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**Nestopia**
Nestopia:
Nestopia UE - and its predecessor Nestopia - are an open-source NES/Famicom emulator designed to emulate the NES hardware as accurately as possible.
Features:
The requirements for the original Nestopia were considered higher than some of its contemporaries such as Stella. In order to run an optimal emulation, the program requires a minimum 800 MHz processor. Its high requirement is due to its accurate emulation of the NES hardware. The emulator will play most ROMs and has a strong port for the Apple Macintosh.The original Nestopia allowed customization of colors, sounds, and graphics. It includes special features such as Power Glove. Brandon Widdler of Digital Trends considers the emulator one of the best for the NES, though he admits that it has fewer features than its rival FCEUX.
Development history:
Nestopia was originally developed for Windows by Martin Freij. Richard Bannister and R. Belmont later ported it to Mac OS X and Linux, respectively. Original development ended in 2008, but forked into Nestopia UE. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Solar eclipse of November 15, 2096**
Solar eclipse of November 15, 2096:
An annular solar eclipse will occur on Wednesday, November 14 and Thursday, November 15, 2096. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. An annular solar eclipse occurs when the Moon's apparent diameter is smaller than the Sun's, blocking most of the Sun's light and causing the Sun to look like an annulus (ring). An annular eclipse appears as a partial eclipse over a region of the Earth thousands of kilometres wide.
Related eclipses:
Solar eclipses 2094–2098 This eclipse is a member of a semester series. An eclipse in a semester series of solar eclipses repeats approximately every 177 days and 4 hours (a semester) at alternating nodes of the Moon's orbit.
Related eclipses:
Saros 144 It is a part of Saros cycle 144, repeating every 18 years, 11 days, containing 70 events. The series started with partial solar eclipse on April 11, 1736. It contains annular eclipses from July 7, 1880 through August 27, 2565. There are no total eclipses in the series. The series ends at member 70 as a partial eclipse on May 5, 2980. The longest duration of annularity will be 9 minutes, 52 seconds on December 29, 2168. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Assisted-opening knife**
Assisted-opening knife:
An assisted-opening knife is a type of folding knife which uses an internal mechanism to finish the opening of the blade once the user has partially opened it using a flipper or thumbstud attached to the blade.When the knife is in the closed position, the blade is held in place by means of torsion springs and an additional blade lock (optional). As the user applies manual pressure to the thumbstud to open the knife, a mechanism such as a torsion spring moves along a track in the liner and rapidly rotates the blade into the open and locked position.
Legality:
United States Although commonly confused with switchblade knives, a switchblade can be opened automatically simply with the push of a button, but the user of an assisted-opening knife must open it about one-quarter of the way (45°) before the mechanism opens the knife the rest of the way. The difference is important legally; because the blade does not open simply "by the push of a button or by force of gravity" the assisted-opening knife is typically not considered a switchblade, and may escape the restrictions applying to those in many places. Despite this, there are cases on record of persons in possession of assisted-opening knives who have been arrested for possessing a 'switchblade knife' prohibited under state laws. In 2018, New York's highest court sustained a criminal conviction for possession of a switchblade against a defendant found in possession of an assisted-opening knife.
Legality:
United Kingdom In 2019, the Offensive Weapons Act prohibiting automatic flick knives was amended to prohibit: “(a)any knife which has a blade which opens automatically—(i)from the closed position to the fully opened position, or (ii)from a partially opened position to the fully opened position, by manual pressure applied to a button, spring or other device in or attached to the knife, and which is sometimes known as a “flick knife” or “flick gun”..”. According to the official United Kingdom website on the selling, buying, and carrying of knives, assisted-opening knives are included in the newly amended, expanded definition of a prohibited flick knife.
Trade names:
Trade names for assisted-opening knives are: Forward Action Spring Technology, A/O Knife, Torsion Assist Knife, Assisted Knife, Spring Assist Knife, Spring Assisted Knife, Quick Release, Quick Draw, Alternative Automatic, Outburst, SpeedSafe, Blade Launcher, S.A.T (SOG Assisted Technology), and the Semi-Auto.
History:
The first assisted opening knife was designed by Blackie Collins in 1995 and was named the "Strut-and-Cut"; it was based on the strut of his Ducati motorcycle. A similar concept was developed three years later by knifemaker Ken Onion with Onion's idea based on a similar mechanism in his Harley Davidson motorcycle. Onion applied for a patent on his design in 1998. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**My Friend the Monkey**
My Friend the Monkey:
My Friend the Monkey is a 1939 Fleischer Studios animated short film starring Betty Boop.
Synopsis:
A hurdy-gurdy man comes by Betty Boop's house. She wants to buy his cute baby monkey. While Betty is outside haggling over the price, the monkey is inside causing plenty of trouble for Pudgy the Pup. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Sony timer**
Sony timer:
The Sony timer (ソニータイマー, Sonī taimā), or Sony kill switch, is an urban legend that electronic devices produced by Sony are equipped with a timer which, upon reaching a deliberately preset deadline, causes the product to stop functioning, forcing the user to buy a replacement. The legend began in Japan in the 1980s and was later repeated in other countries. The idea of products being designed to stop working after a period of time is known as planned obsolescence.
History:
In Japan, Sony timer's legend spread around in the late 1980s and early 1990s and, although there has never been any conclusive evidence that would confirm this myth, many Japanese people believe it, and it's used as a joke in comics and posted on online message boards. The legend remained confined to Japan until 2006 when there was a recall of over 4 million Dell laptops equipped with a defective Sony lithium ion battery, bringing back the legend of planned obsolescence among the Japanese people, who accused the Tokyo company.The problem for Sony was the rumor's impact: as the company came out from the Japanese economic miracle and the kaizen ideology, it was in a very delicate situation which it tried to contain in every way, but the rumor inevitably came to the knowledge of consumers outside of Japan via the Internet. Although sales of the PlayStation 3 were not particularly affected by this urban legend, it did negatively affect sales of Sony Vaio laptop computers which, since 2007, were viewed with increasing suspicion by consumers. In addition to this, Google Trends signaled an increasing number of Internet searches indicating how Japanese purchasers found various problems with Vaio laptops.A worsening of the situation occurred when, officially due to a software bug, it came to light that many Bravia televisions were predisposed with an operating time of about 1200 hours before they stopped functioning; Stranger still was that, used for a period of about 3 hours a day, such televisions would stop working exactly after warranty expired. The Tokyo company denied any direct responsibility and announced to release software patches as a solution, desperately trying to limit the rumors about the problem before they spread to Europe, where the company's presence was very strong, and admitting: "Our products are not designed to work badly".
History:
However, the Sony timer legend had already spread widely across the World Wide Web, becoming part of the Internet culture itself.The legend resurfaced again in 2021 when it was discovered that an anti-cheat measure in PlayStation Network had the potential to render games unplayable on the PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4 and PlayStation 5 due to their reliance on maintaining a mandatory accurate date and time setting, whether through connection to the network or a CMOS battery, in a phenomenon known as the C-bomb. Following outcry over the issue, Sony released a firmware update for the PS4 in late September 2021 that resolved the problem for this console, and did the same for the PS5 over a month later. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Infrapatellar fat pad syndrome**
Infrapatellar fat pad syndrome:
Infrapatellar fat pad syndrome, also known as Hoffa's disease, is when pain in the front of the knee occurs due to problems with the infrapatellar fat pad. Pain is generally just below the kneecap. Symptoms may worsen if the knee is overly straightened or bent for too long a period. Complications may include an inability to fully straighten the knee.The underlying mechanism may involve bleeding, inflammation, or insufficient space for the fat pad. This may occur as a result of trauma or surgery to the knee. Diagnosis may be supported by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).Treatment is generally by steroid injections and physical therapy. If this is not effective surgery removal may be tried. While overall it is an uncommon condition, it is relatively common in athletes.
Treatment:
Treatment is generally by steroid injections and physical therapy. If this is not effective surgery removal may be tried. High quality evidence for surgery is lacking as of 2015. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**LMO3**
LMO3:
LIM domain only protein 3 is a transcription co-factor, which in humans is encoded by the LMO3 gene. LMO3 interacts with the tumor suppressor p53 and regulates its function. LMO3 is considered to be an oncogene in Neuroblastoma. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Secondary suite**
Secondary suite:
Secondary suites (also known as accessory dwelling units, ADUs, in-law apartments, granny flats, and garden suites) are self-contained apartments, cottages, or small residential units, that are located on a property that has a separate main, single-family home, duplex, or other residential unit. In some cases, the ADU or in-law is attached to the principal dwelling or is an entirely separate unit, located above a garage or in the backyard on the same property. In British English the term annex or granny annex is used instead. Reasons for wanting to add a secondary suite to a property may be to receive additional income, provide social and personal support to a family member, or obtain greater security.
Description:
Background Naming conventions vary by time-period and location but secondary suites can also be referred to as an accessory dwelling unit (ADU), mother-in-law suite, granny flat, coach house, laneway house, Ohana dwelling unit, granny annexe, granny suite, in-law suite, and accessory apartment. The prevalence of secondary suites is also dependent on time and location with varying rates depending on the country, state, or city. Furthermore, regulations on secondary suites can vary widely in different jurisdictions with some allowing them with limited regulation while others ban them entirely through zoning, limit who may live in the units (for example, family members only), or regulate if units can be rented. In recent years, there has been a rise in the popularity of these units as a source of additional, passive income, or as a multigenerational living option.
Description:
Relationship to main residence A secondary suite is considered "secondary" or "accessory" to the primary residence on the parcel. It normally has its own entrance, kitchen, bathroom and living area. There are three types of accessory units: interior, interior with modification, and detached. Examples of these accessory units include: A suite above a rear detached garage (a "garage apartment, garage suite, coachhouse, or Fonzie flat"), A suite above the main floor of a single-detached dwelling, (an "up-and-down duplex") A suite below the main floor of a single-detached dwelling (a "basement suite").
Description:
A suite attached to a single-detached dwelling at grade (similar to a "duplex" but that word implies two distinct legal parcel of land with houses that simply share a wall) A suite detached from the principal dwelling (a "garden suite" or "guesthouse", called a "laneway house" if it faces the back lane).
A granny flat, granny annex, mother-in-law cottage and the like are generic names for an ADU.
Benefits and drawbacks:
Communities that support secondary suites may do so to support a diverse set of goals. Commonly cited benefits of secondary suites include the following;.
Benefits Creating more affordable housing options as secondary suites are typically small, easy to construct, increase housing supply, and require no land acquisition.
Enabling seniors to "age-in-place" by creating smaller more affordable units where seniors can downsize in their own neighborhood. Some of the recent popularity of secondary suites in the United States can be attributed to the activism of the American Association of Retired Persons (AARP) and other organizations that support seniors.
Benefits and drawbacks:
Supporting diverse and multi-generational households as seniors, young-adults, or other relatives can live on the same property as their families but still maintain some independence and privacy. For seniors, this kind of arrangement can improve their social life, allow family members to easily provide care, and allow them to live in more walkable neighborhoods when they can no longer drive.
Benefits and drawbacks:
Improve home maintenance and homeownership rates by providing a reliable rental income that can support mortgage payments or home maintenance.
Creating energy-efficient housing as the small and often attached units require fewer resources.
ADUs can be integrated into the scale and character of single-family neighborhoods while also promoting workforce housing in these neighborhoods.
Municipal budgets may benefit from new taxable housing that does not require new or significant utility upgrades, road maintenance, etc.
Benefits and drawbacks:
Drawbacks Properties which are linked in complex ways may cause difficulties should one of the units be sold or rented out to a third party. Should this occur, each party requires permission from the other party to make certain types of changes to the building. When one unit is sold off to a third party, or is rented out, it can be difficult to attain a sale of a unit or of the whole building as one party may be reluctant to move out or sell.
By country:
Australia In Australia, the term 'granny flat' is often used for a secondary dwelling on a property. The land is not subdivided with construction requiring approval from the council or relevant authority. The approval processes vary between States and Territories, and between councils. This is different from a dual occupancy, where two primary dwellings are developed on one allotment of land, being either attached, semi-detached or detached. In 2018, New South Wales led the construction of new granny flats while Victoria had the fewest number of new granny flats constructed. In 2019, the federal government launched a study concerning prefabricated buildings and smaller homes citing affordable housing, extra space for family members, and support for the construction industry as reasons for the study. The government set aside $2 million for the initial study and then plans to set up an innovation lab to help manufacturers design prefabricated buildings.
By country:
Canada Secondary suites have existed in Canada since the 19th century where they took the form of coach houses, servant houses, stables converted to permanent apartments, and small apartments for young people within large houses. Secondary suites became increasing popular during the economic crisis of 1929 and the housing shortage following WWII. During this period the Canadian government actively supported the creation of secondary suites. However, suburbanization and zoning changes in the 1950s and 60s led to a decrease in secondary suites in Canada. More recently, secondary suites are increasing in popularity and many municipalities are reexamining their regulations to support secondary suites.
By country:
CMHC (government program) The Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation provides a financial assistance program to help Canadians create affordable housing for low-income seniors and adults with a disability within a secondary suite. The program is called the Residential Rehabilitation Assistance Program (RRAP) -- Secondary/Garden Suite. The maximum fully forgivable loan depends on the location of the property: Southern Areas of Canada: $24,000/unit Northern areas of Canada: $28,000/unit Far northern areas: $36,000/unitA 25% supplement in assistance is available in remote areas.
By country:
British Columbia After adopting legislation in 2009 to support secondary suites, Vancouver, British Columbia has become a leading city of their construction in North America. In the city, approximately a third of single-family houses have legally permitted secondary suites, many of which are laneway houses. The Housing Policy Branch of British Columbia's Ministry of Community, Aboriginal and Women’s Services published a guide for local governments to implement secondary suite programs called 'Secondary Suites: A Guide For Local Governments'. The current issue is dated September 2005. The intent of the guide is to "help local governments develop and implement secondary suite programs". It also highlights good secondary suite practices as well as providing practical information to "elected officials, planners, community groups, homeowners, developers, and others interested in secondary suites".
By country:
Europe In German speaking countries a secondary suite is known as an Einliegerwohnung. In Norway, particularly in the bigger cities, it is quite common to build separate adjoined smaller flats for renting out. The owner of the main flat will rent out the smaller adjoined flats. In the United Kingdom, "granny flats" are increasing in popularity with one in twenty UK households (5%) having such a space already. Furthermore, 7% of householders say they have plans to develop this type of space in the future. Stated reasons for constructing these spaces was diverse with 27% of those surveyed making plans for older relatives, 25% planning for grown-up children, 24% planning to rent as holiday lets, and 16% planning to take in lodgers. In Sweden, a friggebod is a small house or room which can be built without any planning permission on a land lot with a single-family or a duplex house.
By country:
United States In the United States, secondary suites are generally referred to as accessory dwelling units or "ADUs". Zoning permissions and laws concerning accessory dwelling units can vary widely by state and municipality. Accessory dwelling units were popular in the early 20th century in the United States. ADUs became less common after WWII, however, when a shift to suburban development occurred and many municipalities banned ADUs through zoning regulations. With increases in the price of housing in many cities and suburbs, increased awareness of the costs of low-density car-oriented development patterns, and an increased need to care for aging Americans, many government entities and advocacy groups have increasingly supported ADUs. Some critics perceive ADUs to be a threat to the character of single-family residential neighborhoods.
By country:
Several states have enacted legislation to promote accessory dwelling units. In California, Government Code Sections 65852.150, 65852.2 & 65852.22 pertain to local regulation of ADUs. SB 1069 and AB 2299 are California bills approved in 2016 and effective January 1, 2017, that limit local government authority to prohibit ADUs in certain cases (and also reduce cost and bureaucracy hurdles to construction). On January 1, 2020, the state of California passed the most lenient ADU laws in the country allowing not one but two types of accessory units, the accessory dwelling unit (ADU) and the junior accessory dwelling unit (JADU). State-exempt ADUs can now be at least 800 square feet (74 m2), while JADUs are limited to 550 square feet (51 m2).
By country:
The states of Vermont and New Hampshire have also adopted a number of bills that promote accessory dwelling units and reduce regulatory barriers to ADU construction. The State of Illinois considered, but did not adopt, HB 4869 which would have required municipalities to permit (and reasonably regulate) accessory dwelling units (ADUs).
By country:
Several local governments across the United States have enacted ordinances to both permit and promote accessory dwelling units. Some cities have included accessory dwelling units in larger missing middle housing and affordable housing strategies including Seattle, Portland, and Minneapolis. Many other communities have maintained wide-spread single-family zoning but still updated codes to permit accessory dwelling units. Notable examples include large cities such as Los Angeles, CA and Chicago, IL. Diverse smaller jurisdictions that permit accessory dwelling units include Lexington, KY, Santa Cruz, CA, and the County of Maui in Hawaii.Honolulu, Hawaii has a unique form of accessory dwelling units known as an "Ohana Dwelling Unit". Ohana Dwellings were created as a permitted use in the zoning code in 1981 as a way to encourage the private sector to create more housing units (without government subsidy), preserve green fields (open space) and ease housing affordability. In 2015, Honolulu amended its zoning code to allows ADUs as a sort of Ohana Dwelling, but with fewer restrictions. To prevent creating further complexities for existing Ohana Dwellings, some of which have been condominimized and owned separately from the main house, Ohana Dwellings remain a permitted use (with different requirements and benefits than ADUs) in the zoning code. ADUs are an important component of Honolulu's Affordable Housing Strategy. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Micromixing**
Micromixing:
In pharmaceutics, micromixing is a process in which ingredient particles rearrange to form a blend. Development of pharmaceutical formulations requires understanding how the ingredients blend with each other and how the blending progresses through different stages. It is also important to establish in a scientific manner when the blending is considered complete, establishing the margins of blending performance, so that in production the blending is complete before the blending process stops.
Optimal blending:
In order to achieve optimal blending, the micromixing process must be studied to determine mixing parameters such as blending time, blending speed, type and size of blender. When blending is performed too long, overblending may occur, with particles re-aggregating, resulting in segregation of the previously ideal blend.
Tools:
Formulation scientists and technologists need tools to select ingredients for new formulations. Tablets contain multiple ingredients beyond the active pharmaceutical ingredients (API) such as fillers, tableting agents, disintegrants, and absorption enhancers or agents that slow down and control absorption. Choice of materials is important to assure the flow characteristics, potency, and absorption of specific formulations. In addition, proper particle size grades of the ingredients must be selected to produce an optimum blend for capsule filling.
Methods:
In order to study the rate and uniformity of blending, destructive analytical methods, such as dissolution followed by chromatographic separation and detection are often used. These methods require samples to be pulled from the blend, followed by time-consuming laboratory analysis. In production, such analysis delays may lengthen time required for production formulation development.
Hyperspectral imaging:
Near-infrared hyperspectral imaging can show the distribution of ingredients in pharmaceutical tablets. In addition to laboratory analysis, imaging of near line pull-samples has been used to indicate whether the mixing endpoint has been achieved. However, such measurements were performed once blending was completed, and therefore, did not yield information about the progression of micromixing during the blending process. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Statite**
Statite:
A statite (from the words static and satellite) is a hypothetical type of artificial satellite that employs a solar sail to continuously modify its orbit in ways that gravity alone would not allow. Typically, a statite would use the solar sail to "hover" in a location that would not otherwise be available as a stable geosynchronous orbit. Statites have been proposed that would remain in fixed locations high over Earth's poles, using reflected sunlight to counteract the gravity pulling them down. Statites might also employ their sails to change the shape or velocity of more conventional orbits, depending upon the purpose of the particular statite.
Statite:
The concept of the statite was invented independently and at about the same time by Robert L. Forward (who coined the term "statite") and Colin McInnes, who used the term "halo orbit" (not to be confused with the type of halo orbit discovered by Robert Farquhar). Subsequently, the terms "non-Keplerian orbit" and "artificial Lagrange point" have been used as a generalization of the above terms.
Statite:
No statites have been deployed to date, as solar sail technology remains in its infancy. NASA's cancelled Sunjammer solar sail mission had the stated objective of flying to an artificial Lagrange point near the Earth/Sun L1 point, to demonstrate the feasibility of the Geostorm geomagnetic storm warning mission concept proposed by NOAA's Patricia Mulligan. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Anisomastia**
Anisomastia:
Anisomastia is a medical condition in which there is a severe asymmetry or unequalness in the size of the breasts, generally related to a difference in volume. In other words, when one of the breasts is much larger than the other. In contrast to anisomastia, a slight asymmetry of the breasts is common. Anisomastia may be corrected by surgical breast augmentation or reduction. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Elbingerode Reef Formation**
Elbingerode Reef Formation:
The Elbingerode Reef Formation is a geologic formation in Germany. It preserves fossils dating back to the Devonian period. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Adrenocortical adenoma**
Adrenocortical adenoma:
Adrenocortical adenoma is commonly described as a benign neoplasm emerging from the cells that comprise the adrenal cortex. Like most adenomas, the adrenocortical adenoma is considered a benign tumor since the majority of them are non-functioning and asymptomatic. Adrenocortical adenomas are classified as ACTH-independent disorders, and are commonly associated with conditions linked to hyperadrenalism such as Cushing's syndrome (hypercortisolism) or Conn's syndrome (hyperaldosteronism), which is also known as primary aldosteronism. In addition, recent case reports further support the affiliation of adrenocortical adenomas with hyperandrogenism or florid hyperandrogenism which can cause hyperandrogenic hirsutism in females. "Cushing's syndrome" differs from the "Cushing's disease" even though both conditions are induced by hypercortisolism. The term "Cushing's disease" refers specifically to "secondary hypercortisolism" classified as "ACTH-dependent Cushing's syndrome" caused by pituitary adenomas. In contrast, "Cushing's syndrome" refers specifically to "primary hypercortisolism" classified as "ACTH-independent Cushing's syndrome" caused by adrenal adenomas.
Presentation:
Adrenal adenomas are often categorized as endocrine-inactive tumors considering that majority of them are non-functioning and asymptomatic. Functional adrenocortical adenomas demonstrate symptoms consistent with mixed endocrine syndromes. In most reported cases of adrenocortical adenoma, patients have presented with one or multiple endocrine syndromes such as hyperaldosteronism/Conn's Syndrome, hypercortisolism/Cushing's syndrome, hyperandrogenism/feminization, virilization, or hirsutism. Some of the common symptoms associated with adrenocortical adenomas include: Musculoskeletal Osteopenia Muscle weakness/muscle atrophyCardiovascular HypertensionEndocrine and Metabolic Obesity→More prevalent in males virilization→More prevalent in females Hyperandrogenism Irregular menstrual cyclesNeuropsychological Sleep disorders DepressionSkin Easy bruising Stretch marks Hirsutism Acne
Cause:
Study of the reported cases indicate that most adrenocortical adenomas occur due to neoplastic proliferation of adrenal cortical cells within the three distinct layers of adrenal cortex. In humans, the adrenal cortex comprises three concentric zones including the zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata, and zona reticularis that under normal conditions respond to body's physiological demands for steroid hormones. The adrenal cortex is considered a dynamic organ in which senescent cells are replaced by newly differentiated cells. This constant renewal facilitates organ remodeling which contributes to dynamic characteristics of the adrenal cortex.
Cause:
correspondingly, the developmental physiology of the adrenal cortex is believed to play a pivotal role in formation of the adrenocortical tumors. Hence, the molecular mechanisms involved in normal development of the adrenal glands are like double edged swords that can lead to the formation of tumors within the adrenal cortex. Moreover, recent studies suggest that mutations affecting the molecular pathways of the adrenocortical region can stimulate abnormal proliferation and tumor formation. Through these studies, the cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase A signaling has been identified as a key mediator of cortisol secretion, and the mutations associated with the dysregulation of cyclic AMP - protein kinase A pathways have been implicated in the adrenocortical pathophysiology.
Pathophysiology:
If functional, adrenocortical adenomas can affect the normal activities of the adrenal cortex. Located within the adrenal glands are the three zones that are responsible for secretion of the three major classes of adrenal steroids. Hence, functional adrenocortical adenomas can induce over-secretion of adrenal steroids associated with pure or mixed endocrine syndromes, a condition commonly known as hyperadrenalism.
Diagnosis:
Due to their asymptomatic nature, most reported cases of adrenal adenomas have been discerned fortuitously through autopsy, or during medical imaging, particularly CT scan (computed tomography) and magnetic resonance imaging. Hence, they have earned the title incidentaloma referring to small adenoma discovered incidentally. Though adrenocortical adenomas are considered challenging to differentiate from the normal adrenal cortex, they appear as well-circumscribed lesions once isolated.Imaging Diagnostics Computed Tomography (CT scan) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Laboratory Tests CRH Stimulation Test High-dose-dexamethasone suppression test Gross Description Well-circumscribed lesion Size ≤ 5 cm Weight ≤ 50 grams often appear as golden-yellow color mass(may have focal dark regions corresponding to hemorrhage, lipid-depletion, and increased lipofuscin)
Histopathology:
The microscopic histopathology analysis of the tissue samples obtained from the adrenal cortex of individuals presenting with adenoma-associated symptoms such as primary aldestronism (PA) indicates that adenoma cells are relatively larger with different cytoplasm, and increased variation in nuclear size. This indication is based on comparison between the healthy (normal) and affected (adenoma-associated) adrenal cortex tissue samples.
Adrenocortical adenomas are most commonly distinguished from adrenocortical carcinomas (their malignant counterparts) by the Weiss system, as follows: Total score indicates: 0-2: Adrenocortical adenoma 3: Undetermined 4-9: Adrenocortical carcinoma
Treatment:
Non-functioning cases of adrenocortical adenoma can be managed through long-term followups and monitoring.
Treatment:
The treatment approach for the functioning cases of adrenocortical adenoma depends on the type of disorders they induce and their advancement. Surgical excision may be required if its presence is resulting in atrophy of the adrenal glands and the surrounding tissues.In order to acquire better treatment strategies, it is important to further examine, study and discern the distinct molecular mechanisms involved in the formation of endogenous Adrenal Adenomas, hyperplasias, and ACTH-independent Cushing's Syndrome to improve the available diagnostic and prognostic markers that can assist clinicians in the management and advance-treatment of such conditions.A 2018 Cochrane Systematic review compared two different types of surgery: laparoscopic retroperotenial adrenalectomy and laporoscopic transperitoenal adrenelectomy in different types of adrenal tumors. Laparoscopic retroperotenial adrenalectomy appeared to reduce late morbility, time to oral fluid or food intake and time to ambulation, when compared to laparoscopic transperitoenal adrenalectomy. However there was uncertainty in these findings due to low-quality evidence, as well as inconclusive findings about effects of either surgery on all-cause mortality, early morbidity, socioeconomic effects, duration of surgery, operative blood loss, conversion to open surgery.
Prognosis:
The long-term outlook for individuals diagnosed with non-functional adrenocortical adenoma is usually excellent.
The long-term outlook for individuals diagnosed with functional adrenocortical adenoma is good with early diagnosis and treatment.
Epidemiology:
Prevalence: Female > Male More common in adults Relatively earlier onset in females (ages ≤ 20) than males (ages ≤ 30) Most common cause of ACTH-independent Cushing's syndrome | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Nuclear material**
Nuclear material:
Nuclear material refers to the metals uranium, plutonium, and thorium, in any form, according to the IAEA. This is differentiated further into "source material", consisting of natural and depleted uranium, and "special fissionable material", consisting of enriched uranium (U-235), uranium-233, and plutonium-239. Uranium ore concentrates are considered to be a "source material", although these are not subject to safeguards under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.According to the Nuclear Regulatory Commission(NRC), there are four different types of regulated nuclear materials: special nuclear material, source material, byproduct material and radium. Special nuclear materials have plutonium, uranium-233 or uranium with U233 or U235 that has a content found more than in nature. Source material is thorium or uranium that has a U235 content equal to or less than what is in nature. Byproduct material is radioactive material that is not source or special nuclear material. It can be an isotope produced by a nuclear reactor, the tailings and waste that is produced or extracted from uranium or thorium from an ore that processed mainly for its source material content. Byproduct material can also be discrete sources of radium-226 or discrete sources of accelerator-produced isotopes or naturally occurring isotopes that pose a threat greater or equal to a discrete source of radium-226. Radium is also a regulated nuclear material that is found in nature and produced by the radioactive decay of uranium. The half-life of radium is approximately 1,600 years.Different countries may use different terminology: in the United States of America, "nuclear material" most commonly refers to "special nuclear materials" (SNM), with the potential to be made into nuclear weapons as defined in the Atomic Energy Act of 1954. The "special nuclear materials" are also plutonium-239, uranium-233, and enriched uranium (U-235).
Nuclear material:
Note that the 1980 Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material definition of nuclear material does not include thorium.The NRC has a regulatory process for nuclear materials with five main components.
Nuclear material:
Develop regulation and guidance for their applicants and licensees Licensing, decommissioning and certification for applicants to use nuclear materials, or operate a nuclear facility or decommission a permit license termination Oversight of licensee operations and facilities that ensure that licensees comply with the safety requirements Operational experience at licensed facilities or licensed activities Support for decisions by conducting research, holding hearings that address concerns, and obtain independent reviews that support the NRC regulatory decisionsThe United States Department of Energy Office of Environmental Management (EM) manages and dispositions spent nuclear fuel and surplus nuclear materials. The EM Nuclear Materials Program safely and securely manages the spent nuclear fuels in their facilities while managing an inventory of the materials. The Nuclear Waste Policy Act defines procedures to evaluate and select locations for geological repositories to safely dispose/store the radioactive waste. The EM also works with the National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA) to dispose the surplus, non-pit, weapons-usable plutonium-239. EM with the NNSA, oversee the disposition of 21 metric tons of surplus highly enriched uranium materials that has about 13.5 metric tons of spent nuclear fuel. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**2 51 honeycomb**
2 51 honeycomb:
In 8-dimensional geometry, the 251 honeycomb is a space-filling uniform tessellation. It is composed of 241 polytope and 8-simplex facets arranged in an 8-demicube vertex figure. It is the final figure in the 2k1 family.
Construction:
It is created by a Wythoff construction upon a set of 9 hyperplane mirrors in 8-dimensional space.
The facet information can be extracted from its Coxeter-Dynkin diagram.
Removing the node on the short branch leaves the 8-simplex. Removing the node on the end of the 5-length branch leaves the 241. The vertex figure is determined by removing the ringed node and ringing the neighboring node. This makes the 8-demicube, 151.
The edge figure is the vertex figure of the vertex figure. This makes the rectified 7-simplex, 051. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Beer tap**
Beer tap:
A beer tap is a valve, specifically a tap, for controlling the release of beer. While other kinds of tap may be called faucet, valve or spigot, the use of tap for beer is almost universal. The word was originally coined for the wooden valve in traditional barrels. Beer served from a tap is largely known as draught beer, though beer served from a cask is more commonly called cask ale, while beer from a keg may specifically be called keg beer. Beer taps can be also used to serve similar drinks like cider or long drinks.
Beer tap:
There are many different types and styles of beer or keg taps.
Etymology:
Originally the word referred to a solid wood stopper used to plug the hole in a barrel, so as to contain the contents. The shape was identical to a taproot, from which the name derived.
The word was originally coined for the wooden valve in traditional barrels.
Usage:
Pressure-dispense bar tap Beer supplied in kegs is served with the aid of external pressure from a cylinder of carbon dioxide (or occasionally nitrogen) which forces the beer out of the keg and up a narrow tube to the bar. At the end of this tube is a valve built into a fixture (usually somewhat decorative) on the bar. This is the beer tap and opening it with a small lever causes beer, pushed by the gas from the cylinder, to flow into the glass. Some view this system as disadvantageous as it produces a frothy head which must be left to subside before more beer can be added to the glass. Some manufacturers have tried to address this problem by producing a device which allows the beer to be poured from the bottom up. Some people, such as Germans and the Dutch prefer a rather large amount of head on their beers.
Usage:
Portable keg tap Sometimes, beer kegs designed to be connected to the above system are instead used on their own, perhaps at a party or outdoor event. In this case, a self-contained portable tap is required that allows beer to be served straight from the keg. Because the keg system uses pressure to force the beer up and out of the keg, these taps must have a means of supplying it. The typical "picnic tap" uses a hand pump to push air into the keg; this will cause the beer to spoil faster but is perfectly acceptable if the entire keg will be consumed in a short time. Portable taps with small CO2 cylinders are also available.
Usage:
Cask beer tap Beers brewed and served by traditional methods, typically cask ale, do not use artificial gas. Taps for cask beer are simple on-off valves that are hammered into the end of the cask (see keystone for details). When beer is served directly from the cask ("by gravity"), as at beer festivals and some pubs, it simply flows out of the tap and into the glass. When the cask is stored in the cellar and served from the bar, as in most pubs, the beer line is screwed onto the tap and the beer is pulled through it by a beer engine. The taps used are the same, and in beer-line setups the first pint is often poured from the cask as for "gravity", for tasting, before the line is connected. Cask beer taps can be brass (now discouraged for fear of lead contamination), stainless steel, plastic, and wood.
Usage:
Tall fount In Scotland, cask ale was traditionally served through a tall fount (pronounced "font"). These appear similar to keg taps (indeed, many Scottish pubs serve keg beer through adapted tall founts) rendered from brass but the beer was drawn from the barrel via air pressure generated by a water engine rather than by a pressurised artificial gas. Some pubs still dispense cask beer using this method (although the water engine will invariably have been replaced by an electric compressor) but is increasingly rare due to the perception that hand-pumps are the correct means by which to serve real ale, and to the potential for confusion with keg ale, which is regarded as inferior by many beer drinkers. The Aitken fount variety is still in use in several Edinburgh pubs but there were other designs.
Dimensions:
Typical tap handles are 9-13" tall, but can range from very short (4") to novelty lengths (>13"). Most taps are assembled with a 4" delrin handle.
The threading for tap handles is 3/8"-16 UNC (coarse). The faucet is male and the handle is female. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Kleptopharmacophagy**
Kleptopharmacophagy:
Kleptopharmacophagy is a term used for describing the ecological relationship between two different organisms, where the first is stealing the second's chemical compounds and consuming them. This scientific term was proposed by Australian, Singaporean, and American biologists in September 2021 in an article that was published in the journal Ecology by the Ecological Society of America. The phenomenon was first noticed in milkweed butterflies that were attacking caterpillars and drinking their internal liquid, proposedly to obtain toxic alkaloids used for defense, as well as for mating purposes.
Characteristics:
Kleptopharmacophagy is a generic term and a scientific neologism, that is used to describe the phenomenon of chemical theft between living organisms. This special type of behavior is something new for researchers, as it does not match the traditional descriptions of biological interaction. Kleptopharmacophagy cannot be defined simply with a use of classical ecological relationships and their descriptions, such as predation, parasitism and mutualism. Besides being an interspecific interaction, kleptopharmacophagy can also be seen as a cannibalizing act (hence an intraspecific act), with adults attacking larvae of their own species.
In butterflies:
Kleptopharmacophagy has only been reported for butterflies in the subfamily Danainae, more commonly known as the milkweed butterflies. The phenomenon was first described in butterflies that were observed scratching and feeding on live larvae of other milkweed butterflies. The initial discovery was made in year 2019 in forests of North Sulawesi, in Indonesia, when two researchers noticed that milkweed butterflies of different species, well-known for their toxicity and bright warning colours (aposematism), were interacting with the larval stages of other butterflies. The adult insects were attacking and harassing the caterpillars by scratching at them with tarsal claws on their legs. The butterflies then imbibed the juices from the wounded caterpillars with their long and curved proboscis. Caterpillars that were targeted appeared to range from living to dead and dying individuals. Live caterpillars were observed to contort their bodies in an attempt to deter scratching, but usually succumbed to the repeat harassment.There is also one recorded example of kleptopharmachophagy occurring between two adult butterflies; a male Ideopsis vitrea vitrea was feeding on a liquid, oozing from the wings of the male I. blanchardii blanchardii.
In butterflies:
Role It is thought that such chemical theft serves at least two roles. By feeding on toxic caterpillars, the adult butterflies acquire additional toxins, which serve as a protection against predation. The stolen toxins, mostly pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs), are also of great importance for male butterflies, which use those compounds for producing mating pheromones. Additionally such chemicals are components of so-called nuptial gifts, consisting of male sperm and some nutrients, that are given from males to females during mating. Significance of the alkaloid use for male butterflies can be demonstrated through observation of male danaine butterflies congregating in large numbers at alkaloid producing plants, where they spend hours fervently scratching and liberating plant juices.
In butterflies:
Similar behaviour Milkweed butterflies have also been previously seen feasting on some moribund pyrgormorphid grasshoppers, that are known to contain toxic alkaloids, as well as obtaining desired chemicals from carcasses of dead insects of different taxa. Note that in this case, the term necropharmacophagy may be more appropriate, since butterflies feed on the dead animals.Similar behavior was observed with adult butterflies scratching leaves of different plants that possess various toxins in their vegetative organs (so-called leaf-scratching). Adult male danaine butterflies use their sharp tarsal claws to scratch and damage leaves of plants that contain high levels of pyrrolizidine alkaloids, thereby liberating the juices for consumption. Since kleptopharmacophagy was recorded and described only a few times, it is thought that obtaining such chemicals by feeding on plants with alkaloids is a common and more frequent way of stocking toxins. Kleptopharmacophagy is proposed to be an alternative way of acquiring these chemicals. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Surf and turf**
Surf and turf:
Surf and turf or surf 'n' turf is a main course combining seafood and red meat. A typical seafood component would be lobster (either lobster tail or a whole lobster), prawns, shrimp, squid or scallops, any of which could be steamed, grilled or breaded and fried. The meat is typically beef steak, although others may be used. One standard combination is lobster tail and filet mignon.Surf and turf is typically served in steakhouses in the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, and Australia.
Surf and turf:
Surf and turf is sometimes referred to as reef and beef or reef 'n' beef in Australia.
Etymology:
It is unclear where the term originated. The earliest known citation is from 1961, in the Los Angeles Times.
History:
In late 19th-century America, combining large portions of lobster and steak was popular at "show restaurants known as lobster palaces," favored by nouveau riche "arrivistes". This became unfashionable by the 1920s and only regained popularity in the early 1960s.Surf 'n' turf was featured in 1962 at the Eye of the Needle, a revolving restaurant atop the Space Needle in Seattle, Washington.Surf and turf is often considered to symbolize the middle-class "Continental cuisine" of the 1960s and 1970s, with (frozen) lobster and steak as replacements for the middle class.In Australia, the dish was first served in 1965 at the Lithgow Hotel (now 7 Valleys) in Lithgow, located in the central west district of New South Wales, Australia. The dish's reputation grew nationally as travelers sampled this novel creation. Inspired chefs and restaurateurs, eager to put their own spin on Surf'n'turf, introduced it to menus in cities such as Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane and Adelaide. Since then, it has become a staple dish in pubs throughout Australia.
Variations:
A variation is the surf and turf burger, which is prepared with ground beef and various types of seafood, such as lobster, shrimp, or crab.
Reputation:
Surf and turf is often considered as an example of conspicuous consumption and kitsch, as it combines two expensive foods which are not normally considered to be complementary: Surf 'n' turf is an example of the voracious rapture that defines much classic kitsch: adding two swanky things together in hopes of doubling their value and winding up with a flatulent faux pas.
Reputation:
...the point of surf 'n' turf is to maximize hedonistic extravagance...
This meal is stunt food. It exists because it's a way for restaurants to package the two most expensive items on the menu—tenderloin and lobster—into one ostentatious price tag. Otherwise, these two items don't even go together. It's the most conspicuous of conspicuous consumption and maybe even a little cliché. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Dyslipidemia**
Dyslipidemia:
Dyslipidemia is an abnormal amount of lipids (e.g. triglycerides, cholesterol and/or fat phospholipids) in the blood. Dyslipidemia is a risk factor for the development of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD). ASCVD includes coronary artery disease, cerebrovascular disease, and peripheral artery disease. Although dyslipidemia is a risk factor for ASCVD, abnormal levels don't mean that lipid lowering agents need to be started. Other factors, such as comorbid conditions and lifestyle in addition to dyslipidemia, is considered in a cardiovascular risk assessment. In developed countries, most dyslipidemias are hyperlipidemias; that is, an elevation of lipids in the blood. This is often due to diet and lifestyle. Prolonged elevation of insulin resistance can also lead to dyslipidemia. Likewise, increased levels of O-GlcNAc transferase (OGT) may cause dyslipidemia.
Diagnosis:
Classification Physicians and basic researchers classify dyslipidemias in two distinct ways. One way is its presentation in the body (including the specific type of lipid that is increased). The other way is due to the underlying cause for the condition (genetic, or secondary to another condition). This classification can be problematic, because most conditions involve the intersection of genetics and lifestyle issues. However, there are a few well-defined genetic conditions that are usually easy to identify.The three main blood levels collected to assess for dyslipidemia is triglycerides (TG), high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), and low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C). High triglyceride levels (>1.7 mmol/L fasting) can indicate dyslipidemia. Triglycerides are transported through the blood by using very low density lipoproteins (VLDL) as a carrier. One thing to note when measuring triglyceride levels is that fasting for 8–12 hours is required to get an accurate result as non-fasting TG results may be falsely elevated. If TG results are greater than 10 mmol/L, then this needs to be addressed since severe hypertriglceridemia is a risk factor for acute pancreatitis. Another blood level collected to assess dyslipidemia is HDL-C. HDL cholesterol is made up of very little lipids and a high amount of protein. It is beneficial in the body because it functions by going to the tissues and picking up extra cholestrol and fat. Due to the positive effects of HDL-C, it is named "good cholesterol" since it helps prevent plaque formation. Other functions of HDL-C is promoting cardiovascular health such as antioxidation effects, protection against thrombosis, maintenance of endothelial function, and maintaining low blood viscosity. Due to the positive functions of HDL cholesterol, a low level indicates dyslipidemia and is a risk factor for complications. Another diagnostic test that is often reviewed is LDL cholesterol. Low density lipoproteins are made up of cholesterol, TG, phospholipids, and apolipoproteins. LDL-C molecules bind to the endothelium of blood vessels and cause plaque formation. Once plaques are formed, LDL-C floating in the bloodstream can attach to the plaques and cause further accumulation. In addition to plaque formation, LDL-C molecules can undergo oxidation. Oxidation can cause further accumulation of cholesterol and the release of inflammatory cytokines, which damages the blood vessels. Due to the damaging effects of LDL-C, high levels increase the risk for cardiovascular disease and indicate dyslipidemia.Dyslipidemias can also be classified based on the underlying cause, whether it is primary, secondary, or a combination of both. Primary dyslipidemias are caused by genetic disorders that can cause abnormal lipid levels without any other obvious risk factors. Those with primary dyslipidemias are at higher risk of getting complications of dyslipidemias, such as atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, at a younger age. Some common genetic disorders associated with primary dyslipidemias are homozygous or heterozygous hypercholesterolemia, familial hypertriglyceridemia, combined hyperlipidemia, and HDL-C metabolism disorders. In familial hypercholesterolemia, a mutation in the LDLR, PCSK9, or APOB is usually the reason for this and these mutations result in high LDL cholesterol. In combined hyperlipidemia, there is an overproduction of apoB-100 in the liver. This causes high amounts of LDL and VLDL molecules to form. A unique sign of primary dyslipidemias is that patients will often present with acute pancreatitis or xanthomas on the skin, eyelids or around the cornea. In contrast to primary dyslipidemias, secondary dyslipidemas are based on modifiable environmental or lifestyle factors. Some diseases that are associated with a higher risk of dyslipidemia are uncontrolled diabetes mellitus, cholestatic liver disease, chronic kidney disease, hypothyroidism, and polycystic ovarian syndrome. What people eat can also have an influence, with excessive alcohol use, too much carbohydrates, and diets high in saturated fats having a higher risk. Some medications that may contribute to dyslipidemia are thiazide diuretics, beta blockers, oral contraceptives, atypical antipsychotics (clozapine, olanzapine), corticosteroids, tacrolimus, and cyclosporine. Other non-hereditary factors that increase the risk of dyslipidemias are smoking, pregnancy, and obesity. The Fredrickson Classification seen below classifies dyslipidemias into categories:
Screening:
There is no clear consensus of when screening for dyslipidemia should be initiated. In general, those with a high risk of cardiovascular disease should be screened at a younger age with males between 25 and 30 years old and females between 30 and 35 years of age. Testing the general population under the age of 40 without symptoms is of unclear benefit. UpToDate suggests screening males at age 35 and females at age 45 in those without any risk of cardiovascular disease. All individuals regardless of age, should be screened if they have the risk factors listed below. Cardiovascular risk can be determined using the Framingham Risk Score (FRS) and should be reassessed every 5 years for patients who are 40 to 75 years of age.
