text stringlengths 60 353k | source stringclasses 2 values |
|---|---|
**Ethyl acetoxy butanoate**
Ethyl acetoxy butanoate:
Ethyl acetoxy butanoate (EAB) is a volatile chemical compound found as a minor component of the odour profile of ripe pineapples, though in its pure form it has a smell more similar to sour yoghurt. It can be metabolized in humans into GHB, and thus can produce similar sedative effects.It is synthesised by the reaction of gamma-butyrolactone and ethyl acetate with sodium ethoxide. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Monomictic lake**
Monomictic lake:
Monomictic lakes are holomictic lakes that mix from top to bottom during one mixing period each year. Monomictic lakes may be subdivided into cold and warm types.
Cold monomictic lakes:
Cold monomictic lakes are lakes that are covered by ice throughout much of the year. During their brief "summer", the surface waters remain at or below 4 °C. The ice prevents these lakes from mixing in winter. During summer, these lakes lack significant thermal stratification, and they mix thoroughly from top to bottom. These lakes are typical of cold-climate regions (e.g. much of the Arctic). An example of a cold monomictic lake is Great Bear Lake in Canada.
Warm monomictic lakes:
Warm monomictic lakes are lakes that never freeze, and are thermally stratified throughout much of the year. The density difference between the warm surface waters (the epilimnion) and the colder bottom waters (the hypolimnion) prevents these lakes from mixing in summer. During winter, the surface waters cool to a temperature equal to the bottom waters. Lacking significant thermal stratification, these lakes mix thoroughly each winter from top to bottom. These lakes are widely distributed from temperate to tropical climatic regions. One example is South Australia's Blue Lake, where the change in circulation is signaled by a striking change in colour.
Thermal and density stratification:
The identification and categorization of monomictic lakes relies on the formation of both an epilimnion (warmer, less dense water) and hypolimnion (cooler, more dense water) separated by a thermocline a majority of the year. The distinct separation of these layers of the water column are collectively referred to as the thermal and density strata. Thermal and density stratification is a critical factor influencing the composition of the water column. Composition often refers to the presence of or lack of nutrients and organisms. In both cold and warm monomictic lakes, the epilimnion and hypolimnion are separated for a majority of the year. In warm monomictic lakes, the water is in a uniform, liquid form; in cold monomictic lakes, the body contains a layer of ice and is cooler in temperature. Concerns and solutions pertaining to both warm and cold monomictic lakes are explored below.
Nutrient dispersion:
As warm monomictic lakes are entirely liquid, warmer in temperature, and highly productive, summer stratification commonly leads to eutrophication. This summer stratification is especially long in warm monomictic lakes. During eutrophication, excess nutrients are produced and depleted in a lake at opposite, vertical ends of the water column. This in turn dictates the growth and maturation of populations of organisms which tend to influence water oxygen and nutrient levels. In warm monomictic lakes, thermal stratification lends to oxygen depletion in the hypolimnion; a lack of mixing prevents the introduction of oxygen from the atmosphere into the water. This measure is known as dissolved oxygen (DO). When DO is lowered in the hypolimnion, nutrients like ammonium, nitrate, and phosphates tend to dominate. When oxygen levels are extremely low, the water is considered hypoxic and cannot support many forms of life. A lack of oxygen also limits natural chemical processes like the conversion of ammonium to nitrate.A mixture of ammonium and nitrates is required to sustain plant growth; an overabundance of ammonium is linked to poor plant growth and productivity. In a lake, the overabundance of ammonium also indicates anaerobic and acidic conditions. This lack of oxygen modifies a lake’s oxidation-reduction potential (ORP). The higher a lake’s ORP, the higher the levels of oxygen present in the water. Ideal ranges are between 300 and 500 millivolts. Ideally, higher levels of oxygen aid resident bacteria and microorganisms in the decomposition of organic matter and dispersal of necessary nutrients into the water column. Conversely, a low ORP and low oxygen drives the release of sediment phosphorus via diffusion along concentration gradients through a process known as internal loading. Together, the increases in phosphorus, ammonium, and nitrate can drive the production of toxic algal blooms. Such blooms create a positive feedback loop of depleting nutrients and oxygen, and the subsequent release of nutrients needed to support their continued growth. Eutrophication can be both a natural and an anthropologic process; anthropogenic inputs are typically through sewage and waste water, or agricultural soil erosion and run-off.
Combating eutrophication:
A rather new hypothesis is a link between residence time of water and seasonal stratification in monomictic lakes leading to eutrophication. Increased residence time leads to longer periods of stratification, reduced water mixing, and increased eutrophication in the epilimnion. Some propose the development of interventions personalized to lakes to reduce these conditions. Such personalization refers to the manipulation of a lake’s residence time to combat internal loading and eutrophication by reducing the length of a stratification time period. Current models utilize the redirection of water flow into and out of monomictic lakes to assist in overturn and the physical “flushing” of phytoplankton and excess nutrients. Such methods have shown to reduce residence time and stratification by days. While these time frames are limited in scope, they show potential to be lengthened for greater results in future studies and various lake models.Hypolimnetic aeration and oxygenation aims to directly address lowered DO levels in a given lake which leads to eutrophication. By increasing oxygen levels in the hypolimnion, one aims to increase the ORP and reduce the rate and incidence of internal loading. Aerators are utilized to introduce oxygen, pure or atmospheric, directly into the water column. This is an especially expensive intervention given the electrical demands required to power such equipment. These costs make these aerators rather unsustainable as they are economically costly, and production of electricity can have environmental implications. Ecological threats have also been demonstrated. Use of aerators correlates to increased prevalence of gas bubble disease amongst fish. Yet, other organisms, such as zooplankton and fish, benefit from this process as increased aerobic conditions expand their territory in a lake.Hypolimnetic withdrawal involves the withdrawal of water from a eutrophic lake at the hypolimnion at peaks of seasonal stratification. This water is removed to indirectly remove phosphorus. Upon addition of this water back into the hypolimnion, cyanobacteria growth is limited. This addition to the hypolimnion also reduces mixing of the water column and dispersal of nutrients to feed epilimnion algae. The physical removal of water can be either passive or active and is typically limited to minimize quality impacts on the water level. This water can also be discharged downstream and can have unintended effects. The low quality water rich in toxins and nutrients removed from the hypolimnion when transferred to other lakes can destabilize their water columns. In some cases, lakes treated via hypolimnetic withdrawal may also experience undesirable water-level reductions and overall increases in average water temperature followed by mixing.Lastly, sediment dredging pertains to the direct collection and removal of sediment at the bottom of the lake. Removal of the top layer of the sediment aims to remove organic matter containing undesired nutrients. This method has measurable impacts on benthic organisms. It can take up to three years to restore the benthic organisms removed by dredging. Such organisms are essential to nutrient cycling in lakes and aquatic environments.
Climate change:
The largest factor that controls water temperature in a given lake is air temperature. Current changes and trends in global temperatures year round are a formidable threat to aquatic ecosystems. Current studies support that the combination of increased air temperatures and reduced precipitation impact shallow, monomictic lakes. In particular, their mixing may increase; this mixing lends to increased nutrient dispersal, anoxic conditions, and algal blooms. Southern regions may also see increases in salinity. Warm monomictic lakes that have experienced historically warm winters demonstrate greater thermal stability. This stability reduces mixing interactions and the oxygenation of waters. Furthermore, cold monomictic lakes may experience less cool conditions year-round leading to increased mixing and changes in thermal stratification otherwise unseen. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Coordinate time**
Coordinate time:
In the theory of relativity, it is convenient to express results in terms of a spacetime coordinate system relative to an implied observer. In many (but not all) coordinate systems, an event is specified by one time coordinate and three spatial coordinates. The time specified by the time coordinate is referred to as coordinate time to distinguish it from proper time.
Coordinate time:
In the special case of an inertial observer in special relativity, by convention the coordinate time at an event is the same as the proper time measured by a clock that is at the same location as the event, that is stationary relative to the observer and that has been synchronised to the observer's clock using the Einstein synchronisation convention.
Coordinate time, proper time, and clock synchronization:
A fuller explanation of the concept of coordinate time arises from its relations with proper time and with clock synchronization. Synchronization, along with the related concept of simultaneity, has to receive careful definition in the framework of general relativity theory, because many of the assumptions inherent in classical mechanics and classical accounts of space and time had to be removed. Specific clock synchronization procedures were defined by Einstein and give rise to a limited concept of simultaneity.Two events are called simultaneous in a chosen reference frame if and only if the chosen coordinate time has the same value for both of them; and this condition allows for the physical possibility and likelihood that they will not be simultaneous from the standpoint of another reference frame.But outside special relativity, the coordinate time is not a time that could be measured by a clock located at the place that nominally defines the reference frame, e.g. a clock located at the solar system barycenter would not measure the coordinate time of the barycentric reference frame, and a clock located at the geocenter would not measure the coordinate time of a geocentric reference frame.
Mathematics:
For non-inertial observers, and in general relativity, coordinate systems can be chosen more freely. For a clock whose spatial coordinates are constant, the relationship between proper time τ (Greek lowercase tau) and coordinate time t, i.e. the rate of time dilation, is given by where g00 is a component of the metric tensor, which incorporates gravitational time dilation (under the convention that the zeroth component is timelike).
Mathematics:
An alternative formulation, correct to the order of terms in 1/c2, gives the relation between proper and coordinate time in terms of more-easily recognizable quantities in dynamics: in which: U=∑iGMiri is a sum of gravitational potentials due to the masses in the neighborhood, based on their distances ri from the clock. This sum of the terms GMi/ri is evaluated approximately, as a sum of Newtonian gravitational potentials (plus any tidal potentials considered), and is represented using the positive astronomical sign convention for gravitational potentials.
Mathematics:
Also c is the speed of light, and v is the speed of the clock (in the coordinates of the chosen reference frame) defined by: where dx, dy, dz and dtc are small increments in three orthogonal spacelike coordinates x, y, z and in the coordinate time tc of the clock's position in the chosen reference frame.
Equation (2) is a fundamental and much-quoted differential equation for the relation between proper time and coordinate time, i.e. for time dilation. A derivation, starting from the Schwarzschild metric, with further reference sources, is given in Time dilation due to gravitation and motion together.
Measurement:
The coordinate times cannot be measured, but only computed from the (proper-time) readings of real clocks with the aid of the time dilation relationship shown in equation (2) (or some alternative or refined form of it). Only for explanatory purposes it is possible to conceive a hypothetical observer and trajectory on which the proper time of the clock would coincide with coordinate time: such an observer and clock have to be conceived at rest with respect to the chosen reference frame (v = 0 in (2) above) but also (in an unattainably hypothetical situation) infinitely far away from its gravitational masses (also U = 0 in (2) above). Even such an illustration is of limited use because the coordinate time is defined everywhere in the reference frame, while the hypothetical observer and clock chosen to illustrate it has only a limited choice of trajectory.
Coordinate time scales:
A coordinate time scale (or coordinate time standard) is a time standard designed for use as the time coordinate in calculations that need to take account of relativistic effects. The choice of a time coordinate implies the choice of an entire frame of reference.
Coordinate time scales:
As described above, a time coordinate can to a limited extent be illustrated by the proper time of a clock that is notionally infinitely far away from the objects of interest and at rest with respect to the chosen reference frame. This notional clock, because it is outside all gravity wells, is not influenced by gravitational time dilation. The proper time of objects within a gravity well will pass more slowly than the coordinate time even when they are at rest with respect to the coordinate reference frame. Gravitational as well as motional time dilation must be considered for each object of interest, and the effects are functions of the velocity relative to the reference frame and of the gravitational potential as indicated in (2).
Coordinate time scales:
There are four purpose-designed coordinate time scales defined by the IAU for use in astronomy. Barycentric Coordinate Time (TCB) is based on a reference frame comoving with the barycenter of the Solar System, and has been defined for use in calculating motion of bodies within the Solar System. However, from the standpoint of Earth-based observers, general time dilation including gravitational time dilation causes Barycentric Coordinate Time, which is based on the SI second, to appear when observed from the Earth to have time units that pass more quickly than SI seconds measured by an Earth-based clock, with a rate of divergence of about 0.5 seconds per year. Accordingly, for many practical astronomical purposes, a scaled modification of TCB has been defined, called for historical reasons Barycentric Dynamical Time (TDB), with a time unit that evaluates to SI seconds when observed from the Earth's surface, thus assuring that at least for several millennia TDB will remain within 2 milliseconds of Terrestrial Time (TT), albeit that the time unit of TDB, if measured by the hypothetical observer described above, at rest in the reference frame and at infinite distance, would be very slightly slower than the SI second (by 1 part in 1/LB = 1 part in 108/1.550519768).Geocentric Coordinate Time (TCG) is based on a reference frame comoving with the geocenter (the center of the Earth), and is defined in principle for use for calculations concerning phenomena on or in the region of the Earth, such as planetary rotation and satellite motions. To a much smaller extent than with TCB compared with TDB, but for a corresponding reason, the SI second of TCG when observed from the Earth's surface shows a slight acceleration on the SI seconds realized by Earth-surface-based clocks. Accordingly, Terrestrial Time (TT) has also been defined as a scaled version of TCG, with the scaling such that on the defined geoid the unit rate is equal to the SI second, albeit that in terms of TCG the SI second of TT is a very little slower (this time by 1 part in 1/LG = 1 part in 1010/6.969290134). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Angry black woman**
Angry black woman:
The angry black woman stereotype is a racial trope in American society and media that portrays Black American women as inherently ill-mannered and ill-tempered.
Angry black woman:
Among stereotypes of groups within the United States, the angry black woman stereotype is less studied by researchers than the Mammy and Jezebel archetypes.Carolyn West categorizes the Angry Black Woman (ABW) as a variation on the Sapphire stereotype or, colloquially, "Sistas with Attitude". She defines the pervasive Sapphire/ABW image as "a template for portraying almost all Black women" and as serving several purposes. West paraphrases Melissa V. Harris-Perry who contends, "...because [Angry Black Women's] passion and righteous indignation is often misread as irrational anger, this image can be used to silence and shame Black women who dare to challenge social inequalities, complain about their circumstances, or demand fair treatment".Author and Professor of Law at Columbia University and at the University of California, Los Angeles Kimberlé Crenshaw defined and pioneered the analysis of the term "intersectionality" which describes this dual conflict experienced by black women specifically. In her Ted Talk, Crenshaw explains that black people experience a unique discrimination from white people, and women experience a unique discrimination from men. Black women, consequently, experience a unique form of discrimination from black men and white women and cannot only be judged based on the singularities of race or gender.
Sapphire stereotype as source:
Sapphire is a term associated with the most dominant portrayals of Black women. According to the stereotype, Sapphires were perceived as malicious and stubborn, with an overbearing nature. Aside from being depicted as unnecessarily loud and violent, Sapphires were also known to have an insatiable desire for African-American men. The Sapphire is thought to be closely related to the Mammy, though instead of a comforting demeanor, she is far more sexualized. The Sapphire is often seen as abusive, possessing a strong need to dominate, and looking for opportunities to project her own unhappiness upon others. The Sapphire poses as a persistent nagger, complaining not in hopes of a solution, but rather because she herself is bitter.
Sapphire stereotype as source:
Negative caricatures of Black women historically justified their exploitation. The Sapphire archetype painted enslaved women as impure, strong, masculine, dominant, and aggressive who drove their children and partners away. This archetype characterizes the Black woman as experiencing disappointment, displeasure, bitterness or rage because of her significant other. The term has also been generalized to refer to Black women who show extreme emotion. It was utilized as a means to prove oppression was not as imminent of an issue, if Whites accepted Black women who acted according to this caricature.
The sexuality of the Jezebel stereotype:
The Jezebel is a stereotype used to refer to fair-skinned, slimmer, and lighter-eyed Black women, becoming hyper-sexualized by America and its media soon after the Mammy trope began its decline. Similar to the Sapphire, this trope was used as a justification for the harassment and assaults against Black women, as this painted them as inherently tempestuous and beguiling. The Jezebel presents as a slave construct, depicting Black women as "promiscuous" and "lustful". During slavery, lighter skinned women were seen as more worthy concubines to wealthy slave owners, whereas darker skinned women were more worthy for harsher labor such as field work. The Jezebel constructed a harmful perception of Black women that heavily contributed to their sexual and economic exploitation.
Perpetuation and reproduction of the stereotype:
With roots in slavery, the sapphire archetype was further replicated in films, shows, and literature by the early 1930s. The negative portrayals of African Americans in television and film influences perceptions of them in real life. The reinforcement of the angry Black woman stereotype through media can lead to negative interpretations of Black women's self-expression. We see this replicated as well in film, through portraying African American women as far older in order to remove sympathy garnering characteristics from Black characters. Through these media and social platforms the stereotype was cultivated and sustained.
Perpetuation and reproduction of the stereotype:
Black women were perceived to be loud, overly expressive, and generally negative and rude in nature. The 1930s radio show Amos 'n' Andy was particularly one of the first media outlets that reinforced the stereotype. In this production two white men voiced Black characters. Among those characters were Black women. The narrative of anger, assertiveness, and frequent emasculation was echoed with characters such as Aunt Esther from Sanford and Son and Pam from Martin. Towards the early 1970s, Blaxploitation became a prominent film genre, capitalizing off of a new trope which emerged from the combination of two previous caricatures- Jezebel and Sapphire. This combination birthed a separate caricatures that took the overly sexual and aggressive perception of Black women and use it to fight crime. The Angry Black Woman was reinvented, as actresses were able use their "bodies, brains, and guns" to play as a seductress fighting crime. Actresses such as Pam Grier profited off of this genre, using her debut in Blaxploitation films to advance her career.
Perpetuation and reproduction of the stereotype:
The pervasiveness of the angry Black woman stereotype has led many Black women to feel unable express themselves in fear of being perceived as angry. Although often labelled as "angry" unnecessarily, Black women's anger is also characterized as unjustified in instances in which anger is warranted. Deeming Black women's anger invalid or inappropriate shifts the focus from the cause of the anger to the reaction itself. This may be a conscious or subconscious action on behalf of the individual(s) labeling a Black woman as angry in order to shift blame or responsibility.
Relationships to other stereotypes:
The sapphire archetype coincides with the mammy and Jezebel. All three of these archetypes uphold the angry black woman stereotype, but in different ways. In the archetype of mammy, black women were characterized as caregivers and submissive, while the Jezebel is characterized as dependent on men, promiscuous, aggressive, and arrogant. The reproduction of these archetypes in popular culture legitimized the dehumanization of black women.
Relationships to other stereotypes:
Gender studies professor Deborah Gray White writes, "slave women understood the value of silence and secrecy... like all who are dependent upon the caprices of a master, they hide their real sentiments and turn toward him changeless smile or enigmatic passivity". In other words, slavery poses a direct correlation to the Black women's emotional response, being taught that a domineering personality could be viewed as threatening.
Black feminist response:
Black women have used various platforms and mediums to fight back against the Angry Black Women trope that has contributed to their marginalization for centuries. A number of Black women provide insight on how the stereotype is reinforced in the media, social spaces, and interpersonal interactions. Furthermore, Black women, whether if it's through activism, academia, art, or dance, affirm their rage. Through such activism and discourse, Black women have opened many conversations regarding the dismissal and scrutiny of their emotions.Black feminists have discredited the trope of the angry Black woman and recognize the validity in a black woman's anger. Black women are demanding a more accurate representation in the media overall in order to further the progression of the Black woman. Black feminists believe that the positive aspects of a Black woman's experience should be depicted in the media as well to hinder the persistence of this stereotype.
Portrayals:
The aftermath of slavery not only resulted in many social, economic and political effects but also led to the delineation of negative racial stereotypes in the portrayal of black women in media. The industry sometimes showed the stereotypical ideas of black women from mammies to sapphires, portraying black women as people who are unnecessarily aggressive and obnoxious. Many media outlets portray black women as aggressive and use black women in television as a comedic relief. Black women view this differently. As in various films, lead black women actresses are consistently depicted as angry and start an argument as black men are portrayed in a positive manner. Black women are often portrayed as an aggressive convict and a poor single mother with a lack of higher education. This stereotype has changed over time, however, the media still depicts black women in a negative perception.Feminists believe that this is still extremely prevalent today, while non-feminists assert that there is a wide variety of black characters in all forms of media today, including both stereotypes and stereotype-free characters. Both groups do note that the "angry black woman" is one of the types of characters that is sometimes portrayed. "It's been difficult to be a black women without not being angry after generations of oppression, discrimination and erasure. Black women aren't allowed to express frustration and passions without being criticized and demonized. They are labeled as loud, vindictive and always in trouble as men are allowed to get upset without constructive criticism because it can establish their masculinity. The strong black women myth often does well in movies and TV shows, but has contributed to making black women look miserable and nonproductive as opposed to other groups/races in reality."Examples of modern movies containing one or more "angry black woman" character include the Madea series of movies, the TV show Empire, and others: Sapphire, from Amos 'n' Andy Aunt Esther, a character in Sanford and Son Wilhelmina Slater, a character in Ugly Betty
Public health:
In regards to culturally relevant practices during mental health treatment, Ashley W, author of The angry black woman: the impact of pejorative stereotypes on psychotherapy with black women. describes "the myth of the angry Black woman that characterizes these women as aggressive, ill tempered, illogical, overbearing, hostile, and ignorant without provocation" as a negative stereotype that victimizes black women.Black women are expected to appear strong-willed and self-sacrificing in their daily lives, regardless of the traumas they experience due to being a Black women in a dominant society. The tropes used to label black women can have lasting effects, both mental and physical. The overabundance of stress that accompanies the racial and gender based discrimination can manifest into legitimate health issues such as anxiety, depression, and high blood pressure. The exposure to institutionalized racism over for an extensive period can lead to an increase in physiological stressors, which can lead to cardiovascular disorders and diseases. Chronic stress can lead to further health effects affiliating with racial discrimination.
Public health:
Researchers have found effective coping strategies to combat the everlasting effects of racism, such as relying heavily on spirituality and placing their belief in a non-material and non-observational being. Vernessa R. Clark, author of The Perilous Effects of Racism on Blacks, notes that there are numerous coping styles that can be both effective or ineffective, but each consists of simultaneously accepting the effects of racism while denying the White institutions and productions that promote racism. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Trough level**
Trough level:
In medicine and pharmacology, a trough level or trough concentration (Ctrough) is the concentration reached by a drug immediately before the next dose is administered, often used in therapeutic drug monitoring. The name comes from the idea that on a graph of concentration versus time, the line forms a U-shaped trough at the lowest region, before a new dose sends it higher again. The usual criterion is concentration in the blood serum, although in some instances local concentration within tissues is relevant. It is pharmacokinetically normal that over time, the drug molecules are being metabolized or cleared by the body, so the concentration of drug that remains available is dropping. In a medicine that is administered periodically, the trough level should be measured just before the administration of the next dose in order to avoid overdosing. A trough level is contrasted with a "peak level" (Cmax), which is the highest level of the medicine in the body, and the "average level", which is the mean level over time. It is widely used in clinical trials for newer medicines to investigate therapeutic effectiveness and safety.
Trough level:
Ctrough is slightly different from Cmin, the minimum concentration during the time interval between administration of two doses. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Journal of Medical Physics**
Journal of Medical Physics:
The Journal of Medical Physics is a quarterly peer-reviewed open access medical journal published on behalf of the Association of Medical Physicists of India by Medknow Publications. It was established in 1976 as the AMPI Medical Physics Bulletin and obtained its current name in 1996. It covers research in nuclear medicine.
Abstracting and indexing:
The journal is abstracted and indexed in: | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Nepinalone**
Nepinalone:
Nepinalone is a cough suppressant. Its brand names include Placatus, Tussolvina, and Nepitus.
The effect is evident after 20–30 minutes after administration and persists for at least 4 hours. It acts primarily at the level of the CNS, but also shows a slight activity in inhibiting the bronchospasm. In such use, it is less effective than codeine and more effective than dextromethorphan in inhibiting the tussive stimulus.
[1]
Synthesis:
The starting material is called 2-Phenylpropanoyl Chloride [22414-26-2]. This is reacted with ethylene in the presence of aluminum trichloride catalyst to give 1-methyl-2-tetralone [66405-14-9] (1). Base catalyzed alkylation of this with 1-(2-chloroethyl)piperidine [1932-03-2] (2) gives Nepinalone (3). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**W Ursae Minoris**
W Ursae Minoris:
W Ursae Minoris is an eclipsing binary star system in the constellation Ursa Minor. Its apparent magnitude ranges from 8.51 to 9.59 over 1.7 days as one star passes in front of the other relative to observers on Earth. The combined spectrum of the system is A1/2V.
W Ursae Minoris:
Slight changes in the orbital period suggest that there is a third component of the multiple star system, most likely a red dwarf, with an orbital period of 62.2±3.9 years. Another study suggests that the third star has a minimum mass of 0.49 M☉ and an orbit of about 72 years.The two main stars are currently thought to have masses of 3.2 M☉ and 1.4 M☉ respectively. Models of their evolution and mass transfer suggest that the secondary star was initially the more massive of the two and that it has lost mass to what is now the primary as well as losing mass completely from the system. The two stars have also spiralled in towards each other over the few hundred million years since they formed. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**CDX4 (gene)**
CDX4 (gene):
Homeobox protein CDX-4 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CDX4 gene. This gene is a member of the caudal-related homeobox transcription factor family that also includes CDX1 and CDX2.
Function:
The transcription factor encoded by the CDX4 gene participates in the formation of extra-embryonic tissues, anterior-posterior patterning and blood formation during embryogenesis. It does so through the regulation of Hox gene expression. Before placentation takes place, CDX4 plays a role in its development. CDX4 mutants are born healthy and are fertile, however its importance is revealed in compound CDX mutants. Compound mutants carrying one CDX2 null allele and homozygous null for CDX4 fail to generate posterior tissue caudal to the hindlimbs and most of these embryos die around embryonic day 10.5 from lack of placental development. Around 10% of this phenotype may progress to full term, but then die shortly after birth. Upon inspection the morphogenesis of ano-rectal and urethral tissues was observed. The most well described function of CDX genes are their role in caudal body formation. Transcription factors of the CDX gene family, in part control Hox gene expression by responding to signaling molecules Retinoic Acid, Wnt, and FGF. The redundant contribution of CDX4 in axial elongation is shown in that neither CDX4 null or CDX1/CDX4 compound mutants appear with impaired axial elongation. However, CDX4 does have a role in determining pancreatic B-cell number, specifying anterior-posterior location of the foregut organs including the pancreas and liver. Thus, an abnormal state is shown in embryos deficient in CDX4 by posteriorly shifted pancreas, liver and small intestines. In blood formation, CDX4 regulation of Hox genes is necessary for the specification of hematopoietic cell fate during embryogenesis. This is demonstrated by the fact that blood deficiencies in CDX4 mutants can be rescued by the over expression of certain Hox genes. Knockout models have been generated in mice as described in CDX4’s role in caudal body formation. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Ammonium metavanadate**
Ammonium metavanadate:
Ammonium metavanadate is the inorganic compound with the formula NH4VO3. It is a white salt, although samples are often yellow owing to impurities of V2O5. It is an important intermediate in the purification of vanadium.
Synthesis and structure:
The compound is prepared by the addition of ammonium salts to solutions of vanadate ions, generated by dissolution of V2O5 in basic aqueous solutions, such as hot sodium carbonate. The compound precipitates as a colourless solid. This precipitation step can be slow.
The compound adopts a polymeric structure consisting of chains of [VO3]−, formed as corner-sharing VO4 tetrahedra. These chains are interconnected via hydrogen bonds with ammonium ions.
Uses:
Vanadium is often purified from aqueous extracts of slags and ore by selective precipitation of ammonium metavanadate. The material is then roasted to give vanadium pentoxide: 2 NH4VO3 → V2O5 + 2 NH3 + H2O Other Vanadates can behave as structural mimics of phosphates, and in this way they exhibit biological activity.Ammonium metavanadate is used to prepare Mandelin reagent, a qualitative test for alkaloids. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**CLCN2**
CLCN2:
Chloride channel protein 2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CLCN2 gene. Mutations of this gene have been found to cause leukoencephalopathy and Idiopathic generalised epilepsy (OMIM: 600699), although the latter claim has been disputed. CLCN2 contains a transmembrane region that is involved in chloride ion transport as well two intracellular copies of the CBS domain. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Cap product**
Cap product:
In algebraic topology the cap product is a method of adjoining a chain of degree p with a cochain of degree q, such that q ≤ p, to form a composite chain of degree p − q. It was introduced by Eduard Čech in 1936, and independently by Hassler Whitney in 1938.
Definition:
Let X be a topological space and R a coefficient ring. The cap product is a bilinear map on singular homology and cohomology ⌢:Hp(X;R)×Hq(X;R)→Hp−q(X;R).
defined by contracting a singular chain σ:Δp→X with a singular cochain ψ∈Cq(X;R), by the formula: σ⌢ψ=ψ(σ|[v0,…,vq])σ|[vq,…,vp].
Here, the notation σ|[v0,…,vq] indicates the restriction of the simplicial map σ to its face spanned by the vectors of the base, see Simplex.
Interpretation:
In analogy with the interpretation of the cup product in terms of the Künneth formula, we can explain the existence of the cap product in the following way. Using CW approximation we may assume that X is a CW-complex and C∙(X) (and C∙(X) ) is the complex of its cellular chains (or cochains, respectively). Consider then the composition where we are taking tensor products of chain complexes, Δ:X→X×X is the diagonal map which induces the map on the chain complex, and ε:Cp(X)⊗Cq(X)→Z is the evaluation map (always 0 except for p=q ).
Interpretation:
This composition then passes to the quotient to define the cap product ⌢:H∙(X)×H∙(X)→H∙(X) , and looking carefully at the above composition shows that it indeed takes the form of maps ⌢:Hp(X)×Hq(X)→Hp−q(X) , which is always zero for p<q
Fundamental Class:
For any point x in M , we have the long-exact sequence in homology (with coefficients in R ) of the pair (M, M - {x}) (See Relative homology) ⋯→Hn(M−x;R)→i∗Hn(M;R)→j∗Hn(M,M−x;R)→∂Hn−1(M−x;R)→⋯.
Fundamental Class:
An element [M] of Hn(M;R) is called the fundamental class for M if j∗([M]) is a generator of Hn(M,M−x;R) . A fundamental class of M exists if M is closed and R-orientable. In fact, if M is a closed, connected and R -orientable manifold, the map Hn(M;R)→j∗Hn(M,M−x;R) is an isomorphism for all x in R and hence, we can choose any generator of Hn(M;R) as the fundamental class.
Relation with Poincaré duality:
For a closed R -orientable n-manifold M with fundamental class [M] in Hn(M;R) (which we can choose to be any generator of Hn(M;R) ), the cap product map is an isomorphism for all k . This result is famously called Poincaré duality.
The slant product:
If in the above discussion one replaces X×X by X×Y , the construction can be (partially) replicated starting from the mappings and to get, respectively, slant products / and In case X = Y, the first one is related to the cap product by the diagonal map: Δ∗(a)/ϕ=a⌢ϕ . These ‘products’ are in some ways more like division than multiplication, which is reflected in their notation.
Equations:
The boundary of a cap product is given by : ∂(σ⌢ψ)=(−1)q(∂σ⌢ψ−σ⌢δψ).
Given a map f the induced maps satisfy : f∗(σ)⌢ψ=f∗(σ⌢f∗(ψ)).
The cap and cup product are related by : ψ(σ⌢φ)=(φ⌣ψ)(σ) where σ:Δp+q→X , ψ∈Cq(X;R) and φ∈Cp(X;R).
An interesting consequence of the last equation is that it makes H∗(X;R) into a right H∗(X;R)− module. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Pafuramidine**
Pafuramidine:
Pafuramidine (formulated as the maleic acid salt pafuramidine maleate) is an experimental drug for the treatment of pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP). In 2006, pafuramidine was given orphan drug status by the US Food and Drug Administration for PCP in patients with HIV/AIDS. Preliminary clinical trials indicated that pafuramide was effective against pneumocystis pneumonia and had the potential for fewer side effects than the standard treatment with trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX).Pafuramidine also reached Phase III clinical trials for the treatment of first stage African sleeping sickness, but development was halted in 2008 over concerns about kidney toxicity. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**L-165041**
L-165041:
L-165041 is a phenyloxyacetate PPARδ receptor agonist. It is less potent and PPARδ selective than GW 501516. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Terracotta**
Terracotta:
Terracotta, also known as terra cotta or terra-cotta (Italian: [ˌtɛrraˈkɔtta]; lit. 'baked earth'; from Latin terra cocta 'cooked earth'), is a term used in some contexts for earthenware. That is to say it is a clay-based unglazed or glazed non-vitreous ceramic, fired at relatively low temperatures.
Usage and definitions of the term varies, such as: In art, pottery, applied art, craft, construction and architecture, "terracotta" is a term often used for red-coloured earthenware sculptures or functional articles such as flower pots, water and waste water pipes, tableware, roofing tiles and surface embellishment on buildings. In such applications the material is also called terracotta.
In archaeology and art history, "terracotta" is often used to describe objects such as figurines and loom weights not made on a potter's wheel, with vessels and other objects made on a wheel from the same material referred to as earthenware; the choice of term depends on the type of object rather than the material or shaping technique.
Terracotta:
Terracotta is also used to refer to the natural brownish orange color of most terracotta.Glazed architectural terracotta and its unglazed version as exterior surfaces for buildings were used in East Asia for some centuries before becoming popular in the West in the 19th century. Architectural terracotta can also refer to decorated ceramic elements such as antefixes and revetments, which made a large contribution to the appearance of temples and other buildings in the classical architecture of Europe, as well as in the Ancient Near East.
Terracotta:
This article covers the senses of terracotta as a medium in sculpture, as in the Terracotta Army and Greek terracotta figurines, and architectural decoration. East Asian and European sculpture in porcelain is not covered.
Production:
Prior to firing terracotta clays can be easily shaped. Articles can be formed by both an "additive" technique, adding portions of clay to the growing pieces, or a "subtractive" one, carving into a solid lump with a knife or similar tool. A combination of these may also be used: building up the broad shape and then removing pieces, or adding more, to produce details.
Production:
Other shaping techniques, such as throwing and slip casting are also used.After drying, it is placed in a kiln or atop combustible material in a pit, and then fired. The typical firing temperature is around 1,000 °C (1,830 °F), though it may be as low as 600 °C (1,112 °F) in historic and archaeological examples. The iron content, reacting with oxygen during firing, gives the fired body a reddish color, though the overall color varies widely across shades of yellow, orange, buff, red, "terracotta", pink, grey or brown.A final method is to carve fired bricks or other terracotta shapes. This is less common, but features for example in the architecture of Bengal on Hindu temples and mosques.
Properties:
Fired terracotta is not watertight, but surface-burnishing the body before firing can decrease its porousness and a layer of glaze can make it watertight. Some types of terracotta are glazed to decrease permeability.
Properties:
It is suitable for use below ground to carry pressurized water (an archaic use), for garden pots and irrigation or building decoration in many environments, and for oil containers, oil lamps, or ovens. Most other uses, such as for tableware, sanitary piping, or building decoration in freezing environments, require the material to be glazed. Terracotta, if uncracked, will ring if lightly struck.Painted (polychrome) terracotta is typically first covered with a thin coat of gesso, then painted. It has been very widely used but the paint is only suitable for indoor positions and is much less durable than fired colors in or under a ceramic glaze. Terracotta sculpture was very rarely left in its "raw" fired state in the West until the 18th century.
In art history:
Terracotta female figurines were uncovered by archaeologists in excavations of Mohenjo-daro, Pakistan (3000–1500 BC). Along with phallus-shaped stones, these suggest some sort of fertility cult. The Burney Relief is an outstanding terracotta plaque from Ancient Mesopotamia of about 1950 BC. In Mesoamerica, the great majority of Olmec figurines were in terracotta. Many ushabti mortuary statuettes were also made of terracotta in Ancient Egypt.
In art history:
The Ancient Greeks' Tanagra figurines were mass-produced mold-cast and fired terracotta figurines, that seem to have been widely affordable in the Hellenistic period, and often purely decorative in function. They were part of a wide range of Greek terracotta figurines, which included larger and higher-quality works such as the Aphrodite Heyl; the Romans too made great numbers of small figurines, which were often used in a religious context as cult statues or temple decorations. Etruscan art often used terracotta in preference to stone even for larger statues, such as the near life-size Apollo of Veii and the Sarcophagus of the Spouses. Campana reliefs are Ancient Roman terracotta reliefs, originally mostly used to make friezes for the outside of buildings, as a cheaper substitute for stone.
In art history:
Indian sculpture made heavy use of terracotta from as early as the Indus Valley civilization (with stone and metal sculpture being rather rare), and in more sophisticated areas had largely abandoned modeling for using molds by the 1st century BC. This allows relatively large figures, nearly up to life-size, to be made, especially in the Gupta period and the centuries immediately following it. Several vigorous local popular traditions of terracotta folk sculpture remain active today, such as the Bankura horses.Precolonial West African sculpture also made extensive use of terracotta. The regions most recognized for producing terracotta art in that part of the world include the Nok culture of central and north-central Nigeria, the Ife/Benin cultural axis in western and southern Nigeria (also noted for its exceptionally naturalistic sculpture), and the Igbo culture area of eastern Nigeria, which excelled in terracotta pottery. These related, but separate, traditions also gave birth to elaborate schools of bronze and brass sculpture in the area.Chinese sculpture made great use of terracotta, with and without glazing and color, from a very early date. The famous Terracotta Army of Emperor Qin Shi Huang, 209–210 BC, was somewhat untypical, and two thousand years ago reliefs were more common, in tombs and elsewhere. Later Buddhist figures were often made in painted and glazed terracotta, with the Yixian glazed pottery luohans, probably of 1150–1250, now in various Western museums, among the most prominent examples. Brick-built tombs from the Han dynasty were often finished on the interior wall with bricks decorated on one face; the techniques included molded reliefs. Later tombs contained many figures of protective spirits and animals and servants for the afterlife, including the famous horses of the T'ang dynasty; as an arbitrary matter of terminology these tend not to be referred to as terracottas.European medieval art made little use of terracotta sculpture, until the late 14th century, when it became used in advanced International Gothic workshops in parts of Germany. The Virgin illustrated at the start of the article from Bohemia is the unique example known from there. A few decades later, there was a revival in the Italian Renaissance, inspired by excavated classical terracottas as well as the German examples, which gradually spread to the rest of Europe. In Florence Luca della Robbia (1399/1400–1482) was a sculptor who founded a family dynasty specializing in glazed and painted terracotta, especially large roundels which were used to decorate the exterior of churches and other buildings. These used the same techniques as contemporary maiolica and other tin-glazed pottery. Other sculptors included Pietro Torrigiano (1472–1528), who produced statues, and in England busts of the Tudor royal family. The unglazed busts of the Roman Emperors adorning Hampton Court Palace, by Giovanni da Maiano, 1521, were another example of Italian work in England. They were originally painted but this has now been lost from weathering.
In art history:
In the 18th-century unglazed terracotta, which had long been used for preliminary clay models or maquettes that were then fired, became fashionable as a material for small sculptures including portrait busts. It was much easier to work than carved materials, and allowed a more spontaneous approach by the artist. Claude Michel (1738–1814), known as Clodion, was an influential pioneer in France. John Michael Rysbrack (1694–1770), a Flemish portrait sculptor working in England, sold his terracotta modelli for larger works in stone, and produced busts only in terracotta. In the next century the French sculptor Albert-Ernest Carrier-Belleuse made many terracotta pieces, but possibly the most famous is The Abduction of Hippodameia depicting the Greek mythological scene of a centaur kidnapping Hippodameia on her wedding day.
In art history:
Architecture Terracotta tiles have a long history in many parts of the world. Many ancient and traditional roofing styles included more elaborate sculptural elements than the plain roof tiles, such as Chinese Imperial roof decoration and the antefix of western classical architecture. In India West Bengal made a speciality of terracotta temples, with the sculpted decoration from the same material as the main brick construction.
In art history:
In the 19th century the possibilities of terracotta decoration of buildings were again appreciated by architects, often using thicker pieces of terracotta, and surfaces that are not flat. The American architect Louis Sullivan is well known for his elaborate glazed terracotta ornamentation, designs that would have been impossible to execute in any other medium. Terracotta and tile were used extensively in the town buildings of Victorian Birmingham, England. Terra cotta was marketed as a miracle material, largely impervious to the elements. Terra cotta, however, can indeed be damaged by water penetration or exposure or fail through faulty design or installation. An excessive faith in the durability of the material led to shortcuts in design and execution, which coupled with a belief that the material did not require maintenance tainted the reputation of the material. By about 1930 the widespread use of concrete and Modernist architecture largely ended the use of terracotta in architecture.It has been defined as 'Unglazed fired clay building blocks and moulded ornamental building components.'Terracotta tiles have also been used extensively for floors since ancient times. The quality of terracotta floor tiles depends on the suitability of the clay, the manufacturing methods (kiln-fired being more durable than sun baked), and whether the terracotta tiles are sealed or not.
Advantages in sculpture:
As compared to bronze sculpture, terracotta uses a far simpler and quicker process for creating the finished work with much lower material costs. The easier task of modelling, typically with a limited range of knives and wooden shaping tools, but mainly using the fingers, allows the artist to take a more free and flexible approach. Small details that might be impractical to carve in stone, of hair or costume for example, can easily be accomplished in terracotta, and drapery can sometimes be made up of thin sheets of clay that make it much easier to achieve a realistic effect.Reusable mold-making techniques may be used for production of many identical pieces. Compared to marble sculpture and other stonework the finished product is far lighter and may be further painted and glazed to produce objects with color or durable simulations of metal patina. Robust durable works for outdoor use require greater thickness and so will be heavier, with more care needed in the drying of the unfinished piece to prevent cracking as the material shrinks. Structural considerations are similar to those required for stone sculpture; there is a limit on the stress that can be imposed on terracotta, and terracotta statues of unsupported standing figures are limited to well under life-size unless extra structural support is added. This is also because large figures are extremely difficult to fire, and surviving examples often show sagging or cracks. The Yixian figures were fired in several pieces, and have iron rods inside to hold the structure together.
India:
In India, traditional terracotta sculptures, mainly religious, continue to be made. The demand for this craft is seasonal, mostly when new pottery and votive idols are required during harvest festival. During the rest of the year, the craftsmen take to agriculture or some other means of income. The designs have become redundant when the same kind of relief and same techniques are used for the different subjects. The subjects and the uses are suggested by the client. This craft requires a strong understanding of composition and subject matter as well as a skill to be able to give each plaque its distinct character with patience.
India:
From the Harappan Age to the Satavahanas Terracotta has been the medium for art since the Harappan civilization. But the techniques used differed in each time period. In the Mauryan times, they were mainly figures of mother goddesses, indicating a fertility cult. Moulds were used for the face, whereas the body was hand-modelled. In the Shungan times, a single mould was used to make the entire figure and depending upon the baking time, the colour differed from red to light orange. The Satavahanas used two different moulds-one for the front and the other for the back and kept a piece of clay in each mould and joined them together, making some artefacts hollow from within. Some Satavahana terracotta artefacts also seem to have a thin strip of clay joining the two moulds. This technique may have been imported from the Romans and is seen nowhere else in the country.
India:
The Contemporary Scene The practice of terracotta art, and its production continues even today in several states of India. To sustain the legacy, the Indian Government has established the Sanskriti Museum of Indian Terracotta in New Delhi. The initiative encourages ongoing work in this medium, and the museum, in particular displays terracotta from different regions of the sub-continent, and from various time periods. From the Indus civilization, to the recent modern times, the Indian Terracotta school has incorporated within in various styles, techniques, methods, doctrines, and grammar, borrowing from diverse schools, and from realism to abstract traditions. The major centres that continue the practice in the modern times include West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, etc. In Bishnupur, West Bengal, the terracotta pattern–panels on the temples are known for their intricate details. The Bankura Horse is also very famous, and belongs to the Bengal school of terracotta. Madhya Pradesh is one of the main production centre of terracotta art today. The tribals of Bastar—area carry forward the rich tradition. They make intricate and beautiful designs, and statues of animals and birds using this medium. Hand-painted clay and terracotta products are famous in Gujarat. The Aiyanar-cult in Tamil Nadu is associated with life-size terracotta statues.In 2010, the India Post Service had also issued a special stamp commemorating the rich craft, and its artistic tradition that had been continuing in the country since the hoary past. The stamp shows a terracotta doll from the craft museum. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Neuro-fuzzy**
Neuro-fuzzy:
In the field of artificial intelligence, the designation neuro-fuzzy refers to combinations of artificial neural networks and fuzzy logic.
Overview:
Neuro-fuzzy hybridization results in a hybrid intelligent system that combines the human-like reasoning style of fuzzy systems with the learning and connectionist structure of neural networks. Neuro-fuzzy hybridization is widely termed as fuzzy neural network (FNN) or neuro-fuzzy system (NFS) in the literature. Neuro-fuzzy system (the more popular term is used henceforth) incorporates the human-like reasoning style of fuzzy systems through the use of fuzzy sets and a linguistic model consisting of a set of IF-THEN fuzzy rules. The main strength of neuro-fuzzy systems is that they are universal approximators with the ability to solicit interpretable IF-THEN rules.
Overview:
The strength of neuro-fuzzy systems involves two contradictory requirements in fuzzy modeling: interpretability versus accuracy. In practice, one of the two properties prevails. The neuro-fuzzy in fuzzy modeling research field is divided into two areas: linguistic fuzzy modeling that is focused on interpretability, mainly the Mamdani model; and precise fuzzy modeling that is focused on accuracy, mainly the Takagi-Sugeno-Kang (TSK) model.
Overview:
Although generally assumed to be the realization of a fuzzy system through connectionist networks, this term is also used to describe some other configurations including: Deriving fuzzy rules from trained RBF networks.
