Northoff suggests that mental causation is compatible with classical formal and final causality.Biologist, theoretical neuroscientist and philosopher, Walter J. Freeman, suggests that explaining mind–body interaction in terms of "circular causation" is more relevant than linear causation.In neuroscience, much has been learned about correlations between brain activity and subjective, conscious experiences. Many suggest that neuroscience will ultimately explain consciousness: "...consciousness is a biological process that will eventually be explained in terms of molecular signaling pathways used by interacting populations of nerve cells..." However, this view has been criticized because consciousness has yet to be shown to be a process, and the "hard problem" of relating consciousness directly to brain activity remains elusive.
Mind–body interaction and mental causation:
Cognitive science today gets increasingly interested in the embodiment of human perception, thinking, and action. Abstract information processing models are no longer accepted as satisfactory accounts of the human mind. Interest has shifted to interactions between the material human body and its surroundings and to the way in which such interactions shape the mind. Proponents of this approach have expressed the hope that it will ultimately dissolve the Cartesian divide between the immaterial mind and the material existence of human beings (Damasio, 1994; Gallagher, 2005). A topic that seems particularly promising for providing a bridge across the mind–body cleavage is the study of bodily actions, which are neither reflexive reactions to external stimuli nor indications of mental states, which have only arbitrary relationships to the motor features of the action (e.g., pressing a button for making a choice response). The shape, timing, and effects of such actions are inseparable from their meaning. One might say that they are loaded with mental content, which cannot be appreciated other than by studying their material features. Imitation, communicative gesturing, and tool use are examples of these kinds of actions.
Mind–body interaction and mental causation:
Since 1927, at the Solvay Conference in Austria, European physicists of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, realized that the interpretations of their experiments with light and electricity required a different theory to explain why light behaves both as a wave and particle. The implications were profound. The usual empirical model of explaining natural phenomena could not account for this duality of matter and non-matter. In a significant way, this has brought back the conversation on the mind–body duality.
Neural correlates:
The neural correlates of consciousness "are the smallest set of brain mechanisms and events sufficient for some specific conscious feeling, as elemental as the color red or as complex as the sensual, mysterious, and primeval sensation evoked when looking at [a] jungle scene..." Neuroscientists use empirical approaches to discover neural correlates of subjective phenomena.
Neural correlates:
Neurobiology and neurophilosophy A science of consciousness must explain the exact relationship between subjective conscious mental states and brain states formed by electrochemical interactions in the body, the so-called hard problem of consciousness. Neurobiology studies the connection scientifically, as do neuropsychology and neuropsychiatry. Neurophilosophy is the interdisciplinary study of neuroscience and philosophy of mind. In this pursuit, neurophilosophers, such as Patricia Churchland, Paul Churchland and Daniel Dennett, have focused primarily on the body rather than the mind. In this context, neuronal correlates may be viewed as causing consciousness, where consciousness can be thought of as an undefined property that depends upon this complex, adaptive, and highly interconnected biological system. However, it's unknown if discovering and characterizing neural correlates may eventually provide a theory of consciousness that can explain the first-person experience of these "systems", and determine whether other systems of equal complexity lack such features.
Neural correlates:
The massive parallelism of neural networks allows redundant populations of neurons to mediate the same or similar percepts. Nonetheless, it is assumed that every subjective state will have associated neural correlates, which can be manipulated to artificially inhibit or induce the subject's experience of that conscious state. The growing ability of neuroscientists to manipulate neurons using methods from molecular biology in combination with optical tools was achieved by the development of behavioral and organic models that are amenable to large-scale genomic analysis and manipulation. Non-human analysis such as this, in combination with imaging of the human brain, have contributed to a robust and increasingly predictive theoretical framework.
Neural correlates:
Arousal and content There are two common but distinct dimensions of the term consciousness, one involving arousal and states of consciousness and the other involving content of consciousness and conscious states. To be conscious of something, the brain must be in a relatively high state of arousal (sometimes called vigilance), whether awake or in REM sleep. Brain arousal level fluctuates in a circadian rhythm but these natural cycles may be influenced by lack of sleep, alcohol and other drugs, physical exertion, etc. Arousal can be measured behaviorally by the signal amplitude required to trigger a given reaction (for example, the sound level that causes a subject to turn and look toward the source). High arousal states involve conscious states that feature specific perceptual content, planning and recollection or even fantasy. Clinicians use scoring systems such as the Glasgow Coma Scale to assess the level of arousal in patients with impaired states of consciousness such as the comatose state, the persistent vegetative state, and the minimally conscious state. Here, "state" refers to different amounts of externalized, physical consciousness: ranging from a total absence in coma, persistent vegetative state and general anesthesia, to a fluctuating, minimally conscious state, such as sleep walking and epileptic seizure.Many nuclei with distinct chemical signatures in the thalamus, midbrain and pons must function for a subject to be in a sufficient state of brain arousal to experience anything at all. These nuclei therefore belong to the enabling factors for consciousness. Conversely it is likely that the specific content of any particular conscious sensation is mediated by particular neurons in the cortex and their associated satellite structures, including the amygdala, thalamus, claustrum and the basal ganglia.
Theoretical Frameworks:
A variety of approaches have been proposed. Most are either dualist or monist. Dualism maintains a rigid distinction between the realms of mind and matter. Monism maintains that there is only one unifying reality as in neutral or substance or essence, in terms of which everything can be explained.
Theoretical Frameworks:
Each of these categories contains numerous variants. The two main forms of dualism are substance dualism, which holds that the mind is formed of a distinct type of substance not governed by the laws of physics, and property dualism, which holds that mental properties involving conscious experience are fundamental properties, alongside the fundamental properties identified by a completed physics. The three main forms of monism are physicalism, which holds that the mind consists of matter organized in a particular way; idealism, which holds that only thought truly exists and matter is merely a representation of mental processes; and neutral monism, which holds that both mind and matter are aspects of a distinct essence that is itself identical to neither of them. Psychophysical parallelism is a third possible alternative regarding the relation between mind and body, between interaction (dualism) and one-sided action (monism).Several philosophical perspectives have sought to escape the problem by rejecting the mind–body dichotomy have been developed. The historical materialism of Karl Marx and subsequent writers, itself a form of physicalism, held that consciousness was engendered by the material contingencies of one's environment. An explicit rejection of the dichotomy is found in French structuralism, and is a position that generally characterized post-war Continental philosophy.An ancient model of the mind known as the Five-Aggregate Model, described in the Buddhist teachings, explains the mind as continuously changing sense impressions and mental phenomena. Considering this model, it is possible to understand that it is the constantly changing sense impressions and mental phenomena (i.e., the mind) that experiences/analyzes all external phenomena in the world as well as all internal phenomena including the body anatomy, the nervous system as well as the organ brain. This conceptualization leads to two levels of analyses: (i) analyses conducted from a third-person perspective on how the brain works, and (ii) analyzing the moment-to-moment manifestation of an individual's mind-stream (analyses conducted from a first-person perspective). Considering the latter, the manifestation of the mind-stream is described as happening in every person all the time, even in a scientist who analyses various phenomena in the world, including analyzing and hypothesizing about the organ brain.
Theoretical Frameworks:
Dualism The following is a very brief account of some contributions to the mind–body problem.
Theoretical Frameworks:
Interactionism The viewpoint of interactionism suggests that the mind and body are two separate substances, but that each can affect the other. This interaction between the mind and body was first put forward by the philosopher René Descartes. Descartes believed that the mind was non-physical and permeated the entire body, but that the mind and body interacted via the pineal gland. This theory has changed throughout the years, and in the 20th century its main adherents were the philosopher of science Karl Popper and the neurophysiologist John Carew Eccles. A more recent and popular version of Interactionism is the viewpoint of emergentism. This perspective states that mental states are a result of the brain states, and that the mental events can then influence the brain, resulting in a two way communication between the mind and body.The absence of an empirically identifiable meeting point between the non-physical mind (if there is such a thing) and its physical extension (if there is such a thing) has been raised as a criticism of interactionalist dualism. This criticism has lead many modern philosophers of mind to maintain that the mind is not something separate from the body. These approaches have been particularly influential in the sciences, particularly in the fields of sociobiology, computer science, evolutionary psychology, and the neurosciences.
Theoretical Frameworks:
Epiphenomenalism The viewpoint of epiphenomenalism suggests that the physical brain can cause mental events in the mind, but that the mind cannot interact with the brain at all; stating that mental occurrences are simply a side effect of the brain's processes. This viewpoint explains that while one's body may react to them feeling joy, fear, or sadness, that the emotion does not cause the physical response. Rather, it explains that joy, fear, sadness, and all bodily reactions are caused by chemicals and their interaction with the body.
Theoretical Frameworks:
Psychophysical parallelism The viewpoint of psychophysical parallelism suggests that the mind and body are entirely independent from one another. Furthermore, this viewpoint states that both mental and physical stimuli and reactions are experienced simultaneously by both the mind and body, however, there is no interaction nor communication between the two.
Theoretical Frameworks:
Double aspectism Double aspectism is an extension of psychophysical parallelism which also suggests that the mind and body cannot interact, nor can they be separated. Baruch Spinoza and Gustav Fechner were two of the notable users of double aspectism, however, Fechner later expanded upon it to form the branch of psychophysics in an attempt to prove the relationship of the mind and body.
Theoretical Frameworks:
Pre-established harmony The viewpoint of pre-established harmony is another offshoot of psychophysical parallelism which suggests that mental events and bodily events are separate and distinct, but that they are both coordinated by an external agent, an example of such an agent could be God or another deity. A notable adherent to the idea of pre-established harmony is Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz in his theory of Monadology. His explanation of pre-established harmony relied heavily upon God as the external agent who coordinated the mental and bodily events of all things in the beginning.Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's theory of pre-established harmony (French: harmonie préétablie) is a philosophical theory about causation under which every "substance" affects only itself, but all the substances (both bodies and minds) in the world nevertheless seem to causally interact with each other because they have been programmed by God in advance to "harmonize" with each other. Leibniz's term for these substances was "monads", which he described in a popular work (Monadology §7) as "windowless".
Theoretical Frameworks:
The concept of pre-established harmony can be understood by considering an event with both seemingly mental and physical aspects. For example, consider saying 'ouch' after stubbing one's toe. There are two general ways to describe this event: in terms of mental events (where the conscious sensation of pain caused one to say 'ouch') and in terms of physical events (where neural firings in one's toe, carried to the brain, are what caused one to say 'ouch'). The main task of the mind–body problem is figuring out how these mental events (the feeling of pain) and physical events (the nerve firings) relate. Leibniz's pre-established harmony attempts to answer this puzzle, by saying that mental and physical events are not genuinely related in any causal sense, but only seem to interact due to psycho-physical fine-tuning.
Theoretical Frameworks:
Leibniz's theory is best known as a solution to the mind–body problem of how mind can interact with the body. Leibniz rejected the idea of physical bodies affecting each other, and explained all physical causation in this way. Under pre-established harmony, the preprogramming of each mind must be extremely complex, since only it causes its own thoughts or actions, for as long as it exists. To appear to interact, each substance's "program" must contain a description of either the entire universe, or of how the object behaves at all times during all interactions that appear to occur.
Theoretical Frameworks:
An example: An apple falls on Alice's head, apparently causing the experience of pain in her mind. In fact, the apple does not cause the pain—the pain is caused by some previous state of Alice's mind. If Alice then seems to shake her hand in anger, it is not actually her mind that causes this, but some previous state of her hand.Note that if a mind behaves as a windowless monad, there is no need for any other object to exist to create that mind's sense perceptions, leading to a solipsistic universe that consists only of that mind. Leibniz seems to admit this in his Discourse on Metaphysics, section 14. However, he claims that his principle of harmony, according to which God creates the best and most harmonious world possible, dictates that the perceptions (internal states) of each monad "expresses" the world in its entirety, and the world expressed by the monad actually exists. Although Leibniz says that each monad is "windowless," he also claims that it functions as a "mirror" of the entire created universe.
Theoretical Frameworks:
On occasion, Leibniz styled himself as "the author of the system of preestablished harmony".Immanuel Kant's professor Martin Knutzen regarded pre-established harmony as "the pillow for the lazy mind".In his sixth Metaphysical Meditation, Descartes talked about a "coordinated disposition of created things set up by God", shortly after having identified "nature in its general aspect" with God himself. His conception of the relationship between God and his normative nature actualized in the existing world recalls both the pre-established harmony of Leibniz and the Deus sive Natura of Baruch Spinoza.
Theoretical Frameworks:
Occasionalism The viewpoint of Occasionalism is another offshoot of psychophysical parallelism, however, the major difference is that the mind and body have some indirect interaction. Occasionalism suggests that the mind and body are separate and distinct, but that they interact through divine intervention. Nicolas Malebranche was one of the main contributors to this idea, using it as a way to address his disagreements with Descartes' view of the mind–body problem. In Malebranche's occasionalism, he viewed thoughts as a wish for the body to move, which was then fulfilled by God causing the body to act.
Historical background:
The problem was popularized by René Descartes in the 17th century, resulting in Cartesian dualism, and by pre-Aristotelian philosophers, in Avicennian philosophy, and in earlier Asian traditions.
Historical background:
The Buddha The Buddha (480–400 B.C.E), founder of Buddhism, described the mind and the body as depending on each other in a way that two sheaves of reeds were to stand leaning against one another and taught that the world consists of mind and matter which work together, interdependently. Buddhist teachings describe the mind as manifesting from moment to moment, one thought moment at a time as a fast flowing stream. The components that make up the mind are known as the five aggregates (i.e., material form, feelings, perception, volition, and sensory consciousness), which arise and pass away continuously. The arising and passing of these aggregates in the present moment is described as being influenced by five causal laws: biological laws, psychological laws, physical laws, volitional laws, and universal laws. The Buddhist practice of mindfulness involves attending to this constantly changing mind-stream.
Historical background:
Ultimately, the Buddha's philosophy is that both mind and forms are conditionally arising qualities of an ever-changing universe in which, when nirvāna is attained, all phenomenal experience ceases to exist. According to the anattā doctrine of the Buddha, the conceptual self is a mere mental construct of an individual entity and is basically an impermanent illusion, sustained by form, sensation, perception, thought and consciousness. The Buddha argued that mentally clinging to any views will result in delusion and stress, since, according to the Buddha, a real self (conceptual self, being the basis of standpoints and views) cannot be found when the mind has clarity.
Historical background:
Plato Plato (429–347 B.C.E.) believed that the material world is a shadow of a higher reality that consists of concepts he called Forms. According to Plato, objects in our everyday world "participate in" these Forms, which confer identity and meaning to material objects. For example, a circle drawn in the sand would be a circle only because it participates in the concept of an ideal circle that exists somewhere in the world of Forms. He argued that, as the body is from the material world, the soul is from the world of Forms and is thus immortal. He believed the soul was temporarily united with the body and would only be separated at death, when it, if pure, would return to the world of Forms; otherwise, reincarnation follows. Since the soul does not exist in time and space, as the body does, it can access universal truths. For Plato, ideas (or Forms) are the true reality, and are experienced by the soul. The body is for Plato empty in that it can not access the abstract reality of the world; it can only experience shadows. This is determined by Plato's essentially rationalistic epistemology.
Historical background:
Aristotle For Aristotle (384–322 BC) mind is a faculty of the soul. Regarding the soul, he said: It is not necessary to ask whether soul and body are one, just as it is not necessary to ask whether the wax and its shape are one, nor generally whether the matter of each thing and that of which it is the matter are one. For even if one and being are spoken of in several ways, what is properly so spoken of is the actuality.
Historical background:
In the end, Aristotle saw the relation between soul and body as uncomplicated, in the same way that it is uncomplicated that a cubical shape is a property of a toy building block. The soul is a property exhibited by the body, one among many. Moreover, Aristotle proposed that when the body perishes, so does the soul, just as the shape of a building block disappears with destruction of the block.
Historical background:
Medieval Aristotelianism Working in the Aristotelian-influenced tradition of Thomism, Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274), like Aristotle, believed that the mind and the body are one, like a seal and wax; therefore, it is pointless to ask whether or not they are one. However, (referring to "mind" as "the soul") he asserted that the soul persists after the death of the body in spite of their unity, calling the soul "this particular thing". Since his view was primarily theological rather than philosophical, it is impossible to fit it neatly within either the category of physicalism or dualism.
Historical background:
Influences of Eastern monotheistic religions In religious philosophy of Eastern monotheism, dualism denotes a binary opposition of an idea that contains two essential parts. The first formal concept of a "mind–body" split may be found in the divinity–secularity dualism of the ancient Persian religion of Zoroastrianism around the mid-fifth century BC. Gnosticism is a modern name for a variety of ancient dualistic ideas inspired by Judaism popular in the first and second century AD. These ideas later seem to have been incorporated into Galen's "tripartite soul" that led into both the Christian sentiments expressed in the later Augustinian theodicy and Avicenna's Platonism in Islamic Philosophy.
Historical background:
Descartes René Descartes (1596–1650) believed that mind exerted control over the brain via the pineal gland: My view is that this gland is the principal seat of the soul, and the place in which all our thoughts are formed.[The] mechanism of our body is so constructed that simply by this gland's being moved in any way by the soul or by any other cause, it drives the surrounding spirits towards the pores of the brain, which direct them through the nerves to the muscles; and in this way the gland makes the spirits move the limbs.
Historical background:
His posited relation between mind and body is called Cartesian dualism or substance dualism. He held that mind was distinct from matter, but could influence matter. How such an interaction could be exerted remains a contentious issue.
Kant For Kant (1724–1804) beyond mind and matter there exists a world of a priori forms, which are seen as necessary preconditions for understanding. Some of these forms, space and time being examples, today seem to be pre-programmed in the brain.
...whatever it is that impinges on us from the mind-independent world does not come located in a spatial or a temporal matrix,...The mind has two pure forms of intuition built into it to allow it to... organize this 'manifold of raw intuition'.
Kant views the mind–body interaction as taking place through forces that may be of different kinds for mind and body.
Huxley For Huxley (1825–1895) the conscious mind was a by-product of the brain that has no influence upon the brain, a so-called epiphenomenon.
On the epiphenomenalist view, mental events play no causal role. Huxley, who held the view, compared mental events to a steam whistle that contributes nothing to the work of a locomotive.
Whitehead A. N. Whitehead advocated a sophisticated form of panpsychism that has been called by David Ray Griffin panexperientialism.
Historical background:
Popper For Popper (1902–1994) there are three aspects of the mind–body problem: the worlds of matter, mind, and of the creations of the mind, such as mathematics. In his view, the third-world creations of the mind could be interpreted by the second-world mind and used to affect the first-world of matter. An example might be radio, an example of the interpretation of the third-world (Maxwell's electromagnetic theory) by the second-world mind to suggest modifications of the external first world.
Historical background:
The body–mind problem is the question of whether and how our thought processes in World 2 are bound up with brain events in World 1. ...I would argue that the first and oldest of these attempted solutions is the only one that deserves to be taken seriously [namely]: World 2 and World 1 interact, so that when someone reads a book or listens to a lecture, brain events occur that act upon the World 2 of the reader's or listener's thoughts; and conversely, when a mathematician follows a proof, his World 2 acts upon his brain and thus upon World 1. This, then, is the thesis of body–mind interaction.
Historical background:
Ryle With his 1949 book, The Concept of Mind, Gilbert Ryle "was seen to have put the final nail in the coffin of Cartesian dualism".
Historical background:
In the chapter "Descartes' Myth," Ryle introduces "the dogma of the Ghost in the machine" to describe the philosophical concept of the mind as an entity separate from the body:I hope to prove that it is entirely false, and false not in detail but in principle. It is not merely an assemblage of particular mistakes. It is one big mistake and a mistake of a special kind. It is, namely, a category mistake.
Historical background:
Searle For Searle (b. 1932) the mind–body problem is a false dichotomy; that is, mind is a perfectly ordinary aspect of the brain. Searle proposed Biological naturalism in 1980. According to Searle then, there is no more a mind–body problem than there is a macro–micro economics problem. They are different levels of description of the same set of phenomena. [...] But Searle is careful to maintain that the mental – the domain of qualitative experience and understanding – is autonomous and has no counterpart on the microlevel; any redescription of these macroscopic features amounts to a kind of evisceration, ... | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Non-broadcast multiple-access network**
Non-broadcast multiple-access network:
A non-broadcast multiple access network (NBMA) is a computer network to which multiple hosts are attached, but data is transmitted only directly from one computer to another single host over a virtual circuit or across a switched fabric.
Examples of non broadcast technologies:
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) Frame Relay X.25 home power line networking Wireguard
Replication broadcasts:
Some NBMA network devices support multicast and broadcast traffic replication (pseudo-broadcasts).
This is done by send multiple copies of a broadcast packet, one through virtual circuit, so that the broadcast gets to all intended recipients.
Power line networks:
The ITU-T G.hn standard provides a specification for creating a high-speed (up to 1 Gigabit/s) local area network using existing home power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables.
Because of multipath propagation, power lines use frequency-selective channels. Channel frequency response is different for each pair of transmitter and receiver, so modulation parameters are unique for each transmitter and receiver pair. Since each pair of devices uses a different modulation scheme for communication, other devices may not be able to demodulate the information sent between them.
Split horizon route advertisement:
In NBMA networks a special technique called split horizon route advertisement must be disabled by distance-vector routing protocols in order to route traffic in a hub and spoke topology. The reason being is that split horizon dictates that a router cannot send a routing table update out of the same interface from which it received it. Thus eliminating the proper propagation from one location to another. This family of protocols relies on link layer broadcasting for route advertisement propagation, so when this feature is absent, it has to be emulated with a series of unicast transmissions, which may result in a receiver node sending a route advertisement back to the node it has just received it from. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**(RS)-MCPG**
(RS)-MCPG:
(RS)-MCPG is a phenylglycine derivative and a non-selective antagonist of group I and II metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs). It has been used in long-term potentiation (LTP) as well as long-term depression (LTD) research and proved that certain LTP and LTD pathways depend on mGluRs. Its full chemical name is (RS)-α-methyl-4-carboxyphenylglycine. It appears as a white solid and its molecular weight is 209.2 Da. Its molecular formula is C10H11NO4. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Joint Institute for Nuclear Astrophysics**
Joint Institute for Nuclear Astrophysics:
The Joint Institute for Nuclear Astrophysics Center for the Evolution of the Elements (JINA-CEE) is a multi-institutional Physics Frontiers Center funded by the US National Science Foundation since 2014. From 2003 to 2014, JINA was a collaboration between Michigan State University, the University of Notre Dame, the University of Chicago, and directed by Michael Wiescher from the University of Notre Dame. Principal investigators were Hendrik Schatz, Timothy Beers and Jim Truran.JINA-CEE is a collaboration between Michigan State University, the University of Notre Dame, University of Washington and Arizona State University and a number of associated institutions, centers, and national laboratories in the US and across the world, with the goal to bring together nuclear experimenters, nuclear theorists, astrophysical modelers, astrophysics theorists, and observational astronomers to address the open scientific questions at the intersection of nuclear physics and astrophysics. JINA-CEE serves as an intellectual center and focal point for the field of nuclear astrophysics, and is intended to enable scientific work and exchange of data and information across field boundaries within its collaboration, and for the field as a whole though workshops, schools, and web-based tools and data bases. It is led by director Hendrik Schatz with Michael Wiescher, Timothy Beers, Sanjay Reddy and Frank Timmes as principal investigators.
Joint Institute for Nuclear Astrophysics:
Most JINA-CEE nuclear physics experiments are carried out at the Nuclear Science Laboratory at the University of Notre Dame, the National Superconducting Cyclotron Laboratory at Michigan State University and the ATLAS/CARIBOU facility at Argonne National Laboratory. JINA-CEE is heavily involved in observations with the Apache Point Observatory within the framework of extensions to the Sloan Digital Sky Survey, LAMOST in China, SkyMapper in Australia, and the Hubble Space Telescope. Among many other observational data, JINA-CEE also uses heavily X-ray observational data from BeppoSAX, RXTE, Chandra, XMM-Newton, and INTEGRAL. JINA stimulated the development of similar centers in other countries, and collaborates with a number of multi-institutional nuclear astrophysics centers in Germany, including NAVI, EMMI and the Universe Cluster in Munich.