Non-pharmacological choices:
An important non-pharmacological intervention in dyslipidemia is a diet aimed at reducing blood lipid levels and also weight loss if needed. These dietary changes should always be a part of treatment and the involvement of a dietician is recommended in the initial evaluation and also in follow-up as well. A 3-month trial of dietary changes is recommended in primary prevention before considering medication, but in secondary prevention and in individuals at high-risk, cholesterol-lowering medication is used in conjunction with diet modifications.Recommended diets include the DASH diet, Mediterranean diet, low glycemic index diet, Portfolio Diet, and vegetarian diet. Patients should reduce their intake of saturated fats, dietary cholesterol, and alcohol, and increase their intake of total fibre (>30g/day), viscous soluble fibre (>10g/day), and omega-3 (EPA and DHA [2-4g/d] used to lower TG only). They should also increase the proportion of mono-and polyunsaturated fats that they intake.Other lifestyle modifications include weight loss (5 - 10% of body weight loss) and reduction of abdominal obesity, 30–60 minutes per day of moderate-vigorous exercise, smoking cessation, stress management, and getting 6–8 hours of sleep at night.
Pharmacological choices:
Based on the Framingham Risk Scores, there are different thresholds that indicate whether treatment should be initiated. Individuals with a score of 20% are considered to have a high cardiovascular risk, a score of 10 – 19% indicates an intermediate risk, and patients with a score less than 10% are at low risk. Statin therapy and non-pharmacological interventions are indicated in those with high cardiovascular risk.
Pharmacological choices:
In those at intermediate risk or low risk, the use of statin therapy depends on individual patient factors such as age, cholesterol levels, and risk factors.Statins are considered the first-line agents but other drugs can be substituted if the lipid targets are not achieved with statin therapy or if they are not tolerated.
Pharmacological choices:
HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors (statins) Statins competitively inhibit hydroxymethylglutaryl (HMG) CoA reductase which is used in the biosynthesis of cholesterol and they include atorvastatin, lovastatin, simvastatin, rosuvastatin, pravastatin, fluvastatin, and pitavastatin. These agents work to lower LDL-C levels and are also associated with a decrease in CVD mortality, CVD morbidity, and total deaths. They have a small effect on HDL-C levels as well.
Pharmacological choices:
Resins Resins are bile acid sequesterants that work by preventing the intestinal re-uptake of bile acids, thus increasing their fecal loss. Resins include cholestyramine, colestipol, and colesevalem, and they all decrease LDL-C while increasing HDL-C levels slightly. The Lipid Research Council - Cardiovascular Primary Prevention Trial (LRC-CPPT) also showed that when these agents were used alone, they improved cardiovascular outcomes.
Pharmacological choices:
Fibrates The cholesterol lowering effect of fibrates is due to their ability to activate a nuclear receptor called peroxisome proliferator activated receptor alpha. They include fenofibrate, gemfibrozil, and bezafibrate and work to decrease triglycerides, increase HDL-C, and also decrease LDL-C which is variable depending on which drug is used. The FIELD Study showed that fenofibrate reduced both coronary revascularization as well as nonfatal myocardial infarctions (but not in patients with DM2).
Pharmacological choices:
PCSK9 inhibitors PCSK9 inhibitors are monoclonal antibodies that target an important protein in the degradation of LDL called proprotein convertase substilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9). These agents reduce LDL-C, increase HDL-C, decrease triglycerides, and decrease lipoprotein(a). The FOURNIER and ODYSSEY trials showed that these agents also reduced the risk of cardiovascular events.
Pharmacological choices:
Cholesterol absorption inhibitors Ezetimibe inhibits the intestinal absorption of cholesterol and can be used alone or with statins. Regarding cardiovascular events, patients with chronic kidney disease saw a reduction in vascular and major atherosclerotic events when on simvastatin and ezetimibe compared to placebo. This same combination was also shown to reduce death, major coronary events, and nonfatal stroke in patients after acute coronary syndromes.
Pharmacological choices:
Icosapent ethyl This agent consists of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), an omega-3 fatty acid from fish oil and works to lower the hepatic production of triglycerides. In the REDUCE-IT trial, patients on statin therapy and 4g daily of icosapent ethyl saw a reduction in major cardiovascular events.
Microsomal triglyceride transfer protein inhibitors Lomitapide works to inhibit the microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTP) which results in a reduction of LDL plasma levels. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Backstop resources**
Backstop resources:
Backstop resources theory states that as a heavily used limited resource becomes expensive, alternative resources will become cheap by comparison, therefore making the alternatives economically viable options. In the long term, the theory implies faith that technological progress will allow backstop resources to be essentially unlimited (see also Cornucopian), and that need will cause the development of new technologies to become cost effective. This idea is supported by economist Robert Solow who claimed that four-fifths of US economic growth could be attributed to technological development (the other fifth being accounted for by expansion of labor and capital).
Implications to peak oil:
Peak Oil derives from the Hubbert peak theory, which theorizes that production of any finite resource over time will have roughly inverse curves before and after the peak of the resource's production (creating an approximately bell shaped curve). Hubbert's theory is used to predict when a resource will reach its peak of production by studying past resource discovery and production trends. Peak Oil advocates often show only crude oil production which may have set a global peak in 2005. Backstop resource theory maintains that alternatives will be developed as they are needed.
Historical examples:
Cuba, during its Special Period following the collapse of the Soviet Union, increased sugar cane ethanol production to offset lost crude oil imports from the Soviet Union.Canada is the largest single source of oil imports for the United States. As oil prices spiked following the 1979 energy crisis, Canada began significant production of oil derived from tar sands, also known as bitumen. The U.S. Department of Energy's Energy Information Administration (EIA) states that historic Canadian Tar Sand production rose from 200,000 barrels per day (32,000 m3/d) in 1980 to 1,100,000 barrels per day (170,000 m3/d) in 2004. EIA's 2007 International Energy Outlook estimates that tar sand production will climb to 2,300,000 bbl/d (370,000 m3/d) in 2015 and 3.6 million barrels per day (570×10^3 m3/d) in 2030. South Africa responded to anti-apartheid embargoes by switching from imported crude oil to coal liquefaction producing gasoline and diesel profitably from coal and natural gas using Fischer-Tropsch synthesis. The EIA estimates global coal-to-liquids production will climb to 600,000 bbl/d (95,000 m3/d) in 2015 and 2,400,000 bbl/d (380,000 m3/d) in 2030.
Criticism:
Environmental economists and critics of globalized capitalism take issue with this theory for a number of reasons. Environmentalists disagree with Solow's conclusion about the role of technology because it neglects to consider the increases in exploitation of natural resources which may be responsible for much of the growth attributed to technology. Anti-globalists apply a similar argument, but tend to focus on exploitation of third world societies rather than the environment.
Criticism:
The theory also neglects to account for certain requisite properties of the resources in question and the development of necessary infrastructure. It may be possible to design a car to run on hydrogen, but widescale construction of a hydrogen infrastructure is a far more complex problem, especially in a scenario in which the major resource is already becoming scarce. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Middle ear barotrauma**
Middle ear barotrauma:
Middle ear barotrauma (MEBT), also known to underwater divers as ear squeeze and reverse ear squeeze, is an injury caused by a difference in pressure between the external ear canal and the middle ear. It is common in underwater divers and usually occurs when the diver does not equalise sufficiently during descent or, less commonly, on ascent. Failure to equalise may be due to inexperience or eustachian tube dysfunction, which can have many possible causes. Unequalised ambient pressure increase during descent causes a pressure imbalance between the middle ear air space and the external auiditory canal over the eardrum, referred to by divers as ear squeeze, causing inward stretching, serous effusion and haemorrhage, and eventual rupture. During ascent internal over-pressure is normally passively released through the eustachian tube, but if this does not happen the volume expansion of middle ear gas will cause outward bulging, stretching and eventual rupture of the eardrum known to divers as reverse ear squeeze. This damage causes local pain and hearing loss. Tympanic rupture during a dive can allow water into the middle ear, which can cause severe vertigo from caloric stimulation. This may cause nausea and vomiting underwater, which has a high risk of aspiration of vomit or water, with possibly fatal consequences.Middle ear barotrauma can also be caused by shock waves and blows to the external ear, particularly in water, and large or fast changes in altitude.
Classification:
Deformation stress trauma caused by externally applied (environmental) pressure differences on the middle ear.
Signs and symptoms:
Localised pain in one or both ears while the eardrums are stretched, which may be partly relieved if the eardrum ruptures, followed by longer term dull pain in the injured ears,and possible hearing loss.
Complications Unequal pressures in the middle ears can cause alternobaric vertigo, disorientation and nausea.
Cold water ingress through a perforated eardrum can cause caloric vertigo, usually a short term effect.
Ingress of contaminated water through a perforated eardrum can cause infections of the middle ear.
Over-vigorous attempts to equalise using the Valsalva maneuver can lead to inner ear barotrauma Temporary or permanent hearing deficit, vertigo, or balance problems.
Infections of the external, middle or inner ear.
Causes:
Any cause of sufficiently large and rapid environmental pressure change can potentially cause barotrauma. Several commonly recognised examples are listed below.
Causes:
Depth changes while diving When diving, the pressure differences which cause the barotrauma are changes in hydrostatic pressure: There are two components to the surrounding pressure acting on the diver: the atmospheric pressure and the water pressure. A descent of 10 metres (33 feet) in water increases the ambient pressure by an amount approximately equal to the pressure of the atmosphere at sea level. So, a descent from the surface to 10 metres (33 feet) underwater results in a doubling of the pressure on the diver. This pressure change will reduce the volume of a flexible gas-filled space by half. Boyle's law describes the relationship between the volume of the gas space and the pressure in the gas.Barotraumas of descent are caused by preventing the free change of volume of the gas in a closed space in contact with the diver, resulting in a pressure difference between the tissues and the gas space, and the unbalanced force due to this pressure difference causes deformation of the tissues resulting in cell rupture.Barotraumas of ascent are also caused when the free change of volume of the gas in a closed space in contact with the diver is prevented. In this case the pressure difference causes a resultant tension in the surrounding tissues which exceeds their tensile strength.
Causes:
Use of a hyperbaric chamber Patients undergoing hyperbaric oxygen therapy must equalize their ears to avoid barotrauma. High risk of otic barotrauma is associated with unconscious patients.
Rapid decompression or pressurisation of an artificial environment Explosive decompression of a hyperbaric environment can produce severe barotrauma, followed by severe decompression bubble formation and other related injury. Rapid uncontrolled decompression from caissons, airlocks, pressurised aircraft, spacecraft, and pressure suits can have similar effects of decompression barotrauma.
Collapse of a pressure resistant structure such as a submarine, submersible, or atmospheric diving suit can cause rapid compression barotrauma.
Rapid change of altitude A rapid change of altitude can cause barotrauma when internal air spaces cannot be equalised.
Causes:
Self inflicted barotrauma Excessively strenuous efforts to equalise the ears using the Valsalva manoeuvre can overpressurise the middle ear, and can cause middle ear barotrauma. This is more likely to happen when one tube opens and the other remains blocked. When a Valsalva maneuver is performed during descent with the intention of opening the Eustachian tubes, but they do not open, intrathoracic pressure, central venous pressure, spinal fluid pressure, and inner ear pressure are raised further above ambient pressure, which increases the pressure difference between perilymph of the inner ear and the gas space of the middle ear. This can cause the round or oval window to rupture outwards, allowing leakage of perilymph into the middle ear.
Causes:
Blast-induced barotrauma An explosive blast and explosive decompression create a pressure wave that can induce barotrauma. The difference in pressure between internal organs and the outer surface of the body causes injuries to internal organs that contain gas, such as the lungs, gastrointestinal tract, and ear.
Impact over the external auditory canal Blows to the outer ear which seal the canal and compress the trapped gas or water can burst an eardrum or cause lesser barotrauma to the middle ear. This is a recognised hazard in several contact sports.
Mechanism:
The middle ear is an air-filled space between the external and inner ears. it is separated from the outer ear canal by the eardrum, and connected to the nose and throat cavity by the Eustachian tube. Pressure in the middle ear should match the ambient pressure for normal functioning of hearing. Under-pressure equalisation is normally through periodic opening of the Eustachian tubes during swallowing and yawning, and over-pressure usually vents passively through the collapsed soft part of the tube, as the inner end of the tube is normally closed.Middle ear barotrauma occurs when a pressure difference develops over the eardrum, causing bulging towards the low pressure side, stretching the tissues which in a severe case can rupture, which immediately equalises the pressure and removes the stretching forces, but leaves local trauma. Stretching of the eardrum to a lesser extent can also cause damage, including engorged blood vessels which exude serum into the surrounding tissues and cause inflammation. increased pressure difference will cause blood vessels to rupture, which may bleed into or inside of the membrane. In divers this usually occurs during descent, when the ambient pressure rises due to increasing hydrostatic pressure. Pressure on the outer side of the eardrum normally closely follows ambient pressure, and in the inner ear pressure equalises through the Eustachian tube, which must be open for gas to flow through. If the diver does not equalise sufficiently a pressure difference may develop that is large enough to damage the eardrum as described. During ascent, the convere occurs, with the internal pressure higher than external. This is usually passively released by the Eustachian tube, but in some cases it does not function correctly causing the eardrum to bulge and possibly rupture outward.The pressure difference required to rupture the eardrum is thought to be approximately 100 kPA (1 bar or 10 msw).
Diagnosis:
Diagnosis is by symptoms, otoscope examination and history.
Diagnosis:
Differential diagnosis Differential diagnosis should consider alternative conditions which could produce the same symptoms. Depending on the actual symptoms presented, such conditions could include: otitis media, otitis externa, cerumen impaction, inner ear decompression sickness, caloric stimulation, benign paroxysmal positional vertigo (BPPV), vestibular neuronitis, Ménière's disease, acoustic neuroma, and possibly others.If there is sensorineural hearing loss or vertigo after exposure to a large change in ambient pressure or a change of breathing gas, the possibility of concurrent barotrauma and inner ear decompression sickness (IEDCS) should be considered, because the symptoms can be very similar, and IEDCS is treated with recompression and hyperbaric oxygen.
Prevention:
Among people playing underwater and swimming contact sports, such as water polo, underwater hockey or underwater rugby, a cap with perforated ear cups is often used, such as a water polo cap.
Prevention:
The a risk of stretched or burst eardrums, can be reduced by any of a variety of methods to let air into or out of the middle ears via the Eustachian tubes. Sometimes swallowing will open the Eustachian tubes and equalise the ears. Most of the methods are less likely than the Valsalva maneuver to cause collateral damage to the inner ear.
Prevention:
The Eustachian tubes will close completely with a pressure difference of about 3msw (10fsw) above the middle ear pressure, at which point none of the equalising maneuvers will work, and the pressure difference must be decreased to make it possible again, This implies ascending during a dive, venting some of the pressure from a hyperbaric chamber, and ascending to a higher altitude in an aircraft, which is not always practicable.
Treatment and management:
If inner ear barotrauma and decompression sickness can be excluded, treatment may include any combination of short term use of nasal decongestants, intranasal steroid sprays and antibiotics for secondary infections. Surgical repair of persistent perforation of the eardrum may be necessary.Treatment is in proportion to the injury, and may include education to reduce risk of repeat injury. It is often treated conservatively and usually resolves without medical intervention. Some cases are due to simple ambient pressure change and Eustachian tube dysfunction at the time, while others may be partly the consequence of a less obvious underlying condition.Antibiotics are not usually needed unless infection develops or the ear was exposed to contaminated water.MEBT may occur during pressurization for hyperbaric treatment for other conditions. If this happens, pressurization should be stopped and if necessary, reversed sufficiently to allow the Eustachian tubes to be opened more easily, and the middle ear to be cleared. Physician-prescribed oral decongestants may help. Compression should normally be aborted if equalization remains unsuccessful. In urgent clinical hyperbaric treatment, an emergency needle myringotomy or placement of tympanostomy ventilation tubes may be required. These will passively equalise the middle ear, and are effective with an unconscious person.
Outcomes:
Mild symptoms may resolve within 1 to 2 weeks. All symptoms should be resolved before diving or flying recommences, including healing of any perforations of the eardrum, and equalisation must be possible, with no abnormal sounds, and hearing is normal.
Epidemiology:
Middle ear barotrauma is the single most common diving disorder for which treatment is sought, at nearly 50% of all reported diving injuries. Many more milder cases may go unreported.
A history of head and neck cancers, with associated radiation treatment, has been associated with a relatively higher incidence of MEBT, possibly due to radiation damage of the soft tissues of the Eustachian tubes or pharynx. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Tornado Mania!**
Tornado Mania!:
Tornado Mania! is a mobile game developed by Digital Chocolate. Players assume the role of a scientist who has decided to create his own Utopia by collecting buildings with the tornadoes he creates.
Gameplay:
Players assume the role of a scientist who has grown weary of the world and therefore decides to create his own isolated Utopia. The game's 'Utopia Mode' combines elements of Katamari Damacy and Sim City; after buildings have been claimed by the player's tornado they are placed in the target location, optimal placement increases the Utopia's inhabitants' happiness. Players do not have direct control over the tornado's path; it sweeps across the landscape in a clockwise arc, players can alter the direction of movement by reversing to counter-clockwise movement.
Reception:
Tornado Mania! received a positive response from game critics, including being awarded a perfect 10/10 and IGN's game of the month award for December 2006. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Abellaite**
Abellaite:
Abellaite is a hydrous carbonate mineral discovered in the abandoned Eureka uranium mine in the village of Torre de Capdella (Lleida province), Catalonia, Spain. The ideal chemical formula of abellaite is NaPb2(CO3)2(OH). It is named in honor of Joan Abella i Creus, a Catalan gemmologist who has long studied minerals from the Eureka mine and first found abellaite in the mine. A team composed, among others, by Jordi Ibáñez-Insa from the Institute of Earth Sciences Jaume Almera (CSIC) and by Joan Viñals and Xavier Llovet from the University of Barcelona, identified and characterized the mineral’s structure and chemical composition.Abellaite crystals are colorless to white, with a glassy or pearly appearance, and are easily crumbled. The mineral has a known synthetic analogue and is chemically similar to sanrománite. Robert Hazen et al. predicted its existence in 2015.
Localities:
Catalonia, Spain: Eureka mine, Castell-estaó, La Torre de Cabdella, La Vall Fosca, El Pallars Jussà, Lleida, Catalonia Russia: Yubileinaya pegmatite, Karnasurt Mt, Lovozero Massif, Murmanskaya Oblast', Northern Region | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Liuba Shrira**
Liuba Shrira:
Liuba Shrira is a professor of computer science at Brandeis University, whose research interests primarily involve distributed systems.Liuba Shrira received her PhD from Technion. She is affiliated with the MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory. Previously, she was a researcher in the MIT Programming Methodology Group (1986–1997), a visiting researcher at Microsoft Research (2004–2005), and a visiting professor at Technion (2010–2011).She is a member of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), which has recognized her as a Distinguished Scientist in 2009, and the IEEE Computer Society.Shrira was one of the founding members of the Systers mailing list for women in computing.
Selected publications:
Some of Liuba Shrira's publications include: Barbara Liskov; Sanjay Ghemawat; Robert Gruber; Paul Johnson; Liuba Shrira; Michael Williams (1991). "Replication in the Harp File System". 13th ACM Symposium on Operating Systems Principles.
Rivka Ladin; Barbara Liskov; Liuba Shrira; Sanjay Ghemawat (1992). "Providing high availability using lazy replication". ACM Transactions on Computer Systems.
Chandrasekhar Boyapati; Barbara Liskov; Liuba Shrira (2003). "Ownership Types for Object Encapsulation". ACM Symposium on Principles of Programming Languages. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Archaeological open-air museum**
Archaeological open-air museum:
An archaeological open-air museum is a non-profit permanent institution with outdoor true-to-scale architectural reconstructions primarily based on archaeological sources. It holds collections of intangible heritage resources and provides an interpretation of how people lived and acted in the past; this is accomplished according to sound scientific methods for the purposes of education, study and enjoyment of its visitors.
Components:
The above definition was made by EXARC, a global network of professionals for those active in archaeological open-air museums, experimental archaeology, ancient technology and interpretation, using ICOM's definition of museums. By that time Roeland Paardekooper was their director. Further explanation of its components: Museum – "A museum is a non-profit, permanent institution in the service of society and its development, open to the public, which acquires, conserves, researches, communicates and exhibits the tangible and intangible heritage of humanity and its environment for the purposes of education, study and enjoyment." Professional practice and performance in archaeological open-air museums should respect the ICOM Code of Ethics for Museums.
Components:
True to scale architectural reconstructions in the open air – Archaeological open-air museums deal with outdoor true-to-scale reconstructed buildings. These can be constructed and interpreted only under the condition that: "the original buildings of the type portrayed are no longer available (and) the copies or reconstructions are made according to the strictest scientific methods". The authenticity of materials and techniques used should be clearly accounted for through written and accessible records, quoting the sources of information on which the reconstructions are based. An honest assessment of each reconstruction should be feasible.
Components:
Collections of intangible heritage resources – The overall presentation of an archaeological open-air museum can be regarded (classified/defined) as a collection of intangible heritage resources which provides an interpretation of how people lived and acted with reference to a specific context of time and place.
Connected to scientific research – The connection between scientific research and any specific archaeological open-air museum is provided by the active role of a trained archaeologist among the staff or an archaeological counsellor belonging to an affiliated organisation.
Appropriate interpretation with organisation of activities for visitors – Depending on the nature and number of visitors, different kinds of interpretation can be appropriate. These activities can involve (but are not limited to) guided tours, educational programmes, presentation of experimental archaeology research, demonstrations of ancient crafts and techniques, live interpretation and living history activities.
Examples:
Examples of archaeological open-air museums are Flag Fen, Biskupin, Lake Dwelling Museum Unteruhldingen, Saalburg, Colonial Williamsburg, Plimoth Plantation, Craggaunowen, West Stow Anglo-Saxon village, Butser Ancient Farm, Havránok, the Scottish Crannog Centre and the Eindhoven Museum. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Batcycle**
Batcycle:
The Batcycle, Batblade, or Batpod is the fictional personal motorcycle of the DC Comics superhero Batman. In the comic book universe, Batman's personal Batcycle is a modified street-bike with a 786 cc liquid-cooled V-4 engine. It contains a computer-controlled carburetor and bulletproof wind-guard.
In other media:
Live-action television Batman (TV series) The Batcycle made its first appearance in 1966 in the Batman TV series. It was a 1965 Harley Davidson with a side car, but it was taken on lease and was only used for the first season episode "Not Yet, He Ain't".
In other media:
Later that year, a new Batcycle was introduced. It was produced by Kustomotive, conceived by Dan Dempski, designed by Tom Daniel, and built by Dan and Korky Korkes using a Yamaha Catalina 250. It was leased to 20th Century Fox starting on April 18, 1966 for $50 a week with an additional $350 up front. The new Batcycle was first used in the 1966 film Batman and continued to appear in the rest of the TV series. Hubie Kerns and Victor Paul did most of the stunt work with the motorcycle throughout the series. The total amount paid to Kustomotive was $2,500. When the series was canceled, Kustomotive used the Batcycle in car shows, paying royalties to Greenway, 20th Century Fox, and National Periodical Publications. Kustomotive built four replicas of the Batcycle for tours.
In other media:
Robin's sidecar (a detachable self-propelled vehicle) was authenticated by Burt Ward on the television series Hollywood Treasure and sold at auction for $30,000.
Batwoman The Batcycle appears in the series Batwoman as Batwoman's personal vehicle.
Live-action films Batman & Robin The Batblade is the name of a specialized motorcycle used by Batgirl (Alicia Silverstone) in the 1997 film Batman & Robin. This vehicle can function under the most extreme weather conditions.
The Batblade was built on the body of a drag racer: the rear tire comes not from a motorcycle, but from a car.
In other media:
The Dark Knight Trilogy The Batcycle is known as the Batpod for The Dark Knight (2008) and The Dark Knight Rises (2012). The bike has 20" front and rear tires and is powered by a high-performance, water-cooled, single-cylinder engine - geared toward the lower end for faster acceleration and with no exhaust pipes: the exhaust is routed through the hollow steel/aluminum/magnesium tubing used for the frame of the bike. The Batpod is steered by the shoulders instead of hands, and the rider's arms are protected by shields. The two foot pegs are set 3½ feet apart on either side of the tank, which the rider lies on, belly down. The engine noise was designed around the Shepard tone, for which sound effects came, in part, from the sound of the Tesla Roadster's electric motor. The Batpod ejects out of the Tumbler's front end, with the Tumbler's front wheels becoming the Batpod's front and rear wheels. Because the Tumbler is ordered to self-destruct, the Batpod allows Batman to continue his pursuit. For the film, the bike is armed with grappling hooks, cannons, and machine guns. Six models were constructed for the film's production to anticipate some of them crashing. One action sequence in the film shows the wheels rolling against their normal axes, seemingly for added stability in sharp turns or other maneuvers. This also allows for instant changes in direction - if the driver approaches a wall, the Batpod's central frame will rotate to keep the driver upright. The Batpod's chassis also elongates, allowing the rider to pass under low-hanging obstacles, as when Batman slaloms underneath a tractor trailer the Joker is driving. The term "Batpod" is mentioned by Alfred Pennyworth only once in the movie.
In other media:
The Batpod is used again in The Dark Knight Rises (2012). At first, it serves as Batman's primary vehicle. Later, Selina Kyle uses the Batpod during the final battle against Bane's forces for the fate of Gotham. Batman uses the Bat to fight Bane's stolen Tumblers from the air while Selina uses the Batpod to open a tunnel to allow Gotham civilians to escape, to shoot Bane, and to destroy at least two of Bane's Tumblers while tracking the nuclear bomb Bane and Talia al Ghul intended to use to destroy the city. During filming on August 9, 2011, a stunt performer collided with an IMAX camera while filming a chase scene involving Kyle's Batpod.
In other media:
DC Extended Universe The Batcycle will appear in The Flash The Batman The Batcycle is the Batman’s sleekest mode of transport, and perfect for racing through Gotham’s streets at breakneck speeds. Throughout the movie Batman had a second main motorcycle, dubbed Drifter Motorcycle. This one is primarily used by Wayne in his civilian Drifter Outfit, while the Batcycle is used by Wayne as the Batman. He used his Drifter Motorcycle to spy on Selina Kyle, during his investigation on the serial killer, known as "The Riddler". Following Riddler's defeat, Batman would use the Batcycle to visit Selina Kyle at her mother's gravesite. He would then leave the gravesite on the Batcycle and followed Selina on her motorcycle until they went in separate directions.
In other media:
Animated television DC Animated Universe The Batcycle was one of the many vehicles used by Batman and Robin in Batman: The Animated Series. The Batcycle was themed to look like Batman's other vehicles, the Batmobile, Batwing, and Batboat. Batman would use it in certain episodes, as would Robin. Perhaps the most important part the Batcycle played in the series was in the movie Batman: Mask of the Phantasm, where Batman jumped off the Batcycle so it would crash into a giant fan that was being controlled by the Joker. The Batcycle saw a little more use from Robin, particularly in the episode "Robin's Reckoning." Robin would continue to use a variation of the Batcycle in later seasons after he had become Nightwing. Batman always donned a helmet, modeled to accommodate his cowl's ears, before driving the Batcycle.
In other media:
The Batman The Batcycle makes only a few appearances in The Batman. The first is in the episode, "The Cat and the Bat," in which Catwoman steals Batman's utility belt and inadvertently sends the Batmobile careening out of control on autopilot. Batman uses the Batcycle to catch-up with and retrieve the other vehicle. The Batcycle's second appearance on the program is in the episode, "RPM". The Batmobile is wrecked during a pursuit of Gearhead, and Batman must use the Batcycle to continue the battle against the villain when the rebuilt Batmobile is not fully operational in time. The Batcycle ends up destroyed after Gearhead infects its computerized system with a nanotech virus during this same episode.
In other media:
Robin uses a variation of the Batcycle featuring his own colors in The Batman. Robin also has a similarly styled bike in the Teen Titans animated series.
In other media:
Video games Batman & Robin (Robin drives the Redbird, and Batgirl drives the Batblade) Batman: Rise of Sin Tzu (the Batcycle and the Nightwing Cycle are unlockable 3D Models in the Trophy Room) Lego Batman: The Video Game Lego Batman 2: DC Superheroes The Dark Knight (canceled) Gotham Knights Toys Art Asylum created a toy version of the Batcycle for C3 Sets Wave 2 of Minimates in 2005. LEGO paired the Batcycle with "Harley Quinn's Hammer Truck" for their LEGO Batman line. In 2008, Mattell's Hot Wheels line released a 1/50 scale of the 1966 Batcycle, and in 2009, released a 1/12 scale of the same model. Both featured detachable sidecars. An upgraded 'Elite' version of the 1/12 model is also expected, with even greater detail. The Batblade has also been mentioned as a candidate for the 2010 series of 1/50 Bat-vehicles. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Symphysis pubis dysfunction**
Symphysis pubis dysfunction:
Symphysis pubis dysfunction (SPD), commonly known as pubic symphysis dysfunction or lightning crotch, is a condition that causes excessive movement of the pubic symphysis, either anterior or lateral, as well as associated pain, possibly because of a misalignment of the pelvis. Most commonly associated with pregnancy and childbirth, it is diagnosed in approximately 1 in 300 pregnancies, although some estimates of incidence are as high as 1 in 50.SPD is associated with pelvic girdle pain and the names are often used interchangeably.
Symptoms:
The main symptom is usually pain or discomfort in the pelvic region, usually centered on the joint at the front of the pelvis (the pubic symphysis). Some sufferers report being able to hear and feel the pubic symphysis and/or sacroiliac, clicking or popping in and out as they walk or change position. Sufferers frequently also experience pain in the lower back, hips, groin, lower abdomen, and legs. The severity of the pain can range from mild discomfort to extreme pain that interferes with routine activities, family, social and professional life, and sleep. There have been links between SPD and depression due to the associated physical discomfort. Sufferers may walk with a characteristic side-to-side gait and have difficulty climbing stairs, problems with leg abduction and adduction, pain when carrying out weight bearing activities, difficulties carrying out everyday activities, and difficulties standing.
Diagnosis:
A diagnosis is usually made from the symptoms, history, and physical exam alone. After pregnancy, MRI scans, X-rays and ultrasound scanning are sometimes used. Patients typically initially report symptoms to a midwife, chiropractor, obstetrician, general practitioner, physiotherapist or an osteopath. On seeing a health professional, patients should expect to receive a thorough physical examination to rule out other lumbar spine problems, such as a prolapsed disc or pelvic and or pubis joint misalignment, or other conditions such as iliopsoas muscle spasms, urinary tract infections and Braxton Hicks contractions.
Diagnosis:
Unnecessary radiation from medical imaging is avoided during pregnancy, so in most cases a physical examination and history are considered sufficient to refer to physical therapy.
Treatment:
A promising treatment for chronic or post natal dysfunction is prolotherapy. Other treatments include the use of elbow crutches, pelvic support devices and prescribed pain relief. The majority of problems will resolve spontaneously after delivery. There are two case studies that show reduction of pain and dysfunction with conservative chiropractic care.Physical therapists—especially those specializing in pelvic floor physical therapy—can assist with pain relief techniques, provide manual therapy to alleviate related muscle spasms, and manage exercise protocols.
Treatment:
While most pregnancy-related cases are reported to resolve postpartum, definitive diagnosis and treatment are still appropriate in order to optimize comfort and function and ensure a good course of recovery.
Long-term complications can develop without proper care. Postpartum follow-up in cases of pregnancy-related SPD may include radiologic imaging, evaluation by a specialist such as an orthopedist or physiatrist, ongoing pelvic floor physical therapy, and assessment for any underlying or related musculoskeletal issues.
In extreme cases that do not resolve with conservative management, surgery is considered after pregnancy to stabilise the pelvis, but success rates are very poor.
Treatment:
Everyday living Typical advice usually given to people with SPD includes avoiding strenuous exercise, prolonged standing, repetitive reaching movements, lunges, stretching exercises and squatting. Patients are also frequently advised to: Brace the transverse abdominis (lower abdominal muscles) before performing any activity which might cause pain Rest the pelvis Sit down for tasks where possible (e.g. dressing, workplace discussions, teaching, repetitive manual tasks) Avoid lifting and carrying Avoid stepping over things Avoid straddle movements especially when weight bearing Bend the knees and keep the legs 'glued together' when turning in bed and getting in and out of bed, while engaging transverse abdominis Place a pillow between the legs when in bed or resting Avoid twisting movements of the bodyIf the pain is very severe, using a walker or crutches will help take the weight off the pelvis and assist with mobility. Alternatively, for more extreme cases a wheelchair may be considered advisable.
Treatment:
Pharmacological interventions It is not usually considered advisable to take anti-inflammatory medication in pregnancy, which makes SPD a particularly difficult condition to manage. Acetaminophen may be a safer option. Of note, opiates are considered high risk with a more addictive nature, and carry a risk of depressed respiration in the newborn baby if taken near the time of birth, if taken at all. Therefore, it is considered advisable to discuss any pain relief medications with a physician, and cease taking any opiates 2–4 weeks before the estimated due date, as advised by a medical professional. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Shariki**
Shariki:
Shariki (Russian: Ша́рики, "The Marbles") is a puzzle video game written in 1994 for MS-DOS by Russian developer Eugene Alemzhin. The goal of the game is to gain progressively higher scores by matching three or more balls of the same color in a line (vertical or horizontal), by swapping adjacent balls. Each swap must result in a match. Matched balls are then removed, and new ones drop from the top to fill the gaps. The game is over when no more matches are possible in the game field.
Legacy:
Shariki proved to be influential and eventually many games that closely matched its mechanics arose. Collectively known as tile-matching video games or match-three games, these all revolve around the mechanic of creating a three-in-a-row line of identical pieces. They include: Bejeweled (2001) by PopCap Games Jewel Quest (2004) created and published by iWin Puzzle Quest: Challenge of the Warlords (2007) developed by Infinite Interactive and published by D3 Publisher Aurora Feint (2008) game for the iPhone and iPod Touch Candy Crush Saga (2012) Pokémon Shuffle (2015) game for the Nintendo 3DS handheld console | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Jeskola Buzz**
Jeskola Buzz:
Jeskola Buzz is a freeware modular software music studio environment designed to run on Microsoft Windows using MFC. It is centered on a modular plugin-based machine view and a multiple pattern sequencer tracker.Buzz consists of a plugin architecture that allows the audio to be routed from one plugin to another in many ways, similar to how cables carry an audio signal between physical pieces of hardware. All aspects of signal synthesis and manipulation are handled entirely by the plugin system. Signal synthesis is performed by "generators" such as synthesizers, noise generator functions, samplers, and trackers. The signal can then be manipulated further by "effects" such as distortions, filters, delays, and mastering plugins. Buzz also provides support through adapters to use VST/VSTi, DirectX/DXi, and DirectX Media Objects as generators and effects.
Jeskola Buzz:
A few new classes of plugins do not fall under the normal generator and effect types. These include peer machines (signal and event automated controllers), recorders, wavetable editors, scripting engines, etc. Buzz signal output also uses a plugin system; the most practical drivers include ASIO, DirectSound, and MME. Buzz supports MIDI both internally and through several enhancements. Some MIDI features are limited or hacked together such as MIDI clock sync.
Development:
Buzz was created by Oskari Tammelin who named the software after his demogroup, Jeskola.
In 1997-98 Buzz was a "3rd Generation Tracker" and has since evolved beyond the traditional tracker model.
The development of the core program, buzz.exe, was halted on October 5, 2000, when the developer lost the source code to the program. It was announced in June 2008 that development would begin again, eventually regaining much of the functionality.Development was restarted in June 2008.
Plugin system:
Buzz's plugin system is intended to operate according to a free software model. The header files used to compile new plugins (known as the Buzzlib) contain a small notice that they are only to be used for making freeware plugins and Buzz file music players. The restriction requires that developers who wish to use the Buzz plugin system in their own sequencers pay a fee to the author.
Notable users:
Some notable electronic musicians who use Jeskola Buzz include: Andrew Sega Hunz Andreas Tilliander James Holden, whose early work was produced entirely within Buzz.
Lackluster Oliver Lieb The Field | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Stiff skin syndrome**
Stiff skin syndrome:
Stiff skin syndrome (also known as "Congenital fascial dystrophy") is a cutaneous condition characterized by ‘rock hard’ induration, thickening of the skin and subcutaneous tissues, limited joint mobility, and mild hypertrichosis in infancy or early childhood. Immunologic abnormalities or vascular hyperactivity are not present in patients.Not much is known about it, cause or treatment, and further investigation is required, as it has only been reported 41 times throughout history.
Genetics:
This condition is associated with mutations in the Fibrillin 1 (FBN1) gene.
Diagnosis:
Differential diagnosis Other conditions associated with mutations in this gene include acromicric dysplasia, Marfan syndrome and its variant Marfanoid–progeroid–lipodystrophy syndrome, autosomal dominant Weill-Marchesani syndrome, isolated ectopia lentis, MASS phenotype, and Shprintzen-Goldberg syndrome. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Morforex**
Morforex:
Morforex (INN; Bo 637), also referable to as N-morpholinoethylamphetamine, is an anorectic which was never marketed.It produces amphetamine as an active metabolite.
Synthesis:
Amphetamine is reacted with N-Chloroethylmorpholine [3240-94-6] in the presence of IPA solvent. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Pico-ITX**
Pico-ITX:
In computer design, Pico-ITX is a PC motherboard form factor announced by VIA Technologies in January 2007 and demonstrated later the same year at CeBIT. The formfactor was transferred over to SFF-SIG in 2008. The Pico-ITX form factor specifications call for the board to be 10 × 7.2 cm (3.9 × 2.8 in), which is half the area of Nano-ITX.
EPIA PX:
PX10000G The first motherboard produced in this form factor is called EPIA PX10000G. It is 10 × 7.2 cm (3.9 × 2.8 in) and 10 layers deep. The operating temperature range is from 0°C to about 50°C. The operating humidity level (relative and non-condensing) can be from 0% to about 95%. It uses a 1 GHz VIA C7-M processor, a VIA VX700 chip set, and is RoHS compliant.
EPIA PX:
It has onboard VGA video, VIA VT6106S 10/100 8P8C Ethernet, UDMA 33/66/100/133 44-pin ATA (1x), and SATA (1x) I/O. DVI and LVDS video-out, USB 2.0, COM, PS/2 Mouse & Keyboard, and HD 5.1 channel audio (supplied by a VIA VT1708A chip) are supported through the usage of I/O pin headers and add-on modules/daughter cards.It has been demonstrated running Microsoft Windows XP and Windows Vista. older versions of major Linux distributions, including Fedora Core 6 and Ubuntu 7.10, will also run on it. It is available as a single board, as well as part of a barebones package, the Artigo, a small form factor complete computer.
EPIA PX:
PX5000 This model is similar to the PX10000G, but uses the 500 MHz VIA Eden ULV CPU.
There are two versions of this model, the PX5000G, which has a fan-assisted heatsink, and the PX5000EG, which has a fanless heatsink.
EPIA PX:
Add-on modules (Note: Either the VIA PX-O add-on module or 4 USB 2.0 I/O are supplied in retail packages.) The VIA PX-O daughtercard supplies access to: 1 RCA-out for S/PDIF usage 4 USB 2.0 ports 1 3.5mm Mic-in, 1 3.5mm line-out, 1 3.5mm line-in 1 buzzer/speaker 1 CN9 connector (function TBC) 1 CN10 connector (function TBC).The VIA VT1625M daughtercard supplies access to: 1 external TV-out 1 video capture port.The Serener PXFPIO (also labeled under VIA PX-DIO) is 109mm × 22mm in size and connects via a 120mm ribbon cable through a daughter card. This addon may require modification to the heatsink due to the size of the daughter card. It supplies access to: power & reset switches 3.5mm audio in/out S/PDIF-in power & HDD activity LEDs 4 USB 2.0 portsThe VIA PX-TC daughter card, compatible with the PX10000G only, is designed to enhance the multimedia capture and output. It supplies access to: 1 S-Video port 1 video-in port 1 YPbPr port 1 S/PDIF-out
EPIA-P700:
The second motherboard series in this form factor, the P700 series improves upon the PX10000G series by offering Gigabit Ethernet (Using the VIA VT6122 chipset) or a 10/100 Ethernet adapter (VIA VT6107) as a manufacturing option, integrating the power adapter (allowing for direct +12V DC-In & enabling it to directly power SATA), and making the Ethernet & VGA ports optional via the P700-A daughter card.
EPIA-P700:
Expanded functionality is offered via the following pin I/O: 1 LAN 1 VGA/DVI 1 COM Port 1 Audio pin connector for Line-out, Line-in, MIC-in 1 Front panel 4 USB 2.0 1 PS2 mouse/keyboard 1 LVDS 1 LPC/SM Bus/GPIO (Unusable due to VIA not releasing a GPIO driver)The EPIA-P700-10L has a 1 GHz VIA C7 CPU.
The EPIA-P700-05LE has a 500 MHz VIA Eden ULV CPU and has a passive heatsink.
Add-on modules The P700 comes retail with the P700-A & P700-B daughter cards.The P700-A supplies: Gigabit Ethernet 1 VGA port 1 COM port DVI port via I/O cableThe P700-B supplies: 4 USB 2.0 ports 1 Buzzer 1 Line-out, 1 Line-in, 1 MIC-in (3.5 mm)
Intel-based products:
Even though the form factor was introduced by VIA Technologies, there are also boards available based on Intel processors. Some have the CPU and the chipset directly on the Pico-ITX board.
ARM-based products:
Pico-ITX boards are also available with ARM architecture. In this field DH electronics uses the standardized DHCOM Computer On Modules with several ARM based modules.
Pico-ITXe:
The Pico-ITXe specification adds onto the Pico-ITX form factor by taking the EPIA-P700 and upgrading the chipset to a VX800, doubling the maximum RAM to 2 GB, allowing for 667/533 SO-DIMM RAM, upgrading the GPU to VIA's Chrome9 HC3, and adding support for SUMIT. Another notable addition is the expansion from 10 to 12 layers thickness. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Tot System**
Tot System:
The Tot System, also known as the Dop System (after the Afrikaans word 'dop' meaning an alcoholic drink), is a notorious truck system which was used in South African wine farms particularly in the Western Cape. Farm workers would receive payment in the form of money with a daily measure of cheap wine as a fringe benefit. This practice increased and exacerbated alcoholism among farm workers, which resulted in widespread social damage among communities, particularly the Cape Coloured community.
Tot System:
The practice goes back to the European settlers of the seventeenth century. It was outlawed in 1960, but the ban was not enforced until the 1990s when South Africa's new democratic government under Nelson Mandela saw the demise of the practice. In 2003 a new Liquor Act which outlaws the "dop" system was adopted by the South African Parliament. The bill states that "an employer must not supply liquor or methylated spirits to any person as an inducement to employment; supply liquor or methylated spirits to an employee as or in lieu of wages or remuneration; or deduct from an employees’ wages or remuneration any amount relating to the cost of liquor or methylated spirits.Although there have been reports that some farm workers still do receive partial payment in wine, the "tot" system has been largely eradicated. However, the legacy continues as alcoholism is still rife. A 2000 study of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) in a community in the Western Cape Province shows that the “historical presence of the wine industry in the Western Cape and the drinking patterns that have developed have produced a high FAS rate.” Today some areas of the Western Cape have the highest incidence of FAS in the world. Although now paid in cash, many workers spend their wages on alcohol, often sold to them by the farmers, or from illegal shebeens in the area. In 2007, the South African Wine Industry banned the 'papsak' (an Afrikaans word meaning 'soft sack' referring to cheap wine sold in a foil-lined plastic bag), and NGOs such as Dopstop are striving to address alcoholism and other substance abuse problems that plague the poor rural communities of South Africa. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Weave (digital printing)**
Weave (digital printing):
Weaving is a technique used in digital printing to reduce visual bands resulting from the proximity of adjacent print nozzles. Horizontal rows are printed out of order and "weaved" together with subsequent passes of the print head. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Sheba (cat food)**
Sheba (cat food):
Sheba (from Arabic شبع šabiʿa = to become sated) is a brand of canned cat food produced by Mars, Incorporated.