Fuzzy logic based tuning of neural network training parameters.
Fuzzy logic criteria for increasing a network size.
Realising fuzzy membership function through clustering algorithms in unsupervised learning in SOMs and neural networks.
Overview:
Representing fuzzification, fuzzy inference and defuzzification through multi-layers feed-forward connectionist networks.It must be pointed out that interpretability of the Mamdani-type neuro-fuzzy systems can be lost. To improve the interpretability of neuro-fuzzy systems, certain measures must be taken, wherein important aspects of interpretability of neuro-fuzzy systems are also discussed.A recent research line addresses the data stream mining case, where neuro-fuzzy systems are sequentially updated with new incoming samples on demand and on-the-fly. Thereby, system updates not only include a recursive adaptation of model parameters, but also a dynamic evolution and pruning of model components (neurons, rules), in order to handle concept drift and dynamically changing system behavior adequately and to keep the systems/models "up-to-date" anytime. Comprehensive surveys of various evolving neuro-fuzzy systems approaches can be found in and.
Pseudo outer-product based fuzzy neural networks:
Pseudo outer product-based fuzzy neural networks (POPFNN) are a family of neuro-fuzzy systems that are based on the linguistic fuzzy model.Three members of POPFNN exist in the literature: POPFNN-AARS(S), which is based on the Approximate Analogical Reasoning Scheme POPFNN-CRI(S), which is based on commonly accepted fuzzy Compositional Rule of Inference POPFNN-TVR, which is based on Truth Value RestrictionThe "POPFNN" architecture is a five-layer neural network where the layers from 1 to 5 are called: input linguistic layer, condition layer, rule layer, consequent layer, output linguistic layer. The fuzzification of the inputs and the defuzzification of the outputs are respectively performed by the input linguistic and output linguistic layers while the fuzzy inference is collectively performed by the rule, condition and consequence layers.
Pseudo outer-product based fuzzy neural networks:
The learning process of POPFNN consists of three phases: Fuzzy membership generation Fuzzy rule identification Supervised fine-tuningVarious fuzzy membership generation algorithms can be used: Learning Vector Quantization (LVQ), Fuzzy Kohonen Partitioning (FKP) or Discrete Incremental Clustering (DIC). Generally, the POP algorithm and its variant LazyPOP are used to identify the fuzzy rules. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Manually Annotated Sub-Corpus**
Manually Annotated Sub-Corpus:
Manually Annotated Sub-Corpus (MASC) is a balanced subset of 500K words of written texts and transcribed speech drawn primarily from the Open American National Corpus (OANC). The OANC is a 15 million word (and growing) corpus of American English produced since 1990, all of which is in the public domain or otherwise free of usage and redistribution restrictions.
Manually Annotated Sub-Corpus:
All of MASC includes manually validated annotations for logical structure (headings, sections, paragraphs, etc.), sentence boundaries, three different tokenizations with associated part of speech tags, shallow parse (noun and verb chunks), named entities (person, location, organization, date and time), and Penn Treebank syntax. Additional manually produced or validated annotations have been produced by the MASC project for portions of the sub-corpus, including full-text annotation for FrameNet frame elements and a 100K+ sentence corpus with WordNet 3.1 sense tags, of which one-tenth are also annotated for FrameNet frame elements. Annotations of all or portions of the sub-corpus for a wide variety of other linguistic phenomena have been contributed by other projects, including PropBank, TimeBank, MPQA opinion, and several others. Co-reference annotations and clause boundaries of the entire MASC corpus are scheduled to be released by the end of 2016.
Manually Annotated Sub-Corpus:
WordNet sense annotations for all occurrences of 114 words are also included in the MASC distribution, as well as FrameNet annotations for 50-100 occurrences of each of the 114 words. The sentences with WordNet and FrameNet annotations are also distributed as a part of the MASC Sentence Corpus.
Genres:
Unlike most freely available corpora including a wide variety of linguistic annotations, MASC contains a balanced selection of texts from a broad range of genres:
Annotations:
At present, MASC includes seventeen different types of linguistic annotation (* = in production; ** currently available in original format only): All MASC annotations, whether contributed or produced in-house, are transduced to the Graph Annotation Format (GrAF) defined by ISO TC37 SC4's Linguistic Annotation Framework (LAF).
The online tool ANC2Go can transduce annotations over all or parts of MASC to any of several other formats, including CONLL IOB format and formats for use in UIMA and General Architecture for Text Engineering.
Distribution:
MASC is an open data resource that can be used by anyone for any purpose. At the same time, it is a collaborative community resource that is sustained by community contributions of annotations and derived data. It is freely downloadable from the MASC download page or through the Linguistic Data Consortium.
MASC is also distributed in part-of-speech-tagged form with the Natural Language Toolkit. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Power, root-power, and field quantities**
Power, root-power, and field quantities:
A power quantity is a power or a quantity directly proportional to power, e.g., energy density, acoustic intensity, and luminous intensity. Energy quantities may also be labelled as power quantities in this context.A root-power quantity is a quantity such as voltage, current, sound pressure, electric field strength, speed, or charge density, the square of which, in linear systems, is proportional to power. The term root-power quantity refers to the square root that relates these quantities to power. The term was introduced in ISO 80000-1 § Annex C; it replaces and deprecates the term field quantity.
Implications:
It is essential to know which category a measurement belongs to when using decibels (dB) for comparing the levels of such quantities. A change of one bel in the level corresponds to a 10× change in power, so when comparing power quantities x and y, the difference is defined to be 10×log10(y/x) decibel. With root-power quantities, however the difference is defined as 20×log10(y/x) dB.In the analysis of signals and systems using sinusoids, field quantities and root-power quantities may be complex-valued.
"Root-power quantity" vs. "field quantity":
In justifying the deprecation of the term "field quantity" and instead using "root-power quantity" in the context of levels, ISO 80000 draws attention to the conflicting use of the former term to mean a quantity that depends on the position, which in physics is called a field. Such a field is often called a field quantity in the literature, but is called a field here for clarity. Several types of field (such as the electromagnetic field) meet the definition of a root-power quantity, whereas others (such as the Poynting vector and temperature) do not. Conversely, not every root-power quantity is a field (such as the voltage on a loudspeaker). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Duochrome test**
Duochrome test:
A duochrome test is a test commonly used to refine the final sphere in refraction (undercorrection and overcorrection), which makes use of the longitudinal chromatic aberration of the eye. Because of the chromatic aberration of the eye, the shorter wavelengths (green) are focused in front of the longer red wavelengths.
Testing:
The patient is asked to compare the clarity of the letters on the green and the red side. If the letters of the green side are clearer +0.25 D sphere is added and if the letters on the red side are clearer -0.25 D sphere is added.
With optimal spherical correction, the letters on the red and green halves of the chart appear equally clear.
Because this test is based on chromatic aberration and not on color discrimination, it is used even with people having color vision deficiency.The eye with overactive accommodation may still require too much minus sphere in order to balance the red and green. Cycloplegia may be necessary.
The duochrome test is not used with patients whose visual acuity is worse than 20/30 (6/9), because the 0.50 D difference between the two sides is too small to distinguish. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Steering column**
Steering column:
The automotive steering column is a device intended primarily for connecting the steering wheel to the steering mechanism.
Secondary functions:
A steering column may also perform the following secondary functions: energy dissipation management in the event of a frontal collision; provide mounting for: the multi-function switch, column lock, column wiring, column shroud(s), transmission gear selector, gauges or other instruments as well as the electro motor and gear units found in EPAS and SbW systems; offer (height and/or length) adjustment to suit driver preference
Steering lock:
Modern vehicles are fitted with a steering lock which is an anti-theft device. It is fitted to the steering column usually below the steering wheel. The lock is combined with the ignition switch and engaged and disengaged either by a mechanical ignition key or electronically from the vehicles electronic control unit. These locks were introduced on many General Motors products in 1969 drastically reducing thefts of these GM models, and on Ford, Chrysler, and AMC products in 1970.
Collapsible column:
A common device to enhance car safety is the collapsible steering column. This is designed to collapse in the event of a collision to protect the driver from harm. The column can collapse after impact with a tolerance ring inserted between the inner shaft of the steering column and the external housing. The wavelike protrusions on the circumference of the tolerance ring act as a spring to hold the two parts in place in normal driving conditions. At a specific level of force, for example in the event of a collision, the tolerance ring allows the inner shaft to slip inside the housing, so the column can collapse, absorbing energy from the impact.In virtually all modern vehicles, the lower section of the inner shaft is articulated with universal joints which helps control movement of the column in a frontal impact, and also gives engineers freedom in mounting the steering gear itself.
Regulatory requirements:
In the United States, steering columns are governed by several federal regulatory requirements, notably FMVSS 108, 114 and 208. The Chinese directive GB15740- 2006 obligates Chinese car manufacturers to incorporate anti-theft mechanisms in their vehicles. European Union Commission Directive 95/56/EC (1995) mandates all cars exported to European markets must be fitted with anti-theft security devices. This regulation also requires that a steering lock must be able to withstand forces of 100Nm applied to the steering wheel without failing. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Multicart**
Multicart:
In video game parlance, a multicart is a cartridge that contains more than one game. Typically, the separate games are available individually for purchase (such as Sega Smash Pack) or were previously available individually (such as Final Fantasy: Dawn of Souls). For this reason, collections, anthologies, and compilations are considered multicarts. The desirability of the multicart to consumers is that it provides better value, greater convenience, and (in the case of portable games) more portability than the separate games would provide. The advantage to developers is that it allows two or more smaller games to be sold together for the price of one larger game, and provides an opportunity to repackage and sell older games one more time, often with little or no changes. Multicarts are distinct from minigame series such as Mario Party, Game & Watch Gallery, or WarioWare. These games are made up of several minigames specifically created for the overall game experience. In contrast to this, the NES multicart Super Mario Bros./Duck Hunt contains two full-version games, each of which were available for purchase individually. Although most commonly associated with NES and SNES, multicarts, both authorized and unauthorized, have appeared for many cartridge-based systems, including the Atari 2600, Intellivision, Odyssey 2, Master System, Sega Genesis, Vectrex and Game Boy. As storage capacity on cartridges continues to grow and become less expensive, the popularity of multicarts has seen a resurgence on the only remaining cartridge-based systems, those of Nintendo’s Game Boy Advance and DS. Since launch, these systems have seen an increase in the number of “2-in-1” and “3-in-1” games, with some re-releasing popular titles previously seen on the same platform such as Konami's Castlevania.
Pirate multicarts:
Among pirate Famicom games, multicarts often advertise an inflated number of games on their labels, calling them "x-in-1" (x can be any number greater than 1, such as "76-in-1," "200-in-1," "1200-in-1," and even "9999999-in-1"), but in reality usually only have anywhere from five to one hundred truly unique games. The list is padded by different variations of these games, hacked to start at different levels or to start a player with different power-ups. The games are usually first-generation Famicom titles, several of which were never officially released outside of Japan, and in typical pirate fashion have either had their names deliberately misspelled, their copyright notices/logos removed, or both.
Pirate multicarts:
Other popular video game systems also have their own share of unique pirate multicarts. Unlike the Famicom, the Nintendo Game Boy multicarts have a variety of different, innovative multicart designs. Standard-sized Game Boy multicarts have either a game selection menu like the NES multicarts, or require quick toggling of the Game Boy power switch to select through games. Most of them incorporate an external soft reset button (not available on any original cart), so you can reset the game without powering off the system. To overcome the storage limitations of a standard-sized pirate cart, huge pirate carts were created. These unusually large and thick carts, more than two times the height and depth of a standard Game Boy cartridge, were able to store many of the larger new games, such as Donkey Kong Land easily. One drawback of these carts is they lack any battery backup, but some newer carts come with battery backup, so saving games on these carts is impossible if the battery backup is not included. Most of these carts were produced in China, Taiwan and Hong Kong.
Pirate multicarts:
There have been Game Boy Advance multicarts with several GBA games and several or even hundreds of NES ROMs. These carts are known to include some bootlegs, hacks or variations of games, advertising them as different games and giving them incorrect box arts on the main boxart.
Unlicensed multicarts:
These multicarts were published with the consent of the owners of copyright in the games themselves, but without the console maker's consent: Action 52, from Active Enterprises. This ambitious project attempted to put 52 unique games into a single cartridge, but shoddy programming and heavy code reuse between games, combined with a hefty $200 (USD) retail price, resulted in this game often being considered one of the worst multicarts.
Unlicensed multicarts:
Caltron 6-in-1 - Rare vintage NES multicart, later re-released as the Myriad 6 in 1 MaxPlay Classic Games Volume 1 Maxivision 15-in-1, which contained fifteen games from unlicensed NES manufacturers such as Color Dreams and American Video Entertainment.
The North American versions of the Quattro series by Codemasters, published by Camerica Wisdom Tree compilations: Bible Adventures - This three-in-one Game Boy cartridge featured Noah's Ark, Baby Moses, and David and Goliath.
King James Bible - This included the King James Version Bible in e-book format, plus Bible Word Match and Bible Shepherd.
King of Kings: The Early Years - This three-in-one NES cartridge featured The Wise Men, Flight to Egypt and Jesus and the Temple.
NIV Bible & the 20 Lost Levels of Joshua - This included the New International Version Bible in e-book format, plus Bible Word Match, Bible Shepherd and Joshua: The Lost Levels. The latter is a port of Joshua & the Battle of Jericho for the Game Boy, featuring 20 levels not available in the NES version.
Sunday Funday - The last NES game released commercially in the United States for several years, this three-in-one cartridge featured the title game (a graphics hack of Color Dreams's old Menace Beach), Fish Fall (a previously-unreleased puzzle game), and a karaoke program featuring a Christian pop song, "The Ride," by 4Him.
Official multicarts:
Atari 2600 32 in 1: Only released in Europe (PAL systems) contains Atari's early hits such as Blackjack, Boxing and Combat [1] 2005 Minigame Multicart: Published by AtariAge well after the end of the 2600s lifespan, this collection includes seven entries of the 2005 MiniGame Competition [2]Due to the relative ease of duplicating Atari 2600 cartridges, a large number of pirate multicarts were developed for the system. Most of these were released outside the US and EU (most commonly Brazil).
Official multicarts:
Nintendo Entertainment System Donkey Kong Classics: Contains Donkey Kong and Donkey Kong Junior Final Fantasy I-II Super Mario Bros./Duck Hunt Sesame Street A-B-C and 1-2-3 Short Order/Eggsplode Super Mario Bros. / Duck Hunt / World Class Track Meet Super Mario Bros. / Tetris / Nintendo World Cup (PAL) Super Spike V'Ball/Nintendo World Cup Sega Master System Arcade Smash Hits: includes Atari's Centipede, Breakout and Missile Command Hang-On/Safari Hunt: Dual cart bundled with Sega Master System sets.
Official multicarts:
Hang-On/Astro Warrior: Dual cart bundled with Master System "Base System" sets (those without the Sega Light Phaser gun).
Marksman Shooting & Trap Shooting: Contains two games for the Master System light gun, the Light Phaser. A third game, Safari Hunt was included in the European release.Sega-released Master System multicarts were labeled "The Combo Cartridge" on the box, as opposed to the "Mega Cartridge" and "Two-Mega Cartridge" labels placed on single-game cart boxes.
Sega Mega Drive/Genesis 6-Pak: Includes Columns, Golden Axe, The Revenge of Shinobi, Sonic the Hedgehog, Streets of Rage, and Super Hang-On Arcade Classics: - features Atari's Centipede, Missile Command, and Pong.
Game no Kanzume Otokuyou: Includes 16t, Flicky, Putter Golf, Hyper Marbles, Shi no Meikyuu, Medal City, Paddle Fighter, Doki Doki Penguin Land MD, Pyramid Magic, Robot Battler, Teddy Boy Blues, and Aworg. Available only on Japanese Sega Channel and Japanese Mega Drive Mini. Official name in English is Value Games in a Can.
Official multicarts:
MegaGames 3 in 1 - Vol 1: Includes Columns, Super Hang-On, and World Cup Italia '90. Released in North America as Triple Score: 3 Games In 1 MegaGames 3 in 1 - Vol 2: Includes Golden Axe, Streets of Rage, and The Revenge of Shinobi MegaGames 3 in 1 - Vol 3: Includes Super Thunder Blade, Alien Storm, and Super Monaco GP Classic Collection (MegaGames 4 in 1): Includes Flicky, Gunstar Heroes, Alex Kidd in the Enchanted Castle, and Altered Beast MegaGames 6 - Vol 1: Includes Golden Axe, Streets of Rage, The Revenge of Shinobi, Columns, Super Hang-On, and World Cup Italia '90 MegaGames 6 - Vol 2: Includes Super Thunder Blade, Alien Storm, Super Monaco GP, Super Hang-On, World Cup Italia '90, and Columns Mega 6 - Vol 3: Includes Columns, The Revenge of Shinobi, Sonic the Hedgehog, Streets of Rage, Super Monaco GP, and Sega Soccer Mega Man: The Wily Wars: Includes remade versions of Mega Man, Mega Man 2, and Mega Man 3, as well as an unlockable exclusive bonus game called Wily Tower.
Official multicarts:
Menacer 6-game cartridge: Included with Sega's lightgun accessory, contains 6 original shooting games Pac-Man 2: The New Adventures: Includes Pac-Man and Pac-Jr., playable by entering a password or going to the Arcade. The latter of which is an exclusive remake of Ms. Pac-Man that requires three cartridges hidden.
Official multicarts:
Sonic Compilation: Includes Sonic the Hedgehog, Sonic the Hedgehog 2, and Dr. Robotnik's Mean Bean Machine. Released in North America as Sonic Classics Sega Top Ten: Includes Columns, Sonic the Hedgehog, Super Monaco GP, The Revenge of Shinobi, Streets of Rage, Golden Axe, Super Hang-On, World Cup Italia '90, California Games, Flicky. Released in Brazil by Tectoy and released by Sega in Asian Countries under the name of Mega Games 10 Game Boy Dragon Warrior I & II: contains remade versions of the NES titles Galaga & Galaxian: contains the two arcade classics.
Official multicarts:
4-in-1 Funpack, Volume 1 4-in-1 Funpack, Volume 2 Bo Jackson: 2 Games in 1: Contains football and baseball games Centipede & Millipede Defender & Joust Namco Gallery compilations: Vol. 1 includes Battle City, Galaga, Mappy, and Namco Classic.
Vol. 2 includes Galaxian, Dig Dug, The Tower of Druaga, and Famista 4. The last of which is an original game.
Vol. 3 includes Sky Kid, The Tower of Babel, Family Tennis and Jantaku Boy.
Konami GB Collection compilations: Vol. 1 includes Nemesis, Castlevania: The Adventure, F1 Spirit, and Operation C.
Vol. 2 (released in PAL as Vol. 3) includes Twinbee Da!!, Ganbare Goemon: Sarawareta Ebisumaru!, Motocross Maniacs, and Loco-Motion.
Vol. 3 (released in PAL as Vol. 4) includes Nemesis II, Castlevania II: Belmont's Revenge, Yie Ar Kung-Fu, and Antarctic Adventure.
Vol. 4 (released in PAL as Vol. 2) includes Parodius Da!, Quarth, Track & Field, and Frogger.
Game Boy Color Super Mario Bros. Deluxe: contains Super Mario Bros. and Super Mario Bros.: The Lost Levels. The latter of which requires 300,000 points in the former.
Pac-Man: Special Color Edition: includes Pac-Man and Pac-Attack.
Ms. Pac-Man: Special Color Edition: includes Ms. Pac-Man and Super Pac-Man.
Sega Game Gear Arcade Classics: - features Atari's Centipede, Missile Command and Pong.
Sega Game Pack 4 in 1 Super Nintendo Entertainment System Nichibutsu Arcade Classics: Contains Moon Cresta and Crazy Climber and Frisky Tom.
Nichibutsu Collection 1: Contains Gionbana and Kouryaku Casino Bar.
Nichibutsu Collection 2: Contains Super Gomoku Shougi and Mahjong Hanjouki.
Ninja Gaiden Trilogy: Contains the three NES Ninja Gaiden games with an improved color palette and a remixed (and slightly reordered) soundtrack.
Pac-Man 2: The New Adventures: Includes Pac-Man and Ms. Pac-Man, playable by entering a password or going to the Arcade. The latter of which requires three cartridges hidden.
Super Mario All-Stars: Includes remade versions of the three Super Mario Bros. games on the NES, as well as the Japanese version of Super Mario Bros. 2 (retitled Super Mario Bros.: The Lost Levels). These games featured remixed soundtracks of their NES/Famicom counterparts. A later version, bundled with some SNES consoles, also included Super Mario World.
Super Scope 6: Contains six games for the Super Scope.
Official multicarts:
Tetris & Dr. Mario Williams Arcade's Greatest Hits: Contains Defender, Defender II, Joust, Robotron: 2084, and Sinistar Nintendo 64 Namco Museum 64: Contains Pac-Man, Ms. Pac-Man, Pole Position, Galaga, Galaxian, and Dig Dug Midway's Greatest Arcade Hits: Contains Defender, Sinistar, Robotron: 2084, Joust, Spy Hunter, and Tapper Game Boy Advance 3-in-1 Sports Pack: contains Paintball Splat, Dodgeball: Dodge This!, and Big Alley Bowling Board Game Classics 3-in-1 Capcom Classics-Mini Mix: contains the NES versions of "Strider", "Mighty Final Fight", and "Bionic Commando" Candy Land/Chutes & Ladders/Memory 3-in-1 Castlevania Double Pack - Aria of Sorrow/Harmony of Dissonance Centipede/Breakout/Warlords 3-in-1 Dora the Explorer: Super Star Adventures/The Search for Pirate Pig's Treasure Final Fantasy I & II: Dawn of Souls: contains Final Fantasy I and II.
Official multicarts:
The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past & Four Swords The Game of Life/Yahtzee/Payday Looney Tunes Double Pack Madagascar and Shrek 2 Majesco's Rec Room Challenge: contains Darts, Roll-a-Ball, and Shuffle Bowl Marble Madness & Klax Mario & Luigi: Superstar Saga; contains the title game and Mario Bros.
Metroid: Zero Mission; contains the title game and Metroid Mother 1+2; contains the first two games of the Mother series (known as Earthbound in the United States).
Namco Museum: contains Pole Position, Galaga, Galaxian, Ms. Pac-Man, and Dig Dug Namco Museum 50th Anniversary: contains Pac-Man, Rally-X, Galaga, Ms. Pac-Man, and Dig Dug Pac-Man Collection: contains Pac-Man, Pac-Attack, Pac-Man Arrangement, and Pac-Mania Paperboy and Rampage Phantasy Star Collection: contains Phantasy Star I, II, and III.
Rayman 10th Anniversary: contains Rayman Advance and Rayman 3: Hoodlum Havoc Risk/Battleship/Clue 3-in-1 Scooby-Doo: 2 Game in 1 Sega Arcade Gallery: After Burner/Space Harrier/Out Run/Super Hang-On Sega Smash Pack: contains Ecco the Dolphin, Golden Axe, and Sonic Spinball Shark Tale & Shrek (Video) Spy Hunter/Super Sprint Super Mario Advance: contains Super Mario Bros. 2 and Mario Bros.
Super Mario World: Super Mario Advance 2: contains Super Mario World and Mario Bros.
Yoshi's Island: Super Mario Advance 3: contains Super Mario World 2: Yoshi's Island and Mario Bros.
Super Mario Advance 4: Super Mario Bros. 3: contains Super Mario Bros. 3 and Mario Bros.
Official multicarts:
Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Double Pack: contains Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles and Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles 2: Battle Nexus Tony Hawk's Underground / Kelly Slater's Pro Surfer Yu-Gi-Oh! Double Pack: Reshef of Destruction & The Sacred Cards Yu-Gi-Oh! Double Pack 2: Destiny Board Traveler & Dungeon Dice Monsters Nintendo DS ATV: Thunder Ridge Riders/Monster Trucks Mayhem Battleship/Connect Four/Sorry!/Trouble Clue/Mouse Trap/Perfection/Aggravation Namco Museum DS: contains Xevious, Galaga, Galaxian, Pac-Man, Dig Dug II, The Tower of Druaga, Mappy, Super Xevious, and Pac-Man VS Puzzler Collection: contains Crossword, Sudoku, Word Search and Fitword Uno/Skipbo/Uno Free Fall 3-in-1 Sonic Classic Collection: contains Sonic the Hedgehog, Sonic the Hedgehog 2, Sonic the Hedgehog 3, Sonic and Knuckles, Knuckles in Sonic 2, and Sonic 3 and Knuckles Mega Man Zero Collection: contains all four games in the Mega Man Zero series.
Official multicarts:
Madagascar Kartz & Shrek's Carnival Craze Party Games Nintendo 3DS Pac-Man & Galaga Dimensions: contains Pac-Man, Galaga, Pac-Man Championship Edition, Galaga Legions, Pac-Man Tilt and Galaga 3D Impact, the last two of which are exclusive to this compilation. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Nuclear receptor 4A2**
Nuclear receptor 4A2:
The nuclear receptor 4A2 (NR4A2) (nuclear receptor subfamily 4 group A member 2) also known as nuclear receptor related 1 protein (NURR1) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the NR4A2 gene. NR4A2 is a member of the nuclear receptor family of intracellular transcription factors.
Nuclear receptor 4A2:
NR4A2 plays a key role in the maintenance of the dopaminergic system of the brain. Mutations in this gene have been associated with disorders related to dopaminergic dysfunction, including Parkinson's disease and schizophrenia. Misregulation of this gene may be associated with rheumatoid arthritis. Four transcript variants encoding four distinct isoforms have been identified for this gene. Additional alternate splice variants may exist, but their full-length nature has not been determined.This protein is thought to be critical to development of the dopamine phenotype in the midbrain, as mice without NR4A2 are lacking expression of this phenotype. This is further confirmed by studies showing that when forcing NR4A2 expression in naïve precursor cells, there is complete dopamine phenotype gene expression.While NR4A2 is a key protein, there are other factors required as research shows that solely expressing NR4A2 fails to stimulate this phenotypic gene expression. One of these suggested factors is winged-helix transcription factor 2 (Foxa2). Studies have found these two factors to be within the same region of developing dopaminergic neurons, both of these factors were present in order to have expression for the dopamine phenotype.
NR4A2 and Developmental Disorders:
Mutations in NR4A2 have been associated with various developmental disorders, including Parkinson disease, schizophrenia, manic depression, and autism. De novo deletions that affect NR4A2 have been identified in some individuals with intellectual disability and language impairment, some of whom meet DSM-5 criteria for an autism diagnosis.
NR4A2 and Inflammation:
Research has been conducted on NR4A2’s role in inflammation, and may provide important information in treating disorders caused by dopaminergic neuron disease. Inflammation in the CNS can result from activated microglia (macrophage analogs for the central nervous system) and other pro-inflammatory factors, such as bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS). LPS binds to toll-like receptors (TLR), which induces inflammatory gene expression by promoting signal-dependent transcription factors. To determine which cells are dopaminergic, experiments measured the enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), which is needed for dopamine synthesis. It has been shown that NR4A2 protects dopaminergic neurons from LPS-induced inflammation, by reducing inflammatory gene expression in microglia and astrocytes. When a short hairpin for NR4A2 was expressed in microglia and astrocytes, these cells produced inflammatory mediators, such as TNFa, NO synthase and IL-1β, supporting the conclusion that reduced NR4A2 promotes inflammation and leads to cell death of dopaminergic neurons. NR4A2 interacts with the transcription factor complex NF-κB-p65 on the inflammatory gene promoters. However, NR4A2 is dependent on other factors to be able to participate in these interactions. NR4A2 needs to be sumoylated and its co-regulating factor, glycogen synthase kinase 3, needs to be phosphorylated for these interactions to occur. Sumolyated NR4A2 recruits CoREST, a complex made of several proteins that assembles chromatin-modifying enzymes. The NR4A2/CoREST complex inhibits transcription of inflammatory genes.
Structure:
One investigation conducted research on the structure and found that NR4A2 does not contain a ligand-binding cavity but a patch filled with hydrophobic side chains. Non-polar amino acid residues of NR4A2’s co-regulators, SMRT and NCoR, bind to this hydrophobic patch. Analysis of tertiary structure has shown that the binding surface of the ligand-binding domain is located on the grooves of the 11th and 12th alpha helices. This study also found essential structural components of this hydrophobic patch, to be the three amino acids residues, F574, F592, L593; mutation of any these three inhibits LBD activity.
Applications:
NR4A2 induces tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) expression, which eventually leads to differentiation into dopaminergic neurons. NR4A2 has been demonstrated to induce differentiation in CNS precursor cells in vitro but they require additional factors to reach full maturity and dopaminergic differentiation. Therefore, NR4A2 modulation may be promising for generation of dopaminergic neurons for Parkinson’s disease research, yet implantation of these induced cells as therapy treatments, has had limited results.
Knockout Studies:
Studies have shown that heterozygous knockout mice for the NR4A2 gene demonstrate reduced dopamine release. Initially this was compensated for by a decrease in the rate of dopamine reuptake; however, over time this reuptake could not make up for the reduced amount of dopamine being released. Coupled with the loss of dopamine receptor neurons, this can result in the onset of symptoms for Parkinson’s Disease.
Interactions:
NR4A2 has been shown to interact with: Beta-catenin, Pituitary homeobox 3, Retinoic acid receptor alpha, and Retinoic acid receptor beta. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Miami 4–3 defense**
Miami 4–3 defense:
I believed, and still do, in creating upfield pressure from a 4–3 stack formation The Miami 4–3, also called the 4–lslide, is a scheme closely associated with the Jimmy Johnson-led Miami Hurricanes, and taken by Johnson to the Dallas Cowboys. Built around Jimmy Johnson's notion of "upfield pressure", it is a penetrating, swarming defense, with a "get there firstest with the mostest" mentality. The focus is to cause opponents to make mistakes, even if the defense might give up a big gain or two. Compared to older 4–3 defenses, such as Tom Landry's 4–3 inside, the defensive line assignments are simpler. Linemen don't read then react, they act then read. Linebackers fill the gaps the linemen leave behind, ignoring gaps away from the play. Coverages are simple, and the playbook small and easy to learn.
Miami 4–3 defense:
The base Miami front is an "over" front, with a nose tackle shaded weak side to the center, a defensive tackle shaded outside the strong side guard, a defensive end shaded outside the tight end, and the weakside end outside the offensive tackle. Each lineman is assigned one gap. Linebackers are stationed about 4 to 4.5 yards behind the line of scrimmage. This differs from the old Landry 4–3 defenses, in which linebackers are within 1.5 yards of the line of scrimmage.The Miami 4–3 uses smaller, faster players than other standard defenses. Defensive ends for the Miami 4–3 are often former linebackers. Outside linebackers are often converted safeties. Players are chosen for speed and aggression more than size and power. The middle linebacker is the one true linebacker, the tackles the two true linemen in this defense.
Influence of the new defense:
Once people realized it could be used to stop the college offenses of the day and also was successful at the NFL level, it became very popular, and started a resurgence in the use of the 4–3. College coaches that felt overmatched by the increasing size of offensive lines often switched.The Miami front influenced all other 4–3 defenses that followed, including the Cover 2 and the Tampa 2 schemes. By some accounts it is the most popular 4–3 played today, due to the simplicity and utility of the scheme. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Gobo (recording)**
Gobo (recording):
Gobo is a sound recording term for a movable acoustic isolation panel. In typical use, a recording engineer might put a gobo between two musicians to increase the isolation of their microphones from each other. The origin of the term "gobo" is obscure, but is most likely short for "go-between".
Use:
Gobo panels control the acoustical properties of a room by absorbing and diffusing sound waves. Uses include treating recording and mixing areas for unwanted reverberation, or to separate two or more musicians so they can play close to each other with separate microphones. Gobo panels are typically constructed to accommodate portability and storage, an advantage over more permanent acoustical room treatments.
Construction:
A gobo typically consists of a wooden panel covered with foam, carpeting or other materials with sound damping properties. A gobo can rest directly on the floor or be raised on adjustable legs. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Lanttusupikas**
Lanttusupikas:
Lanttusupikas, also known as Syrjikäs, is a traditional pastry from Finland.
Lanttusupikas is a double-folded buttered flaky crust pie, filled with thin, braised swede slices and pork loin. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Libertas Academica**
Libertas Academica:
Libertas Academica (LA) is an open access academic journal publisher specializing in the biological sciences and clinical medicine. It was acquired by SAGE Publications in September 2016.
Background:
Libertas Academica is a publisher of open access ("OA") scientific, technical and medical journals. It is privately funded and was founded specifically to publish OA journals. It was established in late 2004 with the launch of two journals, Evolutionary Bioinformatics and Cancer Informatics. Additional journals have been published since. It was included on a list of "predatory" open access publishers in 2010 but later removed. In 2013, a sham study reporting that a compound isolated from lichen can kill cancer cells was submitted to one of the journals published by Libertas for peer review. After review, the sham study was correctly rejected for publication.
Journal indexing and archiving:
As articles become suitable, indexing on DOAJ, PubMed, and MEDLINE is sought for all journals, as is archiving in PubMed Central. Articles also appear on indexes and repositories, including OAIster and Pubget. The publisher offers an Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting.
Green and Gold OA:
SHERPA/RoMEO has identified LA as a Green OA publisher. This means that authors are permitted to archive their work prior to and after publication. LA is also a gold OA publisher because all articles are freely available online immediately upon publication.
Copyright:
All articles, including meta-data and supplementary files, are published under the Creative Commons Attribution license (often referred to as the "CC-BY" license). This means that: Licensees may copy, distribute, display and perform the work and make derivative works based on it only if they give the author or licensor the credits in the manner specified by these.
All journals fully indexed by DOAJ have been awarded the SPARC Europe Seal owing to the use of this copyright policy.
Subject home pages:
Pages containing the most recent papers published in the entire set of journals are available for some subjects, including bioinformatics, biology, biomarkers, cancer, chemistry, drugs & therapeutics, genes & therapeutics, and medicine. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Air-Ink**
Air-Ink:
AIR-INK is a proprietary brand of ink and composites products made by condensing carbon-based gaseous effluents generated by air pollution due to incomplete combustion of fossil fuels. Founded by Graviky Labs, a spin-off group of MIT Media Lab, AIR-INK produces its materials through a step-by-step process which primarily involves capturing of emissions, separation of carbon from the emissions, and then mixing of this carbon with different types of oils and solutions to achieve advanced material properties. It uses a patented device and technique called 'KAALINK' to carry out the filtration of soot, which contains carbon and other polluting agents like heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon.
Air-Ink:
AIR-INK is marketed as a solution to air pollution and its negative effects on human life, by allowing the print industry to offset its carbon. Dubbed as "the first ink made out of recycled air pollution," its products were used in June 2016 in association with Heineken to create street art and murals in Hong Kong's Sheung Wan district. 30–50 minutes of car pollution can supply enough carbon to fill one AIR-INK pen.
History:
Anirudh Sharma, the founder of Graviky Labs, first conceived the idea of AIR-INK during an experiment at MIT, while designing a printer that could print with carbon nanoparticles. Sharma and his team spent close to three years researching how to purify and repurpose carbon soot from auto and factory emissions, a major contributor to air pollution and global carbon footprint. In 2013, the Fluid Interfaces research group, at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology demonstrated the process of converting carbon residue into ink for use in an inkjet cartridge.In 2016, AIR-INK products were given to graphic artists in Hong Kong, which is known for its high air pollution, who were requested to paint murals. An artist who participated in this campaign said of the product, "genius, and deserves a chance."
Technology:
Soot composed of 2.5-micrometer black carbon particles found in petrol or diesel carbon emissions is captured from the tailpipes of cars and diesel generators through a device called 'Kaalink.' A separate ensures that carbon particulate is recycled into safe inks without heavy metals/toxins A single Air Ink pen contains 30–50 minutes of air pollution. The emissions from 2,500 hours of driving one standard diesel vehicle produces about 150 litres of ink.
Technology:
'Kaalink' Kaalink is a cylindrical device that is retrofitted into a diesel generators' exhaust system or exhaust pipe to collect the emissions. It can collect up to 93% of the total exhaust, which is then processed to remove heavy metals and carcinogens. The end-product from this device is a purified carbon-based pigment. Kaalink has been tested on cars, trucks, motorcycles and fishing boats in Bangalore and Hong Kong. The company now has started to work on capturing pollution from static sources of emission such as diesel generators. Third party polluters also send in their PM2.5 pollution to Graviky's recycling warehouses.
Technology:
Some critics have proposed this device will act similar to a diesel particulate filter, which has been shown to increase back pressure on the engine, thereby marginally affecting the efficiency of the engine, resulting in a loss of power, decreased mileage, and increased CO2 emissions. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Decitabine/cedazuridine**
Decitabine/cedazuridine:
Decitabine/cedazuridine, sold under the brand name Inqovi, is a fixed-dose combination medication for the treatment of adults with myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS) and chronic myelomonocytic leukemia (CMML). It is a combination of decitabine, a nucleoside metabolic inhibitor, and cedazuridine, a cytidine deaminase inhibitor.The most common side effects of decitabine/cedazuridine include fatigue, constipation, hemorrhage, muscle pain (myalgia), mucositis (mouth sores), arthralgia (joint pain), nausea, dyspnea, diarrhea, rash, dizziness, fever with low white blood cell count (febrile neutropenia), edema, headache, cough, decreased appetite, upper respiratory tract infection, pneumonia, and transaminase increased. The combination can cause fetal harm.Decitabine/cedazuridine was approved for medical use in the United States and in Canada in July 2020.
Medical uses:
Decitabine/cedazuridine is indicated for treatment of adults with myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS), including previously treated and untreated, de novo and secondary MDS with the following French American-British subtypes (refractory anemia, refractory anemia with ringed sideroblasts, refractory anemia with excess blasts, and chronic myelomonocytic leukemia [CMML]) and intermediate-1, intermediate-2, and high-risk International Prognostic Scoring System groups.MDS is a type of blood cancer in which blood cells in the bone marrow are defective leading to a low number of one or more types of blood cells.
History:
Decitabine/cedazuridine was approved for medical use in the United States and in Canada in July 2020.The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) granted the application of decitabine combined with cedazuridine priority review and orphan drug designation. The orphan drug designation was granted in August 2019 for the treatment of myelodysplastic syndromes (including chronic myelomonocytic leukemia).Decitabine combined with cedazuridine was investigated in two open-label, randomized, crossover trials. Trial ASTX727-01-B (NCT02103478) included 80 adult participants with MDS (International Prognostic Scoring System [IPSS] Intermediate-1, Intermediate-2, or high-risk) or CMML and trial ASTX727-02 (NCT03306264) included 133 adult participants with MDS or CMML, including all French-American-British classification criteria and IPSS Intermediate-1, Intermediate-2, or high-risk prognostic scores. The trials were conducted at 51 sites in the United States and Canada.In both trials, participants were randomized 1:1 to receive decitabine combined with cedazuridine (35 mg decitabine and 100 mg cedazuridine) orally in cycle 1 and decitabine 20 mg/m2 intravenously in cycle 2 or the reverse sequence. Both decitabine combined with cedazuridine and intravenous decitabine were administered once daily on days 1 through 5 of a 28-day cycle. Starting with cycle 3, all participants received decitabine combined with cedazuridine orally once daily on days 1 through 5 of each 28-day cycle until disease progression or unacceptable toxicity. Both trials provided comparison of exposure and safety in the first two cycles between oral decitabine combined with cedazuridine and intravenous decitabine and description of disease response with decitabine combined with cedazuridine. Comparison of disease response between the decitabine combined with cedazuridine and intravenous decitabine was not possible because all participants received decitabine combined with cedazuridine starting from Cycle 3.The FDA approval of decitabine combined with cedazuridine was based on clinical trial results which showed similar drug concentrations between intravenous decitabine and decitabine combined with cedazuridine. Additionally, about half of the participants who were formerly dependent on transfusions were able to no longer require transfusions during an 8-week period. The safety profile of decitabine combined with cedazuridine was also similar to intravenous decitabine. The FDA granted the approval of Inqovi to Astex Pharmaceuticals, Inc., a subsidiary of Otsuka Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Penetrant (biochemical)**
Penetrant (biochemical):
A biochemical penetrant is a chemical that increases the ability of a poison to apply its toxic effect to a living organism. Typically, the term penetrant when used for a biochemical agent, relates to an agrichemical that is used with a weedkiller or fungicide. The term seems to be used in relation to agrichemicals within English speaking countries rather than North American.
Penetrant (biochemical):
When mixed with a weedkiller (normally as an aqua solution) the penetrant chemical causes a plant to absorb the poison in a more effective manner and so succumb more readily. Penetrants are most often used against plants that would otherwise be able to resist the weedkiller. Often such plants have tough leaves or shiny leaves that shed water easily. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Neurogrid**
Neurogrid:
Neurogrid is a piece of computer hardware that is designed specifically for simulation of biological brains. It uses analog computation to emulate ion channel activity, and digital communication to softwire structured connectivity patterns. Neurogrid simulates one million neurons and six billion synapses in real time. The neurons spike at a rate of ten times a second. In terms of number of simulated neurons, it rivals simulations done by the Blue Brain Project. However, by running the simulation of whole neurons, instead of simulation on molecular level, it needs only one millionth of Blue Brain's power. The entire board consumes less than two watts of electrical energy.
Neurogrid:
Neurogrid was designed and built by the Brains in Silicon group at Stanford University. The group is led by Kwabena Boahen. The Neurogrid hardware was first up and running in late 2009. Since then it has been used to start performing simulation experiments.The Neurogrid board contains sixteen Neurocores, each of which has 256 x 256 silicon neurons in an 11.9 mm x 13.9 mm chip. An off-chip RAM and an on-chip RAM (in each Neurocore) softwire horizontal and vertical cortical connections, respectively. With 61 graded and 18 binary programmable parameters, common to all of its silicon neurons, a Neurocore can model a variety of spiking and interaction patterns. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Foul ball**
Foul ball:
In baseball, a foul ball is a batted ball that: Settles on foul territory between home and first base or between home and third base, or Bounces and then goes past first or third base on or over foul territory, or Has its first bounce occur in foul territory beyond first or third base, or Touches the person of an umpire or player, or any object foreign to the natural ground, while on or over foul territory. By interpretation, a batted ball that touches a batter while in his batter's box is foul regardless of whether it is over foul territory.The entirety of the batted ball must be on or over foul territory in order to be adjudged foul in the above situations; otherwise it is a fair ball that forces the batter to attempt to reach first base. A foul fly shall be judged according to the relative position of the ball and the foul line, including the foul pole, and not as to whether the fielder is on foul or fair territory at the time he touches the ball. If the foul ball gets caught, then it would be judged as an out.
Foul ball:
Additionally, ballpark ground rules may specify that batted balls striking certain fixed objects such as railings, nets, or a roof if present are foul balls. Foul territory or foul ground is defined as that part of the playing field outside the first and third base lines extended to the fence and perpendicularly upwards. Note: the foul lines and foul poles are not part of foul territory.
Foul ball:
In general, when a batted ball is ruled a foul ball, the ball is dead, all runners must return to their time-of-pitch base without liability to be put out, and the batter returns to home plate to continue his turn at bat. A strike is issued for the batter if he had fewer than two strikes. If the batter already has two strikes against him when he hits a foul ball, a strike is not issued unless the ball was bunted to become a foul ball, in which case a third strike is issued and a strikeout recorded for the batter and pitcher. A strike is, however, recorded for the pitcher for every foul ball the batter hits, regardless of the count. If any member of the fielding team catches a foul ball before it touches the ground or lands outside the field perimeter, the batter is out. However, the caught ball is in play and base runners may attempt to advance.
Foul ball:
A foul ball is different from a foul tip, in which the ball makes contact with the bat, travels directly to the catcher's hands, and is caught. In this case, the ball remains live and a strike is added to the batter's count. A batter who hits a foul tip with two strikes on the count is out.
Foul ball:
To aid umpires in determining whether balls hit over the fence are fair or foul, a tall foul pole is often erected at each corner of the outfield. A batted ball which hits the foul pole above the fence is never a foul ball, no matter where it is ultimately deflected off the pole, in this case a home run is automatically awarded to the batter.
Foul ball:
In kickball, foul ball does not make a strike, but four foul balls make an out.
History:
Until the 1920s, Major League Baseball spectators were often ejected if they attempted to keep foul balls, and teams employed security guards to ensure it. Factors such as negative public sentiment, a decrease in the cost of baseballs relative to team revenues and increased pressure to discontinue use of worn, damaged and/or discolored baseballs (especially after the death of Ray Chapman) combined to persuade several teams to change their foul ball policies during this period; the New York Giants changed theirs after losing a New York Supreme Court case (Reuben Berman vs. National Exhibition Co.) filed by Reuben Berman. Berman, a businessman, was ejected in 1921 after tossing a foul ball he caught into the stands.
Strategies:
Depending on the exact situation, a foul ball may be considered beneficial to the offense or the defense.
Strategies:
When there are zero or one strikes, a foul ball counts as a strike, benefiting the pitcher. However, a foul ball may reveal to the batter that he has timed a pitch well and need only make adjustment to the location of his swing on the next such pitch; this is often called a good cut or simply a good swing. Foul balls with two strikes are generally considered positive for the batter, since he thus avoids strike three on a potentially difficult pitch. Also, foul balls with two strikes increase the pitcher's pitch count, adding to his/her fatigue, thus providing some small advantage to the offense.