REACLIB Database:
One of the many projects of JINA-CEE is the maintenance of an up-to-date nuclear reaction rate library called REACLIB. REACLIB contains over 75,000 thermonuclear reaction rates.
Virtual Journals:
Nuclear astrophysics is made of many overlapping disciplines, spanning fields in astronomy, astrophysics and nuclear physics. In order to understand the origin of the elements, or the evolution and deaths of stars in galaxies, quite a broad base of knowledge is required. JINA-CEE created two virtual journals in order to meet the need for coverage of this broad-based information. The JINA Virtual Journal debuted in 2003, and reviews a broad realm of nuclear astrophysics, followed by the SEGUE Virtual Journal in 2006, focusing more on Galactic Chemical and Structural evolution. Each week, the editors search almost 40 refereed journals for newly published articles. Editors review the articles, flagging those that are relevant, and categorize them into their respective subjects (which are searchable by individual users). When the virtual journals are published, an email notification is sent to subscribers informing them of the newly available selections from the Virtual Journals.
Education:
Education, outreach, and creating inclusive environments are high priorities for JINA-CEE. JINA-CEE has a multitude of educational and outreach programs aimed at attracting young people to science careers, research training, and disseminating research findings to the public. Educational programs target audiences ranging from K-12 to Graduate Students and Postdocs. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Unique sink orientation**
Unique sink orientation:
In mathematics, a unique sink orientation is an orientation of the edges of a polytope such that, in every face of the polytope (including the whole polytope as one of the faces), there is exactly one vertex for which all adjoining edges are oriented inward (i.e. towards that vertex). If a polytope is given together with a linear objective function, and edges are oriented from vertices with smaller objective function values to vertices with larger objective values, the result is a unique sink orientation. Thus, unique sink orientations can be used to model linear programs as well as certain nonlinear programs such as the smallest circle problem.
In hypercubes:
The problem of finding the sink in a unique sink orientation of a hypercube was formulated as an abstraction of linear complementarity problems by Stickney & Watson (1978) and it was termed "unique sink orientation" in 2001 (Szabó & Welzl 2001).
In hypercubes:
It is possible for an algorithm to determine the unique sink of a d-dimensional hypercube in time cd for c < 2, substantially smaller than the 2d time required to examine all vertices. When the orientation has the additional property that the orientation forms a directed acyclic graph, which happens when unique sink orientations are used to model LP-type problems, it is possible to find the sink using a randomized algorithm in expected time exponential in the square root of d (Gärtner 2002).
In simple polytopes:
A simple d-dimensional polytope is a polytope in which every vertex has exactly d incident edges. In a unique-sink orientation of a simple polytope, every subset of k incoming edges at a vertex v determines a k-dimensional face for which v is the unique sink. Therefore, the number of faces of all dimensions of the polytope (including the polytope itself, but not the empty set) can be computed by the sum of the number of subsets of incoming edges, in (v) where G(P) is the graph of the polytope, and din(v) is the in-degree (number of incoming edges) of a vertex v in the given orientation (Kalai 1988).
In simple polytopes:
More generally, for any orientation of a simple polytope, the same sum counts the number of incident pairs of a face of the polytope and a sink of the face. And in an acyclic orientation, every face must have at least one sink. Therefore, an acyclic orientation is a unique sink orientation if and only if there is no other acyclic orientation with a smaller sum. Additionally, a k-regular subgraph of the given graph forms a face of the polytope if and only if its vertices form a lower set for at least one acyclic unique sink orientation. In this way, the face lattice of the polytope is uniquely determined from the graph (Kalai 1988). Based on this structure, the face lattices of simple polytopes can be reconstructed from their graphs in polynomial time using linear programming (Friedman 2009). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Federated identity**
Federated identity:
A federated identity in information technology is the means of linking a person's electronic identity and attributes, stored across multiple distinct identity management systems.Federated identity is related to single sign-on (SSO), in which a user's single authentication ticket, or token, is trusted across multiple IT systems or even organizations. SSO is a subset of federated identity management, as it relates only to authentication and is understood on the level of technical interoperability and it would not be possible without some sort of federation.
Management:
In information technology (IT), federated identity management (FIdM) amounts to having a common set of policies, practices and protocols in place to manage the identity and trust into IT users and devices across organizations.Single sign-on (SSO) systems allow a single user authentication process across multiple IT systems or even organizations. SSO is a subset of federated identity management, as it relates only to authentication and technical interoperability.
Management:
Centralized identity management solutions were created to help deal with user and data security where the user and the systems they accessed were within the same network – or at least the same "domain of control". Increasingly however, users are accessing external systems which are fundamentally outside their domain of control, and external users are accessing internal systems. The increasingly common separation of user from the systems requiring access is an inevitable by-product of the decentralization brought about by the integration of the Internet into every aspect of both personal and business life. Evolving identity management challenges, and especially the challenges associated with cross-company, cross-domain access, have given rise to a new approach to identity management, known now as "federated identity management".
Management:
FIdM, or the "federation" of identity, describes the technologies, standards and use-cases which serve to enable the portability of identity information across otherwise autonomous security domains. The ultimate goal of identity federation is to enable users of one domain to securely access data or systems of another domain seamlessly, and without the need for completely redundant user administration. Identity federation comes in many flavors, including "user-controlled" or "user-centric" scenarios, as well as enterprise-controlled or business-to-business scenarios.
Management:
Federation is enabled through the use of open industry standards and/or openly published specifications, such that multiple parties can achieve interoperability for common use-cases. Typical use-cases involve things such as cross-domain, web-based single sign-on, cross-domain user account provisioning, cross-domain entitlement management and cross-domain user attribute exchange.
Management:
Use of identity federation standards can reduce cost by eliminating the need to scale one-off or proprietary solutions. It can increase security and lower risk by enabling an organization to identify and authenticate a user once, and then use that identity information across multiple systems, including external partner websites. It can improve privacy compliance by allowing the user to control what information is shared, or by limiting the amount of information shared. And lastly, it can drastically improve the end-user experience by eliminating the need for new account registration through automatic "federated provisioning" or the need to redundantly login through cross-domain single sign-on.
Management:
The notion of identity federation is extremely broad, and also evolving. It could involve user-to-user and user-to-application as well as application-to-application use-case scenarios at both the browser tier as well as the web services or service-oriented architecture (SOA) tier. It can involve high-trust, high-security scenarios as well as low-trust, low-security scenarios. The levels of identity assurance that may be required for a given scenario are also being standardized through a common and open Identity Assurance Framework. It can involve user-centric use-cases, as well as enterprise-centric use-cases. The term "identity federation" is by design a generic term, and is not bound to any one specific protocol, technology, implementation or company. Identity federations may be bi-lateral relationships or multilateral relationships. In the latter case the multilateral federation frequently occurs in a vertical market, such as in law enforcement (such as the National Identity Exchange Federation - NIEF) and research and education (such as InCommon). If the identity federation is bilateral, the two parties can exchange the necessary metadata (assertion signing keys, etc.) to implement the relationship. In a multilateral federation, the metadata exchange among participants is a more complex issue. It can be handled in a hub-and-spoke exchange or by the distribution of a metadata aggregate by a federated operator.
Management:
One thing that is consistent, however, is the fact that "federation" describes methods of identity portability which are achieved in an open, often standards-based manner – meaning anyone adhering to the open specification or standard can achieve the full spectrum of use-cases and interoperability.
Identity federation can be accomplished any number of ways, some of which involve the use of formal Internet standards, such as the OASIS Security Assertion Markup Language (SAML) specification, and some of which may involve open-source technologies and/or other openly published specifications (e.g. Information Cards, OpenID, the Higgins trust framework or Novell's Bandit project).
Technologies:
Technologies used for federated identity include SAML (Security Assertion Markup Language), OAuth, OpenID, Security Tokens (Simple Web Tokens, JSON Web Tokens, and SAML assertions), Web Service Specifications, and Windows Identity Foundation.
Government initiatives:
United States In the United States, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), through the National Cybersecurity Center of Excellence, has published a building block whitepaper in December 2016 on this topicThe Federal Risk and Authorization Management Program (FedRAMP) is a government-wide program that provides a standardized approach to security assessment, authorization, and continuous monitoring for cloud products and services.
Government initiatives:
FedRAMP enables Agencies to rapidly adapt from old, insecure legacy IT to mission-enabling, secure, and cost effective cloud-based IT.
Examples:
Digital identity platforms that allow users to log onto third-party websites, applications, mobile devices and gaming systems with their existing identity, i.e. enable social login, include: Microsoft account – Formerly Windows Live ID Google Account Facebook - Login to public social venues.
Yahoo! – users can use their Yahoo! ID to log onto other sites, and users used to have the possibility to log onto Yahoo! with their Google or Facebook IDs.
Twitter LastPass LinkedIn PayPal Foursquare MySpace AOL Mozilla Persona On November 30, 2016, Mozilla shut down the persona.org services Amazon GitHubNote: Facebook Connect is a delegated ID, not a federated ID. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Alternant code**
Alternant code:
In coding theory, alternant codes form a class of parameterised error-correcting codes which generalise the BCH codes.
Definition:
An alternant code over GF(q) of length n is defined by a parity check matrix H of alternant form Hi,j = αjiyi, where the αj are distinct elements of the extension GF(qm), the yi are further non-zero parameters again in the extension GF(qm) and the indices range as i from 0 to δ − 1, j from 1 to n.
Properties:
The parameters of this alternant code are length n, dimension ≥ n − mδ and minimum distance ≥ δ + 1.
There exist long alternant codes which meet the Gilbert–Varshamov bound.
The class of alternant codes includes BCH codes Goppa codes Srivastava codes | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Sky Ape**
Sky Ape:
Sky Ape is the title character of a black-and-white comic book series. He is an ape who wears a jetpack and fights crime.
History:
Sky Ape was created by boyhood friends from different neighborhoods in the Boston, Massachusetts area. Phil Amara and Michael Russo were from East Boston, while Tim McCarney was from West Roxbury. They wanted to do a story about a gorilla with a jetpack that would rather do peoples taxes than fight crime. An artist search began, and eventually ended with Oklahoma-native Richard Jenkins. Jenkins has been the artist and co-creator on the series from the first published page to the last (with guest artists Shannon Gallant and Paul Corrigan helping Jenkins for only one stint).
History:
The series was first published by Slave Labor Graphics and publisher Dan Vado. The series lasted four issues under SLG (including a trade paperback edition). After languishing for several months without a publisher, Sky Ape was picked up by Larry Young and AiT/PlanetLar publishing. AiT first re-published the original SLG series is one squarebound collection with a cover design by graphic designer Amy Arendts. Next, in 2001, AiT published a second paperback entitled Sky Ape: Waiting for Crime. In 2003, a third volume called Sky Ape: All the Heroes followed. The creators then became overworked with side projects and parted ways. They rejoined in 2005 for a final saddlestitched one-shot called Sky Ape: King of Girls. Each Sky Ape comic has also included guest art by comic creators such as Alex Maleev, Craig Thompson, Pop Mhan, Mark Martin, Ben Stenbeck, Jack Pollock, Mark Schultz, Guy Davis, and many others.
Style:
The humor in Sky Ape is reminiscent of the old Adam West Batman (TV series) and The Monkees TV series. But the major influence is Monty Python's Flying Circus, as evidenced by the onslaught of nonsequiturs in the book. The series heavily uses media references as part of its gags. The collection garnered praise from Entertainment Weekly. Sky Ape has also become discussed on blog sites, using phrases like "Suck factor is high!" becoming somewhat of a minor mantra.The property is currently in development in Hollywood by Kickstart Entertainment as television animation. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Deterministic rendezvous problem**
Deterministic rendezvous problem:
The deterministic rendezvous problem is a problem in computer science and robotics that involves two or more robots or players that must find each other by following a predetermined set of instructions. The goal is for the robots to meet at a specific location, or rendezvous point, without knowing the location of the other robot or robots.In the deterministic rendezvous problem, each robot follows the same set of instructions, but each robot is assigned a unique label or identifier to differentiate them from each other [2]. This unique label is used to break the symmetry of the problem, as it allows the robots to distinguish themselves from each other and to follow the instructions in a specific order [3].
Deterministic rendezvous problem:
The deterministic rendezvous problem is typically solved by the robots acting synchronously, meaning that they all follow the instructions at the same time [4]. However, there are also non-synchronous versions of the problem, where the robots may act at different times or may have different internal clocks [5].
The deterministic rendezvous problem has applications in a wide range of fields, including robotics, distributed systems, and computer networks [6]. It is often used as a benchmark for evaluating the performance of algorithms and protocols for rendezvous and coordination in these fields [7].
Overview:
In the synchronous version of the deterministic rendezvous problem, both robots are initially placed at arbitrary nodes in a finite, connected, undirected graph. The size and structure of the graph is unknown to the robots.
Overview:
The information known by a robot is as follows: T, the number of time steps since it has been activated d, the degree of the node currently occupied by the robot L, the label of the robot (typically taking the form of a bit string)To solve the deterministic rendezvous problem, both robots must be given a sequence of deterministic instructions which allow the robots to use their known information to find each other. The robots are considered to have found each other if they are both occupying the same node in the graph during the same time step.
Solutions:
A number of algorithms exist to solve the deterministic rendezvous problem. Some of the solutions are listed below: Dessmark et al.
Solutions:
In 2006, Dessmark et al. presented a solution which solves the deterministic rendezvous problem in time proportional to 10 {\textstyle O\left(n^{5}{\sqrt {\tau l}}+n^{10}l\right)} , where: n is the number of nodes in the graph τ is the difference in activation time between the two robots l is the length of the shorter of the labels of the robotsThis solution is not ideal, since τ is an input parameter of the deterministic rendezvous problem and can therefore be arbitrarily large.
Solutions:
Kowalski and Malinowski In 2008, Kowalski and Malinowski presented a solution which solves the problem in 15 {\textstyle O\left(n^{15}+l^{3}\right)} time. This is a significant improvement, since this time complexity is not dependent on τ. This solution has one major drawback, though. It makes use of backtracking, where the robots must keep track of each edge that they have traversed. This is a drawback because it places assumptions on the structure of the graph (namely, how it is labeled), and the robots' sensory and memory capabilities.
Solutions:
Ta-Shma and Zwick The solution presented by Ta-Shma and Zwick in 2014 solves the problem in {\textstyle O\left(n^{5}+l\right)} time. In addition to the reduced time complexity (which doesn't rely on τ), this solution also doesn't use backtracking. Instead, it uses the notion of universal traversal sequences to help solve the problem.A universal traversal sequence is a sequence of instructions comprising a graph traversal for any regular graph with a set number of vertices and for any starting vertex. Since the robots may not be in a regular graph, a universal traversal sequence for n nodes and degree d is used, where d is the maximum degree of the graph. Any instructions in the chosen universal traversal sequence which specify that the robot travels to a neighbor of the current node which doesn't exist (i.e., the current node has degree < d) are ignored. By doing this, all nodes in the graph with degree less than d are treated as having enough self-loops to bring their total degree up to d, effectively allowing the graph to be treated as regular for the purpose of universal traversals.The basic idea of Ta-Shma and Zwick's solution is that if one of the robots completes a complete traversal of the graph while the other robot remains idle, or rests, then the two robots are guaranteed to meet. Since the size of the graph is unknown, the robots run universal traversal sequences for increasing values of n, while periodically resting. Whether a robot rests before or after a traversal depends upon the value of its label.For example, one of the robots could run the sequence: while the other robot runs the sequence: where Ui is a universal traversal sequence for a graph with i nodes, ui is the number of steps in that universal traversal sequence, and 0k represents k steps where the robot rests. The universal traversal sequence for the size of the actual graph will be run by one robot while the other rests for the number of steps in that traversal. However, this only works if the two robots are activated at the same time.To cover the case where the robots are activated at different times, the sequence to run will include rest periods of length ui after each step (in the traversal and the rest period). For example, one of the robots would run the sequence: where σi is the ith step of U1 and πi is the ith step of U2.In order to formally present the sequence that each robot will run, some additional notation is needed. Let: σb = 0 if b = 0 σb = σ if b = 1 L¯=1−L σm1..mk=σ1m...σkm Dk(σ1...σm)=σ10k...σm0k Assuming that one robot's label is 0 and that the other robot's label is 1, the sequence that each robot would run is: The sub-sequence {\textstyle D_{u_{i}-1}((U_{i}U_{i})^{L{\bar {L}}})} is known as a block and can be rewritten as {\textstyle D_{u_{i}-1}((U_{i}U_{i})^{L}(U_{i}U_{i})^{\bar {L}})} If σ = Ui and m = ui, the block can be further simplified to: Both of the above lines are known as chunks. One chunk consists of a universal traversal sequence with interleaved rest periods, while the other chunk is a rest period of length 2m2.
Solutions:
If the robot's label is 0, then each block it runs is equal to: If the label is 1, then each block it runs is equal to: Analysis The sequence of instructions listed above will allow two robots with labels 0 and 1 to meet after O(n2c) time steps.Ta-Shma and Zwick show how to extend this solution to allow the robots to meet after only O(nc) time steps and how to deal with arbitrary labels (which increases the time until the robots meet to O(n5+l) time steps). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Magmatic lull**
Magmatic lull:
A magmatic lull is a period of declined magmatic activity in volcanically active regions. They may occur as a result of underthrusting of hinterland lithosphere beneath a volcanic arc, changes in subduction parameters such as relative velocity, direction and slab dip (e.g. flat slab subduction), arc-arc collisions and subduction hinge advance. Individual magmatic lulls may last tens of millions of years between periods of volcanicity.A volcanic gap is a magmatic lull that separates two distinct volcanic zones. For example, the Andean Volcanic Belt of South America has three major volcanic gaps: the Peruvian flat-slab segment (3 °S–15 °S), the Pampean flat-slab segment (27 °S–33 °S) and the Patagonian Volcanic Gap (46 °S–49 °S). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Beta-2 adrenergic receptor**
Beta-2 adrenergic receptor:
The beta-2 adrenergic receptor (β2 adrenoreceptor), also known as ADRB2, is a cell membrane-spanning beta-adrenergic receptor that binds epinephrine (adrenaline), a hormone and neurotransmitter whose signaling, via adenylate cyclase stimulation through trimeric Gs proteins, increased cAMP, and downstream L-type calcium channel interaction, mediates physiologic responses such as smooth muscle relaxation and bronchodilation.Robert J.Lefkowitz and Brian Kobilka studied beta 2 adrenergic receptor as a model system which rewarded them the 2012 Nobel Prize in Chemistry “for groundbreaking discoveries that reveal the inner workings of an important family of such receptors: G-protein-coupled-receptors”.
Beta-2 adrenergic receptor:
The official symbol for the human gene encoding the β2 adrenoreceptor is ADRB2.
Gene:
The ADRB2 gene is intronless. Different polymorphic forms, point mutations, and/or downregulation of this gene are associated with nocturnal asthma, obesity and type 2 diabetes.
Structure:
The 3D crystallographic structure (see figure and links to the right) of the β2-adrenergic receptor has been determined by making a fusion protein with lysozyme to increase the hydrophilic surface area of the protein for crystal contacts. An alternative method, involving production of a fusion protein with an agonist, supported lipid-bilayer co-crystallization and generation of a 3.5 Å resolution structure.The Crystal Structure of the β2Adrenergic Receptor-Gs protein complex was solved in 2011. The largest conformational changes in the β2AR include a 14 Å outward movement at the cytoplasmic end of transmembrane segment 6 (TM6) and an alpha helical extension of the cytoplasmic end of TM5.
Mechanism:
This receptor is directly associated with one of its ultimate effectors, the class C L-type calcium channel CaV1.2. This receptor-channel complex is coupled to the Gs G protein, which activates adenylyl cyclase, catalysing the formation of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) which then activates protein kinase A, and counterbalancing phosphatase PP2A. Protein kinase A then goes on to phosphorylate (and thus inactivate) myosin light-chain kinase, which causes smooth muscle relaxation, accounting for the vasodilatory effects of beta 2 stimulation. The assembly of the signaling complex provides a mechanism that ensures specific and rapid signaling. A two-state biophysical and molecular model has been proposed to account for the pH and REDOX sensitivity of this and other GPCRs.Beta-2 adrenergic receptors have also been found to couple with Gi, possibly providing a mechanism by which response to ligand is highly localized within cells. In contrast, Beta-1 adrenergic receptors are coupled only to Gs, and stimulation of these results in a more diffuse cellular response. This appears to be mediated by cAMP induced PKA phosphorylation of the receptor.
Mechanism:
Interestingly, Beta-2 adrenergic receptor was observed to localize exclusively to the T-tubular network of adult cardiomyocytes, as opposed to Beta-1 adrenergic receptor, which is observed also on the outer plasma membrane of the cell
Function:
Musculoskeletal system Activation of the β2 adrenoreceptor with long-acting agents such as oral clenbuterol and intravenously-infused albuterol results in skeletomuscular hypertrophy and anabolism. The comprehensive anabolic, lipolytic, and ergogenic effects of long-acting β2 agonists such as clenbuterol render them frequent targets as performance-enhancing drugs in athletes. Consequently, such agents are monitored for and generally banned by WADA (World Anti-Doping Agency) with limited permissible usage under therapeutic exemptions; clenbuterol and other β2 adrenergic agents remain banned not as a beta-agonist, but rather an anabolic agent. These effects are largely attractive within agricultural contexts insofar that β2 adrenergic agents have seen notable extra-label usage in food-producing animals and livestock. While many countries including the United States have prohibited extra-label usage in food-producing livestock, the practice is still observed in many countries.
Function:
Circulatory system Heart muscle contraction Increase cardiac output (minor degree compared to β1).
Increases heart rate in sinoatrial node (SA node) (chronotropic effect).
Increases atrial cardiac muscle contractility. (inotropic effect).
Increases contractility and automaticity of ventricular cardiac muscle.
Dilate hepatic artery.
Dilate arterioles to skeletal muscle.
Function:
Eye In the normal eye, beta-2 stimulation by salbutamol increases intraocular pressure via net: Increase in production of aqueous humour by the ciliary process, Subsequent increased pressure-dependent uveoscleral outflow of humour, despite reduced drainage of humour via the Canal of Schlemm.In glaucoma, drainage is reduced (open-angle glaucoma) or blocked completely (closed-angle glaucoma). In such cases, beta-2 stimulation with its consequent increase in humour production is highly contra-indicated, and conversely, a topical beta-2 antagonist such as timolol may be employed.
Function:
Digestive system Glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in liver.
Glycogenolysis and lactate release in skeletal muscle.
Contract sphincters of Gastrointestinal tract.
Thickened secretions from salivary glands.
Insulin and glucagon secretion from pancreas.
Other Inhibit histamine-release from mast cells.
Increase protein content of secretions from lacrimal glands.
Receptor also present in cerebellum.
Bronchiole dilation (targeted while treating asthma attacks) Involved in brain - immune - communication
Ligands:
Agonists Spasmolytics used in asthma and COPD Short-acting β2 agonists (SABA) bitolterol fenoterol hexoprenaline isoprenaline (INN) or isoproterenol (USAN) levosalbutamol (INN) or levalbuterol (USAN) orciprenaline (INN) or metaproterenol (USAN) pirbuterol procaterol salbutamol (INN) or albuterol (USAN) terbutaline Long-acting β2 agonists (LABA) arformoterol (some consider it to be an ultra-LABA) bambuterol clenbuterol formoterol salmeterol Ultra-long-acting β2 agonists (ultra-LABA) carmoterol indacaterol milveterol (GSK 159797) olodaterol vilanterol (GSK 642444) Tocolytic agents Short-acting β2 agonists (SABA) fenoterol hexoprenaline isoxsuprine ritodrine salbutamol (INN) or albuterol (USAN) terbutaline β2 agonists used for other purposes zilpaterol Antagonists (Beta blockers) butoxamine* First generation (non-selective) β-blockers ICI-118,551* Propranolol* denotes selective antagonist to the receptor.