Sheba (cat food):
In January 2011, Mars Petcare US announced that Sheba would be discontinued and thus will no longer be available for purchase in the United States. A special webpage explained that the decision was based on economic factors: Although the SHEBA® PREMIUM CUTS® Dinners product line enjoyed a loyal following of consumers, in the current economic environment, and given Sheba Dinners high price point, we do not anticipate the U.S. customer base growing enough to compensate for import challenges that make production prohibitively expensive.
Sheba (cat food):
As of July 2012, Sheba is again available in the United States. However, it now comes in pull-tab cans as opposed to the former plastic trays.
Sheba (cat food):
In mid-2014, Sheba once again returned to plastic trays with its Perfect Portions line. One can of Sheba brand cat food contains two servings, but the consumer must manually separate the portions for their pet. The Perfect Portions line reintroduced the plastic packaging by splitting the contents of one can into two separate serving trays, thus eliminating the need for manual separation. The line is priced slightly higher than Sheba canned food. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Normal type**
Normal type:
Normal type (in German: Normaltyp) is a typological term in sociology coined by the German sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies (1855–1936). It can be considered both as a forerunner of, and a challenge to, the rather better known concept of Max Weber’s: the ideal type (in German Idealtyp).
Tönnies’ distinctions:
Tönnies drew a sharp line between the realm of conceptualization (of sociological terms, including ‘normal types’) and the realm of reality (of social action). The first must be treated axiomatically and in a deductive way (pure sociology); the second, empirically and in an inductive way (applied sociology). Following Tönnies, reality (the second realm) cannot be explained without concepts, which belong to the first realm, or else you will fail because you try to define x by something derived from x.
Tönnies’ distinctions:
Tönnies’ Normaltyp was thus a conceptual tool created on a logical basis, an almost mathematical concept always open to subsequent refinement from a confrontation with the empirical evidence.The contrast with Weber’s ‘ideal type’ came from the latter’s ‘accentuation’ of certain elements of a real social process, which is under sociological (or historical) scrutiny - “the one-sided accentuation of one or more points of view ... of a great many diffuse, discrete, more or less present and occasionally absent concrete individual phenomena”, as Weber himself put it. From Tönnies’ point of view, an ideal type cannot explain reality, because it is derived from reality by accentuation, but might help to understand reality.
Tönnies’ distinctions:
The normal type moved from abstract to concrete; the ideal type from concrete to abstract.
Weber's survival:
Nevertheless, Weber’s term survived in the sociological community, since his Idealtyp helped to understand social forces, and for him sociology had both to explain and to understand things – a daring combination, but successful in the eyes of many sociologists. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Cytochrome b561**
Cytochrome b561:
Cytochrome b561 is an integral membrane protein responsible for electron transport, binding two heme groups non-covalently. It is a family of ascorbate-dependent oxidoreductase enzymes. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Bell Laboratories Layered Space-Time**
Bell Laboratories Layered Space-Time:
Bell Laboratories Layer Space-Time (BLAST) is a transceiver architecture for offering spatial multiplexing over multiple-antenna wireless communication systems. Such systems have multiple antennas at both the transmitter and the receiver in an effort to exploit the many different paths between the two in a highly-scattering wireless environment. BLAST was developed by Gerard Foschini at Lucent Technologies' Bell Laboratories (now Nokia Bell Labs). By careful allocation of the data to be transmitted to the transmitting antennas, multiple data streams can be transmitted simultaneously within a single frequency band — the data capacity of the system then grows directly in line with the number of antennas (subject to certain assumptions). This represents a significant advance on current, single-antenna systems.
V-BLAST:
V-BLAST (Vertical-Bell Laboratories Layered Space-Time) is a detection algorithm to the receipt of multi-antenna MIMO systems. Available for the first time in 1996 at Bell Laboratories in New Jersey in the United States by Gerard J. Foschini. He proceeded simply to eliminate interference caused successively issuers.
V-BLAST:
Its principle is quite simple: to make a first detection of the most powerful signal. It regenerates the received signal from this user from this decision. Then, the signal is regenerated subtracted from the received signal and, with this new signal, it proceeds to the detection of the second user's most powerful, since it has already cleared the first and so forth. What gives a vector containing received less interference.
V-BLAST:
The complete detection algorithm can be summarized as recursive as follows: Initialize: arg min ‖(G1)j‖2 Recursive: arg min ‖(Gi+1)j‖2i←i+1 | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Th-fronting**
Th-fronting:
Th-fronting is the pronunciation of the English "th" as "f" or "v". When th-fronting is applied, [θ] becomes [f] (for example, three is pronounced as free) and [ð] becomes [v] (for example, bathe is pronounced as bave). (Here "fronting" refers to the position in the mouth where the sound is produced, not the position of the sound in the word, with the "th" coming from the tongue as opposed to the "f" or "v" coming from the more-forward lower lip.) Unlike the fronting of [θ] to [f], the fronting of [ð] to [v] usually does not occur word-initially (for example, while bathe can be pronounced as bave, that is rarely pronounced as *vat) although this was found in the speech of South-East London in a survey completed 1990-4. Th-fronting is a prominent feature of several dialects of English, notably Cockney, Essex dialect, Estuary English, some West Country and Yorkshire dialects, African American Vernacular English, and Liberian English, as well as in many non-native English speakers (e.g. Hong Kong English, though the details differ among those accents).
Uses:
The first reference to th-fronting is in the "low English" of London in 1787, though only a single author in that century writes about it, and it was likely perceived as an idiosyncrasy, rather than a full-fledged dialect feature of Cockney English, even into the early half of the twentieth century. The feature was presumed to be reasonably common in London speakers born around 1850 and in Bristol by 1880. The use of the labiodental fricatives [f] and [v] for the dental fricatives [θ] and [ð] was noted in Yorkshire in 1876. In his 1892 book A Grammar of the Dialect of Windhill, Joseph Wright noted variable th-fronting in his district in words such as think, third and smithy.In some words, th-fronting has been lexicalised. For example, the word without was lexicalised to wivoot in some dialects of Northern England and Scotland.In the Survey of English Dialects of the 1950s and early 1960s, th-fronting was found in two main areas of England. One was the area around Bristol in the West Country. The other was in the area around London and Essex. It was also noted in the Suffolk dialect by AOD Claxton in 1968, albeit only for certain words (e.g. three and thumb but not thaw or thought).Comparing his studies over time in Norwich, Peter Trudgill concluded that th-fronting had been completely absent in 1968 and then very common amongst younger people by 1983. Although th-fronting is found occasionally in the middle and upper (middle) class English accents as well, there is still a marked social difference between working and middle class speakers. Th-fronting is regarded as a 'boundary marker' between Cockney and Estuary English, as depicted in the first descriptions of the latter form of English and confirmed by a phonetic study conducted by researcher Ulrike Altendorf. Nevertheless, Altendorf points out that th-fronting is found occasionally in middle class (Estuary) speech as well and concludes that "it is currently making its way into the middle class English accent and thus into Estuary English".In popular music, the singer Joe Brown's 1960s backing band was christened The Bruvvers (that is, "the brothers" with th-fronting). The 1960 musical Fings Ain't Wot They Used T'Be was stated to be a Cockney Comedy. Rock musician Keith Richards is commonly referred to as “Keef”.Up until the late 20th century th-fronting was common in speakers of Australian English from North Brisbane and the Sunshine Coast of Queensland. This may stem from the relatively high number of London cockneys who settled there during the Queensland gold rushes of the 19th century. The practice is gradually dying out as the influx of interstate and international immigrants increases.
Example:
The following is a sample of a speaker of the Cockney accent who has th-fronting: http://www.gazzaro.it/accents/sound/Cockney.mp3My dad came from Wapping and me mum came from Poplar. Me dad was one of eleven kids… and Wapping in them days really was one of the poorest parts of London. I mean they really didn't have shoes on their feet. I'm talking about seventy years ago now. Erm… and Poplar was… sli… just slightly a cut above Wapping; erm… you was either East End respectable or you was sort of East End villain, you know, and my family was respectable on both sides. But me father had a very tough time because his father died when he was nineteen, leaving him the only one working to bring up eleven brothers… ten brothers and sisters and on a Thursday night he'd sometimes go home and the youngest two would be crying in the corner and he'd say “What's the matter with them, ma?” “Oh, well, Harry, you know it's Thursday night, and you don't get paid till tomorrow.” and they literally didn't have any food in the house.
Example:
In that recording, either, both, father, brothers and Thursday are pronounced [ˈɪjvə], [ˈbɐʊ̈f], [ˈfɑ̹ːvə], [ˈbrɐvəz] and [ˈfɜːzdi]. Pronouns (they, them, their) and the are not affected.
Increase in use:
Th-fronting in the speech of working-class adolescents in Glasgow was reported in 1998, provoking public as well as academic interest. The finding of th-fronting in Glaswegian creates a difficulty for models of language change which hinge on dialect contact associated with geographical mobility since the Glaswegian speakers who used [f] most in the 1997 sample are also those with the lowest geographical mobility. In addition, th-fronting was reported as "a relatively new phenomenon" in Edinburgh in March 2013. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Incisor procumbency**
Incisor procumbency:
In rodents, incisor procumbency refers to the orientation of the upper incisor, defined by the position of the cutting edge of the incisor relative to the vertical plane of the incisors. Proodont (or procumbent) incisors have the cutting edge in front of the vertical plane, orthodont teeth have it perpendicular to the plane, opisthodont incisors have it behind the plane, and hyper-opisthodont teeth have the cutting edge even behind the back of the alveolus of the incisor.Phyllotini are mostly opisthodont, but Auliscomys and Galenomys are orthodont and have sometimes even been described as proodont, and Eligmodontia, Loxodontomys, and some species of Calomys are hyper-opisthodont. Irenomys, Reithrodon, and Neotomys, formerly classified as phyllotines, are also hyper-opisthodont. Oryzomyini are also mostly opisthodont, but Amphinectomys savamis, Handleyomys fuscatus, Melanomys caliginosus, Mindomys hammondi, Scolomys melanops, and Sigmodontomys aphrastus are orthodont.
Literature cited:
Steppan, S.J. 1995. Revision of the tribe Phyllotini (Rodentia: Sigmodontinae), with a phylogenetic hypothesis for the Sigmodontinae. Fieldiana Zoology 80:1–112.
Weksler, M. 2006. Phylogenetic relationships of oryzomyine rodents (Muroidea: Sigmodontinae): separate and combined analyses of morphological and molecular data. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 296:1–149. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Atrolysin E**
Atrolysin E:
Atrolysin E (EC 3.4.24.44, Crotalus atrox metalloendopeptidase e, hemorrhagic toxin e) is an enzyme. This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction Cleavage of Asn3-Gln, Ser9-His and Ala14-Leu bonds in insulin B chain and Tyr14-Gln and Thr8-Ser in A chain. Cleaves type IV collagen at Ala73-Gln in alpha1(IV) and at Gly7-Leu in alpha2(IV)This endopeptidase is present in the venom of the western diamondback rattlesnake (Crotalus atrox). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Bull's-Eye Barbecue Sauce**
Bull's-Eye Barbecue Sauce:
Bull's-Eye Barbecue Sauce is a barbecue sauce created and distributed by Kraft Heinz in the United States and Canada. It is also the official BBQ sauce of the Calgary Stampede.
History:
Bulls-Eye was introduced in 1985 with the tag line The Big, Bold Taste of Bulls-Eye can`t be beat. In 2009, Bull's-Eye launched a marketing campaign entitled the Bull's-Eye Brotherhood with a comedic series of web videos featuring Canadian comedian Gerry Dee.
Burger King:
Bulls-Eye was used at Burger King fast food restaurants on their Bulls-Eye BBQ burger, and Rodeo Cheeseburger. It was replaced in 2007 with Sweet Baby Ray's brand sauce. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Nuisance parameter**
Nuisance parameter:
In statistics, a nuisance parameter is any parameter which is unspecified but which must be accounted for in the hypothesis testing of the parameters which are of interest. The classic example of a nuisance parameter comes from the normal distribution, a member of the location–scale family. For at least one normal distribution, the variance(s), σ2 is often not specified or known, but one desires to hypothesis test on the mean(s). Another example might be linear regression with unknown variance in the explanatory variable (the independent variable): its variance is a nuisance parameter that must be accounted for to derive an accurate interval estimate of the regression slope, calculate p-values, hypothesis test on the slope's value; see regression dilution.
Nuisance parameter:
Nuisance parameters are often scale parameters, but not always; for example in errors-in-variables models, the unknown true location of each observation is a nuisance parameter. A parameter may also cease to be a "nuisance" if it becomes the object of study, is estimated from data, or known.
Theoretical statistics:
The general treatment of nuisance parameters can be broadly similar between frequentist and Bayesian approaches to theoretical statistics. It relies on an attempt to partition the likelihood function into components representing information about the parameters of interest and information about the other (nuisance) parameters. This can involve ideas about sufficient statistics and ancillary statistics. When this partition can be achieved it may be possible to complete a Bayesian analysis for the parameters of interest by determining their joint posterior distribution algebraically. The partition allows frequentist theory to develop general estimation approaches in the presence of nuisance parameters. If the partition cannot be achieved it may still be possible to make use of an approximate partition.
Theoretical statistics:
In some special cases, it is possible to formulate methods that circumvent the presences of nuisance parameters. The t-test provides a practically useful test because the test statistic does not depend on the unknown variance but only the sample variance. It is a case where use can be made of a pivotal quantity. However, in other cases no such circumvention is known.
Practical statistics:
Practical approaches to statistical analysis treat nuisance parameters somewhat differently in frequentist and Bayesian methodologies.
Practical statistics:
A general approach in a frequentist analysis can be based on maximum likelihood-ratio tests. These provide both significance tests and confidence intervals for the parameters of interest which are approximately valid for moderate to large sample sizes and which take account of the presence of nuisance parameters. See Basu (1977) for some general discussion and Spall and Garner (1990) for some discussion relative to the identification of parameters in linear dynamic (i.e., state space representation) models.
Practical statistics:
In Bayesian analysis, a generally applicable approach creates random samples from the joint posterior distribution of all the parameters: see Markov chain Monte Carlo. Given these, the joint distribution of only the parameters of interest can be readily found by marginalizing over the nuisance parameters. However, this approach may not always be computationally efficient if some or all of the nuisance parameters can be eliminated on a theoretical basis. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Silencer (video game)**
Silencer (video game):
Silencer is an online, multiplayer-only video game by Mind Control Software that was published by the World Opponent Network (WON.net) for free play on their website in January 2000. It features capture-the-flag-style gameplay—common in 3D first-person shooter arenas at the time—but presents it in a low-resource 2D package. The game was released by WON.net as an open beta. It saw a number of beta updates before it was removed, without explanation, from WON.net's website in September 2000 and the multiplayer servers shut down in October 2000. Silencer is a bit of an anomaly in that it managed to spawn a fan-made WONswap site, 7 known fansites, plus a legacy of independent multiplayer servers and game clones (see below), from its short run as an open beta on WON.net.
Gameplay:
Silencer combines the elements of a platform game with science fiction action games such as Crusader: No Remorse (an earlier game that also features characters called "Silencers"). The game involves five competing agencies that send agents, called "Silencers," into the field to hack public computer terminals with the goal of exposing the Martian government's secrets. The player controls a Silencer that carries an array of weapons and other items. Silencers in the same team work together to kill enemy Silencers while also collecting secrets. There can be more than one team from the same agency.The five agencies each have specializations which give them various advantages over each other (including access to one agency-specific item): Noxis – good jumpers and high endurance (good for beginners) Static – skilled hackers and excellent radar technology Caliber – upper-class group with great pay and easy access to secret info Lazarus – high-tech cult that worships rebirth Black Rose – elite agency whose agents always work aloneAt the start of each game, each team's leader creates a hidden door to a base at any location on the map they choose. This base has features for healing, purchasing a variety of items and weapons, and storing secrets. Silencers search the playfield for computer terminals to hack while evading assault from enemy Silencers. Silencers are paid for any hacked information they make it back to base with (for the purchase of more items). As the game progresses and intel is collected, teams will learn the location of a terminal with a top secret. A Silencer then has a limited amount of time to retrieve the top secret. The first team to successfully store three top secrets in their base wins the scenario.
Gameplay:
Disguise is an important feature of the gameplay as it allows a Silencer to appear as an NPC to pass unnoticed by guards, robots and defense lasers. Firing a weapon or getting shot will instantly turn off a Silencer's disguise mode.
Each Silencer is also equipped with a jet pack that can be used for five seconds before needing to recharge (which happens automatically over time). The jet pack can be upgraded for increased air time.
Beta Bites said the game features up to 16 players while WON.net said it is for 8 players. Different maps have different limits on max players and max teams. Up to 3 players per team.
Plot:
At the Arsia Mons colony on Mars, in the near future, the government is tyrant number one. This has led to various factions working to overthrow the government. Agents in these competing agencies are known as "Silencers." Silencers are weapons-toting hackers who are out steal secrets and beat out the enemy Silencers at any cost. Steal three top secrets to get beamed out before the colony gets "cleansed."
Development and release:
Silencer was announced as early as April 1996 by SSI, the publisher of Mind Control's first title, Alien Logic: A Skyrealms of Jorune Adventure. Silencer was never published by SSI and, as of April 1999, it could be seen on Mind Control's website that Silencer was still looking for a publisher. In an interview with Mind Control founder, Andrew Leker, in June 1999, Leker revealed that the game had gone through "several" potential publishers and that WON.net had finally picked it up for launch in July 1999. It was not seen on WON.net until January 2000, still in beta. WON.net filed for the "SILENCER" trademark on January 4, 2000 (the last extension of it filed on November 21, 2001).Silencer was released as on open beta on WON.net at version 0104: Version 0108 was released on February 8, 2000 Version 0109 was released on March 1, 2000 Version 0110 was released on May 23, 2000Mind Control Software announced their closure on May 26, 2000. There is no citable source as to why Mind Control closed and/or why Silencer was removed from WON.net four months later. There are, however, unsourced claims on the www.Silencer.8k.com fansite as to how soon the full version was expected to be released, and why things fell apart. (Mind Control Software re-opened its doors years later in 2005, and closed again in 2013 as Electrified Games.)
Reception:
Because Silencer was removed from WON.net while it was still in open beta, it was not reviewed by magazines that only review video games after full release. It was, however, reviewed by Tass at Beta Bites (a publisher of news and reviews of games in beta release) who called Silencer "an addictive game. Just ask my wife, I was up until 0330 last night playing!" Tass gave the game a "Winner" rating, adding "This is one game I plan to follow and hope to see do well."
Legacy:
The level editor was released after the game's removal from WON.net on the www.Silencer.8k.com fansite.In December 2000, a 3D adaption of Silencer was announced by a fan on www.Silencer.8k.com as a Half-Life mod.In February 2007, Mind Control admitted publicly that they were discussing making Silencer open source. The end of that discussion was never revealed (or is lost). In September 2007, however, Mind Control released working server executables.On September 16, 2007, a member of the Steamless CS Project Team released a binary-modified Silencer v0110 executable along with a proxy WON library file, both meant to bypass a WON authentication server. Members of Arsia Mons (arsia-mons.com, 2004–2011) then started hosting an independent lobby server for Silencer and distributed the patched game as Silencer version 0110.1. (This was later repackaged for easier install on November 27, 2007, as Silencer Beta 110 RevB.) On October 1, 2007, Arsia Mons announced a solution for running Silencer on a LAN instead of only over the internet.In May 2009, the O2 Project was started in an effort to write a clone of Silencer, dubbed O2, using art and audio assets from the original but with completely original code. The project also included a map editor called Ozone (O3). One of the stated goals of the project is to support modern systems (the original Silencer is a Windows-98-era game). The first technical preview and code for O2 was released on July 20, 2010. The alpha release followed on December 5, 2010. The beta was released on August 24, 2011. In May 2012 the project was renamed to Cypher... and has not been heard from since.There was also a clone project by "Pol" at s-i-l.tk around 2010, but little is known about it.Another clone of Silencer, dubbed zSILENCER, was released in 2013, along with an online multiplayer server, plus website. Like O2, zSILENCER uses art and audio assets from the original with all new code. After version 00019, the source code was released as open-source (without a specified license) on GitHub on September 13, 2013. zSILENCER has been released on Windows, OS X and Linux, and ported to Open Pandora and Ouya. zSILENCER expands the multiplayer count to 24 players with no limit on team size. While the main website is still online, the wiki is gone, account creation and the forum are dead, and the multiplayer server was last seen in October 2020 (as of April 2023). zSILENCER managed to spawn one fansite, Arsia Mons (arsiamons.io, 2014–2016). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Feminist art**
Feminist art:
Feminist art is a category of art associated with the late 1960s and 1970s feminist movement. Feminist art highlights the societal and political differences women experience in their lives. The hopeful gain from this form of art is to bring a positive and understanding change to the world, in hope to lead to equality or liberation. Media used range from traditional art forms such as painting to more unorthodox methods such as performance art, conceptual art, body art, craftivism, video, film, and fiber art. Feminist art has served as an innovative driving force towards expanding the definition of art through the incorporation of new media and a new perspective.
History:
Historically speaking, women artists, when they existed, have largely faded into obscurity: there is no female Michelangelo or Da Vinci equivalent. In Why Have There Been No Great Women Artists Linda Nochlin wrote, "The fault lies not in our stars, our hormones, our menstrual cycles, or our empty internal spaces, but in our institutions and our education". Because of women's historical role as caregiver, most women were unable to devote time to creating art. In addition, women were rarely allowed entry into schools of art, and almost never allowed into live nude drawings classes for fear of impropriety. Women were oppressed and refrained from making a name for themselves. Therefore, women who were artists were likely either wealthy women with leisure time who were trained by their fathers or uncles and produced still lives, landscapes, or portrait work or become one of many assistants to other male artists. Examples include Anna Claypoole Peale and Mary Cassatt.
History:
Feminist art can be contentious to define as it holds different personal and political elements, different to each individual. Is all art made by a feminist then feminist art? Can art that is not made by a feminist be feminist art? There has been misguided theories of the nature of the art.Lucy R. Lippard stated in 1980 that feminist art was "neither a style nor a movement but instead a value system, a revolutionary strategy, a way of life." Emerging at the end of the 1960s, the feminist art movement was inspired by the 1960s student protests, the civil rights movement, and Second-wave feminism. By critiquing institutions that promote sexism and racism students that are people of colour, and women were able to identify and attempt to fix inequity. Women artists used their artwork, protests, collectives, and women's art registries to shed light on inequities in the art-world. The first wave of feminist art was established in the mid 19th century. In the early 1920s, with woman gaining the right to vote in America, liberalization wave spreading through the world. The slow and gradual change in feminist art started gaining momentum in 1960s.
History:
1960s Before the 1960s the majority of woman-made artwork did not portray feminist content, in the sense that it neither addressed nor criticized the conditions that women have historically faced. Women were more often the subjects of art, rather than artists themselves. Historically, the female body was regarded as an object of desire existing for the pleasure of men. In the early 20th century, works that flaunted female sexuality – the pin-up girl being a prime example – began to be produced. By the late 1960s, there was a plethora of feminine artwork that broke away from the tradition of depicting women in an exclusively sexualized fashion.
History:
In order to gain recognition, many female artists struggled to "de-gender" their work in order to compete in a dominantly male art world. If a work did not "look" like it was made by a woman, then the stigma associated with women would not cling to the work itself, thus giving the work its own integrity. In 1963 Yayoi Kusama created Oven-Pan – part of a larger collection of works she referred to as the aggregation sculptures. As with other works from that collection, Oven-Pan takes an object associated with women's work – in this case, a metal pan – and completely covers it with bulbous lumps of the same material. This is an early feminist example of female artists finding ways to break from the traditional role of women in society. Having the lumps made from the same colour and material as the metal pan completely takes away the pan's functionality, and – in a metaphorical sense – its association with women. The protrusions remove the item's gender by not only removing its function of being a metal pan women would use in the kitchen, but by also making it ugly. Before this era, common female work consisted of pretty and decorative things like landscapes and quilts,Christa Dowling attempts to explain this theory by stating arguing that 'women are more sensitive by nature than man...'. Whereas more contemporary artwork by women was becoming bold or even rebellious, for example Suzanne Valadon.Towards the end of the decade, progressive ideas criticizing social values began to appear in which the mainstream ideology that had come to be accepted was denounced as not being neutral. It was also suggested, that the art world as a whole had managed to institutionalise within itself the notion of sexism. During this time there was a rebirth of various media that had been placed at the bottom of the aesthetic hierarchy by art history, such as quilting. To put it simply, this rebellion against the socially constructed ideology of a woman's role in art sparked the birth of a new standard of the female subject. Where once the female body was seen as an object for the male gaze, it then became regarded as a weapon against socially constructed ideologies of gender.
History:
With Yoko Ono's 1964 work, Cut Piece, performance art began to gain popularity in feminist artwork as a form of critical analysis on societal values on gender. In this work, Yoko Ono is seen kneeling on the ground with a pair of scissors in front of her. One by one, she invited the audience to cut a piece of her clothing off until she was eventually left kneeling in the tattered remains of her clothing and her underwear. This intimate relationship created between the subject (Ono) and the audience addressed the notion of gender in the sense that Ono has become the sexual object. By remaining motionless as more and more pieces of her clothing are cut away, she reveals a woman's social standing where she is regarded as an object as the audience escalates to the point where her bra is being cut away.
History:
1970s During the 1970s, feminist art continued to provide a means of challenging women's position in the social hierarchy. The aim was for women to reach a state of equilibrium with their male counterparts. Judy Chicago's work, The Dinner Party (1979), widely regarded as the first epic feminist artwork, emphasizes this idea of newfound female empowerment through the use of turning a dinner table – an association to the traditional female role – into an equilateral triangle. Each side has an equal number of plate settings dedicated to a specific woman in history. Each plate contains a dish. This served as a way of breaking the idea of women being subjugated by society. Looking at the historical context, the 1960s and 1970s served as a prominent era where women began to celebrate new forms of freedom. More women joining the workforce, legalization of birth control, fight towards equal pay, civil rights, and the Roe v. Wade (1973) decision to legalize abortion, were reflected in the artwork. Such freedoms, however, were not limited to politics.Traditionally, being able to expertly capture the nude on canvas or in a sculpture reflected a high level of achievement in the arts. In order to reach that level, access to nude models was required. While male artists were given this privilege, it was considered improper for a woman to see a naked body. As a result, women were forced to focus their attention to the less professionally acclaimed "decorative" art. With the 1970s, however, the fight towards equality extended to the arts. Eventually, more and more women began to enrol in art academies. For most of these artists, the goal was not to paint like the traditional male masters, but instead to learn their techniques and manipulate them in a way that challenged traditional views of women.Mary Beth Edelson's Some Living American Women Artists / Last Supper (1972) appropriated Leonardo da Vinci’s The Last Supper, with the heads of notable women artists collaged over the heads of Christ and his apostles. This image, addressing the role of religious and art historical iconography in the subordination of women, became "one of the most iconic images of the feminist art movement."Photography became a common medium used by feminist artists. It was used, in many ways, to show the "real" woman. For instance, in 1979 Judith Black took a self-portrait depicting her body in such a light. It showed the artist's ageing body and all her flaws in an attempt to portray herself as a human being rather than an idealized sex symbol. Hannah Wilke also used photography as her way of expressing a non-traditional representation of the female body. In her 1974 collection called S.O.S - Stratification Object Series, Wilke used herself as the subject. She portrayed herself topless with various pieces of chewed gum in the shape of vulvas arranged throughout her body, metaphorically demonstrating how women in society are chewed up and then spit out. In 1975 in Hungary, Budapest Orshi Drozdik under her birth name Drozdik Orsolya as a student at the Hungarian Academy of Fine Arts, was examining the historic 19th and early 20th-century academic document photos of nude model-settings in the academy's library. She rephotographed them and exhibited the photos as her own work. Later that year she projected the images of nude-model-settings, to her own naked body, photographed them and made performances titled NudeModel in which she exhibited herself as a woman artist drawing a female nude model.
History:
At this time, there was a large focus on rebelling against the "traditional woman". With this came the backlash of both men and women who felt their tradition was being threatened. To go from showing women as glamorous icons to showing the disturbing silhouettes of women (an artistic demonstration of the 'imprint' left behind by the victims of rape) in the case of Ana Mendieta, underscored certain forms of degradation that popular culture failed to fully acknowledge.
History:
While Ana Mendieta's work focused on a serious issue, other artists, like Lynda Benglis, took a more satirical stance in the fight towards equality. In one of her photographs published in Artforum, she is depicted naked with a short haircut, sunglasses, and a dildo positioned in her pubic region. Some saw this radical photo as "vulgar" and "disturbing". Others, however, saw an expression of the uneven balance between the genders in the sense that her photo was critiqued more harshly than a male counterpart, Robert Morris, who posed shirtless with chains around his neck as a sign of submission. At this time, the depiction of a dominant woman was highly criticized and in some cases, any female art depicting sexuality was perceived as pornographic.Unlike Benglis' depiction of dominance to expose inequality in gender, Marina Abramović used subjugation as a form of exposing the position of women in a society that horrified rather than disturbed the audience. In her performance work Rhythm 0 (1974), Abramovic pushes not only her limits but her audience's limits as well, by presenting the public with 72 different objects ranging from feathers and perfume to a rifle and a bullet. Her instructions are simple; She is the object and the audience may do whatever they want with her body for the next six hours. Her audience has complete control while she lays motionless. Eventually, they become wilder and begin violating her body – at one point a man threatens her with a rifle – yet when the piece ends the audience gets into a frenzy and run away in fear as if they cannot come to terms with what just happened. In this emotional performance piece, Abramovic depicts the powerful message of the objectification of the female body while at the same time unravelling the complexity of human nature.In 1975, Barbara Deming founded The Money for Women Fund to support the work of feminist artists. Deming helped administer the Fund, with support from artist Mary Meigs. After Deming's death in 1984, the organization was renamed as The Barbara Deming Memorial Fund. Today, the foundation is the "oldest ongoing feminist granting agency" which "gives encouragement and grants to individual feminists in the arts (writers, and visual artists)".
History:
1980s Although feminist art is fundamentally any field that strives towards equality among the genders, it is not static. It is a constantly changing project that "is itself constantly shaped and remodelled in relation to the living processes of women's struggles". It is not a platform but rather a "dynamic and self-critical response". The feminist spark from the 1960s and 1970s helped to carve a path for the activist and identity art of the 1980s. In fact, The meaning of feminist art evolved so quickly that by 1980 Lucy Lippard curated a show where "all the participants exhibited work that belonged to 'the full panorama of social-change art,' though in a variety of ways that undercut any sense that 'feminism' meant either a single political message or a single kind of artwork. This openness was a key element to the future creative social development of feminism as a political and cultural intervention."In 1985, the Museum of Modern Art in New York opened a gallery that claimed to exhibit the most-renowned works of contemporary art of the time. Of the 169 artists chosen, only 13 were women. As a result of this, an anonymous group of women investigated the most influential museums of art only to find out that they barely exhibited women's art. With that came the birth of the Guerrilla Girls who devoted their time to fighting sexism and racism in the art world through the use of protest, posters, artwork and public speaking. Unlike the feminist art prior to the 1980s, the Guerrilla Girls introduced a bolder more in-your-face identity and both captured attention and exposed sexism. Their posters aim to strip the role that women played in the art world prior to the feminist movement. In one case, the painting La Grande Odalisque by Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres was used in one of their posters where the female nude portrayed was given a gorilla mask. Beside it was written "Do women have to be naked to get into the Met. Museum? Less than 5% of the artists in the Modern Art Sections are women, but 85% of the nudes are female". By taking a famous work and remodelling it to remove its intended purpose for the male gaze, the female nude is seen as something other than a desirable object.The critique of the male gaze and the objectification of women can also be seen in Barbara Kruger's Your gaze Hits the side of my face. In this work, we see a marble bust of a woman turned to its side. The lighting is harsh, creating sharp edges and shadows to emphasize the words "your gaze hits the side of my face" written in bold letters of black red and white down the left side of the work. In that one sentence, Kruger is able to communicate her protest on gender, society, and culture through language designed in a way that can be associated with a contemporary magazine, thus capturing the viewer's attention.
History:
1990s These are other works of the 1990s have been discussed alongside cyberfeminism and cyberfeminist collectives such as VNS Matrix, OBN/Old Boys Network, and subRosa. Building on earlier examples of feminist art that had incorporated technologies such as video and digital photography, feminist artists in the 1990s experimented with digital media, such as the World Wide Web, hypertext and coding, interactive art, and streaming media. Artist and feminist theorist Bracha L. Ettinger developed the idea of the Matrixial Gaze. Some works, such as Olia Lialina's My Boyfriend Came Back From The War (1996), utilized hypertext and digital images to create a non-linear narrative experience about gender, war, and trauma. Other works, such as Prema Murthy's Bindigirl (1999), combined performance art with streaming video, live chat, and a website to interrogate gender, colonialism, and online consumerism. Works such as Victoria Vesna's Bodies© INCorporated (1997) used virtual reality media such as 3D modeling and VRML to satirize the commodification of the body in digital culture.
History:
2000s With the development of technology and various forms of entertainment in the 21st century, feminist art has gradually penetrated into various fields. The development in music is particularly notable. In terms of Hip-Hop music, many hip-hop songs promote the art of feminism. Taking South Korea as an example, many female hip-hop singers will openly produce hip-hop songs about feminism to speak out for some unequal gender issues in society. For example, the Korean female rapper BIBI released a song called "Animal Farm" this year, which expresses women's resistance to gender discrimination against women in a patriarchal society and the issue of male coagulation by borrowing the classic footage from "Kill Bill". 1. Other works such as girl group (G)I-dle's newly released song "Nxde"; There is a line in the song "We born nude" that expresses disgust for the colored glasses that men add to women. People are born naked, so nude does not represent the meaning of pornography, all meanings are artificially added. If you think of porn when you mention nude, it can only mean that it is a dirty personal mind. This song redefines the word "Nude" to express women's courage to be themselves and not be bound by the stereotypes imposed on women in the world. There is a line in the song "We born nude" that expresses disgust for the colored glasses that men add to women. People are born naked, so nude does not represent the meaning of pornography, all meanings are artificially added. If you think of porn when you mention nude, it can only mean that it is a dirty personal mind. The comments posted by some male netizens after the song was released also confirmed the idea of the song. They reacted greatly to the topic of nude, but they were disappointed after seeing the content of the MV. The reason for this is self-evident.
History:
Also a series of k-drama films about feminism. Such as the 2019 Korean movie, Kim Ji-young: Born 1982. The film is based on the novel of the same name. It tells the story of a woman named Kim Ji-young who suffered from postpartum depression due to some words and deeds of mother in low after pregnancy and childbirth. Her husband and his family suddenly woke up and helped Kim Ji-young find herself. In the film, it is revealed that both passers-by and family members are prejudiced against Kim Ji-young's identity as a housewife. When Kim Ji-young was playing outside with her children, a male passerby who was an office worker said that housewife was the easiest occupation. You have money to spend without doing anything. But in other shots, the hardships of the housewife profession are all revealed. Kim Ji-young wanted to return to the workplace to continue her work after giving birth, but the suppression of people around her and the stereotype of women forced her to give up this idea. This is a real film that exposes the various discriminations women face in society. Before the film was released, it was boycotted by a large group of men, who refused to accept the reality and refused to admit the real situation of women. But the film still defied the odds, showing the world what women were in. In Muraro The Symbolic of the Mother she mentions that "we need to 'will have authority with the mother in order to experience it again as a symbolic principle'" that is, women are to change the entire structure of human existing social relations; to some extent, which requires women to place themselves under the authority, guidance, and guardianship of senior women who are the mother figures who serve them, instead of mothers. Muraro's point of view is reflected in the film Kim ji-young: Born1982 Come out. Whether it is Kim Ji-young's mother or mother-in-law, she guides Kim Ji-young as a so-called senior woman. Not only South Korea, but some recent Chinese dramas also show a feminist side. The TV series called New Life Begins, which tells about machinations and love in an overhead background, is also interspersed with women who bravely resist the unreasonable system, fight for their legal rights, and help and live with each other between women. Feminism spreads in this way, and this is the development of feminist art. It is a further development of feminist art that the majority of women can accept feminism and widely publicize it through this approachable and easier-to-understand way.
Promoting feminist art:
In the 1970s, society started to become open to change and people started to realize that there was a problem with the stereotypes of each gender. Feminist art became a popular way of addressing the social concerns of feminism that surfaced in the late 1960s to 1970s. In order to put and end to sexism, women artists used many different art styles to make themselves known and express their worth. A couple of these different outlets include crafts, paintings and even performing arts. Over fifty years ago, “the first feminist challenge was levied at the history of art with the publication in 1971 of Linda Nochlin’s essay Why Have There Been No Great Women Artists?” Nochlin chaired the College Art Association session in 1972 entitled “Eroticism and the Image of Women in Nineteenth Century”, a great space where feminist language and thinking influenced concepts of art history. The session discussed the ways in which “raw sexism in the creation and use of female imagery was so memorably exposed,” which called for the need of decolonization within art history with regards to systemic beliefs and practices regarding the image of women or a woman.
Promoting feminist art:
The creation and publication of the first feminist magazine were published in 1972. Ms Magazine was the first national magazine to make feminist voices prominent, make feminist ideas and beliefs available to the public, and support the works of feminist artists. Like the art world, the magazine used the media to spread the messages of feminism and draw attention to the lack of total gender equality in society. The co-founder of the magazine, Gloria Steinem, coined the famous quote, "A woman needs a man like a fish needs a bicycle", which demonstrates the power of independent women; this slogan was frequently used by activists.
Effect of feminist art on society:
Lucy R. Lippard argued in 1980 that feminist art was "neither a style nor a movement but instead a value system, a revolutionary strategy, a way of life." This quote supports that feminist art affected all aspects of life. The women of the nation were determined to have their voices heard above the din of discontent, and equality would enable them to obtain jobs equal to men and gain rights and agency to their own bodies. Art was a form of media that was used to get the message across; this was their platform. Feminist art supports this claim because the art began to challenge previously conceived notions of the roles of women. The message of gender equality in feminist artworks resonates with the viewers because the challenging of the social norms made people question, should it be socially acceptable for women to wear men's clothing?
Example of feminist art:
The magazine and the rise of feminism occurred during the same time feminist artists became more popular, and an example of a feminist artist is Judy Dater. Starting her artistic career in San Francisco, a cultural hub of different kinds of art and creative works, Dater displayed feminist photographs in museums and gained a fair amount of publicity for her work. Dater displayed art that focused on women challenging stereotypical gender roles, such as the expected way women would dress or pose for a photograph. To see a woman dressed in men's clothing was rare and made the statement of supporting the feminist movement, and many people knew of Dater's passionate belief of equal rights. Dater also photographed nude women, which was intended to show women's bodies as strong, powerful, and as a celebration. The photographs grabbed the viewers attention because of the unusualness and never-before-seen images that do not necessarily fit into society.Sylvia Sleigh ,Philip Golub Reclining (1971) Sylvia Sleigh deals with this trope of challenging, gendered spaces, specifically dealing with gendered art in art history. She was a traditional painter, who painted with oil paint on canvas, she idealized the male nude. Her painting, Philip Golub Reclining takes on the same form that Velasquez did in his famous nude painting, The Rokeby Venus. The male in Sleigh's painting has the same reclining pose with the model's arm up as he is regarding himself and his own beauty in a mirror. Another similarity is just like Venus is regarding herself in The Rokeby Venus, Velasquez would often paint himself as if he was in the background of his paintings, and Sleigh painted herself in the mirror of Philip Golub Reclining. In this regard, it becomes an image of beauty but it also becomes an image of vanity because the goddess sees her beauty in the mirror. This becomes inverted and an example of male vanity. This isn't an accidental choice at all. She is reflecting this same objectification back onto men, to highlight the biased way we objectify women. It shows the arbitrary way we view women's bodies, yet these bodies are in the same pose. Her paintings are beautiful and sincerely respectful of the male figure.
Example of feminist art:
Sylvia Sleigh,The Turkish Bath (1973) The painting The Turkish Bath (1973), is a gender-reversed version of Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres's painting of the same name. The Turkish [[File:Sylvia Sleigh-The Turkish Bath-1973.jpg|thumb|The Turkish Bath (1973)[[File:Le Bain Turc, by Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, from C2RMF retouched.jpg|thumb|The Turkish Bath (1862) by Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres]]]] bath was the subject explored by the French painter Ingres, and you can see this circular work where women are in a variety of poses and it's this composite imagined image of women bathing. Their bodies are intertwined while listening to music, lack agency within the composition, objectifies the female form, and therefore the male viewer enjoys it. Sylvia Sleigh, about 100 years later, is playing on that idea. We can see her husband who was an art curator and critic in the foreground, gazing at her in this very traditional female supine nude pose, where he is reclining and he's gazing out towards her. She also included other male figures who were her close friends and intellectually inspired her. There is also a strong naturalism in this painting . She's not shying away from tan lines and body hair the same way that we often see in Old Master paintings, where there's no signs of tan lines and no signs of body hair. So there's a certain realism here that Sylvia Sleigh is really engaging with. It's a very clear subversion of the traditional way women are objectified, but she's not necessarily objectifying these men. These were men who inspired her, she's celebrating these men and their culture of the Turkish bath, while referencing images of the past.
Example of feminist art:
Ana Mendietat, The Tree of Life Throughout the 1970s and ’80s, Ana Mendieta brought an intimate, distinctly feminist approach to land art. Mendieta was originally from Cuba, her body was often involved in her work and she died relatively young. Mendieta thought a lot about Mother Earth, and women's forces. Mendieta would often recreate crime, rape and assault scenes. In her piece, The Tree of Life, you see she is exploring this particular pose with her arms raised making her connect with the earth and the heavens and associates that with the female role. This piece, like most of Mendieta's work, is phenomenal land art where she is part of the earth by bringing a mother goddess to the form.
Example of feminist art:
Judy Chicago, the dinner party(1974–1979) Judy Chicago, The Dinner Party made in the 1970s.This mixed media work uses a variety of material including gold chalices and utensils, embroidered runners and china-painted porcelain plates that is all made up like a dinner party. There are 13 elaborate place settings on each side, making up 39 place settings. Also included are the names of 999 women inscribed on the heritage tile floor at the center. Each of these women are influential and important figures in the world. The idea of the dinner party relates to the history of women and domesticity, with traditionally women serving the home, Chicago is playing with gender roles. The way this piece is being presented evokes ideas of an altar, and brings on themes of sacrifice. In addition, there's no one seat that's at the center, and many people have said the idea of 13 on each side is very similar to the last supper, because you have Christ at the center with his 12 apostles. But in this case, there's no central figure. She is playing on the idea of the Last Supper, which is a male dominated image and space. Judy Chicago was very interested in the idea of flower symbolism and also a kind of female genitalia as a symbo l representing the woman. So if you look at these individual plates, not always but very frequently, they seem to allude to the idea of a flower and also symbolically to female genitalia. Some women responded negatively to the idea that women aren't just female genitalia, that they're more than that. But Judy Chicago and other artists that saw this as the symbol of women's life giving abilities, the idea that this is a symbol of femininity, this is kind of the ultimate symbol of femininity. And so that's why she chose it for this particular series. It was made by many people, she was very good at getting lots of individuals together to work on large projects. And this includes painted porcelain needlework. It was a big project that involved many women who assisted her and men. This artwork is very large–measuring 48 feet on each side–and for a long time, it had no place to go, so it was put on as a temporary exhibit in a number of museums, and then it was going to be put into a university, but there were government officials that objected to it because they saw it as pornography. Eventually, however, it was put on display in a Center for Feminist Art at the Brooklyn Museum and that's where it lives today. This piece is a great way to learn about these different female figures. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Isolation valve**
Isolation valve:
An isolation valve is a valve in a fluid handling system that stops the flow of process media to a given location, usually for maintenance or safety purposes. They can also be used to provide flow logic (selecting one flow path versus another), and to connect external equipment to a system. A valve is classified as an isolation valve because of its intended function in a system, not because of the type of the valve itself. Therefore, many different types of valves can be classified as isolation valves.