Strategies:
A strategy of swinging on any ball to try to produce additional fouls and prolong an at-bat is often used against strong pitchers to try to drive them from the game sooner (and also the possibility of the pitcher throwing a pitch a hitter can get a hit on); this does, however, have the disadvantage of generating more strikeouts.In very specific circumstance—such as in the bottom of the ninth inning (or later) of a tie game when a runner is on third base with less than two outs—outfielders may intentionally not catch deep fly balls in foul territory, as catching such a ball would create a sacrifice fly, potentially allowing the winning run to score. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Quantitative InfraRed Thermography Journal**
Quantitative InfraRed Thermography Journal:
Quantitative InfraRed Thermography Journal is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Taylor & Francis. It was founded in 2004 by the QIRT committee, with a strong connection to the QIRT conference. According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2016 impact factor of 1.062.
Topics covered:
Quantitative InfraRed Thermography Journal covers all aspects of Thermography, with topics ranging from instrumentation, theoretical and experimental practices, data reduction and image processing related to infrared thermography.
Article categories:
The journal publishes articles in the following categories: Original research articles Research reviews
Abstracting and indexing:
The journal is abstracted and indexed in: Science Citation Index Scopus | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Ff phages**
Ff phages:
Ff phages (for F specific filamentous phages) is a group of almost identical filamentous phage (genus Inovirus) including phages f1, fd, M13 and ZJ/2, which infect bacteria bearing the F fertility factor. The virion (virus particle) is a flexible filament measuring about 6 by 900 nm, comprising a cylindrical protein tube protecting a single-stranded circular DNA molecule at its core. The phage codes for only 11 gene products, and is one of the simplest viruses known. It has been widely used to study fundamental aspects of molecular biology. George Smith and Greg Winter used f1 and fd for their work on phage display for which they were awarded a share of the 2018 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Early experiments on Ff phages used M13 to identify gene functions, and M13 was also developed as a cloning vehicle, so the name M13 is sometimes used as an informal synonym for the whole group of Ff phages.
Structure:
The virion is a flexible filament (worm-like chain) about 6 nm in diameter and 900 nm long. Several thousand copies of a small (50 amino-acid residues) elongated alpha-helical major coat protein subunit (the product of gene 8, or p8) in an overlapping shingle-like array form a hollow cylinder enclosing the circular single-stranded DNA genome. Each p8 subunit has a collection of basic residues near the C-terminus of the elongated protein and acidic residues near the N-terminus; these two regions are separated by about 20 hydrophobic (non-polar) residues. The shingle-like arrangement places the acidic residues of p8 near the outside surface of the cylinder, where they cause the virus particle to be negatively-charged; non-polar regions near non-polar regions of neighbouring p8 subunits, where non-polar interactions contribute to a notable physical stability of the virus particle; and basic residues near the centre of the cylinder, where they interact with the negatively-charged DNA phosphates at the core of the virion. Longer (or shorter) DNA molecules can be packaged, since more (or fewer) p8 subunits can be added during assembly as required to protect the DNA, making the phage useful for genetic studies. (This effect should not be confused with polyphage, which can package several separate and distinct DNA molecules). About 5 copies each of four minor proteins cap the two ends of the virion.
Structure:
The molecular structure of the virion capsid (the assembly of p8 subunit proteins) has been determined by X-ray fiber diffraction, and structural models have been deposited in the Protein Data Bank. In particular, the series of fd and Pf1 virion structures deposited in the PDB over decades illustrate the improvements in methods for fiber diffraction data collection and computational analysis. Structures of the p3 capsid protein and the p5 replication/assembly protein have also been determined from X-ray crystallography and deposited in the PDB.
Genetics:
The DNA sequence of the fd genome has 6408 nucleotide comprising 9 genes, but the genome has 11 open reading frames producing 11 proteins, since two genes, gene 2 and gene 1, have internal in-frame translation starts, generating two additional proteins, p10 and p11. The genome also contains a short non-coding intergenic sequence. M13 and f1 sequences are slightly different from fd. They both have only 6407 nucleotides; f1 differs from fd in 180 positions (only 10 of these changes are reflected in amino-acid changes in gene products) and M13 has only 59 nucleotide differences from f1. For many purposes the phages in the Ff group can be considered as interchangeable.
Genetics:
Five gene products are part of the virion: the major coat protein (p8) and the minor proteins capping the two ends, p3 and p6 at one end, and p7 and p9 at the other end. Three gene products (p2, p5, and p10) are cytoplasmic proteins needed for DNA synthesis and the rest are membrane proteins involved in assembly of the virion.
Genetics:
The gene encoding p1 has been used as a conserved marker gene, along with three other features specific for inovirus genomes, in an automatic machine-learning approach to identify over 10000 inovirus-like sequences from microbial genomes.
Life cycle:
Infection The p3 protein is anchored to one end of the virion by the C-terminal domain of p3. Infection of host bacteria involves interaction of two different N-terminal regions of p3 with two different sites of the host bacteria. First, the N2 domain of p3 attaches to the outer tip of the F-pilus, and the pilus retracts into the cell. This retraction may involve depolymerization of the pilus subunit assembly into the cell membrane at the base of the pilus by a reversal of the pilus growth and polymerization process. As the tip of the pilus bearing p3 approaches the cell wall, the N1 domain of p3 interacts with the bacterial TolQRA protein to complete infection and release the genome into the cytoplasm of the host.
Life cycle:
Replication After the single-stranded viral DNA enters the cytoplasm, it serves as a template for the synthesis of a complementary DNA strand. This synthesis is initiated in the intergenic region of the DNA sequence by host RNA polymerase, which synthesizes a short RNA primer on the infecting DNA as template. The host DNA polymerase III then uses this primer to synthesize the full complementary strand of DNA, yielding a double-stranded circle, sometimes called the replicative form (RF) DNA. The complementary strand of the RF is the transcription template for phage coded proteins, especially p2 and p10, which are necessary for further DNA replication.The p2 protein cleaves the viral strand of the RF DNA, and host DNA polymerase III synthesizes a new viral strand. The old viral strand is displaced as the new one is synthesized. When a circle is complete, the covalently linked p2 cuts the displaced viral strand at the junction between the old and newly synthesized DNA and re-ligates the two ends and liberates p2. RF replicates by this rolling circle mechanism to generate dozens of copies of the RF.When the concentration of phage proteins has increased, new viral strands are coated by the replication/assembly protein p5 rather than by the complementary DNA strands. The p5 also inhibits translation of p2, so that progeny viral ssDNA production and packaging are in synchrony.
Life cycle:
Assembly and extrusion Infection does not kill the host bacteria, in contrast to most other families of phage. Progeny phage are assembled as they extrude through the membrane of growing bacteria, probably at adhesion sites joining inner and outer membranes. The five phage proteins that form the coat of the completed phage enter the inner membrane; for p8 and p3, N-terminal leader sequences (later removed) help the proteins to enter the bacterial membrane, with their N-termini directed away from the cytoplasm towards the periplasm. Three other phage membrane proteins that are not present in the phage, p1, p11, and p4, are also involved in assembly. Replication of RF DNA is converted to production of phage ssDNA by coating of the DNA with p5 to form an elongated p5/DNA replication/assembly complex, which then interacts with the membrane-bound phage proteins. The extrusion process picks up the p7 and p9 proteins which form the outer tip of the progeny phage. As the p5 is stripped off the DNA, the progeny DNA is extruded across the membrane and wrapped in a helical casing of p8, to which p3 and p6 are added at the end of assembly. The p4 protein may form an extrusion pore in the outer membrane.Interaction of the double-stranded packaging DNA signal with the p1-thioredoxin complex at the host inner membrane triggers the formation of a pore. The p1 protein contains Walker motifs which are essential for phage assembly, suggesting that p1 is a molecular motor involved in phage assembly. The p1 protein has a membrane-spanning hydrophobic domain with the N-terminal portion in the cytoplasm and the C-terminal portion in the periplasm (the reverse of the orientation of p8). Adjacent to the cytoplasmic side of the membrane-spanning domain is a 13- residue sequence of p1 having a pattern of basic residues closely matching the pattern of basic residues near the C terminus of p8, but inverted with respect to that sequence.Intermediate assemblies of p8 can be generated by treating the phage with chloroform. The helical content of p8 in these intermediate forms is similar to that in the phage, suggesting that the structural change during assembly may involve just a sliding of the shingled p8 subunits with respect to their neighbours in the assembly.
Applications:
Life sciences and medicine Ff phages have been engineered for applications in biological and medical sciences. Many applications build on experiments showing that the DNA sequence determining resistance to the antibiotic kanamycin can be inserted in a functional form into the non-coding intergenic sequence of fd phage DNA. Such modified phage are correspondingly longer that wild-type filamentous fd, because the longer DNA is coated with correspondingly more gene 8 coat proteins, but the phage life-cycle is not otherwise disrupted. The traditional “tadpole” or isometric shaped-phage, on the other hand, which have a limited-sized capsid, cannot be so easily used to encapsidate a larger DNA molecule. The modified phage can be selected by infecting kanamycin-sensitive bacteria with modified phage to introduce resistance to kanamycin, and growing the infected bacteria in media containing an otherwise lethal concentration of kanamycin.This result was extended by inserting foreign DNA expressing a foreign peptide into fd phage gene 3, rather than into the intergenic sequence, so that the foreign peptide appears on the surface of the phage as a part of the gene 3 adsorption protein. Phage carrying the foreign peptide can then be detected using appropriate antibodies. The reverse of this approach is to insert DNA coding for antibodies into gene 3 and detect their presence by appropriate antigens.These techniques have been extended over the years in many ways, for instance by inserting foreign DNA into the genes coding for phage coat proteins other than gene 3, and/or duplicating the gene of interest to modify only some of the corresponding gene products. Phage display technology has been widely used for many purposes.
Applications:
Material sciences and nanotechnology Ff phages have been engineered for applications such as remediation, electrochemical, photovoltaic, catalytic, sensing and digital memory devices, especially by Angela Belcher and colleagues. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**1,3,5-Triazine**
1,3,5-Triazine:
1,3,5-Triazine, also called s-triazine, is an organic chemical compound with the formula (HCN)3. It is a six-membered heterocyclic aromatic ring, one of several isomeric triazines. S-triazine—the "symmetric" isomer—and its derivatives are useful in a variety of applications.
Preparation:
Symmetrical 1,3,5-triazines are prepared by trimerization of certain nitriles such as cyanogen chloride or cyanimide. Benzoguanamine (with one phenyl and 2 amino substituents) is synthesised from benzonitrile and dicyandiamide. In the Pinner triazine synthesis (named after Adolf Pinner) the reactants are an alkyl or aryl amidine and phosgene. Insertion of an N-H moiety into a hydrazide by a copper carbenoid, followed by treatment with ammonium chloride also gives the triazine core.Amine-substituted triazines called Guanamines are prepared by the condensation of cyanoguanidine with the corresponding nitrile: (H2N)2C=NCN + RCN → (CNH2)2(CR)N3
Applications:
As a reagent in organic synthesis, s-triazine is used as the equivalent of hydrogen cyanide (HCN). Being a solid (vs a gas for HCN), triazine is sometimes easier to handle in the laboratory. One application is in the Gattermann reaction, used to attach the formyl group to aromatic substrates.
Triazine derivatives N- and C-substituted triazines are used industrially. The most common derivative of 1,3,5-triazine is 1,3,5-triazine-2,4,6-triamine, commonly known as melamine or cyanuramide. Another important derivative is 1,3,5-triazine-2,4,6-triol better known as cyanuric acid.
Cyanuric chloride (2,4,6-trichloro-1,3,5-triazine) is the starting point for the manufacture of many herbicides such as Simazine and atrazine. Chlorinated triazines are the basis of an important family of reactive dyes, which are covalently attached to cellulosic materials.
Triazines are also found in pharmaceutical products. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Joint Capabilities Integration and Development System**
Joint Capabilities Integration and Development System:
The Joint Capabilities Integration and Development System (JCIDS) is the formal United States Department of Defense (DoD) process which defines acquisition requirements and evaluation criteria for future defense programs. JCIDS was created to replace the previous service-specific requirements generation system that allowed redundancies in capabilities and failed to meet the combined needs of all US military services. In order to correct these problems, JCIDS is intended to guide the development of requirements for future acquisition systems to reflect the needs of all four services (Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and Air Force) by focusing the requirements generation process on needed capabilities as requested or defined by one of the US combatant commanders. In an ideal implementation of the JCIDS process, regional and functional combatant commanders give early and continuous feedback into the acquisition and sustainment processes to ensure their current and evolving requirements are known and met.
History:
JCIDS was developed under the direction of Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld to address shortfalls in the United States Department of Defense (DoD) requirements generation system identified by the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff. These shortfalls were identified as: not considering new programs in the context of other programs, insufficiently considering combined service requirements and ineffectively prioritizing joint service requirements, and accomplishing insufficient analysis. The drive to create JCIDS was born out of a March 2002 Secretary of Defense memorandum to the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff requesting a study on alternative ways to evaluate requirements. The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (CJCS) approved the most recent JCIDS Instruction on 23 January 2015 and its accompanying manual was released on 12 February 2015. CJCS Instruction (CJCSI) 3170.01I provides a top-level description of the process and outlines the organizational responsibilities. The JCIDS Manual defines performance attributes, key performance parameters, validation and approval processes, and associated document content.
Methodology:
The central focus of JCIDS is to address capability shortfalls, or gaps as defined by combatant commanders. Thus, JCIDS is said to provide a capabilities-based approach to requirements generation. The previous requirements generation system focused on addressing future threat scenarios. While understanding the risks associated with future threat postures is necessary to develop effective weapons systems, a sufficient methodology requires a joint perspective which can both prioritize the risk associated with future threats and consider operational gaps in the context of all the services. If requirements are developed in this joint context, there is simultaneously a smaller chance of developing superfluously overlapping systems and a greater probability that weapons systems would be operational with one another (i.e. common communication systems, weapons interfaces, etc.). The Joint Capability Areas were established in conjunction with JCIDS in order to provide for a common lexicon throughout the US Department of Defense. Another major emphasis of JCIDS is to consider whether a solution to a potential operational gap requires the development of a physical system (a materiel solution) or a procedural or training based solution (a non-materiel solution). In this sense, the JCIDS process provides a solution space that considers solutions involving any combination of doctrine, organization, training, materiel, leadership and education, personnel and facilities (DOTMLPF). The Joint Staff, J6, Joint Deployable Analysis Team (JDAT) supports JCIDS by providing recommendations based on quantifiable data. JDAT collects and analyzes data and provides observations, findings, conclusions, and recommendations to identify policy, Joint doctrine, tactics, techniques, and procedures (TTP); and materiel solutions and products that promote capability improvement. Since combatant commanders define requirements in consultation with the Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD), they are able to consider gaps in the context of strategic direction for the total US military force and influence the direction of requirements earlier in the acquisition process.
Methodology:
The JCIDS process starts with the development of joint integrating concepts and the capability they imply from the US Secretary of Defense (SecDef) and combatant commanders. From the joint integrating concepts, the joint chiefs of staff refine requirements and develop an integrated priority list via a joint quarterly readiness review. Military judgement is further applied by the Joint Requirements Oversight Council (JROC) (Composed of the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and other service vice chiefs) which validates requirement attributes and determines how to produce the required capability. From the JROC, the JCIDS process maps current programs against the standard as defined by JROC attributes to determine if gaps exist in providing the concepts defined by the SecDef and combatant commanders.
JCIDS analysis:
In order to assess US capability to execute Joint Integrating Concepts there are three phases to capabilities-based assessment: a functional area analysis, a functional needs analysis, and a functional solutions analysis. The functional area analysis identifies operational tasks, conditions and standards needed to accomplish objectives. The Functional Needs Analysis assesses the ability of current and programmed capabilities to accomplish the tasks identified in the functional area analysis. The end product of these first two levels of analysis is a list of capability gaps. Functional solutions analysis (FSA) evaluates solutions from an operational perspective across the DOTMLPF spectrum. The FSA results in a list of potential need-based solutions and is further divided into three subcomponents: non-materiel analysis (DOT_LPF), materiel solutions (ideas for materiel approaches, or IMA, analysis) and the Analysis of Materiel Approaches to determine the best materiel or combination of approaches to produce the best capability. The final analysis is the Post-Independent Analysis which reviews the previous three functional analyses and selects an approach or approaches that best close the capability gaps. The original proposal sponsor documents a recommended change or produces an Initial Capabilities Document for a system.
JCIDS analysis:
A proposal receives one of three designations based on the degree in which it applies to all three services: "JROC Interest", "JCB Interest", or "Joint Information". "JROC Interest" programs apply to any program the JROC decides to review and all Acquisition Category (ACAT) 1/1A programs. [Based on 31 Aug 2018 JCIDS Manual.] Army ACATs The ASA(ALT) uses the Acquisition Category (ACAT) I, II, III, IV in its Weapon System Handbook.
Output documents:
Three documents are the output of the JCIDS analysis which together define needed capabilities, guide materiel development and direct the production of capabilities. Each of these documents supports a major design approval decision each with gradual improving design maturity A, B or C. The sponsor is the single focal point for all three documents.
Output documents:
The Initial Capabilities Document (ICD) defines the capability need and where it fits in broader concepts, ultimately supporting the milestone A decision. (The Milestone A decision approves or denies a concept demonstration to show that a proposed concept is feasible). When the technology development phase is complete, a Capability Development Document (CDD) is produced which provides more detail on the materiel solution of the desired capability and supports Milestone B decisions.
Output documents:
(The milestone B approval starts the engineering and manufacturing development phase). Most important, the CDD also defines the thresholds and objectives against which the capability will be measured. After approval, the CDD guides the Engineering and Manufacturing Development Phase of the acquisition process. The Capability Production Document (CPD) supports the Milestone C decision necessary to start the Production & Deployment Phase to include low-rate initial production and operational tests. The CPD potentially refines the thresholds from the CDD based on lessons learned during the Engineering and Manufacturing Development Phase.
Actors:
The DoD component that oversees the JCIDS analyses acts as the sponsor. The sponsor also evaluates the affordability of various proposals and approaches determined in the study. Moreover, the sponsor coordinates with non-DoD departments and agencies on interagency capability matters.
Actors:
The Joint Staff, J8, Vice Director (VDJ-8), is the gatekeeper of the JCIDS process. The gatekeeper assigns the Joint Potential Designation (JPD), and assigns lead and supporting functional capabilities boards FCBs, and performs an initial review. The gatekeeper initially reviews all proposals, and then designates the JPD, and which Functional Capability Board and Joint Warfighting Capability Assessment Teams will receive the proposal. The Joint Potential Designation is based on input from Joint Forces Command, each of the Joint Warfighting Capability Assessment teams, and other elements of the Joint Staff. The gatekeeper periodically reevaluates the Joint Potential designation throughout the process because changes in the proposed capability may require it to change as well.
Actors:
When the gatekeeper has completed the initial review, she or he assigns the analysis to a functional capabilities board (FCB). This board replaces the joint requirements panel (JRP) from the previous system, with expanded responsibilities and membership. The FCB is responsible for ensuring that new capabilities are developed with a joint warfighting context; ensuring that proposals are consistent with the Joint Force as described in the Joint Operating Concepts; validating Joint Impact proposals; organizing, analyzing and prioritizing capabilities proposals; supervising development and updating of functional concepts; and ensuring that integrated architectures are reflective of their functional area.
Actors:
The JROC now charters six FCBs (oversight authority is in parentheses): C4/Cyber (J6) Battlespace Awareness (J2) Force Application (J8) Logistics (J4) Protection (J8) Force Integration (J8)The head of the FCBs will probably be at least the O-7 or equivalent level. Membership in an FCB goes beyond the traditional membership of the services under the previous system in the JRP. The FCBs include O-6 or GS-15 equivalent representatives of the Services, the combatant commanders, key OSD staff, and representatives from the space and intelligence communities. This expanded membership gives the FCB Chairman the tools to make better and more broadly informed recommendations on the capability proposals to the JROC. It also involves the entire acquisition community early in the process. Other FCBs can be created by the JROC to oversee capability development and integration in the other functional areas.
Actors:
Joint warfighting capability assessment teams (JWCAs) coordinate with and aid the sponsor to prevent needless overlapping of proposals across components and to ensure that joint capability gaps are properly addressed. They support the gatekeeper in determining the Joint Potential Designation and the lead and/or supporting JWCAs for each JCIDS document in the process. They also work with other JWCAs to make sure that analyses do not overlook any joint aspects. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Lithobraking**
Lithobraking:
Lithobraking is a whimsical euphemism used by spacecraft engineers to refer to a spacecraft impacting the surface of a planet or moon. The word was coined by analogy with "aerobraking," slowing a spacecraft by intersecting the atmosphere, with "lithos" (Ancient Greek: λίθος [líthos], "rock") substituted to indicate the spacecraft is intersecting the planet's solid lithosphere rather than merely its gaseous atmosphere. According to Jonathan McDowell, "Lithobraking reduces the apoapsis height to zero instantly, but with the unfortunate side effect that the spacecraft does not survive. Originally a whimsical euphemism, but increasingly a standard term."
End-of-mission lithobraking:
Lithobraking is used to refer to the result of a spacecraft crashing into the rocky surface of a body with no measures to ensure its survival, either by accident or with intent. For instance, the term has been used to describe the impact of MESSENGER into Mercury after the spacecraft ran out of fuel. More recently, the term has also been used to describe the successful completion of the Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART), when a probe crashed into Dimorphos to test lithobraking as a method of planetary defense.
Intact lithobraking:
Successful lithobraking requires a spacecraft capable of impacting the planet or moon at high velocity, or protecting the probe with sufficient cushioning to withstand an impact with the surface undamaged. Incoming angles are made shallow enough such that the impact has the characteristic of a glancing blow, rather than a direct impact on the surface. Lithobraking can be combined with other braking techniques, where the velocity of a lander can be reduced using retrorockets or parachutes, and it can be protected from the force of impact by cushioning air bags or shock absorbers.In the absence of a thick atmosphere, lithobraking is difficult due to the extremely high orbital velocities of most bodies. However, the orbital velocity of small moons (for example, Phobos), asteroids, and comets can be sufficiently small for this strategy to be feasible. For example, Rosetta's lander, Philae, passively landed on the comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko after separating from the orbiter, dissipating energy only through impact with the surface of the comet. The MASCOT lander from Hayabusa2 landed on asteroid 162173 Ryugu in a similar manner.Instead of attempting to slowly dissipate the incoming velocity, it can be used to enable the probe to penetrate the surface. This can be tried on bodies with low gravitation, such as comets and asteroids, or on planets with atmospheres (by using only small parachutes, or no parachutes at all). Several such missions have been launched, including penetrators on the two Phobos probe landers targeted for Mars' moon Phobos and ones for Mars itself on Mars 96 and Deep Space 2, but so far none have succeeded. The cancelled LUNAR-A probe would have carried penetrators to the Moon.
Intact lithobraking:
Related concepts Kraft Ehricke had proposed the idea of a slide landing on the Moon, where a spacecraft's orbit is tangent to the lunar surface, and the spacecraft skids to a stop by sliding against the regolith. Related concepts involve the spacecraft in an orbit tangent to the surface of the body in question, and "docking" with a magnetically levitated (maglev) train, and the train then slowing. This technique requires extremely precise guidance and control, in addition to a large infrastructure, and is thus not yet a viable option – although it may be in the future. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Exclusive correlation spectroscopy**
Exclusive correlation spectroscopy:
Exclusive correlation spectroscopy (ECOSY) is an NMR correlation experiment introduced by O. W. Sørensen, Christian Griesinger, Richard R. Ernst and coworkers for the accurate measurement of small J-couplings.
Exclusive correlation spectroscopy:
The idea behind the experiment is to measure an unresolved coupling with the help of a larger coupling which is resolved in a dimension orthogonal to the small coupling. Three active nuclei are needed (SXI spin system) and the pulse sequence must be able to transfer magnetization from I to S without changing the spin state of X, otherwise the ECOSY pattern will vanish. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Treehouse (game)**
Treehouse (game):
Treehouse is a game in which players try to get their configuration of Icehouse pieces to match the central configuration, shared by all players. The rolling of the special "Treehouse Die" tells the player what kind of move to make to change his own or the central configuration, and then he does so to best move towards the goal. Treehouse was invented by Andrew Looney in 2006 and is sold by Looney Labs. It reflects a change in marketing of Icehouse pieces by Looney Labs, in order to try to improve sales and has become the basis for further marketing of the product. It is sold in two color variants: Rainbow (consisting of black (opaque), blue, red, green, yellow) and Xeno (consisting of white (opaque), purple, cyan, orange, clear).
Play:
To start, each player is assigned three pyramids, one of each size, stacked on top of one another, in a configuration commonly called a "tree". Another trio of neutral pyramids (called the "House") is placed in the center of the table, in a different arrangement. The objective is to arrange your three pyramids to match the house. However, you are only allowed to maneuver your pyramids as dictated by the roll of a special die.
Reception:
The reviewer from the online second volume of Pyramid stated that "Looney Labs is re-launching the Icehouse family with a new game called Treehouse, which is best described as an Icehouse starter set. Available in two different sets -- Xeno and Rainbow -- both consist of a tube containing 15 pyramids divided into five differently colored stacking sets and a Treehouse die marked TIP, SWAP, DIG, AIM, HOP, or WILD. The rules for the game itself are printed on the outside of the tube, which both indicates the simplicity of the game and the ease of reference for the rules."In 2007, Treehouse won the Origins Award for best boardgame of 2006. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Selenium yeast**
Selenium yeast:
Selenium yeast is a feed additive for livestock, used to increase the selenium content in their fodder. It is a form of selenium currently approved for human consumption in the EU and Britain. Inorganic forms of selenium are used in feeds (namely sodium selenate and sodium selenite, which appear to work in roughly the same manner). Since these products can be patented, producers can demand premium prices. It is produced by fermenting Saccharomyces cerevisiae (baker's yeast) in a selenium-rich media.There is considerable variability in products described as Se-yeast and the selenium compounds found within. Many manufacturers and products on the market are simply mixtures of largely inorganic selenium and some yeast. Selenium is found in different forms based upon the food in which it is found. For instance, the form found in mustard and garlic is different from the form found in wheat or corn. In some products, the added selenium is structurally substituted for sulfur in the amino acid methionine, thus forming an organic chemical called selenomethionine via the same pathways and enzymes. Owing to its similarity to sulfur-containing methionine, selenomethionine is mistaken for an amino acid by the yeast anabolism and incorporated in its proteins. It has been claimed that selenomethionine makes a better source of dietary selenium in animal nutrition, since it is an organic chemical compound sometimes found in some common crops such as wheat.
Animal feed additive:
Large amounts of selenium are toxic; however, it is physiologically necessary for animals in extremely small amounts. Many other uncharacterized selenium-containing organic chemicals are also produced by a method similar to that of selenomethionine; some have recently been characterized but remain relatively unknown, such as S-seleno-methyl-glutathione and glutathione-S-selenoglutathione. Due to this, the European Union has questioned the safety and potential toxicity of this food supplement for humans, and it may not be used as an additive after 2002. G.N Schrauzer, who has written two papers about selenomethionine, claims it should be an essential amino acid, and that the product is completely safe. The European Food Safety Authority does allow the use of selenomethionine as a feed additive for animals. Because organic forms of selenium appear to be excreted from the body slower than inorganic forms, products enriched with organic selenium might detrimentally bioaccumulate in the body. Because selenium-enriched foods contain much more selenium than natural foods, selenium toxicity is a potential problem, and such foods must be treated with caution. The EU allows up to 300 micrograms of selenium per day, but one long-term study of selenium supplementation showed no evidence of toxicity at a dose as high as 800 micrograms per day.An organic selenium-containing chemical found in selenium yeast has been shown to differ in bioavailability and metabolism compared with common inorganic forms of dietary selenium. Dietary supplementation using selenium yeast is ineffective in the production of antioxidants in bovine milk compared to inorganic selenium (sodium selenate). One study examined if increased selenium in the diet of mutant mice (via a selenium yeast product) caused a higher production of selenium-containing enzymes which have an antioxidant effect. The effect was modest.Selenium supplementation in yeast form has been shown to increase pig selenium-containing antioxidant enzymes, broiler growth and meat quality, the shelf life of turkey and rooster semen, and possibly cattle fertility.Selenium supplementation in animal feeds may be profitable for agribusinesses. It may be possible to market selenium-fortified foods to consumers as functional foods, such as selenium-enriched eggs, meat, or milk.
Sel-Plex®:
A patented cultivar of yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae 'CNCM I-3060') marketed as Sel-Plex® has been approved for use in animal fodder: U.S. Food and Drug Administration approval for use as a supplement to feed for chickens, turkeys, swine, goats, sheep, horses, dogs, bison, and beef and dairy cows.
Organic Materials Review Institute approval for use as a feed supplement for all animal species.
Sel-Plex®:
As of 2006, the European Food Safety Authority's Scientific Panel on Additives and Products or Substances used in Animal Feed allows the use of Sel-Plex® in animal fodder for poultry, swine, and bovines, as the selenium is not significantly bio-accumulated by the human consumer. Only a small amount should be used when blending animal feeds, 10x the authorized maximum selenium intake causes a drop in production. Appropriate measures to minimize inhalation exposure to the product should be taken.
Analytical chemistry:
Total selenium in selenium yeast can be reliably determined using open acid digestion to extract selenium from the yeast matrix followed by flame atomic absorption spectrometry. Determination of the selenium species selenomethionine can be achieved via proteolytic digestion of selenium yeast followed by high-performance liquid chromatography with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Ceramide synthase 1**
Ceramide synthase 1:
Ceramide synthase 1 also known as LAG1 longevity assurance homolog 1 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the CERS1 gene.
Function:
This gene encodes a member of the bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) family and the TGF-beta superfamily. This group of proteins is characterized by a polybasic proteolytic processing site that is cleaved to produce a mature protein containing seven conserved cysteine residues. Members of this family are regulators of cell growth and differentiation in both embryonic and adult tissues. Studies in yeast suggest that the encoded protein is involved in aging. This protein is transcribed from a monocistronic mRNA as well as a bicistronic mRNA, which also encodes growth differentiation factor 1.Ceramide synthase 1 (CerS1) is a ceramide synthase that catalyzes the synthesis of C18 ceramide in a fumonisin B1-independent manner, and is primarily expressed in the brain. It can also be found in low levels in skeletal muscle and the testis.
Function:
Within the cell, CerS1 is located in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and golgi apparatus membrane. CerS1 has two isoforms and isoform 1 may recycle from the golgi to the ER.CerS1/GDF1 mRNA is strongly expressed in muscle and brain, and was also found in heart and lung. Within the brain, CerS1 is the primary CerS expressed in most neurons. In white matter, it can only be found in low levels.In an experiment performed in mice in 2012, ablation of neuronal CerS1 decreased levels of sphingolipids, hexosylceramides, and sphingomyelin. Although the brains in these mice appeared to develop normally, researchers observed atrophy of the cerebellum, and Purkinje neurons appeared to degenerate. Granule cells also showed a 6 times increased rate of apoptosis. Behaviorally, the mice expressed motor and neurophysiological impairment.
Structure:
Unlike other mammalian ceramides, CerS1 does not appear to have a Hox-like domain. It is functionally and structurally distinct from other CerS and is found in an entirely different branch of the phylogenetic tree.
Clinical significance:
On application of various stresses, CerS1 turns over rapidly by ubiquitination and proteasomal degradation, suggesting that it has a short half life.It has been suggested that CerS1 is involved with the regulation of the growth of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC), based on the information that C18 ceramide levels are lower in HNSCC tissues than in normal tissue. CerS1, in particular amongst other CerS, has also been shown to sensitize cells to chemotherapeutic drugs, such as cisplatin, carboplatin, doxorubicin, and vincristine. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Microsoft Band 2**
Microsoft Band 2:
Microsoft Band 2 was the second-generation smart band with smartwatch features developed by Microsoft. Announced on October 6, 2015, it succeeded the original Microsoft Band and was initially available in the United States, United Kingdom and Canada. It was later also available in Australia through the Sydney flagship store, Microsoft online store, and selected retailers such as JB Hi-Fi and Harvey Norman. Like its predecessor, it incorporates fitness tracking and is compatible with Windows, iOS and Android smartphones via a Bluetooth connection. On October 3, 2016, it was discontinued. On May 31, 2019, the Band's companion app stopped working and Microsoft offered refunds for customers who were still active platform users.
Technology:
The Microsoft Band 2 includes multiple sensors: Although the Microsoft Band 2 is primarily designed for use with activities related to fitness, it also provides extensive smartwatch-like features such as sleep tracking, communication tools, as well as many standard features you would expect on a digital wrist watch.
Sleep tracking The Band 2 uses its sensors to track sleep patterns when it is worn to bed. It can advise whether the user woke during the night, and provide information about sleep quality and duration.
Technology:
Communication tools When paired with a smartphone, the Band 2 can exchange information with the smartphone. This allows the Band 2 to show: Alerts and previews of incoming messages sent via SMS to the smartphone Alerts and previews of emails downloaded by the smartphone Alerts from the notification centre of the smartphone (Windows Phone) Call log of missed calls Watch The Microsoft Band 2 can be used as a replacement for a normal digital wrist watch. It includes the following standard time features: Time (12- or 24-hour), Date (day of month and day of week) Timer feature Stop watch with lap timer Alarm
Criticism:
Mobile Operating Systems Certain functions of the Microsoft Band 2, such as the ability to reply to text messages using Cortana, are only available when paired with phones running a Microsoft mobile OS. Android users can reply with a set of predefined messages while iOS users cannot reply at all.
Additionally, certain sync issues—most notably inaccuracies in the weather tile. Some have made efforts to rectify the situation using Microsoft’s Web Tiles.There are issues when using the Band with Windows 10 Mobile.
Durability There have been several reports that the plastic elastomer band material will fail after minimal use. Users describe cracks developing in the band, which required device replacement by Microsoft. Microsoft will not make the strap slightly thicker, and has decided to discontinue the line. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Pentazocine**
Pentazocine:
Pentazocine, sold under the brand name Talwin among others, is a painkiller used to treat moderate to severe pain. It is believed to work by activating (agonizing) κ-opioid receptors (KOR) and μ-opioid receptors (MOR). As such it is called an opioid as it delivers its effects on pain by interacting with the opioid receptors. It shares many of the side effects of other opioids like constipation, nausea, itching, drowsiness and respiratory depression, but unlike most other opioids it fairly frequently causes hallucinations, nightmares and delusions. It is also, unlike most other opioids, subject to a ceiling effect, which is when at a certain dose (which differs from person-to-person) no more pain relief, or side effects, is obtained by increasing the dose any further.Chemically it is classed as a benzomorphan and it comes in two enantiomers, which are molecules that are exact (non-superimposable) mirror images of one another.
Pentazocine:
It was patented in 1960 and approved for medical use in 1964. Usually, in its oral formulations, it is combined with naloxone so as to prevent people from crushing the tablets, dissolving them in a solvent (like water) and injecting them for a high (as orally administered naloxone produces no opioid-negating effects, whereas intravenous or intramuscular administration does).
Use:
Medical Pentazocine is used primarily to treat pain, although its analgesic effects are subject to a ceiling effect. It has been discontinued by its corporate sponsor in Australia, although it may be available through the special access scheme.
Recreational In the 1970s, recreational drug users discovered that combining pentazocine with tripelennamine (a first-generation ethylenediamine antihistamine most commonly dispensed under the brand names Pelamine and Pyribenzamine) produced a euphoric sensation. Since tripelennamine tablets are typically blue in color and brand-name Pentazocine is known as Talwin (hence "Ts"), the pentazocine/tripelennamine combination acquired the slang name Ts and blues.
After health-care professionals and drug-enforcement officials became aware of this scenario, the mu opioid receptor antagonist naloxone was added to oral preparations containing pentazocine to prevent perceived "misuse" via injection, and the reported incidence of its recreational use has declined precipitously since.
Use:
Research In an open-label, add-on, single-day, acute-dose small clinical study, pentazocine was found to rapidly and substantially reduce symptoms of mania in individuals with bipolar disorder that were in the manic phase of the condition. It was postulated that the efficacy observed was due to κ-opioid receptor activation-mediated amelioration of hyperdopaminergia in the reward pathways. Minimal sedation and no side effects including psychotomimetic effects or worsening of psychosis were observed at the dose administered.
Adverse effects:
Side effects are similar to those of morphine, but pentazocine, due to its action at the kappa opioid receptor is more likely to invoke psychotomimetic effects. High dose may cause high blood pressure or high heart rate. It may also increase cardiac work after myocardial infarction when given intravenously and hence this use should be avoided where possible. Respiratory depression is a common side effect, but is subject to a ceiling effect, such that at a certain dose the degree of respiratory depression will no longer increase with dose increases. Likewise rarely it has been associated with agranulocytosis, erythema multiforme and toxic epidermal necrolysis.
Adverse effects:
Tissue damage at injection sites Severe injection site necrosis and sepsis has occurred (sometimes requiring amputation of limb) with multiple injection of pentazocine lactate. In addition, animal studies have demonstrated that Pentazocine is tolerated less well subcutaneously than intramuscularly.
History:
Pentazocine was developed by the Sterling Drug Company, Sterling-Winthrop Research Institute, of Rensselaer, New York. The analgesic compound was first made at Sterling in 1958. U.S. testing was conducted between 1961 and 1967.It was approved by the Food and Drug Administration in June 1967 after being favorably reviewed following testing on 12,000 patients in the United States. By mid 1967 Pentazocine was already being sold in Mexico, England, and Argentina, under different trade names.
Society and culture:
Legal status Pentazocine was originally unclassified under the Controlled Substances Act. A petition was filed with the Drug Enforcement Administration on October 1, 1971, to shift it to Schedule III. The petition was filed by Joseph L. Fink III, a pharmacist and law student at Georgetown University Law Center as part of the course Lawyering in the Public Interest. That petition was accepted for review on November 10, 1971. D.E.A. published a Final Rule transferring it to schedule IV on January 10, 1979, with an effective date of February 9, 1979. This is understood to be the first instance of a successful petition to reclassify a substance under the relatively recently enacted Controlled Substances Act. Pentazocine is still classified in Schedule IV under the Controlled Substances Act in the United States, even with the addition of Naloxone. Some states classify it in Schedule II, such as Illinois and South Carolina (injectable form only), or Schedule III such as Kentucky.) Internationally, pentazocine is a Schedule III drug under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances. Pentazocine has a DEA ACSCN of 9720; being a Schedule IV substance, the DEA does not assign an annual manufacturing quota for pentazocine for the United States.
Society and culture:
Brand names Pentazocine is sold under several brand names, such as Fortral, Sosegon, Talwin NX (with naloxone), Talwin, Talwin PX, Fortwin and Talacen (with paracetamol (acetaminophen). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Virtual patient**
Virtual patient:
The term virtual patient is used to describe interactive computer simulations used in health care education to train students on clinical processes such as making diagnoses and therapeutic decisions. Virtual patients attempt to combine modern technologies and game-based learning to facilitate education, and complement real clinical training. Using virtual patients is increasing in healthcare due to increased demands on healthcare professionals, education of healthcare trainees, and providing learners with a safe practice environment.
Virtual patient:
There are many formats from which a virtual patient may be chosen, but the overarching principle is that of interactivity. Virtual patients typically have mechanisms where information is parsed out in response to the learners, simulating how patients respond to different treatments. Interactivity can be created with questions, specific decision-making tasks, text composition, etc., and is non-sequential. Most systems provide quantitative and qualitative feedback. In some cases, virtual patients are not full simulations themselves, but are mainly based on paper-based cases; as they do not allow for physical examination or an in-depth medical history of an actual patient. There are certain drawbacks as crucial clinical findings may be missed due to the lack of examining patients in person.
Forms:
Virtual patients may take several different forms: Case Presentation: a review of patient-related cases to reinforce and apply primary medical concepts to real-world situations.
Interactive Patient Scenario: multimedia patient case designed to teach clinical reasoning skills such as diagnostic test ordering and interpretation.
Virtual Patient Game: interactive clinical scenarios that take place in an entirely virtual world designed to practice team training in high-risk situations (e.g. avatars within a virtual health facility). Virtual Reality Scenarios: virtual reality-based training exercises to teach procedural skills in situations of varying complexities. (e.g. virtual reality surgical simulation).
High Fidelity Software Simulation: computer programs designed to allow the mimicking of human physiological conditions for a variety of clinical scenarios.
High Fidelity Mannikin: realistic, programmable mannikins that can simulate a wide range of clinical scenarios; including simulating cardiac arrest, seizure, etc. complete with simulated, real-time vitals. Virtual Standardized Patient: an artificially intelligent patient designed with natural language capabilities to assist in training provider-patient communication skills.
Virtual Clinical Trials: Virtual patients to simulate human and/or animal variability (e.g. v-patients.com)
Types of interactions:
Several different modes of virtual patient delivery have been defined: Predetermined scenario [directed mode] The learner may build up the patient or case data from observations and interactions [blank mode] The learner may view and appraise or review an existing patient or scenario [critique mode or rehearsal mode] The VP may be used as a mechanism to address particular topics [context mode] The learner may use a scenario or patient to explore personal/professional dimensions [reflective mode] Banks of patients or scenarios may collectively address broad issues of healthcare [pattern mode]
Possible benefits:
Research has shown that utilizing virtual patients is time-efficient and cost-effective for developing clinical reasoning skills in students through independent and repeated practice of physician tasks in a safe environment without the risk of harm to the patient or learner, which can significantly increase the mental pool of learned cases in students. Unlike simulated or real patients, virtual patients can be accessed on demand, and the user may monitor a case over several months while spending less than an hour in real time. Furthermore, virtual patients can be endlessly replayed and easily modified to allow the user to explore different clinical scenarios and patient outcomes. Compared to simulated patients, virtual patients make observation and assessment more robust and easier to control, and they can be used as a standardized assessment method. Simulated patients can be viewed as educational tools that enhance existing methods of clinical teaching, making them more efficient and increasing the fairness of skill evaluation.
Possible benefits:
Over-reliance on hypothetical "average" models has been criticized for not teaching medical students to identify the significant amount of normal variation seen in the real world.
Data standards:
The MedBiquitous consortium established a working group in 2005 to create a free and open data standard for expressing and exchanging virtual patients between different authoring and delivery systems. This was in part to address the problem of exchanging and reusing virtual patients and in part to encourage and support easier and wider use of virtual patients in general.
This standard has been very successful and is now widely adopted, e.g. in major projects like eViP. In 2010, this standard attained status as an ANSI standard. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Trimethylolpropane ethoxylate**
Trimethylolpropane ethoxylate:
Trimethylolpropane ethoxylate (TPEG) is a trifunctional polyether compound derived from trimethylolpropane.
Production:
TPEG is produced by ethoxylation of trimethylolpropane.
Applications:
TPEG is used in the production of polyurethane foams, elastomers, and sealants. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Maya-2**
Maya-2:
Maya-2 was a Filipino nanosatellite. It succeeded Maya-1, the first Filipino nanosatellite, which was deorbited in November 2020.
Background:
Maya-2 was a nanosatellite or a 1U-class CubeSat measuring 10 cm × 10 cm × 10 cm (3.9 in × 3.9 in × 3.9 in) and weighing 1.3 kg (2.9 lb). It was the successor to Maya-1 which ended its operations on November 23, 2020. Maya-2 was developed by Filipino students sent to the Kyushu Institute of Technology (KIT) in Japan through the Department of Science and Technology's (DOST) Space Science and Technology Proliferation through University Partnerships (STeP-UP) project under the STAMINA4Space Program.Maya-2 was developed under the fourth Joint Global Multination Birds Satellite (Birds-4) project initiated by the KIT. Under the program, two other identical CubeSats; a Paraguayan (GuaraniSat-1) and a Japanese satellite (Tsuru).Maya-2 is part of a series of satellite named after the Chestnut munia (Lonchura atricapilla), one of the various birds known locally in the Philippines as the maya.
Development:
A team of three Filipino engineers, Izrael Zenar Bautista, Mark Angelo Purio, and Marloun Sejera, developed Maya-2. The three are DOST scholars pursuing doctorate degrees in space engineering at KIT. Bautista is also the project manager of the Birds-4 program.Development of Maya-2 began in 2018 but was hampered by the COVID-19 pandemic. By March 2020, Maya-2 was already in its final stage of development and by September of the same year, the satellite was already turned over to the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA).
Instruments:
The build of Maya-2 is relatively more advanced than Maya-1, its predecessor, and has off-the-shelf components. Maya-2 is equipped with instruments which was used for Maya-1 including an Automatic Packet Radio Service Digipeater. Differences from its predecessor include the use of Perovskite solar cells as a power source and a different antenna design. Maya-2 also has an active altitude control instead of the passive control used by its predecessor.
Launch and mission:
Maya-2 launched to the International Space Station (ISS) through Northrop Grumman's Cygnus NG-15 resupply mission. The S.S. Katherine Johnson Cygnus carrying cargo including Maya-2 was launched to space via the Antares rocket on February 20, 2021, from Pad 0A of the Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport in Virginia, United States. The Cygnus spacecraft made a rendezvous with the ISS two days later, berthing to the Unity module of the space station. The satellite was deployed into low Earth orbit from the ISS on March 14, 2021, at around 11:20 UTC. After a 16-month mission, Maya-2 re-entered the atmosphere on July 5, 2022. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**2N3055**
2N3055:
The 2N3055 is a silicon NPN power transistor intended for general purpose applications. It was introduced in the early 1960s by RCA using a hometaxial power transistor process, transitioned to an epitaxial base in the mid-1970s. Its numbering follows the JEDEC standard. It is a transistor type of enduring popularity.
Specifications:
The exact performance characteristics depend on the manufacturer and date; before the move to the epitaxial base version in the mid-1970s the fT could be as low as 0.8 MHz, for example.
Specifications:
Packaged in a TO-3 case style, it is a 15 amp, 60 volt (or more, see below), 115 watt power transistor with a β (forward current gain) of 20 to 70 at a collector current of 4 A (this may be over 100 when testing at lower currents). It often has a transition frequency of around 3.0 MHz and 6 MHz is typical for the 2N3055A; at this frequency the calculated current gain (beta) drops to 1, indicating the transistor can no longer provide useful amplification in common emitter configuration. The frequency at which gain begins to drop off may be much lower, see below.