Ligands:
Allosteric modulators compound-6FA, PAM at intracellular binding site
Interactions:
Beta-2 adrenergic receptor has been shown to interact with: | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**What Is Metaphysics?**
What Is Metaphysics?:
"What Is Metaphysics?" (German: Was ist Metaphysik?) is a lecture by the philosopher Martin Heidegger, first presented to the faculties of the University of Freiburg on July 24, 1929, as inaugural address.
English Translations:
R.F.C. Hull and Alan Crick in 1949, in Existence and Being, edited by Werner Brock (Chicago: Henry Regnery), pp. 325–349 David Krell, in Basic Writings (1977) New York: Harper and Row (expanded edition, 1993), pp. 93–110 Miles Groth, "What Is Metaphysics?" | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Stadiametric rangefinding**
Stadiametric rangefinding:
Stadiametric rangefinding, or the stadia method, is a technique of measuring distances with a telescopic instrument. The term stadia comes from a Greek unit of length Stadion (equal to 600 Greek feet, pous) which was the typical length of a sports stadium of the time. Stadiametric rangefinding is used for surveying and in the telescopic sights of firearms, artillery pieces, or tank guns, as well as some binoculars and other optics. It is still widely used in long-range military sniping, but in many professional applications it is being replaced with microwave, infrared, or laser rangefinding methods. Although much easier to use, electronic rangefinders can give away the shooter's position to a well-equipped adversary, and the need for accurate range estimation existed for much longer than electronic rangefinders small and rugged enough to be suitable for military use.
Principle:
The stadia method is based upon the principle of similar triangles. This means that, for a triangle with a given angle, the ratio of opposite side length to adjacent side length (tangent) is constant. By using a reticle with marks of a known angular spacing, the principle of similar triangles can be used to find either the distance to objects of known size or the size of objects at a known distance. In either case, the known parameter is used, in conjunction with the angular measurement, to derive the length of the other side.
Principle:
Stadiametric rangefinding often uses the milliradian ("mil" or "mrad") as the unit of angular measurement. Since a radian is defined as the angle formed when the length of a circular arc equals the radius of the circle, a milliradian is the angle formed when the length of a circular arc equals 1/1000 of the radius of the circle. For telescopic angles, the approximations of sin tan (α)=α greatly simplify the trigonometry, enabling one to scale objects measured in milliradians through a telescope by a factor of 1000 for distance or height. An object 5 meters high, for example, will cover 1 mrad at 5000 meters, or 5 mrad at 1000 meters, or 25 mrad at 200 meters. Since the radian expresses a ratio, it is independent of the units used; an object 6 feet high covering 1 mrad will be 6000 feet distant.
Principle:
In practice, it can be seen that rough approximations may be made with a right triangle whose base (b) is equal to the distance of the 'rangefinder' from the eye; with the aperture (a) being the hole through which the target is sighted – the apex of this triangle being on the surface of the user's eye.
Principle:
For a standard distance from the eye (b) of 28" (71.12 cm); this being the common length of an archer's draw: 28" × 1 milliradian ≈ 0.028" (0.071 cm) -- stadia factor 1000 10 milliradians ≈ 0.280" (0.711 cm) -- stadia factor x 100 100 milliradians ≈ 2.80" (7.112 cm) -- stadia factor x10The approximate range of an object one foot (30.48 cm) in height covering roughly 100 milliradians is 10 feet (3.048 m) or: Range (r) = approximate height of object (h) × (1000 ÷ aperture in milliradians (a)) r = h(1000/a) → where r and h are identical units, and a is in milliradians.
Principle:
r = h/a → where r and h are identical units, and a is in radiansThe above formula functions for any system of linear measure provided r and h are calculated with the same units.
Surveying:
Stadia readings used in surveying can be taken with modern instruments such as transits, theodolites, plane-table alidades and levels. When using the stadia measuring method, a level staff or stadia rod is held so that it appears between two stadia marks visible on the instrument's reticle. The stadia rod has measurements written on it that can be read through the telescope of the instrument, providing a known remote height for the distance calculations.
Surveying:
An instrument equipped for stadia work has two horizontal stadia marks spaced equidistant from the center crosshair of the reticle. The interval between stadia marks in most surveying instruments is 10 mrad and gives a stadia interval factor of 100. The distance between the instrument and a stadia rod can be determined simply by multiplying the measurement between the stadia hairs (known as the stadia interval) by 100. The instrument must be level for this method to work directly. If the instrument line of sight is inclined relative to the staff, the horizontal and vertical distance components must be determined. Some instruments have additional graduations on a vertical circle to assist with these inclined measurements. These graduated circles, known as stadia circles, provide the value of the horizontal and the vertical measurements as a percentage of the inclined stadia measurement.
Surveying:
This system is sufficiently precise for locating topographic details such as rivers, bridges, buildings, and roads when an accuracy of 1/500 (0.2%, 2000ppm) is acceptable. Stadia readings are also used to provide repeated, independent observations for improved accuracy and to provide error checking against blunders in levelling.
The stadia method of distance measurement is primarily historical for surveying purposes, as distance nowadays is mostly measured by electronic or taping methods. Total station instruments do not have stadia lines marked on the reticle. Traditional methods are still used in areas where modern instruments are not common or by aficionados to antique surveying methods. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Discrete spectrum**
Discrete spectrum:
In the physical sciences, the term spectrum was introduced first into optics by Isaac Newton in the 17th century, referring to the range of colors observed when white light was dispersed through a prism. Soon the term referred to a plot of light intensity or power as a function of frequency or wavelength, also known as a spectral density plot.
Discrete spectrum:
Later it expanded to apply to other waves, such as sound waves and sea waves that could also be measured as a function of frequency (e.g., noise spectrum, sea wave spectrum). It has also been expanded to more abstract "signals", whose power spectrum can be analyzed and processed. The term now applies to any signal that can be measured or decomposed along a continuous variable, such as energy in electron spectroscopy or mass-to-charge ratio in mass spectrometry. Spectrum is also used to refer to a graphical representation of the signal as a function of the dependent variable.
Electromagnetic spectrum:
Electromagnetic spectrum refers to the full range of all frequencies of electromagnetic radiation and also to the characteristic distribution of electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed by that particular object. Devices used to measure an electromagnetic spectrum are called spectrograph or spectrometer. The visible spectrum is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum that can be seen by the human eye. The wavelength of visible light ranges from 390 to 700 nm. The absorption spectrum of a chemical element or chemical compound is the spectrum of frequencies or wavelengths of incident radiation that are absorbed by the compound due to electron transitions from a lower to a higher energy state. The emission spectrum refers to the spectrum of radiation emitted by the compound due to electron transitions from a higher to a lower energy state.
Electromagnetic spectrum:
Light from many different sources contains various colors, each with its own brightness or intensity. A rainbow, or prism, sends these component colors in different directions, making them individually visible at different angles. A graph of the intensity plotted against the frequency (showing the brightness of each color) is the frequency spectrum of the light. When all the visible frequencies are present equally, the perceived color of the light is white, and the spectrum is a flat line. Therefore, flat-line spectra in general are often referred to as white, whether they represent light or another type of wave phenomenon (sound, for example, or vibration in a structure).
Electromagnetic spectrum:
In radio and telecommunications, the frequency spectrum can be shared among many different broadcasters. The radio spectrum is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum corresponding to frequencies lower below 300 GHz, which corresponds to wavelengths longer than about 1 mm. The microwave spectrum corresponds to frequencies between 300 MHz (0.3 GHz) and 300 GHz and wavelengths between one meter and one millimeter. Each broadcast radio and TV station transmits a wave on an assigned frequency range, called a channel. When many broadcasters are present, the radio spectrum consists of the sum of all the individual channels, each carrying separate information, spread across a wide frequency spectrum. Any particular radio receiver will detect a single function of amplitude (voltage) vs. time. The radio then uses a tuned circuit or tuner to select a single channel or frequency band and demodulate or decode the information from that broadcaster. If we made a graph of the strength of each channel vs. the frequency of the tuner, it would be the frequency spectrum of the antenna signal.
Electromagnetic spectrum:
In astronomical spectroscopy, the strength, shape, and position of absorption and emission lines, as well as the overall spectral energy distribution of the continuum, reveal many properties of astronomical objects. Stellar classification is the categorisation of stars based on their characteristic electromagnetic spectra. The spectral flux density is used to represent the spectrum of a light-source, such as a star. In radiometry and colorimetry (or color science more generally), the spectral power distribution (SPD) of a light source is a measure of the power contributed by each frequency or color in a light source. The light spectrum is usually measured at points (often 31) along the visible spectrum, in wavelength space instead of frequency space, which makes it not strictly a spectral density. Some spectrophotometers can measure increments as fine as one to two nanometers and even higher resolution devices with resolutions less than 0.5 nm have been reported. the values are used to calculate other specifications and then plotted to show the spectral attributes of the source. This can be helpful in analyzing the color characteristics of a particular source.
Mass spectrum:
A plot of ion abundance as a function of mass-to-charge ratio is called a mass spectrum. It can be produced by a mass spectrometer instrument. The mass spectrum can be used to determine the quantity and mass of atoms and molecules. Tandem mass spectrometry is used to determine molecular structure.
Energy spectrum:
In physics, the energy spectrum of a particle is the number of particles or intensity of a particle beam as a function of particle energy. Examples of techniques that produce an energy spectrum are alpha-particle spectroscopy, electron energy loss spectroscopy, and mass-analyzed ion-kinetic-energy spectrometry.
Displacement:
Oscillatory displacements, including vibrations, can also be characterized spectrally. For water waves, see wave spectrum and tide spectrum.
Sound and non-audible acoustic waves can also be characterized in terms of its spectral density, for example, timbre and musical acoustics.
Acoustical measurement In acoustics, a spectrogram is a visual representation of the frequency spectrum of sound as a function of time or another variable.
Displacement:
A source of sound can have many different frequencies mixed. A musical tone's timbre is characterized by its harmonic spectrum. Sound in our environment that we refer to as noise includes many different frequencies. When a sound signal contains a mixture of all audible frequencies, distributed equally over the audio spectrum, it is called white noise.The spectrum analyzer is an instrument which can be used to convert the sound wave of the musical note into a visual display of the constituent frequencies. This visual display is referred to as an acoustic spectrogram. Software based audio spectrum analyzers are available at low cost, providing easy access not only to industry professionals, but also to academics, students and the hobbyist. The acoustic spectrogram generated by the spectrum analyzer provides an acoustic signature of the musical note. In addition to revealing the fundamental frequency and its overtones, the spectrogram is also useful for analysis of the temporal attack, decay, sustain, and release of the musical note.
Continuous versus discrete spectra:
In the physical sciences, the spectrum of a physical quantity (such as energy) may be called continuous if it is non-zero over the whole spectrum domain (such as frequency or wavelength) or discrete if it attains non-zero values only in a discrete set over the independent variable, with band gaps between pairs of spectral bands or spectral lines.The classical example of a continuous spectrum, from which the name is derived, is the part of the spectrum of the light emitted by excited atoms of hydrogen that is due to free electrons becoming bound to a hydrogen ion and emitting photons, which are smoothly spread over a wide range of wavelengths, in contrast to the discrete lines due to electrons falling from some bound quantum state to a state of lower energy. As in that classical example, the term is most often used when the range of values of a physical quantity may have both a continuous and a discrete part, whether at the same time or in different situations. In quantum systems, continuous spectra (as in bremsstrahlung and thermal radiation) are usually associated with free particles, such as atoms in a gas, electrons in an electron beam, or conduction band electrons in a metal. In particular, the position and momentum of a free particle has a continuous spectrum, but when the particle is confined to a limited space its spectrum becomes discrete.
Continuous versus discrete spectra:
Often a continuous spectrum may be just a convenient model for a discrete spectrum whose values are too close to be distinguished, as in the phonons in a crystal.
The continuous and discrete spectra of physical systems can be modeled in functional analysis as different parts in the decomposition of the spectrum of a linear operator acting on a function space, such as the Hamiltonian operator.
The classical example of a discrete spectrum (for which the term was first used) is the characteristic set of discrete spectral lines seen in the emission spectrum and absorption spectrum of isolated atoms of a chemical element, which only absorb and emit light at particular wavelengths. The technique of spectroscopy is based on this phenomenon.
Continuous versus discrete spectra:
Discrete spectra are seen in many other phenomena, such as vibrating strings, microwaves in a metal cavity, sound waves in a pulsating star, and resonances in high-energy particle physics. The general phenomenon of discrete spectra in physical systems can be mathematically modeled with tools of functional analysis, specifically by the decomposition of the spectrum of a linear operator acting on a functional space.
Continuous versus discrete spectra:
In classical mechanics In classical mechanics, discrete spectra are often associated to waves and oscillations in a bounded object or domain. Mathematically they can be identified with the eigenvalues of differential operators that describe the evolution of some continuous variable (such as strain or pressure) as a function of time and/or space.
Discrete spectra are also produced by some non-linear oscillators where the relevant quantity has a non-sinusoidal waveform. Notable examples are the sound produced by the vocal cords of mammals.: p.684 and the stridulation organs of crickets, whose spectrum shows a series of strong lines at frequencies that are integer multiples (harmonics) of the oscillation frequency.
Continuous versus discrete spectra:
A related phenomenon is the appearance of strong harmonics when a sinusoidal signal (which has the ultimate "discrete spectrum", consisting of a single spectral line) is modified by a non-linear filter; for example, when a pure tone is played through an overloaded amplifier, or when an intense monochromatic laser beam goes through a non-linear medium. In the latter case, if two arbitrary sinusoidal signals with frequencies f and g are processed together, the output signal will generally have spectral lines at frequencies |mf + ng|, where m and n are any integers.
Continuous versus discrete spectra:
In quantum mechanics In quantum mechanics, the discrete spectrum of an observable corresponds to the eigenvalues of the operator used to model that observable. According to the mathematical theory of such operators, its eigenvalues are a discrete set of isolated points, which may be either finite or countable.
Discrete spectra are usually associated with systems that are bound in some sense (mathematically, confined to a compact space). The position and momentum operators have continuous spectra in an infinite domain, but a discrete (quantized) spectrum in a compact domain and the same properties of spectra hold for angular momentum, Hamiltonians and other operators of quantum systems.
The quantum harmonic oscillator and the hydrogen atom are examples of physical systems in which the Hamiltonian has a discrete spectrum. In the case of the hydrogen atom the spectrum has both a continuous and a discrete part, the continuous part representing the ionization. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Naphthionic acid**
Naphthionic acid:
Naphthionic acid is an organic compound with the formula C10H6(SO3H)(NH2). It is one of several aminonaphthalenesulfonic acids, derivatives of naphthalene containing both amine and sulfonic acid functional groups. It is a white solid, although commercial samples can appear gray. It is used in the synthesis of azo dyes such as Rocceline (a. k. a. Solid Red A), during which the amino group of the acid (in the form of a salt) is diazotated and then coupled with, in the case mentioned, β-naphthol. It is prepared by treating 1-aminonaphthalene with sulfuric acid. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Stoplogs**
Stoplogs:
Stoplogs are hydraulic engineering control elements that are used in floodgates to adjust the water level or discharge in a river, canal, or reservoir. Stoplogs are sometimes confused with flashboards, as both elements are used in bulkhead or crest gates. Stoplogs are typically long rectangular timber beams or boards that are placed on top of each other and dropped into premade slots inside a weir, gate, or channel. Present day, the process of adding and removing stoplogs is not manual, but done with hydraulic stoplog lifters and hoists. Since the height of the barrier can only be adjusted through the addition and removal of stoplogs, finding a lighter and stronger material other than wood or concrete became a more desirable choice. Other materials, including steel and composites, can be used as stoplogs as well. Stoplogs are designed to cut off or stop flow through a conduit.
Use of Stoplogs:
Stoplogs are modular in nature, giving the operator of a gated structure the ability to control the water level in a channel by adding or removing individual stoplogs. A gate may make use of one or more logs. Each log is lowered horizontally into a space or bay between two grooved piers referred to as a stoplog check. In larger gate structures, there will be multiple bays in which stoplogs can be placed to better control the discharge through the structure.
Use of Stoplogs:
Stoplogs are frequently used to temporarily block flow through a spillway or canal during routine maintenance. At other times stoplogs can be used over longer periods of times, such as when a field is flooded and stoplogs are being used in smaller gates in order to control the depth of water in fields. The logs may be left in and adjusted during the entire time that the field is submerged.
Use of Stoplogs:
In most cases, the boards used are subjected to high flow conditions. As individual stoplogs begin to age they are replaced. Typically small amounts of water will leak between individual logs.
Stoplogs are typically used in structures where the removal, installation, and replacement of the logs is expected infrequently. When larger flows of water are passing through a stoplog gate, it can be difficult to remove or place individuals logs. Larger logs often require multiple people to position and lift the logs.
Stoplogs vs. Flashboards:
Sometimes engineers will use these two terms interchangeably by calling a stoplog a flashboard. This is done in part because unlike many other types of bulkhead gates that are one continuous unit, both stoplogs and flashboards are modular and can be easily designed to hold back water at varying levels. However, most engineering texts and design firms differentiate between the two structures. Stoplogs are specialized bulkheads that are dropped into premade slots or guides in a channel or control structure, while flashboards are bulkheads that are placed on the crest or top of a channel wall or control structure. Flashboards are sometimes designed to break away under high flow conditions and thus to provide only a temporary diversion. In contrast, stoplogs are intended to be reused, and failure of a stoplog will result in an uncontrolled flow through a gate.
Handstops:
Smaller stoplogs are sometimes referred to as handstops. Handstops are used in smaller gated structures, such as irrigation delivery ditches or the gates used to control water depth in larger submerged fields (such as rice fields). They are designed to be easily operated by a single individual. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**International Networks (country code)**
International Networks (country code):
International Networks is the name given by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) to country calling codes +882 and +883, and serves as a catch-all for telephone services not dedicated to a single country. Satellite telephone carriers, especially those with worldwide service, are allocated within the Global Mobile Satellite System (GMSS), country code +881, with the exception of non-terrestrial Inmarsat, country code 870.
International Networks (country code):
As in the other such shared country codes, carriers are allocated number space within this code space plus their identification code (two-digit number in 882 code space, three or four digit number in 883 code space). The phone number for a subscriber of such a service starts with +882/+883 followed by the carrier code.
The cost to call such a number can be high; for example in the British Telecom price list rates for various 882 and 883 numbers ranged from £0.60 to £4.50 per minute.
Carrier codes:
As of November 27, 2017 the assignments of +882/+883 carrier codes are as follows: Active In the +882-99 block, two numbering spaces collide: The numbering area has officially been assigned to Telenor but prior to this assignment, e164.org started to assign unofficial numbers within that numbering area.
Inactive The following codes were previously assigned by the ITU but were not used as of 2007: | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Hypoplasia**
Hypoplasia:
Hypoplasia (from Ancient Greek ὑπo- hypo- 'under' + πλάσις plasis 'formation'; adjective form hypoplastic) is underdevelopment or incomplete development of a tissue or organ. Although the term is not always used precisely, it properly refers to an inadequate or below-normal number of cells. Hypoplasia is similar to aplasia, but less severe. It is technically not the opposite of hyperplasia (too many cells). Hypoplasia is a congenital condition, while hyperplasia generally refers to excessive cell growth later in life. (Atrophy, the wasting away of already existing cells, is technically the direct opposite of both hyperplasia and hypertrophy.) Hypoplasia can be present in any tissue or organ. It is descriptive of many medical conditions, including underdevelopment of organs such as: Breasts during puberty Testes in Klinefelter's syndrome Ovaries in Fanconi anemia, gonadal dysgenesis, trisomy X Thymus in DiGeorge syndrome Labia majora in popliteal pterygium syndrome Corpus callosum, connecting the two sides of the brain, in agenesis of the corpus callosum Cerebellum caused by mutation in the reelin gene Tooth caused by oral pathology, such as Turner's hypoplasia Chambers of the heart in hypoplastic left heart syndrome and hypoplastic right heart syndrome Optic nerve in optic nerve hypoplasia Sacrum in sacral agenesis Facial muscle in asymmetric crying facies Thumb from birth Lungs, often as a result of oligohydramnios during gestation or the existence of congenital diaphragmatic hernia Small bowel in coeliac disease Fingers and ears in harlequin-type ichthyosis Mandible in congenital hypothyroidism | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Stratus VOS**
Stratus VOS:
Stratus VOS (Virtual Operating System) is a proprietary operating system running on Stratus Technologies fault-tolerant computer systems. VOS is available on Stratus's ftServer and Continuum platforms. VOS customers use it to support high-volume transaction processing applications which require continuous availability. VOS is notable for being one of the few operating systems which run on fully lockstepped hardware.
During the 1980s, an IBM version of Stratus VOS existed and was called the System/88 Operating System.
History:
VOS was designed from its inception as a high-security transaction-processing environment tailored to fault-tolerant hardware. It incorporates much of the design experience that came out of the MIT/Bell-Laboratories/General-Electric (later Honeywell) Multics project.
In 1984, Stratus added a UNIX System V implementation called Unix System Facilities (USF) to VOS, integrating Unix and VOS at the kernel level.In recent years, Stratus has added POSIX-compliance, and many open source packages can run on VOS.Like competing proprietary operating systems, VOS has seen its market share shrink steadily in the 1990s and early 2000s.
Development:
Programming for VOS VOS provides compilers for PL/I, COBOL, Pascal, FORTRAN, C (with the VOS C and GCC compilers), and C++ (also GCC). Each of these programming languages can make VOS system calls (e.g. s$seq_read to read a record from a file), and has extensions to support varying-length strings in PL/I style. Developers typically code in their favourite VOS text editor, or offline, before compiling on the system; there are no VOS IDE applications.
Development:
In its history, Stratus has offered hardware platforms based on the Motorola 68000 microprocessor family ("FT" and "XA" series), the Intel i860 microprocessor family ("XA/R" series), the HP PA-RISC processor family ("Continuum" series), and the Intel Xeon x86 processor family ("V Series"). All versions of VOS offer compilers targeted at the native instruction set, and some versions of VOS offer cross-compilers.
Development:
Stratus added support for the POSIX API in VOS Release 14.3 (on Continuum), and added support for the GNU C/C++ compiler, GNU gdb debugger, and many POSIX commands in VOS Release 14.4. Each additional release of VOS has added more POSIX.1 capabilities, to the point where many user-mode open-source packages can now be successfully built. For this reason, beginning with Release 17.0, Stratus renamed VOS to OpenVOS.
Development:
Stratus offers supported ports of Samba, OpenSSL, OpenSSH, GNU Privacy Guard, OpenLDAP, Berkeley DB, MySQL Community Server, Apache, IBM WebSphere MQ, and the community edition of Java.
Numeric values in VOS are always big endian, regardless of the endianness of the underlying hardware platform. On little endian servers with x86 processors, the compilers do a byte swap before reading or writing values to memory to transform the data to or from the native little endian format.
Development:
Command Macro Language VOS has a fairly complete command macro language which can be used to create menu systems, automate tasks etc. VOS command macros accept arguments on the command-line or via a user interface "form". Arguments are defined at the beginning of the command macro in a "parameters" section. The language supports a range of statements, including if/then/else, boolean operations, "while" loops, "goto" and excellent error reporting. The command macro language can be executed in interactive and non-interactive (batch or started process) modes. It can be used to automate programs, capturing prompts and sending appropriate responses. This has led Stratus to limit the capabilities of the command macro language.The macro language lacks support for user-defined functions and does not easily support include files. The string handling is prone to errors, especially with embedded control characters.