Isolation valve:
To easily understand the concept of an isolation valve, one can think of the valves under a kitchen or bathroom sink in a typical household. These valves are normally left open so that the user can control the flow of water with the spigot above the sink, and does not need to reach under the counter to start or stop the water flow. However, if the spigot needs to be replaced (i.e. maintenance needs to take place on the system), the isolation valves are shut to stop the flow of water when the spigot is removed. In this system, the isolation valves and the spigot may even be the same type of valve. However, due to their function they are classified as the isolation valves and, in the case of the spigot, the control valves. As the isolation valve is intended to be operated infrequently and only in the fully on or fully off positions, they are often inferior quality globe valves. These less expensive styles lack a bonnet and stem seal in favor of threading the stem directly into the body. The stem is covered with a rubber washer and metal cap similar in appearance to a gland nut. Because they lack a stem seal they will leak unless fully closed and installed in the correct direction or fully open, causing the disk to compress the top washer against the stem.
Process plant practice:
Isolation valves can be in the normally open position (NO) or normally closed (NC). Normally open valves are located between pressure vessels, pumps, compressors, tanks, pressure sensors, liquid level measurement instrumentation and other components and allow fluids to flow between components, or to be connected to sensors. The controlled closure of open valves enables the isolation of plant components for testing or maintenance of equipment, or allows flow of fluid to specific flow paths. Normally closed valves are used to connect fluids and process components to other systems only when required. Vent and drain valves are examples of normally closed valves which are only opened when required to depressurise (vent) or drain fluids from a system.
Process plant practice:
Isolation valves must effectively stop the passage of fluids. Gate valves, ball valves and plug valves are generally considered to provide tight and effective shut-off. Globe valves and Butterfly valves may not be tight shut-off due to wear on the plug or the seat, or due to their design, and may not be appropriate to provide effective isolation.Some valves are in a safety critical service and are secured, or otherwise locked, in an open or closed position. Plant shutdown instrumentation must be effectively connected to the plant at all times, therefore the isolation valves associated with such equipment must be secured in the open position to prevent inadvertent movement or closure. Securing mechanisms include car-seals, chain and padlocks and proprietary securing devices. Isolation valves in a flare, relief or vent system must ensure that a flow path is always available to the flare or vent. These valves are secured in the open position (LO). Drain valves that connect a high pressure system to a low pressure drain system are locked in the closed position (LC) to prevent potential over-pressurisation of the drain system. Removal of locks from secured valves is only undertaken in specified and controlled conditions such as under a ‘permit to work’ system. Some relief or pressure relief valves are ‘paired’ to provide a duty and a standby valve, the associated isolation valves are interlocked such that at least one relief valve is connected to the system being protected at all times.A single valve may provide effective isolation between the live plant and the system being maintained. However, for hazardous systems a more effective means of isolation is required. This may comprise a ‘double block’ consisting of two valves in series. Still more effective is a ‘double block and bleed’ comprising two isolation valves in series plus a bleed valve between them. The bleed valve enables the integrity of the valve on the hazardous side to be monitored.
Common applications:
Firewater control Pipeline safety systems Residential plumbing systems (both water and gas) Nuclear reactors Oil and gas wells Chemical plant Oil production plant | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Hematine**
Hematine:
Hematine (also magnetic hematite, hemalyke or hemalike) is an artificial magnetic material. Hematine is widely used in jewelry.Although it is claimed by many that it is made from ground hematite or iron oxide mixed with a resin, analysis (of one object) has demonstrated it to be an entirely artificial compound, a barium-strontium ferrite. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Chimol**
Chimol:
Chimol (also known chirmol and chismol) is a common Central American cuisine or condiment topping on foods such as carne asada.
Preparation:
Chimol is made of diced tomato, bell pepper, cilantro, and onion. It is seasoned with lemon juice, salt, and black pepper, and sometimes with vinegar too. It usually has a spice of some sort. Modifications to the recipe exist depending on different regions of Central America.
Uses:
It is tradition to cook the tomato at the same time as the carne asada, because this gives the carna asada a juicy taste. It is used as a sauce on carna asada, with salads, with pork and with chicken breast. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Emdebian Grip**
Emdebian Grip:
Emdebian Grip is a discontinued small-footprint Linux distribution based on and compatible with Debian. Compared to Debian, it provides more fine-grained control over the package selection, size, dependencies and content, enabling that way creation of small and efficient Debian packages for use on resource-limited embedded systems. As a result, reduced installation size is one of the main benefits coming from the Emdebian Grip.As of July 13, 2014, the Emdebian Grip project is terminated with no available updates or planned new releases, leaving the version 3.1, which is based on Debian 7.1 ("wheezy"), as the no longer supported latest stable release.
Overview:
Emdebian Grip re-packs .deb package files made available by Debian, removing unneeded files such as man pages, info documents, documentation, and unwanted translation files. As such, Emdebian Grip is a Debian distribution builder; the emgrip command (from the emdebian-grip package) processes a .deb package compiled for any of the architectures supported by Debian and generates an equivalent Emdebian Grip package. That way, the binaries, maintainer scripts and dependencies of the original Debian packages are left untouched, but the overall size and the installation footprint of the packages are reduced.Packages created by Emdebian Grip are not recompiled, so they are completely binary compatible with Debian. As a result, Emdebian Grip maintains as much compatibility as possible with Debian; it is even possible to mix Emdebian and Debian packages, or even to migrate an existing Debian system to Emdebian Grip.
Releases:
Emdebian Grip provides complete package repositories for seven architectures: i386, amd64, powerpc, armhf, armel, mips and mipsel. Included is support for standard Debian tools like debootstrap, multistrap and debian-installer, and there are no functional changes in Emdebian Grip when compared to base Debian releases.Since version 3.0, all Emdebian Grip suites and codenames include additional "-grip" suffix, compared to their equivalent Debian suites and codenames.On July 13, 2014, an end-of-life notice posted on the project's web site announced that updates to Emdebian Grip are stopped, leaving the version 3.1, which is based on Debian 7.1 ("wheezy"), as the no longer supported latest stable release. The main reasons stated as the cause for ending the project were a lack of embedded devices that do not provide support for expandable storage, and too much work involved with preparing the updates and releasing new versions. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Sulglicotide**
Sulglicotide:
Sulglicotide (or sulglycotide) is a drug used for peptic ulcer and gastro-oesophageal reflux disease. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Cross country running shoe**
Cross country running shoe:
Cross country running shoes are made for cross country running, a form of long distance running. Season-specific trainers are available for different types of training.
Cross Country running:
Cross Country races vary in length and terrain. They are most often run at 5K, 6000 meters, 8000 meters, 10K, and 12,000 meters, though many races for children are shorter. During training season, professional runners can run anywhere from 40 to 120 miles each week, depending on preference, training method, and ability to remain healthy. While the impacts of differences among types of footwear may be minimal on a single run, the cumulative effect on performance and health can provide a competitive edge. Races are held on surfaces including gravel, grass, dirt or mud, sand, and asphalt (though racing on asphalt is not normally recommended).
Shoe types:
When training, trainers with support and cushioning are recommended as unsupportive, shoes without cushion can potentially cause repetitive stress injuries if used over a long period of time. For speed workouts, often held on tracks, lighter shoes with less cushioning and support may be used.
Shoe types:
Racing shoes are lighter (around 5 ounces) and have 4-6 spikes or "pins", which help with traction on hills and wet terrain. They have less cushion than trainers, are less supportive, and often utilize a springy spike plate made of rubber or Pebax. In more recent shoe technology development, a carbon plate has been incorporated into the design of spikes.
Comparisons:
Cross country spikes are more robust than track spikes. They must deal with the elements more and with natural objects, like sticks and rocks. The upper is thicker, therefore, and can be water-proof. They often have more cushioning and heel support because of the stress of downhill running. In addition, they can have longer spikes (anywhere from 1/4 in. to 5/8 in.) for better traction, as they are used on natural terrain that are affected by weather and can include hills.
Fitting:
Specialist shops offer advanced fitting services. The feet change shape and swell when running, so a shoe that fit while sitting or walking may not work for running.
Preparing new shoes:
When wearing new shoes for the first time, it is crucial to make sure they are “broken in” by wearing them in undemanding situations, (walking, slow running) to lessen the chance for injury.
Potential injuries:
Common running injuries include blisters, twisted ankles, knee injuries and shin splints. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Village-level operation and maintenance (pumps)**
Village-level operation and maintenance (pumps):
Village Level Operation and Maintenance (VLOM) is an unofficial classification given to handpumps used in developing countries that require minimal maintenance or that can be done "at the village level." Not all maintenance and repair needs to be done by the villagers for a pump to be classed as a VLOM pump. VLOMM, or Village Level Operation and Management of Maintenance is often used synonymously. This addition emphasizes the role of users as the managers of maintenance able choose to use someone from outside the village to assist with more complicated repairs.
History:
During the first UN decade on water boreholes, hand-dug wells and tubewells were constructed and water pumps were provided to developing countries by various NGOs. Unfortunately this top down approach led to the installation of pumps, notable the India Mark II, that were difficult to maintain. VLOM pumps were designed to allow remote villages to maintain pumps themselves as part of a larger strategy to reduce the dependency of villages on government and donor agencies and provide more sustainable access to drinking water.
Implementation:
The concept of Village Level Operation and Maintenance Management in relation to communal handpumps has gained wide acceptance in the rural water sector. Project and pump designs based on VLOM principles are now commonplace. However, implementation of handpump programs in accordance with VLOM criteria have been only partially successful and the VLOM approach to maintenance has been very difficult to realize in the field, especially in Africa.
Implementation:
It was assumed that the private sector would take care of the distribution of spare parts, but most parts had to be imported and were difficult to get. Low profit margins on spares did not encourage the private sector to take up the role of importing and distributing spare parts. As a result, VLOM technology is increasingly seen as one amongst many components needed for the sustainable provision of village water supplies.
Implementation:
Difficulties with the introduction of VLOM have called into question a number of inherent assumptions in the concept relating to the user community, the supporting environment and technology choice. Of particular importance is the assumption that introducing and supporting VLOM is an easier task for government than running a centralized maintenance service.
Implementation:
VLOM has undoubtedly brought the answer to sustainability a little closer; however, the goal of easy maintenance remains elusive. Perhaps the greatest lesson is that there are currently no ‘off-the-shelf’ solutions which can bypass the need for effective government institutional community water point support. Wherever this problem is unresolved, and where there are no NGOs or other agencies to fill the gap, sustainability will always be in doubt.
Implementation:
Recently there have been attempts to involve the private sector, not only in selling spares and handpump repairs, but also in local pump sales and installation. This is called the "BlueZone" approach where a handpump dealer has its own region to take care of. Due to economies of scale, this would raise a more interesting business case and keep the handpump dealer interested to maintain this service while the communities have a reliable source of water with a local back-up. Unfortunately there are no simple one-fit-all solution on the horizon for sub-Saharan Africa, which experiences these problems most acutely. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Bolt (climbing)**
Bolt (climbing):
In rock climbing, a bolt is a permanent anchor fixed into a hole drilled in the rock as a form of climbing protection. Most bolts are either self-anchoring expansion bolts or fixed in place with liquid resin. Climbing routes that are bolted as known as sport climbs, and those that do not use (or allow) bolts, are known as traditional climbs.
Description:
While bolts are commonplace in rock and gym climbing there is no universal vocabulary to describe them. Generally, a bolt hanger (or a fixed hanger) is a combination of a fixed bolt and a specialized stainless steel hanger designed to accept a carabiner, whereas in certain regions a bolt runner (or a carrot) describes a hangerless bolt (where the climber must provide their own hanger bracket such as a rivet hanger). A ring bolt has a loop on one end so it presents as a U-shape embedded in the wall.
Description:
A climbing rope is then clipped into the carabiner. Generally quickdraws or slings are employed between bolt hangers and the rope to reduce drag when ascending, belaying and rappelling.
Use:
Rock climbing routes that have been bolted for climbing protection — but not as a source of aid to help progression — are called sport climbs. Where a route has bolts to aid progression (i.e. a climber can pull on the bolt), it is called an aid climb. In competition lead climbing, all of the routes are bolted.
Lifespan:
Bolts degrade over time — particularly in coastal areas from salt, but also from stress corrosion cracking — and eventually, all sport climbs need to be re-fitted after a number of years. The highest quality titanium bolts are too expensive to use regularly, and the next highest quality stainless steel bolts have an expected lifespan of circa 20—25 years (the cheaper plated stainless steel bolts have a shorter span); and in 2015, the American Alpine Club established an "anchor replacement fund" to help replace the bolts on America's estimated 60,000 sport climbing routes. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Akbot**
Akbot:
Akbot was a computer virus that infected an estimated 1.3 million computers and added them to a botnet. It was created by an 18-year-old named Owen Walker, who was charged but unconvicted in 2008.
Infection:
Akbot is an IRC controlled backdoor program. It allows an outside user to take control of the infected computer. Akbot operates by joining IRC servers and the waiting for further instructions. Once installed, Akbot can be used to gather data, kill processes, or perform DDOS attacks.
Sources:
The author, 18-year-old New Zealand based bot master, Owen Walker ("AKILL"), was caught during an international investigation, Operation: Bot Roast, during which his home was raided by New Zealand police and an FBI agent. He was charged in April 2008, but not convicted because the court did not believe his motives to be criminal. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**External combustion engine**
External combustion engine:
An external combustion engine (EC engine) is a reciprocating heat engine where a working fluid, contained internally, is heated by combustion in an external source, through the engine wall or a heat exchanger. The fluid then, by expanding and acting on the mechanism of the engine, produces motion and usable work. The fluid is then dumped (open cycle), or cooled, compressed and reused (closed cycle). In these types of engines, the combustion is primarily used as a heat source, and the engine can work equally well with other types of heat sources.
Combustion:
"Combustion" refers to burning fuel with an oxidizer, to supply the heat. Engines of similar (or even identical) configuration and operation may use a supply of heat from other sources such as nuclear, solar, geothermal or exothermic reactions not involving combustion; they are not then strictly classed as external combustion engines, but as external thermal engines.
Working fluid:
The working fluid can be of any composition and the system may be single-phase (liquid only or gas only) or dual-phase (liquid/gas).
Single phase Gas is used in a Stirling engine. Single-phase liquid may sometimes be used.
Dual phase Dual-phase external combustion engines use a phase transition to convert temperature to usable work, for example from liquid to (generally much larger) gas. This type of engine follows variants of the Rankine cycle. Steam engines are a common example of dual-phase engines. Another example is engines that use the Organic Rankine cycle. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Rolling blackout**
Rolling blackout:
A rolling blackout, also referred to as rota or rotational load shedding, rota disconnection, feeder rotation, or a rotating outage, is an intentionally engineered electrical power shutdown in which electricity delivery is stopped for non-overlapping periods of time over different parts of the distribution region. Rolling blackouts are a last-resort measure used by an electric utility company to avoid a total blackout of the power system.
Rolling blackout:
Rolling blackouts are a measure of demand response if the demand for electricity exceeds the power supply capability of the network. Rolling blackouts may be localised to a specific part of the electricity network, or they may be more widespread and affect entire countries and continents. Rolling blackouts generally result from two causes: insufficient generation capacity or inadequate transmission infrastructure to deliver power to where it is needed.
Rolling blackout:
Rolling blackouts are also used as a response strategy to cope with reduced output beyond reserve capacity from power stations taken offline unexpectedly.
In developing countries:
Rolling blackouts are a common or even a normal daily event in many developing countries, where electricity generation capacity is underfunded or infrastructure is poorly managed. In well managed under-capacity systems blackouts are planned and schedules are published in advance to allow people to work around them. In poorly managed systems they happen without warning, typically whenever the transmission frequency falls below the 'safe' limit.
In developing countries:
These have wide-ranging impacts, and can effect the expectations of communities—for example—in Ghana dumsor describes the widespread expectations for intermittent unexpected power outages due to rolling blackouts.
In developing countries:
South Africa Since 2007, South Africa has experienced multiple periods of rolling blackouts which are locally referred to as load shedding by the state-owned energy company Eskom. This was initially caused by the country's demand for electricity outstripping supply, and as time progressed, later exacerbated by ageing power infrastructure, poor maintenance, and the slow completion of new power stations. It was recently revealed by Eskom's former spokesperson Sikhonathi Mantshantsh, that widespread tender corruption and the sabotage of power infrastructure by employees is one of the primary reasons for continuing load shedding. This has caused significantly severe damage to the South African economy and has played a large part in limiting the country's economic growth.
In developing countries:
Ukraine During 2022 invasion of Ukraine, Russia conducted multiple attacks on energy infrastructure of Ukraine. On October 23 rolling blackouts were introduced in Kyiv and its oblast. Rolling blackouts were introduced in all Ukrainian regions on October 25.
In developed countries:
Rolling blackouts in developed countries sometimes occur due to economic forces at the expense of system reliability (such as in the 2000–01 California energy crisis), or during natural disasters such as heat waves. In California rolling blackouts occurred in June 2000 and in January, March and May 2001. The 2021 Texas power crisis involved rolling blackouts caused by the February 13–17, 2021 North American winter storm and lack of winterization. The Late December 2022 North American winter storm resulted in rolling blackouts in parts of the eastern US.
In developed countries:
2011 Tōhoku earthquake After the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, Tokyo Electric Power Company implemented rolling blackouts. Its service area were divided to five blocks and blackouts were implemented from 6:20 to 22:00. The schedule from 15 to 18 March 2011 was as follows:
Effects:
Intermittent access to electricity causes major economic problems for businesses, which incur costs in the form of lost resources, reduced patronage, or curtailed production if electrical equipment—for example refrigeration, lighting, or machinery—abruptly stops working. Businesses in areas that are subject to regular blackouts may invest in backup power generation to avoid these costs, but power backup is itself a cost because generators must be purchased and maintained and fuel must be regularly replenished.
Scheduling:
When blackouts are scheduled in advance, they are easier to work around.The speed at which blackouts roll may be adjusted so that no blackout lasts longer than a certain limit. For instance, in Italy, the PESSE (Piano di Emergenza per la Sicurezza del Sistema Electrico, Emergency plan for national grid safety) does not permit a controlled blackout longer than 90 minutes. In Canada, blackouts have been rolled so that no area had to spend more than one hour without power.
Causes:
In some countries, generating capacity is chronically below demand. Assorted factors may prevent adequate investment in generation. Alternately, generating capacity may temporarily decrease below demand due to power station outages or loss of renewable capacity due to the wind dropping or the sun shining less. Natural disasters can also abruptly reduce supply by damaging power plants. A lack of fuel makes some types of power plant useless. Industrial accidents and poor maintenance can also take generation capacity offline. Conflict can disrupt fuel supply, as well as damage or destroy generating and delivery infrastructure.In electricity grids where power generators are paid a flexible market rate, power suppliers sometimes deliberately keep the generating capacity too low, or fake accidents that take capacity offline, to jack up prices.Demand spikes can also cause blackouts. Unusually hot or cold weather can cause demand spikes.
Causes:
In the case of South Africa, failing and aged infrastructure, lack of maintenance and alleged corruption in the country's African National Congress-led government in the running of their primary electricity provider, Eskom, is the direct cause of rolling blackouts. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**IBM Spectrum LSF**
IBM Spectrum LSF:
IBM Spectrum LSF (LSF, originally Platform Load Sharing Facility) is a workload management platform, job scheduler, for distributed high performance computing (HPC) by IBM.
Details:
It can be used to execute batch jobs on networked Unix and Windows systems on many different architectures. LSF was based on the Utopia research project at the University of Toronto.In 2007, Platform released Platform Lava, which is a simplified version of LSF based on an old version of LSF release, licensed under GNU General Public License v2. The project was discontinued in 2011, succeeded by OpenLava.
Details:
In January, 2012, Platform Computing was acquired by IBM. The product is now called IBM Spectrum LSF. IBM Spectrum LSF Community Edition is a no-charge community edition of the IBM Spectrum LSF workload management platform. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**OpenSAFELY**
OpenSAFELY:
OpenSAFELY is an interface to NHS patient records which enables statistical analysis of them by medical researchers. Initially, it has been used to make an analysis of the risk factors associated with deaths from COVID-19 in hospital in the UK. This is significant because the dataset is especially large – 20 billion rows of data for about 58 million patients.The platform interfaces with a secure database of pseudonymized primary care records, and only aggregated results are viewable by researchers. This allows researchers to access a large dataset necessary for identifying potential risk factors without the risks of exposing personal patient information. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Ben Andrews (mathematician)**
Ben Andrews (mathematician):
Ben Andrews is an Australian mathematician at the Australian National University. He is known for contributions to geometric analysis, with a majority of his work being in the field of extrinsic geometric flows. He received his Ph.D. from Australian National University in 1993, under the supervision of Gerhard Huisken. As of 2020, he has had nine Ph.D. students.
Recognition:
In 2002, he was an invited speaker at the International Congress of Mathematicians. In 2003, he received the Australian Mathematical Society Medal, along with Andrew Hassell, for distinguished research in the mathematical sciences. In 2012 he became a fellow of the American Mathematical Society.
Publications:
Textbooks Andrews, Ben; Hopper, Christopher (2011). The Ricci flow in Riemannian geometry. A complete proof of the differentiable 1/4-pinching sphere theorem. Lecture Notes in Mathematics. Vol. 2011. Heidelberg: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-16286-2. ISBN 978-3-642-16285-5. MR 2760593. Zbl 1214.53002.
Andrews, Ben; Chow, Bennett; Guenther, Christine; Langford, Mat (2020). Extrinsic Geometric Flows. Graduate Studies in Mathematics. Vol. 206. Providence, RI: American Mathematical Society. doi:10.1090/gsm/206. ISBN 978-1-4704-5596-5. MR 4249616. Zbl 1475.53002.Notable articles | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Ethyl trifluoroacetate**
Ethyl trifluoroacetate:
Ethyl trifluoroacetate is a chemical compound from the trifluoroacetate group.
Production:
Ethyl trifluoroacetate can be obtained by reacting 2,4,6-tris-(trifluoromethyl)-1,3,5-triazine with ethanol in the presence of hydrochloric acid. The former, in turn, can be prepared by a two-step reaction starting from trichloroacetonitrile by reaction with hydrogen chloride and fluorination of the intermediate with antimony trifluoride.The compound can also be obtained by reacting trifluoroacetic acid or sodium trifluoroacetate with ethanol.
Properties:
Ethyl trifluoroacetate is a colorless and odorless liquid that is sparingly soluble in water but miscible with chloroform and methanol. The compound exists in the gas phase in two more conformal forms.
Use:
Ethyl trifluoroacetate is used as an intermediate in organic synthesis to prepare organic fluorine compounds such as 3-ethyl-1-methylimidazolium trifluoroacetate (EMITA). It is also used in the synthesis of various pharmaceutically active molecules and agricultural products, and is also useful for the preparation of trifluoroacetylated compounds. The trifluoroacetyl group is widely used as an amine protecting group in organic synthesis because it can be easily removed under mild conditions. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Bonjour (software)**
Bonjour (software):
Bonjour is Apple's implementation of zero-configuration networking (zeroconf), a group of technologies that includes service discovery, address assignment, and hostname resolution. Bonjour locates devices such as printers, other computers, and the services that those devices offer on a local network using multicast Domain Name System (mDNS) service records.
The software comes built-in with Apple's macOS and iOS operating systems. Bonjour can also be installed onto computers running Microsoft Windows. Bonjour components may also be included within other software such as iTunes and Safari.
After its introduction in 2002 with Mac OS X 10.2 as Rendezvous, the software was renamed in 2005 to Bonjour following an out-of-court trademark dispute settlement.
Overview:
Bonjour provides a general method to discover services on a local area network. The software is widely used throughout macOS, and allows users to set up a network without any configuration. As of 2010 it is used to find printers and file-sharing servers.
Overview:
Notable applications using Bonjour include: iTunes to find shared music iPhoto to find shared photos Adium, Pidgin, Vine Server, and Elgato EyeTV to communicate with multiple clients SubEthaEdit to find document collaborators Solidworks and PhotoView 360 used for managing licenses Things and OmniFocus to synchronize projects and tasks across the Mac desktop and the iPad, iPhone or iPod touch Safari to find local web servers and configuration pages for local devicesSoftware such as Bonjour Browser or iStumbler, both for macOS, can be used to view all services declared by these applications. Apple's "Remote" application for iPhone and iPod Touch also uses Bonjour to establish connection to iTunes libraries via Wi-Fi.Bonjour only works within a single broadcast domain, which is usually a small area, without special DNS configuration. macOS, Bonjour for Windows and AirPort Base Stations may be configured to use Wide Area Bonjour which allows for wide area service discovery via an appropriately configured DNS server.
Overview:
Applications generally implement Bonjour services using standard TCP/IP calls, rather than in the operating system. Although macOS provides various Bonjour services, Bonjour also works on other operating systems. Apple has made the source code of the Bonjour multicast DNS responder, the core component of service discovery, available as a Darwin open source project. The project provides source code to build the responder daemon for a wide range of platforms, including Mac OS 9, macOS, Linux, *BSD, Solaris, VxWorks, and Windows. Apple also provides a user-installable set of services called Bonjour for Windows and Java libraries.
Licensing:
Bonjour is released under a terms-of-limited-use license by Apple. It is freeware for clients, though developers and software companies who wish to redistribute it as part of a software package or use the Bonjour logo may need a licensing agreement. The source code for mDNSResponder is available under the Apache License.
Naming:
Apple originally introduced the Bonjour software in August 2002 as part of Mac OS X 10.2 under the name "Rendezvous". On August 27, 2003 Tibco Software Inc announced that it had filed a lawsuit for trademark infringement.
Naming:
Tibco had an enterprise application integration product called TIBCO Rendezvous on the market since 1994 and stated that it had tried to come to an agreement with Apple Computer. In July 2004 Apple Computer and Tibco reached an out-of-court settlement; specifics of the settlement were not released to the public. On April 12, 2005, Apple announced the renaming of Rendezvous to "Bonjour".The current name Bonjour is French for the morning or afternoon greeting, "good day". The previous name Rendezvous is French for "meeting", "appointment" or "date".
Other implementations:
Bonjour version 2.0, released on February 24, 2010, works with Microsoft Windows 2000, 2003, XP, Vista, 7, 8, 8.1, 10, and 11. Systems use it primarily to facilitate the installation, configuration, and use of network printers, and thus it runs from startup. When Bonjour is fully implemented on Windows, some features—such as iChat—allow for communication between Windows and Mac OS. Bonjour for Windows also adds zeroconf capabilities to Internet Explorer, and provides a zeroconf implementation to Java VMs.Some third-party applications, such as Adobe's Photoshop CS3 suite, also come bundled with Bonjour to take advantage of zeroconf technology.
Other implementations:
Installers on Windows systems normally place Bonjour files in a folder called "Bonjour" within the "Program Files" folder. It modifies Windows system-registry entries related to internal network configuration and operation. Bonjour runs as mDNSResponder.exe. Communications across the network take place over UDP port 5353, which may require reconfiguring some personal or corporate firewalls that block Bonjour packets. A full installation of Bonjour for Windows will include a plug-in for Internet Explorer, a printer wizard, and the network communication services. Not all components are included when installed as part of a third-party application or as a component of other Apple software such as iTunes.
Other implementations:
Some VPN clients are configured so that local network services are unavailable to a computer when VPN software is active and connected. In such a case no local zeroconf services are available to Bonjour or any other zeroconf implementation.
In September 2008, two security vulnerabilities were found in Bonjour for Windows.
Other implementations:
Certain installations of Bonjour for Windows lack an uninstaller and do not display a human-readable entry in the Windows services listing.In 32- and 64-bit releases of Windows 7, some older but still available versions of Bonjour services can disable all network connectivity by adding an entry of 0.0.0.0 as the default gateway. This was a bug reported in 2013.The open-source IM clients Pidgin, Kopete and Adium support the Bonjour IM protocol, as does the closed-source Trillian client.
Browsers:
A number of browsers allow an end-user to graphically explore the devices found using Bonjour.
Browsers:
Discovery / Bonjour Browser Discovery is a Creative Commons-licensed macOS application that displays all services declared using Bonjour. The program was originally called Rendezvous Browser, but changed its name in version 1.5.4 after Apple changed the protocol's name to Bonjour; since version 2.0, it has been renamed again, to Discovery. For certain protocols, double-clicking a list item will launch the associated helper. Version 1.5.6 was the first universal binary release.
Browsers:
Future versions will allow users to completely define a service, instead of relying on the author to do so.
Bonjour Browser was recommended for service discovery in MacAddict #123.
Discovery is available on the Apple App Store.
JBonjourBrowser A student research project at Columbia University produced a Java-based system to match the functionality of Bonjour Browser, called JBonjourBrowser. JBonjourBrowser is open-source and available under the GPL.
JBonjourBrowser was built to emulate the functionality of Bonjour Browser, and at the same time work on multiple platforms. It requires Apple's Bonjour Java library to run.
Bonjour Browser for Windows A native Windows application offers similar functions to Bonjour Browser for Mac OS. Bonjour Browser for Windows is offered for free by Hobbyist Software and HandyDev Software.
mDNSBrowser A commercial implementation called mDNSBrowser is offered by Netputing Systems Inc. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Remote data entry**
Remote data entry:
A remote data entry (RDE) system is a computerized system designed for the collection of data in electronic format. The term is most commonly applied to a class of software used in the life sciences industry for collecting patient data from participants in clinical research studies—research of new drugs and/or medical devices.
Remote data entry:
Typically, RDE systems provide: a graphical user interface component for data entry a validation component to check user data a reporting tool for analysis of the collected dataRDE software was started in the mid- to late-1980s as software installed locally on portable computers with modems. It has largely been replaced by a newer generation of software called electronic data capture, or EDC, that provides the same type of functionality over the Internet using web pages. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Named prizes and medals of the Russian Academy of Sciences**
Named prizes and medals of the Russian Academy of Sciences:
The prizes and gold medals named after prominent scientists (Russian: премии и золотые медали имени выдающихся ученых) are issued by the Russian Academy of Sciences for important scientific works, discoveries and inventions. The awards are issued in the name of the RAS according to the results of contests announced by the RAS Presidium.
Great Gold Medals:
Lomonosov Gold Medal - (ru:Большая золотая медаль имени М. В. Ломоносова (Great gold medal named after M. V. Lomonosov)) Pirogov Gold Medal - (Большая золотая медаль имени Н. И. Пирогова (Great gold medal named after N. I. Pirogov)
Mathematics:
Bogolyubov Medal - (ru:Золотая медаль имени Н. Н. Боголюбова (after N. N. Bogolyubov)) Keldysh Medal - (ru:Золотая медаль имени М. В. Келдыша (after M. V. Keldysh)) Chebyshev Medal - (ru:Золотая медаль имени П. Л. Чебышёва (after P. L. Chebyshev)) Leonard Euler Medal - (ru:Золотая медаль имени Леонарда Эйлера (after Leonard Euler)) I.M. Vinogradov Prize - (ru:Премия имени И. М. Виноградова (after I. M. Vinogradov, mathematician)) Kovalevskaya Prize - (ru:Премия имени С. В. Ковалевской (after S. V. Kovalevskaya, mathematician)) Kolmogorov Prize - (ru:Премия имени А. Н. Колмогорова (after A. N. Kolmogorov, mathematician)) Lavrent'ev Prize - (ru:Премия имени М. А. Лаврентьева (after M. A. Lavrent'ev, mathematician)) Lobachevsky Prize - (ru:Премия имени Н. И. Лобачевского (after N. I. Lobachevsky, mathematician)) Lyapunov Prize - (ru:Премия имени А. М. Ляпунова (after A. M. Lyapunov, mathematician)) Maltsev Prize - (ru:Премия имени А. И. Мальцева (after A. I. Maltsev, mathematician)) Markov Prize - (ru:Премия имени А. А. Маркова (after A. A. Markov, mathematician)) Petrovsky Prize - (ru:Премия имени И. Г. Петровского (after I. G. Petrovsky, mathematician))
Physical sciences:
S.I. Vavilov Medal - (ru:Золотая медаль имени С. И. Вавилова (after S. I. Vavilov)) Kapitsa Medal - (ru:Золотая медаль имени П. Л. Капицы (after P. L. Kapitsa)) Lebedev Medal - (ru:Золотая медаль имени П. Н. Лебедева (after P. N. Lebedev)) Kurchatov Medal - (ru:Золотая медаль имени И. В. Курчатова (after I. V. Kurchatov)) Landau Gold Medal - (ru:Золотая медаль имени Л. Д. Ландау (after L. D. Landau)) Sakharov Medal - (ru:Золотая медаль имени А. Д. Сахарова (after A. D. Sakharov)) Skobeltsyn Medal - (ru:Золотая медаль имени Д. В. Скобельцына (after D. V. Skobeltsyn)) Artsimovich Prize - (ru:Премия имени Л. А. Арцимовича (after L. A. Artsimovich, physicist)) Belopolski Prize - (ru:Премия имени А. А. Белопольского (after A. A. Belopolsky, astronomer)) Bredikhin Prize - (ru:Премия имени Ф. А. Бредихина (after F. A. Bredikhin, astronomer)) Veksler Prize - (ru:Премия имени В. И. Векслера (after V. I. Veksler, physicist)) Ioffe Prize - (ru:Премия имени А. Ф. Иоффе (after A. F. Ioffe, physicist)) Mandelstam Prize - (ru:Премия имени Л. И. Мандельштама (after L. I. Mandelstam, physicist)) Rozhdestvensky Prize - (ru:Премия имени Д. С. Рождественского (after D. S. Rozhdestvensky)) Stoletov Prize - (ru:Премия имени А. Г. Столетова (after A. G. Stoletov, physicist)) Tamm Prize - (ru:Премия имени И. Е. Тамма (after I. E. Tamm, physicist)) Federov Prize - (ru:Премия имени Е. С. Федорова (after E. S. Fedorov, mathematician)) Fock Prize - (ru:Премия имени В. А. Фока (after V. A. Fock, physicist)) Friedmann Prize - ru:Премия имени А. А. Фридмана (after A. A. Friedman, physicist)) Cherenkov Prize - (ru:Премия имени П. А. Черенкова (after P. A. Cherenkov, physicist))
Information Technology:
Popov Medal - (ru:Золотая медаль имени А. С. Попова (after A. P. Popov)) Krylov Prize - (ru:Премия имени А. Н. Крылова (after A. N. Krylov, naval engineer)) S.A. Lebedev Prize - (ru:Премия имени С. А. Лебедева (after S. A. Lebedev, electrical engineer)) Raspletin Prize - (ru:Премия имени А. А. Расплетина (after A. A. Raspletin))
Energy, Mechanical Engineering, Mechanics and Control Processes:
Alexandrov Medal - (ru:Золотая медаль имени А. П. Александрова (after A. P. Alexandrov)) Korolev Medal - (ru:Золотая медаль имени С. П. Королева (after S. P. Korolev)) Chaplygin Medal - (ru:Золотая медаль имени С. А. Чаплыгина (after S. A. Chaplygin)) Andronov Prize - (ru:Премия имени А. А. Андронова (Prize named after A. A. Andronov, physicist)) Krzhizhanovsky Prize - (ru:Премия имени Г. М. Кржижановского (after G. M. Krzhizhanovsky, electrical engineer)) Petrov Prize - (ru:Премия имени Б. Н. Петрова (after B. N. Petrov)) Tupolev Prize - (ru:Премия имени А. Н. Туполева (after A. N. Tupolev, aircraft designer)) Tsander Prize - (ru:Премия имени Ф. А. Цандера (after F. A. Tsander, rocket engineer)) Tsiolkovsky Prize - (ru:Премия имени К. Э. Циолковского (after K. E. Tsiolkovsky, aeronautics engineer)) Yablochkov Prize - (ru:Премия имени П. Н. Яблочкова (after P. N. Yablochkov, electrical engineer))
Chemistry and Material Science:
Mendeleev Medal - (ru:Золотая медаль имени Д. И. Менделеева (after D. I. Mendeleev)) Semenov Medal - (ru:Золотая медаль имени Н. Н. Семенова (after N. N. Semenov, chemist)) Kurnakov Medal - (ru:Золотая медаль имени Н. С. Курнакова (after N. S. Kurnakov)) Chernov Medal - (ru:Золотая медаль имени Д. К. Чернова (after D. K. Chernov)) Anosov Prize - (ru:Премия имени П. П. Аносова (after P. P. Anosov, mining engineer)) Balandin Prize - (ru:Премия имени А. А. Баландина (after A. A. Balandin, electrical engineer)) Bardin Prize - (ru:Премия имени И. П. Бардина (after I. P. Bardin, metallurgist)) Bochvar Prize - (ru:Премия имени А. А. Бочвара (after A. A. Bochvar)) Butlerov Prize - (ru:Премия имени А. М. Бутлерова (after A. M. Butlerov, chemist)) Grebenshchikov Prize - (ru:Премия имени И. В. Гребенщикова (after I. V. Grebenshchikov)) Zelinsky Prize - (ru:Премия имени Н.Д.Зелинского (after N. D. Zelinsky, chemist)) Ipatyev Prize - (ru:Премия имени В. Н. Ипатьева (after V. N. Ipatyev, chemist)) Kargin Prize - (ru:Премия имени В. А. Каргина (after V. A. Kargin)) Koptyuga Prize - (ru:Премия имени В. А. Коптюга (after V. A. Koptyuga, chemist)) Lebedev Prize - (ru:Премия имени С. В. Лебедева (after S. V. Lebedev, chemist)) Nesmeyanov Prize - (ru:Премия имени А. Н. Несмеянова (after A. N. Nesmeyanov, chemist)) Rebinder Prize - (ru:Премия имени П. А. Ребиндера (after P. A. Rebinder)) Khlopin Prize - (ru:Премия имени В. Г. Хлопина (after V. G. Khlopin, nuclear physicist)) Chugaev Prize - (ru:Премия имени М. М. Шемякина (after L. A. Chugaev, chemist))
Biology:
Bekhterev Medal - (ru:Золотая медаль имени В. М. Бехтерева (after V. M. Bekhterev)) Pavlov Medal - (ru:Золотая медаль имени И. П. Павлова (after I. P. Pavlov)) Sechenov Medal - (ru:Золотая медаль имени И. М. Сеченова (after I. M. Sechenov)) Engelhardt Medal - (ru:Золотая медаль имени В. А. Энгельгардта (after V. A. Engelhardt)) Vavilov Medal - (ru:Золотая медаль имени Н. И. Вавилова (after N. I. Vavilov)) Dokucgaev Medal - (ru:Золотая медаль имени В. В. Докучаева (after V. V. Dokuchaev)) Baev Prize - (ru:Премия имени А. А. Баева (after A. A. Baev)) Bach Prize - (ru:Премия имени А. Н. Баха (after A. N. Bach)) Belozersky Prize - (ru:Премия имени А. Н. Белозерского (after A. N. Belozersky, biologist)) Winogradsky Prize - (ru:Премия имени С. Н. Виноградского (after S. N. Vinogradsky microbiologist)) Kovalevsky Prize - (ru:Премия имени А. О. Ковалевского (after A. O. Kovalevsky, embryologist)) Koltsov Prize - (ru:Премия имени Н. К. Кольцова (after N. K. Koltsov, biologist)) Komorov Prize - (ru:Премия имени В. Л. Комарова (after V. L. Komarov, botanist)) Metchnikov Prize - (ru:Премия имени И. И. Мечникова (after I. I. Mechnikov, zoologist)) Ovchinnikov Prize - (ru:Премия имени Ю. А. Овчинникова (after Yu. A. Ovchinnikov, biochemist)) Orbeli Prize - (ru:Премия имени Л. А. Орбели (after L. A. Orbeli, physiologist)) Pavlovsky Prize - (ru:Премия имени Е. Н. Павловского (after E. N. Pavlovsky, zoologist)) Prianishkov Prize - (ru:Премия имени Д. Н. Прянишникова (after D. N. Prianishnikov)) Severtsov Prize - (ru:Премия имени А. Н. Северцова (after A. . Severtsov)) Scriabin Prize - (ru:Премия имени К. И. Скрябина (after K. I. Scriabin, parasitologist)) Sukachev Prize - (ru:Премия имени В. Н. Сукачева (after V. N. Sukachev, geobotanist)) Timiryazev Prize - (ru:Премия имени К. А. Тимирязева (after K. A. Timiryazev, botanist)) Ukhtomsky Prize - (ru:Премия имени А. А. Ухтомского (after A. A. Ukhtomsky, physiologist)) Shemyakin Prize - (ru:Премия имени М. М. Шемякина (after M. M. Shemyakin)) Schmalhausen Prize - (ru:Премия имени И. И. Шмальгаузена (after I. I. Schmalhausen, zoologist))
Earth Sciences:
Vernadsky Medal - (ru:Золотая медаль имени В. И. Вернадского (after V. I. Vernadsky)) Karpinsky Medal - (ru:Золотая медаль имени А. П. Карпинского (after A. P. Karpinsky)) Berg Medal - (ru:Золотая медаль имени Л. С. Берга (Gold medal named after L. S. Berg)) Arkhangelsky Prize - (ru:Премия имени А. Д. Архангельского (after A.A. Arkhangelsky, geologist)) A.P. Vinogradov Prize - (ru:Премия имени А. П. Виноградова (after A. P. Vinogradov, geochemist)) Golitsyn Prize - (ru:Премия имени Б. Б. Голицына (after B. B. Golitsyn, physicist)) Grigoriev Prixe - (ru:Премия имени А. А. Григорьева (after A. A. Grigoriev)) Gubkin Prize - (ru:Премия имени И. М. Губкина (after I. M. Gubkin, geologist)) Korzhinsky Prize - (ru:Премия имени Д. С. Коржинского (after D. S. Korzhinsky)) Makarov Prize - (ru:Премия имени С. О. Макарова (after S. O. Makarov, oceanographer)) Melnikov Prize - (ru:Премия имени Н. В. Мельникова (after N. V. Melnikov)) Obruchev Prize - (ru:Премия имени В. А.Обручева (after V. A. Obruchev, geologist)) Savarensky Prize - (ru:Премия имени Ф. П. Саваренского (after F. P. Savarensky)) Smirnov Prize - (ru:Премия имени С. С. Смирнова (after S. S. Smirnov, geologist)) Fersman Prize - (ru:Премия имени А. Е. Ферсмана (after A. E. Fersman, geochemist)) Shatsky Prize - (ru:Премия имени Н. С. Шатского (after Nikolay Shatsky, geologist)) Schmidt Prize - (ru:Премия имени О. Ю. Шмидта (after O. Yu. Schmidt, mathematician))
Social science:
Speransky Medal - (ru:Золотая медаль имени М. М. Сперанского (after M. M. Speransky, political advisor)) Vargi Prize - (ru:Премия имени Е. С. Варги (after E. S. Vargi, economist)) Kantorovich Prize - (ru:Премия имени Л. В. Канторовича (after L. V. Kantorovich, mathematician)) M.M. Kovalevsky Prize - (ru:Премия имени М. М. Ковалевского (after M. M. Kovalevsky, sociologist)) Kondratiev Prize - (ru:Премия имени Н. Д. Кондратьева (after N. D. Kondratiev, economist)) Koni Prize - (ru:Премия имени А. Ф. Кони (after A. F. Koni)) Martens Prize - (ru:Премия имени Ф. Ф. Мартенса (after F. F. Martens, jurist)) Nemchinov Prize - (ru:Премия имени В. С. Немчинова (after V. S. Nemchinov, economist)) Plekhanov Prize - (ru:Премия имени Г. В. Плеханова (after G. V. Plekhanov, Marxist theoretician)) Rubinstein Prize - (ru:Премия имени С. Л. Рубинштейна (after S. L. Rubinstein)) Tarle Prize - (ru:Премия имени Е. В. Тарле (after E. V. Tarle, historian)) Chayanov Prize - (ru:Премия имени А. В. Чаянова (after A. V. Chayanov, economist))
History and philology:
Dal Medal - (ru:Золотая медаль имени В. И. Даля (after V. I. Dal)) Solovyov Medal - (ru:Золотая медаль имени С. М. Соловьёва (after S. M. Solovyov, historian)) Veselovsky Prize - (ru:Премия имени А. Н. Веселовского (after A. N. Veselovsky, literary theorist)) Zabelin Prize - (ru:Премия имени И. Е. Забелина (after I. E. Zabelin, historian)) Kareev Prize - (ru:Премия имени Н. И. Кареева (after N. I. Kareev)) Klyuchevsky Prize - (ru:Премия имени В. О. Ключевского (after V. O. Klyuchevsky, historian)) Likhachev Prize - (ru:Премия имени Д. С. Лихачёва (after D. S. Likhachev, linguist)) Miklukho-Maclay Prize - (ru:Премия имени Н. Н. Миклухо-Маклая (after N. N. Miklukho-Maclay, biologist)) Oldenburg Prize - (ru:Премия имени С. Ф. Ольденбурга (after S. F. Oldenburg)) Pushkin Prize - (ru:Премия имени А. С. Пушкина (after A. S. Pushkin, poet)) Shakhmatov Prize - (ru:Премия имени А. А. Шахматова (after A. A. Shakhmatov, historian)) | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**The Superstar Effect**
The Superstar Effect:
The Superstar Effect or "Tiger Woods effect" refers to the change in performance caused by the presence of a highly ranked player - a superstar - in a rank-order competition.