Specifications:
Maximum Ratings The maximum collector-to-emitter voltage for the 2N3055, like other transistors, depends on the resistance path the external circuit provides between the base and emitter of the transistor; with 100 ohms a 70 volt breakdown rating, VCER, and the Collector-Emitter Sustaining voltage, VCEO(sus), is given by ON Semiconductor. Sometimes the 100 VCBO breakdown voltage (the maximum voltage between collector and base, with the emitter open, an unrealistic arrangement in practical circuits) is given as the only voltage rating, which can cause confusion. Manufacturers rarely specify the VCES voltage rating for the 2N3055.
Specifications:
The total power dissipation (written PD in most American datasheets, Ptot in European ones) depends on the heatsink to which the 2N3055 is connected. With an "infinite" heatsink, that is: when the case temperature is certain to be 25 degrees, the power rating is about 115 W (some manufacturers specify 117 W), but most applications (and certainly when the ambient temperature is high) a significantly lower power rating would be expected, as per the manufacturer's power derating curve. The device is designed to operate with an efficient heatsink, but care must be taken to mount the device properly, else physical damage or worsened power handling may result, especially with cases or heatsinks that are not perfectly flat.
Specifications:
Transition Frequency, fT The 1967 RCA Transistor Manual, SC-13, did not mention any measure of high frequency performance for the 2N3055; by the 1971 SC-15 manual a transition frequency, fT, of at least 800 kHz was specified (at IC = 1 A) and fhfe (the frequency at which the small-signal current gain drops by 3 dB) was also specified at 1 A to be 10 kHz minimum. Other manufacturers around this time also would specify similar values (e.g. in 1973 Philips gave fT > 0.8 MHz and fhfe > 15 kHz for their 2N3055 device).
Specifications:
RCA by 1977 had changed their specification to give 2.5 for the minimum magnitude of the small-signal gain at f = 1 MHz, essentially giving a minimum fT of 2.5 MHz (and 4 MHz for their MJ2955). Modern 2N3055 datasheets often, but not always, specify fT of 2.5 MHz (minimum) because some improvements have been made over time (especially the move to the epitaxial manufacturing process). Nevertheless, a 2N3055 (and many other power transistors originating from this era) cannot be assumed to have great high-frequency performance and there can be degradation of phase-shift and open-loop gain even within the audio frequency range. Modern successors to the 2N3055 can be much more suitable in fast-switching circuits or high-end audio power amplifiers.
History:
The historically-significant 2N3055 was designed by Herb Meisel's engineering group with RCA; it was the first multi-amp silicon power transistor to sell for less than one dollar, and became an industry workhorse standard. The 2N3054 and 2N3055 were derived from the 2N1486 and 2N1490 after package redesigns by Milt Grimes. The team of design, production, and applications engineers received RCA Electronic Components achievement awards in 1965. The 2N3055 remains very popular as a series pass transistor in linear power supplies and is still used in for medium-current and high-power circuits generally, including low frequency power converters although its use in audio power amplifiers and DC-to-AC inverters is now less common and its use in higher frequency switch-mode applications never was very practical. It was second sourced by other manufacturers; Texas Instruments listed a single-diffused mesa version of the device in an August 1967 datasheet. One limitation was that its frequency response was rather low (typically the unity-gain frequency or transition frequency, fT, was 1 MHz). Although this was adequate for most of the low-frequency "workhorse" applications, and par with other high power transistors around 1970, it did bring some difficulty to high fidelity power amplifier designs around 20 kHz, as the gain begins to fall and phase shift increases.
History:
Mid 1970s With changes to semiconductor manufacturing technology, the original process became economically uncompetitive in the mid-1970s, and a similar device was created using epitaxial base technology. The maximum voltage and current ratings of this device are the same as the original, but it is not as immune from secondary breakdown; the power handling (safe operating area) is limited at high voltage to a lower current than the original. However, the cut-off frequency is higher, allowing the newer type of 2N3055 to be more efficient at higher frequencies. Also the higher frequency response has improved performance when used in audio amplifiers.Although the original 2N3055 went into decline relative to epitaxial-base transistors because of high manufacturing costs, the epitaxial-base version continued to be used in both linear amplifiers and switching supplies. Several versions of the 2N3055 remain in production; it is used in audio power amplifiers delivering up to 40 W into an 8 ohm load in a push–pull output configuration.
Related devices:
Variants with higher voltage ratings (e.g. 2N3055HV, with a 100 Vceo rating), different case material or type (e.g. steel, aluminium, or plastic with metal tab), and other variations exist, in addition to the minor variations in ratings (such as a power dissipation of 115 or 117 Watts) between 2N3055-marked devices from various manufacturers since RCA's original.
An MJ2955 (PNP) (not to be confused with a 2N2955 which is a small signal PNP transistor )), which is also manufactured using the epitaxial process today, is a complementary transistor to the 2N3055.
In the sixties and early seventies, Philips produced similar devices encapsulated in TO-3 packages under the reference BDY20 (described as being for "hifi" purposes) and BDY38 (although the BDY38 has lower voltage ratings than the 2N3055).
A TO-3 P (plastic case) version of the 2N3055 and its complementary device MJ2955 are available as the TIP3055 and TIP2955 respectively, with slightly reduced power dissipation ratings.
The 10 amp (15 amp peak), 80 watt TIP33 (NPN) and TIP34 (PNP) are plastic-cased transistors with somewhat similar characteristics to the 2N3055 and MJ2955 respectively, and available in variants with 40/60/80/100 Vceo breakdown voltage ratings.
The 2N3773, with a TO-3 case has slightly lower gain but significantly higher maximum ratings (150 W, 140 Vceo, 16 amps).
Related devices:
The 2N3054 is a much lower power version of the 2N3055, rated at 25 W, 55 V and 4 A, but became almost obsolete about the late 1980s when many TO-66 devices were withdrawn from mainstream manufacturers's lists. In many cases a TO-220 packaged version, such as MJE3055T, can be used instead of the 2N3054 as well as in some 2N3055 applications.
Related devices:
KD503 is a higher power equivalent used in Eastern Bloc countries, and is intended for general purpose applications. It was produced exclusively by the Czechoslovakian electronics company Tesla. KD503 are packaged in a TO-3 case style (called T41 by Tesla), it is a 20 amp, 80 volt, 150 watt power transistor. It has a transition frequency of 2.0 MHz;. The KD503 have higher power and higher current than 2N3055. They were used extensively in the former Eastern Bloc countries in audio power amplifiers made by Czechoslovakian Tesla, Polish Unitra. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Head music**
Head music:
The idea of head music versus body music is an aesthetic idea in musicology. The distinction has been illustrated by comparing rock n roll with progressive rock, where the intention turned to innovation and experimentation, and "to offer 'head music' for thinking rather than body music for dancing". | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Bouc–Wen model of hysteresis**
Bouc–Wen model of hysteresis:
In structural engineering, the Bouc–Wen model of hysteresis is one of the most used hysteretic models typically employed to describe non-linear hysteretic systems. It was introduced by Robert Bouc and extended by Yi-Kwei Wen, who demonstrated its versatility by producing a variety of hysteretic patterns.
Bouc–Wen model of hysteresis:
This model is able to capture, in analytical form, a range of hysteretic cycle shapes matching the behaviour of a wide class of hysteretical systems. Due to its versatility and mathematical tractability, the Bouc–Wen model has gained popularity. It has been extended and applied to a wide variety of engineering problems, including multi-degree-of-freedom (MDOF) systems, buildings, frames, bidirectional and torsional response of hysteretic systems, two- and three-dimensional continua, soil liquefaction and base isolation systems. The Bouc–Wen model, its variants and extensions have been used in structural control—in particular, in the modeling of behaviour of magneto-rheological dampers, base-isolation devices for buildings and other kinds of damping devices. It has also been used in the modelling and analysis of structures built of reinforced concrete, steel, masonry, and timber.
Model formulation:
Consider the equation of motion of a single-degree-of-freedom (sdof) system: here, m represents the mass, u(t) is the displacement, c the linear viscous damping coefficient, F(t) the restoring force and f(t) the excitation force while the overdot denotes the derivative with respect to time.
Model formulation:
According to the Bouc–Wen model, the restoring force is expressed as: where := kfki is the ratio of post-yield kf to pre-yield (elastic) := Fyuy stiffness, Fy is the yield force, uy the yield displacement, and z(t) a non-observable hysteretic parameter (usually called the hysteretic displacement) that obeys the following nonlinear differential equation with zero initial condition ( z(0)=0 ), and that has dimensions of length: or simply as: where sign denotes the signum function, and A , β>0 , γ and n are dimensionless quantities controlling the behaviour of the model ( n=∞ retrieves the elastoplastic hysteresis). Take into account that in the original paper of Wen (1976), β is called α , and γ is called β . Nowadays the notation varies from paper to paper and very often the places of β and γ are exchanged. Here the notation used by Song J. and Der Kiureghian A. (2006) is implemented. The restoring force F(t) can be decomposed into an elastic and a hysteretic part as follows: and therefore, the restoring force can be visualized as two springs connected in parallel.
Model formulation:
For small values of the positive exponential parameter n the transition from elastic to the post-elastic branch is smooth, while for large values that transition is abrupt. Parameters A , β and γ control the size and shape of the hysteretic loop. It has been found that the parameters of the Bouc–Wen model are functionally redundant. Removing this redundancy is best achieved by setting A=1 Wen assumed integer values for n ; however, all real positive values of n are admissible. The parameter β is positive by assumption, while the admissible values for γ , that is γ∈[−β,β] , can be derived from a thermodynamical analysis (Baber and Wen (1981)).
Definitions:
Some terms are defined below: Softening: Slope of hysteresis loop decreases with displacement Hardening: Slope of hysteresis loop increases with displacement Pinched hysteresis loops: Thinner loops in the middle than at the ends. Pinching is a sudden loss of stiffness, primarily caused by damage and interaction of structural components under a large deformation. It is caused by closing (or unclosed) cracks and yielding of compression reinforcement before closing the cracks in reinforced concrete members, slipping at bolted joints (in steel construction) and loosening and slipping of the joints caused by previous cyclic loadings in timber structures with dowel-type fasteners (e.g. nails and bolts).
Definitions:
Stiffness degradation: Progressive loss of stiffness in each loading cycle Strength degradation: Degradation of strength when cyclically loaded to the same displacement level. The term "strength degradation" is somewhat misleading, since strength degradation can only be modeled if displacement is the input function.
Absorbed hysteretic energy:
Absorbed hysteretic energy represents the energy dissipated by the hysteretic system, and is quantified as the area of the hysteretic force under total displacement; therefore, the absorbed hysteretic energy (per unit of mass) can be quantified as that is, here := kim is the squared pseudo-natural frequency of the non-linear system; the units of this energy are J/kg Energy dissipation is a good measure of cumulative damage under stress reversals; it mirrors the loading history, and parallels the process of damage evolution. In the Bouc–Wen–Baber–Noori model, this energy is used to quantify system degradation.
Modifications to the original Bouc–Wen model:
Bouc–Wen–Baber–Noori model An important modification to the original Bouc–Wen model was suggested by Baber and Wen (1981) and Baber and Noori (1985, 1986).This modification included strength, stiffness and pinching degradation effects, by means of suitable degradation functions: where the parameters ν(ε) , η(ε) and h(z) are associated (respectively) with the strength, stiffness and pinching degradation effects. The ν(ε) , A(ε) and η(ε) are defined as linear functions of the absorbed hysteretic energy ε The pinching function h(z) is specified as: where: and zu is the ultimate value of z , given by Observe that the new parameters included in the model are: δν>0 , δA>0 , δη>0 , ν0 , A0 , η0 , ψ0 , δψ , λ , p and ς . Where ς , p, q, ψ , δ and λ are the pinching parameters. When δν=0 , δη=0 or h(z)=1 no strength degradation, stiffness degradation or pinching effect is included in the model.
Modifications to the original Bouc–Wen model:
Foliente (1993), in collaboration with MP Singh and M. Noori, and later Heine (2001) slightly altered the pinching function in order to model slack systems. An example of a slack system is a wood structure where displacement occurs with stiffness seemingly null, as the bolt of the structure is pressed into the wood.
Modifications to the original Bouc–Wen model:
Two-degree-of-freedom generalization Consider a two-degree-of-freedom system subject to biaxial excitations. In this case, the interaction between the restoring forces may considerably change the structural response; for instance, the damage suffered from the excitation in one direction may weaken the stiffness and/or strength degradation in the other direction, and vice versa. The equation of motion that models such interaction is given by: M[u¨xu¨y]+C[u˙xu˙y]+[qxqy]=[fxfy] where M and C stand for the mass and damping matrices, ux and uy are the displacements, fx and fy are the excitations and qx and qy are the restoring forces acting in two orthogonal (perpendicular) directions, which are given by [qxqy]=aK[uxuy]+(1−a)K[zxzy] where K is the initial stiffness matrix, a is the ratio of post-yield to pre-yield (elastic) stiffness and zx and zy represent the hysteretic displacements.
Modifications to the original Bouc–Wen model:
Using this two-degree-of-freedom generalization, Park et al. (1986) represented the hysteretic behaviour of the system by: This model is suited, for instance, to reproduce the geometrically-linear, uncoupled behaviour of a biaxially-loaded, reinforced concrete column. Software like ETABS and SAP2000 use this formulation to model base isolators.
Modifications to the original Bouc–Wen model:
Wang and Wen (2000) attempted to extend the model of Park et al. (1986) to include cases with varying 'knee' sharpness (i.e., n≠2 ). However, in so doing, the proposed model was no longer rotationally invariant (isotropic). Harvey and Gavin (2014) proposed an alternative generalization of the Park-Wen model that retained the isotropy and still allowed for n≠2 , viz.
Modifications to the original Bouc–Wen model:
Take into account that using the change of variables: cos θ , sin θ , cos θ , sin θ , the equations Eq. 14 reduce to the uniaxial hysteretic relationship Eq. 3 with n=2 , that is, since this equation is valid for any value of θ , the hysteretic restoring displacement is isotropic.
Wang and Wen modification Wang and Wen (1998) suggested the following expression to account for the asymmetric peak restoring force: where ϕ is an additional parameter, to be determined.
Modifications to the original Bouc–Wen model:
Asymmetrical hysteresis Asymmetric hysteretical curves appear due to the asymmetry of the mechanical properties of the tested element, of the geometry or of both. Song and Der Kiureghian (2006) proposed the following function for modelling those asymmetric curves: where: and where βi , i=1,2,…,6 are six parameters that have to be determined in the identification process. However, according to Ikhouane et al. (2008), the coefficients β2 , β3 and β6 should be set to zero. Aloisio et al. (2020) extended the formulation presented by Song and Der Kiureghian (2006) to reproduce pinching and degradation phenomena. Two additional parameters β7 and β8 lead to the pinched load paths, while eight coefficients determine the strength and stiffness degradation.
Calculation of the response, based on the excitation time-histories:
In displacement-controlled experiments, the time history of the displacement u(t) and its derivative u˙(t) are known; therefore, the calculation of the hysteretic variable and restoring force is performed directly using equations Eq. 2 and Eq. 3.
Calculation of the response, based on the excitation time-histories:
In force-controlled experiments, Eq. 1, Eq. 2 and Eq. 4 can be transformed in state space form, using the change of variables x1(t)=u(t) , x˙1(t)=u˙(t)=x2(t) , x˙2(t)=u¨(t) and x3(t)=z(t) as: and solved using, for example, the Livermore predictor-corrector method, the Rosenbrock methods or the 4th/5th-order Runge–Kutta method. The latter method is more efficient in terms of computational time; the others are slower, but provide a more accurate answer.
Calculation of the response, based on the excitation time-histories:
The state-space form of the Bouc–Wen–Baber–Noori model is given by: This is a stiff ordinary differential equation that can be solved, for example, using the function ode15 of MATLAB.
According to Heine (2001), computing time to solve the model and numeric noise is greatly reduced if both force and displacement are the same order of magnitude; for instance, the units kN and mm are good choices.
Analytical calculation of the hysteretic response:
The hysteresis produced by the Bouc–Wen model is rate-independent. Eq. 4 can be written as: where u˙(t) within the sign function serves only as an indicator of the direction of movement. The indefinite integral of Eq.19 can be expressed analytically in terms of the Gauss hypergeometric function 2F1(a,b,c;w) . Accounting for initial conditions, the following relation holds: where, sign (z(t)u˙(t))+γ is assumed constant for the (not necessarily small) transition under examination, A=1 and u0 , z0 are the initial values of the displacement and the hysteretic parameter, respectively. Eq.20 is solved analytically for z for specific values of the exponential parameter n , i.e. for n=1 and n=2 . For arbitrary values of n , Eq. 20 can be solved efficiently using e.g. bisection – type methods, such as the Brent's method.
Parameter constraints and identification:
The parameters of the Bouc–Wen model have the following bounds a∈(0,1) , ki>0 , kf>0 , c>0 , A>0 , n>1 , β>0 , γ∈[−β,β] As noted above, Ma et al.(2004) proved that the parameters of the Bouc–Wen model are functionally redundant; that is, there exist multiple parameter vectors that produce an identical response from a given excitation. Removing this redundancy is best achieved by setting A=1 Constantinou and Adnane (1987) suggested imposing the constraint Aβ+γ=1 in order to reduce the model to a formulation with well-defined properties.
Parameter constraints and identification:
Adopting those constraints, the unknown parameters become: γ , n , a , ki and c Determination of the model parameters using experimental input and output data can be accomplished by system identification techniques. The procedures suggested in the literature include: Optimization based on the least-squares method, (using Gauss–Newton methods, evolutionary algorithms, genetic algorithms, etc.); in this case, the error difference between the time histories or between the short-time-Fourier transforms of the signals is minimized.
Parameter constraints and identification:
Extended Kalman filter, unscented Kalman filter, particle filters Differential evolution Genetic algorithms Particle Swarm Optimization Adaptive laws Hybrid methodsThese parameter-tuning algorithms minimize a loss function that are based on one or several of the following criteria: Minimization of the error between the experimental displacement and the calculated displacement.
Minimization of the error between the experimental restoring force and the calculated restoring force.
Parameter constraints and identification:
Minimization of the error between the experimental dissipated energy (estimated from the displacement and the restoring force) and the calculated total dissipated energy.Once an identification method has been applied to tune the Bouc–Wen model parameters, the resulting model is considered a good approximation of true hysteresis, when the error between the experimental data and the output of the model is small enough (from a practical point of view).
Criticism:
The hysteretic Bouc–Wen model has received some criticism regarding its ability to accurately describe the phenomenon of hysteresis in materials. Ikhouane and Rodellar (2005) give some insight regarding the behavior of the Bouc–Wen model and provide evidence that the response of the Bouc–Wen model under periodic input is asymptotically periodic.
Charalampakis and Koumousis (2009) propose a modification on the Bouc–Wen model to eliminate displacement drift, force relaxation and nonclosure of hysteretic loops when the material is subjected to short unloading reloading paths resulting to local violation of Drucker's or Ilyushin's postulate of plasticity. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Nanorobotics**
Nanorobotics:
Nanoid robotics, or for short, nanorobotics or nanobotics, is an emerging technology field creating machines or robots whose components are at or near the scale of a nanometer (10−9 meters). More specifically, nanorobotics (as opposed to microrobotics) refers to the nanotechnology engineering discipline of designing and building nanorobots with devices ranging in size from 0.1 to 10 micrometres and constructed of nanoscale or molecular components. The terms nanobot, nanoid, nanite, nanomachine and nanomite have also been used to describe such devices currently under research and development.Nanomachines are largely in the research and development phase, but some primitive molecular machines and nanomotors have been tested. An example is a sensor having a switch approximately 1.5 nanometers across, able to count specific molecules in the chemical sample. The first useful applications of nanomachines may be in nanomedicine. For example, biological machines could be used to identify and destroy cancer cells. Another potential application is the detection of toxic chemicals, and the measurement of their concentrations, in the environment. Rice University has demonstrated a single-molecule car developed by a chemical process and including Buckminsterfullerenes (buckyballs) for wheels. It is actuated by controlling the environmental temperature and by positioning a scanning tunneling microscope tip.
Nanorobotics:
Another definition is a robot that allows precise interactions with nanoscale objects, or can manipulate with nanoscale resolution. Such devices are more related to microscopy or scanning probe microscopy, instead of the description of nanorobots as molecular machines. Using the microscopy definition, even a large apparatus such as an atomic force microscope can be considered a nanorobotic instrument when configured to perform nanomanipulation. For this viewpoint, macroscale robots or microrobots that can move with nanoscale precision can also be considered nanorobots.
Nanorobotics theory:
According to Richard Feynman, it was his former graduate student and collaborator Albert Hibbs who originally suggested to him (circa 1959) the idea of a medical use for Feynman's theoretical micro-machines (see biological machine). Hibbs suggested that certain repair machines might one day be reduced in size to the point that it would, in theory, be possible to (as Feynman put it) "swallow the surgeon". The idea was incorporated into Feynman's case study 1959 essay There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom.Since nano-robots would be microscopic in size, it would probably be necessary for very large numbers of them to work together to perform microscopic and macroscopic tasks. These nano-robot swarms, both those unable to replicate (as in utility fog) and those able to replicate unconstrained in the natural environment (as in grey goo and synthetic biology), are found in many science fiction stories, such as the Borg nano-probes in Star Trek and The Outer Limits episode "The New Breed".
Nanorobotics theory:
Some proponents of nano-robotics, in reaction to the grey goo scenarios that they earlier helped to propagate, hold the view that nano-robots able to replicate outside of a restricted factory environment do not form a necessary part of a purported productive nanotechnology, and that the process of self-replication, were it ever to be developed, could be made inherently safe. They further assert that their current plans for developing and using molecular manufacturing do not in fact include free-foraging replicators.A detailed theoretical discussion of nanorobotics, including specific design issues such as sensing, power communication, navigation, manipulation, locomotion, and onboard computation, has been presented in the medical context of nanomedicine by Robert Freitas. Some of these discussions remain at the level of unbuildable generality and do not approach the level of detailed engineering.
Legal and ethical implications:
Open technology A document with a proposal on nanobiotech development using open design technology methods, as in open-source hardware and open-source software, has been addressed to the United Nations General Assembly. According to the document sent to the United Nations, in the same way that open source has in recent years accelerated the development of computer systems, a similar approach should benefit the society at large and accelerate nanorobotics development. The use of nanobiotechnology should be established as a human heritage for the coming generations, and developed as an open technology based on ethical practices for peaceful purposes. Open technology is stated as a fundamental key for such an aim.
Legal and ethical implications:
Nanorobot race In the same ways that technology research and development drove the space race and nuclear arms race, a race for nanorobots is occurring. There is plenty of ground allowing nanorobots to be included among the emerging technologies. Some of the reasons are that large corporations, such as General Electric, Hewlett-Packard, Synopsys, Northrop Grumman and Siemens have been recently working in the development and research of nanorobots; surgeons are getting involved and starting to propose ways to apply nanorobots for common medical procedures; universities and research institutes were granted funds by government agencies exceeding $2 billion towards research developing nanodevices for medicine; bankers are also strategically investing with the intent to acquire beforehand rights and royalties on future nanorobots commercialisation. Some aspects of nanorobot litigation and related issues linked to monopoly have already arisen. A large number of patents has been granted recently on nanorobots, done mostly for patent agents, companies specialized solely on building patent portfolios, and lawyers. After a long series of patents and eventually litigations, see for example the invention of radio, or the war of currents, emerging fields of technology tend to become a monopoly, which normally is dominated by large corporations.
Manufacturing approaches:
Manufacturing nanomachines assembled from molecular components is a very challenging task. Because of the level of difficulty, many engineers and scientists continue working cooperatively across multidisciplinary approaches to achieve breakthroughs in this new area of development. Thus, it is quite understandable the importance of the following distinct techniques currently applied towards manufacturing nanorobots: Biochip The joint use of nanoelectronics, photolithography, and new biomaterials provides a possible approach to manufacturing nanorobots for common medical uses, such as surgical instrumentation, diagnosis, and drug delivery. This method for manufacturing on nanotechnology scale is in use in the electronics industry since 2008. So, practical nanorobots should be integrated as nanoelectronics devices, which will allow tele-operation and advanced capabilities for medical instrumentation.
Manufacturing approaches:
Nubots A nucleic acid robot (nubot) is an organic molecular machine at the nanoscale. DNA structure can provide means to assemble 2D and 3D nanomechanical devices. DNA based machines can be activated using small molecules, proteins and other molecules of DNA. Biological circuit gates based on DNA materials have been engineered as molecular machines to allow in-vitro drug delivery for targeted health problems. Such material based systems would work most closely to smart biomaterial drug system delivery, while not allowing precise in vivo teleoperation of such engineered prototypes.
Manufacturing approaches:
Surface-bound systems Several reports have demonstrated the attachment of synthetic molecular motors to surfaces. These primitive nanomachines have been shown to undergo machine-like motions when confined to the surface of a macroscopic material. The surface anchored motors could potentially be used to move and position nanoscale materials on a surface in the manner of a conveyor belt.
Positional nanoassembly Nanofactory Collaboration, founded by Robert Freitas and Ralph Merkle in 2000 and involving 23 researchers from 10 organizations and 4 countries, focuses on developing a practical research agenda specifically aimed at developing positionally-controlled diamond mechanosynthesis and a diamondoid nanofactory that would have the capability of building diamondoid medical nanorobots.
Manufacturing approaches:
Biohybrids The emerging field of bio-hybrid systems combines biological and synthetic structural elements for biomedical or robotic applications. The constituting elements of bio-nanoelectromechanical systems (BioNEMS) are of nanoscale size, for example DNA, proteins or nanostructured mechanical parts. Thiol-ene e-beams resist allow the direct writing of nanoscale features, followed by the functionalization of the natively reactive resist surface with biomolecules. Other approaches use a biodegradable material attached to magnetic particles that allow them to be guided around the body.
Manufacturing approaches:
Bacteria-based This approach proposes the use of biological microorganisms, like the bacterium Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium.
Thus the model uses a flagellum for propulsion purposes. Electromagnetic fields normally control the motion of this kind of biological integrated device.
Chemists at the University of Nebraska have created a humidity gauge by fusing a bacterium to a silicon computer chip.
Manufacturing approaches:
Virus-based Retroviruses can be retrained to attach to cells and replace DNA. They go through a process called reverse transcription to deliver genetic packaging in a vector. Usually, these devices are Pol – Gag genes of the virus for the Capsid and Delivery system. This process is called retroviral gene therapy, having the ability to re-engineer cellular DNA by usage of viral vectors. This approach has appeared in the form of retroviral, adenoviral, and lentiviral gene delivery systems. These gene therapy vectors have been used in cats to send genes into the genetically modified organism (GMO), causing it to display the trait.
Manufacturing approaches:
3D printing 3D printing is the process by which a three-dimensional structure is built through the various processes of additive manufacturing. Nanoscale 3D printing involves many of the same process, incorporated at a much smaller scale. To print a structure in the 5-400 µm scale, the precision of the 3D printing machine needs to be improved greatly. A two-step process of 3D printing, using a 3D printing and laser etched plates method was incorporated as an improvement technique. To be more precise at a nanoscale, the 3D printing process uses a laser etching machine, which etches the details needed for the segments of nanorobots into each plate. The plate is then transferred to the 3D printer, which fills the etched regions with the desired nanoparticle. The 3D printing process is repeated until the nanorobot is built from the bottom up. This 3D printing process has many benefits. First, it increases the overall accuracy of the printing process. Second, it has the potential to create functional segments of a nanorobot. The 3D printer uses a liquid resin, which is hardened at precisely the correct spots by a focused laser beam. The focal point of the laser beam is guided through the resin by movable mirrors and leaves behind a hardened line of solid polymer, just a few hundred nanometers wide. This fine resolution enables the creation of intricately structured sculptures as tiny as a grain of sand. This process takes place by using photoactive resins, which are hardened by the laser at an extremely small scale to create the structure. This process is quick by nanoscale 3D printing standards. Ultra-small features can be made with the 3D micro-fabrication technique used in multiphoton photopolymerisation. This approach uses a focused laser to trace the desired 3D object into a block of gel. Due to the nonlinear nature of photo excitation, the gel is cured to a solid only in the places where the laser was focused while the remaining gel is then washed away. Feature sizes of under 100 nm are easily produced, as well as complex structures with moving and interlocked parts.
Manufacturing approaches:
Challenges in designing nanorobots There are number of challenges and problems that should be addressed when designing and building nanoscale machines with movable parts. The most obvious one is the need of developing very fine tools and manipulation techniques capable of assembling individual nanostructures with high precision into operational device. Less evident challenge is related to peculiarities of adhesion and friction on nanoscale. It is impossible to take existing design of macroscopic device with movable parts and just reduce it to the nanoscale. Such approach will not work due to high surface energy of nanostructures, which means that all contacting parts will stick together following the energy minimization principle. The adhesion and static friction between parts can easily exceed the strength of materials, so the parts will break before they start to move relative to each other. This leads to the need to design movable structures with minimal contact area []. In spite of the fast development of nanorobots, most of the nanorobots designed for drug delivery purposes, there is "still a long way to go before their commercialization and clinical applications can be achieved."
Potential uses:
Nanomedicine Potential uses for nanorobotics in medicine include early diagnosis and targeted drug-delivery for cancer, biomedical instrumentation, surgery, pharmacokinetics, monitoring of diabetes, and health care.
In such plans, future medical nanotechnology is expected to employ nanorobots injected into the patient to perform work at a cellular level. Such nanorobots intended for use in medicine should be non-replicating, as replication would needlessly increase device complexity, reduce reliability, and interfere with the medical mission.
Potential uses:
Nanotechnology provides a wide range of new technologies for developing customized means to optimize the delivery of pharmaceutical drugs. Today, harmful side effects of treatments such as chemotherapy are commonly a result of drug delivery methods that don't pinpoint their intended target cells accurately. Researchers at Harvard and MIT, however, have been able to attach special RNA strands, measuring nearly 10 nm in diameter, to nanoparticles, filling them with a chemotherapy drug. These RNA strands are attracted to cancer cells. When the nanoparticle encounters a cancer cell, it adheres to it, and releases the drug into the cancer cell. This directed method of drug delivery has great potential for treating cancer patients while avoiding negative effects (commonly associated with improper drug delivery). The first demonstration of nanomotors operating in living organisms was carried out in 2014 at University of California, San Diego. MRI-guided nanocapsules are one potential precursor to nanorobots.Another useful application of nanorobots is assisting in the repair of tissue cells alongside white blood cells. Recruiting inflammatory cells or white blood cells (which include neutrophil granulocytes, lymphocytes, monocytes, and mast cells) to the affected area is the first response of tissues to injury. Because of their small size, nanorobots could attach themselves to the surface of recruited white cells, to squeeze their way out through the walls of blood vessels and arrive at the injury site, where they can assist in the tissue repair process. Certain substances could possibly be used to accelerate the recovery.
Potential uses:
The science behind this mechanism is quite complex. Passage of cells across the blood endothelium, a process known as transmigration, is a mechanism involving engagement of cell surface receptors to adhesion molecules, active force exertion and dilation of the vessel walls and physical deformation of the migrating cells. By attaching themselves to migrating inflammatory cells, the robots can in effect "hitch a ride" across the blood vessels, bypassing the need for a complex transmigration mechanism of their own.As of 2016, in the United States, Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates nanotechnology on the basis of size.Nanocomposite particles that are controlled remotely by an electromagnetic field was also developed. This series of nanorobots that are now enlisted in the Guinness World Records, can be used to interact with the biological cells. Scientists suggest that this technology can be used for the treatment of cancer.
Potential uses:
Cultural references The Nanites are characters on the TV show Mystery Science Theater 3000. They're self-replicating, bio-engineered organisms that work on the ship and reside in the SOL's computer systems. They made their first appearance in Season 8.
Nanites are used in a number of episodes in the Netflix series "Travelers". They be programmed and injected into injured people to perform repairs. First appearance in season 1 Nanites also feature in the Rise of Iron 2016 expansion for Destiny in which SIVA, a self-replicating nanotechnology is used as a weapon.
Nanites (referred to more often as Nanomachines) are often referenced in Konami's "Metal Gear" series being used to enhance and regulate abilities and body functions.
Potential uses:
In the Star Trek franchise TV shows nanites play an important plot device. Starting with "Evolution" in the third season of The Next Generation, Borg Nanoprobes perform the function of maintaining the Borg cybernetic systems, as well as repairing damage to the organic parts of a Borg. They generate new technology inside a Borg when needed, as well as protecting them from many forms of disease.
Potential uses:
Nanites play a role in the video game Deus Ex, being the basis of the nano-augmentation technology which gives augmented people superhuman abilities.
Nanites are also mentioned in the Arc of a Scythe book series by Neal Shusterman and are used to heal all nonfatal injuries, regulate bodily functions, and considerably lessen pain.
Nanites are also an integral part of the Stargate SG1 and Stargate Atlantis, where grey goo scenarios are portrayed.
Nanomachines are central to the plot of the Silo book series. Where they are used as a weapon of mass destruction propagated via the air, and enter undetected into the human body where, when receiving a signal, they kill the recipient. They are then used to wipe out the majority of the human race. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Comparison of streaming media software**
Comparison of streaming media software:
This is a comparison of streaming media systems. A more complete list of streaming media systems is also available.
General:
The following tables compare general and technical information for a number of streaming media systems both audio and video. Please see the individual systems' linked articles for further information.
Container format support:
Information about what digital container formats are supported.
Protocol support:
Information about which internet protocols are supported for broadcasting streaming media content. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Cepstral mean and variance normalization**
Cepstral mean and variance normalization:
Cepstral mean and variance normalization (CMVN) is a computationally efficient normalization technique for robust speech recognition. The performance of CMVN is known to degrade for short utterances. This is due to insufficient data for parameter estimation and loss of discriminable information as all utterances are forced to have zero mean and unit variance. CMVN minimizes distortion by noise contamination for robust feature extraction by linearly transforming the cepstral coefficients to have the same segmental statistics. Cepstral Normalization has been effective in the CMU Sphinx for maintaining a high level of recognition accuracy over a wide variety of acoustical environments.
Cepstral Normalization Techniques:
There are multiple algorithms that achieve Cepstral Normalization in different ways.
Cepstral Normalization Techniques:
Fixed codeword-dependent cepstral normalization (FCDCN) FCDCN was developed to provide a form of compensation that provides greater recognition accuracy than SDCN but in a more computationally-efficient manner than the CDCN algorithm. The FCDCN algorithm applies an additive correction that depends on the instantaneous SNR of the input (like SDCN), but that can also vary from codeword to codeword (like CDCN).
Cepstral Normalization Techniques:
Multiple Fixed Codeword-dependent Cepstral Normalization (MFCDCN) MFCDCN is a simple extension of FCDCN algorithm that does not need environment specific training. In MFCDCN, compensation vectors are pre-computed in parallel for a set of target environments, using the FCDCN algorithm.
Incremental Multiple Fixed Codeword-dependent Cepstral Normalization (IMFCDCN) While environment selection for the compensation vectors of MFCDCN is generally performed on an utterance-by-utterance basis, IMFCFCN improves on it by allowing the classification process to make use of cepstral vectors from previous utterances in a given session.
Cepstral Noise Subtraction:
Automatic speech recognition (ASR) describes the steps of transcribing speech utterances represented as acoustic wave forms to written words. As is, CMVN has been used in different applications as this technique has proven to provide better speech recognitions results in different environments. CMVN has the capabilities to reduce differences between test and training data produced by channel distortions and colorizations . CMVN has also been found to be able to reduce differences in feature representation between speakers can also partly reduce the influence of background noise. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**In-ear monitor**
In-ear monitor:
In-ear monitors, or simply IEMs or in-ears, are devices used by musicians, audio engineers and audiophiles to listen to music or to hear a personal mix of vocals and stage instrumentation for live performance or recording studio mixing. They are also used by television presenters to receive vocal instructions, information and breaking news announcements from a producer that only the presenter hears. They are often custom-fitted to an individual's ears to provide comfort and a high level of noise reduction from ambient surroundings. Their origins as a tool in live music performance can be traced back to the mid-1980s.A stage monitor system is any system that provides a mix of audio sources to a performer on stage. Traditionally, loudspeakers were placed on the stage directed toward the performers. These loudspeakers can have disadvantages. First, floor wedges greatly increase the onstage volume, in some cases to potential hearing damage levels. Second, while floor wedges can be placed in front of a particular singer, guitarist, bassist, or drummer, the other musicians can often hear the other musicians' wedge mixes. In a sophisticated monitoring system, every band member can have their own monitor mix, which is their particular preference of vocals or instruments. Since performers wear an IEM in each ear, they can also hear a stereo mix if a particular monitor system allows it. This can allow the additional definition of the audio by panning different elements (vocals, drums, etc.) to each ear. More recent advances allow the user to adjust the amount of ambient noise filtered by the IEM.
In-ear monitor:
One additional consideration for mixing IEMs is that while eliminating floor wedges can improve the overall clarity of the mix for the performers and decrease the overall volume onstage, one important piece that is often lost is crowd noise and crowd comments, such as the audience calling for an encore. It is not uncommon for a microphone to be placed near each side of the stage, facing the audience, to provide a method to capture some of the crowd noise and audience comments back into the performers' IEM mixes. Larger live shows can have several microphones for this purpose spread across the front of the stage, which can also be sent to a multitrack recording device used in an outside broadcast production truck, or other destinations.
Transmitter and receiver:
Most professional stage in-ear monitor systems use wireless technology to send the mix to the IEMs. This type of system consists of a stationary offstage transmitter and an onstage receiver (about the size of a deck of cards) that is worn by the performer. There is generally a transmitter for each monitor mix and there is always a receiver for each IEM. The transmitters usually output either one stereo mix or two mono mixes. When the transmitters are set up for two mono mixes, one transmitter can be used for two different mixes. Any number of receivers can receive a single mix.
Transmitter and receiver:
The transmitters and receivers transfer audio wirelessly via a VHF or UHF radiofrequency. Generally speaking, UHF systems sound much better than VHF systems and are more expensive. UHF systems usually are less susceptible to frequency interference which adds to their level of quality.
Earpieces:
The in-ear monitors themselves are the last stage of the signal path in the system. They are placed in the external ear canal and seal against its sides; the effectiveness of this seal is a major part of the effectiveness of the IEM.
Earpieces:
Universal IEMs typically include a variety of foam and silicone tips in each pack, with the goal that one pair may create a comfortable seal for the user's ears. If a universal IEM earpiece does not fit a specific person, they may need to order custom in-ear monitors. If there is not a good seal, ambient noise leakage is increased.
Earpieces:
Custom molded IEMs are more comfortable to wear and better isolate ambient noise. Depending on the quality of the fit and length of the canal portion of the earpiece, a custom fit in-ear monitor will generally provide somewhere between 25 and 34 decibels of noise reduction. This means that loud onstage instruments, such as drum kit or large 8x12" guitar stacks, are less likely to cause hearing damage for onstage musicians wearing IEMs. Custom in-ear monitors come in a variety of colors but are usually clear or a color that closely matches the skin color of the performer. Some manufacturers can also place custom artwork directly on the custom in-ear monitors. The IEM cable plugs into a 3.5 mm stereo jack on the receiver pack; typically clipped onto the belt, guitar strap, clothing of the performer, or placed in a pocket. Impressions for custom in-ear monitors are typically taken by an audiologist. To achieve maximum isolation, the audiologist should use a high-viscosity impression material with a deep impression of the ear canal. The musician should also mimic their embouchure while the impression material is setting so that the fit is comfortable while performing. Custom in-ear monitors made of a softer silicone material can be inserted deeper in the ear canal and will provide more isolation from outside noise.Some performers desire a more natural sound from their IEMs with both the music mix and ambient sounds. Passive ambient IEMs have a small hole drilled into the earpiece to allow some natural ambient sound into the ear canal. This can potentially lead to increased sound exposure as it reduces the signal-to-noise ratio for the mix and causes the musician to increase the levels from the IEM. Active ambient IEMs use external microphones to reproduce the ambient sound in the mix that mimics the frequency response of the open ear and may sound more natural to the performer.Television studios use earpieces with a specialized type of intercom called an interruptible foldback (IFB), as a means of communication.
Driver technology:
Balanced armature Originally invented for hearing aids, balanced armature drivers are nowadays used extensively in modern in-ear monitors.
Driver technology:
In-ear monitors can function with as little as one armature driver but some of the top models of in-ear monitors can carry as many as 18 balanced armature drivers for faster response, higher dynamic range, and more detailed sound. Notable examples include the Ultimate Ears Pro UE LIVE (6 balanced armature drivers and 2 dynamic drivers), JH Audio's Layla (12 balanced armature drivers), Noble Audio's K10U (10 balanced armature drivers), and 64 Audio's A18t (18 balanced armature drivers).
Driver technology:
Dynamic The dynamic driver contains a diaphragm with a voice coil attached to it. When an electric current passes through, the voice coil vibrates between the two permanent magnets resulting in the diaphragm moving and producing sound. Adherents of the dynamic driver cite better bass response.
Safety:
Many performers choose to use IEMs as a way to reduce their overall exposure to loud sound and prevent hearing loss. However, education on the use of IEMs is a crucial factor for limiting exposure as performers have a tendency to set their IEMs to similar intensity levels that were previously used in their floor monitors. Musicians need to train themselves to listen at lower levels to take full advantage of the sound level reduction capability of IEMs.Some musicians with two IEMs may choose to take out one of them during a performance to hear more ambient sound. The increased risk of hearing damage in this scenario are twofold. Removing one IEM negates the improvement in signal-to-noise ratio from isolation and the binaural summation effect which causes an increase in perceived loudness from using two sound sources. Therefore, the performer will likely turn up the IEM in the other ear to improve the signal-to-noise ratio. Also, the ear without an IEM is potentially exposed to loud ambient sound.Many IEMS use peak limiters or compressors to limit potential damage from sudden loud sounds. However, this does not prevent the performer from turning up the IEM to unsafe levels. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Obstetric fistula**
Obstetric fistula:
Obstetric fistula is a medical condition in which a hole develops in the birth canal as a result of childbirth. This can be between the vagina and rectum, ureter, or bladder. It can result in incontinence of urine or feces. Complications may include depression, infertility, and social isolation.Risk factors include obstructed labor, poor access to medical care, malnutrition, and teenage pregnancy. The underlying mechanism is poor blood flow to the affected area for a prolonged period of time. Diagnosis is generally based on symptoms and may be supported by use of methylene blue.Obstetric fistulae are almost entirely preventable with appropriate use of cesarean section. Treatment is typically by surgery. If treated early, the use of a urinary catheter may help with healing. Counseling may also be useful. An estimated 2 million people in sub-Saharan Africa, Asia, the Arab region, and Latin America have the condition, with about 75,000 new cases developing a year. It occurs very rarely in the developed world and is considered a disease of poverty.
Signs and symptoms:
Symptoms of obstetric fistula include: Flatulence, urinary incontinence, or fecal incontinence, which may be continual or only happen at night Foul-smelling vaginal discharge Repeated vaginal or urinary tract infections Irritation or pain in the vagina or surrounding areas Pain during sexual activityOther effects of obstetric fistulae include stillborn babies due to prolonged labor, which happens 85% to 100% of the time, severe ulcerations of the vaginal tract, "foot drop", which is the paralysis of the lower limbs caused by nerve damage, making it impossible to walk, infection of the fistula forming an abscess, and up to two-thirds of sufferers become amenorrhoeic.Obstetric fistulae have far-reaching physical, social, economic, and psychological consequences for the women affected. According to UNFPA, "Due to the prolonged obstructed labour, the baby almost inevitably dies, and the parent is left with chronic incontinence. Unable to control the flow of urine or faeces, or both, they may be abandoned by their spouse and family and ostracized by their community. Without treatment, their prospects for work and family life are virtually nonexistent." Physical The most direct consequence of an obstetric fistula is the constant leakage of urine, feces, and blood as a result of a hole that forms between the vagina and bladder or rectum. This leaking has both physical and societal penalties. The acid in the urine, feces, and blood causes severe burn wounds on the legs from the continuous dripping. Nerve damage that can result from the leaking can cause women to struggle with walking and eventually lose mobility. In an attempt to avoid the dripping, women limit their intake of water and liquid, which can ultimately lead to dangerous cases of dehydration. Ulceration and infections can persist, as well as kidney disease and kidney failure, which can each lead to death. Further, only a quarter of women who develop a fistula in their first birth are able to have a living baby, and therefore have minuscule chances of conceiving a healthy baby later on. Some, due to obstetric fistulae and other complications from childbirth, do not survive.
Signs and symptoms:
Social Physical consequences of obstetric fistulae lead to severe sociocultural stigmatization for various reasons. For example, in Burkina Faso, most citizens do not believe an obstetric fistula to be a medical condition, but as a divine punishment or a curse for disloyal or disrespectful behavior. Other sub-Saharan cultures view offspring as an indicator of a family's wealth. A woman who is unable to successfully produce children as assets for her family is believed to make her and her family socially and economically inferior. A patient's incontinence and pain also render her unable to perform household chores and childrearing as a wife and as a mother, thus devaluing her. Other misconceptions about obstetric fistulae are that they are caused by venereal diseases or are divine punishment for sexual misconduct.As a result, many girls are divorced or abandoned by their husbands and partners, disowned by family, ridiculed by friends, and even isolated by health workers. Divorce rates for women who have an obstetric fistula range from 50% to as high as 89%. Now marginalized members of society, girls are forced to live on the edges of their villages and towns, often in isolation in a hut where they will likely die from starvation or an infection in the birth canal. The unavoidable odor is viewed as offensive, thus their removal from society is seen as essential. Accounts of women who develop obstetric fistulae proclaim that their lives have been reduced to the leaking of urine, feces, and blood because they are no longer capable or allowed to participate in traditional activities, including the duties of wife and mother. Because such consequences highly stigmatize and marginalize the woman, the intense loneliness and shame can lead to clinical depression and suicidal thoughts. Some women have formed small groups and resorted to walking to seek medical help, where their characteristic odor makes them a target for sub-Saharan predatory wildlife, further endangering their lives. This trip can take on average 12 hours to complete. Moreover, women are sometimes forced to turn to commercial sex work as a means of survival because the extreme poverty and social isolation that result from obstetric fistulae eliminate all other income opportunities. With only 7.5% of women with fistulae able to access treatment, the vast majority of women end up with the consequences of obstructed and prolonged labor simply because options and access to help is so limited.