Overview:
VOS was coded mainly in PL/I with a small amount of assembly language before it was migrated to ftServer series. As of 1991, the system was written in PL/I and C, with only 3% in assembly.Its overall structure has much in common with Multics, and many of the system's features can be traced back to Multics to varying degrees. The system exposes a number of fundamental abstractions to the software designer or programmer, most notable being Processes Devices Hard Disks Various IPC mechanisms TasksA process is the scheduled entity in VOS and each process has a set of attributes that govern how it is manipulated by the system. For example, processes have a user name and process name. The former is used by VOS to determine the process's access rights to external devices and items with the file system. Of fundamental significance is a process's privileged flag, which is a binary attribute. Privileged processes may perform privileged operations. This mechanism is used to restrict certain potentially powerful operations that can have system wide consequences (e.g. shutting down the system, dismounting a hard disk etc.).
Distribution:
VOS is distributed only by Stratus Technologies. The distribution media is a 3.5 mm DAT tape for Continuum, and an SDLT tape for early V Series platforms. As of OpenVOS Release 17.0, Stratus offers support for distributing OpenVOS on a DVD or by downloading a release file. Software installations may be done by the Stratus Field Engineer or by the customer's system administrator.
Interface:
The command-line interface is the main, and most powerful, user interface for a VOS system.
Interface:
Users may be locked into "form" based sub-system by command macro scripts if required, although a skilled user would be able to break out of this and get command-line access. (It is, in fact, possible for a Stratus system administrator to set up a user's account such that an attempt to break out of FMS—the Stratus Forms Management System—to the command line results in the user being logged out.) Command macros and programs can be invoked with an argument to display a form listing all the available parameters, which the user can navigate using the "tab" key. Each parameter is generally restricted to control what the user can input. This includes lists of valid values, numeric-only, text-only, etc. Parameters can also be hidden using a "secret" tag, or made mandatory.
Interface:
All commands in VOS are defined in full with underbars to separate words. For example, change_current_dir changes the working directory. The VOS help system uses this convention to assist users who are looking for a subset of possible commands; for instance, those referring to "change" are found by help -match change.
Users may customize their command interface by means of a file that contains abbreviations for commands. Command abbreviations are conventionally named after the first letters of the command they represent, so ccd may be expanded to change_current_dir foodir.
Applications:
System applications VOS is used on Continuum and ftServer systems, both of which are designed to be highly fault-tolerant. As such, these systems are typically used in safety-critical or mission-critical applications, typically banks, hospitals, telecommunications and transaction processing companies.
Applications:
Communications VOS supports the following protocols TCP/IP X.25 SNA SDLC/QLLC Async Bisync LAPB Poll/Select RJE/HASP ALC/SLC Visa, S.W.I.F.T., NASDAQ, FAS, CHIPS, AMEX MQ SeriesOlder versions of VOS implemented a non-OSI standard TCP/IP known as OS TCP/IP (Operating System TCP/IP.) VOS since version 14.x has implemented OSI-compliant Streams-TCP. Older applications using OS TCP/IP have to be ported in order to use STCP. This can mean a loss of functionality as OS TCP/IP supported several functions that are not OSI-compliant and have therefore been abandoned. The ftServer hardware that V Series runs on only supports TCP/IP and X.25 (X.25 only when equipped with the optional NIO.) Websphere MQ 6.0 (a.k.a. MQ Series) is TCP/IP based; so, that is also supported by ftServer hardware. Devices supporting the legacy protocols run on the Continuum hardware and may be accessed from current hardware over the Open StrataLINK network.
Fault tolerance:
Fault tolerance is built into VOS from the bottom up. On a hardware level, major devices are run in lockstepped duplex mode, meaning that there are two identical devices performing the same action at the same time. (In addition, each device, or board, is also duplexed in order to identify internal board failures at a hardware level, which is why Stratus hardware can be defined as "lock stepped".) These boards are actively monitored by the operating system which can correct any minor inconsistencies (such as bad disk-writes or reads). Any boards which report an unacceptable number of faults are removed from service by the system; the duplexed board will continue operation until the problem is resolved via a hot-fix. This includes CPUs, disk drives, and any other device that can logically be duplexed (which by definition, excludes communications devices). The system will continue processing as normal and will automatically raise a fault ticket with Stratus Customer Service via RSN (the Remote Service Network). Stratus Customer Service will then dial into the system using RSN to investigate the problem and dispatch replacement parts.
Fault tolerance:
The operating system is designed to avoid crashes due to a simplexed hardware failure.
File system:
VOS supports a number of unique file types: Stream files: a stream of binary data, corresponding directly with the concept of a file on other operating systems.
Fixed files: a sequence of records of a fixed size.
File system:
Relative files: a sequence of records of a fixed file supporting random access Sequential files: a sequence of records of variable size Queue files: file-system based backup for message queues Pipes: named pipes for inter-process communication Transaction files: these provide support for journal based rollbackThe VOS API allows the creation of multiple indexes per file, sorting according to the contents of a record, or an external key, or an internal key, or a well-defined set of multiple keys. A VOS file with one or more indexes can be used as a C-ISAM database table.
File system:
VOS uses a proprietary file naming syntax which includes the system name, module name, disk number, and directory, with components separated by the ">" symbol. Typically the system disk will be housed in the same module as the CPU, #m1, so a system file for a VOS cluster would be referenced as (%system)#m1_d01>system>devices.table VOS disk allocation and memory is organised in "blocks", each block being 4,096 bytes. Memory takes the form of RAM or paging. VOS systems support paging partitions and paging files. In modern versions of VOS, paging files can be created dynamically by the SysAdmin (but not removed without a reboot). These paging files can in theory consist of more than one extent (which is viewed by the kernel as a mini-paging partition) which may or may not be contiguous. However, non-contiguous extents are NOT recommended as they greatly increase disk activity. Admin should create the largest possible extent for the paging files as early as possible after the system has been booted.
File system:
File system security VOS supports write, read, execute, and null (no) access to all files, directories and devices (although directories and files have slightly different access lists). Access can be assigned to users, groups, or the world. Only read access is required to run an executable program, provided that the user has "status" access for the directory in which that program resides.
File system:
VOS inherited access control lists from Multics and also implements directory access control lists. If a file does not have an access control list, the containing directory's default access control list applies.
Access to devices is typically controlled by creating a file which is linked to the device by the administrator. (This may be true in OpenVOS, but does not apply to the original operating system.) Access is then given to this file, and this sets the access on the device.
Open StrataLINK:
VOS has always been a network-aware operating system. Virtually every system call in the native API has a parameter that determines what computer the operation affects. If the operation isn't local, it is redirected to the target computer via remote subroutine call. For example, file names are parsed to indicate which computer the file resides on.
Open StrataLINK:
The StrataLINK networking model has a two level hierarchy for naming computers: Each computer is called a module and modules are aggregated into systems. Each system is administered as a unit. In other words, all of the modules in a system are aware of all the disks and hardware devices on that system. The result of this is that a file name that begins with the system name refers to files on other computers and can be opened without the need for any special networking. The same is true for devices. Other system entities, such as processes, are referenced using module names which are written %system#module. The VOS system and module names have no defined relationship with IP addresses or domain names—The VOS API was developed in late 1980—before the Internet was widely adopted and long before URLs were even invented.
Open StrataLINK:
Historically, StrataLINK was a proprietary 10Mb CSMA/CD ring network which allowed high performance (for the time) with very low memory overhead and CPU utilization. This was never developed beyond 10Mb and was dropped in favor of using TCP/IP because Ethernet became the dominant networking standard and because memory and CPU processing got cheaper.
Open StrataLINK can also use X.25 for wide area communications. Using the Open StrataLINK protocols for wide area communications is also referred to as StrataNET. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Transepithelial potential difference**
Transepithelial potential difference:
Transepithelial potential difference (TEPD) is the voltage across an epithelium, and is the sum of the membrane potentials for the outer and inner cell membranes.
TEPD in the nose:
The diagnosis of cystic fibrosis (CF) is usually based on high sweat chloride concentrations, characteristic clinical findings (including sinopulmonary infections), and/or family history. However, a small portion of patients with cystic fibrosis especially those with "mild" mutations of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator (CFTR) ion channel, have near-normal sweat tests.
TEPD in the nose:
In these cases, a useful diagnostic, adjunct involves measuring the nasal transepithelial potential difference (ie, the charge on the respiratory epithelial surface as compared to interstitial fluid). Individuals with cystic fibrosis have a significantly more negative nasoepithelial surface than normal, due to increased luminal sodium absorption. In most exocrine glands, the CFTR protein normally secretes chloride ions into the lumen, and also has a tonic inhibitory effect on the opening of the apical sodium channel (which absorbs sodium into the cell). Impaired CFTR functioning directly reduces ductal epithelial chloride secretion and indirectly increases sodium absorption through lack of CFTR's inhibitory effect on the apical sodium channel. The result is dehydrated mucus and a widened, negative transepithelial potential difference.The nasal TEPD is increased in cystic fibrosis, making it a potential diagnostic tool for this disorder.
TEPD in the kidney:
In the kidney, TEPD contributes to tubular reabsorption.
TEER Measurement:
Transepithelial / transendothelial electrical resistance (TEER) is an electrophysiological technique widely adopted for use in Organ-on-a-chip systems. It uses Ohmic contact resistance to serve as a proxy for the permeability of a cellular monolayer. TEER therefore enables researchers to miniaturize assays such as Caco-2 permeability, Blood–brain barrier transfer, or membrane integrity assays in Microfluidic systems. TEER has proven to be a highly sensitive and reliable method to confirm the integrity and permeability of in vitro barrier models. Because it is non-invasive and offers the advantage of continuously monitoring living cells throughout their various stages of growth and differentiation, it is widely accepted as a standard validation tool. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Koek-en-zopie**
Koek-en-zopie:
Koek-en-zopie (roughly translated as "cake-and-drinks" or "cake-and-eggnog") is a Dutch term that is used to denote the food and drink sold on the ice during periods of ice skating.
Koek-en-zopie:
From the 17th century up to and including the 20th century, the fare would have been anything suitable for eating by hand, such as a pancake. These would have been cooked over an open fire on land until the introduction of a small Franklin stove allowed a form of cooking on ice. For the thirsty, there was a semi-fluid zopie, consisted of a mixture of bock and home-made rum and other local ingredients. Later, koek-en-zopie stalls often sold warm drinks such as punch.
Koek-en-zopie:
Nowadays, the stalls primarily serve hot chocolate, pea soup, mulled wine and cookies or cake.
Until the 19th century, only shops selling alcoholic beverages on land or water were bound by law. As long as there was ice for the koek-en-zopie stalls to stand on, they enjoyed protection from regulations. Gambling and prostitution stalls were occasionally established on the ice in cities for the same reason. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Chewing tobacco**
Chewing tobacco:
Chewing tobacco is a type of smokeless tobacco product that is placed between the cheek and lower gum to draw out its flavor. It consists of coarsely chopped aged tobacco that is flavored and often sweetened; it is not ground fine like dipping tobacco. Unwanted juices are then spat.
Chewing tobacco:
Chewing tobacco may be left as loose leaf or compressed into a small rectangular "plug". Nearly all modern chewing tobaccos are produced by a process of leaf curing, cutting, fermentation, and processing, which may include sweetening and flavoring. Historically, many American chewing-tobacco brands popular during the American Civil War era were made with cigar clippings. Chewing tobacco is a source of nicotine.
History:
Chewing is one of the oldest methods of consuming tobacco. Indigenous peoples of the Americas in both North and South America chewed the leaves of the plant long before the arrival of Europeans.
History:
The Southern United States was distinctive for their production of tobacco, which earned premium prices globally. Most farmers grew some for their own use, or traded with neighbors who grew it. Commercial sales became important in the late 19th century, as major tobacco companies arose in the South, becoming one of the largest employers in Winston-Salem, North Carolina, Durham, North Carolina, and Richmond, Virginia. Southerners dominated the tobacco industry in the United States. So much so that a concern as large as the Helme Tobacco Company, headquartered in New Jersey, was headed by former Confederate officer George Washington Helme. In 1938, R.J. Reynolds marketed 84 brands of chewing tobacco, 12 brands of smoking tobacco, and the top-selling Camel brand of cigarettes. Reynolds sold large quantities of chewing tobacco, even though that market peaked around 1910.A historian of the American South in the late 1860s reported on typical usage in the region where it was grown, paying close attention to class and gender: The chewing of tobacco was well-nigh universal. This habit had been widespread among the agricultural population of America both North and South before the war. Soldiers had found the quid a solace in the field and continued to revolve it in their mouths upon returning to their homes. Out of doors where his life was principally led the chewer spat upon his lands without offence to other men, and his homes and public buildings were supplied with spittoons. Brown and yellow parabolas were projected to right and left toward these receivers, but very often without the careful aim which made for cleanly living. Even the pews of fashionable churches were likely to contain these familiar conveniences. The large numbers of Southern men, and these were of the better class (officers in the Confederate army and planters, worth $20,000 or more, and barred from general amnesty) who presented themselves for the pardon of President Johnson, while they sat awaiting his pleasure in the ante-room at the White House, covered its floor with pools and rivulets of their spittle. An observant traveller in the South in 1865 said that in his belief seven-tenths of all persons above the age of twelve years, both male and female, used tobacco in some form. Women could be seen at the doors of their cabins in their bare feet, in their dirty one-piece cotton garments, their chairs tipped back, smoking pipes made of corn cobs into which were fitted reed stems or goose quills. Boys of eight or nine years of age and half-grown girls smoked. Women and girls "dipped" in their houses, on their porches, in the public parlours of hotels and in the streets.
History:
Chewing tobacco is still used, predominantly by young males in some parts of the American South, but also in other areas and age groups. In September 2006, both the Republican and Democratic candidates for Senator from Virginia admitted to chewing tobacco and agreed that it sets a bad example for children.In the late 19th century, during the peak in popularity of chewing tobacco in the Western United States, a device known as the spittoon was a ubiquitous feature throughout places both private and public (e.g. parlors and passenger cars). The purpose of the spittoon was to provide a receptacle for excess juices and spittle accumulated from the oral use of tobacco. As chewing tobacco's popularity declined throughout the years, the spittoon became merely a relic of the Old West and is rarely seen outside museums. Spittoons are still present on the floor of the U.S. Senate's old chamber, honored as tradition.
Types:
Chewing tobacco is sold in several different varieties.
Types:
Loose-leaf Loose-leaf chewing tobacco is the most widely available and most frequently used type of chewing tobacco. It consists of shredded tobacco leaf, usually sweetened and sometimes flavored, and often sold in a sealed pouch typically weighing 3 oz. Loose-leaf chewing tobacco has a sticky texture due to the sweeteners added. Common loose-leaf chewing tobacco brands include Red Man, Levi Garrett, Beech-Nut, and Stoker's.
Types:
Plug Plug chewing tobacco is tobacco leaves pressed into a square, brick-like mass called a plug. From this, pieces are bitten off or cut from the plug and then chewed. Plug tobacco is declining in popularity, thus less readily available than loose-leaf chewing tobacco. Historically, plug tobacco could be either smoked in a pipe or chewed, but today, these are two distinct products.
Types:
Twist Twist chewing tobacco consists of leaves twisted together into a rope-like mass. Unlike most loose-leaf tobaccos, twist chewing tobacco is usually not sweetened. Pieces of twist are either bitten off or cut, and then chewed. Twist chewing tobacco is not widely available and is mostly found in Appalachia. Historically, twists could also be smoked in a pipe, or ground up into nasal snuff.
Health issues:
Oral and spit tobacco increase the risk for leukoplakia, a precursor to oral cancer. Chewing tobacco has been known to cause cancer, particularly of the mouth and throat. According to International Agency for Research on Cancer, "Some health scientists have suggested that smokeless tobacco should be used in smoking cessation programs and have made implicit or explicit claims that its use would partly reduce the exposure of smokers to carcinogens and the risk for cancer. These claims, however, are not supported by the available evidence.
Chewing tobacco and baseball:
When the rules of baseball were first written in 1845, the carcinogenic potential of chewing tobacco was unknown. At that time, it was commonly used by players and coaches alike. Smokeless tobacco use became rampant by players by the early 1900s. The use of chewing tobacco in baseball steadily increased until the mid-20th century, when cigarettes became popular and took the place of some players' smokeless tobacco habit.
Chewing tobacco and baseball:
Joe Garagiola, who quit, warned about chewing tobacco: "I tell these guys, 'You may not like what I say, but with lung cancer you die of lung cancer,'" ... "With oral cancer, you die one piece at a time. They operate on your neck, they operate on your jaw, they operate on your throat." Bill Tuttle was a Major League player who made a big name for himself both through baseball and his anti-chewing tobacco efforts. Tuttle was an outfielder for the Detroit Tigers, Kansas City Athletics, and Minnesota Twins. He was an avid tobacco chewer; even his baseball cards pictured him with a bulge in his cheek from the tobacco. Nearly 40 years after he began using smokeless tobacco, Tuttle developed a tumor in his mouth so severe, it protruded through his skin. A few years before he died, Tuttle had many of his teeth, his jawbone, his gums, and his right cheekbone removed. He also had his taste buds removed. Tuttle dedicated the last years of his life to speaking with Major League teams about not using chewing tobacco where television cameras could see the players so that children could not witness and be influenced by it. He also dedicated time to the National Spit Tobacco Education Program, which was being run by friend and former Major League player, Joe Garagiola. Tuttle died July 27, 1998, after a 5-year battle with cancer.Hall of Fame outfielder Tony Gwynn died of salivary cancer on June 16, 2014. He claimed the cancer was linked to his lifetime use of chewing and dipping tobacco.A 2016 MLB collective bargaining agreement prohibited all new Major League Baseball players from using smokeless tobacco.
Chewing tobacco and baseball:
Effect on youth Debate exists over whether players should be banned from using tobacco products during the games. The Major League Baseball Players Association disagrees, claiming it is a legal substance, so is acceptable to be used during games. Harvard School of Public Health professor Gregory Connolly, however, says, "the use of smokeless tobacco by players has a powerful role-model effect on youth, particularly among young males in sport, some of whom remain addicted in future careers as professional athletes." According to Connolly, one-quarter of Minor League players do not support allowing the use of chewing tobacco during games, and one-third of Major League players support abolishing it. Due to health concerns, MLB was asked to ban the use of chewing tobacco during the 2011 World Series between the St. Louis Cardinals and Texas Rangers.
Chewing tobacco and baseball:
Statistics Many believe that the widespread use of chewing tobacco by baseball players has led to a rampant increase in youth, and particularly teen, use. Additionally, teen use of smokeless tobacco has increased and it is more harmful and dangerous to tobacco user, while use of all tobacco products by teens has decreased. This is true especially among white and Hispanic males. In 1970, five times as many 65-and-older males used smokeless tobacco as 18- to 24-year-olds did (12.7% of the population were 65+ male users, 2.2% of the population were 18–24 male users). More specifically, moist snuff use increased for males ages 18–24 from 1% of the population to 6.2% of the population, while 65+ male users decreased from 4% to 2.2%.A 2009 survey by The U.S. Centers for Disease Control revealed that 8.9% of U.S. high-school students had used smokeless tobacco on at least 1 day during the 30 days before the survey. Usage was more common among males (15.0%) than females (2.2%) and among Whites (11.9%) than Blacks (3.3%) or Hispanics (5.1%). The five states with the highest percentage of high-school users were Wyoming (16.2%), North Dakota (15.3%), South Dakota (14.6%), Montana (14.6%), and West Virginia (14.4%). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Brownian surface**
Brownian surface:
A Brownian surface is a fractal surface generated via a fractal elevation function.The Brownian surface is named after Brownian motion.
Example:
For instance, in the three-dimensional case, where two variables X and Y are given as coordinates, the elevation function between any two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) can be set to have a mean or expected value that increases as the vector distance between (x1, y1) and (x2, y2). There are, however, many ways of defining the elevation function. For instance, the fractional Brownian motion variable may be used, or various rotation functions may be used to achieve more natural looking surfaces.
Generation of fractional Brownian surfaces:
Efficient generation of fractional Brownian surfaces poses significant challenges. Since the Brownian surface represents a Gaussian process with a nonstationary covariance function, one can use the Cholesky decomposition method. A more efficient method is Stein's method, which generates an auxiliary stationary Gaussian process using the circulant embedding approach and then adjusts this auxiliary process to obtain the desired nonstationary Gaussian process. The figure below shows three typical realizations of fractional Brownian surfaces for different values of the roughness or Hurst parameter. The Hurst parameter is always between zero and one, with values closer to one corresponding to smoother surfaces. These surfaces were generated using a Matlab implementation of Stein's method. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Singing Valentines**
Singing Valentines:
Singing Valentines is the name for a fundraising program that is popular with barbershop choruses in the U.S., Canada and Australia.
The delivery of Singing Valentines is usually done by a barbershop quartet from a chapter affiliated with the three major International barbershop societies: Barbershop Harmony Society Sweet Adelines International Harmony, IncorporatedNote that this is not really a variation on the singing telegram, since the message detail is not dictated by the sender.
Rather, quartets usually deliver a canned package of one or two barbershop songs with a personalized card and either roses or chocolates.
Song selection:
Each chapter is free to choose their own music. For male barbershop chapters, the typical two song selection is: Heart of My Heart, I Love You (the chorus from the Story of the Rose), and Let Me Call You SweetheartThere are standard barbershop arrangements for these two songs from the Barbershop Harmony Society collection of twelve polecat songs (that society members are encouraged to learn).
Song selection:
The female barbershop societies do not suggest particular songs for chapters to use in this fundraiser.
Logistics:
Some of the larger choruses are able to field enough quartets to deliver as many as 200 Singing Valentines in two days, usually on the February 13 and 14. Often, deliveries to assisted living facilities or nursing homes can be scheduled for the weekend.
Other Singing Valentines:
Although the delivery of Singing Valentines is typically done by a barbershop quartet, other a cappella singing ensembles have been known to set up similar fundraising programs, particularly on college campuses.
Other Singing Valentines:
Since 2011, on every Feb. 14, Canadian bilingual magazine La Scena Musicale / The Music Scene offers an annual Singing Valentines, a unique romantic one-to-one experience delivered by trained solo opera singers at the request of the sender to his or her loved one. This Valentine's Day gift is now done by telephone, personalized recorded video or other video and audio platforms such as Zoom and Facetime; different genres are performed, ranging from opera arias to standard love songs to musicals and art songs. During the COVID-19 pandemic, La Scena Musicale has extended the service to CORONA Serenades and Mother's Day serenades. There is a reference to Singing Valentines in chapter thirteen of Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Digital topology**
Digital topology:
Digital topology deals with properties and features of two-dimensional (2D) or three-dimensional (3D) digital images that correspond to topological properties (e.g., connectedness) or topological features (e.g., boundaries) of objects.
Concepts and results of digital topology are used to specify and justify important (low-level) image analysis algorithms, including algorithms for thinning, border or surface tracing, counting of components or tunnels, or region-filling.
History:
Digital topology was first studied in the late 1960s by the computer image analysis researcher Azriel Rosenfeld (1931–2004), whose publications on the subject played a major role in establishing and developing the field. The term "digital topology" was itself invented by Rosenfeld, who used it in a 1973 publication for the first time.
History:
A related work called the grid cell topology, which could be considered as a link to classic combinatorial topology, appeared in the book of Pavel Alexandrov and Heinz Hopf, Topologie I (1935). Rosenfeld et al. proposed digital connectivity such as 4-connectivity and 8-connectivity in two dimensions as well as 6-connectivity and 26-connectivity in three dimensions. The labeling method for inferring a connected component was studied in the 1970s. Theodosios Pavlidis (1982) suggested the use of graph-theoretic algorithms such as the depth-first search method for finding connected components. Vladimir A. Kovalevsky (1989) extended the Alexandrov–Hopf 2D grid cell topology to three and higher dimensions. He also proposed (2008) a more general axiomatic theory of locally finite topological spaces and abstract cell complexes formerly suggested by Ernst Steinitz (1908). It is the Alexandrov topology. The book from 2008 contains new definitions of topological balls and spheres independent of a metric and numerous applications to digital image analysis.
History:
In the early 1980s, digital surfaces were studied. David Morgenthaler and Rosenfeld (1981) gave a mathematical definition of surfaces in three-dimensional digital space. This definition contains a total of nine types of digital surfaces. The digital manifold was studied in the 1990s. A recursive definition of the digital k-manifold was proposed intuitively by Chen and Zhang in 1993. Many applications were found in image processing and computer vision.