Overview:
The phenomenon was first described in a study titled "Quitters Never Win: The (Adverse) Incentive Effects of Competing with Superstars" by Jennifer Brown, which examined the performance of golfers at events with and without Tiger Woods. In contradiction to what intuition would suggest (namely that increased rivalry encourages better performance), Brown finds that the presence of a superstar is in fact associated with reduced competitor’s efforts in rank-order tournaments. The explanation she provides is an economic model in which competing is costly - one might hurt themselves, for instance - thus when the chance of winning is very low, the participant is discouraged from performing to her best abilities as it is not worthwhile.
Overview:
The study uses data from the Professional Golfers' Association (PGA) that contains round-by-round scores for all players in every tournament from 1999 to 2006 and hole-by-hole results for all events from 2002 to 2006. During this period, golfer Tiger Woods was performing significantly better than any other player with scores in regular and major events being lower than the group mean in all years except 2004. His consistent and dominant performance has earned him the title of superstar. Hence, the data is filtered creating a subset of tournaments Tiger Woods was a part of and other players’ performance is compared to when they are competing against Woods to when they are not. The analysis yields that on events when the highly skilled golfers were competing against Tiger Woods, their performance was considerably worse - with scores almost one stroke higher on average - than on events where Tiger Woods was absent. On the other hand, lower-ranked golfers are less or not at all affected by his presence. Brown notes that this could be due to the fact that the stakes are not as high for lower-ranked golfers to start with.
Overview:
Brown investigates the possibility of other explanations as to why golfers’ performance is poorer but finds that it is neither due to players taking more risks nor is the other players’ performance worse relative to Woods’ due to the fact that better golfers avoid competitions the superstar would be their opponent in. She also disperses the idea that it would be the increased media attention attributed to Woods’ presence that causes other players to produce lower results.
Overview:
Finally, Brown notes that superstars must in fact be in their ‘super’ stage of career to be able to create an adverse effect: in periods where Tiger Woods was not that successful (in years 2003-2004) golfers actually seem to have played better against him.
Further research:
Three years after Brown’s study, in 2010, a similar one was conducted in Japan by Ryuichi Tanaka and Kazutoshi Ishino. The writers look at how the presence of Japan golfer superstar Kazuo Ozaki affects the game of others and their findings are in accordance with those of the paper on Woods. Their results suggest that when having to compete against Ozaki, players perform worse by about 0.3 strokes on average.
Further research:
Yet another research, published by Brian C. Hill in 2014, examines the same effect in 100-meter tournaments with Usain Bolt being the superstar on the field. Surprisingly, Hill finds a positive superstar effect, meaning that runners produce faster running times and the likelihood of setting a personal record is increased. Wanting to explain the results seemingly contradictory to that of Brown’s, Hill points out the simultaneous nature of running competitions (whereas in golf, players get to watch each other) and that a 100-meter race is about 10 seconds which does not leave competitors much time to alter their behaviour because of Bolt.
Relevance in management:
The importance of studying the dynamics of rank-order tournaments with heterogeneous competitors reaches beyond the world of sports. Numerous management strategies use competition as an incentive for better productivity, however, according to the superstar effect, if agents are to rival a superstar, they may in fact reduce their efforts.
Impact on ratings and attendance:
Superstars have a much wider impact than only the change in performance caused by the presence of a superstar. In the NBA, superstars lead to higher attendance at games in addition to higher television ratings for games in which a superstar plays. This leads to an increase in revenue for both the team which the superstar plays for, and the opposing team.The Effect of Superstars on Game Attendance: Evidence From the NBA, a research paper written by Brad Humphreys and Candon Johnson, utilizes data collected on game attendance from the 1981 season through the 2013-2014 season to analyze the effect which superstar players in the NBA have on attendance. The study shows a significant effect on game attendance and television ratings in the NBA when a superstar is playing. The results indicate that several superstar players lead to a significant increase in attendance at both home and away games. These players include LeBron James, Dwight Howard, Shaquille O’Neal, and Michael Jordan, who had the largest impact with nearly 5000 additional fans at home games, and over 4200 at away games. The findings of another research paper titled Stars at the Gate: The Impact of Star Power on NBA Gate Revenues, further support this conclusion. The paper highlights that star power increases the demand which fans have for the NBA. It also points out that to truly measure the impact which the superstar effect has on revenues, the impact on away attendance must be measured as well. This supports the conclusion reached by Humphreys and Johnson.
Impact on ratings and attendance:
Superstars in the National Basketball Association: Economic Value and Policy, a research paper written by Jerry Hausman and Gregory Leonard, analyzes television ratings, merchandise sales and game attendance to determine the economic value of superstars in the NBA. The study determines that Michael Jordan was worth over $50 million to other teams in the NBA. In addition to Jordan, superstars such as Magic Johnson and Larry Bird also had a large impact on attendance in games which they played. The final results of the study determine that when a superstar plays in a game, this creates positive externalities for the opposing team. This is due to the team receiving benefits which they are not paying for.Examples of the effect which superstars have on attendance and television ratings are not limited to the NBA. Another prevalent example is within the PGA Tour. The research paper Superstars, Uncertainty of Outcome, and PGA Tour Television Ratings, finds that ratings for the PGA Tour are driven primarily by stars. This is more clearly shown using the 2014 US Open as an example. Martin Kaymer dominated the tournament, however television ratings were shockingly low. The study compares this to Tiger Woods dominant win at the 2000 US Open, where he was victorious by 15 strokes. Although it was evident that Woods would win the tournament, ratings were much higher than they were in 2014. This shows the presence of a superstar effect in golf, especially when Tiger Woods is competing. In the conducted research variables indicating the presence of Tiger Woods and Phil Mickelson were statistically significant, whereas variables showing how much the leader is ahead, and the total number of competitors was not significant, further showing that stars are the true driving factor for ratings on the PGA Tour. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Universal usability**
Universal usability:
Universal usability refers to the design of information and communications products and services that are usable for every citizen. The concept has been advocated by Professor Ben Shneiderman, a computer scientist at the Human-Computer Interaction Lab at the University of Maryland, College Park. He also provided a more practical definition of universal usability – "having more than 90% of all households as successful users of information and communications services at least once a week." The concept of universal usability ("usable by all") is closely related to the concepts of universal design and design for all. These three concepts altogether cover, from the user's end to the developer's end, the three important research areas of information and communications technology (ICT): use, access, and design. tite
Challenges:
There are three major challenges to universal usability: Supporting a broad range of hardware, software, and network access. With the advance of ICT, users' hardware, software, and network configurations are changing. The variety of ICT products creates complex systems with a broad range of hybridity. For example, would a software product be usable to users running Windows XP on a Centrino laptop with broadband Internet access and to those who have Windows 98 on a Pentium II desktop with 56K dial-up? Accommodating individual differences among users, such as age, gender, abilities, literacy, culture, income, and so forth. Individual differences can be roughly categorized into three types: physical, cognitive, and socio-cultural. In the field of HCI, research attempts have been centering on accommodating physical and cognitive differences by isolating various specific factors such as spatial ability, speed of movement, eye–hand coordination, and so forth. However, previous literature has demonstrated that individual differences are difficult to pin down and difficult to generalize from one context to another.
Challenges:
Bridging the knowledge gap between what users know and what they need to know about a specific system. Two issues need to be resolved: (i) Building a user model to access individual user's background knowledge on a specific system; (ii) Integrating the mechanism of evolutionary learning.
Principles:
The key to universal usability is recognizing the diversity of user population and user needs. There is no "average" user on whom a system should be based. Although in some cases it is possible to accommodate technology variety and individual differences in one system, multi-layer designs are the most promising approach to achieving universal usability. That is, when a single design cannot accommodate a large fraction of the user population, multiple versions or adjustment controls should be available to users. For example, a novice user can be provided with only a few options; after gaining confidence and experience, the user can choose to progress to higher levels of tasks and the accompanying interface. Sarah Horton has developed a set of universal usability guidelines for web design. The basic principles are: Design simply: Design simple sites, emphasizing important elements and using simple structures and clean, standards-based markup.
Principles:
Build well: Take full advantage of these inherent properties, such as fallbacks, flexibility, and user control, to construct universally usable Web sites.
Principles:
Favor HTML over other formats: HTML is the best format for universal usability. Provide documents in nonstandard formats, such as PDF and Flash, only as an alternative to accessible html.Harry Hochheiser and Ben Shneiderman have also developed the Universal Usability Statement Template, which describes a Web site's content, browser requirements, network requirements, and other characteristics that may influence its usability.
Electronic curb-cuts:
The analogy "curb-cut" has been used by advocates of universal usability to explain how ICT products designed for disabled users can be beneficial to all users. Sidewalk curb-cuts are added to accommodate wheelchair users, but the benefits extend to baby carriage pushers, delivery service workers, bicyclists, and travelers with roller bags. In the context of ICT design and development, universal usability is often tied to meeting the needs of people with disabilities. The adaptability needed for users with physical, visual, auditory, or cognitive disabilities is likely to benefit users with differing preferences, tasks, hardware, etc. Hence, electronic curb-cuts – system functions that are designed for people with disabilities – may be usable by everyone in various usage situations. It might be expensive to transform an existing system to meet universal usability standards, but the extra cost of integrating electronic curb-cuts into a new system can be minimalized.
Current research development:
Current trends in universal usability research include: Multimodal or adaptive user interface Universal usability of commercial and e-government websites Interface solutions for older adult users and users with disabilities Contextualization of universal usabilityScholarly papers on these four areas have been presented at the 1st Conference on Universal Usability in Arlington, VA, USA (2000) and the 2nd Conference on Universal Usability in Vancouver, Canada (2003).
Examples:
Computer systems allowing the interchangeable use of several input devices, e.g. track ball, mouse keyboard, joy stick or laser pointer.
Computer keyboard that accommodate the physical differences between user, e.g. distance between keys, size of keys, and required pressure.
IBM's Web Adaptation Technology transforms Web pages "on-the-fly" to meet individual needs.
Websites that provide both multimedia version (for high bandwidth users) and text-only version (for low bandwidth users).
NIH Senior Health features "one-click" text adjustment, contrast control, and text-to-speech technology. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Dark cuisine**
Dark cuisine:
Dark cuisine or hei an liao li is a Chinese neologism referring to a culinary style built around foods or food combinations that sound bizarre or even disgusting but which often are tastier than anticipated.
History:
Dark cuisine typically sounds or looks bizarre or even disgusting but in some cases is more appealing than anticipated. The Chinese term hei an liao li dates from its use in Chuuka Ichiban!, or "China's Number One!", a 1990s manga series by Etsushi Ogawa, that follow a young chef in 19th-century China as he fights the Dark Cooking Society. In China the term had been used starting in 2012 to discuss stargazy pie, a Cornish dish that exemplified "all that the Chinese find baffling about Western cooking".
Definition:
According to food entrepreneur Jing (Jenny) Gao, the term can be used for "anything that's particularly hard to swallow," from ingredient combinations that make people feel squeamish to food produced under conditions of poor hygiene including in hole-in-the-wall restaurants in Chengdu that are so popular they "attract people like flies" and are called "fly" restaurants. "Absurd" combinations are common. Often dishes are posted to social media for their bragging rights or shock value.
Examples:
Examples include ice cream topped with chili crisp; a combination dreamed up by chef Jacques La Merde of "Velveeta foam, spherified Gatorade and Doritos crushed into a decorative "soil"; and "struggle plates": documentation of home cooking disasters that the unfortunate cook ate anyway. Another commenter, after requesting 'dark cuisine' combinations from her chef friends, listed sliced roast beef topped with blueberry yogurt, sausage with peanut butter and onions, and chili crisp peanut brittle.
Related:
Malmö, Sweden, hosts the Disgusting Food Museum which opened in 2018 and encourages visitors to "question what they find disgusting". American chef David Chang hosts a Netflix series called Ugly Delicious. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Familial dysalbuminemic hyperthyroxinemia**
Familial dysalbuminemic hyperthyroxinemia:
Familial dysalbuminemic hyperthyroxinemia is a type of hyperthyroxinemia associated with mutations in the human serum albumin gene. The term was introduced in 1982. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**(3-Aminopropyl)triethoxysilane**
(3-Aminopropyl)triethoxysilane:
(3-Aminopropyl)triethoxysilane (APTES) is an aminosilane frequently used in the process of silanization, the functionalization of surfaces with alkoxysilane molecules. It can also be used for covalent attaching of organic films to metal oxides such as silica and titania.
Use with PDMS:
APTES can be used to covalently bond thermoplastics to poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS). Thermoplastics are treated with oxygen plasma to functionalize surface molecules, and subsequently coated with an aqueous 1% by volume APTES solution. PDMS is treated with oxygen plasma and placed in contact with the functionalized thermoplastic surface. A stable, covalent bond forms within 2 minutes.
Silsesquioxane synthesis:
Octa(3-aminopropyl)silsesquioxane can be obtained in a one step hydrolytic condensation using APTES and hydrochloric or trifluoromethanesulfonic acid (CF3SO3H).
Use with cell cultures:
APTES-functionalized surfaces have been shown to be nontoxic to embryonic rat cardiomyocytes in vitro. Further experimentation is needed to evaluate toxicity to other cell types in extended culture.
Toxicity:
APTES is a toxic compound with an MSDS health hazard score of 3. APTES fumes are destructive to the mucous membranes and the upper respiratory tract, and should be used in a fume hood with gloves. If a fume hood is not available, a face shield and full face respirator must be implemented. The target organs of APTES are nerves, liver and kidney. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Hat tip**
Hat tip:
A hat tip (abbreviation: h/t), also referred to as tip of the cap, is an act of tipping or (especially in British English) doffing one's hat as a cultural expression of recognition, respect, gratitude or simple salutation and acknowledgement between two persons.
Traditional:
In Western societies of the 19th and early 20th centuries, a hat tip was a common non-verbal greeting between friends or acquaintances while walking or meeting at a social gathering. Typically, two men (female hat tipping was rare) would lift or tip their hats to each other, rather than exchange words of greeting. Where the ritual was used to emphasize social distance, the subordinate was obliged to make the more elaborate gesture, for example fully removing his hat while the superior merely touched his. The military hand salute is thought to have originated as a stylized hat tip; while the civilian may return a salute via a hat tip. In its modern use, the hat tip has been replaced by the nod as a manner of respect. If one man gives another the nod, he should return in kind with either the casual nod up or the formal nod down.Erving Goffman emphasized the role of hat-tipping as a means of closing encounters between male and female, and restoring both parties thereby to a state of civil inattention. He also suggested that the hat tip was used for greeting a stranger, whereas the equivalent greeting for an acquaintance was the bow.In Desmond Morris's terms, the hat tip is a modification of a (symbolic) submissive posture—lowering the body height by removing the hat—a "token token".
Metaphor:
In 1929, syndicated cartoonist Jimmy Hatlo started thanking readers who suggested a funny idea for a strip with the phrase "Thanx and a tip of the Hatlo hat to [name]" at the bottom of his comic strip panel They'll Do It Every Time. He continued drawing the hat tip box in the strip until his death in 1963.
Metaphor:
In the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, the government banned hat tipping toward Jews and other courtesies that became popular as protests against the occupation by Nazi Germany.In the 2000s, the term "hat tip" (often abbreviated to "HT", "H/T" or "h/t") rose to prominence in the blogosphere to acknowledge someone who has made a significant contribution toward an effort, or someone who drew attention to something new or interesting. It is considered good netiquette when sharing a link or news item to give a hat tip to the person from whom it was learned. The on-line versions of the Wall Street Journal and The New York Times regularly give hat tips to users who bring ideas for articles to their attention. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Fermented bean paste**
Fermented bean paste:
Fermented bean paste is a category of fermented foods typically made from ground soybeans, which are indigenous to the cuisines of East, South and Southeast Asia. In some cases, such as the production of miso, other varieties of beans, such as broad beans, may also be used.The pastes are usually salty and savoury, but may also be spicy, and are used as a condiment to flavour foods such as stir-fries, stews, and soups. The colours of such pastes range from light tan to reddish brown and dark brown. The differences in colour are due to different production methods, such as the conditions of fermentation, the addition of wheat flour, pulverized mantou, rice, or sugar and the presence of different microflora, such as bacteria or molds used in their production, as well as whether the soybeans are roasted (as in chunjang) or aged (as in tauco) before being ground.
Fermented bean paste:
Fermented bean pastes are sometimes the starting material used in producing soy sauces, such as tamari, or an additional product created from the same fermented mass. The paste is also the main ingredient of hoisin sauce.Due to the protein content of the beans, the fermentation process releases a large amount of free amino acids, which when combined with the large amounts of salt used in its production, produces a highly umami product. This is particularly true with miso, which can be used as the primary ingredient in certain dishes, such as miso soup.
Types:
Various types of fermented bean paste (all of which are based on soy and cereal grains) include: | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Archimedean group**
Archimedean group:
In abstract algebra, a branch of mathematics, an Archimedean group is a linearly ordered group for which the Archimedean property holds: every two positive group elements are bounded by integer multiples of each other. The set R of real numbers together with the operation of addition and the usual ordering relation between pairs of numbers is an Archimedean group. By a result of Otto Hölder, every Archimedean group is isomorphic to a subgroup of this group. The name "Archimedean" comes from Otto Stolz, who named the Archimedean property after its appearance in the works of Archimedes.
Definition:
An additive group consists of a set of elements, an associative addition operation that combines pairs of elements and returns a single element, an identity element (or zero element) whose sum with any other element is the other element, and an additive inverse operation such that the sum of any element and its inverse is zero.
A group is a linearly ordered group when, in addition, its elements can be linearly ordered in a way that is compatible with the group operation: for all elements x, y, and z, if x ≤ y then x + z ≤ y + z and z + x ≤ z + y.
The notation na (where n is a natural number) stands for the group sum of n copies of a.
Definition:
An Archimedean group (G, +, ≤) is a linearly ordered group subject to the following additional condition, the Archimedean property: For every a and b in G which are greater than 0, it is possible to find a natural number n for which the inequality b ≤ na holds.An equivalent definition is that an Archimedean group is a linearly ordered group without any bounded cyclic subgroups: there does not exist a cyclic subgroup S and an element x with x greater than all elements in S. It is straightforward to see that this is equivalent to the other definition: the Archimedean property for a pair of elements a and b is just the statement that the cyclic subgroup generated by a is not bounded by b.
Examples of Archimedean groups:
The sets of the integers, the rational numbers, and the real numbers, together with the operation of addition and the usual ordering (≤), are Archimedean groups. Every subgroup of an Archimedean group is itself Archimedean, so it follows that every subgroup of these groups, such as the additive group of the even numbers or of the dyadic rationals, also forms an Archimedean group.
Examples of Archimedean groups:
Conversely, as Otto Hölder showed, every Archimedean group is isomorphic (as an ordered group) to a subgroup of the real numbers. It follows from this that every Archimedean group is necessarily an abelian group: its addition operation must be commutative.
Examples of non-Archimedean groups:
Groups that cannot be linearly ordered, such as the finite groups, are not Archimedean. For another example, see the p-adic numbers, a system of numbers generalizing the rational numbers in a different way to the real numbers.
Examples of non-Archimedean groups:
Non-Archimedean ordered groups also exist; the ordered group (G, +, ≤) defined as follows is not Archimedean. Let the elements of G be the points of the Euclidean plane, given by their Cartesian coordinates: pairs (x, y) of real numbers. Let the group addition operation be pointwise (vector) addition, and order these points in lexicographic order: if a = (u, v) and b = (x, y), then a + b = (u + x, v + y), and a ≤ b exactly when either v < y or v = y and u ≤ x. Then this gives an ordered group, but one that is not Archimedean. To see this, consider the elements (1, 0) and (0, 1), both of which are greater than the zero element of the group (the origin). For every natural number n, it follows from these definitions that n (1, 0) = (n, 0) < (0, 1), so there is no n that satisfies the Archimedean property. This group can be thought of as the additive group of pairs of a real number and an infinitesimal, (x,y)=xϵ+y, where ϵ is a unit infinitesimal: ϵ>0 but ϵ<y for any positive real number y>0 . Non-Archimedean ordered fields can be defined similarly, and their additive groups are non-Archimedean ordered groups. These are used in non-standard analysis, and include the hyperreal numbers and surreal numbers.
Examples of non-Archimedean groups:
While non-Archimedean ordered groups cannot be embedded in the real numbers, they can be embedded in a power of the real numbers, with lexicographic order, by the Hahn embedding theorem; the example above is the 2-dimensional case.
Additional properties:
Every Archimedean group has the property that, for every Dedekind cut of the group, and every group element ε > 0, there exists another group element x with x on the lower side of the cut and x + ε on the upper side of the cut. However, there exist non-Archimedean ordered groups with the same property. The fact that Archimedean groups are abelian can be generalized: every ordered group with this property is abelian.
Generalisations:
Archimedean groups can be generalised to Archimedean monoids, linearly ordered monoids that obey the Archimedean property. Examples include the natural numbers, the non-negative rational numbers, and the non-negative real numbers, with the usual binary operation + and order < . Through a similar proof as for Archimedean groups, Archimedean monoids can be shown to be commutative. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Road running**
Road running:
Road running is the sport of running on a measured course over an established road. This differs from track and field on a regular track and cross country running over natural terrain.
These events are usually classified as long-distance according to athletics terminology, with races typically ranging from 5 kilometers to 42.2 kilometers in the marathon. They may involve large numbers of runners or wheelchair entrants. The four most common IAAF recognized distances for road running events are 5K runs, 10K runs, half marathons and marathons.
Running on the road is an alternative surface to running on a trail, track, or treadmill. For many people looking to participate in running as an activity or sport, there are multiple opportunities that can be found on the road.
Road running is one of several forms of road racing, which also includes road bicycle racing and motor vehicle road racing.
Courses:
Racecourses are usually held on the streets of major cities and towns but can be on any road. The IAAF recognizes eleven common distances for road races that are eligible to be counted for records if they meet the eligibility criteria: 5 kilometres (3.11 mi), 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), 15 kilometres (9.3 mi), 10 miles (16.09 km), 20 kilometres (12 mi), half marathon (21.0975 km or 13.1 mi), 25 kilometres (16 mi), 30 kilometres (19 mi), marathon (42.195 km or 26.2 mi), 50 kilometres (31 mi), and 100 kilometres (62 mi). The 24-hour run is also recognized. Of these, the 5K, 10K, 25K, 30K, half marathon, marathon, and 100K are distances that are recognized for world records.Some major events have unique distances. The Fifth Avenue Mile in New York City, United States is 1.0 mile (1.6 km); the "Round the Bays" run in Auckland, New Zealand is 8.4 kilometres (5.2 mi); the Falmouth Road Race in Falmouth, Massachusetts is 7.1 miles (11.4 km); the Manchester Road Race in Manchester, Connecticut is 4.75 miles (7.64 km); "City to Surf" in Sydney, Australia is 14 kilometres (8.7 mi); Honolulu's "Great Aloha Run" is 8.15 miles (13.12 km); the "King Island Imperial 20" is 32 kilometres (20 mi) long; and the "Charleston Distance Run" in Charleston, West Virginia is 15 miles (24 km).
Participation:
Most road running events are open to the general public. Participants of varying running ability are participants. It is not unusual for large events to number in thousands of participants. Men and women compete side by side, and professional runners run in the same events as the average runner. In more prestigious races this is less likely to happen as there will be separate heats for men and women/ professional and non-professional athletes. In certain athletic events, first time amateurs are welcome to participate in the same event as members of running clubs and even current world-class champions.
Participation:
This wide availability makes road racing extremely popular, and millions of people worldwide run thousands of races each year. In the U.S., 18.1 million people registered for recreational road races in 2018. While world record-holders can maintain paces of 4–5 minutes per mile (2,5 – 3 minutes per km), non-professional runners average around 10 min/mile (6 min/km). The majority of registrants run for personal reasons such as achievement and fitness rather than to compete, and many race courses accommodate this by staying open long enough for participants to jog or walk the distance.
Participation:
Timing In order to record times for participants of road races, the founder of the race typically pays a timing company to electronically take times. Electronic timing companies utilize a technology called radio-frequency identification (RFID for short). RFID technology is then placed either in a disposable race bib, a shoe chip that is tied to shoelaces, or an ankle bracelet. RFID timing mats are then placed at the finish line of the race and as soon as the runner crosses over the line their time will be automatically recorded. This technology has developed over time to be the most efficient form of recording multiple athlete times.
Benefits:
Diversity Road running is recognizable for its diverse features. Anyone is welcome to participate in road running whether it be for recreational activity or for the purpose of competition. Running is an activity that attracts people from all over the world and for any age. For example, many road racing events recognize finishers in an age group system which acts as a way to reward younger or older athletes who may not be able to compete with runners in a prime age.
Benefits:
Charity Road races are often community-wide events that highlight or raise money for an issue or project. In the US, Susan G. Komen's Race for the Cure is held nationwide to raise breast cancer awareness. This race is also run in Germany, Italy and Puerto Rico. Similarly, Race for Life holds races throughout the UK to raise money for Cancer Research UK. First person "race reports" frequently appear on the Dead Runners Society electronic mailing list. Dublin, Ireland's Women's Mini-Marathon is said to be the largest all-female event of its kind in the world.
Benefits:
Motivation to be active For many, competing in a local road race can be the motivation needed for individuals to pursue physical activity. In a study done by the bureau for labor statistics, road running ranked third in the most common form of sport and exercise activity for Americans.
Benefits:
Physical benefit Running on the roads has a different effect on the muscles in the human body opposed to running on the treadmill. Treadmills are made to assist running form due to the way the belt pushes your legs back enhancing movement. Running on the road through various conditions such as hills will do more to strengthen glutes, hamstrings, quads, and smaller muscles in the legs. Additionally, running on the road can help improve bone density as your body breaks down from impact and then regenerates itself.
Disadvantages:
Impact As with any type of running, there is a risk to natural wear and tear on the human body that comes with the different movements required to participate. The difference with road running opposed to other forms is that for long periods of time, a runner will be landing on a harder surface continuously which can lead to various overuse injuries. In any given year, on average 65–80 percent of runners experience some type of injury. In order to decrease the risk of becoming injured from impact on the road, runners can change their shoes every 300–400 miles (500–650 km). The reason that replacing shoes is important for runners is because high mileage shoes have poor shock absorption and worn down tread which can cause pain.
Disadvantages:
Danger One element that is apart exclusively with road running opposed to running in any other location is vehicles that drive by regularly at high speeds. In a study by the company Road ID, it was found that on average 122,000 runners are hit by vehicles and end up in hospitals each year. This figure does not include runners who are hit but do not end up in the hospital. There are different precautions that runners can take in order to decrease their risk of being hit that include: wearing reflective gear, wearing bright colors, running only during daylight, wearing a headlight, and running on the side of the road opposite traffic.
Disadvantages:
Costs At first running can seem like a very cheap activity that anyone can partake in. However, it is important to acknowledge that there are certain expenses that any road runner will come across. For one, replacing running shoes every 400–500 miles (650–800 km) is a very important habit for every runner to do that will not be cheap. Additionally, road race entry fees can be expensive because they are meant to cover the fees incurred by the race organizer. In some cases, the price for big city marathons can be anywhere from 150 to 300 dollars per entry fee.
Governing body and international organizations:
The international governing body for road racing is the IAAF. The IAAF aims to set the standards for competitions by ensuring that all participants are drug-free and that all equipment used is legal. The IAAF measures each race course to give it an IAAF certification rating. Once a race course is certified, the course can be counted for different records or rankings.National governing bodies which are affiliated to the IAAF are responsible for road races held in their country. Of the thousands of road races held each year, 238 races, including some premier ones, are members of the Association of International Marathons and Distance Races (AIMS). Many race organizers (or the running clubs which conduct the races) are members of the Road Runners Club of America. In addition, the USA Track & Field plays a role in selecting representatives for certain international competitions under the Amateur Sports Act of 1978.
Governing body and international organizations:
Competitors from around the world participate in what are dubbed the "elite" races for cash prizes. Elite level road running series include the World Marathon Majors, the Great Run series, and IAAF Road Race Label Events.
Main competitions:
Marathon and half marathon eventsWorld Marathon Cup World Half Marathon Championships European Marathon Cup European Half Marathon CupRace-walking eventsWorld Race Walking Team Championships European Race Walking Cup | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Legacy mode**
Legacy mode:
In computing, legacy mode is a state in which a computer system, component, or software application behaves in a way that is different from its standard operation in order to support older software, data, or expected behavior. It differs from backward compatibility in that an item in legacy mode will often sacrifice newer features or performance, or be unable to access data or run programs it normally could, in order to provide continued access to older data or functionality. Sometimes it can allow newer technologies that replaced the old to emulate them when running older operating systems.
Examples:
x86-64 processors can be run in one of two states: long mode provides larger physical address spaces and the ability to run 64-bit applications which can use larger virtual address spaces and more registers, and legacy mode. These processors' legacy mode allows these processors to act as if they were 16- or 32-bit x86 processors with all of the abilities and limitations of them in order to run legacy 16-bit and 32-bit operating systems, and to run programs requiring virtual 8086 mode to run in Windows.
Examples:
32-bit x86 processors themselves have two legacy modes: real mode and virtual 8086 mode. Real mode causes the processor to mostly act as if it was an original 8086, while virtual 8086 mode allows the creation of a virtual machine to allow the running of programs that require real mode in order to run under a protected mode environment. Protected mode is the non-legacy mode of 32-bit x86 processors and the 80286.
Examples:
Most PC graphic cards have a VGA and a SVGA mode that allows them to be used on systems that have not loaded the device driver necessary to take advantage of their more advanced features.
Operating systems often have a special mode allowing them to emulate an older release in order to support software applications dependent on the specific interfaces and behavior of that release. Windows XP can be configured to emulate Windows 2000 and Windows 98; Mac OS X can support the execution of Mac OS 9 applications on PowerPC-based Macintoshes.
Examples:
Computer buses emulated through legacy mode: Emulated bus (Host bus) ISA (LPC) PCI (PCI Express) PS/2 or RS-232 mouse (USB mouse) PS/2 or AT keyboard (USB keyboard) Many SATA disk controllers offer a legacy mode of operation for compatibility i.e. parallel ATA emulation Some niche markets have enabled Compact Flash and SD cards to emulate IDE hard drives for old DOS and Windows 95 computers.
Examples:
The Wii U can be run in a special "Wii Mode" that activates an emulated version of the Wii Menu as a means of playing games made for the latter system (it is not compatible with GameCube games without system modification, however). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Shadowsocks**
Shadowsocks:
Shadowsocks is a free and open-source encryption protocol project, widely used in China to circumvent Internet censorship. It was created in 2012 by a Chinese programmer named "clowwindy", and multiple implementations of the protocol have been made available since. Shadowsocks is not a proxy on its own, but (typically) is the client software to help connect to a third-party SOCKS5 proxy, which is similar to a Secure Shell (SSH) tunnel. Once connected, internet traffic can then be directed through the proxy. Unlike an SSH tunnel, shadowsocks can also proxy User Datagram Protocol (UDP) traffic.
Takedown:
On 22 August 2015, "clowwindy" announced in a GitHub thread that they had been contacted by the police and could no longer maintain the project. The code of the project was subsequently branched with a removal notice. Three days later, on 25 August, another proxy application, GoAgent, also had its GitHub repository removed. The removal of the projects got media's attention, with news outlets speculating about the possible connection between the takedowns and a distributed-denial-of-service attack targeting GitHub that happened several days later. Danny O'Brien, from Electronic Frontier Foundation, published a statement on the matter.Despite the takedown, collaborators of the project have continued the development of the project.
Server implementations:
The original Python implementation can still be installed with Pip (package manager), but the contents of its GitHub repository have been removed. Other server implementations include one in Go, Rust, and C using the libev event loop library; C++ with a Qt GUI; and Perl. The Go and Perl implementations are not updated regularly and may have been abandoned.
Client implementations:
All of the server implementations listed above also support operating in client mode. There are also client-only implementations available for Windows (shadowsocks-win), macOS (ShadowsocksX-NG), Android (shadowsocks-android), and iOS (Wingy). Many clients, including shadowsocks-win and shadowsocks-android, support redirecting all system traffic over Shadowsocks, not just applications that have been explicitly configured to do so, allowing Shadowsocks to be used similarly to a VPN. If an application doesn't support proxy servers, a proxifier can be used to redirect the application to the Shadowsocks client. Some proxifiers, such as Proxycap, support Shadowsocks directly, thus avoiding the need for a Shadowsocks client, but some require a client.
Net::Shadowsocks:
Net::Shadowsocks is name of the Perl implementation of Shadowsocks protocol client and server available on CPAN.
ShadowsocksR:
ShadowsocksR is a fork of the original Shadowsocks project, claimed to be superior in terms of security and stability. Upon release, it was found to violate the License by not having the source code of the C# client available. It was also criticized for its solution to the alleged security issues in the source project. Shadowsocks is currently under development, while development of ShadowsocksR has stopped.
Similar projects:
Shadowsocks is similar to The Tor Project's Pluggable Transport (PT) idea. PT makes it hard for Internet Service Providers to detect Tor traffic. They also both use a socks proxy interface. Whereas Shadowsocks is simpler, Obfs4 used in PT is more obfuscated. Unlike Obfs4, Shadowsocks is not resistant to Active Probing. The most similar PT to Shadowsocks is Obfs3. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Synthase**
Synthase:
In biochemistry, a synthase is an enzyme that catalyses a synthesis process.
Synthase:
Note that, originally, biochemical nomenclature distinguished synthetases and synthases. Under the original definition, synthases do not use energy from nucleoside triphosphates (such as ATP, GTP, CTP, TTP, and UTP), whereas synthetases do use nucleoside triphosphates. However, the Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN) dictates that 'synthase' can be used with any enzyme that catalyzes synthesis (whether or not it uses nucleoside triphosphates), whereas 'synthetase' is to be used synonymously with 'ligase'.
Examples:
ATP synthase Citrate synthase Tryptophan synthase Pseudouridine synthase Fatty acid synthase Cellulose synthase (UDP-forming) Cellulose synthase (GDP-forming) | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Geometric and material buckling**
Geometric and material buckling:
Geometric buckling is a measure of neutron leakage and material buckling is a measure of the difference between neutron production and neutron absorption. When nuclear fission occurs inside of a nuclear reactor, neutrons are produced. These neutrons then, to state it simply, either react with the fuel in the reactor or escape from the reactor. These two processes are referred to as neutron absorption and neutron leakage, and their sum is the neutron loss. When the rate of neutron production is equal to the rate of neutron loss, the reactor is able to sustain a chain reaction of nuclear fissions and is considered a critical reactor.In the case of a bare, homogenous, steady-state reactor (that is, a reactor that has only one region, a homogenous mixture of fuel and coolant, no blanket nor reflector, and does not change over time), the geometric and material buckling are equal to each other.
Derivation:
Both buckling terms are derived from the particular diffusion equation which is valid for neutrons: −D∇2Φ+ΣaΦ=1kνΣfΦ where k is the criticality eigenvalue, ν is the neutrons per fission, Σf is the macroscopic cross section for fission, and from diffusion theory, the diffusion coefficient is defined as: D=13Σtr In addition, the diffusion length is defined as: L=DΣa Rearranging the terms, the diffusion equation becomes: −∇2ΦΦ=k∞k−1L2=Bg2 The left side is the material buckling and the right side of the equation is the geometric buckling.
Geometric Buckling:
The geometric buckling is a simple Helmholtz eigenvalue problem that is simply solved for different geometries. The table below lists the geometric buckling for some common geometries.
Since the diffusion theory calculations overpredict the critical dimensions, an extrapolation distance δ must be subtracted to obtain an estimate of actual values. The buckling could also be calculated using actual dimensions and extrapolated distances using the following table.
Expressions for Geometric Buckling in Terms of Actual Dimensions and Extrapolated Distances.
Material Buckling:
Materials buckling is the buckling of a homogeneous configuration with respect to material properties only. If we redefine k∞ in terms of purely material properties (and assume the fundamental mode), we have: k∞=νΣfΣa As stated previously, the geometric buckling is defined as: Bg2=k∞k−1L2=1kνΣf−ΣaD Solving for k (in the fundamental mode), k=keff=νΣfΣa+DBg2 thus, k=νΣfΣa1+L2Bg2 Assuming the reactor is in a critical state (k = 1), Bg2=νΣf−ΣaD This expression is in purely material properties; therefore, this is called the materials buckling: Bm2=νΣf−ΣaD
Critical Reactor Dimensions:
By equating the geometric and material buckling, one can determine the critical dimensions of a one region nuclear reactor. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Lacquer thinner**
Lacquer thinner:
Lacquer thinner, also known as cellulose thinner, is usually a mixture of solvents able to dissolve a number of different resins or plastics used in modern lacquer.Previously, lacquer thinners frequently contained alkyl esters like butyl or amyl acetate, ketones like acetone or methyl ethyl ketone, aromatic hydrocarbons like toluene, ethers such as glycol cellosolves, and/or alcohols.Modern lacquer thinners increasingly have to comply with low-VOC regulations. These formulations are often mostly acetone with small quantities of aromatic solvent.Paints that dry by simple solvent evaporation and contain solid binders insolvent (solvent) are known as lacquers. When the solvent in lacquer paints evaporates, a solid layer remains. Since this layer can be dissolved again with the solvent, each lacquer can dissolve the one below it. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Coin purse**
Coin purse:
A purse or pouch (from the Latin bursa, which in turn is from the Greek βύρσα, býrsa, oxhide), sometimes called coin purse for clarity, is a small money bag or pouch, made for carrying coins. In most Commonwealth countries it is known simply as a purse, while "purse" in the United States usually refers to a handbag. "Purse" can also be a synonym to bursary (which has the same origin), i.e. a monetary prize in a competition.
History:
The oldest known purse was found with Ötzi the Iceman who lived around 3,300 BC. Another early example is on Egyptian hieroglyphs, which show pouches worn around the waist. The purse-lid from the Sutton Hoo burial is a very elaborate, probably royal, metalwork cover for a (presumably) leather Anglo-Saxon purse of about 600 AD. In Europe they often showed social status based on the embroidery and quality of the bag.In the 15th century, both men and women wore purses. They were often finely embroidered or ornamented with gold. It was also customary for men to give their new brides purses embroidered with an illustration of a love story. In the 17th century, bags became more complex and elaborate. Girls were taught skills such as embroidery and needlework that could assist them in finding a husband. These skills gave rise to stitched artwork on bags. Around the year 1670, men's breeches were made with built-in pockets, which caused them to stop carrying purses. They did however carry little netted purses in their pocket to carry money.In 1974, the first appearance of the Hello Kitty character was printed on a coin purse.Coin purse come in all sorts of shapes: fruits, flowers, animals, self-defense weapons, etc. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Thioureas**
Thioureas:
In organic chemistry, thioureas are members of a family of organosulfur compounds with the formula S=C(NR2)2 and structure R2N−C(=S)−NR2. The parent member of this class of compounds is thiourea (S=C(NH2)2). The thiourea functional group has a planar S=CN2 core.
Structure and bonding:
Thioureas have planar N2C=S core. The C=S bond distance is near 1.71 Å, which is 0.1 Å longer than in normal ketones (R2C=O). The C–N bond distances are short. Thioureas occurs in two tautomeric forms. For the parent thiourea, the thione form predominates in aqueous solutions. The thiol form, known as an isothiourea, can be encountered in substituted compounds such as isothiouronium salts.
Synthesis:
N,N′-unsubstituted thioureas can be prepared by treating the corresponding cyanamide with hydrogen sulfide or similar sulfide sources. Organic ammonium salts react with potassium thiocyanate as the source of the thiocarbonyl (C=S).Alternatively, N,N′-disubstituted thioureas can be prepared by coupling two amines with thiophosgene: HNR Cl NR HCl Amines also condense with organic thiocyanates to give thioureas: HNR NR NR NHR ′) Cyclic thioureas are prepared by transamidation of thiourea with diamines. Ethylene thiourea is synthesized by treating ethylenediamine with carbon disulfide. In some cases, thioureas can be prepared by thiation of ureas using phosphorus pentasulfide.
Applications:
Precursor to heterocycles Thioureas are building blocks to pyrimidine derivatives. Thus thioureas condense with β-dicarbonyl compounds. The amino group on the thiourea initially condenses with a carbonyl, followed by cyclization and tautomerization. Desulfurization delivers the pyrimidine. The pharmaceuticals thiobarbituric acid and sulfathiazole are prepared using thiourea. 4-Amino-3-hydrazino-5-mercapto-1,2,4-triazole is prepared by the reaction of thiourea and hydrazine.
Catalysis Some thioureas are vulcanization accelerators. Thioureas are also used in a research theme called thiourea organocatalysis. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Malcolm Slaney**
Malcolm Slaney:
Malcolm Slaney is an American electrical engineer, whose research has focused on machine perception and multimedia analysis. He is a Fellow of the IEEE for "contributions to perceptual signal processing and tomographic imaging". He is a consulting professor at the Stanford University Center for Computer Research in Music and Acoustics and an affiliate faculty member in the Electrical Engineering Department at the University of Washington.Slaney attended Purdue University for his bachelor's, master's, and PhD degrees in electrical engineering. He is currently a Research Scientist in the Machine Hearing group at Google. Previously, he worked at Bell Labs, Schlumberger Palo Alto Research, Apple Computer, Interval Research Corporation, IBM Research – Almaden, Yahoo! Research, and Microsoft Research.Slaney's 1988 book with Avinash Kak, Principles of Computerized Tomographic Imaging, which he co-wrote as a grad student, has been selected by the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics for republication in their Classics in Applied Mathematics series. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Encyclopedia of Analytical Chemistry**
Encyclopedia of Analytical Chemistry:
The Encyclopedia of Analytical Chemistry is an English-language multi-volume encyclopedia published by John Wiley & Sons.