Signs and symptoms:
Psychological Some common psychological consequences that women with a fistula face are the despair from losing their child, the humiliation from their smell, and inability to perform their family roles. Additionally, a fear of developing another fistula in future pregnancies exists.Obstetric fistula is not only debilitating physically, but emotionally. A woman is presented with an array of psychological trauma that she must oftentimes deal with herself unless provided with ample resources. Oftentimes ostracized by her community, a woman with obstetric fistula tends to face these issues on her own. In a study of The lived experience of Malawian women with obstetric fistula, the immense psychological trauma is addressed: "For these women, internalizing this constant struggle leads to psychological morbidity." It was striking how many women discussed constant sadness and giving up hope in their interviews." Although the psychological impacts center around the woman experiencing the fistula, others around them, and especially loved ones, feel the impact as well. The same study references this: "This attitude was often shared by their family members, both husbands and female relatives."Women with obstetric fistula face severe mental health issues. Among women with obstetric fistula from Bangladesh and Ethiopia 97% screened positive for potential mental health dysfunctions and about 30% had major depression.
Risk factors:
In less-developed countries, obstetric fistulae usually develop as a result of prolonged labor when a cesarean section cannot be obtained. Over the course of the three to five days of labor, the unborn child presses against the mother's vagina very tightly, cutting off blood flow to the surrounding tissues between the vagina and the rectum and between the vagina and the bladder, causing the tissues to disintegrate and rot away.Obstetric fistulae can also be caused by poorly performed abortions, and pelvic fracture, cancer, or radiation therapy targeted at the pelvic area, inflammatory bowel disease (such as Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis). Other potential causes for the development of obstetric fistulae are sexual abuse and rape, especially in conflict/postconflict areas, and other trauma, such as surgical trauma.In the developed world, such as the US, the primary cause of obstetric fistulae, particularly rectovaginal fistulae, is the use of episiotomy and forceps. Primary risk factors include early or closely spaced pregnancies and lack of access to emergency obstetric care. For example, a 1983 study in Nigeria found that 54.8% of the women affected were under 20 years of age, and 64.4% gave birth at home or in poorly equipped local clinics. When available at all, cesarean sections and other medical interventions are usually not performed until after tissue damage has already been done.Social, political, and economic causes that indirectly lead to the development of obstetric fistulae concern issues of poverty, malnutrition, lack of education, early marriage and childbirth, the role and status of women in developing countries, harmful traditional practices, sexual violence, and lack of good quality or accessible maternal and health care.
Risk factors:
Poverty Poverty is the main indirect cause of obstetric fistulae around the world. As obstructed labor and obstetric fistulae account for 8% of maternal deaths worldwide and "a 60-fold difference in gross national product per person shows up as a 120-fold difference in maternal mortality ratio," impoverished countries produce higher maternal mortality rates and thus higher obstetric fistula rates. Furthermore, impoverished countries not only have low incomes, but also lack adequate infrastructure, trained and educated professionals, resources, and a centralized government that exist in developed nations to effectively eradicate obstetric fistulae.According to UNFPA, "Generally accepted estimates suggest that 2.0-3.5 million women live with obstetric fistulae in the developing world, and between 50,000 and 100,000 new cases develop each year. All but eliminated from the developed world, obstetric fistula continues to affect the poorest of the poor: women and girls living in some of the most resource-starved remote regions in the world." Malnutrition One reason that poverty produces such high rates of fistula cases is the malnutrition that exists in such areas. Lack of money and access to proper nutrition, as well as vulnerability to diseases that exist in impoverished areas because of limited basic health care and disease prevention methods, cause inhabitants of these regions to experience stunted growth. Sub-Saharan Africa is one such environment where the shortest women have on average lighter babies and more difficulties during birth when compared with full-grown women. This stunted growth causes expectant mothers to have skeletons unequipped for proper birth, such as an underdeveloped pelvis. This weak and underdeveloped bone structure increases the chances that the baby will get stuck in the pelvis during birth, cutting off circulation and leading to tissue necrosis. Because of the correlation between malnutrition, stunted growth, and birthing difficulties, maternal height can at times be used as a measure for expected labor difficulties.
Risk factors:
Lack of education High levels of poverty also lead to low levels of education among impoverished women concerning maternal health. This lack of information in combination with obstacles preventing rural women to easily travel to and from hospitals lead many to arrive at the birthing process without prenatal care. This can cause a development of unplanned complications that may arise during home births, in which traditional techniques are used. These techniques often fail in the event of unplanned emergencies, leading women to go to the hospital for care too late, desperately ill, and therefore vulnerable to the risks of anesthesia and surgery that must be used on them. In a study of women who had prenatal care and those who had unbooked emergency births, "the death rate in the booked-healthy group was as good as that in many developed countries, [but] the death rate in the unbooked emergencies was the same as the death rate in England in the 16th and 17th centuries." In this study, 62 unbooked emergency women were diagnosed with obstetric fistulae out of 7,707 studied, in comparison to three diagnosed booked mothers out of 15,020 studied. In addition, studies find that education is associated with lower desired family size, greater use of contraceptives, and increased use of professional medical services. Educated families are also more likely to be able to afford health care, especially maternal healthcare.
Risk factors:
Early childbirth In sub-Saharan Africa, many girls enter into arranged marriages soon after menarche (usually between the ages of 9 and 15). Social factors and economic factors contribute to this practice of early marriages. Socially, some grooms want to ensure their brides are virgins when they get married, so an earlier marriage is desirable. Economically, the bride price received and having one less person to feed in the family helps alleviate the financial burdens of the bride's family. Early marriages lead to early childbirth, which increases the risk of obstructed labor, since young mothers who are poor and malnourished may have underdeveloped pelvises. In fact, obstructed labor is responsible for 76 to 97% of obstetric fistulae.
Risk factors:
Lack of healthcare Even women who do make it to the hospital may not get proper treatment. Countries that suffer from poverty, civil and political unrest or conflict, and other dangerous public health issues such as malaria, HIV/AIDS, and tuberculosis often suffer from a severe burden and breakdown within the healthcare system. This breakdown puts many people at risk, specifically women. Many hospitals within these conditions have shortages of staff, supplies, and other forms of medical technology that would be necessary to perform reconstructive obstetric fistula repair. There is a shortage of doctors in rural Africa, and studies find that the doctors and nurses who do exist in rural Africa often do not show up for work.Poverty hinders women from being able to access normal and emergency obstetric care because of long distances and expensive procedures. For some women, the closest maternal care facility can be more than 50 km away. In Kenya, a study by the Ministry of Health found that the "rugged landscape, long distances to health facilities, and societal preferences for delivery with a traditional birth attendant contributed to delays in accessing necessary obstetric care." Emergency cesarean sections, which can help avoid fistulae caused by prolonged vaginal deliveries, are very expensive.
Risk factors:
Status of women In developing countries, women who are affected by obstetric fistulae do not necessarily have full agency over their bodies or their households. Rather, their husbands and other family members have control in determining the healthcare that the women receive. For example, a woman's family may refuse medical examinations for the patient by male doctors, but female doctors may be unavailable, thus barring women from prenatal care. Furthermore, many societies believe that women are supposed to suffer in childbirth, thus are less inclined to support maternal health efforts.
Prevention:
Prevention is the key to ending fistulae. UNFPA states that, "Ensuring skilled birth attendance at all births and providing emergency obstetric care for all women who develop complications during delivery would make fistula as rare in developing countries as it is in the industrialized world." In addition, access to health services and education – including family planning, gender equality, higher living standards, child marriage, and human rights – must be addressed to reduce the marginalization of women and girls. Reducing marginalization in these areas could reduce maternal disability and death by at least 20%.Prevention comes in the form of access to obstetrical care, support from trained health care professionals throughout pregnancy, providing access to family planning, promoting the practice of spacing between births, supporting women in education, and postponing early marriage. Fistula prevention also involves many strategies to educate local communities about the cultural, social, and physiological factors of that condition and contribute to the risk for fistulae. One of these strategies involves organizing community-level awareness campaigns to educate women about prevention methods such as proper hygiene and care during pregnancy and labor. Prevention of prolonged obstructed labor and fistulae should preferably begin as early as possible in each woman's life. For example, improved nutrition and outreach programs to raise awareness about the nutritional needs of children to prevent malnutrition, as well as improve the physical maturity of young mothers, are important fistula prevention strategies. It is also important to ensure access to timely and safe delivery during childbirth: measures include availability and provision of emergency obstetric care, as well as quick and safe cesarean sections for women in obstructed labor. Some organizations train local nurses and midwives to perform emergency cesarean sections to avoid vaginal delivery for young mothers who have underdeveloped pelvises. Midwives located in the local communities where obstetric fistulae are prevalent can contribute to promoting health practices that help prevent future development of obstetric fistulae. NGOs also work with local governments, like the government of Niger, to offer free cesarean sections, further preventing the onset of obstetric fistulae.Promoting education for girls is also a key factor to preventing fistulae in the long term. Former fistula patients often act as "community fistula advocates" or "ambassadors of hope", a UNFPA-sponsored initiative, to educate the community. These survivors help current patients, educate pregnant mothers, and dispel cultural myths that obstetric fistulae are caused by adultery or evil spirits. Successful ambassador programs are in place in Kenya, Bangladesh, Nigeria, Ghana, Côte d'Ivoire, and Liberia.Several organizations have developed effective fistula prevention strategies. One, the Tanzanian Midwives Association, works to prevent fistulae by improving clinical healthcare for women, encouraging the delay of early marriages and childbearing years, and helping the local communities to advocate for women's rights.
Treatment:
Surgery The nature of the injury varies depending on the size and location of the fistula, so a surgeon with experience is needed to improvise on the spot. Before the person undergoes surgery, treatment and evaluation are needed for conditions including anemia, malnutrition, and malaria. Quality treatment in low-resource settings are possible (as in the cases of Nigeria and Ethiopia).Treatment is available through reconstructive surgery. Primary fistula repair has a 91% success rate. The corrective surgery costs about US$100–400, and the cost for the entire procedure, which includes the actual surgery, postoperative care, and rehabilitation support, is estimated to cost $300–450. Initial surgeries done by inadequately trained doctors and midwives increase the number of follow-up surgeries that must be performed to restore full continence. Successful surgery enables women to live normal lives and have more children, but it is recommended to have a cesarean section to prevent the fistula from recurring. Postoperative care is vital to prevent infection. Some women are not candidates for this surgery due to other health problems. In those cases, fecal diversion can help the patient, but not necessarily cure them.Besides physical treatment, mental health services are also needed to rehabilitate fistula patients, who experience psychological trauma from being ostracized by the community and from fear of developing fistulae again. A study on the first formal counseling program for fistula survivors in Eritrea shows positive results, whereby counseling significantly improved the women's self-esteem, knowledge about fistulae and fistula prevention, and behavioral intentions for "health maintenance and social reintegration" following surgery.
Treatment:
Challenges Challenges with regards to treatment include the very high number of women needing reconstructive surgery, access to facilities and trained surgeons, and the cost of treatment. For many women, US$300 is a price they cannot afford. Access and availability of treatment also vary widely across different sub-Saharan countries. Certain regions also do not have enough maternal care clinics that are equipped, willing to treat fistula patients, and adequately staffed. At the Evangelical Hospital of Bemberéke in Benin, only one expatriate volunteer obstetrics and gynecology doctor is available a few months per year, with one certified nurse and seven informal hospital workers. In all of Niger, two medical centers treat fistula patients. In Nigeria, more dedicated health professionals operate on up to 1,600 women with a fistula per year. The world is currently severely under capacity for treating the problem; it would take up to 400 years to treat the backlog of patients. To prevent any new cases of obstetric fistulae, about 75,000 new emergency obstetric care facilities would have to be built in Africa alone, plus an increase in financial support and an even higher number of certified doctors, midwives, and nurses needed.
Treatment:
Another challenge standing between women and fistula treatment is information. Most women have no idea that treatment is available. Because this is a condition of shame and embarrassment, most women hide themselves and their condition and suffer in silence. In addition, after receiving initial treatment, health education is important to prevent fistulae in subsequent pregnancies.Another challenge is the lack of trained professionals to provide surgery for fistula patients. As a result, nonphysicians are sometimes trained to provide obstetric services. For example, the Addis Ababa Fistula Hospital has medical staff without formal degrees, and one of its top surgeons was illiterate, but she had been trained over years and now regularly successfully performs fistula surgery.
Treatment:
Catheterization Fistula cases can also be treated through urethral catheterization if identified early enough. The Foley catheter is recommended because it has a balloon to hold it in place. The indwelling Foley catheter drains urine from the bladder. This decompresses the bladder wall so that the wounded edges come together and stay together, giving it a greater chance of closing naturally, at least in the smaller fistulae.About 37% of obstetric fistulae that are treated within 75 days after birth with a Foley catheter resolve. Even without preselecting the least complicated obstetric fistula cases, a Foley catheter by midwives after the onset of urinary incontinence could treat over 25% of all new fistulae.
Epidemiology:
Obstetric fistulae are common in the developing world, especially in sub-Saharan Africa (Kenya, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Benin, Chad, Malawi, Mali, Mozambique, Niger, Nigeria, Uganda, and Zambia) and much of South Asia (Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, and Nepal). According to the World Health Organization (WHO), an estimated 50,000 to 100,000 women develop obstetric fistulae each year and over two million women currently live with an obstetric fistula. In particular, most of the two million-plus women in developing nations who develop obstetric fistulae are under the age of 30. Between 50 and 80% of women under the age of 20 in poor countries develop obstetric fistulae (the youngest patients are 12–13 years old). Other estimates indicate about 73,000 new cases occur per year.Obstetric fistulae were very common throughout the world, but since the late 19th century, the rise of gynecology developed safe practices for childbirth, including giving birth at local hospitals rather than at home, which dramatically reduced rates of obstructed labor and obstetric fistulae in Europe and North America.Adequate population-based epidemiological data on obstetric fistulae are lacking due to the historic neglect of this condition since it was mostly eradicated in developed nations. Available data are estimations that should be viewed with caution. About 30% of women over age 45 in developed nations are affected by urinary incontinence. The rate of obstetrical fistulae is much lower in places that discourage early marriage, encourage and provide general education for women, and grant women access to family planning and skilled medical teams to assist during childbirth.
History:
Evidence of obstetric fistula dates back to 2050 BCE, when Queen Henhenit had a fistula.
History:
The first acknowledgments of obstetric fistula date back to various Egyptian documents known as the papyri. These documents, including rare medical engravings, were found of the entrance of a tomb located in the necropolis of Saqquarah, Egypt. The tomb belonged to an unknown physician who lived during the 6th dynasty. The translation of this document became possible with the discovery of the Rosetta stone in 1799.In 1872, the Ebers papyrus was discovered in a mummy from the Theban acropolis. This papyrus, 65 feet long, 14 inches wide, consisting of 108 columns each about 20 lines, now resides in the library at the University of Leipzig. The gynecological reference in this papyrus addresses uterine prolapse, but at the end of page three, there seems to be a mention of the vesicovaginal fistula, warning the physician against trying to cure it, saying, "prescription for a woman whose urine is in an irksome place: if the urine keeps coming and she distinguishes it, she will be like this forever." This seems to be the oldest reference to vesicovaginal fistula, one which articulates the storied history of the problem.
History:
James Marion Sims, in 1852 in Alabama, developed an operation for fistula. He worked at the New York Women's Hospital.
Society and culture:
During most of the 20th century, obstetric fistulae were largely missing from the international global health agenda. This is reflected by the fact that the condition was not included as a topic at the landmark United Nations 1994 International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD). The 194-page report from the ICPD does not include any reference to obstetric fistulae. In 2000, eight Millennium Development Goals were adopted after the United Nations Millennium Summit to be achieved by 2015. The fifth goal of improving maternal health is directly related to obstetric fistula. Since 2003, obstetric fistula has been gaining awareness amongst the general public and has received critical attention from UNFPA, who has organized a global "Campaign to End Fistula". New York Times columnist Nicholas Kristof, a Pulitzer Prize–winning writer, wrote several columns in 2003, 2005, and 2006 focusing on fistula and particularly treatment provided by Catherine Hamlin at the Fistula Hospital in Ethiopia. In 2007, Fistula Foundation, Engel Entertainment, and a number of other organizations including PBS NOVA released the documentary film, A Walk to Beautiful, which traced the journey of five women from Ethiopia who sought treatment for their obstetric fistulae at the Addis Ababa Fistula Hospital in Ethiopia. The film still airs frequently on PBS in the U.S. and is credited with increasing awareness of obstetric fistulae greatly. Increased public awareness and corresponding political pressure have helped fund the UNFPA's Campaign to End Fistula, and helped motivate the United States Agency for International Development to dramatically increase funding for the prevention and treatment of obstetric fistulae.Countries that signed the United Nations Millennium Declaration have begun adopting policies and creating task forces to address issues of maternal morbidity and infant mortality, including Tanzania, Democratic Republic of Congo, Sudan, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Uganda, Eritrea, Niger, and Kenya. Laws to increase the minimum age for marriage have also been enacted in Bangladesh, Nigeria, and Kenya. To monitor these countries and hold them accountable, the UN has developed six "process indicators", a benchmark tool with minimum acceptable levels that measures whether or not women receive the services they need.The UNFPA set out several strategies to address fistulae, including "postponing marriage and pregnancy for young girls, increasing access to education and family planning services for women and men, provide access to adequate medical care for all pregnant women and emergency obstetric care for all who develop complications, and repairing physical damage through medical intervention and emotional damage through counselling." One of the UNFPA's initiatives to reduce the cost of transportation in accessing medical care provided ambulances and motorcycles for women in Benin, Chad, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Rwanda, Senegal, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zambia.
Society and culture:
Campaign to end fistula The Addis Ababa Fistula Hospital in Ethiopia successfully treats women with obstetric fistulae, even in less than desirable environments. As a result, the UNFPA gathered partners in London in 2001, and officially launched an international initiative to address obstetric fistulae later in 2003. Partners in this initiative include Columbia University's Averting Maternal Death and Disability Program, the International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics, and the World Health Organization. The official international partnership formed by the Campaign to End Fistula is named the Obstetric Fistula Working Group (OFWG) and its purpose is to coordinate and collaborate global efforts to eliminate obstetric fistulae.The initiative's first action was to quantitatively assess the issue in countries where the prevalence is suspected to be high, including nine countries in sub-Saharan Africa. The studies found that fistula patients are mostly illiterate, young, and poor women. Moreover, local legislators and government officials' lack of awareness exacerbate the problem. The OFWG improves awareness for prenatal and neonatal care and develops strategies for clinically managing obstetric fistula cases.To date, the Campaign to End Fistula has involved more than 30 countries in sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and the Middle East, and completed rapid needs assessments in many of those countries to continually assess the needs in each country. The strategies that the campaign helps each nation to develop are three-fold: prevention of new cases, treatment for patients, and support for reintegration into society after the operation. Prevention efforts include access to maternal health services and mobilizing communities and legislators to increase awareness of maternal health problems. Training health providers and ensuring affordable treatment services, as well as providing social services such as health education and mental health services, help treat and reintegrate women into their communities. Other tasks undertaken by the campaign include fundraising and introducing new donors and gathering new partners of all perspectives, such as faith-based organizations, NGOs, and private-sector companies.
Society and culture:
Fistula Fortnight The Fistula Fortnight was a two-week initiative that took place from February 21 to March 6, 2005, where fistula experts treated fistula patients for free at four surgical camps in the northern Nigerian states of Kano, Katsina, Kebbi, and Sokoto. The initiative was collaborated by many partners such as the federal and state governments of Nigeria, 13 Nigerian fistula surgeons, the Nigerian Red Cross, and UNFPA. During the nine-month preparation period, facilities were renovated, equipment were provided, and staff were extensively trained to treat fistula. The goals of this initiative were to alleviate the backlog of patients waiting for surgery, provide treatment services at host sites, and to raise awareness for maternal health.
Society and culture:
The Fistula Fortnight treated 569 women at no cost, with an 87.8% rate of successful closures. Follow-up treatments and services were provided, such as bed rest, analgesics, oral fluids, visual monitoring of urination by nurses, a catheter, catheter removal, and an examination and discharge from the hospital at a minimum of four weeks, with instruction to avoid sexual intercourse. The Fistula Fortnight also had preoperative and postoperative counseling provided by nurses and social workers and held health education workshops for fistula patients and their families.
Society and culture:
Community organizations People recovering from a fistula in the postoperative period need support to fully reintegrate into society. In particular, physical labor is limited in the first year of recovery, so women need alternative ways to earn an income. Since poverty is an indirect cause of obstetric fistulae, some community organizations aim to provide postoperative services to enhance the women's socioeconomic situation. Delta Survie, located in Mopti, Mali, is a community center that provides skills training and helps women to produce hand-made jewelry to generate income and meet other women while they recover. Another organization, IAMANEH Suisse, identifies Malian fistula patients, facilitates operations for those without the financial means, and helps them access follow-up services to prevent recurrence of fistulae in their subsequent pregnancies.Other organizations also help to arrange mission trips for medical personnel to visit countries with women affected by fistulae, perform surgeries, and train local doctors to give medical assistance for fistula patients. The International Organization for Women and Development (IOWD) is one such nonprofit organization. The IOWD hosts four to five mission trips per year to provide relief to obstetric fistula patients in West Africa. IOWD mission trip members have evaluated thousands of patients at no cost and performed surgeries for over a thousand women.
Society and culture:
Treatment centers A complete fistula treatment center includes investigative services like laboratory work, radiology, and a blood bank, to ensure that the medical history of patients is clearly understood before treatment options are evaluated. The surgical services would include operating theaters, postoperative wards, and anesthetic services. Physiotherapy and social-reintegration services are also necessary to arm women affected by obstetric fistula with the tools necessary to re-enter a society from which they have been ostracised. The size of the facility should be tailored to the need in the area, and the most successful centers work in collaboration with other treatment centers and organizations, forming a larger network of resources. The cost of salaries, single-use medical equipment, up to date technology and equipment, and maintenance of infrastructure, collectively provide large economic burdens to treatment centers. A barrier also arises when governments and local authorities require that approval be obtained prior to the construction of centers. There is an uneven distribution of specialized health care providers due to the below optimal training and supervision of health works and the low wages of fistula surgeons. Most fistula surgeons come from developed countries and are brought to developing countries, the nations more often affected by fistula, by a variety of organizations. An example of a well functioning treatment center is in Bangladesh where a facility has been created in association with the Dhaka Medical College Hospital with support from the United Nations Population Fund. Here, 46 doctors and 30 nurses have been trained and have successfully doubled the number of fistula cases addressed and operated on. Another example is a fistula unit in N'djamena, Chad, which has a mobile clinic that travels to rural, hard-to-reach areas, to provide services, and works in association with Liberty Hospital. The World Health Organization has created a manual articulating necessary principles for surgical and pre- and post- operative care regarding obstetric fistula, providing a beneficial outline for affected nations. Treatment centers are crucial for the survival of obstetric fistula patients and well-equipped centers help the emotional, physical, and psychological aspects of their lives. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Sturt (biology)**
Sturt (biology):
In embryology, sturt is a measure of distance. On the fate map, the further apart two regions are, the more likely the resulting structures are to form different genotypes. A difference of 1% in the ratio of differing genotypes is described as one sturt, after Alfred Henry Sturtevant. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Wagner model**
Wagner model:
Wagner model is a rheological model developed for the prediction of the viscoelastic properties of polymers. It might be considered as a simplified practical form of the Bernstein-Kearsley-Zapas model. The model was developed by German rheologist Manfred Wagner.
Wagner model:
For the isothermal conditions the model can be written as: σ(t)=−pI+∫−∞tM(t−t′)h(I1,I2)B(t′)dt′ where: σ(t) is the Cauchy stress tensor as function of time t, p is the pressure I is the unity tensor M is the memory function showing, usually expressed as a sum of exponential terms for each mode of relaxation: exp (−xθi) , where for each mode of the relaxation, gi is the relaxation modulus and θi is the relaxation time; h(I1,I2) is the strain damping function that depends upon the first and second invariants of Finger tensor B .The strain damping function is usually written as: exp exp (−n2I2−3) ,The strain hardening function equal to one, then the deformation is small and approaching zero, then the deformations are large.
Wagner model:
The Wagner equation can be used in the non-isothermal cases by applying time-temperature shift factor. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Research Object**
Research Object:
In computing, a Research Object is a method for the identification, aggregation and exchange of scholarly information on the Web. The primary goal of the research object approach is to provide a mechanism to associate related resources about a scientific investigation so that they can be shared using a single identifier. As such, research objects are an advanced form of Enhanced publication.Current implementations build upon existing Web technologies and methods including Linked Data, HTTP, Uniform Resource Identifiers (URIs), the Open Archives Initiative Object Reuse and Exchange (OAI-ORE) and the Open Annotation model, as well as existing approaches for identification and knowledge representation in the scientific domain including Digital Object Identifiers for documents, ORCID identifiers for people, and the Investigation, Study, and Assay (ISA) data model.
Principles and motivation:
The research object approach is primarily motivated by a desire to improve reproducibility of scientific investigations. Central to the proposal is need to share research artifacts commonly distributed across specialist repositories on the Web including supporting data, software executables, source code, presentation slides, presentation videos. Research Objects are not one specific technology but are instead guided by a set of principles. Specifically research objects are guided by three principles of identity, aggregation and annotation Digital identity - Use unique identifiers as names for things, such as DOIs for publications or data, and ORCID ids for researchers.
Principles and motivation:
Data aggregation - Use some form of aggregation to associated related things together that are part of the broader study, investigation etc. so that others may more readily discover those related resources.
Annotation - Provide additional metadata about those things, how they relate to each other, their provenance, how they were produced etc.A number of communities are developing the research object concept.
Principles and motivation:
ROSC W3C activity A W3C community group entitled the Research Objects for Scholarly Communication (ROSC) Community Group was started in April 2013. The community charter states that the goals of the ROSC activity are: "to exchange requirements and expectations for supporting a new form of scholarly communication" The Community Group aims to produce the following types of deliverables: Use cases for the representation, publishing, and exchange of research objects on the Web Requirements and desiderata distilled from the use cases.
Principles and motivation:
A survey of related work on supporting the representation, publishing, and exchange of research objects.
Principles and motivation:
Various best practices and guidelines towards a community-wide practice of sharing, citing, and exchanging of research objects FAIR digital objects The FAIR digital object forum is a community that brings together experts from the FAIR data movement, semantic web, and digital publishing of scholarly work. The first conference on FAIR digital objects led the coalition to ratify the Leiden Declaration on FAIR digital objects. The principles contained in the Leiden Declaration provides a prescriptive framework for infrastructure development around digital research objects. This framework draws from the FAIR data principles and ideas around distributed infrastructure that relies on open protocols to prevent vendor lock-in and ensure access that is "as open as possible, as restricted as necessary".
Principles and motivation:
Github and Figshare The Mozilla Science Lab have initiated an activity in collaboration with GitHub and Figshare to develop "Code as research object". The initial proposal of the activity is to allow users to transfer code from a GitHub repository to figshare, and provide that code with a Digital Object Identifier (DOI), providing a permanent record of the code that can be cited in future publications. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Bibbo Bibbowski**
Bibbo Bibbowski:
Bo "Bibbo" Bibbowski is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. He is typically shown as a good friend and supportive advocate of Superman.
Bibbo Bibbowski first appeared in The Adventures of Superman #428 (May 1987) and was created by Jerry Ordway and Marv Wolfman. He is based on Jerry Ordway's real life friend, Jo Jo Kaminski, described as a "hard as nails softie".
Fictional character biography:
Bibbo first appears in a Suicide Slum bar called the Ace o' Clubs. When Superman comes in looking for information, Bibbo, thinking this is "some clown in a Superman suit", punches Superman, damaging his hand. He gains respect for the Man of Steel. He would later refer to Superman as his "fav'rit" hero.During the Eradicator saga, Bibbo teams up with Lobo and Raof, a teleporter and a tribute to Marvel's Nightcrawler, to witness Lobo kill Superman. Lobo gives Bibbo a set of special goggles that will record the battle. All three, however, get drunk on Okarran liquor and thus suffer loss of all memory of the battle, which Superman won by a ruse engineered by the Eradicator artifact. Additionally, Bibbo wore the goggles backwards, and thus the entire recording was of his reactions. As a result, the aliens who retained Lobo to kill Superman have no proof that there even was a battle.
Fictional character biography:
Bibbo becomes a more significant part of the comic when he finds a winning lottery ticket dropped by Gangbuster and uses the money to buy the Ace o' Clubs bar and to help those living in the slum.Bibbo attempts to assist Superman when Superman becomes involved in a drawn-out fight against the murderous Doomsday. Bibbo works with Professor Hamilton on a plan to blast Doomsday with a large laser. They score a direct hit, but the monster is not affected.When Doomsday and Superman ultimately kill each other, Bibbo is on the scene and helps Hamilton use a device to try to perform CPR on Superman, despite the risk of the device killing Bibbo himself. The plan fails and Bibbo is injured. Hamilton takes over the CPR but also fails.Shortly afterward, Bibbo encounters a young man who, his family rendered homeless by Doomsday's rampage, is blatantly selling "Death of Superman" commemorative souvenirs during a public commemoration honoring the Man of Steel. At first outraged at the man's crassness, Bibbo feels some sympathy for his losses and buys his entire inventory to get him off the street, then offers him a job at the Ace O' Clubs. While Superman is gone, Bibbo takes to putting on a 'disguise' of sorts and helping out on the streets. Around this time he saves a man from suicide. This is mostly told through tall tales concerning various super-villains.Bibbo briefly takes care of a small white dog named Krypto whom he had saved from drowning, not to be confused with the Kryptonian dog of the same name. The name was supposed to be "Krypton", but the engraver Bibbo hired to make a name tag made an intentional mistake, trying to extort more money from Bibbo (the price accorded was for six letters). Bibbo took the tag as it was.A poster seen by the hero Aztek indicates that at one point, Bibbo fought the hero Wildcat during a charity boxing event. Later in the series, The Ace O' Clubs bar is the site of a battle between the life-force devouring Parasite and Aztek. Bibbo and his friends purposely ignore the fight, playing cards instead and trusting others to handle the villain.
Fictional character biography:
In The Power of Shazam!, Ordway introduces Professor Bibbowski, Bibbo's pacifist scientist brother.
Fictional character biography:
Bibbo reappears in Superman #679, shown as one of the champions of Metropolis that the villainous Atlas defeated. He is established by then as having worked in the Ace of Clubs, even bringing himself to boldly menace Atom Smasher for "Talking trash about Sooperman".Bibbo returns in 2016 Superman vol. 4 #4. He is seen arm-wrestling Hacken and easily beating him, before Superman's fight with Eradicator moves into his bar. Bibbo is shocked to see what appears to be Superman running away from the fight, but quickly realizes Superman is simply trying to lure Eradicator somewhere when there are no innocent bystanders. Later Bibbo and his niece show up in Superwoman. When Ultrawoman takes over Metropolis, Bibbo is seen trying to start a fight with her minions but is saved by Natasha Irons and Traci 13.
Fictional character biography:
Perry White recommends Clark and Lois take their son over to Bibbo's 'Ace O' Clubs' for burgers.At one point, Superman saves Bibbo from being murdered by gun-wielding muggers.
Other versions:
Bibbo plays an important part in the alternate universe story Superman: The Dark Side. He watches out for Jimmy Olsen, keeps an eye on Lois Lane and fights back against invading alien forces from Apokolips.
The Pre-Zero-Hour version of Bibbo becomes friends with Steel's niece and nephew in the Convergence storyline. Despite their robotic disguises, he recognizes them instantly.
In other media:
Television Bibbo briefly appears as the owner of the Ace of Clubs in the Lois and Clark: The New Adventures of Superman episode "Double Jeopardy", played by Troy Evans.
Bibbo appears in Superman: The Animated Series, voiced by Brad Garrett. This version is an unemployed sea captain who frequents the Hobb's Bay section of Metropolis.
Bibbo's Ace of Clubs appeared thrice (as an upscale nightclub) in Smallville's seventh season and numerous times in the eighth season.
Bibbo Bibbowski appears in Young Justice, voiced by Miguel Ferrer. The episode "Schooled" features a scene set in a Metropolis diner called "Bibbo's" with Bibbo himself making a non-speaking cameo in the kitchen. Bibbo was later captured and held as prisoner by the Kroloteans. The Krolotean impostor is later confronted by Blue Beetle, Bumblebee and the real Bibbo.
Film Bibbo Bibbowski appears in The Death of Superman and its sequel, Reign of the Supermen, based on the comic book arcs of the same name, voiced by Charles Halford. In this continuity, he left the job of the sailor and is the owner of the restaurant Ace o' Clubs Bar & Grill.
Video games Bibbo's bar, the Ace O' Clubs, appears in the Metropolis stage in Injustice 2. Bibbo himself makes a cameo in the background of the stage, tending the bar. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Selenium meter**
Selenium meter:
A selenium meter is a light-measuring instrument based on the photoelectric properties of selenium. The most common use of such light meters is measuring the exposure value for photography. The electric part of such a meter is an electromagnetic measuring instrument which is connected to the anode and cathode of a selenium photo cell that produces more or less electric power when exposed to more or less light. The optical part of such a meter is a window in front of the photo cell's light-sensitive side. The window's surface is usually structured like a honeycomb made of convex lenses. This type of window helps to bundle the light coming from the direction in which the photo cell is pointed. The mechanical part of a selenium meter is an analog calculator which accepts exposure value and film speed as input parameters for showing the possible aperture and shutter-speed combinations for correct exposure.
Types of meters:
Match-needle meters Uncoupled meter The simplest type of match-needle selenium meter shows a clockhand on the meter's scale. This can be moved by turning one slice of the analog calculator. When the clockhand matches the instrument's needle the EV-value is set right on the calculator.
Types of meters:
The picture on the right shows the device of the Zenit - E model, mounted on a left side of the camera. The inner (flat) circle rotates with the help of the knob and sets the film sensitivity (visible in both DIN and ASA units through tiny windows). The outer circle is coupled to the moving O - shaped marker in the scale on the left and must be rotated till the marker covers the needle (visible in the left corner). The recommended exposures can be read on a side scale against the possible apertures (top scale). The device is not directly coupled to actual aperture and exposure controls Coupled meters More sophisticated cameras have the match-needle instrument coupled directly to aperture and shutter speed setting rings on the lens tube instead to a separate analog calculator. This is the most convenient way of match-needle instrument usage, especially when the meter's scale is mirrored into the viewfinder.
Types of meters:
Manual control coupled meter Various models of Zeiss Ikon Contaflex SLR and Contessa cameras have built-in coupled match needle selenium meters. To change the aperture and/or shutter speed, move the red marker hand with the "O" shape loop, such that the "O" is aligned with the selenium meter needle; the shutter speed and aperture is thus selected. Minox B and Tessina have manually coupled meters.
Types of meters:
Automatic coupled meter With the Zeiss Ikon Contaflex Super B in automatic mode, changing the shutter speed results in the camera automatically selecting the correct aperture according to the value indicated by the built in selenium meter needle. In the beginnings of exposure automation (ca. 1960) the instruments were even used for setting exposure settings directly, mainly for automatic aperture setting. A simple method for this was called "trap-needle"; pressing the shutter release mechanically gripped the meter needle, then moved an aperture control up to hit the needle, setting the aperture to a value controlled by the meter.
Types of meters:
This kind of attempt to automate exposure setting was common in an era were precision mechanical engineers didn't know any limits of complication so that even further steps were gone to use selenium photo cells to control all exposure settings, or to control them more exactly with help of electro-mechanical aids. Heinz Waaske's SLR construction Edixa Electronica was such a costly attempt. The construction problem was the low electric power delivered by the photo cell. It was a precision mechanical wonder that a handful of cameras were made which had automatic exposure control driven by a selenium meter, without need of further electronic or electromechanical support, for example the Optima.
Types of meters:
A compromise for expensive rangefinder or SLR or twin lens reflex cameras was to offer a selenium meter as optional device that could be coupled to the camera's shutter speed controls. The scale of these instruments show not an exposure value but an aperture value to be set "uncoupled" Examples of Leica and Tessina are shown in the photographs | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Hive (character)**
Hive (character):
Hive is a fictional supervillain appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Hive was an experiment made to physically embody the ideals of the fictional terrorist group HYDRA. The entity is composed of untold numbers of genetically-engineered parasites.
Hive appeared in the third season of the TV series Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. where he was an ancient Inhuman and was primarily portrayed by Brett Dalton.
Publication history:
Hive first appeared in Secret Warriors #2 (May 2009) and was created by Brian Michael Bendis and Alex Maleev.
Fictional character biography:
The Hive was created in the HYDRA laboratories at their home base of Gehenna. An unknown and unwitting HYDRA agent was offered and fed to these parasites as a host around which they could merge into a singular being. Grotesque and menacing in both stature and appearance, the Hive had no identity of its own, per se - as its collective will dominate the human host it engulfs. However, it possesses a quiet and cunning intelligence and as a result of its conditioning is completely dedicated to the HYDRA cause to the extent that Baron Strucker appointed it as a figurehead alongside himself, the Viper, Gorgon, Kraken, and the new Madame HYDRA in the form of triple agent Valentina Allegra de Fontaine.When HYDRA went to war against the rival organization Leviathan, Valentina revealed her true allegiance and murdered her predecessor Viper. When Strucker and the other heads discovered Viper's corpse, the Hive shocked and appalled them all by merging with the deceased woman's body, re-animating Viper, but with the parasites themselves gathering into a bulbous mass atop her head with four prehensile tentacles.Nick Fury has one of his teams led by his son Mikel Fury sent to destroy the Hive Base located in the Indian Ocean. The team is attacked by hundreds of HYDRA agents being controlled by Hive itself. The team is overrun, but not before sacrificing themselves to blow up the base presumably killing Hive.Taking back her title as Madame HYDRA, Viper and Gorgon subsequently broke away from Baron Strucker's weakening grip on HYDRA and formed an alliance with Norman Osborn's H.A.M.M.E.R. organization. During this brief and fragile union, Osborn arranged for Madame HYDRA to undergo surgery to remove the Hive from her in a way that would keep her alive.Hive is later found alive in a HYDRA-decorated crypt in Egypt by the new Madame HYDRA in her bid to form a new HYDRA High Council to assist Steve Rogers, whom had his history altered to be a HYDRA sleeper agent for years by Red Skull's clone using the powers of Kobik.During the Secret Empire storyline, Hive is shown to have taken control of the Hand when the Underground encounters him and Gorgon in Madripoor. Hive is defeated by the Tony Stark A.I.
Powers and abilities:
The Hive's body, while bipedal, is not a solid figure but a writhing congregation of its many parasites. As such, these parasites can actually latch away from the mass and attack others at high speed—making them effective projectile weapons. As one, the Hive is capable of asserting itself as an individual, albeit without name or personality. In this form it is capable of speech—the language, however, is unknown, though spoken also by other HYDRA agents—suggesting it is one of their own design, created for strategic secrecy when in the field. The Hive is capable of breathing both on land and underwater.
Powers and abilities:
Hive's strength level is never revealed but it is implied that the Hive possesses a greater than average physical strength from the combined efforts of its parasites. The Hive's only weakness is that despite the deadliness of its parasites it still has the physical limitations of its human host; in other words, whilst it can improve upon the host's strength and skills it cannot perform impossibilities such as flight if the host cannot. Also, any ailments afflicting the host prior to absorption will still be present and will affect the Hive—for instance, its original human host possessed a minute blood disorder and was also a diabetic—hence, why the HYDRA heads deemed him as fodder for the Hive experiment and would have also made him weak enough to be absorbed. These maladies would have also been present within the Hive afterwards. When the Hive later merged with the Viper, these ailments would no longer be present.
In other media:
An Inhuman version of Hive, also known as Alveus, appears as the main antagonist in season 3 of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. Originally a Maya warrior in ancient times (portrayed by Jason Glover), he was captured by the Kree Reapers and became one of their first subjects to undergo Terrigenesis, a process used to create super soldiers known as Inhumans. Terrigenesis transforms him into a mass of cellular parasites, which survives by inhabiting a dead human host, gaining their memories in the process, and he can manifest an alien-like head with protruding tentacles. Hive can expel the parasites to devour humans for nourishment, or infect Inhumans to "sway" them under his control in a hive mind. The ancient Inhumans feared him and used Kree technology to banish him to a faraway planet called Maveth. His remaining worshipers established a secret society to prepare the world for his return (ultimately evolving into the terrorist organization HYDRA) and provide new victims/hosts, including Lord Manzini (portrayed by Daniel J. Wolfe), Nathaniel Malick (portrayed by Joel Courtney) and NASA astronaut Will Daniels (portrayed by Dillon Casey). Through HYDRA's efforts, Hive returns to Earth in the corpse of HYDRA leader Grant Ward (portrayed by Brett Dalton). Hive seizes control of HYDRA and recreates the Terrigenesis experiment, seizing a warhead to spread worldwide a virus that transforms humans into Hive-infected primitive Inhuman warriors. His efforts are thwarted by S.H.I.E.L.D. when Lincoln Campbell entraps them both in a space-bound Quinjet containing the exploding warhead, killing them both. In "The Real Deal", a fear manifestation of Hive is among the fear manifestations released when the Kree Beacon exploded near the three monoliths. It was destroyed by Phil Coulson and Deathlok. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Health effects of tattoos**
Health effects of tattoos:
A variety of health effects can result from tattooing. Because it requires breaking the skin barrier, tattooing carries inherent health risks, including infection and allergic reactions. Modern tattooists reduce such risks by following universal precautions, working with single-use disposable needles, and sterilising equipment after each use. Many jurisdictions require tattooists to undergo periodic bloodborne pathogen training, such as is provided through the Red Cross and the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration.
Health effects of tattoos:
Dermatologists have observed rare but severe medical complications from tattoo pigments in the body, and have noted that people acquiring tattoos rarely assess health risks prior to receiving their tattoos. Some medical practitioners have recommended greater regulation of pigments used in tattoo ink. The wide range of pigments currently used in tattoo inks may create unforeseen health problems.
Infection:
Since tattoo instruments come in contact with blood and bodily fluids, diseases may be transmitted if the instruments are used on more than one person without being sterilised. However, infection from tattooing in clean and modern tattoo studios employing single-use needles is rare. With amateur tattoos, such as those applied in prisons, however, there is an elevated risk of infection. To address this problem, a programme was introduced in Canada as of the summer of 2005 that provides legal tattooing in prisons, both to reduce health risks and to provide inmates with a marketable skill. Inmates were to be trained to staff and operate the tattoo parlours once six of them opened successfully.In the United States, the Red Cross prohibits a person who has received a tattoo from donating blood for 12 months (FDA 2000), unless the procedure was done in a state-regulated and licensed studio, using sterile technique. Not all states have a licensing program, meaning that people who receive tattoos in those states are subject to the 12-month deferral regardless of the hygienic standards of the studio. Similarly, the UK does not provide certification for tattooists, and blood donations are prohibited without exception for four months following a tattoo.Infections that can theoretically be transmitted by the use of unsterilised tattoo equipment or contaminated ink include surface infections of the skin, hepatitis B, hepatitis C, tuberculosis, and HIV. However, no person in the United States is reported to have contracted HIV via a commercially applied tattooing process. Washington state's OSHA studies have suggested that since the needles used in tattooing are not hollow, in the case of a needle stick injury the amount of fluids transmitted may be small enough that HIV would be difficult to transmit. Tetanus risk is reduced by having an up-to-date tetanus booster prior to being tattooed. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, of 13,387 hepatitis cases in the USA in 1995, 12 cases (0.09%) were associated with tattoo parlours; by comparison, 43 cases (0.32%) were associated with dentists' offices.In 2006, the CDC reported 3 clusters with 44 cases of methicillin-resistant staph infection traced to unlicensed tattooists.
Reactions to inks:
Perhaps due to the mechanism whereby the skin's immune system encapsulates pigment particles in fibrous tissue, tattoo inks have been described as "remarkably nonreactive histologically". However, some allergic reactions have been medically documented. No estimate of the overall incidence of allergic reactions to tattoo pigments exists. Allergies to latex are apparently more common than to inks; many artists will use non-latex gloves when requested. Tattoos may even trigger a positive immune response by strengthening it.
Reactions to inks:
Allergy to metals People who are sensitive or allergic to certain metals may react to pigments in the skin with swelling and/or itching, and/or oozing of clear fluid called serum. Such reactions are quite rare, however, and some artists will recommend performing a test patch. Because the mercury and Azo-chemicals in red dyes are more commonly allergenic than other pigments, allergic reactions are most often seen in red tattoos. Less frequent allergic reactions to black, purple, and green pigments have also been noted. Tattoo inks contaminated with metal allergens have been known to cause severe reactions, sometimes years later, when the original ink is not available for testing; see metal allergy.Traditional metallic salts are prevalent in tattoo inks. A 3-by-5-inch (76 by 127 mm) tattoo may contain from 1 to 23 micrograms (1.5×10−5 to 0.000355 gr) of lead, but there is insufficient evidence to assess whether the metallic salts are harmful at this dosage and via this method. However, in 2005, there were no reports of metal toxicity from tattoo ink.