Basic results:
A basic (early) result in digital topology says that 2D binary images require the alternative use of 4- or 8-adjacency or "pixel connectivity" (for "object" or "non-object" pixels) to ensure the basic topological duality of separation and connectedness. This alternative use corresponds to open or closed sets in the 2D grid cell topology, and the result generalizes to 3D: the alternative use of 6- or 26-adjacency corresponds to open or closed sets in the 3D grid cell topology. Grid cell topology also applies to multilevel (e.g., color) 2D or 3D images, for example based on a total order of possible image values and applying a 'maximum-label rule' (see the book by Klette and Rosenfeld, 2004).
Basic results:
Digital topology is highly related to combinatorial topology. The main differences between them are: (1) digital topology mainly studies digital objects that are formed by grid cells, and (2) digital topology also deals with non-Jordan manifolds.
A combinatorial manifold is a kind of manifold which is a discretization of a manifold. It usually means a piecewise linear manifold made by simplicial complexes. A digital manifold is a special kind of combinatorial manifold which is defined in digital space i.e. grid cell space.
A digital form of the Gauss–Bonnet theorem is: Let M be a closed digital 2D manifold in direct adjacency (i.e., a (6,26)-surface in 3D). The formula for genus is g=1+(M5+2M6−M3)/8 ,where Mi indicates the set of surface-points each of which has i adjacent points on the surface (Chen and Rong, ICPR 2008).
If M is simply connected, i.e., g=0 , then M3=8+M5+2M6 . (See also Euler characteristic.) | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Guy (sailing)**
Guy (sailing):
A guy (probably from Dutch gei, "brail") is a line (rope) attached to and intended to control the end of a spar on a sailboat. On a modern sloop-rigged sailboat with a symmetric spinnaker, the spinnaker pole is the spar most commonly controlled by one or more guys.
Types:
There are two primary types of guys used to control a spinnaker pole: The afterguy, working guy, or simply guy and sometimes known as a brace is attached to the windward clew of the spinnaker, and runs through the jaws on the outboard end of the pole and back to the cockpit. The afterguy is used to rotate the outboard end of the pole around the mast in order to optimize the sail's effectiveness, depending on the direction of the wind. Because a spinnaker has two clews, there is always a second line identical to the afterguy attached to the leeward clew of the spinnaker. This is called the sheet and serves a slightly different function. When the boat jibes, the spinnaker pole will be moved from one side of the boat to the other, causing the sheet to become the guy and vice versa.
Types:
A foreguy may also be used to control the height of the spinnaker pole. It is attached either to the end of the pole or to a bridle on the bottom of the pole, and runs through a padeye on the foredeck rather than directly aft to the cockpit. The foreguy is used to keep the end of the pole from lifting up under heavy wind. In addition, it can be used to change the shape of the spinnaker slightly to make the sail more efficient. The foreguy may be referred to as a downhaul if it is attached to a bridle at the pole's midpoint, but this term is used for other parts of a boat's rigging as well. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**CCDC184**
CCDC184:
Coiled-coil domain-containing 184 (CCDC184) is a protein which, in humans, is encoded by the CCDC184 gene
Gene:
Alias for the CCDC184 gene is C12orf68, chromosome 12 open reading frame 68. CCDC184 mRNA sequence, which is 2283 nucleotides in length, and is composed of 1 exon.
Expression Human CCDC184 is primarily expressed in the components of the brain, such as hypothalamus, pons, pituitary gland. The gene's expression is enhanced and/or over-expressed in the brain tissue expression. Tissue expression cluster predicted Pituitary gland - Hormone signaling
Protein:
Overview CCDC184 Protein is 194 amino acid and contains a domain of unknown function, DUF4677, which spans for 193 amino acid long . CCDC184 protein has a theoretical molecular weight of 20,484 dalton and an isoelectric point of 4.04. This indicates the acidic nature of the sequence. The molecular function of the protein is protein binding Post translational Modification CCDC184 contains various predicted post-translational modification domains, including phosphorylation, SUMOylation, Glutaredoxin, Myristoylation, Glutamic acid-rich region, and acetylation. The phosphosphorylation sites include S23, T24, and Y36.
Protein:
P = Phosphorylation site, Sumo: Sumo interacting regions, DUF4677: domain of unknown function Structure The human CCDC184 protein is predicted to be localized in the cytoplasm AlphaFold figure indicates 3D model of CCDC184. The colors indicate the charged regions of the structure Conceptual translation The annotated elements shown in the conceptual translation for human CCDC184 protein is post-translational modifications, alpha helices, SUMOylation, Lysine acetylation, domain of unknown function.
Homology:
CCDC184 is found only in mammals. 183 organisms that have orthologs with the human gene CCDC184.
Table of Orthologs Orthologs for CCDC184 are only found in mammals. The most distantly related species to human CCDC184 with a date of divergence of 160 MYA is the opossum. The Tasmanian devil also has a date of divergence of 160 MYA. The table indicates a various selection portion of the mammals' list.
The figure indicates a chart showing the divergence of CCDC184, Cytochrome C and Fibrogen Alpha.
Interaction and clinical significance:
Predicted interactions for the CCDC184 gene were seen and the interactions revolved around enabling protein binding activity. Expressions of CCDC184 were connected to studies done on tissue samples for breast cancer somatic mutations | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Scarab Research**
Scarab Research:
Scarab Research is a research and development company specialized in recommender systems and machine learning.
History:
Scarab Research was founded in 2009 by a group of European scientists and IT engineers. Its development operations were based in Budapest, Hungary.That time personalized recommendations offer had been a new way for returning customers to discover products that match their personal tastes, even though they may never heard of them before.In December 2013, Scarab Research was acquired by Emarsys.
Scarab Cloud:
Scarab Cloud is the name of Scarab Research's cloud-based SaaS e-commerce product recommender service. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Archaeology, Anthropology, and Interstellar Communication**
Archaeology, Anthropology, and Interstellar Communication:
Archaeology, Anthropology, and Interstellar Communication is a 2014 collection of essays edited by Douglas Vakoch and published by NASA. The book is focused on the role that the humanities and social sciences, in particular anthropology and archaeology, play in the search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI). The seventeen essays are gathered into four sections, which respectively explore the history of SETI as a field; archaeological comparisons for human-alien communication, such as the difficulties of translating ancient languages; the inferential gap between humans and aliens, and the consequences this would have for communication and trade; and the potential nature of alien intelligences.
Archaeology, Anthropology, and Interstellar Communication:
Originally scheduled for publication in June 2014, a PDF of Archaeology, Anthropology, and Interstellar Communication was accidentally released a month before the intended date and reviewed by Gizmodo. The positive response to the review inspired NASA to bring forward its release as an e-book, making it available on their website from May of that year.
Archaeology, Anthropology, and Interstellar Communication:
The book gained widespread media coverage upon release. As well as receiving generally positive reviews, it was at the center of controversy regarding misinterpretation of one of its essays. A quote about ancient terrestrial stone carvings, rhetorically stating that they "might have been made by aliens" for all that they were understood by modern anthropologists, was misreported by publications such as TheBlaze, The Huffington Post, and Artnet.
Synopsis:
Historically, research into extraterrestrial intelligence has fallen within natural science and focused primarily on the technological obstacles to alien communication, such as processing the data encoded in signals that could be received from extraterrestrial civilizations. Archaeology, Anthropology, and Interstellar Communication was written as part of an expansion of the field to humanities and social sciences, focusing on the role archaeologists and anthropologists play in extraterrestrial intelligence research. The problems of studying ancient societies on Earth, editor Douglas Vakoch argues, are applicable to those of studying potential societies outside Earth.Archaeology, Anthropology, and Interstellar Communication is a collection of essays exploring these roles, focusing on both historical and modern perspectives. The book consists of seventeen essays, with an introduction and epilogue by Vakoch and fifteen chapters by researchers in the relevant fields; contributing authors include John Traphagan, Albert Harrison, Ben Finney, Steven J. Dick, John Billingham, and Dominique Lestel. Issues discussed in the essays include the evolutionary and cultural prerequisites for interstellar communication, the challenges for semiotics in decoding alien signs and symbols, and the complexities of cross-cultural communication with aliens by analogy to anthropological first contact experiences.
Synopsis:
Essays Archaeology, Anthropology, and Interstellar Communication is subdivided into four sections, each with several essays. "Historical Perspectives on SETI" is a historiography of NASA's SETI (search for extraterrestrial intelligence) program, which ran for much of the late twentieth century before being dissolved due to lack of funding, and its humanities and social sciences representation. "Archaeological Analogues" draws comparisons between archaeology on Earth, where archaeologists frequently need to research societies they have little understanding of or shared context with, and communication with extraterrestrials. "Anthropology, Culture, and Communication" examines the role of anthropology in studying alien cultures and societies, such as the assumptions and challenges involved in cross-cultural communication and contact. "The Evolution and Embodiment of Extraterrestrials" deals with topics such as the appearance, diversity, and message design of alien intelligence.
Synopsis:
"Historical Perspectives on SETI" The essays in this section summarize the history of SETI at NASA, the circumstances that led to the government cutting public funding for SETI, and the role the social sciences have historically played in the search. The first essay in this section, "SETI: The NASA Years", is a synopsis of NASA's involvement with SETI by John Billingham, who was involved with the project from its genesis in 1969 to its closure in 1995. He discusses the 1960s origins of the search for alien life in the universe, the project's struggle to receive popular respect and government funding, and its ultimate cessation at the agency due to funding cuts, after which it was absorbed by the privately funded SETI Institute.
Synopsis:
"A Political History of NASA's SETI Program" by Stephen J. Garber analyzes the circumstances that led to the end of public funding for the program. NASA's SETI program was small and provided few jobs that would make cutting it politically complex; widespread skepticism about the existence of intelligent alien life also made the project inherently controversial. NASA's funding also suffered through the 1990s due to publicized issues with the Hubble Space Telescope, weakening its ability to defend a marginal program such as SETI. "The Role of Anthropology in SETI: A Historical View" by Steven J. Dick discusses the history of SETI, anthropology, and their intersection. Representation of the social sciences in SETI research began during the field's early days in the 1960s and 1970s, but was, according to the essay, often tokenistic; Dick traces significant interdisciplinary work as beginning in the 1980s, with particular focus on the publication of Interstellar Migration and the Human Experience in 1986.
Synopsis:
"Archaeological Analogues" The essays in this section focus on the relevance of archaeological comparisons for discussing the anticipated difficulties with communication between humans and aliens. "A Tale of Two Analogues" by Ben Finney and Jerry Bentley draws on Finney's studies of Mayan culture. They draw comparisons between the protracted process of translating Mayan works and the difficulty of translating an alien work, and cast doubt on the views of some mathematicians and natural scientists that an extraterrestrial civilization would communicate with humanity solely through the "universal language" of mathematics and science. The second essay, "Beyond Linear B" by Richard Saint-Gelais, analyzes potential alien communication through a semiotic lens, commenting on the issues involved in interpreting the signs and symbols of a fundamentally different culture. He notes that the issues faced in semiotic challenges such as decoding an unknown human language may be even greater for an alien language. For instance, he describes how all known writing systems for human languages are either alphabetic, syllabic, or ideographic, and anthropologists are able to estimate which type an unknown system is by its number of characters, which may not be a shared assumption for an extraterrestrial writing system.
Synopsis:
"Learning to Read" focuses on the hypothetical alien translation of interstellar messages transmitted by humanity. Its author Kathryn E. Denning deems the task of writing alien-translatable messages "neither trivial nor impossible", considering it a difficult task but one worthy of study; she discusses the need for interdisciplinary study to produce such messages, with important work from fields such as cryptography and anthropology. She also discusses the polarized views of natural and social sciences on the issue of alien translation, with natural scientists tending to take far more optimistic perspectives of the ease of translation than social scientists. "Inferring Intelligence" by Paul K. Wason describes the difficulty of understanding the work of prehistoric cultures and compares this difficulty to that of understanding the work of extraterrestrial cultures. He refers to the controversy regarding the meaning of Paleolithic cave art, as well as the relative recency of identifying stone tools as the intentional productions of intelligent beings.
Synopsis:
"Anthropology, Culture, and Communication" John W. Traphagan has two essays in this section, "Anthropology at a Distance" and "Culture and Communication with Extraterrestrial Intelligence". In the former, he draws comparison between the "anthropology at a distance" practice of anthropologists in the early nineteenth century, who often lacked the resources to perform fieldwork with the societies they studied, and the practice of SETI in discussing and studying uncontacted extraterrestrials. The latter focuses on the concept of hypothetical "universal languages", such as music or mathematics, and the differences human and alien cultures may have in their interpretation of these languages.
Synopsis:
"Contact Considerations" by Douglas Raybeck considers human-alien interaction through comparison to terrestrial colonial interactions. He gives the specific examples of European contact with Aztec, Japanese, Chinese, Iroquois, and Māori cultures, all five cultures being politically and technologically complex at the time of first European contact. He discusses the likely significance of trade to human-alien interactions, both for goods and services exchanged in trade between human cultures, but potentially also for things such as music that may not exist in an alien culture. In "Speaking for Earth", Albert A. Harrison discusses the development, longevity, and potential consequences of projecting interstellar messages. He takes an optimistic position of the benevolence of extraterrestrial civilizations, referring to his own anthropological research that shows societies that endure for long periods tend to be more peaceful and less aggressive. Harrison supports Active SETI, the process of actively transmitting messages from Earth to potential interstellar societies, and discusses planned and actual attempts at it.
Synopsis:
"The Evolution and Embodiment of Extraterrestrials" Vakoch's chapter, "The Evolution of Extraterrestrials", focuses on hypotheses of what an alien intelligence would look like, such as whether it would be humanoid or nonhumanoid. He discusses how as early as The Celestial Worlds Discover'd, published by Christiaan Huygens in 1698 and one of the first works to consider the lives of extraterrestrial beings, the possibility was raised that aliens would have similar body plans to humans (such as walking upright) but look radically different within such confines. Both arguments in favour of convergent evolution to a functionally humanoid form and divergent evolution to a radically inhuman form are summarized and considered.
Synopsis:
"Biocultural Prerequisites for the Development of Interstellar Communication" by Garry Chick discusses the Drake equation, a means by which to estimate the number of extraterrestrial civilizations in the Milky Way galaxy capable of communicating with humans. Referring to statements by figures such as the author Michael Crichton that the parameters in the Drake equation are unknowable, and that this casts foundational doubt on the validity of SETI, Chick aims to narrow the range of possible estimates for these parameters. In "Ethology, Ethnology, and Communication with Extraterrestrial Intelligence", Lestel considers the philosophical definition of 'communication' in the context of human-alien contact. He holds that contact between terrestrial and extraterrestrial societies would have traits of both ethnology, the study of other human cultures, and ethology, the study of animal behavior. In the book's final essay, "Constraints on Message Construction for Communication with Extraterrestrial Intelligence", William H. Edmondson summarizes the issue of designing messages to be understood by extraterrestrial societies. He notes the assumptions involved in constructing interstellar messages, such as that aliens will have senses and that aspects of cognitive function (e.g. intentional behavior) will be shared between all intelligent organisms.
Publication history:
Vakoch is a professor emeritus of clinical psychology at the California Institute of Integral Studies and a self-described exo-semiotician whose research interests include psychology, comparative religion, and the philosophy of science. He is the Director of Interstellar Message Composition at the SETI Institute. In a 2002 interview with Dennis Overbye for The New York Times, he discussed his criticism of the natural sciences focus of SETI research and his work to view the subject through a humanities-focused lens, including the comparison of interstellar communication to cross-cultural interactions between terrestrial societies. One of Vakoch's goals in compiling and editing Archaeology, Anthropology, and Interstellar Communication was to highlight less optimistic perspectives on interstellar communications from such fields, addressing concerns about significant inferential gaps that had been neglected by the physical sciences.NASA intended to publish Archaeology, Anthropology, and Interstellar Communication in both print and e-book form on 10 June 2014. On 21 May, a PDF file of the book was accidentally published on NASA's website and picked up by Gizmodo. The PDF was taken down rapidly after Gizmodo published a review, with the intention of re-releasing it on the originally intended date, but demand for copies was so high that the publication was accelerated; MOBI, EPUB, and PDF versions were officially released on 22 May and made freely available online. A paperback edition was published in September 2014 and a hardcover edition was published that December. The collection was published by NASA's History Program Office, part of the Public Outreach Division of its Office of Communications, under the NASA History Series imprint.
Cultural impact and reception:
Gizmodo described Archaeology, Anthropology, and Interstellar Communication as "truly fascinating stuff" that managed to be both complex and accessible. The review began with an out-of-context quote from William Edmondson's essay on how mysterious stone carvings "might have been made by aliens" as a metaphor for the difficulties in researching long-lost ancient societies. Though it went on to note that this should not be interpreted as a literal statement, the quote was picked up by publications such as Artnet, The Blaze, and The Huffington Post as a clickbait headline. Some of these articles noted that the statement was not representative of the essay's content; others took it at face value. The aerospace analyst Jeff Foust decried the phenomenon in his review, but noted its role in highlighting how difficult even communication between human beings of similar cultures can be.Upon the book's official release, it received mostly positive reviews. Emily Gertz, writing for Popular Science, found it "refreshing" and compared the issues it raised to those explored by science fiction works such as The Sparrow, a novel about a Jesuit priest making contact with an alien civilization. Michael Franco of CNET lauded its comprehensiveness, and Jolene Creighton, co-founder of the science news site From Quarks to Quasars, called it "a fantastic text to save for a rainy day". Writing for The Daily Dot, Aja Romano commented that the book came from a thoroughly optimistic point of view about both the existence and benevolence of extraterrestrial intelligence, but that it provided thorough investigation into SETI and had a strong understanding of the subject it investigated. Mark Anderson, Chair of the Notable Documents Panel of the American Library Association's Government Documents Round Table and research librarian at the University of Northern Colorado, reviewed Archaeology, Anthropology, and Interstellar Communication for Library Journal alongside other books published by United States government offices. He highlighted the depth of the book's scholarship and its nonetheless accessible writing.In June 2014, weeks after the book's official release, Joshua Rothman interviewed Vakoch for The New Yorker about the struggles of extraterrestrial communication. Vakoch explained the book's purpose, discussing the integral role archaeologists and anthropologists play in extraterrestrial research. He referred to the conclusions reached by the essayists, such as Lestel's discussion of the implications involved in being unable to understand or decode potential alien messages. Vakoch described the humanities perspective on extraterrestrial communication as increasingly "skeptical and critical", but "a criticism that engages, as opposed to a criticism that dismisses". He noted that although bridging the communication gap with an extraterrestrial civilization would be a difficult ask, the rapid discovery of exoplanets in the past decades increased the likelihood extraterrestrial intelligence would be identified, making the issue more relevant. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Water clock**
Water clock:
A water clock or clepsydra (from Ancient Greek κλεψύδρα (klepsúdra) 'pipette, water clock'; from κλέπτω (kléptō) 'to steal', and ὕδωρ (hydor) 'water'; lit. 'water thief') is a timepiece by which time is measured by the regulated flow of liquid into (inflow type) or out from (outflow type) a vessel, and where the amount is then measured.
Water clock:
Water clocks are one of the oldest time-measuring instruments. The bowl-shaped outflow is the simplest form of a water clock and is known to have existed in Babylon, Egypt, and Persia around the 16th century BC. Other regions of the world, including India and China, also have early evidence of water clocks, but the earliest dates are less certain. Some authors, however, claim that water clocks appeared in China as early as 4000 BC. Water clocks were also used in ancient Greece and ancient Rome, described by technical writers such as Ctesibius and Vitruvius.
Designs:
A water clock uses the flow of water to measure time. If viscosity is neglected, the physical principle required to study such clocks is Torricelli's law. There are two types of water clocks: inflow and outflow. In an outflow water clock, a container is filled with water, and the water is drained slowly and evenly out of the container. This container has markings that are used to show the passage of time. As the water leaves the container, an observer can see where the water is level with the lines and tell how much time has passed. An inflow water clock works in basically the same way, except instead of flowing out of the container, the water is filling up the marked container. As the container fills, the observer can see where the water meets the lines and tell how much time has passed.
Designs:
Some modern timepieces are called "water clocks" but work differently from the ancient ones. Their timekeeping is governed by a pendulum, but they use water for other purposes, such as providing the power needed to drive the clock by using a water wheel or something similar, or by having water in their displays. A water clock is one of the oldest instruments ever, and one of the most important.The Greeks and Romans advanced water clock design to include the inflow clepsydra with an early feedback system, gearing, and escapement mechanism, which were connected to fanciful automata and resulted in improved accuracy. Further advances were made in Byzantium, Syria, and Mesopotamia, where increasingly accurate water clocks incorporated complex segmental and epicyclic gearing, water wheels, and programmability, advances which eventually made their way to Europe. Independently, the Chinese developed their own advanced water clocks, incorporating gears, escapement mechanisms, and water wheels, passing their ideas on to Korea and Japan.Some water clock designs were developed independently, and some knowledge was transferred through the spread of trade. These early water clocks were calibrated with a sundial. While never reaching a level of accuracy comparable to today's standards of timekeeping, the water clock was the most accurate and commonly used timekeeping device for millennia, until it was replaced by more accurate pendulum clocks in 17th-century Europe.
Regional development:
Egypt The oldest water clock of which there is physical evidence dates to c. 1417–1379 BC, during the reign of Amenhotep III where it was used in the Temple of Amen-Re at Karnak. The oldest documentation of the water clock is the tomb inscription of the 16th century BC Egyptian court official Amenemhet, which identifies him as its inventor. These simple water clocks, which were of the outflow type, were stone vessels with sloping sides that allowed water to drip at a nearly constant rate from a small hole near the bottom. There were twelve separate columns with consistently spaced markings on the inside to measure the passage of "hours" as the water level reached them. The columns were for each of the twelve months to allow for the variations of the seasonal hours. These clocks were used by priests to determine the time at night so that the temple rites and sacrifices could be performed at the correct hour. These clocks may have been used in daylight as well.
Regional development:
Babylon In Babylon, water clocks were of the outflow type and were cylindrical in shape. Use of the water clock as an aid to astronomical calculations dates back to the Old Babylonian period (c. 2000 – c. 1600 BC). While there are no surviving water clocks from the Mesopotamian region, most evidence of their existence comes from writings on clay tablets. Two collections of tablets, for example, are the Enuma-Anu-Enlil (1600–1200 BC) and the MUL.APIN (7th century BC). In these tablets, water clocks are used in reference to payment of the night and day watches (guards).These clocks were unique, as they did not have an indicator such as hands (as are typically used today) or grooved notches (as were used in Egypt). Instead, these clocks measured time "by the weight of water flowing from" it. The volume was measured in capacity units called qa. The weight, mana or mina (the Greek unit for about one pound), is the weight of water in a water clock.In Babylonian times, time was measured with temporal hours. So, as seasons changed, so did the length of a day. "To define the length of a 'night watch' at the summer solstice, one had to pour two mana of water into a cylindrical clepsydra; its emptying indicated the end of the watch. One-sixth of mana had to be added each succeeding half-month. At the equinox, three mana had to be emptied in order to correspond to one watch, and four mana was emptied for each watch of the winter solstitial night." India According to N. Kameswara Rao, pots excavated from the Indus Valley Pakistan site of Mohenjo-daro (around 2500 BC) may have been used as water clocks. They are tapered at the bottom, have a hole on the side, and are similar to the utensil used to perform abhiṣeka (ritual water pouring) on lingams. N. Narahari Achar and Subhash Kak suggest that the use of the water clock in ancient India is mentioned in the Atharvaveda from the 2nd millennium BC.The Jyotisha school, one of the six Vedanga disciplines, describes water clocks called ghati or kapala that measure time in units of nadika (around 24 minutes). A clepsydra in the form of a floating and sinking copper vessel is mentioned in the Sürya Siddhānta (5th century AD). At Nalanda, a Buddhist university, four hour intervals were measured by a water clock, which consisted of a similar copper bowl holding two large floats in a larger bowl filled with water. The bowl was filled with water from a small hole at its bottom; it sank when completely filled and was marked by the beating of a drum at daytime. The amount of water added varied with the seasons, and the clock was operated by students at the university.Descriptions of similar water clocks are also given in the Pañca Siddhāntikā by the polymath Varāhamihira (6th century AD), which adds further detail to the account given in the Sürya Siddhānta. Further descriptions are recorded in the Brāhmasphuṭa Siddhānta, by the mathematician Brahmagupta (7th century AD). A detailed description with measurements is also recorded by the astronomer Lalla (8th century AD), who describes the ghati as a hemispherical copper vessel with a hole that is fully filled after one nadika.