It is a comprehensive analytical chemistry reference, covering all aspects from theory and instrumentation through applications and techniques. Containing over 600 articles and over 6500 illustrations the 15-volume print edition published in 2000. The encyclopedia has been available online since the end of 2006. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Trace metal stable isotope biogeochemistry**
Trace metal stable isotope biogeochemistry:
Trace metal stable isotope biogeochemistry is the study of the distribution and relative abundances of trace metal isotopes in order to better understand the biological, geological, and chemical processes occurring in an environment. Trace metals are elements such as iron, magnesium, copper, and zinc that occur at low levels in the environment. Trace metals are critically important in biology and are involved in many processes that allow organisms to grow and generate energy. In addition, trace metals are constituents of numerous rocks and minerals, thus serving as an important component of the geosphere. Both stable and radioactive isotopes of trace metals exist, but this article focuses on those that are stable. Isotopic variations of trace metals in samples are used as isotopic fingerprints to elucidate the processes occurring in an environment and answer questions relating to biology, geochemistry, and medicine.
Isotope notation:
In order to study trace metal stable isotope biogeochemistry, it is necessary to compare the relative abundances of isotopes of trace metals in a given biological, geological, or chemical pool to a standard (discussed individually for each isotope system below) and monitor how those relative abundances change as a result of various biogeochemical processes. Conventional notations used to mathematically describe isotope abundances, as exemplified here for 56Fe, include the isotope ratio (56R), fractional abundance (56F) and delta notation (δ56Fe). Furthermore, as different biogeochemical processes vary the relative abundances of the isotopes of a given trace metal, different reaction pools or substances will become enriched or depleted in specific isotopes. This partial separation of isotopes between different pools is termed isotope fractionation, and is mathematically described by fractionation factors α or ε (which express the difference in isotope ratio between two pools), or by "cap delta" (Δ; the difference between two δ values). For a more complete description of these notations, see the isotope notation section in Hydrogen isotope biogeochemistry.
Naturally occurring trace metal isotope variations and fractionations:
In nature, variations in isotopic ratios of trace metals on the order of a few tenths to several ‰ are observed within and across diverse environments spanning the geosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. A complete understanding of all processes that fractionate trace metal isotopes is presently lacking, but in general, isotopes of trace metals are fractionated during various chemical and biological processes due to kinetic and equilibrium isotope effects.
Naturally occurring trace metal isotope variations and fractionations:
Geochemical fractionations Certain isotopes of trace metals are preferentially oxidized or reduced; thus, transitions between redox species of the metal ions (e.g., Fe2+ → Fe3+) are fractionating, resulting in different isotopic compositions between the different redox pools in the environment. Additionally, at high temperatures, metals ions can evaporate (and subsequently condense upon cooling), and the relative differences in isotope masses of a given heavy metal leads to fractionation during these evaporation and condensation processes. Diffusion of isotopes through a solution or material can also result in fractionations, as the lighter mass isotopes are able to diffuse at a faster rate. Additionally, isotopes can have slight variations in their solubility and other chemical and physical properties, which can also drive fractionation.
Naturally occurring trace metal isotope variations and fractionations:
Biological fractionations In sediments, oceans, and rivers, distinct trace metal isotope ratios exist due to biological processes such as metal ion uptake and abiotic processes such as adsorption to particulate matter that preferentially remove certain isotopes. The trace metal isotopic composition of a given organism results from a combination of the isotopic compositions of source material (i.e., food and water) and any fractionations imparted during metal ion uptake, translocation and processing inside cells.
Applications of trace metal isotope ratios:
Stable isotope ratios of trace metals can be used to answer a variety of questions spanning diverse fields, including oceanography, geochemistry, biology, medicine, anthropology and astronomy. In addition to their modern applications, trace metal isotopic compositions can provide insight into ancient biogeochemical processes operated on Earth. These signatures arise because the processes that form and modify samples are recorded in the trace metal isotopic compositions of the samples. By analyzing and understanding trace metal isotopic compositions in biological, chemical or geological materials, one can answer questions such as the sources of nutrients for phytoplankton in the ocean, processes that drove the formation of geologic structures, the diets of modern or ancient organisms, and accretionary processes that took place in the early Solar System. Trace metal stable isotope biogeochemistry is still an emerging field, yet each trace metal isotope system has clear, powerful applications to diverse and important questions. Important heavy metal isotope systems are discussed (in order of increasing atomic mass) in the proceeding sections.
Iron:
Stable isotopes and natural abundances Naturally occurring iron has four stable isotopes, 54Fe, 56Fe, 57Fe, and 58Fe.
Iron:
Stable iron isotopes are described as the relative abundance of each of the stable isotopes with respect to 54Fe. The standard for iron is elemental iron, IRMM-014, and it is distributed by the Institute for Reference Materials and Measurement. The delta value is compared to this standard, and is defined as: 56 54 56 54 56 54 014 −1 Delta values are often reported as per mil values (‰), or part-per-thousand differences from the standard. Iron isotopic fractionation is also commonly described in units of per mil per atomic mass unit.
Iron:
In many cases, the δ56Fe value can be related to the δ57Fe and δ58Fe values through mass-dependent fractionation: 57 1.5 56 Fe 58 56 Fe Chemistry One of the most prevalent features of iron chemistry is its redox chemistry. Iron has three oxidation states: metallic iron (Fe0), ferrous iron (Fe2+), and ferric iron (Fe3+). Ferrous iron is the reduced form of iron, and ferric iron is the oxidized form of iron. In the presence of oxygen, ferrous iron is oxidized to ferric iron, thus ferric iron is the dominant redox state of iron at Earth's surface conditions. However, ferrous iron is the dominant redox state below the surface at depth. Because of this redox chemistry, iron can act as either an electron donor or receptor, making it a metabolically useful species.
Iron:
Each form of iron has a specific distribution of electrons (i.e., electron configuration), tabulated below: Equilibrium Isotope Fractionation Variations in iron isotopes are caused by a number of chemical processes which result in the preferential incorporation of certain isotopes of iron into certain phases. Many of the chemical processes which fractionate iron are not well understood and are still being studied. The most well-documented chemical processes which fractionate iron isotopes relate to its redox chemistry, the evaporation and condensation of iron, and the diffusion of dissolved iron through systems. These processes are described in more detail below.
Iron:
Fractionation as a result of redox chemistry To first order, reduced iron favors isotopically light iron and oxidized iron favors isotopically heavy iron. This effect has been studied in regards to the abiotic oxidation of Fe2+ to Fe3+, which results in fractionation. The mineral ferrihydrite, which forms in acidic aquatic conditions, is precipitated via the oxidation of aqueous Fe2+ to Fe3+. Precipitated ferrihydrite has been found to be enriched in the heavy isotopes by 0.45‰ per atomic mass unit with respect to the starting material. This indicates that heavier iron isotopes are preferentially precipitated as a result of oxidizing processes.Theoretical calculations in combination with experimental data have also aimed to quantify the fractionation between Fe(III)aq and Fe(II)aq in HCl. Based on modeling, the fractionation factor between the two species is temperature dependent: 10 ln 0.334 0.032 10 0.66 0.38 Fractionation as a result of evaporation and condensation Evaporation and condensation can give rise to both kinetic and equilibrium isotope effects. While equilibrium mass fractionation is present evaporation and condensation, it is negligible compared to kinetic effects. During condensation, the condensate is enriched in the light isotope, whereas in evaporation, the gas phase is enriched in the light isotope. Using the kinetic theory of gases, for 56Fe/54Fe, a fractionation factor of α = 1.01835 for the evaporation of a pool containing equimolar amounts of 56Fe and 54Fe. In evaporation experiments, the evaporation of FeO at 1,823 K gave a fractionation factor of α = 1.01877. Presently, there have been no experimental attempts to determine the 56Fe/54Fe fractionation factor of condensation.
Iron:
Fractionation as a result of diffusion Kinetic fractionation of dissolved iron occurs as a result of diffusion. When isotopes diffuse, the lower mass isotopes diffuse more quickly than the heavier isotopes, resulting in fractionation. This difference in diffusion rates has been approximated as: D1D2=(m1m2)β In this equation, D1 and D2 are the diffusivities of the isotopes, m1 and m2 are the masses of the isotopes, and β, which can vary between 0 and 0.5, depending on the system. More work is required to fully understand fractionation as a result of diffusion, studies of diffusion of iron on metal have consistently given β values of approximately 0.25. Iron diffusion between silicate melts and basaltic/rhyolitic melts have given lower β values (~0.030). In aqueous environments, a β value of 0.0025 has been obtained.
Iron:
Fractionation as a result of phase partitioning There may be equilibrium fractionation between coexisting minerals. This would be particularly relevant when considering the formation of planetary bodies early in the solar system. Experiments have aimed to simulate the formation of the Earth at high temperatures using a platinum-iron alloy and an analog for the silicate earth at 1,500 °C. However, the observed fractionation was very small, less than 0.2‰ per atomic mass unit. More experimental work is needed to fully understand this effect.
Iron:
Biology In biology, iron plays a number of roles. Iron is widespread in most living organisms and is essential for their function. In microbes, iron redox chemistry is utilized as an electron donor or receptor in microbial metabolism, allowing microbes to generate energy. In the oceans, iron is essential for the growth and survival of phytoplankton, which use iron to fix nitrogen. Iron is also important in plants, given that they need iron to transfer electrons during photosynthesis. Finally, in animals, iron plays many roles, however, its most essential function is to transport oxygen in the bloodstream throughout the body. Thus, iron undergoes many biological processes, each of which have variations in which isotopes of iron they preferentially use. While iron isotopic fractionations are observed in many organisms, they are still not well understood. Improvements in the understanding the iron isotope fractionations observed in biology will enable the development of a more complete knowledge of the enzymatic, metabolic, and other biologic pathways in different organisms. Below, the known iron isotopic variations for different classes of organisms are described.
Iron:
Iron reducing bacteria Iron reducing bacteria reduce ferric iron to ferrous iron under anaerobic conditions. One of the first studies that studied iron fractionation in iron-reducing bacteria studied the bacterium Shewanella algae. S. algae was grown on a ferrihydrite substrate, and was then allowed to reduce iron. The study found that S. algae preferentially reduced 54Fe over 56Fe, with a δ56/54Fe value of -1.3‰.More recent experiments have studied the bacterium Shewanella putrefaciens and its reduction of Fe(III) in goethite. These studies have found δ56/54Fe values of -1.2‰ relative to the goethite. The kinetics of this fractionation were also studied in this experiment, and it was suggested that the iron isotope fractionation is likely related to the kinetics of the electron transfer step.Most studies of other iron reducing bacteria have found δ56/54Fe values of approximately -1.3‰. At high Fe(III) reduction rates, δ56/54Fe values of -2 – -3‰ relative to the substrate have been observed. The study of iron isotopes in iron reducing bacteria enable the development of an improved understanding regarding the metabolic processes operating in these organisms.
Iron:
Iron oxidizing bacteria While most iron is oxidized as a result of interaction with atmospheric oxygen or oxygenated waters, oxidation by bacteria is an active process in anoxic environments and in oxygenated, low pH (<3) environments. Studies of the acidophilic Fe(II)-oxidizing bacterium, Acidthiobacillus ferrooxidans, have been used to determine the fractionation as a result of iron-oxidizing bacteria. In most cases, δ56/54Fe values between 2 and 3‰ were measured. However, a Rayleigh trend with a fractionation factor of αFe(III)aq-Fe(II)aq ~ 1.0022 was observed, which is smaller than the fractionation factor in the abiotic control experiments (αFe(III)aq-Fe(II)aq ~ 1.0034), which has been inferred to reflect a biological isotope effect. Using iron isotopes, an improvement in the understanding of the metabolic processes controlling iron oxidation and energy production in these organisms can be developed.
Iron:
Photoautrophic bacteria, which oxidize Fe(II) under anaerobic conditions, have also been studied. The Thiodictyon bacteria precipitate poorly crystalline hydrous ferric oxide when they oxidize iron. The precipitate was enriched in the 56Fe relative to Fe(II)aq, with a δ56/54Fe value of +1.5 ± 0.2‰.
Magnetotactic bacteria Magnetotactic bacteria are bacteria with magnetosomes that contain magnetic crystals, usually magnetite or greigite, which allow them to orient themselves with the Earth’s magnetic field lines. These bacteria mineralize magnetite via the reduction of Fe(III), usually in microaerobic or anoxic environments. In the magnetotactic bacteria that have been studied, there was no significant iron isotope fractionation observed.
Iron:
Phytoplankton Iron is important for the growth of phytoplankton. In phytoplankton, iron is used for electron transfer reactions in photosynthesis in both photosystem I and photosystem II. Additionally, iron is an important component of the enzyme nitrogenase, which is used to fix nitrogen. In measurements at open ocean stations, phytoplankton are isotopically light, with the fractionation as a result of biological uptake measured between -0.25‰ and -0.13‰. Improvement in the understanding of this fractionation will enable the more precise understanding of phytoplankton photosynthetic processes.
Iron:
Animals Iron has many important roles in animal biology, specifically when considering oxygen transport in the bloodstream, oxygen storage in muscles, and enzymes. Known isotope variations are shown in the figure below. Iron isotopes could be useful tracers of the iron biochemical pathways in animals, and also be indicative of trophic levels in a food chain.Iron isotope variations in humans reflects a number of processes. Specifically, iron in the blood stream reflects dietary iron, which is isotopically lighter than iron in the geosphere. Iron isotopes are distributed heterogeneously throughout the body, primarily to red blood cells, the liver, muscle, skin, enzymes, nails, and hair. Iron losses in the body (intestinal bleeding, bile, sweat, etc.) favor the loss of isotopically heavy iron, with mean losses averaging a δ56Fe of +10‰. Iron absorption in the intestine favors lighter iron isotopes. This is largely due to the fact that iron is carried by transport proteins and transferrin, both of which are kinetic processes, resulting in the preferential uptake of isotopically light iron.The observed iron isotopic variations in humans and animals are particularly important as tracers. Iron isotopic signatures are utilized to determine the geographic origin of food. Additionally, anthropologists and paleontologists use iron isotope data in order to track the transfer of iron between the geosphere and the biosphere, specifically between plant foods and animals. This allows for the reconstruction of ancient dietary habits based on the variations in iron isotopes in food.
Iron:
Geochemistry By mass, iron is the most common element on Earth, and it is the fourth most abundant element in the Earth's crust. Thus, iron is widespread throughout the geosphere, and is also common on other planetary bodies. Natural variations in the iron in the geosphere are relatively small. Currently, the values of δ56/54Fe measured in rocks and minerals range from -2.5‰ to +1.5‰. Iron isotope composition is homogeneous in igneous rocks to ±0.05‰, indicating that much of the geologic isotopic variability is a result of the formation of rocks and minerals at low temperature. This homogeneity is particularly useful when tracing processes which result in fractionation through the system. While fractionation of igneous rocks is relatively constant, there are larger variations in the iron isotopic composition of chemical sediments. Thus, iron isotopes are used to determine the origin of the protolith of heavily metamorphosed rocks of a sedimentary origin. Improvements of the understanding regarding the way in which iron isotopes fractionate in the geosphere can help to better understand geologic processes of formation.
Iron:
Natural iron isotopic variations To date, iron is one of the most widely studied trace metals, and iron isotope compositions are relatively well-documented. Based on measurements, iron isotopes exhibit minimal variation (±3‰) in the terrestrial environment. A list of iron isotopic values of different materials from different environments is presented below.
Iron:
In terrestrial environments There is an extreme constancy of the isotopic composition of igneous rocks. The mean value of δ56Fe of terrestrial rocks is 0.00 ± 0.05‰. More precise isotopic measurements indicate that the small deviations from 0.00‰ may reflect a slight mass-dependent fractionation. This mass fractionation has been proposed to be FFe = 0.039 ± 0.008‰ per atomic mass unit relative to IRMM-014. There may also be slight isotopic variations in igneous rocks depending on their composition and process of formation. The average value of δ56Fe for ultramafic igneous rocks is -0.06‰, whereas the average value of δ56Fe for mid-ocean ridge basalts (MORB) is +0.03‰. Sedimentary rocks exhibit slightly larger variations in δ56Fe, with values between -1.6‰ and +0.9‰ relative to IRMM-014. Banded iron formations δ56Fe span the entire range observed on Earth, from -2.5‰ to +1‰.
Iron:
In the oceans There are slight iron isotopic variations in the oceans relative to IRMM-014, which likely reflect variations in the biogeochemical cycling of iron within a given ocean basin. In the southeastern Atlantic, δ56Fe values between -0.13 and +0.21‰ have been measured. In the north Atlantic, δ56Fe values between -1.35 and +0.80‰ have been measured. In the equatorial Pacific δ56Fe values between -0.03 and +0.58‰ have been measured. The supply of aerosol iron particles to the ocean have an isotopic composition of approximately 0‰. Dissolved iron riverine input to the ocean is isotopically light relative to igneous rocks, with δ56Fe values between -1 and 0‰.Most modern marine sediments have δ56Fe values similar to those of igneous δ56Fe values. Marine ferromanganese nodules have δ56Fe values between -0.8 and 0‰.
Iron:
In hydrothermal systems Hot (> 300 °C) hydrothermal fluids from mid ocean ridges are isotopically light, with δ56Fe between -0.2 and -0.8‰. Particles in hydrothermal plumes are isotopically heavy relative to the hydrothermal fluids, with δ56Fe between 0.1 and 1.1‰. Hydrothermal deposits have average δ56Fe between -1.6 and 0.3‰. The sulfide minerals within these deposits have δ56Fe between -2.0 and 1.1‰.
Iron:
In extraterrestrial objects Variations in iron isotopic composition have been observed in meteorite samples from other planetary bodies. The Moon has variations in iron isotopes of 0.4‰ per atomic mass unit. Mars has very small isotope fractionation of 0.001 ± 0.006‰ per atomic mass unit. Vesta has iron fractionations of 0.010 ± 0.010‰ per atomic mass unit. The chondritic reservoir exhibits fractionations of 0.069 ± 0.010‰ per atomic mass unit. Isotopic variations observed on planetary bodies can help to constrain and better understand their formation and processes occurring in the early Solar System.
Iron:
Measurement High precision iron isotope measurements are obtained either via thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS) or multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (MC-ICP-MS).
Iron:
Applications of iron isotopes Iron isotopes have many applications in the geosciences, biology, medicine, and other fields. Their ability to act as isotopic tracers allows for their use to determine information regarding the formation of geologic units and as a potential proxy for life on Earth and other planets. Iron isotopes also have applications in anthropology and paleontology, as they are used to study the diets of ancient civilizations and animals. The widespread uses of iron in biology make its isotopes a promising frontier in biomedical research, specifically their use to prevent and treat blood conditions and other pathological blood diseases. Some of the more prevalent applications of iron isotopes are described below.
Iron:
Banded iron formations Banded iron formations (BIFs) are particularly important when considering the surface environments of the early Earth, which were significantly different from the surface environments observed today. This is manifested in the mineralogy of these formations, which are indicative of different redox conditions. Additionally, BIFs are interesting in that they were deposited while major changes were occurring in the atmosphere and in the biosphere 2.8 to 1.8 billion years ago. Iron isotopic studies can reveal the details of the formation of BIFs, which allows for the reconstruction of redox and climatic conditions at the time of deposition.
Iron:
BIFs formed as a result of the oxidation of iron by oxygen, which was likely generated by the evolution of cyanobacteria. This was followed by the subsequent precipitation of iron particles in the ocean. Observed variations in the iron isotopic composition of BIFs span the entire range observed on Earth, with δ56/54Fe values between -2.5 and +1‰. The cause of these variations are hypothesized to occur for three reasons. The first relates to the varying mineralogy of the BIFs. Within the BIFs, minerals such as hematite, magnetite, siderite, and pyrite are observed. These minerals each having varying isotopic fractionation, likely as a result of their structures and the kinetics of their growth. The isotopic composition of the BIFs is indicative of the fluids from which they precipitated, which has applications when reconstructing environmental conditions of the ancient Earth. It has also been suggested that BIFs may be biologic in origin. The range of their δ56/54Fe values fall within the range of those observed to occur as a result of biologic processes relating to bacterial metabolic processes, such as those of anoxygenic phototrophic iron-oxidizing bacteria. Ultimately, the improved understanding of BIFs using iron isotope fractionations would allow for the reconstruction of past environments and the constraint of processes occurring on the ancient Earth. However, given that the values observed as a result of biogenic and abiogenic fractionation are relatively similar, the exact processes of BIFs are still unclear. Thus, the continued study and improved understanding of biologic and abiologic fractionation effects would be beneficial in providing better details regarding BIF formation.
Iron:
Iron cycling in the ocean Iron isotopes have become particularly useful in recent years for tracing biogeochemical cycling in the oceans. Iron is an important micronutrient for living species in the ocean, particularly for the growth of phytoplankton. Iron is estimated to limit phytoplankton growth in about one half of the ocean. As a result, the development of a better understanding of sources and cycling of iron in the modern oceans is important. Iron isotopes have been used to better constrain these pathways through data collected by the GEOTRACES program, which has collected iron isotopic data throughout the ocean. Based on the variations in iron isotopes, biogeochemical cycling and other processes controlling iron distribution in the ocean can be elucidated.
Iron:
For example, the combination of iron concentration and iron isotope data can use to determine the sources of oceanic iron. In the South Atlantic and in the Southern Ocean, isotopically light iron is observed in intermediate waters (200 - 1,300 meters), whereas isotopically heavy iron is observed in surface waters and deep waters (> 1,300 meters). To first order, this demonstrates that there are different sources, sinks, and processes contributing to the iron cycle in varying water masses. The isotopically light iron in intermediate waters suggests that the dominant iron sources include remineralized organic matter. This organic matter is isotopically light because phytoplankton preferentially take up light iron. In the surface ocean, the isotopically heavy iron represents the external sources of iron, such as dust, which is isotopically heavy relative to IRMM-014, and the sink of light isotopes as a result of their preferential uptake by phytoplankton. The isotopically heavy iron in the deep ocean suggests that the iron cycle is dominated by the abiotic, non-reductive release of iron, via desorption or dissolution, from particles. Isotopic analyses similar to the one above are utilized throughout all of the world's oceans to better understand regional variability in the processes which control iron cycling. These analyses can then be synthesized to better model the global biogeochemical cycling of iron, which is particularly important when considering primary production in the ocean.
Iron:
Constraining processes on extraterrestrial bodies Iron isotopes have been applied for a number of purposes on planetary bodies. Their variations have been measured to more precisely determine the processes that occurred during planetary accretion. In the future, the comparison of observed biological fractionation of iron on Earth to fractionation on other planetary bodies may have astrobiological implications.
Iron:
Planetary accretion One of the primary challenges in the study of planetary accretion is the fact that many tracers of the processes occurring in the early Solar System have been eliminated as a result of subsequent geologic events. Because transition metals do not show large stable isotope fractionations as a result of these events and because iron is one of the most abundant elements in the terrestrial planets, its isotopic variability has been used as a tracer of early Solar System processes.
Iron:
Variations in δ57/54Fe between samples from Vesta, Mars, the Moon, and Earth have been observed, and these variations cannot be explained by any known petrological, geochemical, or planetary processes, thus, it has been inferred that the observed fractionations are a result of planetary accretion. It is interesting to note that the isotopic compositions of the Earth and the Moon are much heavier than that of Vesta and Mars. This provides strong support for the giant-impact hypothesis as an impact of this energy would generate large amounts of energy, which would melt and vaporize iron, leading to the preferential escape of the lighter iron isotopes to space. More of the heavier isotopes would remain, resulting in the heavier iron isotopic compositions observed for the Earth and the Moon. The samples from Vesta and Mars exhibit minimal fractionation, consistent with the theory of runaway growth for their formations, as this process would not yield significant fractionations. Further study of the stable isotope of iron in other planetary bodies and samples could provide further evidence and more precise constraints for planetary accretion and other processes that occurred in the early Solar System.
Iron:
Astrobiology The use of iron isotopes may also have applications when studying potential evidence for life on other planets. The ability of microbes to utilize iron in their metabolisms makes it possible for organisms to survive in anoxic, iron-rich environments, such as Mars. Thus, the continual improvement of knowledge regarding the biological fractionations of iron observed on Earth can have applications when studying extraterrestrial samples in the future. While this field of research is still developing, this could provide evidence regarding whether a sample was generated as a result of biologic or abiologic processes depending on the isotopic fractionation. For example, it has been hypothesized that magnetite crystals found in Martian meteorites may have formed biologically as a result of their striking similarity to magnetite crystals produced by magnetotactic bacteria on Earth. Iron isotopes could be used to study the origin of the proposed "magnetofossils" and other rock formations on Mars.
Iron:
Biomedical research Iron plays many roles in human biology, specifically in oxygen transport, short-term oxygen storage, and metabolism Iron also plays a role in the body's immune system. Current biomedical research aims to use iron isotopes to better understand the speciation of iron in the body, with hopes of eventually being able to reduce the availability of free iron, as this would help to defend against infection.Iron isotopes can also be utilized to better understand iron absorption in humans. The iron isotopic composition of blood reflects an individual's long-term absorption of dietary iron. This allows for the study of genetic predisposition to blood conditions, such as anemia, which will ultimately enable the prevention, identification, and resolution of blood disorders. Iron isotopic data could also aid in identifying impairments of the iron absorption regulatory system in the body, which would help to prevent the development of pathological conditions related to issues with iron regulation.
Copper:
Stable isotopes and natural abundances Copper has two naturally occurring stable isotopes: 63Cu and 65Cu, which exist in the following natural abundances: The isotopic composition of Cu is conventionally reported in delta notation (in ‰) relative to a NIST SRM 976 standard: 65 65 63 65 63 976 ] Chemistry Copper can exist in non-ionic form (as Cu0) or in one of two redox states: Cu1+ (reduced) or Cu2+ (oxidized). Each form of Cu has a specific distribution of electrons (i.e., electron configuration), tabulated below: The electronic configurations of Cu control the number and types of bonds Cu can form with other atoms (e.g., see Copper Biology section). These diverse coordination chemistries are what enable Cu to participate in many different biological and chemical reactions.
Copper:
Finally, due to its full d-orbital, Cu1+ has diamagnetic resonance. In contrast, Cu2+ has one unpaired electron in its d-orbital, giving it paramagnetic resonance. The different resonances of the Cu ions enable determination of Cu's redox state by techniques such as electron paramagnetic resonance (epr) spectroscopy, which can identify atoms with unpaired electrons by exciting electron spins.
Equilibrium isotope fractionation Transitions between redox species Cu1+ and Cu2+ fractionate Cu isotopes. 63Cu2+ is preferentially reduced over 65Cu2+, leaving the residual Cu2+ enriched in 65Cu. The equilibrium fractionation factor for speciation between Cu2+ and Cu1+ (αCu(II)-Cu(I)) is 1.00403 (i.e., dissolved Cu2+ is enriched in 65Cu by ~+4‰ relative to Cu1+).
Copper:
Biology Copper can be found in the active sites of most enzymes that catalyze redox reactions (i.e., oxidoreductases), as it facilitates single electron transfers while reversibly oscillating between the Cu1+ and Cu2+ redox states. Enzymes typically contain between one (mononuclear) and four (tetranuclear) copper centers, which enable enzymes to catalyze different reactions. These copper centers coordinate with different ligands depending on the Cu redox state. Oxidized Cu2+ preferentially coordinates with "hard donor" ligands (e.g., N- or O-containing ligands such as histidine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid or tyrosine), while reduced Cu1+ preferentially coordinates with "soft donor" ligands (e.g., S-containing ligands such as cysteine or methionine). Copper's powerful redox capability makes it critically important for biology, but comes at a cost: Cu1+ is a highly toxic metal to cells because it readily abstracts single electrons from organic compounds and cellular material, leading to production of free radicals. Thus, cells have evolved specific strategies for carefully controlling the activity of Cu1+ while exploiting its redox behavior.
Copper:
Examples of copper-based enzymes Copper serves catalytic and structural roles in many essential enzymes in biology. In the context of catalytic activity, copper proteins function as electron or oxygen carriers, oxidases, mono- and dioxygenases and nitrite reductases. In particular, copper-containing enzymes include hemocyanins, one flavor of superoxide dismutase (SOD), metallothionein, cytochrome c oxidase, multicopper oxidase and particulate methane monooxygenase (pMMO).
Copper:
Biological fractionation Biological processes that fractionate Cu isotopes are not well-understood, but play an important role in driving the δ65Cu values of materials observed in the marine and terrestrial environments. The natural 65Cu/63Cu varies according to copper's redox form and the ligand to which copper binds. Oxidized Cu2+ preferentially coordinates with hard donor ligands (e.g., N- or O-containing ligands), while reduced Cu1+ preferentially coordinates with soft donor ligands (e.g., S-containing ligands). As 65Cu is preferentially oxidized over 63Cu, these isotopes tend to coordinate with hard and soft donor ligands, respectively. Cu isotopes can fractionate upon Cu-bacteria interactions from processes that include Cu adsorption to cells, intracellular uptake, metabolic regulation and redox speciation. Fractionation of Cu isotopes upon adsorption to cellular walls appears to depend on the surface functional groups that Cu complexes with, and can span positive and negative values. Furthermore, bacteria preferentially incorporate the lighter Cu isotope intracellularly and into proteins. For example, E. coli, B. subtilis and a natural consortia of microbes sequestered Cu with apparent fractionations (ε65Cu) ranging from ~-1.0 to -4.4‰. Additionally, fractionation of Cu upon incorporation into the apoprotein of azurin was ~-1‰ in P. aeruginosa, and -1.5‰ in E. coli, while ε65Cu values of Cu incorporation into Cu-metallothionein and Cu-Zn-SOD in yeast were -1.7 and -1.2‰, respectively.
Copper:
Geochemistry The concentration of Cu in bulk silicate Earth is ~30 ppm, slightly less than its average concentration (~72 ppm) in fresh mid-oceanic ridge basalt (MORB) glass. Cu1+ and Cu2+ form a variety of sulfides (often in association with Fe), as well as carbonates and hydroxides (e.g., chalcopyrite, chalcocite, cuprite and malachite). In mafic and ultramafic rocks, Cu tends to be concentrated in sulfidic materials. In freshwater, the predominant form of Cu is free Cu2+; in seawater, Cu complexes with carbonate ligands to form CuCO3 and [Cu(CO3)2]2−.
Copper:
Measurement In order to measure Cu isotope ratios of various materials, several steps must be taken prior to the isotopic measurement in order to extract and purify copper. The first step in the analytical pipeline to measure Cu isotopes is to liberate Cu from its host material. Liberation should be quantitative, otherwise fractionation may be introduced at this step. Cu-containing rocks are generally dissolved with HF; biological materials are commonly digested with HNO3. Seawater samples must be concentrated due to the low (nM) concentrations of Cu in the ocean. The sample material is subsequently run through an anion-exchange column to isolated and purify Cu. This step can also introduce Cu isotope fractionation if Cu is not quantitatively recovered from the column. If samples are from seawater, other ions (e.g., Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+) must be removed in order to eliminate isobaric interferences during the isotope measurement. Prior to 1992, 65Cu/63Cu ratios were measured via thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS). Today, Cu isotopic compositions are measured via multi-conductor inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (MC-ICP-MS), which ionizes samples using inductively coupled plasma and introduces smaller errors than TIMS.
Copper:
Natural copper isotopic variations The field of Cu isotope biogeochemistry is still in a relatively early stage, so the Cu isotope compositions of materials in the environment are not well-documented. However, based on a compilation of measurements already made, it appears that Cu isotope ratios vary somewhat widely within and between environmental materials (e.g., plants, minerals, seawater, etc.), though as a whole, these ratios do not vary by more than ±10‰.
Copper:
In humans In human bodies, coppers is an important constituent of many essential enzymes, including ceruloplasmin (which carries Cu and oxidizes Fe2+ in human plasma), cytochrome c oxidase, metallothionein and superoxide dismutase 1. Serum in human blood is typically 65Cu-depleted by ~0.8‰ relative to erythrocytes (i.e., red blood cells). In a study of 49 male and female blood donors, the average δ65Cu value of the donors' blood serum was -0.26 ± 0.40‰, while that of their erythrocytes was +0.56 ± 0.50‰. In a separate study, δ65Cu values of serum in 20 healthy patients ranged from -0.39 to +0.38‰, while the δ65Cu values of their erythrocytes ranged from +0.57 to +1.24‰. To balance Cu loss due to menstruation, a large portion of Cu in the blood of menstruating women comes from their liver. Due to fractionation associated with Cu transport from the liver to the blood, the total blood of pre-menopausal women is generally 65Cu-depleted relative to that of males and non-menstruating women. The δ65Cu values of healthy human liver tissue in 7 patients ranged from -0.45 to -0.11‰.
Copper:
In the terrestrial environment To first order, δ65Cu values in organisms are driven by the δ65Cu values of source materials. The δ65Cu values of various soils from different regions have been found to vary from -0.34 to +0.33‰ depending on the biogeochemical processes taking place in the soil and the ligands with which Cu complexes. Organic-rich soils generally have lighter δ65Cu values than mineral soils because the organic layers result from plant litter, which is isotopically light.In plants, δ65Cu values vary between the different components (seeds, roots, stem and leaves). The δ65Cu values the roots of rice, lettuce, tomato and durum wheat plants were found to be 0.5 to 1.0‰ 65Cu-depleted relative to their source, while their shoots were up to 0.5‰ lighter than the roots. Seeds appear to be the most isotopically light component of plants, followed by leaves, then stems.Rivers sampled throughout the world have a range of dissolved δ65Cu values from +0.02 to +1.45‰. The average δ65Cu values of the Amazon, Brahmaputra and Nile rivers are 0.69, 0.64 and 0.58‰, respectively. The average δ65Cu value of the Chang Jiang river is 1.32‰, while that of the Missouri river is 0.13‰.
Copper:
In rocks and minerals In general, igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary processes do not appear to strongly fractionate Cu isotopes, while δ65Cu values of Cu minerals vary widely. The average Cu isotopic composition of bulk silicate Earth has been measured as 0.06 ± 0.20‰ based on 132 different terrestrial samples. MORBs and oceanic island basalts (OIBs) generally have homogenous Cu isotopic compositions that fall around 0‰, while arc and continental basalts have more heterogeneous Cu isotope compositions that range from -0.19 to +0.47‰. These Cu isotope ratios of basalts suggest that mantle partial melting imparts negligible Cu isotopic fractionation, while recycling of crustal materials leads to widely variable δ65Cu values. The Cu isotope compositions of copper-containing minerals vary over a wide range, likely due to alteration of the primary high-temperature deposits. In one study that investigated Cu isotopic compositions of various minerals from hydrothermal fields along the mid-Atlantic ridge, chalcopyrite from mafic igneous rocks had δ65Cu values of -0.1 to -0.2‰, while Cu minerals in black smokers (chalcopyrite, bornite, covellite and atacamite) exhibited a wider range of δ65Cu values from -1.0 to +4.0‰. Additionally, atacamite lining the outer rims of black smokers can be up to 2.5‰ heavier than chalcopyrite contained within the black smoker. δ65Cu values of Cu minerals (including chrysocolle, azurite, malachite, cuprite and native copper) in low-temperature deposits have been observed to vary widely over a range of -3.0 to +5.6‰.
Copper:
In the marine environment Cu is strongly cycled in the surface and deep ocean. In the deep ocean, Cu concentrations are ~5 nM in the Pacific and ~1.5 nM in the Atlantic. The deep/surface ratio of Cu in the ocean is typically <10, and vertical concentration profiles for Cu are roughly linear due to biological recycling and scavenging processes as well as adsorption to particles.
Copper:
Due to equilibrium and biological processes that fractionate Cu isotopes in the marine environment, the bulk copper isotopic composition (δ65Cu = +0.6 to +1.5‰) is different from the δ65Cu values of the riverine input (δ65Cu = +0.02 to +1.45‰, with discharge-weighted average δ65Cu = +0.68‰) to the oceans. δ65Cu values of the surface layers of FeMn-nodules are fairly homogenous throughout the oceans (average = 0.31‰), suggesting low biological demand for Cu in the marine environment compared to that of Fe or Zn. Additionally, δ65Cu values in the Atlantic ocean do not markedly vary with depth, ranging from +0.56 to +0.72‰. However, Cu isotope compositions of material collected on sediment traps at depths of 1,000 and 2,500 m in the central Atlantic ocean show seasonal variation with heaviest δ65Cu values in the spring and summer seasons suggesting seasonal preferential uptake of 63Cu by biological processes.
Copper:
Equilibrium processes that fractionate Cu isotopes include high temperature ion exchange and redox speciation between mineral phases, and low temperature ion exchange between aqueous species or redox speciation between inorganic species. In riverine and marine environments, 65Cu/63Cu ratios are driven by preferential adsorption of 63Cu to particulate matter and preferential binding of 65Cu to organic complexes. As a net result, ocean sediments tend to be depleted in 63Cu relative to the bulk ocean. For example, the downcore δ65Cu values of a 760 cm sedimentary core taken from the Central Pacific ocean varied from -0.94 to -2.83‰, significantly lighter than the bulk ocean.
Copper:
Applications of copper isotopes Medicine Due to its relatively short turnover time of ~6 weeks in the human body, Cu serves as an important indicator of cancer and other diseases that rapidly evolve. The serum of cancer patients contains significantly higher levels of Cu than that of healthy patients due to copper chelation by lactate, which is produced via anaerobic glycolysis by tumor cells. These imbalances in Cu homeostasis are reflected isotopically in the serum and organ tissues of patients with various types of cancer, where the serum of cancer patients is generally 65Cu-depleted relative to the serum of healthy patients, while organ tumors are generally 65Cu-enriched. In one study, the blood components of patients with hepatocellular carcinomas (HCC) was found to be, on average, depleted in 65Cu by 0.4‰ relative to the blood of non-cancer patients. In particular, the δ65Cu values of the serum in patients with HCC ranged from -0.66 to +0.47‰ (compared to serum δ65Cu values of -0.39 to +0.38‰ in matched control patients), and the δ65Cu values of the erythrocytes in the HCC patients ranged from -0.07 to +0.92‰ (compared to erythrocyte δ65Cu values of +0.57 to +1.24‰ in matched control patients). The liver tumor tissues in the HCC patients were 65Cu-enriched relative to healthy liver tissue in the same patients (δ65Culiver, HCC = -0.02 to +0.43‰; δ65Culiver, healthy = -0.45 to -0.11‰), and the magnitude of 65Cu-enrichment mirrored that of the 65Cu-depletion observed in the cancer patients' serum. Though our understanding of how copper isotopes are fractionated during cancer physiologies is still limited, it is clear that copper isotope ratios may serve as a powerful biomarker of cancer presence and progression.
Zinc:
Stable isotopes and natural abundances Zinc has five stable isotopes, tabulated along with their natural abundances below: The isotopic composition of Zn is reported in delta notation (in ‰): 64 64 Zn)std] where xZn is a Zn isotope other than 64Zn (commonly either 66Zn or 68Zn). Standard reference materials used for Zn isotope measurements are JMC 3-0749C, NIST-SRM 683 or NIST-SRM 682.
Zinc:
Chemistry Because it has just one valence state (Zn2+), zinc is a redox-inert element. The electronic configurations of Zn0 and Zn2+ are shown below: Biology Zinc is present in almost 3,000 human proteins, and thus is essential for nearly all cellular functions. Zn is also a key constituent of enzymes involved in cell regulation. Consistent with its ubiquitous presence, total cellular Zn concentrations are typically very high (~200 μM), while the concentrations of free Zn ions in the cytoplasms of cells can be as low as a few hundred picomolar, maintained within a narrow range to avoid deficiency and toxicity. One feature of Zn that makes it so critical in cellular biology is its flexibility in coordination to different numbers and types of ligands. Zn can coordinate with anywhere between three and six N-, O- and S-containing ligands (such as histidine, glutamic acid, aspartic acid and cysteine), resulting in a large number of possible coordination chemistries. Zn tends to bind to metal sites of proteins with relatively high affinities compared to other metal ions which, aside from its important functions in enzymatic reactions, partly explains its ubiquitous presence in cellular enzymes.
Zinc:
Examples of zinc-based enzymes Zn is present in the active sites of most hydrolytic enzymes, and is used as an electrophilic catalyst to activate water molecules that ultimately hydrolyze chemical bonds. Examples of zinc-based enzymes include superoxide dismutase (SOD), metallothionein, carbonic anhydrase, Zn finger proteins, alcohol dehydrogenase and carboxypeptidase.
Zinc:
Biological fractionation Relatively little is known about isotopic fractionation of zinc by biological processes, but several studies have elucidated that Zn isotopes fractionate during surface adsorption, intracellular uptake processes and speciation. Many organisms, including certain species of fish, plants and marine phytoplankton, have both high- and low-affinity Zn transport systems, which appear to fractionate Zn isotopes differently. A study by John et al. observed apparent isotope effects associated with Zn uptake by the marine diatom Thalassiosira oceanica of -0.2‰ for high-affinity uptake (at low Zn concentrations) and -0.8‰ for low-affinity uptake (at high Zn concentrations). Additionally, in this study, unwashed cells were enriched in 65Zn, indicating preferential adsorption of 65Zn to the extracellular surfaces of T. oceanica. Results from John et al. demonstrating apparent discrimination against the heavy isotope (66Zn) during uptake conflict with results by Gélabert et al. in which marine phytoplankton and freshwater periphytic organisms preferentially uptook 66Zn from solution. The latter authors explained these results as due to a preferential partitioning of 66Zn into a tetrahedrally coordinated structure (i.e., with carboxylate, amine or silanol groups on or inside the cell) over an octahedral coordination with six water molecules in the aqueous phase, consistent with quantum mechanical predictions. Kafantaris and Borrok grew model organisms B. subtilis, P. mendocina and E. coli, as well as a natural bacterial consortium collected from soil, on high and low concentrations of Zn. In the high [Zn] condition, the average fractionation of Zn isotopes imparted by cellular surface adsorption was +0.46‰ (i.e., 66Zn was preferentially adsorbed), while fractionation upon intracellular incorporation varied from -0.2 to +0.5‰ depending on the bacterial species and growth phase. Empirical models of the low [Zn] condition estimated larger Zn isotope fractionation factors for surface adsorption ranging from +2 to +3‰. Overall, Zn isotope ratios in microbes appear to be driven by a number of complex factors including surface interactions, bacterial metal metabolism and metal speciation, but by understanding the relative contributions of these factors to Zn isotope signals, one can use Zn isotopes to investigate metal-binding pathways operating in natural communities of microbes.
Zinc:
Geochemistry The concentration of Zn in bulk silicate Earth is ~55 ppm, while its average concentration in fresh mid-oceanic ridge basalt (MORB) glass is ~87 ppm. Like Cu, Zn commonly associates with Fe to form a variety of zinc sulfide minerals such as sphalerite. Additionally, Zn associates with carbonates and hydroxides to form numerous diverse minerals (e.g., smithsonite, sweetite, etc.). In mafic and ultramafic rocks, Zn tends to concentrate in oxides such as spinel and magnetite. In freshwater, Zn predominantly complexes with water to form an octahedrally coordinated aqua ion [Zn(H2O)6]2+. In seawater, Cl− ions replace up to four water molecules in the Zn aqua ion, forming [ZnCl(H2O)5]+, [ZnCl2(H2O)4]0 and [ZnCl4(H2O)2]−.
Zinc:
Measurement The analytical pipeline for preparation of sample material for Zn isotope measurements is similar to that of Cu, consisting of digestion of host material or concentration from seawater, isolation and purification via anion-exchange chromatography, removal of ions of interfering mass (in particular, 64Ni) and isotope measurement via MC-ICP-MS (see Copper Isotope Measurement section for more details).
Zinc:
Natural zinc isotopic variations As with Cu, the field of Zn isotope biogeochemistry is still in a relatively early stage, so the Zn isotope compositions of materials in the environment are not well-documented. However, based on a compilation of some reported measurements, it appears that Zn isotope ratios do not vary widely among environmental materials (e.g., plants, minerals, seawater, etc.), as δ66Zn values of materials typically fall within a range of -1 to +1‰.
Zinc:
In humans Zn isotope ratios vary between individual blood components, bones and the different organs in humans, though in general, δ66Zn values fall within a narrow range. In the blood of healthy individuals, the Zn isotopic composition of erythrocytes is typically ~0.3‰ lighter than that of serum, and no significant differences in erythrocyte or serum δ66Zn values exist between men and women. For example, in the blood of 49 healthy blood donors, the average erythrocyte δ66Zn value was +0.44 ± 0.33‰, while that of serum was +0.17 ± 0.26‰. In a separate study on 29 donors, a similar average δ66Zn value of +0.29 ± 0.27‰ was obtained for the patients' serum. Additionally, in a small sample set of volunteers, whole blood δ66Zn values were ~+0.15‰ higher for vegetarians than for omnivores, suggesting diet plays an important role in driving Zn isotope compositions in the human body.