Reactions to inks:
Photosensitisation Allergic reactions to tattoo pigments, while uncommon, are most often seen with red, yellow, and occasionally white. Tattoos that are exposed to the sun may result in an allergic reaction, particularly those that contain yellow tattoo ink. Yellow and some red pigments contain cadmium sulfide, which can cause an allergic reaction when exposed to the sun.
Allergy to organic pigments Organic pigments (i.e., non-heavy metal pigments) may also pose health concerns. A European Commission noted that close to 40% of organic tattoo colorants used in Europe had not been approved for cosmetic use, and that under 20% of colorants contained a carcinogenic aromatic amine.
MRI complications:
A few cases of burns on tattoos caused by MRI scans have been documented. Problems tend to occur with designs containing large areas of black ink, since black commonly contains iron oxide; the MRI scanner causes the iron to heat up either by inducing an electric current or hysteresis. Burning can occur on smaller tattoos such as "permanent makeup", but this is rare. Non-ferrous pigments have also been known to cause burns during an MRI. It should be stressed that tattoo burns are rare, so merely having a tattoo does not contraindicate the use of MRI scanning.
Dermal conditions:
The most common dermal reactions to tattoo pigments are granulomas and various lichenoid diseases. Other conditions noted have been cement dermatitis, collagen deposits, discoid lupus erythematosus, eczematous eruptions, hyperkeratosis and parakeratosis, and keloids.
Delayed reactions:
Hypersensitive reactions to tattoos are known to lay latent for significant periods of time before exhibiting symptoms. Delayed abrupt chronic reactions, such as eczematous dermatitis, are known to manifest themselves from months to as many as twenty years after the patient received their most recent tattoo.
Other adverse effects:
Other documented conditions caused by tattoo pigments have been carcinoma, hyperplasia, tumours, and vasculitis. Keratoacanthoma may also occur, which makes excision of the affected area mandatory. Eyeball tattoos carry their own unique risks.
Other adverse effects:
Hematoma Occasionally, when a blood vessel is punctured during the tattooing procedure a hematoma (bruise) may appear. Bruises generally heal within one week. Bruises can appear as halos around a tattoo, or, if blood pools, as one larger bruise. This bluish or dark blurry halo that surrounds a tattoo can also be attributed to ink diffusion or 'blow-out'. Commonly mistaken for a hematoma, this discolouration occurs when tattoo pigments spread out into the subcutaneous tissue beneath the dermal skin layer, and may be caused by ink being deposited too deep in the skin.
Other adverse effects:
Burden on lymphatic system Some pigment migrates from a tattoo site to lymph nodes, where large particles may accumulate.Particles created by laser tattoo removal treatments may be small enough that they are carried away by the lymphatic system and excreted, but this is not always the case; the laser technology used for removal and the composition of the pigment(s) being removed are variable.
Other adverse effects:
Interference with melanoma diagnosis Lymph nodes may become discolored and inflamed with the presence of tattoo pigments, but discoloration and inflammation are also visual indicators of melanoma; consequently, diagnosing melanoma in a patient with tattoos is made difficult, and special precautions must be taken to avoid misdiagnoses.
Effects of blood thinners A regimen of blood thinners may affect the tattooing process, causing excess bleeding. This increased bleeding can slow the process of getting enough ink into the skin. The aftercare healing may also take longer.
Case studies:
Reactions to inks Mortimer NJ, Chave TA, Johnston GA (2003). "Red tattoo reactions". Clin Exp Dermatol. 28 (5): 508–10. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2230.2003.01358.x. PMID 12950341. S2CID 790219.
Lubeck G, Epstein E (1952). "Complications of tattooing". Calif Med. 76 (2): 83–5. PMC 1521348. PMID 14905289.
Engel E, Santarelli F, Vasold R, et al. (2008). "Modern tattoos cause high concentrations of hazardous pigments in skin". Contact Dermatitis. 58 (4): 228–33. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0536.2007.01301.x. PMID 18353031. S2CID 7057048.
Steinbrecher I, Hemmer W, Jarisch R (2004). "Adverse reaction to the azo dye Pigment Red 170 in a tattoo". J Dtsch Dermatol Ges. 2 (12): 1007–8. doi:10.1046/j.1439-0353.2004.04733.x. PMID 16285314. S2CID 221646825.
Kleinerman R, Greenspan A, Hale EK (2007). "Mohs micrographic surgery for an unusual case of keratoacanthoma arising from a longstanding tattoo". J Drugs Dermatol. 6 (9): 931–2. PMID 17941365.
Pauluzzi P, Giordani M, Guarneri GF, et al. (1998). "Chronic eczematous reaction to red tattoo". J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 11 (2): 187–8. doi:10.1111/j.1468-3083.1998.tb00780.x. PMID 9784053. S2CID 43231409.
Kluger N, Minier-Thoumin C, Plantier F (2008). "Keratoacanthoma occurring within the red dye of a tattoo". Journal of Cutaneous Pathology. 35 (5): 504–7. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0560.2007.00833.x. PMID 17976209. S2CID 32569686.
Winkelmann RK, Harris RB (1979). "Lichenoid delayed hypersensitivity reactions in tattoos". Journal of Cutaneous Pathology. 6 (1): 59–65. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0560.1979.tb00306.x. PMID 438395. S2CID 36559020.
Verdich J (1981). "Granulomatous reaction in a red tattoo". Acta Derm Venereol. 61 (2): 176–7. PMID 6165203.
Cairns RJ, Calnan CD (1962). "Green tattoo reactions associated with cement dermatitis". Br J Dermatol. 74 (8–9): 288–94. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2133.1962.tb13513.x. PMID 13875622. S2CID 29755573.
Balfour E, Olhoffer I, Leffell D, et al. (2003). "Massive pseudoepitheliomatous hyperplasia: an unusual reaction to a tattoo". Am J Dermatopathol. 25 (4): 338–40. doi:10.1097/00000372-200308000-00010. PMID 12876493. S2CID 23062278.
Schwartz RA, Mathias CG, Miller CH, et al. (1987). "Granulomatous reaction to purple tattoo pigment". Contact Dermatitis. 16 (4): 198–202. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0536.1987.tb01424.x. PMID 3595119. S2CID 7894209.
Morales-Callaghan AM Jr; Aguilar-Bernier M Jr; Martínez-García G; et al. (2006). "Sarcoid granuloma on black tattoo". J Am Acad Dermatol. 55 (5 Suppl): S71-3. doi:10.1016/j.jaad.2005.12.022. PMID 17052538.
Cui W, McGregor DH, Stark SP, et al. (2007). "Pseudoepitheliomatous hyperplasia - an unusual reaction following tattoo: report of a case and review of the literature". Int J Dermatol. 46 (7): 743–5. doi:10.1111/j.1365-4632.2007.03150.x. PMID 17614808. S2CID 25994313.
Biro L, Klein WP (1967). "Unusual complications of mercurial (cinnabar) tattoo. Generalized eczematous eruption following laceration of a tattoo". Arch Dermatol. 96 (2): 165–7. doi:10.1001/archderm.1967.01610020057017. PMID 6039153.
Antal AS, Hanneken S, Neumann NJ, et al. (2008). "Erhebliche zeitliche Variationsbreite von Komplikationen nach Tätowierungen". Der Hautarzt. 59 (10): 769–71. doi:10.1007/s00105-008-1631-y. PMID 18773181. S2CID 24464853.
Toxins in inks Civatte J, Bazex J (2007). "Piercing and tattooing: regulation is needed to reduce complications". Bull Acad Natl Med. 191 (9): 1819–38. PMID 18663977.
Hannuksela M (2005). "Tattoo pigments contains toxic compounds, but legislators do not pay attention". Duodecim. 121 (17): 1802–2. PMID 16262117.
Möhrenschlager M, Worret WI, Köhn FM (2006). "Tattoos and permanent make-up: background and complications". MMW Fortschr Med. 148 (41): 34–6. doi:10.1007/bf03364782. PMID 17190258. S2CID 79090296.
Poon, Kelvin Weng Chun (2008), In situ chemical analysis of tattooing inks and pigments: modern organic and traditional pigments in ancient mummified remains, University of Western Australia Wollina U, Gruner M, Schönlebe J (2008). "Granulomatous tattoo reaction and erythema nodosum in a young woman: common cause or coincidence?". J Cosmet Dermatol. 7 (2): 84–8. doi:10.1111/j.1473-2165.2008.00368.x. PMID 18482009. S2CID 24012924.
Other dermatological reactions Kazandjieva J, Tsankov N (2007). "Tattoos: dermatological complications". Clin Dermatol. 25 (4): 375–82. doi:10.1016/j.clindermatol.2007.05.012. PMID 17697920.
Kluger N (2012). "Acute complications of tattooing presenting in the ED". Am J Emerg Med. 30 (9): 2055–2063. doi:10.1016/j.ajem.2012.06.014. PMID 22944541.
Müller KM, Schmitz I, Hupe-Nörenberg L (2002). "Reaction patterns to cutaneous particulate and ornamental tattoos". Der Pathologe. 23 (1): 46–53. doi:10.1007/s00292-001-0507-z. PMID 11974503. S2CID 429363.
Papageorgiou PP, Hongcharu W, Chu AC (1999). "Systemic sarcoidosis presenting with multiple tattoo granulomas and an extra-tattoo cutaneous granuloma". J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 12 (1): 51–3. doi:10.1111/j.1468-3083.1999.tb00809.x. PMID 10188151. S2CID 27466431.
Schmitz I, Müller KM (2004). "Elemental analysis of tattoo dyes: is there a potential risk from tattoo dyes?". J Dtsch Dermatol Ges. 2 (5): 350–3. doi:10.1046/j.1439-0353.2004.04755.x. PMID 16281523. S2CID 70579019.
MRI Klitscher D, Blum J, Kreitner KF, et al. (2005). "MRT-induced burns in tattooed patients: Case report of a traumatic surgery patient". Unfallchirurg. 108 (5): 410–4. doi:10.1007/s00113-004-0877-9. PMID 15909207. S2CID 810578.
Stecco A, Saponaro A, Carriero A (2007). "Patient safety issues in magnetic resonance imaging: state of the art". Radiol Med. 112 (4): 491–508. doi:10.1007/s11547-007-0154-4. PMID 17563855. S2CID 11373808.
Wagle WA, Smith M (2000). "Tattoo-induced skin burn during MR imaging". AJR Am J Roentgenol. 174 (6): 1795. doi:10.2214/ajr.174.6.1741795. PMID 10845532.
Vahlensieck M (2000). "Tattoo-related cutaneous inflammation (burn grade I) in a mid-field MR scanner". Eur Radiol. 10 (1): 197. doi:10.1007/s003300050034. PMID 10663745. S2CID 38034579.
Franiel T, Schmidt S, Klingebiel R (2006). "First-degree burns on MRI due to nonferrous tattoos". AJR Am J Roentgenol. 187 (5): W556. doi:10.2214/AJR.06.5082. PMID 17056894.
Lymph nodes and melanoma Gutermuth J, Hein R, Fend F, et al. (2007). "Cutaneous pseudolymphoma arising after tattoo placement". J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 21 (4): 566–7. doi:10.1111/j.1468-3083.2006.01964.x. PMID 17374006. S2CID 384155.
Gall N, Bröcker EB, Becker JC (2007). "Particularities in managing melanoma patients with tattoos: case report and review of the literature". J Dtsch Dermatol Ges. 5 (12): 1120–1. doi:10.1111/j.1610-0387.2007.06386.x. PMID 17919304. S2CID 7154910.
Chikkamuniyappa S, Sjuve-Scott R, Lancaster-Weiss K, et al. (2005). "Tattoo pigment in sentinel lymph nodes: a mimicker of metastatic malignant melanoma". Dermatol Online J. 11 (1): 14. doi:10.5070/D31B43M26H. PMID 15748555.
Hannah H, Falder S, Steele PR, et al. (2000). "Tattoo pigment masquerading as secondary malignant melanoma". Br J Plast Surg. 53 (4): 359. doi:10.1054/bjps.2000.3346. PMID 10876271.
Kluger N, Jolly M, Guillot B (2008). "Tattoo-induced vasculitis". J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 22 (5): 643–4. doi:10.1111/j.1468-3083.2008.02729.x. PMID 18384545. S2CID 9318323.
Sperry K (1992). "Tattoos and tattooing. Part II: Gross pathology, histopathology, medical complications, and applications". Am J Forensic Med Pathol. 13 (1): 7–17. doi:10.1097/00000433-199203000-00003. PMID 1585890. S2CID 12596869.
Zirkin HJ, Avinoach I, Edelwitz P (2001). "A tattoo and localized lymphadenopathy: a case report". Cutis. 67 (6): 471–2. PMID 11419018. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Martingale pricing**
Martingale pricing:
Martingale pricing is a pricing approach based on the notions of martingale and risk neutrality. The martingale pricing approach is a cornerstone of modern quantitative finance and can be applied to a variety of derivatives contracts, e.g. options, futures, interest rate derivatives, credit derivatives, etc.
Martingale pricing:
In contrast to the PDE approach to pricing, martingale pricing formulae are in the form of expectations which can be efficiently solved numerically using a Monte Carlo approach. As such, martingale pricing is preferred when valuing high-dimensional contracts such as a basket of options. On the other hand, valuing American-style contracts is troublesome and requires discretizing the problem (making it like a Bermudan option) and only in 2001 F. A. Longstaff and E. S. Schwartz developed a practical Monte Carlo method for pricing American options.
Measure theory representation:
Suppose the state of the market can be represented by the filtered probability space, (Ω,(Ft)t∈[0,T],P~) . Let {S(t)}t∈[0,T] be a stochastic price process on this space. One may price a derivative security, V(t,S(t)) under the philosophy of no arbitrage as, D(t)V(t,S(t))=E~[D(T)V(T,S(T))|Ft],dD(t)=−r(t)D(t)dt Where P~ is the risk-neutral measure.
(r(t))t∈[0,T] is an Ft -measurable (risk-free, possibly stochastic) interest rate process.This is accomplished through almost sure replication of the derivative's time T payoff using only underlying securities, and the risk-free money market (MMA). These underlyings have prices that are observable and known.
Measure theory representation:
Specifically, one constructs a portfolio process {X(t)}t∈[0,T] in continuous time, where he holds Δ(t) shares of the underlying stock at each time t , and X(t)−Δ(t)S(t) cash earning the risk-free rate r(t) . The portfolio obeys the stochastic differential equation dX(t)=Δ(t)dS(t)+r(t)(X(t)−Δ(t)S(t))dt One will then attempt to apply Girsanov theorem by first computing dP~dP ; that is, the Radon–Nikodym derivative with respect to the observed market probability distribution. This ensures that the discounted replicating portfolio process is a Martingale under risk neutral conditions. If such a process Δ(t) can be well-defined and constructed, then choosing V(0,S(0))=X(0) will result in P~[X(T)=V(T)]=1 , which immediately implies that this happens P -almost surely as well, since the two measures are equivalent. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Woltman sign**
Woltman sign:
Woltman's sign (also called Woltman's sign of hypothyroidism or, in older references, myxedema reflex) is a delayed relaxation phase of an elicited deep tendon reflex, usually tested in the Achilles tendon of the patient.
Woltman's sign is named for Henry Woltman, an American neurologist.
Associated conditions:
The delayed ankle jerks are associated with: hypothyroidism; Huntington's disease; several neurological symptoms; anorexia nervosa; extreme old age; beta-blockers or other drugs; and/or hypothermia.
History:
In 1924, William Calvert Chaney (1888–1965), who worked under Henry Woltman at the Mayo Clinic, seems to have been the first to publish a description of the sign, but Woltman had no authorship and was not mentioned in Chaney's manuscript. The eponym "Woltman's sign of myxedema" was first published in 1956 at the time of Woltman's retirement. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Lunatic fringe**
Lunatic fringe:
Lunatic fringe, a derogatory term used to characterize members of a political or social movement as extremists with eccentric or fanatical views, may refer to: "Lunatic Fringe" (song), a 1981 song by Red Rider LFNG, a gene in the Notch pathway Jon Moxley (born 1985), nicknamed "Lunatic Fringe", American professional wrestler "Lunatic Fringe", a 1999 episode of the TV series The Net Lunatic Fringe, a screensaver in the After Dark screensaver pack "The Lunatic Fringe", branding for radio station WEBN, Cincinnati, Ohio, US | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**WikiStage**
WikiStage:
WikiStage is a video platform and a network of event organisers managed by the non-profit WikiStage Association. It aims to create a collaborative video platform for debate.
Conferences around the world use the WikiStage platform to share their speaker’s videos. To connect talks with those of other speakers, the videos are grouped into a debate according to their topic. The debate wall allows users to watch and vote for short videos from different sources on the topic in question.
WikiStage:
In addition to partnering with conferences around the world, WikiStage allows the members of its community to organise WikiStage branded conferences under the WikiStage license for free. The talks filmed at these conferences are then published on the WikiStage website and YouTube to ensure unlimited, free access. A community of over 100 volunteers in 12 countries is spread over 4 continents to curate the video library.
Origin of the Name:
According to the founder, the "Wiki" brand was chosen because the organisation follows the objectives and values of other Wiki Projects: to create a library of knowledge through an open and collaborative approach where the users produce the content. WikiStage is an independent organisation and uses the protected trademarks “WikiStage” and “WikiTalk”.
Objectives:
The objective of WikiStage is to encourage democratic debate and to bring forward ideas from experts around the world. The organisation states they “provide a stage for the world's most interesting questions”. With their global network of events and video debate platform WikiStage aims to “improve education and strengthen democratic debate”.
The WikiTalk:
The presentations published on WikiStage are called WikiTalks. The short talks of three, six or nine minutes each address a specific topic and cover questions ranging from history and philosophy to genetics, and jazz. Promotional presentations or extreme views in WikiTalks are not allowed.WikiTalks are typically filmed at conferences, but they can also be recorded with just a camera and a speaker. A recording session of five to ten experts is called a 'WikiCorner' and can be organised by anyone after acquiring a WikiCorner license.
WikiStage Events:
The first WikiStage Event took place at ESCP Europe Paris in March 2013 under the motto “Celebrate Curiosity”.
Subsequently, WikiStage spread in other French schools such as Sciences Po, École Centrale Paris and Paris Dauphine University. Up until July 2016, seventy events have been held at institutions like the Chamber of Commerce in Nouakchott, Mauretania, Stanford University and the Worldbank.
WikiStage Events:
WikiStage Events are organised collaboratively under the free license granted by the WikiStage Association. Anyone may request to organise a WikiStage Event. Once the license is granted, the WikiStage Association provides the local organisers with support, toolkits and guides. The local organiser designs the program of the event, records the talks and performances, then edits and uploads them to the WikiStage YouTube channel and website. Speakers are asked to prepare their talk prior to the event and encouraged to share their talks under the Creative Commons license. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**1,5-Diaza-3,7-diphosphacyclooctanes**
1,5-Diaza-3,7-diphosphacyclooctanes:
1,5-Diaza-3,7-diphosphacyclooctanes are organophosphorus compounds with the formula [R'NCH2P(R)CH2]2, often abbreviated PR2NR'2. They are air-sensitive white solids that are soluble in organic solvents. The ligands exist as meso and d,l-diastereomers, but only the meso forms function as bidentate ligands.Some metal-PR2NR'2 complexes catalyze the hydrogen evolution reaction as well as the oxidation of hydrogen (H2). The catalytic mechanism involves the interaction of substrate with the amines in the second coordination sphere.
Synthesis and reactions:
The ligands are prepared by the condensation of a primary phosphine, formaldehyde, and a primary amine: 2 RPH2 + 4 CH2O + 2 RNH2 → [RNCH2P(R')CH2]2 + 4 H2ODiazadiphosphacyclooctanes function as chelating diphosphine ligands. Typical nickel complexes contain two such ligands are give the formula [Ni(PR2NR'2)2]2+.
Cationic complexes of these P2N2 and related ligands often exhibit enhanced reactivity toward H2. These complexes serve as electrocatalysts for H2 production.
Related ligands:
Azadiphosphacycloheptanes are a related family of diphosphines, but containing only one amine. They are prepared by condensation of 1,2-bis(phenylphosphino)ethane, formaldehyde, and a primary amine. From the meso-isomer, typical nickel complexes contain two such ligands, i.e. [Ni(PR2NR')2]2+. When bound to metals, these ligands adopt a conformation similar to that of 1,4-diazacycloheptanes. Acyclic phosphine-amine ligands have the formula (R2PCH2)NR'. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**History of anatomy in the 19th century**
History of anatomy in the 19th century:
The history of anatomy in the 19th century saw anatomists largely finalise and systematise the descriptive human anatomy of the previous century. The discipline also progressed to establish growing sources of knowledge in histology and developmental biology, not only of humans but also of animals.
Anatomical science:
Sommerring Samuel Thomas von Sömmerring originally published a clear, accurate and precise system in German (1791–1796), then in Latin (1794–1800). There was a second German edition in 1800–1801 and a further eight-volume edition (1841–1844) revised and with additional material by Th.L.W. Bischoff, Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle, E.H. Huschke, Theile, G.G. Valentin, Vogel, and Rudolph Wagner. The arrangement of the edition is: Vol. 1: Wagner details the life, correspondence and literary writings of Sommerring; Vol. 2: Anatomy of the bones and ligaments; Vol. 3: Anatomy of the muscles and the vascular system by Theile; Vol. 4: microscopic anatomy of the nervous system by Valentin, including the brain, the spinal cord, and the ganglia; Vol. 5: Anatomy of the organs by Huschke – this part of the work had been left incomplete by Sommerring but he had left extensive material to work on; Vol. 6: An entire and complete system of general anatomy, deduced from personal observation by Henle and other careful observers, the materials being in general new, and in all instances confirmed and rectified; Vol. 7: Developmental biology of mammals and humans, by Bischoff; Vol. 8: Pathological anatomy of the human body, by Vogel, but only the generalities of the subject.This was translated into French by Jourdan, and published in 1846 under the name of Encyclopedie anatomique. The eighth volume was translated into English in the year 1847.
Anatomical science:
Bichat The Anatomie Generale of Xavier Bichat is a monument of his scientific ability and scholarship. His Anatomie Descriptive is distinguished by clear and natural arrangement, precise and accurate description, and the general ingenuity with which the subject is treated. The physiological observations are in general correct, often novel, and always highly interesting. Bichat died during the preparation of the third volume and the work was completed by P.J. Roux and M.F.R. Buisson.
Anatomical science:
Gray Henry Gray, an English anatomist and surgeon at St. George's Hospital, published Gray's Anatomy. With the artist abilities and help of Henry Vandyke Carter, Gray produced an inexpensive and accessible anatomy textbook for medical students. Dissecting unclaimed bodies from workhouse and hospital mortuaries through the Anatomy Act of 1832, the two worked for 18 months on what would form the basis of the book. Their work was first published in 1858.
Social and political issues:
The growth of medical science and medical practice created an increased demand for human cadavers for use in medical colleges, particularly for anatomy demonstrations. Before the 19th century, most were bodies of executed criminals or, more rarely, corpses donated by relatives. The reason being, having the body dissected after death was considered to be a fate worse than death. The Murder Act of 1752 permitted that the bodies of murderers be dissected after death to contribute to medical knowledge. After the criminal was hanged, medical students would be there as the body was taken down from the gallows and would argue over who would dissect the body, making the anatomist as feared as the executioner himself. However, as demand began to outstrip supply, shortage of corpses often discouraged medical schools from scrutinizing their suppliers too closely. Criminal elements were attracted to the lucrative trade and resurrectionists, or body snatchers, resorted to grave robbing to supply the market. The scale of the problem can be seen from the 1831 confessions of the London Burkers, who admitted to stealing 500–1000 bodies for anatomists, over a twelve-year career. They received 8–10 guineas for each cadaver accepted.The practices of the body snatchers caused widespread fear and revulsion as the indignities and humiliation of exhumation were compounded by the horror of being the subject of dissection. The criminal temptations ultimately led to the 1827–1828 West Port murders in Edinburgh, UK, where likely candidates were killed and sold for cash. The murders led to the passing of the Anatomy Act 1832 which finally provided for an adequate and legitimate supply of corpses. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Victor Borisov**
Victor Borisov:
Victor Vasil'evich Borisov (Russian: Виктор Васильевич Борисов) (31 October 1937 – 5 December 2013) was a Russian physicist and mathematician who contributed to the theory of wave motion, in particular to time domain electromagnetics and localized waves.
Under his guidance, Vladimir Smirnov's approach to solving the initial-boundary value problem to the hyperbolic partial differential equations (in particular, the wave equation) was developed into the spacetime triangle diagram (STTD) technique.
Victor Borisov's findings and ideas are summarized in two monographs edited by Leningrad State University.
Particular discoveries:
1970s Description of the essentially non-sinusoidal fields emanated by perfectly conducting sources at motion.1980 Transformation of electromagnetic signals at abrupt variation of medium properties, including guiding systems.1993 Characterization of electromagnetic fields accompanying propagation of spike pulses of hard radiation in media.1994 General modal solutions for subluminal and luminal sources distributed on a circle.1994 Physically tenable models of generating finite-support, truncated focus wave modes in free space, noncollisional plasma, and conducting medium.2000 Constructing a new class of relatively undistorted progressing waves.2005 Description of several specific phenomena occurring in waves produced by a travelling source pulse with high-frequency filling. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Xanthine phosphoribosyltransferase**
Xanthine phosphoribosyltransferase:
In enzymology, a xanthine phosphoribosyltransferase (EC 2.4.2.22) is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction XMP + diphosphate ⇌ 5-phospho-alpha-D-ribose 1-diphosphate + xanthineThus, the two substrates of this enzyme are XMP and diphosphate, whereas its two products are 5-phospho-alpha-D-ribose 1-diphosphate and xanthine.
This enzyme belongs to the family of glycosyltransferases, specifically the pentosyltransferases. The systematic name of this enzyme class is XMP:diphosphate 5-phospho-alpha-D-ribosyltransferase. Other names in common use include Xan phosphoribosyltransferase, xanthosine 5'-phosphate pyrophosphorylase, xanthylate pyrophosphorylase, xanthylic pyrophosphorylase, XMP pyrophosphorylase, 5-phospho-alpha-D-ribose-1-diphosphate:xanthine, phospho-D-ribosyltransferase, 9-(5-phospho-beta-D-ribosyl)xanthine:diphosphate, and 5-phospho-alpha-D-ribosyltransferase. This enzyme participates in purine metabolism.
Structural studies:
As of late 2007, 6 structures have been solved for this class of enzymes, with PDB accession codes 1A95, 1A96, 1A97, 1A98, 1NUL, and 2FXV. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Salt Mountain Limestone**
Salt Mountain Limestone:
The Salt Mountain Limestone is a geologic formation in southern Alabama and Mississippi.It is a Paleogene Period limestone formation. and preserves fossils dating back to the Paleogene period.
Name:
The name Salt Mountain Limestone replaced the descriptive name "Coral limestone" with Glendon limestone and replaced the paleontologic name "Orbitoidal limestone" with Marianna limestone. Both of these limestones are exposed near Salt Mountain, "which is now considered to be a tilted block brought up by the Jackson fault. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Sleep inversion**
Sleep inversion:
Sleep inversion or sleep-wake inversion is a reversal of sleeping tendencies. Individuals experiencing sleep-wake inversion exchange diurnal habits for nocturnal habits, meaning they are active at night and sleep during the day. Sleep-wake inversion, when involuntary, can be a sign of a serious disorder.
Presentation:
Individuals with the delayed sleep phase type of the disorder exhibit habitually late sleep hours and an inability to change their sleeping schedule consistently. They often show sleepiness during the desired wake period of their days. Their actual phase of sleep is normal. Once they fall asleep, they stay asleep for a normal period of time, albeit a period of time that starts and stops at an abnormally late time.
Causes:
Sleep inversion may be a symptom of elevated blood ammonia levels and is often an early symptom of hepatic encephalopathy. Sleep inversion is a feature of African trypanosomiasis, after which the disease takes its common name, "African sleeping sickness"; sleep-wake cycle disturbances are the most common indication that the disease has reached the stage where infection spreads into the central nervous system. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Dvorak technique**
Dvorak technique:
The Dvorak technique (developed between 1969 and 1984 by Vernon Dvorak) is a widely used system to estimate tropical cyclone intensity (which includes tropical depression, tropical storm, and hurricane/typhoon/intense tropical cyclone intensities) based solely on visible and infrared satellite images. Within the Dvorak satellite strength estimate for tropical cyclones, there are several visual patterns that a cyclone may take on which define the upper and lower bounds on its intensity. The primary patterns used are curved band pattern (T1.0-T4.5), shear pattern (T1.5–T3.5), central dense overcast (CDO) pattern (T2.5–T5.0), central cold cover (CCC) pattern, banding eye pattern (T4.0–T4.5), and eye pattern (T4.5–T8.0).
Dvorak technique:
Both the central dense overcast and embedded eye pattern use the size of the CDO. The CDO pattern intensities start at T2.5, equivalent to minimal tropical storm intensity (40 mph, 65 km/h). The shape of the central dense overcast is also considered. The eye pattern utilizes the coldness of the cloud tops within the surrounding mass of thunderstorms and contrasts it with the temperature within the eye itself. The larger the temperature difference is, the stronger the tropical cyclone. Once a pattern is identified, the storm features (such as length and curvature of banding features) are further analyzed to arrive at a particular T-number. The CCC pattern indicates little development is occurring, despite the cold cloud tops associated with the quickly evolving feature.
Dvorak technique:
Several agencies issue Dvorak intensity numbers for tropical cyclones and their precursors, including the National Hurricane Center's Tropical Analysis and Forecast Branch (TAFB), the NOAA/NESDIS Satellite Analysis Branch (SAB), and the Joint Typhoon Warning Center at the Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.
Evolution of the method:
The initial development of this technique occurred in 1969 by Vernon Dvorak, using satellite pictures of tropical cyclones within the northwest Pacific Ocean. The system as it was initially conceived involved pattern matching of cloud features with a development and decay model. As the technique matured through the 1970s and 1980s, measurement of cloud features became dominant in defining tropical cyclone intensity and central pressure of the tropical cyclone's low-pressure area. Use of infrared satellite imagery led to a more objective assessment of the strength of tropical cyclones with eyes, using the cloud top temperatures within the eyewall and contrasting them with the warm temperatures within the eye itself. Constraints on short term intensity change are used less frequently than they were back in the 1970s and 1980s. The central pressures assigned to tropical cyclones have required modification, as the original estimates were 5–10 hPa (0.15–0.29 inHg) too low in the Atlantic and up to 20 hPa (0.59 inHg) too high in the northwest Pacific. This led to the development of a separate wind-pressure relationship for the northwest Pacific, devised by Atkinson and Holliday in 1975, then modified in 1977.As human analysts using the technique lead to subjective biases, efforts have been made to make more objective estimates using computer programs, which have been aided by higher-resolution satellite imagery and more powerful computers. Since tropical cyclone satellite patterns can fluctuate over time, automated techniques use a six-hour averaging period to lead to more reliable intensity estimates. Development of the objective Dvorak technique began in 1998, which performed best with tropical cyclones that had eyes (of hurricane or typhoon strength). It still required a manual center placement, keeping some subjectivity within the process. By 2004, an advanced objective Dvorak technique was developed which utilized banding features for systems below hurricane intensity and to objectively determine the tropical cyclone's center. A central pressure bias was uncovered in 2004 relating to the slope of the tropopause and cloud top temperatures which change with latitude that helped improve central pressure estimates within the objective technique.
Details of the method:
In a developing cyclone, the technique takes advantage of the fact that cyclones of similar intensity tend to have certain characteristic features, and as they strengthen, they tend to change in appearance in a predictable manner. The structure and organization of the tropical cyclone are tracked over 24 hours to determine if the storm has weakened, maintained its intensity, or strengthened. Various central cloud and banding features are compared with templates that show typical storm patterns and their associated intensity. If infrared satellite imagery is available for a cyclone with a visible eye pattern, then the technique utilizes the difference between the temperature of the warm eye and the surrounding cold cloud tops to determine intensity (colder cloud tops generally indicate a more intense storm). In each case a "T-number" (an abbreviation for Tropical Number) and a Current Intensity (CI) value are assigned to the storm. These measurements range between 1 (minimum intensity) and 8 (maximum intensity). The T-number and CI value are the same except for weakening storms, in which case the CI is higher. For weakening systems, the CI is held as the tropical cyclone intensity for 12 hours, though research from the National Hurricane Center indicates that six hours is more reasonable. The table at right shows the approximate surface wind speed and sea level pressure that corresponds to a given T-number. The amount a tropical cyclone can change in strength per 24-hour period is limited to 2.5 T-numbers per day.
Details of the method:
Pattern types Within the Dvorak satellite strength estimate for tropical cyclones, there are several visual patterns that a cyclone may take on which define the upper and lower bounds on its intensity. The primary patterns used are curved band pattern (T1.0-T4.5), shear pattern (T1.5-T3.5), central dense overcast (CDO) pattern (T2.5-T5.0), banding eye pattern (T4.0-T4.5), eye pattern (T4.5 – T8.0), and central cold cover (CCC) pattern. Both the central dense overcast and embedded eye pattern utilize the size of the CDO. The CDO pattern intensities start at T2.5, equivalent to minimal tropical storm intensity (40 miles per hour (64 km/h)). The shape of the central dense overcast is also considered. The farther the center is tucked into the CDO, the stronger it is deemed. Tropical cyclones with maximum sustained winds between 65 miles per hour (105 km/h) and 100 miles per hour (160 km/h) can have their center of circulations obscured by cloudiness of the central dense overcast within visible and infrared satellite imagery, which makes diagnosis of their intensity a challenge.The CCC pattern, with its large and quickly developing mass of thick cirrus clouds spreading out from an area of convection near a tropical cyclone center within a short time frame, indicates little development. When it develops, rainbands and cloud lines around the tropical cyclone weaken and the thick cloud shield obscures the circulation center. While it resembles a CDO pattern, it is rarely seen.The eye pattern utilizes the coldness of the cloud tops within the surrounding mass of thunderstorms and contrasts it with the temperature within the eye itself. The larger the temperature difference is, the stronger the tropical cyclone. Winds within tropical cyclones can also be estimated by tracking features within the CDO using rapid scan geostationary satellite imagery, whose pictures are taken minutes apart rather than every half-hour.Once a pattern is identified, the storm features (such as length and curvature of banding features) are further analyzed to arrive at a particular T-number.
Usage:
Several agencies issue Dvorak intensity numbers for tropical cyclones and their precursors. These include the National Hurricane Center's Tropical Analysis and Forecast Branch (TAFB), the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Satellite Analysis Branch (SAB), and the Joint Typhoon Warning Center at the Naval Pacific Meteorology and Oceanography Center in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.The National Hurricane Center will often quote Dvorak T-numbers in their tropical cyclone products. The following example is from discussion number 3 of Tropical Depression 24 (eventually Hurricane Wilma) of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season: BOTH TAFB AND SAB CAME IN WITH A DVORAK SATELLITE INTENSITY ESTIMATE OF T2.5/35 KT. HOWEVER ...OFTENTIMES THE SURFACE WIND FIELD OF LARGE DEVELOPING LOW PRESSURE SYSTEMS LIKE THIS ONE WILL LAG ABOUT 12 HOURS BEHIND THE SATELLITE SIGNATURE. THEREFORE... THE INITIAL INTENSITY HAS ONLY BEEN INCREASED TO 30 KT.
Usage:
Note that in this case the Dvorak T-number (in this case T2.5) was simply used as a guide but other factors determined how the NHC decided to set the system's intensity.
Usage:
The Cooperative Institute for Meteorological Satellite Studies (CIMSS) at the University of Wisconsin–Madison has developed the Objective Dvorak Technique (ODT). This is a modified version of the Dvorak technique which uses computer algorithms rather than subjective human interpretation to arrive at a CI number. This is generally not implemented for tropical depressions or weak tropical storms. The China Meteorological Agency (CMA) is expected to start using the standard 1984 version of Dvorak in the near future. The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) prefers using visible satellite imagery over infrared imagery due to a perceived high bias in estimates derived from infrared imagery during the early morning hours of convective maximum. The Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) uses the infrared version of Dvorak over the visible imagery version. Hong Kong Observatory and JMA continue to utilize Dvorak after tropical cyclone landfall. Various centers hold on to the maximum current intensity for 6–12 hours, though this rule is broken when rapid weakening is obvious.Citizen science site Cyclone Center uses a modified version of the Dvorak technique to categorize post-1970 tropical weather.
Usage:
Satellite Images of Selected Tropical Storms and hurricanes with Associated T-Number
Benefits and disadvantages:
The most significant benefit of the use of the technique is that it has provided a more complete history of tropical cyclone intensity in areas where aircraft reconnaissance is neither possible nor routinely available. Intensity estimates of maximum sustained wind are currently within 5 miles per hour (8.0 km/h) of what aircraft are able to measure half of the time, though the assignment of intensity of systems with strengths between moderate tropical-storm force (60 miles per hour (97 km/h)) and weak hurricane- or typhoon-force (100 miles per hour (160 km/h)) is the least certain. Its overall precision has not always been true, as refinements in the technique led to intensity changes between 1972 and 1977 of up to 20 miles per hour (32 km/h). The method is internally consistent in that it constrains rapid increases or decreases in tropical cyclone intensity. Some tropical cyclones fluctuate in strength more than the 2.5 T numbers per day limit allowed by the rule, which can work to the technique's disadvantage and has led to occasional abandonment of the constraints since the 1980s. Systems with small eyes near the limb, or edge, of a satellite image can be biased too weakly using the technique, which can be resolved through use of polar-orbiting satellite imagery. Subtropical cyclone intensity cannot be determined using Dvorak, which led to the development of the Hebert-Poteat technique in 1975. Cyclones undergoing extratropical transition, losing their thunderstorm activity, see their intensities underestimated using the Dvorak technique. This led to the development of the Miller and Lander extratropical transition technique which can be used under these circumstances. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Mad Fold-in**
Mad Fold-in:
The Mad Fold-In is a feature of the American humor and satire magazine Mad. Written and drawn by Al Jaffee until 2020, and by Johnny Sampson thereafter, the Fold-In is one of the most well-known aspects of the magazine, having appeared in nearly every issue of the magazine starting in 1964. The feature was conceived in response to centerfolds in popular magazines, particularly Playboy.Explaining his original inspiration, Jaffee said: Playboy had a foldout of a beautiful woman in each issue, and Life Magazine had these large, striking foldouts in which they'd show how the earth began or the solar system or something on that order -- some massive panorama. Many magazines were hopping on the bandwagon, offering similar full-color spreads to their readers. I noticed this and thought, what's a good satirical comment on the trend? Then I figured, why not reverse it? If other magazines are doing these big, full-color foldouts, well, cheap old Mad should go completely the opposite way and do an ultra-modest black-and-white Fold-In! In 2011, Jaffee reflected, "The thing that I got a kick out of was... Jeopardy! showed a fold-in and the contestants all came up with the word they were looking for, which was 'fold-in.' So I realized, I created an English language word." The Fold-In is among the few recurring features remaining in Mad today, as the magazine switched to a nearly all-reprint format in 2019.
Concept:
A Mad Fold-In consists of a single drawing, with a paragraph of text underneath, and a panel across the top with a question. Each Fold-In also features instructions on how to manipulate the Fold-In, as well as a picture illustrating the procedure. Under the instructions are two arrows labeled "A" and "B". When the paper is folded so that points "A" and "B" are touching, the remaining unobscured text underneath the picture becomes the answer to the question, and the picture itself changes into a fresh image reflecting the new text, as the middle 50% of the drawing vanishes.
Concept:
For example, a 1969 Fold-In asking, "What is the one thing protest marches have greatly improved?" depicted a stream of placard-carrying marchers, but folded into the image of the underside of a worn-out sole and the answer, "SHOE SALES." A drawing of a fearsome panther stalking a variety of jungle animals accompanying the question "What predatory creature most threatens the survival of endangered species?" contracted to the image of a lavishly swaddled woman and the solution "FUR LOVERS." (In the larger drawing, the two halves of her fur coat had been the foliage of trees.) Following the 1991 Tailhook scandal, a Navy war room became a female officer being sexually molested by a gauntlet of her comrades.
Concept:
The Far Side creator Gary Larson described his experience with the Fold-In: "The dilemma was always this: Very slowly and carefully fold the back cover... without creasing the page and quickly look at the joke. Jaffee's artistry before the folding was so amazing that I suspect I was not alone in not wanting to deface it in any way."Mad publisher Bill Gaines joked that he was a fan of the Fold-In because he knew that serious collectors valued pristine, unfolded copies, and would therefore be inspired to purchase two copies of each issue: one to fold and another to preserve intact.In 1972, Jaffee received a Special Features Reuben Award for his Fold-Ins. A retrospective collection of his Fold-Ins, "Fold This Book!", was published in 1997. A four-volume hardcover set, The Mad Fold-In Collection: 1964-2010, was released in September 2011.
Execution:
Typically, a Fold-In used visual trickery to match the ostensible topic. Jaffee said, "I could do ten of these a day if the big picture didn't have any connection with the answer. The tricky part is having a connection. In order for the copy to read correctly after it's folded, there has to be a marriage of some sort." Jaffee occasionally added an extra layer of deception. His Fold-In design for issue #495, for a question about "packaging garbage," prominently showed two separate halves of the Pixar character Wall-E within a larger drawing of a junkyard. But both Wall-E halves were on the wrong side of the fold, and thus disappeared into the real picture, which was about the TMZ gossip website.
Execution:
Jaffee only used a computer for typographic maneuvers, to make certain fold-in tricks easier to design. Otherwise, all of his work was done by hand. "I'm working on a hard, flat board... I cannot fold it. That's why my planning has to be so correct." In 2008, Jaffee told the Cape Cod Times, "I never see the finished painting folded until it's printed in the magazine. I guess I have that kind of visual mind where I can see the two sides without actually putting them together." Contrasting current art techniques and Jaffee's approach, MAD's art director, Sam Viviano, said, "I think part of the brilliance of the fold-in is lost on the younger generations who are so used to Photoshop and being able to do stuff like that on a computer."In 2016, AARP the Magazine did a feature on the eight Mad contributors who'd been with the magazine for 50 or more years. Editor John Ficarra described the process: "We'll call him up with a Fold-In idea and we'll say, 'In the first picture, we want the Civil War, and we have to have both the Confederate and Union soldiers in it, and there's got to be a cannon in it. And then when you fold it in, it has to be Kim Kardashian on Rodeo Drive, and she has to have a dog in her hand. Good luck!"
History:
Jaffee's first three Fold-Ins featured gags about the Elizabeth Taylor–Eddie Fisher–Richard Burton love triangle, Barry Goldwater and Nelson Rockefeller's battle for the 1964 Republican presidential nomination, and The Beatles' departure back to England. Fold-In subjects from the mid-1970s dealt with the gas shortage, "Saturday night special" handguns, and revelations about the CIA bugging American citizens. Fold-In topics in the years 2008 and 2009 included Guitar Hero, teen pregnancy, and Jay Leno temporarily leaving The Tonight Show. "Before anyone knew it," wrote comics historian Christopher Irving, "the hundreds of Fold-Ins created a timeline of American history, political satire, and entertainment." The third Fold-In, in issue #88, had an unusual diagonally-folded layout which was never repeated. The first 33 Fold-Ins were printed in black-and-white; starting with Mad #119 (June 1968), all Fold-Ins have been presented in color.
History:
In a Mad-like wrinkle, there are two answers to the question "When was Jaffee's last Fold-in?" The final one he designed appeared in the June 2019 issue. But his last Fold-in to be published, a personal farewell to readers, appeared in the August 2020 issue. Jaffee had prepared it six years in advance, to be published after his own death. Instead, it ran after he officially announced his retirement at the age of 99, as the conclusion of an "All Jaffee" tribute issue. It was the 509th issue of Mad to include new Jaffee material, the most for any contributor.
History:
In 2010, Jaffee described the earliest Fold-Ins: I thought to myself... now it's folded in and I've got to have something on the left side here, and something right side here. And the only thing that popped into my head was that Elizabeth Taylor had just dumped Eddie Fisher and was carrying on with Richard Burton. So I had Elizabeth Taylor kissing Richard Burton, and a cop is holding the crowd back — and just for the fun of it I put Eddie Fisher being trampled by the crowd. What a cruel thing to do! And then, when you fold it in, she's moving on from Richard Burton and kissing the next guy in the crowd. It's so simplistic and silly and juvenile! And anyone could have done that! I showed it to Al Feldstein, and the first thing I said was, 'Al, I've got this crazy idea, and you're not going to buy it, because it mutilates the magazine.' So I put it in front of him, and the thing about Al was, he liked things that intrigued him. The mechanics of it intrigued him. He said, 'You mean, you fold it, like this . . . ? And then . . . ?' He folded it, he unfolded it, he folded it, and then he said, 'I like this!' But I said, 'Al, it mutilates the magazine.' And he said, 'Well, I'll have to check it with Bill.' He takes it, runs it to Bill's office, and he was there a little while, and he comes back and he says, 'We're going to do it! You know what Bill said? Bill said, "So they mutilate the magazine, and then they'll buy another one to save!' Four or five weeks later, Al comes over to me and says, 'When are you going to do the next fold-in?' And I said, 'I don't have another fold-in. That was it!' So he said, 'Come on, you can come up with something else.' I wracked my brain, and the only thing I could come up with was Nixon [whose face was hidden within curtain folds]. That one really set the tone for what the cleverness of the fold-ins has to be. It couldn't just be bringing someone from the left to kiss someone on the right.