Regional development:
China In ancient China, as well as throughout East Asia, water clocks were very important in the study of astronomy and astrology. The oldest written reference dates the use of the water clock in China to the 6th century BC. From about 200 BC onwards, the outflow clepsydra was replaced almost everywhere in China by the inflow type with an indicator-rod borne on a float(called fou chien lou,浮箭漏). The Han dynasty philosopher and politician Huan Tan (40 BC – AD 30), a Secretary at the Court in charge of clepsydrae, wrote that he had to compare clepsydrae with sundials because of how temperature and humidity affected their accuracy, demonstrating that the effects of evaporation, as well as of temperature on the speed at which water flows, were known at this time. The liquid in water clocks was liable to freezing, and had to be kept warm with torches, a problem that was solved in 976 by the Chinese astronomer and engineer Zhang Sixun. His invention—a considerable improvement on Yi Xing's clock—used mercury instead of water. Mercury is a liquid at room temperature, and freezes at −38.9 °C (−38.0 °F), lower than any air temperature normally found on Earth. Again, instead of using water, the early Ming Dynasty engineer Zhan Xiyuan (c. 1360–1380) created a sand-driven wheel clock, improved upon by Zhou Shuxue (c. 1530–1558).The use of clepsydrae to drive mechanisms illustrating astronomical phenomena began with the Han Dynasty polymath Zhang Heng (78–139) in 117, who also employed a waterwheel. Zhang Heng was the first in China to add an extra compensating tank between the reservoir and the inflow vessel, which solved the problem of the falling pressure head in the reservoir tank. Zhang's ingenuity led to the creation by the Tang dynasty mathematician and engineer Yi Xing (683–727) and Liang Lingzan in 725 of a clock driven by a waterwheel linkwork escapement mechanism. The same mechanism would be used by the Song dynasty polymath Su Song (1020–1101) in 1088 to power his astronomical clock tower, as well as a chain drive. Su Song's clock tower, over 30 feet (9.1 m) tall, possessed a bronze power-driven armillary sphere for observations, an automatically rotating celestial globe, and five front panels with doors that permitted the viewing of changing mannequins which rang bells or gongs, and held tablets indicating the hour or other special times of the day. In the 2000s, in Beijing's Drum Tower an outflow clepsydra is operational and displayed for tourists. It is connected to automata so that every quarter-hour a small brass statue of a man claps his cymbals.
Regional development:
Persia The use of water clocks in Persia or Greater Iran, especially in desert area of Iran such as Yazd, Isfahan, Zibad, and Gonabad, dates back to 500 BC. Later they were also used to determine the exact holy days of pre-Islamic religions such as Nowruz (March equinox), Chelleh Night (September equinox), Tirgan (summer solstice) and Yaldā Night (winter solstice) – the shortest, longest, and equal-length days and nights of the years. The water clocks used in Iran were one of the most practical ancient tools for timing the yearly calendar.
Regional development:
The water clock was the most accurate and commonly used timekeeping device for calculating the amount or the time that a farmer must take water from a qanat or well for irrigation, until it was replaced by more accurate current clocks. Persian water clocks were a practical and useful and necessary tool for the qanat's shareholders to calculate the length of time they could divert water to their farms or Gardens. The qanat was the only water source for agriculture and irrigation in arid area so a just and fair water distribution was very important. Therefore, a very fair and clever old person was elected to be the manager of the water clock (called Mir Aab), and at least two full-time managers were needed to control and observe the number of Fenjans or Pengan (hours) and announce the exact time of the days and nights from sunrise to sunset because share holder usually were divided to the days owners and night owners.
Regional development:
The Fenjaan consisted of a large pot full of water and a bowl with a small hole in the center. When the bowl became full of water, it would sink into the pot, and the manager would empty the bowl and again put it on the top of the water in the pot. He would record the number of times the bowl sank by putting small stones into a jar. The place where the clock was situated, and its managers, were collectively known as khaneh Fenjaan (times house). Usually this would be the top floor of a public-house, with west- and east-facing windows to show the time of Sunset and Sunrise. The Zibad Gonabad water clock was in use until 1965 when it was substituted by modern clocks.
Regional development:
Greco-Roman world The word "clepsydra" comes from the Greek meaning "water thief". The Greeks considerably advanced the water clock by tackling the problem of the diminishing flow. They introduced several types of the inflow clepsydra, one of which included the earliest feedback control system. Ctesibius invented an indicator system typical for later clocks such as the dial and pointer. The Roman engineer Vitruvius described early alarm clocks, working with gongs or trumpets. A commonly used water clock was the simple outflow clepsydra. This small earthenware vessel had a hole in its side near the base. In both Greek and Roman times, this type of clepsydra was used in courts for allocating periods of time to speakers. In important cases, such as when a person's life was at stake, it was filled completely, but for more minor cases, only partially. If proceedings were interrupted for any reason, such as to examine documents, the hole in the clepsydra was stopped with wax until the speaker was able to resume his pleading.
Regional development:
Clepsydrae for keeping time Some scholars suspect that the clepsydra may have been used as a stop-watch for imposing a time limit on clients' visits in Athenian brothels. Slightly later, in the early 3rd century BC, the Hellenistic physician Herophilos employed a portable clepsydra on his house visits in Alexandria for measuring his patients' pulse-beats. By comparing the rate by age group with empirically obtained data sets, he was able to determine the intensity of the disorder.Between 270 BC and AD 500, Hellenistic (Ctesibius, Hero of Alexandria, Archimedes) and Roman horologists and astronomers were developing more elaborate mechanized water clocks. The added complexity was aimed at regulating the flow and at providing fancier displays of the passage of time. For example, some water clocks rang bells and gongs, while others opened doors and windows to show figurines of people, or moved pointers, and dials. Some even displayed astrological models of the universe. The 3rd century BC engineer Philo of Byzantium referred in his works to water clocks already fitted with an escapement mechanism, the earliest known of its kind.The biggest achievement of the invention of clepsydrae during this time, however, was by Ctesibius with his incorporation of gears and a dial indicator to automatically show the time as the lengths of the days changed throughout the year, because of the temporal timekeeping used during his day. Also, a Greek astronomer, Andronicus of Cyrrhus, supervised the construction of his Horologion, known today as the Tower of the Winds, in the Athens marketplace (or agora) in the first half of the 1st century BC. This octagonal clocktower showed scholars and shoppers both sundials and mechanical hour indicators. It featured a 24-hour mechanized clepsydra and indicators for the eight winds from which the tower got its name, and it displayed the seasons of the year and astrological dates and periods.
Regional development:
Medieval Islamic world In the medieval Islamic world (632-1280), the use of water clocks has its roots from Archimedes during the rise of Alexandria in Egypt and continues on through Byzantium. The water clocks by the Arabic engineer Al-Jazari, however, are credited for going "well beyond anything" that had preceded them. In al-Jazari's 1206 treatise, he describes one of his water clocks, the elephant clock. The clock recorded the passage of temporal hours, which meant that the rate of flow had to be changed daily to match the uneven length of days throughout the year. To accomplish this, the clock had two tanks, the top tank was connected to the time indicating mechanisms and the bottom was connected to the flow control regulator. Basically, at daybreak, the tap was opened and water flowed from the top tank to the bottom tank via a float regulator that maintained a constant pressure in the receiving tank.
Regional development:
The most sophisticated water-powered astronomical clock was Al-Jazari's castle clock, considered by some to be an early example of a programmable analog computer, in 1206. It was a complex device that was about 11 feet (3.4 m) high, and had multiple functions alongside timekeeping. It included a display of the zodiac and the solar and lunar orbits, and a pointer in the shape of the crescent moon which traveled across the top of a gateway, moved by a hidden cart and causing automatic doors to open, each revealing a mannequin, every hour. It was possible to re-program the length of day and night in order to account for the changing lengths of day and night throughout the year, and it also featured five musician automata who automatically play music when moved by levers operated by a hidden camshaft attached to a water wheel. Other components of the castle clock included a main reservoir with a float, a float chamber and flow regulator, plate and valve trough, two pulleys, crescent disc displaying the zodiac, and two falcon automata dropping balls into vases.The first water clocks to employ complex segmental and epicyclic gearing was invented earlier by the Arab engineer Ibn Khalaf al-Muradi in Islamic Iberia c. 1000. His water clocks were driven by water wheels, as was also the case for several Chinese water clocks in the 11th century. Comparable water clocks were built in Damascus and Fez. The latter (Dar al-Magana) remains until today and its mechanism has been reconstructed. The first European clock to employ these complex gears was the astronomical clock created by Giovanni de Dondi in c. 1365. Like the Chinese, Arab engineers at the time also developed an escapement mechanism which they employed in some of their water clocks. The escapement mechanism was in the form of a constant-head system, while heavy floats were used as weights.
Regional development:
Korea In 1434, during Joseon rule, Jang Yeong-sil (Korean: 장영실; Hanja: 蔣英實), Palace Guard and later Chief Court Engineer, constructed the Jagyeongnu (self-striking water clock or striking clepsydra) for King Sejong.
Regional development:
What made the Jagyeongnu self-striking (or automatic) was the use of jack-work mechanisms, by which three wooden figures (jacks) struck objects to signal the time. This innovation no longer required the reliance of human workers, known as "rooster men", to constantly replenish it.The uniqueness of the clock was its capability to announce dual-times automatically with both visual and audible signals. Jang developed a signal conversion technique that made it possible to measure analog time and announce digital time simultaneously as well as to separate the water mechanisms from the ball-operated striking mechanisms. The conversion device was called pangmok, and was placed above the inflow vessel that measured the time, the first device of its kind in the world. Thus, the Striking Palace Clepsydra is the first hydro-mechanically engineered dual-time clock in the history of horology.
Temperature, water viscosity, and clock accuracy:
When viscosity can be neglected, the outflow rate of the water is governed by Torricelli's law, or more generally, by Bernoulli's principle. Viscosity will dominate the outflow rate if the water flows out through a nozzle that is sufficiently long and thin, as given by the Hagen–Poiseuille equation. Approximately, the flow rate is for such design inversely proportional to the viscosity, which depends on the temperature. Liquids generally become less viscous as the temperature increases. In the case of water, the viscosity varies by a factor of about seven between zero and 100 degrees Celsius. Thus, a water clock with such a nozzle would run about seven times faster at 100 °C than at 0 °C. Water is about 25 percent more viscous at 20 °C than at 30 °C, and a variation in temperature of one degree Celsius, in this "room temperature" range, produces a change of viscosity of about two percent. Therefore, a water clock with such a nozzle that keeps good time at some given temperature would gain or lose about half an hour per day if it were one degree Celsius warmer or cooler. To make it keep time within one minute per day would require its temperature to be controlled within 1⁄30°C (about 1⁄17°F). There is no evidence that this was done in antiquity, so ancient water clocks with sufficiently thin and long nozzles (unlike the modern pendulum-controlled one described above) cannot have been reliably accurate by modern standards. However, while modern timepieces may not be reset for long periods, water clocks were likely reset every day, when refilled, based on a sundial, so the cumulative error would not have been great.
Notes:
Sources used Cowan, Harrison J. (1958). Time and Its Measurement: From the stone age to the nuclear age. Ohio: The World Publishing Company. Bibcode:1958tmfs.book.....C.
Turner, Anthony J. (1984). The Time Museum. Vol. I: Time Measuring Instruments, Part 3: Water-clocks, Sand-glasses, Fire-clocks. Rockford, IL: The Museum. ISBN 0-912947-01-2. OCLC 159866762.
Cotterell, Brian; Kamminga, Johan (1990). Mechanics of pre-industrial technology: An introduction to the mechanics of ancient and traditional material culture. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-42871-8. OCLC 18520966.
Neugebauer, Otto (1947). "Studies in Ancient Astronomy. VIII. The Water Clock in Babylonian Astronomy". Isis. 37 (1/2): 37–43. doi:10.1086/347965. PMID 20247883. S2CID 120229480. (Reprinted in Neugebauer, Otto (1983). Astronomy and History: Selected Essays. pp. 239–245.) Needham, Joseph (1986). Science & Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering. Taipei: Caves Books.
Needham, Joseph (1995). Science & Civilisation in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-05801-5. OCLC 153247126.
Needham, Joseph (2000). Science & Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-05803-1. OCLC 153247141. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Standard Reference Method**
Standard Reference Method:
The Standard Reference Method or SRM is one of several systems modern brewers use to specify beer color. Determination of the SRM value involves measuring the attenuation of light of a particular wavelength (430 nm) in passing through 1 cm of the beer, expressing the attenuation as an absorption and scaling the absorption by a constant (12.7 for SRM; 25 for EBC). The SRM (or EBC) number represents a single point in the absorption spectrum of beer. As such it cannot convey full color information which would require 81 points, but it does remarkably well in this regard (it conveys 92% of spectral information) even when fruit beers are considered. Auxiliary "deviation coefficients" (see Augmented SRM below) can pick up the remainder and are necessary for fruit beers and when subtle color differences in malt beers are to be characterized.
Measurement method:
The ASBC and EBC measurements are now identical (both done at the same wavelength and in the same size cuvette) but the scaling is different. A photometer or spectrophotometer is used to measure the attenuation of deep blue (violet) light at 430 nm, as it passes through 1 cm of beer contained in a standard 1 cm by 1 cm cuvette. The absorption is the log of the ratio of the intensity of the light beam entering the sample to the intensity leaving. This difference is multiplied by 12.7 in the SRM system and 25 in the EBC (see below). For example, if the light intensity leaving is one one-hundredth the light intensity entering the ratio is 100, the absorption is 2 and the SRM is 25.4. The scale factor derives from the original definition of SRM discussed in the next paragraph.
Measurement method:
The SRM number was originally, and still is, defined by "Beer color intensity on a sample free of turbidity and having the spectral characteristics of an average beer is 10 times the absorbance of the beer measured in a 1/2-inch cell with monochromatic light at 430 nanometers."[1] Modern spectrophotometers use 1 cm cuvettes rather than 1/2 inch ones. When a 1 cm cuvette is used, application of the Bouguer–Beer–Lambert law shows that the multiplier should be 12.7 rather than 10. When the SRM value for a beer or wort is larger than about 30 the log linear limit of some instruments using 1 cm cuvettes is approached. In such cases the sample is diluted with deionized water. Using Beer–Lambert again gives the mathematical definition of SRM in the general case as: 12.7 430 where D is the dilution factor ( D=1 for undiluted samples, D=2 for 1:1 dilution etc.) and 430 the absorbance at 430 nm in 1 cm.
Measurement method:
The 430-nanometer wavelength corresponds to a deep blue (violet) light, and was chosen, as was the multiplier, to make values determined in the SRM system comparable to those determined using the Lovibond system in use at the time the SRM was adopted.The SRM was adopted in 1950 by the American Society of Brewing Chemists which had recognized the need for an instrument based measurement of color unburdened by the difficulties of the Lovibond system which relies (it is still in use in many industries including brewing – malts are often labeled with the Lovibond color of laboratory worts prepared from them) on visual comparison of the sample to tinted glass discs. Beer colors measured in SRM and degrees Lovibond were, as noted above, approximately equal at the time of adoption of the SRM. However, modern analytical methods show that SRM and Lovibond diverge for darker colors. Comparison of EBC and Lovibond data published by modern malsters shows that the relationship between SRM and Lovibond (ºL) is: 1.3546 0.76
EBC:
The EBC system of color measurement is similar to the SRM. Measurements are taken at 430 nm in a 1 cm cell but the unit of color is 25 times the dilution factor times A430 as opposed to 12.7 times the dilution factor times A430 so that EBC SRM 1.97 SRM EBC .508 Thus EBC is approximately twice SRM and this applies at any color depth. The agreement between SRM and Lovibond is fair for pale beers (10 °L ~ 12.7 SRM) but worsens for darker beers or worts (40 °L ~ 53.4 SRM).
EBC:
Both systems demand that the beer be free of turbidity prior to the measurement at 430 nm. In the SRM a second measurement is taken at 700 nm. If the absorption at this wavelength is less than 0.039 (this number comes from [2]) times the absorption at 430 nm the beer is considered turbidity free. If not, it is to be filtered or centrifuged and the reading repeated. If the ratio test is not passed after clarification then the beer does not have "average spectral characteristics" and, technically, is not qualified to be characterized by the SRM method. The augmented SRM method described below removes this difficulty.
EBC:
In the EBC system the beer is required to be filtered if its turbidity is more than 1 EBC turbidity unit (equivalent to 1 FTU). No absorption measurement is made other than at 430 nm. (the turbidimeter measures scattering at 650 nm).
EBC:
Note that an earlier version of EBC color was based on absorption at 530 nanometers, which permitted no direct conversion between the two systems. However, if one assumes a linear log absorption spectrum (the Linner hypothesis from the realm of caramel color), and knows the Linner Hue Index, HL , the absorptions are related by: 430 530 10 10 A formula for converting between the old EBC color value and SRM sometimes continues to appear in literature. It should not be used, as it is flawed and based on measurements which are no longer taken.
EBC:
Part of the problem with this formula is that beer spectra are not log linear. The absorption of 1 cm of a beer with "average spectral characteristics" (average here means the average of the absorption spectra of the ensemble of 99 beers as described in[7]) at wavelength λ is well described by 12.7 0.018747 430 13.374 0.98226 430 80.514 ) While it is clear that one could use this formula to compute A530 from the SRM measured at 430 nm and thus interconvert between SRM and old EBC this is not where its value lies. Because it represents, at least approximately, the full absorption spectrum of the beer it can be used to calculate the tristimulus color (three color coordinates in a chosen color space which describes the color an observer actually sees) of a beer of known SRM by following the prescription of ASTM E-308.
Tristimulus color:
There has been interest in tristimulus reporting in the brewing community in recent years and the ASBC has an approved Method of Analysis [MOA] for tristimulus characterization. The absorption of the sample is measured in 1 cm at 81 wavelengths separated by 5 nm starting at 380 nm and extending to 780 nm. These are converted to transmission values (by taking the antilogarithm of each absorption) and inserting the results into ASTM E-308. The reported tristimulus values are in L*a*b* color space and describe what is seen under Illuminant C (daylight) by a 10° observer when the path is 1 cm. The choice of path, illuminant, observer and color space does not represent a limitation of E-308 but rather the ASBC's need to standardize reporting.
Tristimulus color:
If we are given only the SRM value for a beer we can compute the approximate transmission spectrum if the beer has average spectral characteristics simply by taking the antilog of A(λ) 12.7 0.018747 430 13.374 0.98226 430 80.514 )) This can be used with E-308 to calculate tristimulus color in any path, for any illuminant, for either observer in any colorspace derivable from CIE XYZ space. This formula could, for example, be used to compute color patches to be printed on transparency or card stock for use in evaluating the SRM of actual beers but color swatches prepared in this way are only valid for the illuminant, observer and path used in the E-308 calculation. The BJCP color guide was prepared in this way. This illustrates that the SRM does convey full color information if the beer has average spectral characteristics. If it does not then we need more information than just the SRM provides.
Augmented SRM:
Recent research has shown that the transmission spectrum of a beer (with no restriction on its spectral characteristics) can be represented by: 12.7 0.018747 430 13.374 0.98226 430 80.514 +c1ξ1+c2ξ2+...)) where the ξi are eigenvectors of the covariance matrix of the normalized transmission spectra of the ensemble of beers from which the average normalized spectrum (the sum of the two exponential terms in parentheses in the A(λ) formula) was determined and c1 , c2 etc. are obtained as the dot products of the eigenvectors with the normalized transmission spectrum of the beer being characterized. This formula is identical to the one given previously with the exception that it has been augmented by the ci coefficients which encode the deviation of the sample normalized spectrum from the average normalized spectrum. Where the sample beer has a normalized spectrum close to the average the c's are small and it is remarkable how often this is the case. Typically one or two augmentation coefficients are sufficient and they are frequently small enough that one or more can be neglected. For example, an imported ale with SRM equal to 6.8 has coefficients -0.07 and -0.1. Using both these coefficients one obtains color accuracy of less than one L*a*b* space unit (the limit of perception) in up to a 10 cm path under Illuminant C. Using just the SRM for this beer gives a reasonably good description of its color with error of about 4 L*a*b* units. Beers which deviate dramatically from the "average" spectrum are easily accommodated. Thus a sample of Kriek Lambic (Belgian cherry beer), has an SRM of 15.27. Were its color to be reconstructed from just the SRM it would be the color of an "average" beer which will be dark amber – not the red of a Kriek. Including 3 coeffiecents (1.8, 0.8 and -0.1) yields color accuracy of less than 1 L*a*b* unit in paths up to 8 cm again under Illuminant C.
Augmented SRM:
Augmented SRM is advantageous relative to the ASBC tristimulus method in that color under any viewing circumstances can be computed in addition to which the familiar SRM rating is retained. Because of metamerism one cannot, in the general case of non zero deviation coefficients, estimate the original spectrum from the L*a*b* values reported by the ASBC method. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**LifeSaver bottle**
LifeSaver bottle:
The LifeSaver bottle is a portable water purification device. The bottle filters out objects larger than 15 nanometres.
Development:
After the 2004 Asian tsunami and Hurricane Katrina disaster in the U.S., Michael Pritchard, a water-treatment expert in Ipswich, England began to develop the LifeSaver bottle after seeing that it took multiple days for water to reach refugees. Pritchard presented a prototype of the LifeSaver at 2007's DSEi London, where the product was named "Best Technological Development". Pritchard's entire stock of 1,000 bottles sold out within four hours of the presentation.Speaking at TED in 2009, Pritchard estimated that by using the LifeSaver bottle, reaching the Millennium Development Goals of halving the number of people without drinking water will cost $8 billion; while $20 billion would provide drinking water for everyone on Earth.
Development:
Independent test results In 2007, the LifeSaver bottle was tested by the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine and the results found it to completely filter out all bacteria and viruses.
Use:
The bottle's interchangeable filter can purify between 4,000 and 6,000 litres (1,050 to 1,585 gallons) before it stops working and needs to be replaced. It filters out objects bigger than 15 Nanometres—including viruses, bacteria, and cysts. The carbon filter does not require chemicals. The process of filtering the water takes 20 seconds, allowing for 0.71 litres (1.5 pints) of water to be filtered. Once a filter has reached its limit, it will not allow contaminated water to be drunk. The LiveSaver bottle has been used by soldiers for drinking water as well as cleaning wounds.To filter the water, one puts contaminated water in the back of the bottle, then screws the lid on. The lid has a built in pump which is operated manually with a hand; the pumping action forces the contaminated water through the nano-filter and safe drinking water collects in another chamber in the bottle. The drinker then opens the top of the bottle from which safe drinking water comes out.
Use:
A much larger version of the LifeSaver bottle, called the LifeSaver Jerrycan, has the same filtering technology. The can allows for the filtration of 10,000 to 20,000 litres (2,650 to 5,300 gallons). One jerrycan filter can provide water for four people over a three-year span.
Limits:
The bottle can be used to filter urine and will remove all microbiological contamination. However, there will be an amount of dissolved salts that can not be removed. Metals such as iron, and salt from salt water cannot be removed effectively, either. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**XY problem**
XY problem:
The XY problem is a communication problem encountered in help desk, technical support, software engineering, or customer service situations where the question is about an end user's attempted solution (Y) rather than the root problem itself (X).The XY problem obscures the real issues and may even introduce secondary problems that lead to miscommunication, resource mismanagement, and sub-par solutions. The solution for the support personnel is to ask probing questions as to why the information is needed in order to identify the root problem X and redirect the end user away from an unproductive path of inquiry.