Zinc:
In the terrestrial environment Zn isotope ratios vary on small scales throughout the terrestrial biosphere. Zn is released into soils during mineral weathering, and isotopes of Zn fractionate upon interaction with mineral and organic components in the soil. In 5 soil profiles collected from Iceland (all derived from the same parent basalt), soil δ66Zn values varied from +0.10 to +0.35‰, and the organic-rich layers were 66Zn-depleted relative to the mineral-rich layers, likely due to contribution by isotopically light organic matter and Zn loss by leaching.Isotopic discrimination of Zn varies in different components of higher plants, likely due to the various processes involved in Zn uptake, binding, transport, diffusion, speciation and compartmentalization. For example, Weiss et al. observed heavier δ66Zn values in the roots of several plants (rice, lettuce and tomato) relative to the bulk solution in which the plants were grown, and the shoots of those plants were 66Zn-depleted relative to both their roots and bulk solution. Furthermore, Zn isotopes partition differently between different Zn-ligand complexes, so the form of Zn incorporated by organisms in the terrestrial biosphere plays a role in driving Zn isotope compositions of the organisms. In particular, based on ab initio calculations, Zn-phosphate complexes are expected to be isotopically heavier than Zn-citrates, Zn-malates and Zn-histidine complexes by 0.6 to 1‰.The discharge- and [Zn]-weighted average δ66Zn value of rivers throughout the world is +0.33‰. In particular, the average δ66Zn values of the Kalix and Chang Jiang rivers are +0.64 and +0.56‰, respectively. The Amazon, Missouri and Brahmaputra rivers have average δ66Zn values near +0.30‰, and the average δ66Zn value of the Nile river is +0.21‰.
Zinc:
In rocks and minerals In general, δ66Zn values of various rocks and minerals do not appear to significantly vary. The δ66Zn value of bulk silicate Earth (BSE) is +0.28 + 0.05‰. Fractionation of Zn isotopes by igneous processes is generally insignificant, and δ66Zn values of basalt fall within the range of +0.2 to +0.3‰, encompassing the value for BSE. δ66Zn values of clay minerals from diverse environments and of diverse ages have been found to fall within the same range as basalts, suggesting negligible fractionation between the basaltic precursors and sedimentary materials. Carbonates appear to be more 66Zn-enriched than other sedimentary and igneous rocks. For example, the δ66Zn value of a limestone core taken from the Central Pacific was +0.6‰ at the surface and increased to +1.2‰ with depth The Zn isotopic compositions of various ores are not well-characterized, but smithsonites and sphalerites (Zn carbonates and Zn sulfides, respectively) collected from various localities in Europe had δ66Zn values ranging from -0.06 to +0.69‰, with smithsonite potentially slightly heavier by 0.3‰ than sphalerite.
Zinc:
In the marine environment Zn is an essential biological nutrient in the oceans, and its concentration is largely controlled by uptake by phytoplankton and remineralization. In addition to its critical role in many metalloenzymes (see Zinc Biology section), Zn is an important component of the carbonate shells of foraminifera and siliceous frustules in diatoms. The main inputs of Zn to the ocean are thought to be from rivers and dust. In some photic zones in the ocean, Zn is a limiting nutrient for phytoplankton, and thus its concentration in surface waters serves as one control on marine primary productivity. Zn concentrations are extremely low in the surface ocean (<0.1 nM) but are maximal at depth (~2 nM in the deep Atlantic; ~10 nM in the deep Pacific), indicating a deep regeneration cycle. The deep/surface ratio of Zn is typically on the order of 100, significantly larger than that observed for Cu.
Zinc:
A multitude of complex processes fractionate Zn isotopes in the marine environment. As seen with copper isotopes, the bulk isotopic composition of zinc in the oceans (δ66Zn = +0.5‰) is heavier than that of the riverine input (δ66Zn = +0.3‰), reflecting both equilibrium, biological and other processes that affect Zn isotope ratios in the ocean. In the surface ocean, phytoplankton preferentially uptake 64Zn, and as a result have average δ66Zn values of ~+0.16‰ (i.e., 0.34‰ lighter than the bulk ocean). This preferential removal of 64Zn by photosynthetic marine organisms in the photic zone is most prominent in the spring and summer seasons when primary productivity is highest, and the seasonal variability of Zn isotope ratios is reflected in the δ66Zn values of settling materials, which are heavier (e.g., by ~+0.20‰ in the Atlantic Ocean) during spring and summer than during the colder seasons. Additionally, the surface layers of FeMn-nodules are 66Zn enriched at high-latitudes (average δ66Zn = +1‰), while δ66Zn values of low-latitude samples are smaller and more variable (spanning +0.5 to +1‰). This observation has been interpreted as due to high levels of Zn consumption and preferential uptake of 64Zn above the seasonal thermocline at high latitudes during warmer seasons, and transfer of this heavy δ66Zn signal to the settling sedimentary Fe-Mn hydroxides.Sources and sinks for Zn isotopes are further highlighted in the vertical profile of 66Zn/64Zn in the water column. In the upper 2,000 m of the Atlantic Ocean, δ66Zn values are highly variable near the surface (δ66Zn = +0.05 to +0.33‰) due to biological uptake and other surface processes, then gradually increase to ~+0.50‰ at 2,000 m depth. Potential sinks for light Zn isotopes, which enrich the residual bulk Zn isotope ratios in the ocean, include binding to and burial with sinking particulate matter, as well as Zn sulfide precipitation in buried sediments. As a result of preferential burial of 64Zn over the heavier Zn isotopes, sediments in the ocean are generally isotopically lighter than that of bulk seawater. For example, δ66Zn values in 8 sedimentary cores from three different continental margins were depleted in 66Zn relative to the bulk ocean (δ66Zncores = -0.15 to +0.2‰), and furthermore the vertical profiles of δ66Zn values in the cores showed no downcore isotopic variability, suggesting diagenesis does not significantly fractionate Zn isotopes.
Zinc:
Applications of zinc isotopes Medicine Zn isotopes may be useful as a tracer for breast cancer. Relative to non-cancerous patients, breast cancer patients are known to have significantly higher concentrations of Zn in their breast tissue, but lower concentrations in their blood serum and erythrocytes, due to overexpression of Zn transporters in breast cancer cells. Consistent with these body-wide shifts in Zn homeostasis, δ66Zn values in breast cancer tumors of 5 patients were found to be anomalously light (varying from -0.9 to -0.6‰) relative to healthy tissue in 3 breast cancer patients and 1 healthy control (δ66Zn = -0.5 to -0.3‰). In this study, δ66Zn values of blood and serum were not found to be significantly different between cancerous and non-cancerous patients, suggesting an unknown isotopically heavy pool of Zn must exist in cancer patients. Though results from this study are promising regarding the use of Zn isotope ratios as a biomarker for breast cancer, a mechanistic understanding of how Zn isotopes fractionate during tumor formation in breast cancer is still lacking. Fortunately, increasing attention is being devoted to the use of stable metal isotopes as tracers of cancer and other diseases, and the usefulness of these isotope systems in medical applications will become more apparent in the next few decades. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Eye neoplasm**
Eye neoplasm:
Eye neoplasms can affect all parts of the eye, and can be a benign tumor or a malignant tumor (cancer). Eye cancers can be primary (starts within the eye) or metastatic cancer (spread to the eye from another organ). The two most common cancers that spread to the eye from another organ are breast cancer and lung cancer. Other less common sites of origin include the prostate, kidney, thyroid, skin, colon and blood or bone marrow.
Types:
Tumors in the eye and orbit can be benign like dermoid cysts, or malignant like rhabdomyosarcoma and retinoblastoma.
Types:
Malignant The most common eyelid tumor is called basal cell carcinoma. This tumor can grow around the eye but rarely spreads to other parts of the body. Other types of common eyelid cancers include squamous carcinoma, sebaceous carcinoma and malignant melanoma. The most common orbital malignancy is orbital lymphoma. This tumor can be diagnosed by biopsy with histopathologic and immunohistochemical analysis. Most patients with orbital lymphoma can be offered chemotherapy or radiation therapy.
Types:
Adults The most common malignant primary intraocular tumor in adults is uveal melanoma. These tumors can occur in the choroid, iris and ciliary body. The latter are sometimes called iris or ciliary body melanoma.
The next most common is primary intraocular lymphoma (PIOL) which is usually non-Hodgkin’s, large cell lymphoma of the B-cell type, although T cell lymphomas have also been described.
Children The most common malignant intraocular tumor in children is retinoblastoma, affecting approximately 325 children per year in North America. Early detection has allowed for cures exceeding 95%.
The second most common is medulloepithelioma (also called diktyoma) which can occur in the ciliary body and the uvea of the eye.
Benign Orbital dermoid cysts are benign choristomas which are typically found at the junction of sutures, most commonly at the fronto-zygomatic suture. Large deep orbital dermoid cysts can cause pressure effects on the muscles and optic nerve, leading to diplopia and loss of vision.
Signs and symptoms:
Melanomas (choroidal, ciliary body and uveal) - In the early stages there may be no symptoms (the person does not know there is a tumor until an ophthalmologist or optometrist looks into the eye with an ophthalmoscope during a routine test). As the tumor grows, symptoms can be blurred vision, decreased vision, double vision, eventual vision loss and if they continue to grow the tumor can break past the retina causing retinal detachment. Sometimes the tumor can be visible through the pupil.
Signs and symptoms:
A nevus is a benign, freckle in the eye. These should be checked out and regular checks on the eye done to ensure it has not turned into a melanoma.
Iris and conjuctival tumors (melanomas) - Present as a dark spot. Any spot which continues to grow on the iris and the conjunctiva should be checked out.
Signs and symptoms:
Retinoblastoma - Strabismus (crossed eyes), a whitish or yellowish glow through the pupil, decreasing/loss of vision, sometimes the eye may be red and painful. Retinoblastoma can occur in one or both eyes. This tumor occurs in babies and young children. It is called RB for short. Check photographs, normal healthy eyes would have the red eye reflex, but a white/yellow dot instead of the red eye reflex can indicate a tumor or some other kind of eye disease. Any photos of a child/children which have a white/yellow dot instead of the red eye reflex should be evaluated by an eye doctor.
Diagnosis:
Classification Choroidal tumors Choroidal hemangioma Choroidal melanoma Choroidal metastasis Choroidal nevus Choroidal osteoma Ciliary body melanoma The nevus of Ota Conjunctival tumors Conjunctival Kaposi's sarcoma Epibulbar dermoid Malignant conjunctival tumors Lymphoma of the conjunctiva Melanoma and PAM with atypia Pigmented conjunctival tumors Pingueculum Pterygium Squamous carcinoma and intraepithelial neoplasia of the conjunctiva
Treatment:
Laser therapy Plaque therapy Radiotherapy - The ophthalmologist decides in conjunction with the radiation oncologist which type of radiation therapy is most suitable, based on size and location of the tumour. Today, modern radiation treatment modalities, such as proton therapy, are likely to be chosen, for providing superior accuracy in dose delivery, helping to spare healthy tissue and the sensitive optic nerves.
Treatment:
Proton therapy Enucleation of the eye - Removal of the eye, but the muscles and eyelids are left intact. An implant is inserted, then the person wears a conformer shield and later the person will have their prosthesis made and fitted (the prosthesis is made by an ocularist and is made to look like the person's real eye) Evisceration - Removal of the eye contents, leaving the sclera or the white part of the eye.
Treatment:
Exenteration - Removal of the eye, all orbital contents, which can involve the eyelids as well. A special prosthesis is made to cover the defect and improve appearance.
Iridectomy - Removal of the affected piece of the iris Choroidectomy - Removal of the choroid layer (the vascular tissue sandwiched between the sclera and the retina) Iridocyclectomy - Removal of the iris plus the ciliary body muscle.
Eyewall resection - Cutting into the eye to remove a tumor e.g. melanoma. This operation can be quite difficult to perform.
Chemotherapy
Ocular oncology:
Ocular oncology is the branch of medicine dealing with tumors relating to the eye and its adnexa.
Ocular oncology:
Ocular oncology takes into consideration that the primary requirement for patients is preservation of life by removal of the tumor, along with best efforts directed at preservation of useful vision, followed by cosmetic appearance. The treatment of ocular tumors is generally a multi-specialty effort, requiring coordination between the ophthalmologist, medical oncologist, radiation specialist, head & neck surgeon/ENT surgeon, pediatrician/internal medicine/hospitalist and a multidisciplinary team of support staff and nurses. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Marilyn Ball**
Marilyn Ball:
Marilyn Ball is a professor at the College of Medicine, Biology and Environment at the Australian National University (ANU), and leader of the Ball (Marilyn) Lab for Ecophysiology of Salinity and Freezing Tolerance.
Marilyn Ball:
Ball gained her PhD in environmental biology from the ANU in 1982. She held postdoctoral positions at the University of California, Berkeley from 1981 to 1984 and at the ANU's North Australia Research Unit in Darwin from 1985 to 1988. In 1989, Ball was awarded a National Research Fellowship from the Australian Research Council. In 1990, Ball was appointed to a tenured position in biology at the ANU and since then has led an eco-physiological research group there. She is a member of the Australian Antarctic Research Advisory Committee and serves on the Editorial Boards of the international journals: Ecosystems, Global Change Biology, Oecologia, Plant, Cell & Environment, and Tree Physiology.
Areas of expertise:
Global Change Biology Plant Physiology Ecological Physiology Cell Metabolism
Awards:
2009 Fellow of the Australian Academy of Science, awarded by the Australian Academy of ScienceJoint College Award for Excellence in Education, awarded by the ANU College of Medicine, Biology & Environment and the ANU College of Physical & Mathematical Sciences 2007 Lifetime Honorary Member Award from the Ecological Society of America
Ball (Marilyn) Lab for Ecophysiology of Salinity and Freezing Tolerance:
Ball's laboratory investigates how plant communities respond to changed environmental conditions, in terms of their physiology. In particular they explore the relationships between stress tolerance and photosynthesis, and the consequences for plants' ability to absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and hence help to remediate climate change. Case studies involve mangroves, temperate evergreen sclerophyll species, and Antarctic vegetation.
Projects:
Student projects Ecophysiology of salinity and temperature tolerance in a changing world (Honours, Higher degree by research) Other projects Climate change and carbon gain in Antarctic mosses Coping with temperature extremes: morphological constraints on leaf function in a warmer, drier climate Salinity tolerance along an aridity gradient: linking physiological processes with morphological constraints on leaf function in mangroves
Publications:
Publications Authored by Marilyn C Ball | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Carlactone synthase**
Carlactone synthase:
Carlactone synthase (EC 1.13.11.69, CCD8 (gene), MAX4 (gene), NCED8 (gene)) is an enzyme with systematic name 9-cis-10'-apo-beta-carotenal:O2 oxidoreductase (14,15-cleaving, carlactone-forming). This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction 9-cis-10'-apo-beta-carotenal + 2 O2 ⇌ carlactone + (2E,4E,6E)-7-hydroxy-4-methylhepta-2,4,6-trienalCarlactone synthase contains Fe2+. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Shed style**
Shed style:
Shed Style refers to a style of architecture that makes use of single-sloped roofs (commonly called "shed roofs"). The style originated from the designs of architects Charles Willard Moore and Robert Venturi in the 1960s. Their works were influential to the style that would include the Sea Ranch in California (Moore) and the Vanna Venturi House (Venturi). Shed style architecture became very popular in the 1970s and 1980s, but most shed style homes stopped being built after the mid to late 1980s, though, today, houses use some characteristics from the shed style houses.
Characteristics:
Common stylistic features of shed style include overall asymmetry with strong lines, one- to two-story height, and seamless roof and wall intersection. Shed styles were developed in the early 1970s, however, they quickly died out in the 1980s because of the high maintenance costs they created. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**7 nm process**
7 nm process:
In semiconductor manufacturing, the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors defines the 7 nm process as the MOSFET technology node following the 10 nm node. It is based on FinFET (fin field-effect transistor) technology, a type of multi-gate MOSFET technology.
7 nm process:
Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company (TSMC) began production of 256 Mbit SRAM memory chips using a 7 nm process called N7 in June 2016, before Samsung began mass production of their 7 nm process called 7LPP devices in 2018. The first mainstream 7 nm mobile processor intended for mass market use, the Apple A12 Bionic, was released at Apple's September 2018 event. Although Huawei announced its own 7 nm processor before the Apple A12 Bionic, the Kirin 980 on August 31, 2018, the Apple A12 Bionic was released for public, mass market use to consumers before the Kirin 980. Both chips were manufactured by TSMC.In 2017, AMD released their "Rome" (EPYC 2) processors for servers and datacenters, which are based on TSMC's N7 node and feature up to 64 cores and 128 threads. They also released their "Matisse" consumer desktop processors with up to 16 cores and 32 threads. However, the I/O die on the Rome multi-chip module (MCM) is fabricated with the GlobalFoundries' 14 nm (14HP) process, while the Matisse's I/O die uses the GlobalFoundries' 12 nm (12LP+) process. The Radeon RX 5000 series is also based on TSMC's N7 process.
7 nm process:
Since at least 1997, however, "node" has become a commercial name for marketing purposes that indicates new generations of process technologies, without any relation to gate length, metal pitch or gate pitch. TSMC and Samsung's 10 nm (10 LPE) processes are somewhere between Intel's 14 nm and 10 nm processes in transistor density.
History:
Technology demos 7 nm scale MOSFETs were first demonstrated by researchers in the early 2000s. In 2002, an IBM research team including Bruce Doris, Omer Dokumaci, Meikei Ieong and Anda Mocuta fabricated a 6 nm silicon-on-insulator (SOI) MOSFET. In 2003, NEC's research team led by Hitoshi Wakabayashi and Shigeharu Yamagami fabricated a 5 nm MOSFET.In July 2015, IBM announced that they had built the first functional transistors with 7 nm technology, using a silicon-germanium process.In June 2016, TSMC had produced 256 Mbit SRAM memory cells at their 7 nm process, with a cell area of 0.027 square micrometers (550 F2) with reasonable risk production yields.
History:
Expected commercialization and technologies In April 2016, TSMC announced that 7 nm trial production would begin in the first half of 2017. In April 2017, TSMC began risk production of 256 Mbit SRAM memory chips using a 7 nm (N7FF+) process, with extreme ultraviolet lithography (EUV). TSMC's 7 nm production plans, as of early 2017, were to use deep ultraviolet (DUV) immersion lithography initially on this process node (N7FF), and transition from risk to commercial volume manufacturing from Q2 2017 to Q2 2018. Also, their later generation 7 nm (N7FF+) production is planned to use EUV multiple patterning and to have an estimated transition from risk to volume manufacturing between 2018 and 2019.In September 2016, GlobalFoundries announced trial production in the second half of 2017 and risk production in early 2018, with test chips already running.In February 2017, Intel announced Fab 42 in Chandler, Arizona will produce microprocessors using 7 nm (Intel 4) manufacturing process. The company has not published any expected values for feature lengths at this process node.
History:
In April 2018, TSMC announced volume production of 7 nm (CLN7FF, N7) chips. In June 2018, the company announced mass production ramp up.In May 2018, Samsung announced production of 7 nm (7LPP) chips this year. ASML Holding NV is their main supplier of EUV lithography machines.In August 2018, GlobalFoundries announced it was stopping development of 7 nm chips, citing cost.On October 28, 2018, Samsung announced their second generation 7 nm process (7LPP) had entered risk production and should enter mass production in 2019.
History:
On January 17, 2019, for the Q4 2018 earnings call, TSMC mentioned that different customers will have "different flavors" of second generation 7 nm.On April 16, 2019, TSMC announced their 6 nm process called (CLN6FF, N6), which is expected to be in mass products from 2021. N6 uses EUVL in up to 5 layers, compared to up to 4 layers in their N7+ process.On July 28, 2019, TSMC announced their second gen 7 nm process called N7P, which is DUV-based like their N7 process. Since N7P is fully IP-compatible with the original 7 nm, while N7+ (which uses EUV) is not, N7+ (announced earlier as '7 nm+') is a separate process from '7 nm'. N6 ('6 nm'), another EUV-based process, is planned to be released later than even TSMC's 5 nm (N5) process, with the IP-compatibility with N7. At their Q1 2019 earnings call, TSMC reiterated their Q4 2018 statement that N7+ would generate less than $1 billion TWD in revenue in 2019.On October 5, 2019, AMD announced their EPYC Roadmap, featuring Milan chips built using TSMC's N7+ process.On October 7, 2019, TSMC announced they started delivering N7+ products to market in high volume.On July 26, 2021, Intel announced their new manufacturing roadmap, renaming all of their future process nodes. Intel's 10 nm Enhanced SuperFin (10ESF), which is roughly equivalent to TSMC's N7 process, would now be known as Intel 7, while their earlier 7 nm process would now be called Intel 4. This means that their first processors based on the new 7 nm would start shipping by the second half of 2022. Intel earlier announced that they would launch 7 nm processors in 2023.
History:
Technology commercialization In June 2018, AMD announced 7 nm Radeon Instinct GPUs launching in the second half of 2018. In August 2018, the company confirmed the release of the GPUs.On August 21, 2018, Huawei announced their HiSilicon Kirin 980 SoC to be used in their Huawei Mate 20 and Mate 20 Pro built using TSMC's 7 nm (N7) process.
History:
On September 12, 2018, Apple announced their A12 Bionic chip used in iPhone XS and iPhone XR built using TSMC's 7 nm (N7) process. The A12 processor became the first 7 nm chip for mass market use as it released before the Huawei Mate 20. On October 30, 2018, Apple announced their A12X Bionic chip used in iPad Pro built using TSMC's 7 nm (N7) process.On December 4, 2018, Qualcomm announced their Snapdragon 855 and 8cx built using TSMC's 7 nm (N7) process. The first mass product featuring the Snapdragon 855 was the Lenovo Z5 Pro GT, which was announced on December 18, 2018.On May 29, 2019, MediaTek announced their 5G SoC built using a TSMC 7 nm process.On July 7, 2019, AMD officially launched their Ryzen 3000 series of central processing units, based on the TSMC 7 nm process and Zen 2 microarchitecture.
History:
On August 6, 2019, Samsung announced their Exynos 9825 SoC, the first chip built using their 7LPP process. The Exynos 9825 is the first mass market chip built featuring EUVL.On September 6, 2019, Huawei announced their HiSilicon Kirin 990 4G & 990 5G SoCs, built using TSMC's N7 and N7+ processes.On September 10, 2019, Apple announced their A13 Bionic chip used in iPhone 11 and iPhone 11 Pro built using TSMC's 2nd gen N7P process.7 nm (N7 nodes) manufacturing made up 36% of TSMC's revenue in the second quarter of 2020.On August 17, 2020, IBM announced their Power10 processor.On July 26, 2021, Intel announced that their Alder Lake processors would be manufactured using their newly rebranded Intel 7 process, previously known as 10 nm Enhanced SuperFin. These processors will be released in the second half of 2021. The company earlier confirmed a 7 nm, now called Intel 4, microprocessor family called Meteor Lake to be released in 2023.
7 nm patterning difficulties:
The 7 nm foundry node is expected to utilize any of or a combination of the following patterning technologies: pitch splitting, self-aligned patterning, and EUV lithography. Each of these technologies carries significant challenges in critical dimension (CD) control as well as pattern placement, all involving neighboring features.
Pitch splitting Pitch splitting involves splitting features that are too close together onto different masks, which are exposed successively, followed by litho-etch processing. Due to the use of different exposures, there is always the risk of overlay error between the two exposures, as well as different CDs resulting from the different exposures.
7 nm patterning difficulties:
Spacer patterning Spacer patterning involves depositing a layer onto pre-patterned features, then etching back to form spacers on the sidewalls of those features, referred to as core features. After removing the core features, the spacers are used as an etch mask to define trenches in the underlying layer. While the spacer CD control is generally excellent, the trench CD may fall into one of two populations, due to the two possibilities of being located where a core feature was located or in the remaining gap. This is known as 'pitch walking'. Generally pitch = core CD + gap CD + 2 * spacer CD, but this does not guarantee core CD = gap CD. For FEOL features like gate or active area isolation (e.g., fins), the trench CD is not as critical as the spacer-defined CD, in which case, spacer patterning is actually the preferred patterning approach.
7 nm patterning difficulties:
When self-aligned quadruple patterning (SAQP) is used, there is a second spacer that is utilized, replacing the first one. In this case, the core CD is replaced by core CD - 2* 2nd spacer CD, and the gap CD is replaced by gap CD - 2 * 2nd spacer CD. Thus, some feature dimensions are strictly defined by the second spacer CD, while the remaining feature dimensions are defined by the core CD, core pitch, and first and second spacer CD's. The core CD and core pitch are defined by conventional lithography, while the spacer CDs are independent of lithography. This is actually expected to have less variation than pitch splitting, where an additional exposure defines its own CD, both directly and through overlay.
7 nm patterning difficulties:
Spacer-defined lines also require cutting. The cut spots may shift at exposure, resulting in distorted line ends or intrusions into adjacent lines.
Self-aligned litho-etch-litho-etch (SALELE) has been implemented for 7 nm BEOL patterning.
7 nm patterning difficulties:
EUV lithography Extreme ultraviolet lithography (also known as EUV or EUVL) is capable of resolving features below 20 nm in conventional lithography style. However, the 3D reflective nature of the EUV mask results in new anomalies in the imaging. One particular nuisance is the two-bar effect, where a pair of identical bar-shaped features do not focus identically. One feature is essentially in the 'shadow' of the other. Consequently, the two features generally have different CDs which change through focus, and these features also shift position through focus. This effect may be similar to what may be encountered with pitch splitting. A related issue is the difference of best focus among features of different pitches.EUV also has issues with reliably printing all features in a large population; some contacts may be completely missing or lines bridged. These are known as stochastic printing failures. The defect level is on the order of 1K/mm2.The tip-to-tip gap is hard to control for EUV, largely due to the illumination constraint. A separate exposure(s) for cutting lines is preferred.
7 nm patterning difficulties:
Attenuated phase shift masks have been used in production for 90 nm node for adequate focus windows for arbitrarily pitched contacts with the ArF laser wavelength (193 nm), whereas this resolution enhancement is not available for EUV.At 2021 SPIE's EUV Lithography conference, it was reported by a TSMC customer that EUV contact yield was comparable to immersion multipatterning yield.
Comparison with previous nodes Due to these challenges, 7 nm poses unprecedented patterning difficulty in the back end of line (BEOL). The previous high-volume, long-lived foundry node (Samsung 10 nm, TSMC 16 nm) used pitch splitting for the tighter pitch metal layers.
Cycle time: immersion vs. EUV Due to the immersion tools being faster presently, multipatterning is still used on most layers. On the layers requiring immersion quad-patterning, the layer completion throughput by EUV is comparable. On the other layers, immersion would be more productive at completing the layer even with multipatterning.
7 nm design rule management in volume production:
The 7 nm metal patterning currently practiced by TSMC involves self-aligned double patterning (SADP) lines with cuts inserted within a cell on a separate mask as needed to reduce cell height. However, self-aligned quad patterning (SAQP) is used to form the fin, the most important factor to performance. Design rule checks also allow via multi-patterning to be avoided, and provide enough clearances for cuts that only one cut mask is needed.
7 nm process nodes and process offerings:
The naming of process nodes by 4 different manufacturers (TSMC, Samsung, SMIC, Intel) is partially marketing-driven and not directly related to any measurable distance on a chip – for example TSMC's 7 nm node was previously similar in some key dimensions to Intel's planned first-iteration 10 nm node, before Intel released further iterations, culminating in "10nm Enhanced SuperFin", which was later renamed to "Intel 7" for marketing reasons.Since EUV implementation at 7 nm is still limited, multipatterning still plays an important part in cost and yield; EUV adds extra considerations. The resolution for most critical layers is still determined by multiple patterning. For example, for Samsung's 7 nm, even with EUV single-patterned 36 nm pitch layers, 44 nm pitch layers would still be quadruple patterned.
7 nm process nodes and process offerings:
GlobalFoundries' 7 nm 7LP (Leading Performance) process would have offered 40% higher performance or 60%+ lower power with a 2x scaling in density and at a 30-45+% lower cost per die over its 14 nm process. The Contacted Poly Pitch (CPP) would have been 56 nm and the Minimum Metal Pitch (MMP) would have been 40 nm, produced with Self-Aligned Double Patterning (SADP). A 6T SRAM cell would have been 0.269 square microns in size. GlobalFoundries planned to eventually use EUV lithography in an improved process called 7LP+. GlobalFoundries later stopped all 7 nm and beyond process development.Intel's new "Intel 7" process, previously known as 10 nm Enhanced SuperFin (10ESF), is based on its previous 10 nm node. The node will feature a 10-15% increase in performance per watt. Meanwhile, their old 7 nm process, now called "Intel 4", is expected to be released in 2023. Few details about the Intel 4 node have been made public, although its transistor density has been estimated to be at least 202 million transistors per square millimeter. As of 2020, Intel is experiencing problems with its Intel 4 process to the point of outsourcing production of its Ponte Vecchio GPUs. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**MicroRNA 4521**
MicroRNA 4521:
MicroRNA 4521 is a micro RNA that in humans is encoded by the MIR4521 gene.
Function:
microRNAs (miRNAs) are short (20-24 nt) non-coding RNAs that are involved in post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression in multicellular organisms by affecting both the stability and translation of mRNAs. miRNAs are transcribed by RNA polymerase II as part of capped and polyadenylated primary transcripts (pri-miRNAs) that can be either protein-coding or non-coding. The primary transcript is cleaved by the Drosha ribonuclease III enzyme to produce an approximately 70-nt stem-loop precursor miRNA (pre-miRNA), which is further cleaved by the cytoplasmic Dicer ribonuclease to generate the mature miRNA and antisense miRNA star (miRNA*) products. The mature miRNA is incorporated into a RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC), which recognizes target mRNAs through imperfect base pairing with the miRNA and most commonly results in translational inhibition or destabilization of the target mRNA. The RefSeq represents the predicted microRNA stem-loop.
Function:
miR-4521 has been shown to have decreased expression in various cancers, including breast cancer and lung cancer. In gastric carcinoma, miR-4521 has been reported to inhibit EMT and metastasis. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Automatic sounding**
Automatic sounding:
In telecommunication, automatic sounding is the testing of selected channels for quality by providing a very brief identifying transmission that may be used by other stations to evaluate connectivity, and availability, and to identify known working channels for immediate or later use for communications or calling. They are often used to maintain connectivity in digital communications high frequency radio networks.
Automatic sounding:
Automatic soundings are primarily intended to increase the efficiency of the automatic link establishment (ALE) function, thereby increasing system throughput. In ALE, the sounding information consists of a heavily error-corrected short message identifying the sender. Recipients decode it and use the bit error rate to calculate and store a (channel, node, quality) tuple. As ionospheric conditions and mobile-node locations change, these quality tuples will shift. The stored data can be used to maximize the chance that the best channel to link with a given partner will be chosen first. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Cluster impact fusion**
Cluster impact fusion:
Cluster Impact Fusion is a suggested method of producing practical fusion power using small clusters of heavy water molecules directly accelerated into a titanium-deuteride target. Calculations suggested that such a system enhanced the cross section by many orders of magnitude. It is a particular implementation of the larger beam-target fusion concept.
Cluster impact fusion:
The idea was first reported by researchers at Brookhaven in 1989. Intrigued by recent reports of cold fusion, they attempted to study potential causes for the effect by accelerating tiny droplets of heavy water, about 25 to 1300 D2O molecules each, into a target at about 220 eV. To their surprise they immediately saw fusion effects, at a rate that was many times what any of them could explain via conventional theory.The experiment was fairly simple in concept but required an appropriate accelerator, so it was some time before other labs were able to repeat the experiments. One of the first was the University of Washington, who reported a null result in 1991. Further experiments and a review from MIT in 1992 solved the mystery: the fusion products were the results of contamination, which could be eliminated by filtering with a magnet. The Brookhaven experimenters tried this and the effect disappeared. Cluster impact fusion references end abruptly at that point. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Klangfarbenmelodie**
Klangfarbenmelodie:
Klangfarbenmelodie (German for "sound-color melody") is a musical technique that involves splitting a musical line or melody between several instruments, rather than assigning it to just one instrument (or set of instruments), thereby adding color (timbre) and texture to the melodic line. The technique is sometimes compared to "pointillism", a neo-impressionist painting technique.
History:
The term derives from Arnold Schoenberg's Harmonielehre, where he discusses the creation of "timbre structures". Schoenberg and Anton Webern are particularly noted for their use of the technique, Schoenberg most notably in the third of his Five Pieces for Orchestra (Op. 16), and Webern in his Op. 10 (likely a response to Schoenberg's Op. 16), his Concerto for Nine Instruments (Op. 24), the Op. 11 pieces for cello and piano, and his orchestration of the six-part ricercar from Bach's Musical Offering: This may be compared with Bach's open score of the subject and the traditional homogeneous timbre used in arrangements: Schoenberg himself employed the technique in his 1928 orchestration of the "St. Anne" organ Prelude BWV 552 from J. S. Bach's Clavier-Übung III. Malcolm MacDonald says of this arrangement, "The gamut of colour—including harp, celesta and glockenspiel, six clarinets of various sizes, and a very agile bass tuba is brilliantly kaleidoscopic. The instrumentation has a serious purpose, however: it emphasizes structural divisions ... and, above all, brings out the individual contrapuntal lines." A sequence of constantly changing timbres may be clearly heard in Schoenberg's rendering of the following passage: Notable examples of such voice distribution that preceded the use of the term may be found in music of the 18th and 19th centuries. John Eliot Gardiner says of the orchestral opening of J. S. Bach's Cantata Brich dem Hungrigen dein Brot, BWV 39, "Bach sets out almost tentatively in an introductory sinfonia with repeated quavers tossed from paired recorders to paired oboes to the strings and back over stiffly disjointed quavers in the continuo.": In Beethoven's Symphony No. 3, ("Eroica"), first movement, according to George Grove, we hear "a succession of phrases of three notes, repeated by different instruments one after another": Similarly, in the fourth movement of Berlioz' Symphonie fantastique, ("March to the Scaffold"), the melody first appears as a descending scale played on 'cellos and basses: Later, this melodic line is passed between the strings and the winds several times: There are further instances in the works of Claude Debussy: Regarding the latter, Samson writes: "To a marked degree the music of Debussy elevates timbre to an unprecedented structural status; already in Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune the color of flute and harp functions referentially."In the 1950s, the concept inspired a number of European composers including Karlheinz Stockhausen to attempt systematization of timbre along serial lines, especially in electronic music.During the late 20th century, musicians within the progressive rock genre experimented with using this compositional technique, a notable example being Gentle Giant.
Sources:
Grove, George (1898). Beethoven and His Nine Symphonies. London: Novello. Reprinted, New York: Dover Publications, 1962.
Hoffer, Charles (2009). Music Listening Today.. ISBN 9780495571995. ISBN 9780495916147.
MacDonald, Malcolm (1976). Schoenberg. Dent.
Nadel, Ira B., ed. (1999). The Cambridge Companion to Ezra Pound. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-64920-9.
Rogers, Michael R. (2004). Teaching Approaches in Music Theory: An Overview of Pedagogical Philosophies.. ISBN 9780809388790.
Gardiner, John Eliot (2014). Music in the Castle of Heaven: A Portrait of Johann Sebastian Bach. London: Allen Lane.
Rushton, Julian (2001). "Klangfarbenmelodie", The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers.
Samson, Jim (1977). Music in Transition: A Study of Tonal Expansion and Atonality, 1900–1920. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-02193-9.
Schoenberg, Arnold (1966). Harmonielehre (seventh ed.). Vienna: Universal-Edition. [First edition, Leipzig and Vienna: Verlagseigentum der Universal-Edition, 1911.] Schoenberg, Arnold (1978). Theory of Harmony. translated by Roy E. Carter. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
Swenson, Milton, ed. (1978). Annibale Padovano, Cristofano Malvezzi, Jacopo Peri and Annibale Padovano: Ensemble Ricercars,A-R Editions. ISBN 9780895790897. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Booking (clubbing)**
Booking (clubbing):
Booking (Korean: 부킹) is a common practice in South Korean night clubs of forced socialization. Booking is a practice in which waiters bring female patrons, sometimes forcibly, to a table to sit with men. Both parties are free to leave at any time, or depending on mutual interest, they can continue to sit together and drink and talk. Although outwardly similar, to outsiders, these are not hostess clubs, and although the men are expected to tip and pay their waiters to bring women to their table, the women are not employees nor are they prostitutes but fellow clubbers.
Background:
Confucianism in Korea has had a profound effect on social interactions, in traditional Confucianism one was expected to give proper deference and respect to one another based on one's position within a five level hierarchy, only the bottom of which was of one between equals, one's position in this hierarchy was based on a mix of one's ancestry, family position, official offices if any and social status. With regards to marriage one was expected to find a partner of the same social status as one's own, an appropriate partner being one whose status was neither above nor beneath one's own, to facilitate this there was the traditional matchmaker.
Background:
As South Korea urbanised and industrialised, the hierarchical stratification of society remained, in addition to ancestry one's social position in Korean society now includes the level of one's education, alma mater, profession, which company one works for and one's position and seniority (whether one is a seonbae or hubae) within the company. Increasingly less so, social interactions would become paralysed unless people were properly introduced and so could determine one's social position with regards one another, fear of behaving inappropriately to one's own position leading to an outright refusal to interact with strangers. With regards to marriage meeting people outside one's established social circle is difficult, and within this circle, for example with colleagues, one is constrained by what would be considered appropriate and inappropriate relationships depending on one's seniority and position in the hierarchy. The old professional matchmakers still exist, and friends and family will act as informal matchmakers, however even when both parties are interested in meeting a member of the opposite sex, such as when clubbing, a Korean would find it difficult to ask a stranger for a dance, a date, or more, and those who do would be seen negatively by the more conservative.
Background:
Booking arose therefore as an icebreaker between individuals who would otherwise be too embarrassed to approach one another and has been described as a form of speed dating. As South Koreans have become more comfortable with other ways to meet new people, such as through the internet, booking clubs have declined.
Practice:
In booking clubs groups of men will pay for a booth or room, the higher priced they are the better placed they are to observe the dance floor, they will also order a set of drinks and snacks for their table. The male groups are assigned a waiter who for tips will try and bring female patrons to their table, if they see a specific girl on the dance floor that they are interested in they may ask their waiter to try and bring her to their table. Although to outsiders, these clubs have been mistaken for hostess clubs, the women are not employees nor are they prostitutes but fellow clubbers, they are free to leave at any time, and male patrons should not make the mistake that their payment to the waiter, however much it may be, entitles them to anything but the opportunity to introduce themselves, or that it relieves them of the need to be gentlemen.
Practice:
Among both male and female patrons there will be those who want more than some drinks, conversation and an exchange of phone numbers, it is the job of the waiter therefore to try and match only those with similar intentions.
Criticism:
Ahn Hyeong-hwan (안형환), the Grand National Party representative and the member of the parliamentary-level Committee on Culture, Sports, Tourism, Broadcasting & Communications raised the issue of how the English-language Arirang TV presented the concept of booking to viewers, and how it could potentially portray as negative an aspect of Korean contemporary culture.
Outside of Korea:
In the United States, Le Prive was a popular Korean-American venue for booking. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Glycogen phosphorylase isoenzyme BB**
Glycogen phosphorylase isoenzyme BB:
Glycogen phosphorylase isoenzyme BB (abbreviation: GPBB) is an isoenzyme of glycogen phosphorylase. This isoform of the enzyme exists in cardiac (heart) and brain tissue.
The enzyme is one of the "new cardiac markers" which are discussed to improve early diagnosis in acute coronary syndrome. A rapid rise in blood levels can be seen in myocardial infarction and unstable angina.
Other enzymes related to glycogen phosphorylase are abbreviated as GPLL (liver) and GPMM (muscle). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**EA-3167**
EA-3167:
EA-3167 is a potent and long-lasting anticholinergic deliriant drug, related to the chemical warfare agent 3-quinuclidinyl benzilate (QNB). It was developed under contract to Edgewood Arsenal during the 1960s as part of the US military chemical weapons program, in an attempt to develop non-lethal incapacitating agents. EA-3167 has identical effects to QNB, but is even more potent and longer-lasting, with an effective dose when administered by injection of as little as 2.5 μg/kg (i.e. 0.2 milligrams for an 80 kg person), and a duration of 120–240 hours (5–10 days). However unlike QNB, EA-3167 was never weaponized or manufactured in bulk.
EA-3167:
Stereoisomers of EA-3167 have also been synthesized under the codename HL-031120.
Effects:
The intensity of EA-3167's effects is unparalleled among known psychoactive substances of any class. Incapacitating effects can last anywhere from 5-10 days, sometimes manifesting as a full 3-day peak of vivid hallucinations, along with prolonged confusion, amnesia, and inhibition of speech and cognition. Some subjects exposed to the drug would not fully recover for almost 20 days. Even six months after exposure, a few subjects demonstrated significant increases in the scores on the hypochondriasis, depression, hysteria, psychasthenia, schizophrenia, and mania scales. The drug's potency caught the attention of the military, which considered weaponizing EA-3167 for topical use, potentially even through a handshake. However, weaponization and further studies were eventually abandoned, possibly due to the extreme nature of its effects and the strain on available study resources caused by conducting human studies for extended periods. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Health effects of coal ash**
Health effects of coal ash:
Coal ash, also known as coal combustion residuals (CCRs), is the mineral residue that remains from burning coal. Exposure to coal ash and to the toxic substances it contains may pose a health risk to workers in coal-fired power plants and residents living near coal ash disposal sites.
Background:
Coal ash is produced at coal-fired power plants. Coal is pulverized and then burned to generate electricity. The particles that remain after burning coal are called coal ash, principally consisting of fly ash and bottom ash. Other coal combustion by-products are boiler slag, flue gas desulfurization gypsum, and other kinds of flue gas desulfurization residues. Depending on the type of coal that was burned, the chemical composition found in coal ash can vary. Coal ash obtained from the combustion of bituminous coal is constituted principally of aluminum oxide (Al2O3), calcium oxide (CaO) and silicon dioxide (SiO2). In the composition of coal, there are many potentially hazardous substances that, if found at elevated concentration in inhaled particles, can cause major health problems in humans. Such constituents that are found at various concentrations in coal ash are arsenic, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper, lead, lithium, mercury, molybdenum, selenium, thallium and uranium.Coal ash in India has been stored in ash ponds and has contaminated surrounding land and water bodies. In the United States approximately 110 million tons of coal ash were generated in 2012. More than half of the coal ash produced in the US was dumped into ash ponds (surface impoundments; wet disposal) or landfills (dry disposal). As of 2020 there are 310 active on-site landfills and 735 active on-site surface impoundments in the US.
Occupational health concerns:
Coal ash contains many toxic substances that may affect human health, if people are exposed to them above a certain concentration in the form of particulate matter. So it is necessary to avoid situations in which employees working in coal-fired power plants or public members living close to coal ash landfills will be exposed to high coal ash dust concentrations. Coal ash dust health effects can be considered as a particular case of exposure to particulate matter (particle pollution). Accordingly the health risk of the smallest coal ash particles (respirable particles) has to be evaluated, since they can enter into the lungs. In order to evaluate this risk, levels of exposure of workers or members of the public to particulate matter are compared with "safe threshold levels". Regarding the health of workers, the ACGIH publishes annually a booklet with tables presenting threshold level values (TLV's) - maximal concentrations allowed - for a wide range of substances and materials. Particles of coal ash belong to a category called "PNOS - Particles Not Otherwise Specified". For this category, otherwise known as "nuisance dust", the TLV value is 3 mg/m3 for respirable particles (smaller than 10 micrometers).