History:
From its debut in 1964, the Fold-In has rarely been absent from Mad's pages. Since issue #86, seven issues (#121, #190, #212, #219, #261, #353 and #360) did not feature Fold-Ins, although Jaffee still wrote and drew four of those issues' back covers. (#219 featured a see-through effect in which the back cover and inside back cover could be held up to a light source, with the separate elements of the two images combining to reveal a visual punchline.) Mad Super Special #19 (Fall 1976) featured a bonus insert, "Madde," an American Revolution-era Mad in honor of the U.S. Bicentennial. The insert included a Fold-In, showing a trade ship about to embark on a voyage, which folded into an African-American arm in chains.
History:
Four Fold-Ins were patterned after Al Jaffee's other Mad feature, Snappy Answers to Stupid Questions. The first, in #222, shows Humpty Dumpty sarcastically refusing to be put back together again, which folds into a plate of scrambled eggs. The second, in #233, takes place in a fairytale setting where a frog refuses to have a princess kiss him, folding into an image where the princess walks off saying "I hope you freeze your ..." and a donkey is in the frog's place. The third, in #295, shows a wife confronting her husband over his cigarette smoking, folding into the wife mourning the husband at his funeral. The fourth, in #499, shows a snowboarder fending off stupid questions, folding into an image of him crashing into a stone wall.
History:
In 2013, a completed Jaffee Fold-In about mass shootings was pulled from issue #521 when the editors realized the issue's on-sale date would coincide with the beginning of Aurora theater shooter James Holmes' court trial, which had been delayed. This turned out to be untrue, as the trial was delayed until October 2014, some 18 months after the editorial decision to nix the Fold-In was made. The run of Mad covers, which had already been printed separately, was destroyed, and a repeat Fold-In from 1992 was used as a replacement. #521 thus became just the second issue of Mad since 1964 not to include new work by Jaffee. One copy was inadvertently sent out to a subscriber as a replacement copy, who scanned and uploaded the Fold-In. Jaffee missed three issues in 2019 due to illness; the mass shooting Fold-In that was yanked from issue #521 was finally published in 2019 in Mad Volume 2 issue #7, a reprint from 1972 was published in issue #8 and a reprint from 1967 was published in issue #9.On occasion, the feature has been moved from its usual spot. Issue #320 (July 1993) featured a Fold-in as the front cover. And in the annual "20 Worst of the Year" issue, the Fold-In is used as one of the 20 items, thus appearing as an internal page of the magazine. Only two Mad 20 issues, #389 and #11, have had a Fold-In as part of the Mad 20 and a second one as the inside back cover. In issue #11 (February 2020) the Fold-In appearing in the Mad 20 was created by artist Johnny Sampson, making him the first artist to create a Fold-In other than Jaffee. The feature is currently being produced by Sampson.
History:
In 1999, Jaffee told an interviewer, "Usually you can go on working unless you have a stroke or something. So I hope to continue. I'm trying to decide whether I should do my final Fold-In before I die or after I die! [...] I don't want to share it! It's a secret! But I mentioned it to the editors at Mad and they said, "You mean you want to get paid ahead of time!"Nevertheless, Jaffee's final Fold-In appeared in the August 2020 issue of Mad after the cartoonist retired at the age of 99. Appearing during a stark recession, it depicted the magazine's mascot Alfred E. Neuman with an atypically worried expression, in front of a dozen shuttered businesses. The question, "Why is the 'What, Me Worry?' kid so worried?" was answered when the stores' signage folded into the message "NO MORE JAFFEE FOLD-INS." A serene self-caricature appeared as a cloud.Further Fold-ins are written and drawn by writer-artist Johnny Sampson.
Outside cultural references:
A 1996 episode of The Simpsons showed Bart Simpson and his friend Milhouse poring over a Mad Fold-In with the question "What higher power do TV evangelists worship?” above a drawing of green mountains. Labelled “The All-Majestic Inspirational Mighty Dolomite Mtns Are a Singular Example of God’s Glory”, the peaks fold in to form a dollar sign, with the answer reading “The All-Mighty Dollar”. Later in the episode, Bart’s father Homer Simpson misfolds the page, reads “The All Ighty Ollar,” and laughs anyway. In a 1993 episode, Marge Simpson’s prison cellmate has a Fold-In tattooed onto her back; when she pushes her shoulder blades together, the question “What kind of slime would I marry?”, becomes "What, me worry?" and reveals the face of Mad mascot Alfred E. Neuman. A 2002 episode of Futurama features a pseudo-Fold-In. A graffitied building depicting the character Bender is demolished, and Bender wails as his image collapses into a set of buttocks and the boast “Bender Lives Large and Kicks Butt!” becomes “Bender Licks Butt!”.On January 24, 2010, the New York Times published a specially-constructed "Fold-In" crossword. The fully completed puzzle could be folded in the Jaffee style to reveal six further solutions, each of which was something that could itself be folded (e.g. LAWN CHAIR, NEWSPAPER, POKER HAND and ORIGAMI). Also mimicking Mad's design, the top and bottom rows of the crossword both featured an "A" and a "B" in their horizontal grids, which needed to be folded together to touch one another to produce the desired result.Beck's 2005 video for "Girl" features a number of fold-ins, ranging from paper fold-ins to elaborate collapsible sets, including a foldable sidewalk and a foldable pharmacy. One of the video's Fold-Ins reveals the name "Al Jaffee".
Outside cultural references:
In 2006, Stephen Colbert saluted Jaffee's 85th birthday on an episode of The Colbert Report with a large "fold-in" birthday cake, bearing the message AL, | | YOU| HAVE REPEATEDLY SHOWN | A|RTISTRY & CA|RE O|F GREAT CREDIT TO YOUR FIE|LD But after the center slice was removed, and the remainder pushed together, it spelled out the message AL, YOU ARE OLD.
Outside cultural references:
That was not Jaffee's first interaction with Colbert. In 2010, he recalled: I got a call from The Daily Show — they asked me if I would contribute a fold-in to their [2004] book, America. I said I'd be happy to do it. When I was done, I called up the producer who'd contacted me, and I said, 'I've finished the fold-in, where shall I send it?' And he said — and this was a great compliment — 'Oh, please Mr. Jaffee, could you deliver it in person? The whole crew wants to meet you.' And that's where I met Stephen Colbert and Jon Stewart and all the writers, and they told me it was our work in Mad that inspired them. Not me, particularly, but us, generally. They're your age [referring to the interviewer], and they said, 'Without you guys, we wouldn't be here.' And I felt really good about that. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**COSMO-RS**
COSMO-RS:
COSMO-RS (short for COnductor like Screening MOdel for Real Solvents) is a quantum chemistry based equilibrium thermodynamics method with the purpose of predicting chemical potentials µ in liquids.
COSMO-RS:
It processes the screening charge density σ on the surface of molecules to calculate the chemical potential µ of each species in solution. Perhaps in dilute solution a constant potential must be considered. As an initial step a quantum chemical COSMO calculation for all molecules is performed and the results (e.g. the screening charge density) are stored in a database. In a separate step COSMO-RS uses the stored COSMO results to calculate the chemical potential of the molecules in a liquid solvent or mixture. The resulting chemical potentials are the basis for other thermodynamic equilibrium properties such as activity coefficients, solubility, partition coefficients, vapor pressure and free energy of solvation. The method was developed to provide a general prediction method with no need for system specific adjustment.
COSMO-RS:
Due to the use of σ from COSMO calculations, COSMO-RS does not require functional group parameters. Quantum chemical effects like group-group interactions, mesomeric effects and inductive effects also are incorporated into COSMO-RS by this approach.
The COSMO-RS method was first published in 1995 by A. Klamt. A refined version of COSMO-RS was published in 1998 and is the basis for newer developments and reimplementations.
Basic principles:
The below description is a simplified overview of the COSMO-RS version published in 1998.
Assumptions The liquid state is incompressible All parts of the molecular surfaces can be in contact with each other Only pairwise interactions of molecular surface patches are allowedAs long as the above assumptions hold, the chemical potential µ in solution can be calculated from the interaction energies of pairwise surface contacts.
COSMO-RS equations Within the basic formulation of COSMO-RS, interaction terms depend on the screening charge density σ. Each molecule and mixture can be represented by the histogram p(σ), the so-called σ-profile. The σ-profile of a mixture is the weighted sum of the profiles of all its components.
Using the interaction energy Eint(σ,σ') and the σ-profile of the solvent p(σ'), the chemical potential µs(σ) of a surface piece with screening charge σ is determined as: Due to the fact that µs(σ) is present on both sides of the equation, it needs to be solved iteratively.
Basic principles:
By combining the above equation with px(σ) for a solute x, and adding the σ-independent combinatorial and dispersive contributions, the chemical potential for a solute X in a solvent S results in: In analogy to activity coefficient models used in chemical engineering, such as NRTL, UNIQUAC or UNIFAC, the final chemical potential can be split into a combinatorial and a residual (non ideal) contribution. The interaction energies Eint(σ,σ') of two surface pieces are the crucial part for the final performance of the method and different formulations are used within the various implementations. In addition to the liquid phase terms a chemical potential estimate for the ideal gas phase µgas has been added to COSMO-RS to enable the prediction of vapor pressure, free energy of solvation and related quantities.
Basic principles:
Interaction energy (Residual) The residual part is the sum of three different contributions, where Emisfit and Ehb are part of Eint and Edisp is added directly to the chemical potential.
Electrostatic interaction In the Emisfit expression α is an adjustable parameter and σ and σ' refer to the screening charge densities of the two surface patches in contact. This term has been labeled "misfit" energy, because it results from the mismatch of the charged surface pieces in contact.
Basic principles:
It represents the Coulomb interaction relative to the state in a perfect conductor. A molecule in a perfect conductor (COSMO state) is perfectly shielded electronically; each charge on the molecular surface is shielded by a charge of the same size but of opposite sign. If the conductor is replaced by surface pieces of contacting molecules the screening of the surface will not be perfect any more. Hence an interaction energy from this misfit of σ on the surface patches will arise.
Basic principles:
Hydrogen bonding energy In the Ehb expression σacc and σdon are the screening charge densities of the hydrogen bond acceptor and donor respectively. The hydrogen bonding threshold σhb and the prefactor chb are adjustable parameters. The max[] and min[] construction ensures that the screening charge densities of the acceptor and donor exceeds the threshold for hydrogen bonding.
Dispersion (van der Waals energy) The COSMO-RS dispersion energy of a solute depends on an element (k) specific prefactor γ and the amount of exposed surface A of this element. It is not part of the interaction energy but enters the chemical potential directly.
Parameters Though the use of quantum chemistry reduces the need for adjustable parameters, some fitting to experimental data is inevitable. The basic parameters are α, chb, σhb as used in the interaction energies, and one general parameter for the effective contact area. In addition, one adjustable van der Waals parameter γ per element is required.
All parameters either are general or element specific, which is a distinctive feature of COSMO-RS as compared to group contribution methods like UNIFAC.
Implementations:
The original streamline of COSMO-RS was continuously developed and extended by A. Klamt in his company COSMOlogic (now part of BIOVIA), and the most advanced software for COSMO-RS is the COSMOtherm software, now available from BIOVIA. They also offer a huge database (COSMObase) with more than 12000 COSMO files. COSMOtherm proved its prediction accuracy by delivering the most accurate physicochemical property predictions in the recent SAMPL5 and SAMPL6 challenges.
Implementations:
LVPP maintains an open sigma-profile database with COSMO-SAC ("Segment Activity Coefficient") parameterizations.Gaussian (software) cannot compute σ-profiles, but can produce .cosmo input files for COSMO-RS/Cosmotherm via the keyword scrf=COSMORS.
SCM licenses a commercial COSMO-RS implementation in the Amsterdam Modeling Suite, which also includes COSMO-SAC, UNIFAC and QSPR models. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Straightening theorem for vector fields**
Straightening theorem for vector fields:
In differential calculus, the domain-straightening theorem states that, given a vector field X on a manifold, there exist local coordinates y1,…,yn such that X=∂/∂y1 in a neighborhood of a point where X is nonzero. The theorem is also known as straightening out of a vector field.
The Frobenius theorem in differential geometry can be considered as a higher-dimensional generalization of this theorem.
Proof:
It is clear that we only have to find such coordinates at 0 in Rn . First we write X=∑jfj(x)∂∂xj where x is some coordinate system at 0 . Let f=(f1,…,fn) . By linear change of coordinates, we can assume f(0)=(1,0,…,0).
Let Φ(t,p) be the solution of the initial value problem x˙=f(x),x(0)=p and let ψ(x1,…,xn)=Φ(x1,(0,x2,…,xn)).
Φ (and thus ψ ) is smooth by smooth dependence on initial conditions in ordinary differential equations. It follows that ∂∂x1ψ(x)=f(ψ(x)) ,and, since ψ(0,x2,…,xn)=Φ(0,(0,x2,…,xn))=(0,x2,…,xn) , the differential dψ is the identity at 0 . Thus, y=ψ−1(x) is a coordinate system at 0 . Finally, since x=ψ(y) , we have: ∂xj∂y1=fj(ψ(y))=fj(x) and so ∂∂y1=X as required. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Super Charm-Tau factory**
Super Charm-Tau factory:
Super Charm-Tau factory (SCT) is an electron–positron collider being designed and built by Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics in Novosibirsk. Its main goal is to study the CP-violation in the processes involving charmed hadrons, to investigate decays of the τ-lepton as well as to search for new forms of matter: glueballs, dark matter, etc.In the SCT the center of mass energy of colliding electrons and positrons will be 2–6 GeV while the luminosity will reach as high as 2×1035 cm−2·s−1. The electrons will be partially polarized. The synchrotron will be operating for 10 years. The particle registration and measurements will done using a universal high performance magnetic detector with the field strength of 1–1.5 Tesla.The SCT project is one Megascience class projects being built in Russia. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Voiced bilabial trill**
Voiced bilabial trill:
The voiced bilabial trill is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents the sound is ⟨ʙ⟩, a small capital version of the Latin letter b, and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is B\.
Features:
Features of the voiced bilabial trill: Its manner of articulation is trill, which means it is produced by directing air over an articulator so that it vibrates. In most instances, it is only found as the trilled release of a prenasalized stop.
Its place of articulation is bilabial, which means it is articulated with both lips.
Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation.
It is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only.
Because the sound is not produced with airflow over the tongue, the central–lateral dichotomy does not apply.
The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the intercostal muscles and diaphragm, as in most sounds.
Occurrences:
The Knorkator song "[Buchstabe]" (the actual title is a glyph) on the 1999 album Hasenchartbreaker uses a similar sound (though linguolabial instead of bilabial) to replace "br" in a number of German words (e.g. [ˈʙaːtkaɐ̯tɔfəln] for Bratkartoffeln).
Prenasalized Prestopped trills and stops with trill release
Phonology:
In many of the languages in which the bilabial trill occurs, it occurs only as part of a prenasalized bilabial stop with trilled release, [mbʙ]. That developed historically from a prenasalized stop before a relatively high back vowel like [mbu]. In such instances, the sounds are usually still limited to the environment of a following [u]. However, the trills in Mangbetu may precede any vowel and are sometimes preceded by only a nasal. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Cellular homology**
Cellular homology:
In mathematics, cellular homology in algebraic topology is a homology theory for the category of CW-complexes. It agrees with singular homology, and can provide an effective means of computing homology modules.
Definition:
If X is a CW-complex with n-skeleton Xn , the cellular-homology modules are defined as the homology groups Hi of the cellular chain complex ⋯→Cn+1(Xn+1,Xn)→Cn(Xn,Xn−1)→Cn−1(Xn−1,Xn−2)→⋯, where X−1 is taken to be the empty set.
Definition:
The group Cn(Xn,Xn−1) is free abelian, with generators that can be identified with the n -cells of X . Let enα be an n -cell of X , and let χnα:∂enα≅Sn−1→Xn−1 be the attaching map. Then consider the composition χnαβ:Sn−1⟶≅∂enα⟶χnαXn−1⟶qXn−1/(Xn−1∖en−1β)⟶≅Sn−1, where the first map identifies Sn−1 with ∂enα via the characteristic map Φnα of enα , the object en−1β is an (n−1) -cell of X, the third map q is the quotient map that collapses Xn−1∖en−1β to a point (thus wrapping en−1β into a sphere Sn−1 ), and the last map identifies Xn−1/(Xn−1∖en−1β) with Sn−1 via the characteristic map Φn−1β of en−1β The boundary map ∂n:Cn(Xn,Xn−1)→Cn−1(Xn−1,Xn−2) is then given by the formula deg (χnαβ)en−1β, where deg (χnαβ) is the degree of χnαβ and the sum is taken over all (n−1) -cells of X , considered as generators of Cn−1(Xn−1,Xn−2)
Examples:
The following examples illustrate why computations done with cellular homology are often more efficient than those calculated by using singular homology alone.
The n-sphere The n-dimensional sphere Sn admits a CW structure with two cells, one 0-cell and one n-cell. Here the n-cell is attached by the constant mapping from Sn−1 to 0-cell. Since the generators of the cellular chain groups Ck(Skn,Sk−1n) can be identified with the k-cells of Sn, we have that Ck(Skn,Sk−1n)=Z for k=0,n, and is otherwise trivial.
Hence for n>1 , the resulting chain complex is ⋯⟶∂n+20⟶∂n+1Z⟶∂n0⟶∂n−1⋯⟶∂20⟶∂1Z⟶0, but then as all the boundary maps are either to or from trivial groups, they must all be zero, meaning that the cellular homology groups are equal to otherwise.
Examples:
When n=1 , it is possible to verify that the boundary map ∂1 is zero, meaning the above formula holds for all positive n Genus g surface Cellular homology can also be used to calculate the homology of the genus g surface Σg . The fundamental polygon of Σg is a 4n -gon which gives Σg a CW-structure with one 2-cell, 2n 1-cells, and one 0-cell. The 2-cell is attached along the boundary of the 4n -gon, which contains every 1-cell twice, once forwards and once backwards. This means the attaching map is zero, since the forwards and backwards directions of each 1-cell cancel out. Similarly, the attaching map for each 1-cell is also zero, since it is the constant mapping from S0 to the 0-cell. Therefore, the resulting chain complex is ⋯→0→∂3Z→∂2Z2g→∂1Z→0, where all the boundary maps are zero. Therefore, this means the cellular homology of the genus g surface is given by otherwise.
Examples:
Similarly, one can construct the genus g surface with a crosscap attached as a CW complex with 1 0-cell, g 1-cells, and 1 2-cell. Its homology groups are Torus The n-torus (S1)n can be constructed as the CW complex with 1 0-cell, n 1-cells, ..., and 1 n-cell. The chain complex is and all the boundary maps are zero. This can be understood by explicitly constructing the cases for n=0,1,2,3 , then see the pattern. Thus, Hk((S1)n)≃Z(nk) Complex projective space If X has no adjacent-dimensional cells, (so if it has n-cells, it has no (n-1)-cells and (n+1)-cells), then HnCW(X) is the free abelian group generated by its n-cells, for each n . The complex projective space PnC is obtained by gluing together a 0-cell, a 2-cell, ..., and a (2n)-cell, thus Hk(PnC)=Z for k=0,2,...,2n , and zero otherwise.
Examples:
Real projective space The real projective space RPn admits a CW-structure with one k -cell ek for all k∈{0,1,…,n} The attaching map for these k -cells is given by the 2-fold covering map φk:Sk−1→RPk−1 (Observe that the k -skeleton RPkn≅RPk for all k∈{0,1,…,n} .) Note that in this case, Ck(RPkn,RPk−1n)≅Z for all k∈{0,1,…,n} To compute the boundary map ∂k:Ck(RPkn,RPk−1n)→Ck−1(RPk−1n,RPk−2n), we must find the degree of the map χk:Sk−1⟶φkRPk−1⟶qkRPk−1/RPk−2≅Sk−1.
Examples:
Now, note that φk−1(RPk−2)=Sk−2⊆Sk−1 , and for each point x∈RPk−1∖RPk−2 , we have that φ−1({x}) consists of two points, one in each connected component (open hemisphere) of Sk−1∖Sk−2 Thus, in order to find the degree of the map χk , it is sufficient to find the local degrees of χk on each of these open hemispheres.
For ease of notation, we let Bk and B~k denote the connected components of Sk−1∖Sk−2 . Then χk|Bk and χk|B~k are homeomorphisms, and χk|B~k=χk|Bk∘A , where A is the antipodal map.
Now, the degree of the antipodal map on Sk−1 is (−1)k Hence, without loss of generality, we have that the local degree of χk on Bk is 1 and the local degree of χk on B~k is (−1)k Adding the local degrees, we have that deg if is even, if is odd.
The boundary map ∂k is then given by deg (χk) We thus have that the CW-structure on RPn gives rise to the following chain complex: 0⟶Z⟶∂n⋯⟶2Z⟶0Z⟶2Z⟶0Z⟶0, where ∂n=2 if n is even and ∂n=0 if n is odd.
Hence, the cellular homology groups for RPn are the following: if if odd, otherwise.
Other properties:
One sees from the cellular chain complex that the n -skeleton determines all lower-dimensional homology modules: Hk(X)≅Hk(Xn) for k<n An important consequence of this cellular perspective is that if a CW-complex has no cells in consecutive dimensions, then all of its homology modules are free. For example, the complex projective space CPn has a cell structure with one cell in each even dimension; it follows that for 0≤k≤n ,H2k(CPn;Z)≅Z and 0.
Generalization:
The Atiyah–Hirzebruch spectral sequence is the analogous method of computing the (co)homology of a CW-complex, for an arbitrary extraordinary (co)homology theory.
Euler characteristic:
For a cellular complex X , let Xj be its j -th skeleton, and cj be the number of j -cells, i.e., the rank of the free module Cj(Xj,Xj−1) . The Euler characteristic of X is then defined by χ(X)=∑j=0n(−1)jcj.
The Euler characteristic is a homotopy invariant. In fact, in terms of the Betti numbers of X Rank (Hj(X)).
This can be justified as follows. Consider the long exact sequence of relative homology for the triple (Xn,Xn−1,∅) :⋯→Hi(Xn−1,∅)→Hi(Xn,∅)→Hi(Xn,Xn−1)→⋯.
Chasing exactness through the sequence gives Rank Rank Rank (Hi(Xn−1,∅)).
The same calculation applies to the triples (Xn−1,Xn−2,∅) , (Xn−2,Xn−3,∅) , etc. By induction, Rank Rank (Hi(Xj,Xj−1))=∑j=0n(−1)jcj. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**CMV423**
CMV423:
CMV423 (2-chloro-3-pyridin-3-yl-5,6,7,8-tetrahydroindolizine-1-carboxamide) is an experimental antiviral drug that has been studied for the treatment of cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection and human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6) infection. The drug was investigated by Sanofi-Aventis, but its development was discontinued by 2018 before entering clinical trials. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Barium chromate**
Barium chromate:
Barium chromate, named barium tetraoxochromate(VI) by the IUPAC, is a yellow sand like powder with the formula BaCrO4. It is a known oxidizing agent and produces a green flame when heated, a result of the barium ions.
History:
The first naturally occurring barium chromate was found in the country of Jordan. The brown crystals found perched on host rocks were named hashemite in honor of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. The hashemite crystals range in color from light yellowish-brown to a darker greenish-brown and are usually less than 1mm in length.The hashemite crystals are not composed of pure barium chromate but instead contain some small sulfur content as well. The different crystals contain a range of sulfur impurities ranging from the more pure dark crystals, Ba1.00(Cr0.93, S0.07)1.00O4, to the less pure light crystals, Ba1.00(Cr0.64, S0.36)1.00O4.Hashemite was found to be an isostructural chromate analog of baryte, BaSO4.
Preparation and Reactions:
It can be synthesized by reacting barium hydroxide or barium chloride with potassium chromate. Ba OH CrO BaCrO KOH Alternatively, it can be created by the interaction of barium chloride with sodium chromate. The precipitate is then washed, filtered, and dried.
It is very insoluble in water, but is soluble in acids: 2 BaCrO4 + 2 H+ → 2 Ba2+ + Cr2O72− + H2O Ksp = [Ba2+][CrO42−] = 2.1 × 10−10It can react with barium hydroxide in the presence of sodium azide to create barium chromate(V). The reaction releases oxygen and water.
BaCrO Ba OH NaN Ba CrO 4)2+O2↑+2H2O↑
Common Uses:
Barium chromate has been found to be useful in many capacities. The compound is often used as a carrier for the chromium ions.
One such case is the use of barium chromate as a sulfate scavenger in chromium electroplating baths. Over time the chromium concentration of the bath will decrease until the bath is no longer functional. Adding barium chromate enhances the life of the bath by adding to the chromic acid concentration.
Common Uses:
Barium chromate is an oxidizing agent, making it useful as a burn rate modifier in pyrotechnic compositions. It is especially useful in delay compositions such as delay fuses.Barium chromate is used as a corrosion inhibitive pigment when zinc-alloy electroplating surfaces.When mixed with solid fumaric acid, barium chromate can be used in the removal of impurities and residual moisture from organic dry-cleaning solvents or from petroleum fuels.Barium chromate is also used in the composition of a catalyst for alkane dehydrogenation.Barium has also been used to color paints. The pigment known as lemon yellow often contained barium chromate mixed with lead sulfate. Due to its moderate tinting strength lemon yellow was not employed very frequently in oil painting. Pierre-Auguste Renoir and Claude Monet are known to have painted with lemon yellow.
Research:
In 2004 a method was found for making single-crystalline ABO4 type nanorods. This method consisted of a modified template synthesis technique that was originally used for the synthesis of organic microtubules. Nanoparticles are allowed to grow in the pores of alumina membranes of various sizes. The varying sizes of the pores allow the growth to be controlled and cause the shapes to be reproducible. The alumina is then dissolved, leaving the nanoparticles behind intact. The synthesis can be carried out at room temperature, greatly reducing the cost and constrictions on conditions.In 2010, a study was conducted on four hexavalent chromium compounds to test the carcinogenic effects of chromium. The chromium ions accumulate in the bronchial bifurcation sites, settling into the tissue and inducing tumors. Using zinc chromate as a standard, it was discovered that barium chromate is both genotoxic and cytotoxic. The cytotoxicity was determined to most likely be a result of the genotoxicity, but the cause of the genotoxicity is yet unknown.
Safety:
Barium chromate is toxic. Chromates, when pulverized and inhaled, are carcinogens.
Further study:
Kühn, H. and Curran, M., Strontium, Barium and Calcium Chromates, in Artists' Pigments. A Handbook of Their History and Characteristics, Vol. 1: Feller, R.L. (Ed.) Oxford University Press 1986, p. 205 – 207.
Lemon yellow, ColourLex | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Fried potatoes**
Fried potatoes:
Fried potatoes are a dish or a component of other dishes (such as Bauernfrühstück) essentially consisting of potatoes which have been fried or deep-fried in hot cooking oil often with the addition of salt and other seasonings. They are often served as a side dish.
Health considerations:
Acrylamide is formed from asparagine and reducing sugars in potatoes, so choosing potato varieties with lower levels of these compounds can reduce acrylamide formation, along with not refrigerating potatoes and only frying them until they are golden, not brown.
Nutrition French-fried potatoes in vegetable oil are 63% carbohydrates, 29% fat, and 6% protein. A 100-gram reference amount supplies 539 calories and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value) of several B vitamins, sodium, phosphorus, and potassium.
List of fried potato dishes:
French fries/chips, also known as “French-fried potatoes” German fries (Bratkartoffeln) Hash browns – grated or shredded potatoes that are fried in oil Potato cake/patty – further processed hash browns that a pressed into patty-like finger food Home fries – referred to as fried potatoes (UK and regional US), it is a basic potato dish made by pan- or skillet-frying chunked, sliced, wedged or diced potatoes that are sometimes unpeeled and may have been par-cooked by boiling, baking, steaming, or microwaving Lyonnaise potatoes – a French dish prepared with sliced pan-fried potatoes and thinly sliced onions that are sautéed in butter with parsley Papa rellena (English: stuffed potatoes) – a Latin American dish prepared using a baked potato dough that is stuffed with various fillings Patatas bravas – a Spanish dish typically prepared using white potatoes that have been cut into irregular shapes of about 2 centimeters, then fried in oil and served warm with a sauce such as a spicy tomato sauce or an aioli.
List of fried potato dishes:
Potato chips/crisps — thin sliced potatoes that have been peeled, vacuum-fried/deep-fried in oil and flavored.
Potato pancake – shallow-fried pancakes of grated or ground potato, flour and egg, often flavored with grated garlic or onion and seasoning.
Boxty – a traditional Irish potato pancake Latke – a potato pancake of traditional Jewish cuisine. Often made with matzo meal, egg, potato purée and served with apple sauce or sour cream.
Potato waffle – can be fried, baked or grilled Potatoes O'Brien – consists of pan-fried potatoes along with green and red bell peppers Rösti – a Swiss dish Tater tots – grated potatoes formed into bite-sized pieces | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**AI@50**
AI@50:
AI@50, formally known as the "Dartmouth Artificial Intelligence Conference: The Next Fifty Years" (July 13–15, 2006), was a conference organized by James Moor, commemorating the 50th anniversary of the Dartmouth workshop which effectively inaugurated the history of artificial intelligence. Five of the original ten attendees were present: Marvin Minsky, Ray Solomonoff, Oliver Selfridge, Trenchard More, and John McCarthy.While sponsored by Dartmouth College, General Electric, and the Frederick Whittemore Foundation, a $200,000 grant from the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) called for a report of the proceedings that would: Analyze progress on AI's original challenges during the first 50 years, and assess whether the challenges were "easier" or "harder" than originally thought and why Document what the AI@50 participants believe are the major research and development challenges facing this field over the next 50 years, and identify what breakthroughs will be needed to meet those challenges Relate those challenges and breakthroughs against developments and trends in other areas such as control theory, signal processing, information theory, statistics, and optimization theory.A summary report by the conference director, James Moor, was published in AI Magazine.
Conference Program and links to published papers:
James Moor, conference Director, Introduction Carol Folt and Barry Scherr, Welcome Carey Heckman, Tonypandy and the Origins of Science AI: Past, Present, Future John McCarthy, What Was Expected, What We Did, and AI Today Marvin Minsky, The Emotion Machine The Future Model of Thinking Ron Brachman and Hector Levesque, A Large Part of Human Thought David Mumford, What is the Right Model for 'Thought'? Stuart Russell, The Approach of Modern AI The Future of Network Models Geoffrey Hinton & Simon Osindero, From Pandemonium to Graphical Models and Back Again Rick Granger, From Brain Circuits to Mind Manufacture The Future of Learning & Search Oliver Selfridge, Learning and Education for Software: New Approaches in Machine Learning Ray Solomonoff, Machine Learning — Past and Future Leslie Pack Kaelbling, Learning to be Intelligent Peter Norvig, Web Search as a Product of and Catalyst for AI The Future of AI Rod Brooks, Intelligence and Bodies Nils Nilsson, Routes to the Summit Eric Horvitz, In Pursuit of Artificial Intelligence: Reflections on Challenges and Trajectories The Future of Vision Eric Grimson, Intelligent Medical Image Analysis: Computer Assisted Surgery and Disease Monitoring Takeo Kanade, Artificial Intelligence Vision: Progress and Non-Progress Terry Sejnowski, A Critique of Pure Vision The Future of Reasoning Alan Bundy, Constructing, Selecting and Repairing Representations of Knowledge Edwina Rissland, The Exquisite Centrality of Examples Bart Selman, The Challenge and Promise of Automated Reasoning The Future of Language and Cognition Trenchard More The Birth of Array Theory and Nial Eugene Charniak, Why Natural Language Processing is Now Statistical Natural Language Processing Pat Langley, Intelligent Behavior in Humans and Machines The Future of the Future Ray Kurzweil, Why We Can Be Confident of Turing Test Capability Within a Quarter Century George Cybenko, The Future Trajectory of AI Charles J. Holland, DARPA's Perspective AI and Games Jonathan Schaeffer, Games as a Test-bed for Artificial Intelligence Research" Danny Kopec, Chess and AI Shay Bushinsky, Principle Positions in Deep Junior's Development Future Interactions with Intelligent Machines Daniela Rus, Making Bodies Smart Sherry Turkle, From Building Intelligences to Nurturing Sensibilities Selected Submitted Papers: Future Strategies for AI J. Storrs Hall, Self-improving AI: An Analysis Selmer Bringsjord, The Logicist Manifesto Vincent C. Müller, Is There a Future for AI Without Representation? Kristinn R. Thórisson, Integrated A.I. Systems Selected Submitted Papers: Future Possibilities for AI Eric Steinhart, Survival as a Digital Ghost Colin T. A. Schmidt, Did You Leave That 'Contraption' Alone With Your Little Sister? Michael Anderson & Susan Leigh Anderson, The Status of Machine Ethics Marcello Guarini, Computation, Coherence, and Ethical Reasoning | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Potassium iodide**
Potassium iodide:
Potassium iodide is a chemical compound, medication, and dietary supplement. It is a medication used for treating hyperthyroidism, in radiation emergencies, and for protecting the thyroid gland when certain types of radiopharmaceuticals are used. In the third world it is also used for treating skin sporotrichosis and phycomycosis. It is a supplement used by people with low dietary intake of iodine. It is administered orally.Common side effects include vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, rash, and swelling of the salivary glands. Other side effects include allergic reactions, headache, goitre, and depression. While use during pregnancy may harm the baby, its use is still recommended in radiation emergencies. Potassium iodide has the chemical formula KI. Commercially it is made by mixing potassium hydroxide with iodine.Potassium iodide has been used medically since at least 1820. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Potassium iodide is available as a generic medication and over the counter. Potassium iodide is also used for the iodization of salt.
Medical uses:
Dietary supplement Potassium-iodide is a nutritional-supplement in animal feeds and also in the human diet. In humans it is the most common additive used for "iodizing" table salt (a public health measure to prevent iodine deficiency in populations that get little seafood). The oxidation of iodide causes slow loss of iodine content from iodised salts that are exposed to excess air. The alkali metal iodide salt, over time and exposure to excess oxygen and carbon dioxide, slowly oxidizes to metal carbonate and elemental iodine, which then evaporates. Potassium iodate (KIO3) is used to iodize some salts so that the iodine is not lost by oxidation. Dextrose or sodium thiosulfate are often added to iodized table salt to stabilize potassium iodide thus reducing loss of the volatile chemical.
Medical uses:
Thyroid protection Thyroid iodine uptake blockade with potassium iodide is used in nuclear medicine scintigraphy and therapy with some radioiodinated compounds that are not targeted to the thyroid, such as iobenguane (MIBG), which is used to image or treat neural tissue tumors, or iodinated fibrinogen, which is used in fibrinogen scans to investigate clotting. These compounds contain iodine, but not in the iodide form. However, since they may be ultimately metabolized or break down to radioactive iodide, it is common to administer non-radioactive potassium iodide to ensure that iodide from these radiopharmaceuticals is not sequestered by the normal affinity of the thyroid for iodide.
Medical uses:
U.S. Food and Drug Administration-approved dosing of potassium iodide for this purpose with iobenguane, is as follows (per 24 hours): infants less than 1 month old, 16 mg; children 1 month to 3 years, 32 mg; children 3 years to 18 years, 65 mg; adults 130 mg. However, some sources recommend alternative dosing regimens.Not all sources are in agreement on the necessary duration of thyroid blockade, although agreement appears to have been reached about the necessity of blockade for both scintigraphic and therapeutic applications of iobenguane. Commercially available iobenguane is labeled with iodine-123, and product labeling recommends administration of potassium iodide 1 hour prior to administration of the radiopharmaceutical for all age groups, while the European Association of Nuclear Medicine recommends (for iobenguane labeled with either isotope), that potassium iodide administration begin one day prior to radiopharmaceutical administration, and continue until the day following the injection, with the exception of new-borns, who do not require potassium iodide doses following radiopharmaceutical injection.Product labeling for diagnostic iodine-131 iobenguane recommends potassium iodide administration one day before injection and continuing 5 to 7 days following administration, in keeping with the much longer half-life of this isotope and its greater danger to the thyroid. Iodine-131 iobenguane used for therapeutic purposes requires a different pre-medication duration, beginning 24–48 hours prior to iobenguane injection and continuing 10–15 days following injection.
Medical uses:
Nuclear accidents In 1982, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved potassium iodide to protect thyroid glands from radioactive iodine involving accidents or fission emergencies. In an accidental event or attack on a nuclear power plant, or in nuclear bomb fallout, volatile fission product radionuclides may be released. Of these products, 131I (Iodine-131) is one of the most common and is particularly dangerous to the thyroid gland because it may lead to thyroid cancer. By saturating the body with a source of stable iodide prior to exposure, inhaled or ingested 131I tends to be excreted, which prevents radioiodine uptake by the thyroid. According to one 2000 study "KI administered up to 48 h before 131I exposure can almost completely block thyroid uptake and therefore greatly reduce the thyroid absorbed dose. However, KI administration 96 h or more before 131I exposure has no significant protective effect. In contrast, KI administration after exposure to radioiodine induces a smaller and rapidly decreasing blockade effect." For optimal prevention, KI must be dosed daily until a risk of significant exposure to radioiodine by either inhalation or ingestion no longer exists.Emergency 130 milligrams potassium iodide doses provide 100 mg iodide (the other 30 mg is the potassium in the compound), which is roughly 700 times larger than the normal nutritional need (see recommended dietary allowance) for iodine, which is 150 micrograms (0.15 mg) of iodine (as iodide) per day for an adult. A typical tablet weighs 160 mg, with 130 mg of potassium iodide and 30 mg of excipients, such as binding agents.
Medical uses:
Potassium iodide cannot protect against any other mechanisms of radiation poisoning, nor can it provide any degree of protection against dirty bombs that produce radionuclides other than those of iodine.
Medical uses:
The potassium iodide in iodized salt is insufficient for this use. A likely lethal dose of salt (more than a kilogram) would be needed to equal the potassium iodide in one tablet.The World Health Organization does not recommend KI prophylaxis for adults over 40 years, unless the radiation dose from inhaled radioiodine is expected to threaten thyroid function, because the KI side effects increase with age and may exceed the KI protective effects; "...unless doses to the thyroid from inhalation rise to levels threatening thyroid function, that is of the order of about 5 Gy. Such radiation doses will not occur far away from an accident site."The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services restated these two years later as "The downward KI (potassium iodide) dose adjustment by age group, based on body size considerations, adheres to the principle of minimum effective dose. The recommended standard (daily) dose of KI for all school-age children is the same (65 mg). However, adolescents approaching adult size (i.e., >70 kg [154 lbs]) should receive the full adult dose (130 mg) for maximal block of thyroid radioiodine uptake. Neonates ideally should receive the lowest dose (16 mg) of KI."
Side effects:
There is reason for caution with prescribing the ingestion of high doses of potassium iodide and iodate, because their unnecessary use can cause conditions such as the Jod-Basedow phenomena, trigger and/or worsen hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism, and then cause temporary or even permanent thyroid conditions. It can also cause sialadenitis (an inflammation of the salivary gland), gastrointestinal disturbances, and rashes. Potassium iodide is also not recommended for people with dermatitis herpetiformis and hypocomplementemic vasculitis – conditions that are linked to a risk of iodine sensitivity.There have been some reports of potassium iodide treatment causing swelling of the parotid gland (one of the three glands that secrete saliva), due to its stimulatory effects on saliva production.A saturated solution of KI (SSKI) is typically given orally in adult doses several times a day (5 drops of SSKI assumed to be 1⁄3 mL) for thyroid blockade (to prevent the thyroid from excreting thyroid hormone) and occasionally this dose is also used, when iodide is used as an expectorant (the total dose is about one gram KI per day for an adult). The anti-radioiodine doses used for 131I uptake blockade are lower, and range downward from 100 mg a day for an adult, to less than this for children (see table). All of these doses should be compared with the far lower dose of iodine needed in normal nutrition, which is only 150 μg per day (150 micrograms, not milligrams).
Side effects:
At maximal doses, and sometimes at much lower doses, side effects of iodide used for medical reasons, in doses of 1000 times the normal nutritional need, may include: acne, loss of appetite, or upset stomach (especially during the first several days, as the body adjusts to the medication). More severe side effects that require notification of a physician are: fever, weakness, unusual tiredness, swelling in the neck or throat, mouth sores, skin rash, nausea, vomiting, stomach pains, irregular heartbeat, numbness or tingling of the hands or feet, or a metallic taste in the mouth.In the event of a radioiodine release the ingestion of prophylaxis potassium iodide, if available, or even iodate, would rightly take precedence over perchlorate administration, and would be the first line of defence in protecting the population from a radioiodine release. However, in the event of a radioiodine release too massive and widespread to be controlled by the limited stock of iodide and iodate prophylaxis drugs, then the addition of perchlorate ions to the water supply, or distribution of perchlorate tablets would serve as a cheap, efficacious, second line of defense against carcinogenic radioiodine bioaccumulation.
Side effects:
The ingestion of goitrogen drugs is, much like potassium iodide also not without its dangers, such as hypothyroidism. In all these cases however, despite the risks, the prophylaxis benefits of intervention with iodide, iodate or perchlorate outweigh the serious cancer risk from radioiodine bioaccumulation in regions where radioiodine has sufficiently contaminated the environment.
Potassium iodide in its raw form is a mild irritant and should be handled with gloves. Chronic overexposure can have adverse effects on the thyroid. Potassium iodide is a possible teratogen.
Industrial uses:
KI is used with silver nitrate to make silver iodide (AgI), an important chemical in film photography. KI is a component in some disinfectants and hair treatment chemicals. KI is also used as a fluorescence quenching agent in biomedical research, an application that takes advantage of collisional quenching of fluorescent substances by the iodide ion. However, for several fluorophores addition of KI in μM-mM concentrations results in increase of fluorescence intensity, and iodide acts as fluorescence enhancer.Potassium iodide is a component in the electrolyte of dye sensitised solar cells (DSSC) along with iodine.
Industrial uses:
Potassium iodide finds its most important applications in organic synthesis mainly in the preparation of aryl iodides in the Sandmeyer reaction, starting from aryl amines. Aryl iodides are in turn used to attach aryl groups to other organics by nucleophilic substitution, with iodide ion as the leaving group.
Chemistry:
Potassium iodide is an ionic compound which is made of the following ions: K+I−. It crystallises in the sodium chloride structure. It is produced industrially by treating KOH with iodine.It is a white salt, which is the most commercially significant iodide compound, with approximately 37,000 tons produced in 1985. It absorbs water less readily than sodium iodide, making it easier to work with.
Chemistry:
Aged and impure samples are yellow because of the slow oxidation of the salt to potassium carbonate and elemental iodine.
Chemistry:
KI CO CO 3+2I2 Inorganic chemistry Since the iodide ion is a mild reducing agent, I− is easily oxidised to iodine (I2) by powerful oxidising agents such as chlorine: KI aq Cl aq KCl aq aq ) This reaction is employed in the isolation of iodine from natural sources. Air will oxidize iodide, as evidenced by the observation of a purple extract when aged samples of KI are rinsed with dichloromethane. As formed under acidic conditions, hydriodic acid (HI) is a stronger reducing agent.Like other iodide salts, KI forms triiodide (I−3) when combined with elemental iodine.
Chemistry:
KI aq KI aq ) Unlike I2, I−3 salts can be highly water-soluble. Through this reaction, iodine is used in redox titrations. Aqueous KI3, "Lugol's solution", is used as a disinfectant and as an etchant for gold surfaces.
Potassium iodide and silver nitrate are used to make silver(I) iodide, which is used for high speed photographic film and for cloud seeding: KI aq AgNO aq AgI KNO aq ) Organic chemistry KI serves as a source of iodide in organic synthesis. A useful application is in the preparation of aryl iodides from arenediazonium salts.
KI, acting as a source of iodide, may also act as a nucleophilic catalyst for the alkylation of alkyl chlorides, bromides, or mesylates.
History:
Potassium iodide has been used medically since at least 1820. Some of the earliest uses included cures for syphilis, lead and mercury poisoning.
Chernobyl Potassium iodide's (KI) value as a radiation protective (thyroid blocking) agent was demonstrated following the Chernobyl nuclear reactor disaster in April 1986. A saturated solution of potassium iodide (SSKI) was administered to 10.5 million children and 7 million adults in Poland as a preventative measure against accumulation of radioactive 131I in the thyroid gland.
History:
Reports differ concerning whether people in the areas immediately surrounding Chernobyl itself were given the supplement. However the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) reported, "thousands of measurements of I-131 (radioactive iodine) activity...suggest that the observed levels were lower than would have been expected had this prophylactic measure not been taken. The use of KI...was credited with permissible iodine content in 97% of the evacuees tested."With the passage of time, people living in irradiated areas where KI was not available have developed thyroid cancer at epidemic levels, which is why the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) reported "The data clearly demonstrate the risks of thyroid radiation... KI can be used [to] provide safe and effective protection against thyroid cancer caused by irradiation."Chernobyl also demonstrated that the need to protect the thyroid from radiation was greater than expected. Within ten years of the accident, it became clear that thyroid damage caused by released radioactive iodine was virtually the only adverse health effect that could be measured. As reported by the NRC, studies after the accident showed that "As of 1996, except for thyroid cancer, there has been no confirmed increase in the rates of other cancers, including leukemia, among the... public, that have been attributed to releases from the accident."But equally important to the question of KI is the fact that radioactivity releases are not "local" events. Researchers at the World Health Organization accurately located and counted the residents with cancer from Chernobyl and were startled to find that "the increase in incidence [of thyroid cancer] has been documented up to 500 km from the accident site... significant doses from radioactive iodine can occur hundreds of kilometers from the site, beyond emergency planning zones." Consequently, far more people than anticipated were affected by the radiation, which caused the United Nations to report in 2002 that "The number of people with thyroid cancer... has exceeded expectations. Over 11,000 cases have already been reported." Hiroshima and Nagasaki The Chernobyl findings were consistent with studies of the effects of previous radioactivity releases. In 1945, several hundreds of thousands of people working and residing in the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were exposed to high levels of radiation after atomic bombs were detonated over the two cities by the United States. Survivors of the A-bombings, also known as hibakusha, have markedly high rates of thyroid disease; a 2006 study of 4091 hibakusha found nearly half the participants (1833; 44.8%) had an identifiable thyroid disease.An editorial in The Journal of the American Medical Association regarding thyroid diseases in both hibakusha and those affected by the Chernobyl disaster reports that "[a] straight line adequately describes the relationship between radiation dose and thyroid cancer incidence" and states "it is remarkable that a biological effect from a single brief environmental exposure nearly 60 years in the past is still present and can be detected." Nuclear weapons testing The development of thyroid cancer among residents in the North Pacific from radioactive fallout following the United States' nuclear weapons testing in the 1950s (on islands nearly 200 miles downwind of the tests) were instrumental in the 1978 decision by the FDA to issue a request for the availability of KI for thyroid protection in the event of a release from a commercial nuclear power plant or weapons-related nuclear incident. Noting that KI's effectiveness was "virtually complete" and finding that iodine in the form of KI was substantially superior to other forms including iodate (KIO3) in terms of safety, effectiveness, lack of side effects, and speed of onset, the FDA invited manufacturers to submit applications to produce and market KI.