Terminology:
The term XY problem was implicitly coined by Eric S. Raymond in How To Ask Questions The Smart Way when he wrote "How can I use X to do Y?" in the "Questions Not To Ask" section (note that in this original version X and Y are swapped): Q: How can I use X to do Y? A: If what you want is to do Y, you should ask that question without pre-supposing the use of a method that may not be appropriate. Questions of this form often indicate a person who is not merely ignorant about X, but confused about what problem Y they are solving and too fixated on the details of their particular situation.
Terminology:
The concept of the problem itself, however, was known long before it received this name. In operations research scholar Gene Woolsey's 1980 text Applied Management Science: A Quick and Dirty Approach, he described an example of the XY problem thus: When management received complaints about having to wait too long for elevators, they researched elevator protocols in order to reduce wait times, but Woolsey realized that the actual problem was that "people were complaining"—installing large mirrors in the lobby gave people something to do and complaints went down drastically.
Examples:
Often, end users end up in XY problems when posing a question that does not directly address the desired outcome that originally motivated the question. Examples from software engineering include: Asking about how to grab the last three characters in a filename (Y) instead of how to get the file extension (X), which may not consist of three characters Asking about how to change Nmap output (Y) rather than how to prevent untrusted remote machines from detecting the operating system (X) Asking about how to get a string between two delimiters (Y) rather than how to parse JSON (X) Asking how to construct a regular expression to extract values from XML (Y) instead of how to parse XML (X). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**In-memory database**
In-memory database:
An in-memory database (IMDB, or main memory database system (MMDB) or memory resident database) is a database management system that primarily relies on main memory for computer data storage. It is contrasted with database management systems that employ a disk storage mechanism. In-memory databases are faster than disk-optimized databases because disk access is slower than memory access and the internal optimization algorithms are simpler and execute fewer CPU instructions. Accessing data in memory eliminates seek time when querying the data, which provides faster and more predictable performance than disk.Applications where response time is critical, such as those running telecommunications network equipment and mobile advertising networks, often use main-memory databases. IMDBs have gained much traction, especially in the data analytics space, starting in the mid-2000s – mainly due to multi-core processors that can address large memory and due to less expensive RAM.A potential technical hurdle with in-memory data storage is the volatility of RAM. Specifically in the event of a power loss, intentional or otherwise, data stored in volatile RAM is lost. With the introduction of non-volatile random-access memory technology, in-memory databases will be able to run at full speed and maintain data in the event of power failure.
ACID support:
In its simplest form, main memory databases store data on volatile memory devices. These devices lose all stored information when the device loses power or is reset. In this case, IMDBs can be said to lack support for the "durability" portion of the ACID (atomicity, consistency, isolation, durability) properties. Volatile memory-based IMDBs can, and often do, support the other three ACID properties of atomicity, consistency and isolation.
ACID support:
Many IMDBs have added durability via the following mechanisms: Snapshot files, or, checkpoint images, which record the state of the database at a given moment in time. The system typically generates these periodically, or at least when the IMDB does a controlled shut-down. While they give a measure of persistence to the data (in that the database does not lose everything in the case of a system crash) they only offer partial durability (as 'recent" changes will be lost). For full durability, they need supplementing with one of the following: Transaction logging, which records changes to the database in a journal file and facilitates automatic recovery of an in-memory database.
ACID support:
Non-Volatile DIMM (NVDIMM), a memory module that has a DRAM interface, often combined with NAND flash for the Non-Volatile data security. The first NVDIMM solutions were designed with supercapacitors instead of batteries for the backup power source. With this storage, IMDB can resume securely from its state upon reboot.
Non-volatile random-access memory (NVRAM), usually in the form of static RAM backed up with battery power (battery RAM), or an electrically erasable programmable ROM (EEPROM). With this storage, the re-booting IMDB system can recover the data store from its last consistent state.
ACID support:
High availability implementations that rely on database replication, with automatic failover to an identical standby database in the event of primary database failure. To protect against loss of data in the case of a complete system crash, replication of an IMDB is normally used in addition to one or more of the mechanisms listed above.Some IMDBs allow the database schema to specify different durability requirements for selected areas of the database – thus, faster-changing data that can easily be regenerated or that has no meaning after a system shut-down would not need to be journaled for durability (though it would have to be replicated for high availability), whereas configuration information would be flagged as needing preservation.
Hybrids with on-disk databases:
While storing data in-memory confers performance advantages, it is an expensive method of data storage. An approach to realising the benefits of in-memory storage while limiting its costs is to store the most frequently accessed data in-memory and the rest on disk. Since there is no hard distinction between which data should be stored in-memory and which should be stored on disk, some systems dynamically update where data is stored based on the data's usage. This approach is subtly different from caching, in which the most recently accessed data is cached, as opposed to the most frequently accessed data being stored in-memory. The flexibility of hybrid approaches allow a balance to be struck between: performance (which is enhanced by sorting, storing and retrieving specified data entirely in memory, rather than going to disk) cost, because a less costly hard disk can be substituted for more memory persistence form factor, because RAM chips cannot approach the density of a small hard driveIn the cloud computing industry the terms "data temperature", or "hot data" and "cold data" have emerged to describe how data is stored in this respect. Hot data is used to describe mission-critical data that needs to be accessed frequently while cold data describes data that is needed less often and less urgently, such as data kept for archiving or auditing purposes. Hot data should be stored in ways offering fast retrieval and modification, often accomplished by in-memory storage but not always. Cold data on the other hand can be stored in a more cost-effective way and is accepted that data access will likely be slower compared to hot data. While these descriptions are useful, "hot" and "cold" lack concrete definitions.Manufacturing efficiency provides another reason for selecting a combined in-memory/on-disk database system. Some device product lines, especially in consumer electronics, include some units with permanent storage, and others that rely on memory for storage (set-top boxes, for example). If such devices require a database system, a manufacturer can adopt a hybrid database system at lower and upper cost, and with less customization of code, rather than using separate in-memory and on-disk databases, respectively, for its disk-less and disk-based products.
Hybrids with on-disk databases:
The first database engine to support both in-memory and on-disk tables in a single database, WebDNA, was released in 1995.
Storage memory:
Another variation involves large amounts of nonvolatile memory in the server, for example, flash memory chips as addressable memory rather than structured as disk arrays. A database in this form of memory combines very fast access speed with persistence over reboots and power losses. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Osteoid**
Osteoid:
In histology, osteoid is the unmineralized, organic portion of the bone matrix that forms prior to the maturation of bone tissue. Osteoblasts begin the process of forming bone tissue by secreting the osteoid as several specific proteins. When the osteoid becomes mineralized, it and the adjacent bone cells have developed into new bone tissue.
Osteoid makes up about fifty percent of bone volume and forty percent of bone weight. It is composed of fibers and ground substance. The predominant type of fiber is type I collagen and comprises ninety percent of the osteoid. The ground substance is mostly made up of chondroitin sulfate and osteocalcin.
Disorders:
When there is insufficient nutrient minerals or osteoblast dysfunction, the osteoid does not mineralize properly, and it accumulates. The resultant disorder is termed rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults. A deficiency of type I collagen, such as in osteogenesis imperfecta, also leads to defective osteoid and brittle, fracture-prone bones.
In some cases, secondary hyperparathyroidism can cause disturbance in mineralisation of calcium and phosphate.
Another condition is a disturbance in primitive transformed cells of mesenchymal origin which exhibit osteoblastic differentiation and produce malignant osteoid. This results in the formation of a malignant primary bone tumor known as osteosarcoma or osteogenic sarcoma. This malignancy most often develops in adolescence during periods of rapid osteoid formation (commonly referred to as growth spurts). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Thermodynamic relations across normal shocks**
Thermodynamic relations across normal shocks:
"Normal shocks" are a fundamental type of shock wave. The waves, which are perpendicular to the flow, are called "normal" shocks. Normal shocks only happen when the flow is supersonic. At those speeds, no obstacle is identified before the speed of sound which makes the molecule return after sensing the obstacle. While returning, the molecule becomes coalescent at certain point. This thin film of molecules act as normal shocks.
Thermodynamic relation across normal shocks:
Mach number The Mach number in the upstream is given by M1 and the mach number in the downstream is given by M2 Note that the Mach numbers are given in the reference frame of the shock.
Static pressure Static temperature Stagnation pressure Entropy change
Reference list:
Yaha, S.M (2010). Fundamentals of compressible flow (4th ed.). New age international publishers. ISBN 9788122426687. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Light gap**
Light gap:
In ecology, a light gap is a break in forest canopy or similar barrier that allows young plants to grow where they would be otherwise inhibited by the lack of light reaching the seedbed. Light gaps form predominantly when a tree falls, and thus produces an opening in the forest canopy. Light gaps are important for maintaining diversity in species-rich ecosystems.
Occurrence:
There are many ways in which light gaps can form. A major occurrence is through previously mentioned treefall gaps. The death of a full-grown tree initiates a treefall gap, where light is exposed to the soil and creates resources for seeds and younger trees. Treefall gaps have been proven to maintain tree diversity by increasing stem density, which in turn can lead to species richness. Juvenile stems, or saplings, do an exceptional job at increasing stem density which increases species diversity as a result. Species compete for resources in order to regenerate. Succession can begin when treefall occurs because the newly lit area provides an area for a new population to grow. Trees that will grow in a treefall gap are not necessarily the most suited for that particular environment, but rather, grow by chance. Therefore, different organisms may experience a greater attraction to certain environments over others, which can also have an effect on the extent to which an area flourishes.
Occurrence:
An interesting example of gap formation comes from Japanese Black Bears and their effects on the forest canopy. When Japanese Black Bears are looking for fruit, they break off branches when climbing trees and as a result, small light gaps form in the canopies. Therefore, their search for food is improving the light conditions of understory plants, which in return benefits the bears, as this helps fruit they eat to grow more abundantly.
Selected areas:
On a report done in a Neotropical forest, the process of gap-phase regeneration is studied. Through conducted experiments, conclusions are confirmed about the gap-phase regeneration process. A tree fall forms a light gap, which stimulated growth, resulting in an increase in the stem density on the forest floor. Thus, in turn, allows multiple trees to grow back and ecosystems to prosper. Studies of gap dynamics have provided evidence for understanding many small disturbances in an ecosystem.
Selected areas:
In a uniform and discontinuous conifer forest canopy, solar energy is projected at certain angles in the light gaps, which determine soil conditions and amount of snow accumulation. Depending on the time of year, the variety of tree species and the size of the light gap will determine how much light hits the forest floor and what kind of temporal and spatial heterogeneity will form.
Selected areas:
In the coastal areas of south-eastern Australia, large brown kelp, another kind of canopy, formed by Ecklonia radiata, dominates the existing temperate reefs. Climate change in the area poses a direct effect on the underwater canopy cover, reducing its overall quality. Climate change is causing patches in the canopy layer and because of this loss of coverage, the understory becomes a prime place for benthic algae to grow. This affects other organisms, such a sponges and encrusting algae that are trying to grow on the reefs. This discovery has shown that although light gaps oftentimes produce positive outcomes, they can also negatively effect some members of the biotic community.
Selected areas:
In the Amazon rainforest, light gaps are extensively studied. However, ways in which the understory is affected by light gaps there, remains mostly a mystery. Overall biomass in the light gap areas is directly impacted by the size of the light opening, the type of roots that pre-existed its formation, and the type of tree that fell to create the light gap. The quality of biomass determines the level of regrowth in the environment.
Selected areas:
All types of canopy structures rely on the quality that seeds experience when developing. Seeds can grow better when they are protected, however, they also flourish to a greater extent when they are not in a shaded environment. In fact, some seeds are so sensitive that even a slight change in light can prevent it from surviving.
Light gap herbivores:
Light gap herbivores are animals that contribute to the creation of light gaps by feeding on the older plants. Some herbivorous animals include algae and bacteria in their diet. Insect herbivores target the shade-tolerant tree species. They cause a substantial amount of damage to the leaves of plants. There is more herbivory in tropical forests than in temperate forests.
Effects on organisms and their ecosystems:
Many organisms are directly affected by the formation of light gaps. In a tropical forest, butterflies, which are great biodiversity indicators, exemplify this notion. Out of twenty various species, each has ecological and behavioral requirements that can be found in both opened and closed canopy gaps. Males will claim certain gaps as their territory to protect the patch from other males, in hopes to attract their female counterpart. Twelve species of butterflies had a positive phototactic response, while four species had a negative response and the remaining four did not express any sort of preference. Overall, butterfly species in a tropical rainforest were, on average, occupying open canopy gaps more frequently. Butterfly assemblage is determined by the amount of light and temperature that penetrates the canopy.
Effects on organisms and their ecosystems:
Newly created light gaps are avoided in a lot of situations by species that would normally replenish them through seed dispersal. However, the aid of the wind for seed dispersal in the light gap has a positive effect on plants, taking them further from the parent plant and decreasing predation. Frugivores such as birds and bats find recently created gaps dangerous because they pose a hazard on their overall well-being. Birds find no place to perch, and bats are more susceptible to predators when they fly in this area. Large monkeys, toucans, and guans perch in the tops of the canopy, and therefore release their seeds under the canopy and as a result, the seeds do not get dispersed where most needed. Wind initiates seed movement into the canopy gap. As the gap matures, it begins to grow trees that bear fruit, and growth of shrubs draw in more animals as they provide better protection from the open canopy above.
Effects on organisms and their ecosystems:
Overall, there are many advantages and disadvantages of a light gap disturbance. Some species benefit, and others are threatened. Through more research and investigation, scientists hope to uncover all aspects of the occurrence. It is only then that laws may be implemented to reduce harmful outcomes and increase further ecological sustainability. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Phonetic environment**
Phonetic environment:
In phonetics and linguistics, the phonetic environment of a given instance of a speech sound (or "phone") consists of the other phones adjacent to and surrounding it. The phonetic environment of a phone can sometimes determine the allophonic or phonemic qualities of a sound in a given language.
Phonetic environment:
For example, the English vowel 'a' /æ/ in the word 'mat' /mæt/ has the consonants /m/ preceding it and /t/ following it. In linguistic notation it is written as /m__t, where the slash can be read as "in the environment", and the underscore represents the target phone's position relative to its neighbours. The expression therefore reads "in the environment after m and before t". | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Billet**
Billet:
A billet is a living-quarters to which a soldier is assigned to sleep. Historically, a billet was a private dwelling that was required to accept the soldier.
Soldiers are generally billeted in barracks or garrisons when not on combat duty, although in some armies soldiers with families are permitted to maintain a home off-post. Used for a building, the term billet is more commonly used in British English; United States standard terms are quarters, barracks, Single (Soldier) Housing or Family Housing.
British history:
Originally, a billet (from French billet) was a note, commonly used in the 18th and early 19th centuries as a "billet of invitation". In this sense, the term was used to denote an order issued to a soldier entitling him to quarters with a certain person. From this meaning, the word billet came to be loosely used of the quarters thus obtained. The division of troops to organize their billeting was known as cantoning. Repeated petitions against the practice of billeting, starting in the 16th century, culminated in its outlawing in 1689 as an extension of a section of the Petition of Right 1628.During wartime, civilians who have been evacuated from a city in danger of attack are billetted in communal shelters or in the homes of individuals. The practice of billeting evacuees was widespread in Britain during World War II, particularly during the Blitz when children and other non-essential persons in major cities were sent to rural areas for safety.
British history:
In European countries since the formation of regular forces, the Quartermaster was an occupation and a rank of the individuals responsible for the provision of sleeping quarters and other provisions for regular time troops.
British history:
Train ticket are called 'Billet' in many French influenced parts of the world including Eastern Europe. Overnight transport by train was very common for soldiers and on the Billet, the number indicating the location of the quarters would be specified. Later, during times of over-surging troops, more troops would be assigned to a train than its regular housing capacity. Thus, only those with a Billet would be assigned to a room or quarter. Hence, the two became synonymous.
United States usage:
One of the major grievances of the American colonists against the British government which led to the American Revolutionary War was the quartering of soldiers in civilian homes. As a result, the Third Amendment to the United States Constitution provides restrictions on the manner in which the Federal government of the United States may require civilians to provide housing for American soldiers.
United States usage:
Billet can mean a specific personnel position, assignment, or duty station which may be filled by one person, most commonly used by the United States Navy, the United States Marine Corps, and the United States Coast Guard. Every person reporting aboard a ship or shore installation in the naval services is assigned a billet according to the unit watch, quarter and station bill, which shows the duties, stations and billet assignments for all crew members.Billet can also refer to the position and weapons of the members of a unit. For example, the billets of a fireteam include a fireteam leader (M16), a rifleman (M16), an automatic rifleman (M249), and a grenadier (M16 with M203 grenade launcher).
Amateur sports:
In North America, billet families offer room and board to junior ice hockey players (or under-20 athletes from other sports, such as soccer) who leave home to join elite teams in other towns. Coaches are often involved with matching a player to a billet family. The objective of a billet family is to provide a "home away from home" for young players during the season. However, fears over child safety in amateur sports in Canada drastically curtailed billeting practice. Many places do not billet, while other clubs through their provincial sports' bodies have instituted mandatory criminal record checks for all involved in amateur sports, including coaches, volunteers and anyone over eighteen years of age from the host family.
Other usage:
In Spain, the noble officers of royal tercios were billeted in the homes of the affluent and well-to-do citizens of the towns and cities they were stationed in. This usage is employed as a plot device in the Barber of Seville.
In Canada, the term is widely used in conjunction with housing visiting performers from theatrical or musical tours, such as for a Fringe Theatre festival or a choir festival. Students traveling for a band or choir tour may billet with members of the host band or choir.
The expression "billet" is also used for an exchange student. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**ATV Offroad Fury 4**
ATV Offroad Fury 4:
ATV Offroad Fury 4 is a racing video game developed by Climax Racing and published by Sony Computer Entertainment for PlayStation 2. It was released on October 31, 2006 in North America, on March 27, 2008 in Australia, and one day later in Europe.
Gameplay:
ATV Offroad Fury 4 sees the introduction of new vehicles such as dirt bikes, trophy trucks and dune buggies, alongside existing quad bikes; this allows the game to include up to 50 Championship Modes. In addition to improved graphics, it also has an additional 60 tracks and improved online gaming.
Gameplay:
In terms of in-game controls, more tricks are possible while the player is on an MX motorcycle, but none can be performed while the player is controlling a Trophy Truck or Dune Buggy. Similar to the risk of being thrown off an ATV or motorcycle during the game, Trophy Trucks and Dune Buggies are vulnerable to rollovers, after which the player's vehicle will be automatically reset back on its wheels, as it is when thrown off of an ATV or motorcycle. The game also offers tutorials on how to drive Trophy Trucks and Dune Buggies.
Gameplay:
Similar to NASCAR Thunder 2004 is the introduction of rivals. All opponents have an icon above them; when a player hits an opponent, the opponent's icon will turn red and the opponent will be more aggressive towards the player.
The game has a "Story Mode" where players compete in events around the world and are required to complete a certain number of events to move on.
ATV Offroad Fury 4 includes more mini-games, such as "Ice Hockey" (introduced in ATV Offroad Fury 2), "Scavenger Hunt", "King Of The Hill", "Bowling", and "Ring of Fire".
Gameplay:
PSP version A loose adaptation for the PlayStation Portable was released at the same time titled ATV Offroad Fury Pro. This game uses the same physics engine and offers the same vehicles as 4, but features completely different race tracks, some exclusive vehicles, mini-games, and soundtrack. It features both ad hoc (local area network) or Infrastructure (web) multiplayer modes. This game also includes new vehicle classes known as snowmobiles and rally cars, which are exclusive to this game.
Gameplay:
Eight "Classic" tracks can be unlocked by synchronizing own Save File with an ATV Offroad Fury Pro save via USB Link with a PlayStation Portable. These tracks appear in previous games in the series, and must be unlocked through Pro before unlocking them in 4.
Reception:
ATV Offroad Fury 4 received "generally favorable" reviews, according to review aggregator Metacritic. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Event tree**
Event tree:
An event tree is an inductive analytical diagram in which an event is analyzed using Boolean logic to examine a chronological series of subsequent events or consequences. For example, event tree analysis is a major component of nuclear reactor safety engineering.An event tree displays sequence progression, sequence end states and sequence-specific dependencies across time.
Analytical tool:
Event tree analysis is a logical evaluative process which works by tracing forward in time or forwards through a causal chain to model risk. It does not require the premise of a known hazard. An event tree is an inductive investigatory process.In contrast, the Fault tree analysis (FTA) evaluates risk by tracing backwards in time or backwards through a cause chain. The analysis takes as a premise a given hazard. FTA is a deductive investigatory process.
Applications:
An event tree may start from a specific initiator such as loss of critical supply, or component failure.Some industries use both fault trees and event trees. Software has been created for fault tree analysis and event tree analysis and is licensed for use at the world's nuclear power plants for Probabilistic Safety Assessment. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Spectral invariants**
Spectral invariants:
In symplectic geometry, the spectral invariants are invariants defined for the group of Hamiltonian diffeomorphisms of a symplectic manifold, which is closed related to Floer theory and Hofer geometry.
Arnold conjecture and Hamiltonian Floer homology:
If (M, ω) is a symplectic manifold, then a smooth vector field Y on M is a Hamiltonian vector field if the contraction ω(Y, ·) is an exact 1-form (i.e., the differential of a Hamiltonian function H). A Hamiltonian diffeomorphism of a symplectic manifold (M, ω) is a diffeomorphism Φ of M which is the integral of a smooth path of Hamiltonian vector fields Yt. Vladimir Arnold conjectured that the number of fixed points of a generic Hamiltonian diffeomorphism of a compact symplectic manifold (M, ω) should be bounded from below by some topological constant of M, which is analogous to the Morse inequality. This so-called Arnold conjecture triggered the invention of Hamiltonian Floer homology by Andreas Floer in the 1980s.
Arnold conjecture and Hamiltonian Floer homology:
Floer's definition adopted Witten's point of view on Morse theory. He considered spaces of contractible loops of M and defined an action functional AH associated to the family of Hamiltonian functions, so that the fixed points of the Hamiltonian diffeomorphism correspond to the critical points of the action functional. Constructing a chain complex similar to the Morse–Smale–Witten complex in Morse theory, Floer managed to define a homology group, which he also showed to be isomorphic to the ordinary homology groups of the manifold M.
Arnold conjecture and Hamiltonian Floer homology:
The isomorphism between the Floer homology group HF(M) and the ordinary homology groups H(M) is canonical. Therefore, for any "good" Hamiltonian path Ht, a homology class α of M can be represented by a cycle in the Floer chain complex, formally a linear combination αH=a1x1+a2x2+⋯ where ai are coefficients in some ring and xi are fixed points of the corresponding Hamiltonian diffeomorphism. Formally, the spectral invariants can be defined by the min-max value min max {AH(xi):ai≠0}.
Arnold conjecture and Hamiltonian Floer homology:
Here the maximum is taken over all the values of the action functional AH on the fixed points appeared in the linear combination of αH, and the minimum is taken over all Floer cycles that represent the class α. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Panoramic photography**
Panoramic photography:
Panoramic photography is a technique of photography, using specialized equipment or software, that captures images with horizontally elongated fields of view. It is sometimes known as wide format photography. The term has also been applied to a photograph that is cropped to a relatively wide aspect ratio, like the familiar letterbox format in wide-screen video.
Panoramic photography:
While there is no formal division between "wide-angle" and "panoramic" photography, "wide-angle" normally refers to a type of lens, but using this lens type does not necessarily make an image a panorama. An image made with an ultra wide-angle fisheye lens covering the normal film frame of 1:1.33 is not automatically considered to be a panorama. An image showing a field of view approximating, or greater than, that of the human eye – about 160° by 75° – may be termed panoramic. This generally means it has an aspect ratio of 2:1 or larger, the image being at least twice as wide as it is high. The resulting images take the form of a wide strip. Some panoramic images have aspect ratios of 4:1 and sometimes 10:1, covering fields of view of up to 360 degrees. Both the aspect ratio and coverage of field are important factors in defining a true panoramic image.