Health effects of toxic constituents found in coal ash:
Lead: The direct exposure to lead can cause major damage to the nervous system. Lead exposure can lead to kidney disease, hearing impairment, high blood pressure, delays in development, swelling of the brain, hemoglobin damage, and male reproductive problems. Both low levels and high levels of lead exposure can cause harm to the human body.Cadmium: The direct exposure to high levels of cadmium is hazardous to the health. More specifically, the lungs directly absorb cadmium into the bloodstream. When humans are exposed to cadmium over a long period of time, kidney disease and lung disease can occur. In addition, cadmium exposure can be associated with hypertension. Lastly, chronic exposure of cadmium can cause bone weakness which increases the risk of bone fractures and osteoporosis.Chromium: The direct exposure to chromium (VI) is hazardous to health. High levels of chromium (VI) in drinking water can cause ulcers in the small intestine and stomach when ingested. Lastly, skin ulcers can also occur when the exposure to chromium (VI) occurs through the skin.
Health effects of toxic constituents found in coal ash:
Arsenic: When high amounts of arsenic is inhaled or ingested through coal ash waste, diseases such as bladder cancer, skin cancer, kidney cancer and lung cancer can develop. Ultimately, exposure of arsenic over a long period of time can cause mortality. Furthermore, low levels of arsenic exposure can cause irregular heartbeats, nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, peripheral neuropathy and vision impairment.Mercury: Chronic exposure of mercury from coal ash can cause harm to the nervous system. When mercury is inhaled or ingested various health effects can occur such as vision impairment, seizures, numbness, memory loss and sleeplessness.Boron: When coal ash dust is inhaled, the exposure of boron can cause discomfort in the throat, nose and eye. Moreover, when coal ash waste is ingested, boron exposure can be associated with kidney, liver, brain, and intestine impairment.Molybdenum: When molybdenum is inhaled from coal ash dust, discomfort of the nose, throat, skin and eye can occur. As a result, short-term molybdenum exposure can cause an increase of wheezing and coughing. Furthermore, chronic exposure of molybdenum can cause loss of appetite, tiredness, headaches and muscle soreness.Thallium: The exposure of thallium in coal ash dust can cause peripheral neuropathy when inhaled. Furthermore, when coal ash is ingested, thallium exposure can cause diarrhea and vomiting. In addition, thallium exposure is also associated with heart, liver, lung and kidney complications.Silica: When silica is inhaled from coal ash dust, fetal lung disease or silicosis can develop. Furthermore, chronic exposure of silica can cause lung cancer. In addition, exposure to silica over a period of time can cause loss of appetite, poor oxygen circulation, breathing complications and fever.
Coal ash reuse:
Reuse of coal ash benefits the environment by reducing the production of greenhouse gas and reducing the need to use virgin materials. In addition, when coal ash is recycled, costs related to coal ash disposal sites are avoided.There are two forms of coal ash recycling: “encapsulated” and “unencapsulated." When coal ash is bound to other materials it is encapsulated. For example, coal ash can be reused in making concrete, bricks and wallboards. On the other hand, unencapsulated use of coal ash is when the ash is not bound to other materials (loose particulate or sludge form). An example of unencapsulated coal ash is distributing the ash on icy roads in the winter.Even though reusing coal ash minimizes health effects in humans, health problems can still occur when coal ash is recycled. Specifically, workers drilling or cutting encapsulated coal ash increase their risk of inhaling coal ash dust. In addition, when unencapsulated coal ash is scattered on snowy streets in the winter, the loose ash can come in contact with ditches on the side of the road. As a result, the toxins from coal ash can leach into surface water bodies as well as groundwater, which may be drinking water sources. Therefore, both forms of recycled coal ash (encapsulated and unencapsulated) can cause serious health issues in humans.
Coal ash waste regulations:
In the United States, when coal ash is disposed into surface impoundments and landfills, the ash is regulated as a "Special Waste" (i.e., non-hazardous) under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA).EPA published a Coal Combustion Residuals (CCR) regulation in 2015. The agency continued to classify coal ash as non-hazardous (thereby avoiding strict permitting requirements under RCRA Subtitle C), but with new restrictions: Existing ash ponds that are contaminating groundwater must stop receiving CCR, and close or retrofit with a liner.
Coal ash waste regulations:
Existing ash ponds and landfills must comply with structural and location restrictions, where applicable, or close.
A pond no longer receiving CCR is still subject to all regulations unless it is dewatered and covered by 2018.
Coal ash waste regulations:
New ponds and landfills must include a geomembrane liner over a layer of compacted soil.In 2016, the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit vacated the "early closure" provisions in the regulation at 40 CFR 257.100. EPA then extended the compliance date for inactive ponds that attempted to utilize the early closure provisions. In 2018, at the request of industry, EPA extended the compliance date for unlined ash ponds from 2019 to 2020, and provided more flexibility to state agencies in determining compliance with standards. The 2018 regulation was challenged in litigation and remanded by the court to EPA for further revision. The court ruled that EPA failed to adequately address the problems with unlined ponds, many of which continue to leak into groundwater. In 2019, the court agreed to a voluntary remand while allowing the 2020 compliance deadline for unlined ponds to stay in effect, pending further rulemaking.EPA published a proposed rule on August 14, 2019 that would use location-based criteria, rather than a numerical threshold (i.e. impoundment or landfill size) that would require an operator to demonstrate minimal environmental impact so that a site could remain in operation.In response to litigation on the 2015 regulation, EPA published a final RCRA regulation on August 28, 2020 requiring all unlined ash ponds to retrofit with liners or close by April 11, 2021. Some facilities may apply to obtain additional time—up to 2028—to find alternatives for managing ash wastes before closing their surface impoundments. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**4-Piperidinone**
4-Piperidinone:
4-Piperidone is a derivative of piperidine with the molecular formula C5H9NO. 4-Piperidone is used as an intermediate in the manufacture of chemicals and pharmaceutical drugs. It is a List I chemical in the United States. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**ZNRF1**
ZNRF1:
E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase ZNRF1 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the ZNRF1 gene.In a study identifying genes in rat that are upregulated in response to nerve damage, a gene which is highly expressed in ganglia and in the central nervous system was found. The protein encoded by the rat gene contains both a zinc finger and a RING finger motif and is localized in the endosome/lysosome compartment, indicating that it may be involved in ubiquitin-mediated protein modification. The protein encoded by this human gene is highly similar in sequence to that encoded by the rat gene. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Submarine pipeline**
Submarine pipeline:
A submarine pipeline (also known as marine, subsea or offshore pipeline) is a pipeline that is laid on the seabed or below it inside a trench. In some cases, the pipeline is mostly on-land but in places it crosses water expanses, such as small seas, straits and rivers. Submarine pipelines are used primarily to carry oil or gas, but transportation of water is also important. A distinction is sometimes made between a flowline and a pipeline. The former is an intrafield pipeline, in the sense that it is used to connect subsea wellheads, manifolds and the platform within a particular development field. The latter, sometimes referred to as an export pipeline, is used to bring the resource to shore. Sizeable pipeline construction projects need to take into account many factors, such as the offshore ecology, geohazards and environmental loading – they are often undertaken by multidisciplinary, international teams.
Route selection:
One of the earliest and most critical tasks in a submarine pipeline planning exercise is the route selection. This selection has to consider a variety of issues, some of a political nature, but most others dealing with geohazards, physical factors along the prospective route, and other uses of the seabed in the area considered. This task begins with a fact-finding exercise, which is a standard desk study that includes a survey of geological maps, bathymetry, fishing charts, aerial and satellite photography, as well as information from navigation authorities.
Route selection:
Physical factors The primary physical factor to be considered in submarine pipeline construction is the state of the seabed – whether it is smooth (i.e., relatively flat) or uneven (corrugated, with high points and low points). If it is uneven, the pipeline will include free spans when it connects two high points, leaving the section in between unsupported. If an unsupported section is too long, the bending stress exerted onto it (due to its weight) may be excessive. Vibration from current-induced vortexes may also become an issue. Corrective measures for unsupported pipeline spans include seabed leveling and post-installation support, such as berm or sand infilling below the pipeline. The strength of the seabed is another significant parameter. If the soil is not strong enough, the pipeline may sink into it to an extent where inspection, maintenance procedures and prospective tie-ins become difficult to carry out. At the other extreme, a rocky seabed is expensive to trench and, at high points, abrasion and damage of the pipeline's external coating may occur. Ideally, the soil should be such as to allow the pipe to settle into it to some extent, thereby providing it with some lateral stability.
Route selection:
Other physical factors to be taken into account prior to building a pipeline include the following: Seabed mobility: Sand waves and megaripples are features that move with time, such that a pipeline that was supported by the crest of one such feature during construction may find itself in a trough later during the pipeline's operational lifespan. The evolution of these features is difficult to predict so it is preferable to avoid the areas where they are known to exist.
Route selection:
Submarine landslides: They result from high sedimentation rates and occur on steeper slopes. They can be triggered by earthquakes. When the soil around the pipe is subjected to a slide, especially if the resulting displacement is at high angle to the line, the pipe within it can incur severe bending and consequent tensile failure.
Currents: High currents are objectionable in that they hinder pipe laying operations. For instance, in shallow seas tidal currents may be quite strong in a strait between two islands. Under these circumstances, it may be preferable to bring the pipe elsewhere, even if this alternative route ends up being longer.
Waves: In shallow waters, waves can also be problematic for pipeline laying operations (in severe wave regimes) and, subsequently, to its stability, because of the water's scouring action. This is one of a number of reasons why landfalls (where the pipeline reaches the shoreline) are particularly delicate areas to plan.
Route selection:
Ice-related issues: In freezing waters, floating ice features often drift into shallower waters, and their keel comes into contact with the seabed. As they continue to drift, they gouge the seabed and can hit the pipeline. Stamukhi can also damage this structure, either by exerting high local stresses on it or by causing to soil around it to fail, thereby inducing excessive bending. Strudel are another pipeline hazard in cold waters – water gushing through them can remove the soil from below the structure, making it vulnerable to overstress (due to self-weight) or vortex-induced oscillations. Pipeline route planning for areas where these risks are known to exist has to consider laying the pipeline in a back-filled trench.
Route selection:
Other uses of the seabed Proper planning of a pipeline route has to factor in a wide range of human activities that make use of the seabed along the proposed route, or that are likely to do so in the future. They include the following: Other pipelines: If and where the proposed pipeline intersects an existing one, which is not uncommon, a bridging structure may be required at that juncture in order to cross it. This has to be done at a right angle. The juncture should be carefully designed so as to avoid interferences between the two structures either by direct physical contact or due to hydrodynamic effects.
Route selection:
Fishing vessels: Commercial fishing makes use of heavy fishing nets dragged on the seabed and extending several kilometers behind the trawler. This net could snag the pipeline, with potential damage to both pipeline and vessel.
Ship anchors: Ship anchors are a potential threat to pipelines, especially near harbors.
Military activities: Some areas still have mines originating from former conflicts but that are still operational. Other areas, used for bombing or gunning practices, may also conceal live ammunition. Moreover, at some locations, various types of instrumentation are laid on the seafloor for submarine detection. These areas have to be avoided.
Submarine pipeline characteristics:
Submarine pipelines generally vary in diameter from 3 inches (76 mm) for gas lines, to 72 inches (1,800 mm) for high capacity lines. Wall thicknesses typically range from 10 millimetres (0.39 in) to 75 millimetres (3.0 in). The pipe can be designed for fluids at high temperature and pressure. The walls are made from high-yield strength steel, 350-500 MPa (50,000-70,000 psi), weldability being one of the main selection criteria. The structure is often shielded against external corrosion by coatings such as bitumastic or epoxy, supplemented by cathodic protection with sacrificial anodes. Concrete or fiberglass wrapping provides further protection against abrasion. The addition of a concrete coating is also useful to compensate for the pipeline's positive buoyancy when it carries lower density substances.The pipeline's inside wall is not coated for petroleum service. But when it carries seawater or corrosive substances, it can be coated with epoxy, polyurethane or polyethylene; it can also be cement-lined. In the petroleum industry, where leaks are unacceptable and the pipelines are subject to internal pressures typically in the order of 10 MPa (1500 psi), the segments are joined by full penetration welds. Mechanical joints are also used. A pig is a standard device in pipeline transport, be it on-land or offshore. It is used to test for hydrostatic pressure, to check for dents and crimps on the sidewalls inside the pipe, and to conduct periodic cleaning and minor repairs.
Pipeline construction:
Pipeline construction involves two procedures: assembling many pipe segments into a full line, and installing that line along the desired route. Several systems can be used – for a submarine pipeline, the choice in favor of any one of them is based on the following factors: physical and environmental conditions (e.g. currents, wave regime), availability of equipment and costs, water depth, pipeline length and diameter, constraints tied to the presence of other lines and structures along the route. These systems are generally divided into four broad categories: pull/tow, S-lay, J-lay and reel-lay.
Pipeline construction:
The pull/tow system In the pull/tow system, the submarine pipeline is assembled onshore and then towed to location. Assembly is done either parallel or perpendicular to the shoreline – in the former case, the full line can be built prior to tow out and installation. A significant advantage with the pull/tow system is that pre-testing and inspection of the line are done onshore, not at sea. It allows to handle lines of any size and complexity. As for the towing procedures, a number of configurations can be used, which may be categorized as follows: surface tow, near-surface tow, mid-depth tow and off-bottom tow.
Pipeline construction:
Surface tow: In this configuration, the pipeline remains at the surface of the water during tow, and is then sunk into position at lay site. The line has to be buoyant – this can be done with individual buoyancy units attached to it. Surface tows are not appropriate for rough seas and are vulnerable to lateral currents.
Near-surface tow: The pipeline remains below the water surface but close to it – this mitigates wave action. But the spar buoys used to maintain the line at that level are affected by rough seas, which in itself may represent a challenge for the towing operation.
Pipeline construction:
Mid-depth tow: The pipeline is not buoyant – either because it is heavy or it is weighted down by hanging chains. In this configuration, the line is suspended in a catenary between two towing vessels. The shape of that catenary (the sag) is a balance between the line's weight, the tension applied to it by the vessels and hydrodynamic lift on the chains. The amount of allowable sag is limited by how far down the seabed is.
Pipeline construction:
Off-bottom tow: This configuration is similar to the mid-depth tow, but here the line is maintained within 1 to 2 m (several feet) away from the bottom, using chains dragging on the seabed.
Pipeline construction:
Bottom tow: In this case, the pipeline is dragged onto the bottom – the line is not affected by waves and currents, and if the sea gets too rough for the tow vessel, the line can simply be abandoned and recovered later. Challenges with this type of system include: requirement for an abrasion-resistant coating, interaction with other submarine pipelines and potential obstructions (reef, boulders, etc.). Bottom tow is commonly used for river crossings and crossings between shores.
Pipeline construction:
The S-lay system In the S-lay system, the pipeline assembly is done at the installation site, on board a vessel that has all the equipment required for joining the pipe segments: pipe handling conveyors, welding stations, X-ray equipment, joint-coating module, etc. The S notation refers to the shape of the pipeline as it is laid onto the seabed. The pipeline leaves the vessel at the stern or bow from a supporting structure called a stinger that guides the pipe's downward motion and controls the convex-upward curve (the overbend). As it continues toward the seabed, the pipe has a convex-downward curve (the sagbend) before coming into contact with the seabed (touch down point). The sagbend is controlled by a tension applied from the vessel (via tensioners) in response to the pipeline's submerged weight. The pipeline configuration is monitored so that it will not get damaged by excessive bending. This on-site pipeline assembly approach, referred to as lay-barge construction, is known for its versatility and self-contained nature – despite the high costs associated with this vessel's deployment, it is efficient and requires relatively little external support. But it may have to contend with severe sea states – these adversely affect operations such as pipe transfer from supply boats, anchor-handling and pipe welding. Recent developments in lay-barge design include dynamic positioning and the J-lay system.
Pipeline construction:
The J-lay system In areas where the water is very deep, the S-lay system may not be appropriate because the pipeline leaves the stinger to go almost straight down. To avoid sharp bending at the end of it and to mitigate excessive sag bending, the tension in the pipeline would have to be high. Doing so would interfere with the vessel's positioning, and the tensioner could damage the pipeline. A particularly long stinger could be used, but this is also objectionable since that structure would be adversely affected by winds and currents. The J-lay system, one of the latest generations of lay-barge, is better suited for deep water environments. In this system, the pipeline leaves the vessel on a nearly vertical ramp (or tower). There is no overbend – only a sagbend of catenary nature (hence the J notation), such that the tension can be reduced. The pipeline is also less exposed to wave action as it enters the water. However, unlike for the S-lay system, where pipe welding can be done simultaneously at several locations along the vessel deck's length, the J-lay system can only accommodate one welding station. Advanced methods of automatic welding are used to compensate for this drawback.
Pipeline construction:
The Reel-lay system In the reel-lay system, the pipeline is assembled onshore and is spooled onto a large drum typically about 20 metres (66 ft) x 6 metres (20 ft) in size, mounted on board a purpose-built vessel. The vessel then goes out to location to lay the pipeline. Onshore facilities to assemble the pipeline have inherent advantages: they are not affected by the weather or the sea state and are less expensive than seaborne operations. Pipeline supply can be coordinated: while one line is being laid at sea, another one can be spooled onshore. A single reel can have enough capacity for a full length flow line. The reel-lay system, however, can only handle lower diameter pipelines – up to about 400 mm (16 in). Also, the kind of steel making up the pipes must be able to undergo the required amount of plastic deformation as it is bent to proper curvature (by a spiral J-tube) when reeled around the drum, and straightened back (by a straightener) during the layout operations at the installation site.
Stabilisation:
Several methods are used to stabilise and protect submarine pipelines and their components. These may be used alone or in combinations.
Stabilisation:
Trenching and burial A submarine pipeline may be laid inside a trench as a means of safeguarding it against fishing gear (e.g. anchors) and trawling activity. This may also be required in shore approaches to protect the pipeline against currents and wave action (as it crosses the surf zone). Trenching can be done prior to pipeline lay (pre-lay trenching), or afterward by seabed removal from below the pipeline (post-lay trenching). In the latter case, the trenching device rides on top of, or straddles, the pipeline. Several systems are used to dig trenches in the seabed for submarine pipelines: Jetting: This is a post-lay trenching procedure whereby the soil is removed from beneath the pipeline by using powerful pumps to blow water on each side of it.
Stabilisation:
Mechanical cutting: This system uses chains or cutter disks to dig through and remove harder soils, including boulders, from below the pipeline.
Plowing: The plowing principle, which was initially used for pre-lay trenching, has evolved into sophisticated systems that are lighter in size for faster and safer operation.
Stabilisation:
Dredging/excavation: In shallower water, the soil can be removed with a dredger or an excavator prior to laying the pipeline. This can be done in a number of ways, notably with a ′′cutter-suction′′ system, with the use of buckets or with a backhoe.″A buried pipe is far better protected than a pipe in an open trench.″ This is commonly done either by covering the structure with rocks quarried from a nearby shoreline. Alternatively, the soil excavated from the seabed during trenching can be used as backfill. A significant drawback to burial is the difficulty in locating a leak should it arise, and for the ensuing repairing operations.
Stabilisation:
Mattresses Mattresses may be laid over the pipeline, or both under and over it depending on the substrate.
Frond mattresses have an effect similar to seaweed and tend to cause sand to accumulate. They must be anchored to the bottom to prevent being washed away.
Concrete mattresses are used to help hold part of the pipeline in place by their weight and reduce scour. They are usually heavy enough to be held in place by their own weight, as they are made from concrete blocks linked together by rope.
Combination mattresses of concrete mattress with overlaid frond mattress are also used.
Ground anchors Clamps holding the pipeline to piles may be used to prevent lateral movement.
Saddle blocks Precast concrete saddle blocks may be used to provide lateral support and hold the pipeline down more firmly.
Sandbags and groutbags These may be packed at the sides or under a pipeline to provide vertical and/or lateral support.
Gravel dumps Gravel may be dumped over parts of a pipeline to reduce scour and help stabilise against lateral movement.
Environmental and legal issues:
The Espoo Convention created certain requirements for notification and consultation where a project is likely to have transboundary environmental effects. Scholars are divided on how effective Espoo is at mitigating environmental harm. Law of the Sea concepts involved in the construction of transboundary pipelines concern territorial waters, continental shelves, exclusive economic zones, freedom of the high seas and protection of the environment. Under international law the high seas are open to all states to lay underwater pipelines and for various other types of construction.Underwater pipelines pose environmental risk because pipelines themselves may become damaged by ship's anchors, corrosion, tectonic activity, or as a result of defective construction and materials. Stanislav Patin has said that study on the effects of natural gas on underwater ecosystems, fish and other marine organisms has been limited. Researchers found a cause-effect relationship between mass fish mortality and natural gas leaks after drilling accidents in the Sea of Azov in 1982 and 1985.Concerns about the environmental risks of underwater pipelines have been raised on numerous occasions. There have been at least two serious incidents involving oil pipelines on the UK's continental shelf. There have also been several "minor spills and gas leaks" involving other North Sea pipelines. In 1980 a pipeline was damaged by a ship's anchor and in 1986 a pipeline valve failed due to pressure changed. Both incidents resulted in oil spills. Several Baltic countries expressed concerns about the Nord Stream pipeline. The route of the 1,200 km underwater pipeline would travel through fishing areas of the Baltic Sea, as well as area where chemical weapons from World War II had been discarded. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Water park**
Water park:
A water park (also waterpark, water world, or aquapark) is an amusement park that features water play areas such as swimming pools, water slides, splash pads, water playgrounds, and lazy rivers, as well as areas for floating, bathing, swimming, and other barefoot environments. Modern water parks may also be equipped with some type of artificial surfing or bodyboarding environment, such as a wave pool or flowrider.
History:
Water parks have grown in popularity since their introduction in the late 1940s and early 1950s. The United States has the largest and most concentrated water park market, with over 1,000 water parks and dozens of new parks opening each year. Major organizations are the IAAPA (International Association of Amusement Parks and Attractions) and WWA (World Waterpark Association), which is the industry trade association.Water parks which emerge from spas tend to more closely resemble mountain resorts, as they become year-round destinations. For example, Splash Universe Water Park Resort is themed to match the community in which it is located. The theme is intended to enhance the community's destination appeal. Therefore, the amusement and leisure-time industry is becoming more concentrated, as winter sports are becoming common themes in summertime water recreation.
History:
A process of concentration can be observed in the hybrid versions of theme-, amusement-, and water parks. Some water parks are more spa-oriented. For example, SchwabenQuellen has no water slides; it has instead many saunas, steam rooms, "adventure showers", and relaxation-oriented water play areas.In the 2000s, an effort was made to reduce long waiting lines by introducing conveyor belts to lift passengers or use water jets.An unusual feature at a water park is ice skating. Deep River Water Park in northwestern Indiana features ice skating, made possible by cooling pipes installed under their massive plaza.
Indoor water parks:
Some of the first indoor water parks are Tikibad at Duinrell (The Netherlands, 1984), Nautiland located at Haguenau (France, 1984), the Aqua Mundo at Center Parc De Eemhof located at Zeewolde (The Netherlands, 1980) and Alpamare (Pfäffikon) (Switzerland, 1977).In 1986 World Waterpark was open in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada at the West Edmonton Mall. It is in 2016 the largest indoor water park in North America.Tropical Islands Resort (Germany), with an area of 66,000 m2 (710,418 sq ft), is in 2016 the largest indoor water park in the world.With five indoor water parks, Wisconsin Dells, Wisconsin has been dubbed the "Water Park Capital of the World". It showcases several of America's largest indoor and outdoor water parks, such as Noah's Ark Water Park. Wisconsin Dells is also home to the first indoor water park in the United States, which was debuted in 1994 by the Polynesian Resort Hotel. Success in extending the tourist season and turning water park resorts into vacation destinations has resulted in tremendous industry growth. Usually, resort hotels featuring massive indoor water parks have been reserved for overnight guests. Companies like Great Wolf Resorts/Great Wolf Lodge and Kalahari Resorts have branched out from their origin in Wisconsin Dells to open new locations around the country. Mt. Olympus Theme and Water Park (formerly Family Land) is another huge water park in the Dells.
Indoor water parks:
The largest indoor water park in the UK is Sandcastle Water Park in Blackpool, England, which opened in 1986.There are many water parks in southern Europe where the climate suits a long season. For example, in Portugal's Algarve, there are three main parks: Aqualand, Aquashow, and Slide n' Splash.
Water play areas:
Water play areas are similar to water parks and include urban beaches, splash pads, and smaller collections of water slides in many hotels and public swimming pools.
For example, the Chelsea Hotel in Toronto features a four-story water slide called the Corkscrew.
Safety:
According to estimates from the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission, more than 4,200 people annually are sent to emergency rooms from suffering injuries on public waterslides. In July 2015, one drowning and at least three near-drownings were reported at water parks in the United States.On August 7, 2016, Caleb Schwab, the 10-year-old son of American politician Scott Schwab, was decapitated on the Verrückt water ride at the Schlitterbahn water park in Kansas City, Kansas. Following the fatal incident, Verrückt permanently closed. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Grand Central Terminal art**
Grand Central Terminal art:
Grand Central Terminal, one of the main railroad stations in New York City, features public art by a variety of artists. Through its status as a transportation and architectural icon, the terminal has also been depicted in many works of art.
Grand Central Terminal art:
Grand Central features permanent works of art, including the celestial ceiling in the Main Concourse, the Glory of Commerce work and the statue of Cornelius Vanderbilt in front of the building's south facade, and the two cast-iron eagle statues adorning the terminal's facades. As well, Vanderbilt Hall is regularly used for temporary art exhibitions and events. The Dining Concourse has a series of lightboxes also used to display temporary art exhibits. The terminal is also known for its performance and installation art, including flash mobs and other spontaneous events.
Artwork on display or part of the terminal:
Facade Glory of Commerce The Glory of Commerce sculptural group rests atop the terminal's facade, directly above a broken pediment featuring a large clock. The work is also known as Progress with Mental and Physical Force or Transportation. It is about 48 feet (15 m) tall, 66 feet (20 m) wide, and weighs about 1,500 short tons (1,400 t). At its unveiling in 1914, the work was considered the largest sculptural group in the world.The work includes representations of Minerva, Hercules, and Mercury. The sculptures were designed by French sculptor Jules-Félix Coutan and carved by the John Donnelly Company. Coutan created the model in his Paris studio and shipped it to New York City later.Mercury is standing at the top center of the work, depicted traditionally with a caduceus and wearing a winged helmet, with loose drapery concealing otherwise complete nudity. He is standing in a contrapposto pose in front of an eagle, wings outstretched, peering around his right leg. Two other gods are depicted to Mercury's left and right: the male figure to his right is typically and officially deemed to be Hercules, though he lacks the god's characteristic club and lionskin. Instead, the god is depicted among an anchor, cogwheel, anvil and hammer, a beehive, grapes, wheat ears and a sickle. Many of these are symbols of Vulcan, who is depicted with Minerva and Mercury in other works. He is also nearly naked, staring at Mercury above him. The female figure, Minerva, is resting her head on her left arm, looking down at a roll of parchment on her lap. She is depicted among a globe, a measuring compass, volumes of books and thick wreaths of laurel.The work is seen as attempting to fulfill several goals: portraying the terminal itself as a new technology, representing the Vanderbilt family, and serving as an artistic piece to parallel European art and architecture of the time.
Artwork on display or part of the terminal:
Clock There is a 13-foot-wide (4.0 m) clock on top of the south facade. It was installed in 1914 by the Self Winding Clock Company. The clock face has decorative stained glass framed in bronze, with cast-iron clock hands, the latter weighing 340 lbs. The center of the clock features a circular panel with a sunburst design. The glass work also features twelve Roman numerals to designate the time; its numeral "IIII" is traditional for clock faces displaying the number four, instead of the more common "IV". The numeral "VI", on the bottom of the clock, hides a flap that is used for maintenance. The clock mechanics are accessed via several ladders, reached from a door in the Operations Control Center. Access requires security clearance, limiting the number of visitors; these select few traditionally write their names on the clock room walls in permanent markers.The clock has a "Tiffany-style" design. Despite modern sources describing the clock as a work of Tiffany Studios or Tiffany & Co., the work is unsigned, and the latter company could not confirm the claim. Most sources that describe the clock in detail do not label it a Tiffany piece, and books published by the Tiffany companies make no mention of the clock. Tiffany Studios was employed to create metalwork for the terminal in the 1900s, though clockwork and glass were attributed to numerous other contractors.
Artwork on display or part of the terminal:
Statue of Cornelius Vanderbilt A statue of Cornelius Vanderbilt, longtime owner of the New York Central, stands at the center of the terminal's south facade, directly below its clock and facing the Park Avenue Viaduct. The work was sculpted by Ernst Plassmann, and is of bronze, 8.5 feet (2.6 m) tall and weighing 4 tons, with a 9-foot-tall granite pedestal. It depicts Vanderbilt bareheaded and in his commonly-seen winter clothes, including a heavy double-breasted and fur-trimmed overcoat. He is posed in a noble way, described as Jeffersonian, with one hand on his chest and another outstretched. It was the largest bronze statue cast in the United States at the time.The statue was created as part of a bronze bas-relief on the facade of the Hudson River Railroad depot at St. John's Park in the present-day neighborhood of Tribeca. The bas-relief was 150-foot (46 m) long and depicted various components of Vanderbilt's life, including his steamships and trains. The relief and statue were generally designed by Albert De Groot, a steamship captain under Vanderbilt, though they were sculpted by Plassmann.Unveiled and dedicated in November 1869, the works received much criticism from newspapers and other writers; the New York Times said such a tribute ought to include "the dismembered bodies of men, women and children" killed in the New York Central's open railyards to the north.This criticism may have convinced Vanderbilt to abandon his plans for another statue of himself, to have been installed at Grand Central Depot, which was built in 1871. The planned statue was to have been part of a grouping designed by De Groot with a sailor at one side and Native American at the other.In 1929, Plassmann's statue was moved to Grand Central Terminal. Once again, it received criticism in the press.
Artwork on display or part of the terminal:
Eagles Grand Central Terminal has two cast-iron eagle statues on display. The eagles weigh about 4,000 pounds (1,800 kg) each, have a wingspan of about 13 feet (4.0 m), and are perched on stone spheres.They are two of the 11 or 12 eagle statues that ornamented the terminal's predecessor, Grand Central Station. In 1910, when the station was demolished to build Grand Central Terminal, the eagles were dispersed throughout the city and New York state. By 1913, two were at the Philipse Manor station in Sleepy Hollow, New York, one was on the lawn of a wealthy resident of Mount Vernon, and the rest were on other estates, purchased from wreckers or taken from those with influence over the railroads.The two eagles that sit atop the terminal were donated to the MTA around the turn of the 21st century. One had stood for years in a backyard in Bronxville, New York; in 1999, it was placed atop the Lexington Avenue entrance to Grand Central Market. The other was at a monastery in Garrison, New York (the present-day Garrison Institute), and was installed in 2004 at the terminal's southwest entrance by Vanderbilt Avenue and 42nd Street.
Artwork on display or part of the terminal:
Eight identical eagle statues are elsewhere, including one at a private home in Kings Point, New York; one at the Space Farms Zoo and Museum in Beemerville, New Jersey; two at the Vanderbilt Museum in Long Island; one, known as the "Shandaken Eagle", in Phoenicia, New York; two at Saint Basil Academy in Garrison; and one at the Philipse Manor station in Sleepy Hollow. One or two of Grand Central Station's eagles remain lost.New York City's former Penn Station was adorned with 22 eagle sculptures, many of which were similarly dispersed across the United States after the building's demolition.
Artwork on display or part of the terminal:
Interior Ceiling The Main Concourse's ceiling is an elliptical barrel vault. A false ceiling of square boards, installed in 1944, bears an elaborate celestial mural painted with more than 2,500 stars and several bands in gold set against a turquoise backdrop. This ceiling covers the original 1913 version, which had degraded because of water damage.
Artwork on display or part of the terminal:
Original plans called for the ceiling to contain a skylight, but money and time ran out. Instead, a mural was painted directly on the ceiling. It was conceived in 1912 by architect Warren and painter Paul César Helleu. The latter, who had come to the United States for a three-month stay to create portraits of eight women for a Parisian magazine, sketched a conceptual design for Warren. Helleu worked from a chart given by Columbia astronomy professor Harold Jacoby, who had derived it from the Uranometria, a scientifically accurate star atlas published in 1603. The mural was executed in 1913 by James Monroe Hewlett and Charles Basing of Hewlett-Basing Studio. They were assisted in the design by Helleu and multiple astronomers, and in the painting by more than 50 painting assistants. Around 63 electric bulbs were installed to amplify the visual impact of the stars. The depicted constellations include those of the winter zodiac viewable from January to June, from Aquarius to Cancer. Also depicted are Pegasus, Triangulum Majus and Minus, Musca Borealis, and Orion, as well as two broad gold bands spanning the ceiling, representing the ecliptic and the equator. Triangulum Minus (not present on the original mural, but added in 1944) and Musca Borealis are the only constellations not taken from the Uranometria.By the 1920s, the roof began to leak, damaging the mural with water and mold. Over the next two decades, the mural "faded to a hue something like that of a khaki shirt overdosed with Navy blue". In August 1944, New York Central covered the original ceiling with 4-by-8-foot cement-and-asbestos boards and painted them in a facsimile of the original mural. Unveiled in June 1945, the new mural contained less astronomical detail; it also lacked light bulbs to mimic stars. The boards' outlines remain visible today.
Artwork on display or part of the terminal:
By the 1980s, the new ceiling was obscured by decades of grime. The dirt buildup was sometimes reported to be tar and nicotine from tobacco smoke, or diesel or coal soot from the trains in the terminal's train shed (though trains have utilized electric power in Manhattan since 1908). Spectroscopic examination revealed that it was made up of air pollutants from trucks and cars as well as soot and contaminants from incinerators and factories. As a general renovation of the terminal got underway, historians and preservationists called for the 1944 boards to be removed and the original ceiling mural restored. But Beyer Blinder Belle, the architecture firm that led the renovation, deemed the original mural irreversibly damaged and noted that the asbestos-laden boards would be hazardous to remove. So, starting in September 1996, the ceiling boards were cleaned and repainted. Lights were installed into the ceiling boards to imitate the stars, restoring a feature previously only seen from 1913 to 1944. A single dark patch near the crab constellation (representing Cancer) was left untouched by renovators to remind visitors of the grime that once covered the ceiling.
Artwork on display or part of the terminal:
The ceiling bears a small dark circle amid the stars above the image of Pisces. In a 1957 attempt to improve public morale after the Soviet Union launched Sputnik, an American Redstone missile was set up in the Main Concourse. With no other way to erect the missile, a hole was cut into the 1944 false ceiling to allow a cable to be lowered to lift the rocket into place. Historical preservation dictated that this hole remain as a reminder of the many uses of the Terminal over the years.The starry ceiling contains several astronomical inaccuracies. The entire artwork is reversed left-to-right from the Uranometria and the night sky, except for the Orion constellation. There are various explanations that are often given for this error. One possible explanation is that the overall ceiling design might have been based on the medieval custom of depicting the sky as it would appear to God looking in at the celestial sphere from outside, but that would have reversed Orion as well. A more likely explanation is partially mistaken transcription of the sketch supplied by Harold Jacoby, the explanation Jacoby gave when the issue was brought to him. Jacoby surmised that Basing had placed the sketch at his feet, rather than holding it up toward the ceiling, when copying its details. Though the astronomical inconsistencies were noticed promptly by a commuter within a month of the station's opening, they have not been corrected in any of the subsequent renovations of the ceiling. Postcards printed before the terminal's opening show the ceiling artwork correctly.
Artwork on display or part of the terminal:
Graybar Passage mural The Graybar Passage extends from the northeast corner of the Main Concourse, underneath the Graybar Building, directly east to Lexington Avenue. The ceiling is composed of seven groin vaults, each of which has an ornamental bronze chandelier. One of the vaults features a mural depicting American transportation. The work was painted in 1927 by muralist Edward Trumbull. The first two vaults viewed from leaving Grand Central featured cumulus clouds, while the third remains, featuring technologies that had significantly affected the world. These include a train pulled by an electric locomotive, a bridge resembling the original design of the city's High Bridge, the construction of a skyscraper, the manufacturing of steel, and several airplanes (including the Spirit of St. Louis) along with a searchlight and radio tower. The mural has a caramel color; the once-bright colors present have faded over time. Originally, every vault in the passage ceiling was to be painted similarly to the existing work, though project funding fell short during the Great Depression.
Artwork on display or part of the terminal:
Sirshasana Sirshasana, an aluminum and polyester resin sculpture with crystals, was created by Donald Lipski in 1998. The sculpture hangs from the ceiling of Grand Central Market just inside its 43rd Street entrance. The chandelier has the shape of an olive tree, with branches spanning 25 feet and featuring 5,000 crystal pendants. The base of the tree is finished in gold and crystals, in place of olives. The sculpture is named after a headstand posture in yoga: the inverted tree. The work alludes to Grand Central's decorative chandeliers, and is a "comment on the allure of the exotic and tempting wares sold in the marketplace".
Artwork on display or part of the terminal:
As Above, So Below As Above, So Below, a work of glass, bronze, and mosaic in several Grand Central North passageways, was made by Brooklyn-based artist Ellen Driscoll in 1998. The mosaic's five scenes, each stemming from a different continent, depict myths and legends about the heavens that reflect life on earth. The work reminds passengers of humanity's spiritual and worldly past. Like the terminal's astronomical ceiling, it symbolizes the connection to the wider world and heavens.
Artwork on display or part of the terminal:
Details of "As Above, So Below" A Field of Wild Flowers A Field of Wild Flowers, a mural on the walls of the Station Master's Office, was made by Roberto Juarez in 1997. The work uses many materials to give texture, strength, and beauty. Layers include gesso, under-painting, urethane, and varnish, along with rice paper and a dusting of peat moss. It depicts a bountiful garden landscape as viewed though windows of a slow-moving train. It repeats some of Grand Central's architectural details, including fruit, acorns, and garlands.
Artwork on display or part of the terminal:
Other One of the retail areas of the Graybar Passage, currently the alcohol vendor Central Cellars, was the Grand Central Theatre or Terminal Newsreel Theatre. The movie theater lobby had walls covered with large world maps and an astronomical mural painted by Tony Sarg. The theater opened in 1937 and operated for about 30 years before being gutted for retail space. A renovation in the early 2000s removed a false ceiling, revealing the theater's astronomical mural (similar in colors and style to the Main Concourse ceiling) and projection window.The Dining Concourse has 16 lightboxes that form a quadriptych. MTA Arts & Design maintains a rotating art exhibition in the space. The first non-photographic exhibit in the space was On Paper/ Grand Central at 100, which was created for the terminal's centennial and was displayed from September 2013 to September 2014. It featured four works by contemporary and international paper cut artists: Thomas Witte's Cutting Shadows, Xin Song's Time · Light · Gate · Clock, Laura Cooperman's Overhead, and Rob Ryans' There Is Only Time. The works use themes from Grand Central's architecture and grandeur, and family memories.
Artwork on display or part of the terminal:
As of 2019, the space features "Landmark City", a photographic exhibit by Marc Yankus. The exhibit shows New York City landmarks, altered to appear on empty streets.
Exhibitions and performances:
Special exhibitions Grand Central Terminal has held a number of special exhibits, including: In June 1948, a fashion show by Filene's and the New Haven Railroad was hosted on the balcony of the Main Concourse, and a thousand square feet of sand was imported for the event. The show also used space at Track 61, in a storage yard north of Grand Central.
Exhibitions and performances:
In 1993, a portion of Ruckus Manhattan, an exhibit by Red Grooms, was displayed in the Vanderbilt Hall.
In 1995, Lost: New York Projects by Christian Boltanski involved a display, titled Lost Property, of about 5,000 personal belongings from the terminal's lost-and-found, on display on metal shelves in the Biltmore Room.
In 1997, Chrysanne Stathacos created the Wish Machine, an interactive installation where passers-by could buy a scent from a vending-machine-style installation which would in turn aid them in manifesting a desire. The work was commissioned by Creative Time as part of their Day With(out) Art initiative.
In 2004, Rudolf Stingel debuted his first work of public art at Grand Central, in Vanderbilt Hall, titled "Plan B".
In 2009, the hall hosted four of the BMW Art Cars, cars which were painted by Andy Warhol, Frank Stella, Roy Lichtenstein, and Robert Rauschenberg.
Events The Main Concourse and Vanderbilt Hall frequently host special exhibits and events. These include: Every year, the terminal has had concerts with Christmas carols and organ recitals. In the 1930s, a woman named Mary Lee Read would often give organ concerts from one of the terminal's balconies.
In 1935, the Works Progress Administration-backed Manhattan Concert Band performed In 1943, an Easter performance was given by the Princeton Theological Seminary choir.
Exhibitions and performances:
In 1987, the performing arts organization Dancing in the Streets presented Grand Central Dances. The production involved the dance companies of Merce Cunningham, Lucinda Childs, Paul Thompson and Stephan Koplowitz, as well as the high-wire artist Philippe Petit and juggler Michael Moschen. The event included "Terminal Triptych", an hour-long dance in the Biltmore Room, "Fenestrations", a 13-minute dance on four levels of the Main Concourse's window catwalks, and a tight-rope walk across the concourse by Petit.
Exhibitions and performances:
In 1988, a Double Dutch jump-roping competition was held in the Main Concourse as part of a city-sponsored "Summer Games".
In 2011, a flash mob show by Moncler Grenoble took place in the Main Concourse.
In 2013, Nick Cave and dancers from the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater organized the performance Heard NY. The performance took place in Vanderbilt Hall, the Main Concourse, and on the catwalks between the terminal's arched windows. The MTA had approached Cave for this project for the terminal's centennial, and the performance piece ran for one week.
Exhibitions and performances:
Musical performances The terminal hosts numerous performances. It is also a host site for Music Under New York, where musicians can perform within various transit hubs controlled by the MTA. In Grand Central, artists can perform in the Graybar Passage as well as in the Dining Concourse, opposite Tracks 105 and 106. Auditions for the program take place each spring in the terminal's Vanderbilt Hall.Beginning during the Christmas season of 1928 and continuing on certain holidays until 1958, an organist performed in Grand Central's North Gallery. The organist was Mary Lee Read, who initially performed on a borrowed Hammond organ. Grand Central management eventually bought an organ and a set of chimes for the station and began paying Read an annual retainer. In addition to the weeks before Christmas, Read played during the weeks before Thanksgiving and Easter and on Mother's Day. On one Easter, a choir composed of Works Progress Administration employees performed with her. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, she attempted to lift spirits by playing "The Star-Spangled Banner", which brought the main concourse to a standstill. The stationmaster subsequently asked her to avoid selections that would cause passengers to miss their trains, and Read became known as the only organist in New York who was forbidden to play the United States' national anthem.In 2018, Paul McCartney gave a private concert in the terminal on the premiere date of his new album Egypt Station, with guests including Jon Bon Jovi, Meryl Streep, Amy Schumer, Kate Moss and Steve Buscemi. In February 2020, South Korean pop group BTS staged a live performance of their song, "ON", at the Main Concourse.
Art featuring Grand Central:
Grand Central is one of the most-photographed places in New York City and the United States. A 2009 Cornell University study mapping out geotagged photos worldwide indicated the building was the fourth most photographed in New York City.One of the most famous photographs of the terminal shows light streaming from Main Concourse windows down to the floor. The work is reproduced online through hundreds of different images, with variations in angles, cropping, flipping, filters, and watermarks, as well as the author and date attributed to the works. Photographer Penelope Umbrico collected a sample of such images in Four Photographs of Rays of Sunlight in Grand Central, on display in the terminal's Dining Concourse.Paintings depicting Grand Central include: John French Sloan, Grand Central Station, 1924 Max Weber, Grand Central Terminal, 1915 Jim Campbell, Grand Central Station #2, 2009 Ernest Lawson, Old Grand Central Howard Thain, Grand Central Station, N.Y.C., 1927 Howard Thain, Park Avenue at 42nd Street, N.Y.C., 1927 Johann Berthelsen, Grand Central Station in Snow Colin Campbell Cooper, Grand Central Station, 1909 | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
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