Panoramic photography:
Photo-finishers and manufacturers of Advanced Photo System (APS) cameras use the word "panoramic" to define any print format with a wide aspect ratio, not necessarily photos that encompass a large field of view.
History:
The device of the panorama existed in painting, particularly in murals as early as 20 A.D. in those found in Pompeii, as a means of generating an immersive 'panoptic' experience of a vista, long before the advent of photography. In the century prior to the advent of photography, and from 1787, with the work of Robert Barker, it reached a pinnacle of development in which whole buildings were constructed to house 360° panoramas, and even incorporated lighting effects and moving elements. Indeed, the careers of one of the inventors of photography, Daguerre, began in the production of popular panoramas and dioramas.The idea and longing to create a detailed cityscape without a paintbrush, inspired Friedrich von Marten. von Marten created panoramic daguerreotype by using a special panoramic camera that he created himself. The camera could capture a broad view on a single daguerreotype plate. In complete and vivid detail, a cityscape is laid out before the viewer.The development of panoramic cameras was a logical extension of the nineteenth-century fad for the panorama. One of the first recorded patents for a panoramic camera was submitted by Joseph Puchberger in Austria in 1843 for a hand-cranked, 150° field of view, 8-inch focal length camera that exposed a relatively large Daguerreotype, up to 24 inches (610 mm) long. A more successful and technically superior panoramic camera was assembled the next year by Friedrich von Martens in Germany in 1844. His camera, the Megaskop, used curved plates and added the crucial feature of set gears, offering a relatively steady panning speed. As a result, the camera properly exposed the photographic plate, avoiding unsteady speeds that can create an unevenness in exposure, called banding. Martens was employed by Lerebours, a photographer/publisher. It is also possible that Martens camera was perfected before Puchberger patented his camera. Because of the high cost of materials and the technical difficulty of properly exposing the plates, Daguerreotype panoramas, especially those pieced together from several plates (see below) are rare.
History:
After the advent of wet-plate collodion process, photographers would take anywhere from two to a dozen of the ensuing albumen prints and piece them together to form a panoramic image (see: Segmented). This photographic process was technically easier and far less expensive than Daguerreotypes. While William Stanley Jevons' wet-collodion Panorama of Port Jackson, New South Wales, from a high rock above Shell Cove, North Shore survived undiscovered until 1953 in his scrap-book of 1857, some of the most famous early panoramas were assembled this way by George N. Barnard, a photographer for the Union Army in the American Civil War in the 1860s. His work provided vast overviews of fortifications and terrain, much valued by engineers, generals, and artists alike. (see Photography and photographers of the American Civil War) In 1875, through remarkable effort, Bernard Otto Holtermann and Charles Bayliss coated twenty-three wet-plates measuring 56 by 46 centimetres to record a sweeping view of Sydney Harbour.Following the invention of flexible film in 1888, panoramic photography was revolutionised. Dozens of cameras were marketed, many with brand names indicative of their era; such as the Pantascopic, (1862) Cylindrograph survey camera (1884), Kodak Panoram (1899), Wonder Panoramic (1890), and Cyclo-Pan (1970). More portable and simple to operate, and with the advantage of holding several panoramic views on the one roll, these cameras were enthusiastically deployed around the turn of the century by such photographers as the American adventurer Melvin Vaniman, who popularised the medium in Australia where it was taken up by both Pictorialist and postcard photographers, such as Robert Vere Scott,. Richard T. Maurice (1859-1909), H.H. Tilbrook (1884-1937), and Harry Phillips (1873-1944).
Panoramic cameras and methods:
Stereo Cyclographe A camera with combined two-fixed focus panoramic camera in one mahogany-wooded box. The lenses were eight centimeters apart from each other with an indicator in between the lens to help the photographer set the camera level. A clock motor transported the nine-centimeter-wide film along with turning the shaft that rotated the camera. The camera could make a 9 × 80 cm pair that required a special viewer. These images were mostly used for mapping purposes.
Panoramic cameras and methods:
Wonder Panoramic Camera Made in 1890 in Berlin, Germany, by Rudolf Stirn, the Wonder Panoramic Camera needed the photographer for its motive power. A string, inside of the camera, hanging through a hole in the tripod screw, wound around a pulley inside the wooden box camera. To take a panoramic photo, the photographer swiveled the metal cap away from the lens to start the exposure. The rotation could be set for a full 360-degree view, producing an eighteen-inch-long negative.
Panoramic cameras and methods:
Periphote Built by Lumiere Freres of Paris in 1901. The Periphote had a spring-wound clock motor that rotated, and the inside barrier held the roll of film and its take-up spool. Attached to the body was a 55mm Jarret lens and a prism that directed the light through a half-millimeter-wide aperture at the film.
Panoramic cameras and methods:
Short rotation Short rotation, rotating lens and swing lens cameras have a lens that rotates around the camera lens's rear nodal point and use a curved film plane. As the photograph is taken, the lens pivots around its rear nodal point while a slit exposes a vertical strip of film that is aligned with the axis of the lens. The exposure usually takes a fraction of a second. Typically, these cameras capture a field of view between 110° and 140° and an aspect ratio of 2:1 to 4:1. The images produced occupy between 1.5 and 3 times as much space on the negative as the standard 24 mm x 36 mm 35 mm frame.
Panoramic cameras and methods:
Cameras of this type include the Widelux, Noblex, and the Horizon. These have a negative size of approximately 24x58 mm. The Russian "Spaceview FT-2", originally an artillery spotting camera, produced wider negatives, 12 exposures on a 36-exposure 35 mm film.
Panoramic cameras and methods:
Short rotation cameras usually offer few shutter speeds and have poor focusing ability. Most models have a fixed focus lens, set to the hyperfocal distance of the maximum aperture of the lens, often at around 10 meters (33 feet). Photographers wishing to photograph closer subjects must use a small aperture to bring the foreground into focus, limiting the camera's use in low-light situations.
Panoramic cameras and methods:
Rotating lens cameras produce distortion of straight lines. This looks unusual because the image, which was captured from a sweeping, curved perspective, is being viewed flat. To view the image correctly, the viewer would have to produce a sufficiently large print and curve it identically to the curve of the film plane. This distortion can be reduced by using a swing-lens camera with a standard focal length lens. The FT-2 has a 50 mm while most other 35 mm swing lens cameras use a wide-angle lens, often 28 mm].
Panoramic cameras and methods:
Similar distortion is seen in panoramas shot with digital cameras using in-camera stitching.
Panoramic cameras and methods:
Full rotation Rotating panoramic cameras, also called slit scan or scanning cameras are capable of 360° or greater degree of rotation. A clockwork or motorized mechanism rotates the camera continuously and pulls the film through the camera, so the motion of the film matches that of the image movement across the image plane. Exposure is made through a narrow slit. The central part of the image field produces a very sharp picture that is consistent across the frame.Digital rotating line cameras image a 360° panorama line by line. Digital cameras in this style are the Panoscan and Eyescan. Analogue cameras include the Cirkut (1905), Leme (1962), Hulcherama (1979), Globuscope (1981), Seitz Roundshot (1988) and Lomography Spinner 360° (2010).
Panoramic cameras and methods:
Fixed lens Fixed lens cameras, also called flatback, wide view or wide field, have fixed lenses and a flat image plane. These are the most common form of panoramic camera and range from inexpensive APS cameras to sophisticated 6x17 cm and 6x24 cm medium format cameras. Panoramic cameras using sheet film are available in formats up to 10 x 24 inches. APS or 35 mm cameras produce cropped images in a panoramic aspect ratio using a small area of film. Specialized 35 mm or medium format fixed-lens panoramic cameras use wide field lenses to cover an extended length as well as the full height of the film to produce images with a greater image width than normal.Pinhole cameras of a variety of constructions can be used to make panoramic images. A popular design is the 'oatmeal box', a vertical cylindrical container in which the pinhole is made in one side and the film or photographic paper is wrapped around the inside wall opposite, and extending almost right to the edge of, the pinhole. This generates an egg-shaped image with more than 180° view.Because they expose the film in a single exposure, fixed lens cameras can be used with electronic flash, which would not work consistently with rotational panoramic cameras.
Panoramic cameras and methods:
With a flat image plane, 90° is the widest field of view that can be captured in focus and without significant wide-angle distortion or vignetting. Lenses with an imaging angle approaching 120 degrees require a center filter to correct vignetting at the edges of the image. Lenses that capture angles of up to 180°, commonly known as fisheye lenses exhibit extreme geometrical distortion but typically display less brightness falloff than rectilinear lenses.Examples of this type of camera are: Taiyokoki Viscawide-16 ST-D (16 mm film), Siciliano Camera Works Pannaroma (35mm, 1987), Hasselblad X-Pan (35 mm, 1998), Linhof 612PC, Horseman SW612, Linhof Technorama 617, Tomiyama Art Panorama 617 and 624, and Fuji G617 and GX617 (Medium format (film)).
Panoramic cameras and methods:
The panomorph lens provides a full hemispheric field of view with no blind spot, unlike catadioptric lenses.
Digital photography:
Digital stitching of segmented panoramas With digital photography, the most common method for producing panoramas is to take a series of pictures and stitch them together. There are two main types: the cylindrical panorama used primarily in stills photography and the spherical panorama used for virtual-reality images.Segmented panoramas, also called stitched panoramas, are made by joining multiple photographs with slightly overlapping fields of view to create a panoramic image. Stitching software is used to combine multiple images. Ideally, in order to correctly stitch images together without parallax error, the camera must be rotated about the center of its lens entrance pupil. Stitching software can correct some parallax errors and different programs seem to vary in their ability to correct parallax errors. In general specific panorama software seems better at this than some of the built in stitching in general photomanipulation software.
Digital photography:
In-camera stitching of panoramas Some digital cameras especially smartphone cameras can do the stitching internally, sometimes in real time, either as a standard feature or by installing a smartphone app.
Digital photography:
Catadioptric cameras Lens- and mirror-based (catadioptric) cameras consist of lenses and curved mirrors that reflect a 360-degree field of view into the lens' optics. The mirror shape and lens used are specifically chosen and arranged so that the camera maintains a single viewpoint. The single viewpoint means the complete panorama is effectively imaged or viewed from a single point in space. One can simply warp the acquired image into a cylindrical or spherical panorama. Even perspective views of smaller fields of view can be accurately computed.
Digital photography:
The biggest advantage of catadioptric systems (panoramic mirror lenses) is that because one uses mirrors to bend the light rays instead of lenses (like fish eye), the image has almost no chromatic aberrations or distortions. The image, a reflection of the surface on the mirror, is in the form of a doughnut to which software is applied in order to create a flat panoramic picture. Such software is normally supplied by the company who produces the system. Because the complete panorama is imaged at once, dynamic scenes can be captured without problems. Panoramic video can be captured and has found applications in robotics and journalism. The mirror lens system uses only a partial section of the digital camera's sensor and therefore some pixels are not used. Recommendations are always to use a camera with a high pixel count in order to maximize the resolution of the final image.
Digital photography:
There are even inexpensive add-on catadioptric lenses for smartphones, such as the GoPano micro and Kogeto Dot.
Artistic uses:
Strip panoramas Ed Ruscha's Every Building on the Sunset Strip (1966) was made by photographing building facades contiguously as seen from the back of a pickup truck traveling a 4 km length of the street. In the ironically 'deadpan' spirit of his work at the time, he published the work in strip form in a foldout book, intended to be viewed from one end or the other to see either side of 'The Strip' in correct orientation.Preceding Ruscha's work, in 1954, Yoshikazu Suzuki produced an accordion-fold panorama of every building on Ginza Street, Tokyo in the Japanese architecture book Ginza, Kawaii, Ginza Haccho.
Artistic uses:
Joiners Joiners (for which the terms panography and panograph have been used) is a photographic technique in which one picture is assembled from several overlapping photographs. This can be done manually with prints or by using digital image editing software and may resemble a wide-angle or panoramic view of a scene, similar in effect to segmented panoramic photography or image stitching. A joiner is distinct because the overlapping edges between adjacent pictures are not removed; the edge becomes part of the picture. 'Joiners' or 'panography' is thus a type of photomontage and a sub-set of collage.
Artistic uses:
Artist David Hockney is an early and important contributor to this technique. Through his fascination with human vision, his efforts to render a subjective view in his artworks resulted in the manual montaging of 10x15cm high-street-processed prints of (often several entire) 35mm films as a solution. He called the resulting cut-and-paste montages "joiners", and one of his most famous is "Pearblossom Highway", held by the Getty Museum. His group was called the "Hockney joiners", and he still paints and photographs joiners today.
Artistic uses:
Jan Dibbets' Dutch Mountain series (c.1971) relies on stitching of panoramic sequences to make a mountain of the Netherlands seaside.
Revivalists In the 1970s and 1980s, a school of art photographers took up panoramic photography, inventing new cameras and using found and updated antique cameras to revive the format. The new panoramists included Kenneth Snelson, David Avison, Art Sinsabaugh, and Jim Alinder.
Digital stitching Andreas Gursky frequently employs digital stitching in his large-format panoramic imagery. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Coprostane**
Coprostane:
Coprostane, also known as 5β-cholestane, is a steroid and a parent compound of a variety of steroid derivatives, such as ecdysone and coprostanol. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Dick (slang)**
Dick (slang):
Dick is a common English slang word for the human penis. It is also used by extension for a variety of slang purposes, generally considered vulgar, including: as a verb to describe sexual activity; and as a pejorative term for individuals who are considered to be rude, abrasive, inconsiderate, or otherwise contemptible. In this context, it can be used interchangeably with jerk, and can also be used as a verb to describe rude or deceitful actions. Variants include dickhead, which literally refers to the glans. The offensiveness of the word dick is complicated by the continued use of the word in inoffensive contexts, including as both a given name (often a nickname for Richard) and a surname, the popular British dessert spotted dick, the classic novel Moby-Dick, the Dick and Jane series of children's books, and the American retailer Dick's Sporting Goods. Uses such as these have provided a basis for comedy writers to exploit this juxtaposition through double entendre.
Origin and evolution of the pejorative slang:
In the mid-17th century, dick became slang for a man as a sexual partner. For example, in the 1665 satire The English Rogue by Richard Head, a "dick" procured to impregnate a character that is having difficulty conceiving: The next Dick I pickt up for her was a man of a colour as contrary to the former, as light is to darkness, being swarthy; whose hair was as black as a sloe; middle statur'd, well set, both strong and active, a man so universally tryed, and so fruitfully successful, that there was hardly any female within ten miles gotten with child in hugger-mugger, but he was more than suspected to be Father of all the legitimate. Yet this too, proved an ineffectual Operator.
Origin and evolution of the pejorative slang:
An 1869 slang dictionary offered definitions of dick including "a riding whip" and an abbreviation of dictionary, also noting that in the North Country, it was used as a verb to indicate that a policeman was eyeing the subject. The term came to be associated with the penis through usage by men in the military around the 1880s.The usage of dick to refer to a contemptible or despicable person was first attested in 1960s.
Origin and evolution of the pejorative slang:
Offensiveness "Dick", when used in many of its slang connotations, is generally considered at least mildly offensive. In 1994, the United States District Court for the District of Massachusetts upheld a school policy under which a student was prohibited from wearing a T-shirt with a double entendre, reading "See Dick Drink. See Dick Drive. See Dick Die. Don’t be a Dick." The court in this case held that a legitimate goal of the school—to calm a sexually charged environment and enhance the ability of students to learn—made it unlikely that this restriction was a violation of any First Amendment rights. This decision was vacated the following year by the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit, which noted that students have the right to express their views, and that the T-shirt, "though reasonably thought vulgar", did express a view.In 2001, the United States Federal Communications Commission (FCC) published guidelines that summarized instances in which a number of media outlets had violated indecency laws when using the word "dick" in a sexual context. These included, for example, the State University of New York's WSUC-FM, in Cortland, New York, which in 1993 was fined for broadcasting a rap titled "I'm Not Your Puppet", which referenced "shoving my dick up this bitch's behind" in one lyric, and stated in another, "I pulled out my dick, popped it in her mouth, and she sucked it." In the same report, however, the FCC noted that in 1990, it had ruled that WFBQ (FM)/WNDE (AM) in Indianapolis had not engaged in indecency when it broadcast the line "So you talk to Dick Nixon, man you get him on the phone and Dick suggests maybe getting like a mega-Dick to help out, but you know, you remember the time the king ate mega-Dick under the table at a 095 picnic", and a parody commercial referencing a fictional monster truck called "Big Peter! Formerly the Big Dick's Dog Wiener Mobile". In January 2005, the FCC released a ruling that it would not fine broadcasters whose programs used "dick" on the air to refer to a person behaving contemptibly. Specifically, the FCC stated in its ruling: A number of complaints cite isolated uses of the word "dick" or variations thereof. In context and as used in the complained of broadcasts, these were epithets intended to denigrate or criticize their subjects. Their use in this context was not sufficiently explicit or graphic and/or sustained to be patently offensive.
Origin and evolution of the pejorative slang:
The name of the traditional British dessert spotted dick has occasionally been perceived as potentially embarrassing, prompting hospital managers at Gloucestershire NHS Trust (in 2001) and the catering staff at Flintshire County Council (in 2009) to rename the pudding Spotted Richard on menus, as many customers made "immature comments" about the pudding. Gloucestershire NHS Trust restored the original name in 2002 and Flintshire County Council reversed their renaming after a few weeks.
Origin and evolution of the pejorative slang:
Derivative meaning The word dick is used in the sense of "nothing", a figurative use of the sense "penis" (similar to the use of fuck and shit in a similar sense), as in "Nowadays you don't mean dick to me".
Other slang:
Dick is used as a slang term for detective, as in "hiring a private dick to help locate her natural mother". This meaning may derive from the Roma slang dekko, dekker from Romani dik, meaning "to look". | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Measurement tower**
Measurement tower:
A measurement tower or measurement mast, also known as meteorological tower or meteorological mast (met tower or met mast), is a free standing tower or a removed mast, which carries measuring instruments with meteorological instruments, such as thermometers and instruments to measure wind speed. Measurement towers are an essential component of rocket launching sites, since one must know exact wind conditions for an execution of a rocket launch. Met masts are crucial in the development of wind farms, as precise knowledge of the wind speed is necessary to know how much energy will be produced, and whether the turbines will survive on the site. Measurement towers are also used in other contexts, for instance near nuclear power stations, and by ASOS stations.
Examples:
Meteorology Other measurement towers Aerial test facility Brück, Brück, Germany BREN Tower, Nevada Test Site, USA Wind farm development Before developers construct a wind farm, they first measure the wind resource on a prospective site by erecting temporary measurement towers. Typically these mount anemometers at a range of heights up to the hub height of the proposed wind turbines, and log the wind speed data at frequent intervals (e.g. every ten minutes) for at least one year and preferably two or more. The data allow the developer to determine if the site is economically viable for a wind farm, and to choose wind turbines optimized for the local wind speed distribution. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**BACH2**
BACH2:
Transcription regulator protein BACH2 (broad complex-tramtrack-bric a brac and Cap'n'collar homology 2) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the BACH2 gene. It contains a BTB/POZ domain at its N-terminus which forms a disulphide-linked dimer and a bZip_Maf domain at the C-terminus.
Disease associations:
Single nucleotide variants in BACH2 have been linked to a number of autoimmune diseases in humans. Mendelian BACH2-related immunodeficiency and autoimmunity (BRIDA) syndrome in humans is caused by haploinsufficiency of this transcription factor resulting from germline mutations. In T cells, BACH2 is recruited by the transcription factor Vitamin D receptor (VDR) both in vitro and in vivo (for example, in psoriasis skin) and is an essential component of the regulatory functions of Vitamin D in these cells.
Model organisms:
Model organisms have been used in the study of BACH2 function. A conditional knockout mouse line called Bach2tm1a(EUCOMM)Wtsi was generated at the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute. Male and female animals underwent a standardized phenotypic screen to determine the effects of deletion. Additional screens performed: - In-depth immunological phenotyping - in-depth bone and cartilage phenotyping | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Schwab Verkehrstechnik AG**
Schwab Verkehrstechnik AG:
Schwab Verkehrstechnik AG is a Swiss manufacturer of energy absorption systems for railway vehicles. The company develops, manufactures and markets basically two product lines: couplings and buffers.
Basics:
The company is based in Schaffhausen, Switzerland and employed, by end of 2011, 39 people.
It was acquired in 2012 by Faiveley Transport. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Prosody (software)**
Prosody (software):
Prosody (formerly lxmppd) is a cross-platform XMPP server written in Lua. Its development goals include low resource usage, ease of use, and extensibility. Prosody uses the default XMPP ports, 5222 and 5269, for client-to-server and server-to-server communications respectively.
History:
Prosody development was started by Matthew Wild in August 2008 and its first release, 0.1.0, was made in December 2008.Prosody was initially licensed under the GNU General Public License (version 2), but later switched to the MIT License in its 3rd release.
Notable deployments:
The XMPP Standards Foundation runs Prosody on xmpp.org, and uses the chatroom feature for meetings for various XSF teams.
Identi.ca the micro-blogging service uses Prosody to deliver IM notifications.
Remember the Milk uses Prosody to deliver IM based reminders.
Collabora runs Prosody on proxies.telepathy.im to provide file transfer proxy lookup for Telepathy (and therefore Empathy).
Peter Saint-Andre (the executive director of the XMPP Standards Foundation) has run Prosody on http://stpeter.im. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Palatini identity**
Palatini identity:
In general relativity and tensor calculus, the Palatini identity is δRσν=∇ρδΓνσρ−∇νδΓρσρ, where δΓνσρ denotes the variation of Christoffel symbols and ∇ρ indicates covariant differentiation.The "same" identity holds for the Lie derivative LξRσν . In fact, one has LξRσν=∇ρ(LξΓνσρ)−∇ν(LξΓρσρ), where ξ=ξρ∂ρ denotes any vector field on the spacetime manifold M
Proof:
The Riemann curvature tensor is defined in terms of the Levi-Civita connection Γμνλ as Rρσμν=∂μΓνσρ−∂νΓμσρ+ΓμλρΓνσλ−ΓνλρΓμσλ .Its variation is δRρσμν=∂μδΓνσρ−∂νδΓμσρ+δΓμλρΓνσλ+ΓμλρδΓνσλ−δΓνλρΓμσλ−ΓνλρδΓμσλ .While the connection Γνσρ is not a tensor, the difference δΓνσρ between two connections is, so we can take its covariant derivative ∇μδΓνσρ=∂μδΓνσρ+ΓμλρδΓνσλ−ΓμνλδΓλσρ−ΓμσλδΓνλρ .Solving this equation for ∂μδΓνσρ and substituting the result in δRρσμν , all the ΓδΓ -like terms cancel, leaving only δRρσμν=∇μδΓνσρ−∇νδΓμσρ .Finally, the variation of the Ricci curvature tensor follows by contracting two indices, proving the identity δRσν=δRρσρν=∇ρδΓνσρ−∇νδΓρσρ | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Affection (linguistics)**
Affection (linguistics):
Affection (also known as vowel affection, infection or vowel mutation), in the linguistics of the Celtic languages, is the change in the quality of a vowel under the influence of the vowel of the following final syllable.
It is a type of anticipatory (or regressive) assimilation at a distance. The vowel that triggers the change was later normally lost. Some grammatical suffixes cause i-affection. In Welsh, gair "word" and -iadur "device suffix" yield geiriadur "dictionary", with -ai- in gair becoming -ei-.
Affection (linguistics):
The two main types of affection are a-affection and i-affection. There is also u-affection, which is more usually referred to as u-infection. I-affection is an example of i-mutation and may be compared to the Germanic umlaut, and a-affection is similar to Germanic a-mutation. More rarely, the term "affection", like "umlaut", may be applied to other languages and is then a synonym for i-mutation generally. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
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