History:
Fukushima It was reported on 16 March 2011, that potassium iodide tablets were given preventively to U.S. Naval air crew members flying within 70 nautical miles of the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant damaged in the earthquake (8.9/9.0 magnitude) and ensuing tsunami on 11 March 2011. The measures were seen as precautions, and the Pentagon said no U.S. forces have shown signs of radiation poisoning. By 20 March, the US Navy instructed personnel coming within 100 miles of the reactor to take the pills.
History:
The Netherlands In the Netherlands, the central storage of iodine-pills is located in Zoetermeer, near The Hague. In 2017, the Dutch government distributed pills to hundreds of thousands of residents who lived within a certain distance of nuclear power plants and met some other criteria.
Belgium By 2020, potassium iodide tablets are made available free of charge for all residents in all pharmacies throughout the country.
Formulations:
Three companies (Anbex, Inc., Fleming Co, and Recipharm of Sweden) have met the strict FDA requirements for manufacturing and testing of KI, and they offer products (IOSAT, ThyroShield, and ThyroSafe, respectively) which are available for purchase. In 2012, Fleming Co. sold all its product rights and manufacturing facility to other companies and no longer exists. ThyroShield is currently not in production.
Formulations:
Tablets of potassium iodide are supplied for emergency purposes related to blockade of radioiodine uptake, a common form of radiation poisoning due to environmental contamination by the short-lived fission product 131I. Potassium iodide may also be administered pharmaceutically for thyroid storm.
Formulations:
For reasons noted above, therapeutic drops of SSKI, or 130 mg tablets of KI as used for nuclear fission accidents, are not used as nutritional supplements, since an SSKI drop or nuclear-emergency tablet provides 300 to 700 times more iodine than the daily adult nutritional requirement. Dedicated nutritional iodide tablets containing 0.15 mg (150 micrograms (μg)) of iodide, from KI or from various other sources (such as kelp extract) are marketed as supplements, but they are not to be confused with the much higher pharmaceutical dose preparations.
Formulations:
Potassium iodide can be conveniently prepared in a saturated solution, abbreviated SSKI. This method of delivering potassium iodide doesn't require a method to weigh out the potassium iodide, thus allowing it to be used in an emergency situation. KI crystals are simply added to water until no more KI will dissolve and instead sits at the bottom of the container. With pure water, the concentration of KI in the solution depends only on the temperature. Potassium iodide is highly soluble in water thus SSKI is a concentrated source of KI. At 20 degrees Celsius the solubility of KI is 140-148 grams per 100 grams of water. Because the volumes of KI and water are approximately additive, the resulting SSKI solution will contain about 1.00 gram (1000 mg) KI per milliliter (mL) of solution. This is 100% weight/volume (note units of mass concentration) of KI (one gram KI per mL solution), which is possible because SSKI is significantly more dense than pure water—about 1.67 g/mL. Because KI is about 76.4% iodide by weight, SSKI contains about 764 mg iodide per mL. This concentration of iodide allows the calculation of the iodide dose per drop, if one knows the number of drops per milliliter. For SSKI, a solution more viscous than water, there are assumed to be 15 drops per mL; the iodide dose is therefore approximately 51 mg per drop. It is conventionally rounded to 50 mg per drop.
Formulations:
The term SSKI is also used, especially by pharmacists, to refer to a U.S.P. pre-prepared solution formula, made by adding KI to water to prepare a solution containing 1000 mg KI per mL solution (100% wt/volume KI solution), to closely approximate the concentration of SSKI made by saturation. This is essentially interchangeable with SSKI made by saturation, and also contains about 50 mg iodide per drop.
Formulations:
Saturated solutions of potassium iodide can be an emergency treatment for hyperthyroidism (so-called thyroid storm), as high amounts of iodide temporarily suppress secretion of thyroxine from the thyroid gland. The dose typically begins with a loading dose, then 1⁄3 mL SSKI (5 drops or 250 mg iodine as iodide), three times per day.
Iodide solutions made from a few drops of SSKI added to drinks have also been used as expectorants to increase the water content of respiratory secretions and encourage effective coughing.
SSKI has been proposed as a topical treatment for sporotrichosis, but no trials have been conducted to determine the efficacy or side effects of such treatment.
Potassium iodide has been used for symptomatic treatment of erythema nodosum patients for persistent lesions whose cause remains unknown. It has been used in cases of erythema nodosum associated with Crohn's disease.
Due to its high potassium content, SSKI is extremely bitter, and if possible it is administered in a sugar cube or small ball of bread. It may also be mixed into much larger volumes of juices.
Neither SSKI or KI tablets form nutritional supplements, since the nutritional requirement for iodine is only 150 micrograms (0.15 mg) of iodide per day. Thus, a drop of SSKI provides 50/0.15 = 333 times the daily iodine requirement, and a standard KI tablet provides twice this much. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Spectral Hash**
Spectral Hash:
Spectral Hash is a cryptographic hash function submitted to the NIST hash function competition by Gokay Saldamlı, Cevahir Demirkıran, Megan Maguire, Carl Minden, Jacob Topper, Alex Troesch, Cody Walker, Çetin Kaya Koç. It uses a Merkle–Damgård construction and employs several mathematical structures including finite fields and discrete Fourier transforms. The authors claim 512-bit hashes at 51.2 gigabits per second on a 100-MHz Virtex-4 FPGA.
Spectral Hash:
Spectral hash is insecure; a method exists to generate arbitrary collisions in the hash state, and therefore in the final hash digest. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Deletion–contraction formula**
Deletion–contraction formula:
In graph theory, a deletion-contraction formula / recursion is any formula of the following recursive form: f(G)=f(G∖e)+f(G/e).
Here G is a graph, f is a function on graphs, e is any edge of G, G \ e denotes edge deletion, and G / e denotes contraction. Tutte refers to such a function as a W-function. The formula is sometimes referred to as the fundamental reduction theorem. In this article we abbreviate to DC.
Deletion–contraction formula:
R. M. Foster had already observed that the chromatic polynomial is one such function, and Tutte began to discover more, including a function f = t(G) counting the number of spanning trees of a graph (also see Kirchhoff's theorem). It was later found that the flow polynomial is yet another; and soon Tutte discovered an entire class of functions called Tutte polynomials (originally referred to as dichromates) that satisfy DC.
Examples:
Spanning trees The number of spanning trees t(G) satisfies DC.Proof. t(G∖e) denotes the number of spanning trees not including e, whereas t(G/e) the number including e. To see the second, if T is a spanning tree of G then contracting e produces another spanning tree of G/e . Conversely, if we have a spanning tree T of G/e , then expanding the edge e gives two disconnected trees; adding e connects the two and gives a spanning tree of G.
Examples:
Chromatic polynomials The chromatic polynomial χG(k) counting the number of k-colorings of G does not satisfy DC, but a slightly modified formula (which can be made equivalent): χG(k)=χG∖e(k)−χG/e(k).
Examples:
Proof. If e = uv, then a k-coloring of G is the same as a k-coloring of G \ e where u and v have different colors. There are χG∖e(k) total G \ e colorings. We need now subtract the ones where u and v are colored similarly. But such colorings correspond to the k-colorings of χG/e(k) where u and v are merged.
Examples:
This above property can be used to show that the chromatic polynomial χG(k) is indeed a polynomial in k. We can do this via induction on the number of edges and noting that in the base case where there are no edges, there are k|V(G)| possible colorings (which is a polynomial in k). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Suboxide**
Suboxide:
Suboxides are a class of oxides wherein the electropositive element is in excess relative to the “normal” oxides. When the electropositive element is a metal, the compounds are sometimes referred to as “metal-rich”. Thus the normal oxide of caesium is Cs2O, which is described as a Cs+ salt of O2−. A suboxide of caesium is Cs11O3, where the charge on Cs is clearly less than 1+, but the oxide is still described as O2−. Suboxides typically feature extensive bonding between the electropositive element, often leading to clusters.
Suboxide:
Examples of suboxides other than alkali metal derivatives: Carbon suboxide, C3O2; Boron suboxide, B6O; Phosphorus suboxide, PO; Titanium suboxides, TiO, Ti3O5, Ti4O7, and Ti5O9.
Metal-containing suboxides:
Suboxides are intermediates along the pathway that forms the normal oxide. Suboxides are sometimes visible when certain metals are exposed to small amounts of O2: 22 Cs + 3 O2 → 2 Cs11O3 4 Cs11O3 + 5 O2 → 22 Cs2OSeveral suboxides of caesium and rubidium have been characterized by X-ray crystallography. As of 1997, the inventory includes the following Rb9O2, Rb6O, Cs11O3, Cs4O, Cs7O, Cs11O3Rb, Cs11O3Rb2, and Cs11O3Rb3.Suboxides are generally colored compounds indicating a degree of electron delocalisation. Cs7O has a unit cell containing a Cs11O3 cluster and 10 Cs atoms. The cluster can be visualised as being composed of three face-sharing octahedra. In the picture below the caesium atoms are purple and the oxygen atoms are red. The Cs-Cs distance in the cluster is 376 pm, which is less than the Cs-Cs distance in the metal of 576 pm. Rb9O2 and Rb6O both contain the Rb9O2 cluster, which can be visualised as two face-sharing octahedra. Rb6O can be formulated as (Rb9O2)Rb3. The Rb-Rb distance in the cluster is 352 pm which is shorter than the Rb-Rb in the metal of 485 pm. It is suggested that caesium suboxides play a role in the Ag-O-Cs (S1) and multialkali Na-K-Sb-Cs photocathodes.
Carbon suboxide:
The suboxide of carbon adopts an unremarkable structure. As for related organic cumulenes (e.g. ketene), C3O2 obeys the octet rule.
Related compounds:
Subnitrides are also known. For example, Na16Ba6N features a nitride-centered octahedral cluster of six barium atoms embedded in a matrix of sodium. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Bimaximal mixing**
Bimaximal mixing:
Bimaximal mixing refers to a proposed form of the lepton mixing matrix. It is characterized by the ν3 neutrino being a bimaximal mixture of νμ and ντ and being completely decoupled from the νe , i.e. a uniform mixture of νμ and ντ . The νe is consequently a uniform mixture of ν1 and ν2 . Other notable properties are the symmetries between the νμ and ντ flavours and ν1 and ν2 mass eigenstates and an absence of CP violation. The moduli squared of the matrix elements have to be: [|Ue1|2|Ue2|2|Ue3|2|Uμ1|2|Uμ2|2|Uμ3|2|Uτ1|2|Uτ2|2|Uτ3|2]=[12120141412141412] .According to PDG convention: 7 , bimaximal mixing corresponds to 12 23 45 ∘ and 13 13 =0 , which produces following matrix:: 24 [Ue1Ue2Ue3Uμ1Uμ2Uμ3Uτ1Uτ2Uτ3]=[12120−12121212−1212] .Alternatively, 12 23 45 ∘ and 13 13 =0 can be used, which corresponds to:: 5 [Ue1Ue2Ue3Uμ1Uμ2Uμ3Uτ1Uτ2Uτ3]=[12−1201212−12121212]
Phenomenology:
The L/E flatness of the electron-like event ratio at Super-Kamiokande severely restricts the CP-conserving neutrino mixing matrices to the form:: 7 cos sin sin cos sin cos θ/212].
Bimaximal mixing corresponds to 45 ∘ . Tribimaximal mixing and golden-ratio mixing also correspond to an angle in the above parametrization. Bimaximal mixing, along with these other mixing schemes, have been falsified by a non-zero 13 | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Quadratic growth**
Quadratic growth:
In mathematics, a function or sequence is said to exhibit quadratic growth when its values are proportional to the square of the function argument or sequence position. "Quadratic growth" often means more generally "quadratic growth in the limit", as the argument or sequence position goes to infinity – in big Theta notation, f(x)=Θ(x2) . This can be defined both continuously (for a real-valued function of a real variable) or discretely (for a sequence of real numbers, i.e., real-valued function of an integer or natural number variable).
Examples:
Examples of quadratic growth include: Any quadratic polynomial.
Examples:
Certain integer sequences such as the triangular numbers. The n th triangular number has value n(n+1)/2 , approximately n2/2 .For a real function of a real variable, quadratic growth is equivalent to the second derivative being constant (i.e., the third derivative being zero), and thus functions with quadratic growth are exactly the quadratic polynomials, as these are the kernel of the third derivative operator D3 . Similarly, for a sequence (a real function of an integer or natural number variable), quadratic growth is equivalent to the second finite difference being constant (the third finite difference being zero), and thus a sequence with quadratic growth is also a quadratic polynomial. Indeed, an integer-valued sequence with quadratic growth is a polynomial in the zeroth, first, and second binomial coefficient with integer values. The coefficients can be determined by taking the Taylor polynomial (if continuous) or Newton polynomial (if discrete).
Examples:
Algorithmic examples include: The amount of time taken in the worst case by certain algorithms, such as insertion sort, as a function of the input length.
The numbers of live cells in space-filling cellular automaton patterns such as the breeder, as a function of the number of time steps for which the pattern is simulated.
Metcalfe's law stating that the value of a communications network grows quadratically as a function of its number of users. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Irène Waldspurger**
Irène Waldspurger:
Irène Waldspurger is a French mathematician and a researcher at the Research Centre in Mathematics of Decision (CEREMADE) where her research focuses on algorithm to solve phase problems, a class of problem relevant for a large number of imaging techniques used in science and medicine. She is also a professor at Paris Sciences et Lettres University.
Education and career:
Waldspurger competed for France in the 2006 International Mathematical Olympiad, winning a bronze medal.Waldspurger was a student of the prestigious Ecole Normale Superieure, in Paris, France, where she was ranked first at the entrance exam in 2006. She pursued her doctoral research at École Normale Supérieure, working on phase retrieval techniques using wavelet transforms under the supervision of Stephane Mallat, which she completed in 2015. She then joined the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for a postdoctoral fellowship, before returning to France in 2017 to join the French National Centre for Scientific Research.
Recognition:
In 2020, Waldspurger was one of the Peccot Lecturers and Peccot Prize winners of the College de France, and won the CNRS Bronze Medal. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Slit-scan photography**
Slit-scan photography:
The slit-scan photography technique is a photographic and cinematographic process where a moveable slide, into which a slit has been cut, is inserted between the camera and the subject to be photographed.
More generally, "slit-scan photography" refers to cameras that use a slit, which is particularly used in scanning cameras in panoramic photography. This has numerous applications. This article discusses the manual artistic technique.
Use in cinematography:
Originally used in static photography to achieve blurriness or deformity, the slit-scan technique was perfected for the creation of spectacular animations. It enables the cinematographer to create a psychedelic flow of colors. Though this type of effect is now often created through computer animation, slit-scan is a mechanical technique.
John Whitney developed it for the opening credits of the Hitchcock film Vertigo. After he sent some test sequences on film to Stanley Kubrick, the technique was adapted by Douglas Trumbull for 2001: A Space Odyssey in 1968 for the "star gate" sequence which required a custom-built machine.
Use in cinematography:
This type of effect was revived in other productions, for films and television alike. For instance, slit-scan was used by Bernard Lodge to create the Doctor Who title sequences for Jon Pertwee and Tom Baker used between December 1973 and January 1980. Slit-scan was also used in Star Trek: The Next Generation (1987–1994) to create the "stretching" of the starship Enterprise-D when it engaged warp drive. Due to the expense and difficulty of this technique, the same three warp-entry shots, all created by Industrial Light and Magic for the series pilot, were reused throughout the series virtually every time the ship went into warp. Slit-scan photography was also used on Interstellar for scenes in the tesseract at the end of the movie.
Description:
Slit-scan is an animation created image by image. Its principle is based upon the camera’s relative movement in relation to a light source, combined with a long exposure time. The process is as follows: An abstract colored design is painted on a transparent support This support is set down on the glass of a backlighting table and covered with an opaque masking into which one or more slits have been carved.
Description:
The camera (placed high on top of a vertical ramp and decentered in relation to the light slits) takes a single photograph while moving down the ramp. The result: at the top of the ramp, when it is far away, the camera takes a rather precise picture of the light slit. This image gets progressively bigger and eventually shifts itself out of the frame. This produces a light trail, which meets up with the edge of the screen.
Description:
These steps are repeated for each image, lightly peeling back the masking, which at the same time produces variation in colors as well as variation of the position of the light stream, thus creating the animation.Naturally, this effect is very time-consuming, and thus expensive, to create. A 10-second sequence at 24 frames per second requires a minimum of 240 adjustments. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**WinHelp**
WinHelp:
Microsoft WinHelp is a proprietary format for online help files that can be displayed by the Microsoft Help browser winhelp.exe or winhlp32.exe. The file format is based on Rich Text Format (RTF). It remained a popular Help platform from Windows 3.0 through Windows XP. WinHelp was removed in Windows Vista purportedly to discourage software developers from using the obsolete format and encourage use of newer help formats.
History:
1990 – WinHelp 1.0 shipped with Windows 3.0.
1995 – WinHelp 4.0 shipped with Windows 95 / Windows NT.
History:
2006 – Microsoft announced its intentions to phase out WinHelp as a supported platform. WinHelp is not part of Windows Vista out of the box. WinHelp files come in 16 bit and 32 bit types. Vista treats these files types differently. When starting an application that uses the 32 bit .hlp format, Windows warns that the format is no longer supported. A downloadable viewer for 32 bit .hlp files is available from the Microsoft Download Center. The 16 bit WinHelp files continue to display in Windows Vista (32 bit only) without the viewer download.
History:
January 9, 2009 – Microsoft announced the availability of Windows Help program (WinHlp32.exe) for Windows Server 2008 at the Microsoft Download Center.
October 14, 2009 – Microsoft announced the availability of Windows Help program (WinHlp32.exe) for Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2 at the Microsoft Download Center.
October 26, 2012 – Microsoft announced the availability of Windows Help program (WinHlp32.exe) for Windows 8 at the Microsoft Download Center.
November 5, 2013 – Microsoft announced the availability of Windows Help program (WinHlp32.exe) for Windows 8.1 at the Microsoft Download Center.
July 15, 2015 - Microsoft completely removed Windows Help from Windows 10. Attempting to open a .hlp file just brings users to a help page detailing that it was removed.
File format:
A WinHelp file has a ".hlp" suffix. It can be accompanied by an optional table of contents (.cnt) file if the help developer created one. When Windows opens a WinHelp file, it creates a .gid file in the same directory or in "%LOCALAPPDATA%\Help", containing information about the .hlp file such as the window size and location. If the user clicks the "Find" tab and enables keyword indexing, Windows creates an index file with a .fts (full text search) extension. Annotations and bookmarks for each Windows help file have the extension ".ann" and ".bmk".
File format:
A number of software tools can decompile a WinHelp file into its source documents: HPJ, CNT, RTF, BMP, and SHG. An HPJ file is the project file that is created and edited in the Help Workshop (or a third party help authoring tool). The HPJ contains information about what RTF files to compile into the help, the MAP IDs and Aliases that provide links from a calling application to the help file, and help file appearance (window size, default buttons, color schemes, etc.). The CNT file provides the table of contents for the help file. An SHG file is a "SHED" graphics file that essentially creates an image map of help calls for a graphic file (e.g., a BMP).
File format:
A number of tools can read and explore these files. (See, for example, Help to RTF and winhelpcgi.)
Source files and compilation:
Source files required to compile a .hlp file consist of one or more documents in Rich Text Format and a help project file with the extension .hpj, along with any image files (.bmp, .wmf, or .shg) that are used within the Help file. An optional table of contents file with the extension .cnt can also be created for use with the .hlp file.
Source files and compilation:
Within the .rtf files, topics are separated by page breaks. Each topic has a series of footnotes that contain information for the help compiler: # footnotes contain the topic ID (used to create links to that topic).
$ footnotes contain the topic name as it displays in the table of contents, index, and other locations.
K footnotes contain keywords for the index.
A footnotes contain See Also keywords.
* footnotes contain build tags.
+ footnotes contain browse sequence information.
! footnotes contain topic entry macros.Only the # footnote is required. All others are optional.
Source files and compilation:
Text in each topic can contain limited formatting, including bold text, italics, and colors. Superscript and subscript are not allowed. Jumps between topics in the same Help file usually appear in the source document as double-underlined text (green by default, though this can be overridden) followed by a topic ID in hidden text. Popup links appear in the source document as text with a single underline (also green by default) followed by a topic ID in hidden text. (In the .hlp file, the jumps show up as green text with a single underline, and popups show up as green text with a dotted underline.) Images can be added using codes such as {bmc image.bmp}. Supported image formats include .bmp, .wmf, and .shg (used for image maps, which can contain jumps or popups that are triggered by clicking on specific parts of the image).
Source files and compilation:
After the source files have been created, the help file can be compiled using a WinHelp compiler such as HCW.exe or by using a commercial software program such as RoboHelp or HelpBreeze, most of which (included the two cited here) also use hcw.exe as the backend compiler.
WinHelp appearance and features:
Depending on how it has launched and what settings the Help author chose, a WinHelp file opens either to its default topic, its table of contents, or its index.
A topic in a WinHelp file opens in a separate window, in a size and initial position that the Help author may choose. Users can resize or reposition the window. The Help author can control whether the Help file stores the user's settings between sessions, or always opens in the default size and position.
WinHelp appearance and features:
When a topic is open, a title bar at the top of the Help window displays the topic title. Below that is a row of menus (File, Edit, Bookmark, Options, and Help), which control various aspects of the file. A row of buttons usually appears below the menus. The Help author controls which buttons, if any, appear. Typical buttons include Contents, Index, Back, and Print, along with << and >> buttons to browse through the file. Help authors can also create custom buttons to jump to specific topics or perform other actions.
WinHelp appearance and features:
Below the buttons is the main text area of the window. Typically, the text begins with a heading, often bold or in a larger font than the rest of the text. This heading may sometimes be in a non-scrolling region—an area of the window that does not move up or down via the scrollbar at the side of the window. Non-scrolling regions can only be used at the beginning of a topic. The Help author can control size and background color of a non-scrolling region.
WinHelp appearance and features:
Help authors can also control the background color of the main text area, where the actual text of the topic appears. This text can be formatted and arranged in many ways. Within the text, jumps appear as green text with a single underline. Single-clicking on a jump opens a different topic. Some jumps may open secondary Help windows to display information. Popups appear in the text as green text with a dotted underline. Single-clicking on a popup opens a small window with no menus, buttons, or scrollbars, sized to fit the text. Often, popups provide short definitions of key terms or other supplemental information about the main text. The popup automatically disappears the next time the user clicks or presses a key.
WinHelp appearance and features:
Many, though not all Help topics have See Also jumps at the end of the text. Depending on the Help author's preference, this feature may be a simple list of jumps under the heading See Also, or it may be a small button that, when clicked, brings up a dialog box displaying all the relevant topics. Clicking on the name of a topic in that dialog box then clicking Display opens that topic.
WinHelp appearance and features:
Most Help files also contain a table of contents and an index to help users locate information. These appear in a separate, tabbed window. Clicking on the Contents tab opens the table of contents, in which users can click on headings to see the topics. Often, headings are marked with icons that look like small books and the topics have icons that look like pages. Double-clicking on a topic (or clicking on a topic then clicking Display) opens that topic. Clicking on the Index tab opens the index, which has a typing field and an alphabetical keyword list. Typing in the typing field automatically scrolls the list of keywords to the closest match. Double-clicking on a keyword (or clicking on a keyword then clicking Display) displays the topic associated with that keyword (if only one) or brings up a list of all topics associated with it. The index is important in helping users locate information. Sometimes Help files also have a Find tab, which lets the user search for any word used in the text of the file, not just for keywords.
WinHelp appearance and features:
WinHelp also supports a feature known as context-sensitive help. Context-sensitive help is assistance that is appropriate to where the user is in the software application, and what they are trying to do.
A rather security critical feature is that one can also include a DLL file containing custom code and associating it with WinHelp topics. Effectively this makes .HLP files equivalent to executables.
End of support:
At the 2006 WritersUA conference, Microsoft announced its intentions to phase out WinHelp as a supported platform. Ted Dworkin (Partner Director of WinHelp Experience) stated, "WinHelp does not meet the code standards established for Vista. These standards include security, reliability, and performance." He went on to say that WinHelp is designed in such a way that, "...we would have to rewrite it from the ground up to meet the Vista code standards. And that approach doesn't make sense given that we have two other Help systems in Vista."The updated licensing agreement prohibits application developers from packaging the WinHelp libraries with their installers. This means that WinHelp manuals for legacy applications are not readable on a new Windows Vista (or higher version) installation. To read them, the end-user must obtain the 32-bit WinHelp viewer from Microsoft's website and manually install it.Starting with Windows 10 Microsoft does not offer WinHelp viewer for this (or higher) version. The last version of Windows on which it was possible to open WinHelp files, using an official downloadable component by Microsoft, is Windows 8.1. The open-source version of winhlp32 from Wine also works on Windows 10. It is included as part of WineVDM. Also on Windows 10 WinHelp works with winhlp32.exe from older version of Windows.
Other documentation file formats:
Although documentation can be maintained entirely in a vendor-specific presentation format such as WinHelp, it is more often the case that documentation must be published in multiple presentation formats at once: Microsoft Compiled HTML Help (CHM), WinHelp, HTML pages, Java Help, PDF, etc. It would be very expensive and error-prone to maintain each format separately.
For this reason, authors often maintain documentation in an industry-standard, vendor-neutral authoring format—such as DocBook or FrameMaker—that can be used to generate several different presentation formats (including WinHelp). Various presentation files thus produced (with WinHelp or other tools) contain consistent content because they were generated from the same source. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Tropoflavin**
Tropoflavin:
Tropoflavin, also known as 7,8-dihydroxyflavone, is a naturally occurring flavone found in Godmania aesculifolia, Tridax procumbens, and primula tree leaves. It has been found to act as a potent and selective small-molecule agonist of the tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB) (Kd ≈ 320 nM), the main signaling receptor of the neurotrophin brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Tropoflavin is both orally bioavailable and able to penetrate the blood–brain barrier. A prodrug of tropoflavin with greatly improved potency and pharmacokinetics, R13 (and, formerly, R7), is under development for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease.Tropoflavin has demonstrated therapeutic efficacy in animal models of a variety of central nervous system disorders, including depression, Alzheimer's disease, cognitive deficits in schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, traumatic brain injury, cerebral ischemia, fragile X syndrome, and Rett syndrome. Tropoflavin also shows efficacy in animal models of age-associated cognitive impairment and enhances memory consolidation and emotional learning in healthy rodents. In addition, tropoflavin possesses powerful antioxidant activity independent of its actions on the TrkB receptor, and protects against glutamate-induced excitotoxicity, 6-hydroxydopamine-induced dopaminergic neurotoxicity, and oxidative stress-induced genotoxicity. It was also found to block methamphetamine-induced dopaminergic neurotoxicity, an effect which, in contrast to the preceding, was found to be TrkB-dependent.In 2017, evidence was published suggesting that tropoflavin and various other reported small-molecule TrkB agonists might not actually be direct agonists of the TrkB and might be mediating their observed effects by other means.Tropoflavin has been found to act as a weak aromatase inhibitor in vitro (Ki = 10 μM), though there is evidence to suggest that this might not be the case in vivo. In addition, it has been found to inhibit aldehyde dehydrogenase and estrogen sulfotransferase in vitro (Ki = 35 μM and 1–3 μM, respectively), though similarly to the case of aromatase, these activities have not yet been confirmed in vivo. Unlike many other flavonoids, tropoflavin does not show any inhibitory activity on 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase. Tropoflavin has also been observed to possess in vitro antiestrogenic effects at very high concentrations (Ki = 50 μM).A variety of close structural analogues of tropoflavin have also been found to act as TrkB agonists in vitro, including diosmetin (5,7,3'-trihydroxy-4'-methoxyflavone), norwogonin (5,7,8-trihydroxyflavone), eutropoflavin (4'-dimethylamino-7,8-dihydroxyflavone), 7,8,3'-trihydroxyflavone, 7,3'-dihydroxyflavone, 7,8,2'-trihydroxyflavone, 3,7,8,2'-tetrahydroxyflavone, and 3,7-dihydroxyflavone. The highly hydroxylated analogue gossypetin (3,5,7,8,3',4'-hexahydroxyflavone), conversely, appears to be an antagonist of TrkB in vitro.Tropoflavin was also found to decrease mouse sleep in dark phase and reduce hypothalamus level of orexin A but not orexin B in mice. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Win rate**
Win rate:
In advertising, a win rate is a percentage metric in programmatic media marketing that measures the number of impressions won over the number of impressions bid. Win rates are used to gauge competition in programmatic buys in a second-payer Vickrey auction. High win rates indicate either low competition, aggressive bids in comparison to competitors, or selective inventory.
Impacting Win Rates:
Win rates can vary based on Demand-side platform, as each can generate different numbers in the numerator and the denominator based on how many queries per second the technology can handle and filters out before the auction.
Several strategic maneuvers are commonly employed to augment win rates: Elevating Bid Values. Increasing bid amounts enhances the likelihood of securing more impressions, thereby inflating the numerator in the win rate calculation.
Strategic Auction Participation. Opting for participation in a reduced number of auctions curtails the denominator, effectively raising the overall win rate.
Pre-Bid Optimization. Employing pre-bid solutions allows for a more discerning selection of impressions to bid on, thereby refining the quality of bids and augmenting win rates.
Inventory Management. Employing blacklisting or whitelisting of specific inventory segments may potentially influence the denominator by restricting or enabling impressions' eligibility for bidding.
Frequency Caps Management. Manipulating frequency caps can impact bid frequency on impressions, thereby affecting the denominator by limiting the count of impressions available for bidding.Increasing the numerator will increase Win Rate = Number of Impressions Won/Number of Impressions Bid | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Piphilology**
Piphilology:
Piphilology comprises the creation and use of mnemonic techniques to remember many digits of the mathematical constant π. The word is a play on the word "pi" itself and of the linguistic field of philology.
Piphilology:
There are many ways to memorize π, including the use of piems (a portmanteau, formed by combining pi and poem), which are poems that represent π in a way such that the length of each word (in letters) represents a digit. Here is an example of a piem: "Now I need a drink, alcoholic of course, after the heavy lectures involving quantum mechanics." Notice how the first word has three letters, the second word has one, the third has four, the fourth has one, the fifth has five, and so on. In longer examples, 10-letter words are used to represent the digit zero, and this rule is extended to handle repeated digits in so-called Pilish writing. The short story "Cadaeic Cadenza" records the first 3,834 digits of π in this manner, and a 10,000-word novel, Not A Wake, has been written accordingly.However, poems prove to be inefficient for large memorizations of π. Other methods include remembering patterns in the numbers (for instance, the year 1971 appears in the first fifty digits of π) and the method of loci (which has been used to memorize π to 67,890 digits).
History:
Until the 20th century, the number of digits of pi which mathematicians had the stamina to calculate by hand remained in the hundreds, so that memorization of all known digits at the time was possible. In 1949 a computer was used to calculate π to 2,000 places, presenting one of the earliest opportunities for a more difficult challenge.
History:
Later computers calculated pi to extraordinary numbers of digits (2.7 trillion as of August 2010), and people began memorizing more and more of the output. The world record for the number of digits memorized has exploded since the mid-1990s, and it stood at 100,000 as of October 2006. The previous record (83,431) was set by the same person (Akira Haraguchi) on July 2, 2005, and the record previous to that (42,195) was held by Hiroyuki Goto.
History:
An institution from Germany provides the details of the "Pi World Ranking".
Examples in English:
The most common mnemonic technique is to memorize a so-called "piem" (a wordplay on "pi" and "poem") in which the number of letters in each word is equal to the corresponding digit of π. This famous example for 15 digits has several variations, including: How I want a drink, alcoholic of course, after the heavy chapters involving quantum mechanics! - Sir James Hopwood JeansShort mnemonics such as these, of course, do not take one very far down π's infinite road. Instead, they are intended more as amusing doggerel. If even less accuracy suffices, the following examples can be used: How I wish I could recollect pi easily today! May I have a large container of coffee, cream and sugar?This second one gives the value of π as 3.1415926535, while the first only brings it to the second five. Indeed, many published poems use truncation instead of one of the several roundings, thereby producing a less-accurate result when the first omitted digit is greater than or equal to five. It is advantageous to use truncation in memorizing if the individual intends to study more places later on, otherwise one will be remembering erroneous digits.
Examples in English:
Another mnemonic is: The point I said a blind Bulgarian in France could seeIn this mnemonic the word "point" represents the decimal point itself.
Examples in English:
Yet another example is: How I wish I could recollect, of circle round, the exact relation Arkimedes (or Archimede) unwound.In this example, the spelling of Archimedes is normalised to nine. Although 'Archimedes' is, today, a more correct spelling of the ancient Greek mathematician's name in English, Archimede is also often seen when this mnemonic is given, since Archimède is the more correct spelling in some languages, such as French. This mnemonic also contains a rounding error because the digit represented by the last word "Arkimedes" (9) in 3.141592653589 is followed by 7 in π, which would cause the last two digits to round up.
Examples in English:
Longer mnemonics employ the same concept. This example created by Peter M. Brigham incorporates twenty decimal digits: How I wish I could enumerate pi easily, since all these bullshit mnemonics prevent recalling any of pi's sequence more simply.
Examples in English:
Poems Some mnemonics, such as this poem which gives the three and the first 20 decimal digits, use the separation of the poem's title and main body to represent the decimal point: Pie I wish I could determine pi Eureka, cried the great inventor Christmas pudding, Christmas pie Is the problem's very center.Another, more poetic version is: Sir, I have a rhyme excelling, In mystic power and magic spelling, Celestial spirits elucidate, For my own problems can't relate.Extensions to 30 or 31 decimals of the same proceed as follows: There are minor variations on the above rhyme, which still allow pi to be worked out correctly. However, one variation replaces the word "lexicon's" with "lesson's" and in doing so, incorrectly indicates that the 18th digit is seven.
Examples in English:
The logologist Dmitri Borgmann gives the following 30-word poem in his book, Language on Vacation: An Olio of Orthographical Oddities: Now, a moon, a lover refulgent in flight, Sails the black silence's loneliest ellipse.
Examples in English:
Computers use pi, the constant, when polite, Or gentle data for sad tracking aid at eclipse.In the fantasy book, Somewhen by David Saul, a 35-word piem both provides a description of the constant pi and the digits. The text is also laid out as a circle to provide another clue to the readers as to the purpose of the poem. In this example, the word "nothing" is used to represent the digit zero. The following sonnet is a mnemonic for pi to 75 decimal places in iambic pentameter: Now I defy a tenet gallantly Of circle canon law: these integers Importing circles' quotients are, we see, Unwieldy long series of cockle bursPut all together, get no clarity; Mnemonics shan't describeth so reformed Creating, with a grammercy plainly, A sonnet liberated yet conformed.Strangely, the queer'st rules I manipulate Being followéd, do facilitate Whimsical musings from geometric bard.This poesy, unabashed as it's distressed, Evolvéd coherent - a simple test, Discov'ring poetry no numerals jarred.Note that in this example, 10-letter words are used to represent the digit zero.
Examples in English:
Other poems use sound as a mnemonic technique, as in the following poem which rhymes with the first 140 decimal places of pi using a blend of assonance, slant rhyme, and perfect rhyme: dreams number us like pi. runes shift. nights rewind daytime pleasure-piles. dream-looms create our id.
moods shift. words deviate. needs brew. pleasures rise.
Examples in English:
time slows. too late? wait! foreign minds live inus! quick-minds, free-minds, minds-we-never-mind, unknown, gyrate! neuro-rhymes measure our minds, for our minds rhyme. crude ego-emanations distort nodes. id, (whose basic neuro-spacetime rhymes),plays its tune. space drones before fate unites dreams’ lore to unsung measures. whole dimensions gyrate. new number-games donate quick minds & weave through fate’s loom. fears, hopes, digits, or devilscollide here—labor stored in gold-mines, lives, lightcone- piles. fate loops through dreams & pleasure-looms….Note that "dreams number us like pi" corresponds to "314159," and so on. Sound-based mnemonic techniques, unlike pilish, do not require that the letters in each word be counted in order to recall the digits of pi. However, where sound-based mnemonics use assonance, extra care must be taken to distinguish "nine" and "five," which contain the same vowel sound. In this example, the author assumes the convention that zero is often called "O." Piku The piku follows the rules of conventional haiku (three lines of 5, 7 and 5 syllables), but with the added mnemonic trick that each word contains the same number of letters as the numerals of pi, e.g.
Examples in English:
How I love a verse Contrived to unhusk dryly One image nutshell Songs In 2004, Andrew Huang wrote a song that was a mnemonic for the first fifty digits of pi, titled "I am the first 50 digits of pi". The first line is: Man, I can’t - I shan’t! - formulate an anthem where the words comprise mnemonics, dreaded mnemonics for pi.In 2013, Huang extended the song to include the first 100 digits of pi, and changed the title to "Pi Mnemonic Song".
Examples in English:
Lengthier works There are piphilologists who have written texts that encode hundreds or thousands of digits. This is an example of constrained writing, known as "Pilish". For example, Poe, E.: Near a Raven represents 740 digits, Cadaeic Cadenza encodes 3,835, and Not A Wake extends to 10,000 digits.
Examples in English:
Sound-based mnemonics It is also possible to use the rhythm and sound of the spoken digits themselves as a memorization device. The mathematician John Horton Conway composed the following arrangement for the first 100 digits, _ _ _ 3 point 1415 9265 35 ^ ^ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ 8979 3238 4626 4338 3279 ** **^^ ^^ **** . _ _ __ _ _ _ . _ .
Examples in English:
502 884 197 169 399 375 105 820 974 944 ^ ^ ^ ^ 59230 78164 _ _ _ _ 0628 6208 998 6280 ^^ ^^ ^^ .. _ .._ 34825 34211 70679, ^ ^ where the accents indicate various kinds of repetition.Another mnemonic system used commonly in the memorization of pi is the Mnemonic major system, where single numbers are translated into basic sounds. A combination of these sounds creates a word, which can then be translated back into numbers. When combined with the Method of loci, this becomes a very powerful memorization tool.
Examples in other languages:
Persian Counting the letters in each word (additionally separated by "|") gives 10 decimal places of π: خرد (kherad) = 3, و (va) = 1, دانش (daanesh) = 4, و (va) = 1, آگاهی (aagaahi) = 5, ...
Hungarian An interesting (not math themed) alternative: Another alternative: Íme a szám: a görög periféria pi betűje.
Euler meg Viète végtelen összeggel közelít értékéhez.
Lám, őt már Egyiptom, Kína, Európa is akarta, hogy „ama kör kerülete úgy ki lehetne számlálva”.
Examples in other languages:
Albanian German This statement yields π to twenty-two decimal places: Wie, o dies π macht ernstlich so vielen viele Müh. Lernt immerhin, Mägdelein, leichte Verselein, wie so zum Beispiel dies dürfte zu merken sein.English translation that doesn't encode pi: How, oh this π seriously makes so many struggles to so many. Learn at least, girls, simple little verses, just such as this one should be memorizable.Looser English translation that encodes pi: Woe! O this π makes seriously so muchly many's woe.
Examples in other languages:
French The following poem composed of Alexandrins consists of words each with a number of letters that yields π to 126 decimal places: An alternative beginning: Que j’aime à faire apprendre un nombre utile aux sages ! Glorieux Archimède, artiste ingénieur, Toi de qui Syracuse aime encore la gloire, Soit ton nom conservé par de savants grimoires ! ...
Examples in other languages:
Katharevousa (archaizing) Greek Yielding π to 22 decimal places: Spanish The following piem, giving π to 31 decimal places, is well known in Argentina: Another. This piem gives π (correctly rounded) to 10 decimal places. (If you prefer to not round π, then replace "cosmos" with "cielo".) Irish (7 decimal places) Romanian One of the Romanian versions of Pi poems is: There is another phrase known in Romanian that will help to memorize the number by eight decimal places: Așa e bine a scrie renumitul și utilul număr. — "This is the way to write the renowned and useful number." Another alternative for 15 decimal places: Ion a luat o carte, biografie, în latina veche. Are cinci capitole originale clasice latinești. — "Ion has bought a book, a biography, in old latin. It has five classical original latin chapters." Russian In the Russian language, there is a well-known phrase in the reform of 1917 orthography of old tradition: A more modern rhyme is: A short approximation is: "Что я знаю о кругах?" (What do I know about circles?) In addition, there are several nonfolklore verses that simply rhyme the digits of pi "as is"; for examples, see the Russian version of this article.
Examples in other languages:
Polish The verse of Polish mathematician Witold Rybczyński (35 decimal places): (Note that the dash stands for zero.) The verse of Polish mathematician Kazimierz Cwojdziński (23 decimal places): (12 decimal places): (10 decimal places) An occasionally seen verse related to Mundial Argentina and the Polish football team (30 decimal places): Portuguese (11 decimal places) (8 decimal places) Or in Brazilian Portuguese: A piem written in a more poetic manner: Japanese Japanese piphilology has countless mnemonics based on punning words with numbers. This is especially easy in Japanese because there are two or three ways to pronounce each digit, and the language has relatively few phonemes to begin with. For example, to 31 decimal places: This is close to being ungrammatical nonsense, but a loose translation prioritizing word order yields: A person is one; the world is one: to live this way, it's meaningless, one says, and cries, "step on it, will ya!" then reads—be the same! Crying uncontrollably in the dark.Japanese children also use songs built on this principle to memorize the multiplication table.
Examples in other languages:
Chinese It is possible to construct piphilogical poems in Chinese by using homophones or near-homophones of the numbers zero through nine, as in the following well known example which covers 22 decimal places of π. In this example the character meaning "mountain" (山 shān) is used to represent the number "three" (三 sān), the character meaning "I" (吾 wú) is used to represent the number "five" (五 wǔ), and the characters meaning "temple" (寺 sì) and "die" (死 sǐ) are used to represent the number "four" (四 sì). Some of the mnemonic characters used in this poem, for example "kill" (殺 shā) for "three" (三 sān), "jug" (壺 hú) for "five" (五 wǔ), "happiness" (樂 lè) for "six" (六 liù) and "eat" (吃 chī) for "seven" (七 qī), are not very close phonetically in Mandarin/Putonghua.
Examples in other languages:
This can be translated as: On a mountain top a temple and a jug of wine.
Your happiness makes me so bitter; Take some wine and drink, the wine will kill you; If it does not kill you, I will rejoice in your happiness.
Examples in other languages:
Turkish Czech (nine decimal places) (12 decimal places) (13 decimal places) (30 decimal places) Serbian (16 decimal places) Italian (30 decimal places) (10 decimal places) Chi è nudo e crepa limonando la tubera, lieto lui crepa Sanskrit The Katapayadi System of verses is basically a system of code so that things can be defined in a way so that people can remember. The code is as follows: With the above key in place, Sri Bharathi Krishna Tirtha in his Vedic Mathematics gives the following verse: गोपी भाग्य मधुव्रात श्रुङ्गिशो दधिसन्धिग | खलजीवित खाताव गलहालारसंधार | If we replace the code from the above table in the above verse, here is what we get.
Examples in other languages:
31 41 5926 535 89793 23846 264 33832792 That gives us π/10=0.31415926535897932384626433832792 Slovene The following piem gives π to 30 decimal places.
Memorization record holders:
Even before computers calculated π, memorizing a record number of digits became an obsession for some people. The record for memorizing digits of π, certified by Guinness World Records, is 70,000 digits, recited in India by Rajveer Meena in 9 hours and 27 minutes on 21 March 2015. On October 3, 2006, Akira Haraguchi, a retired Japanese engineer, claimed to have recited 100,000 decimal places, but the claim was not verified by Guinness World Records.David Fiore was an early record holder for pi memorization. Fiore's record stood as an American record for more than 27 years, which remains the longest time period for an American recordholder. He was the first person to break the 10,000 digit mark.Suresh Kumar Sharma holds Limca Book of Records for the most decimal places of pi recited by memory. He rattled off 70,030 numbers in 17 hours 14 minutes on October 21, 2015. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Stellar Data Recovery for Windows**
Stellar Data Recovery for Windows:
Stellar Data Recovery is a data recovery utility for Windows, macOS and iOS developed by Stellar.
Windows:
The Windows version was previously known as Stellar Phoenix Windows Data Recovery.
Mac:
The Mac version was previously known as Stellar Phoenix Mac Data Recovery. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Gender essentialism**
Gender essentialism:
Gender essentialism is a theory that is used to examine the attribution of distinct, fixed, intrinsic qualities to women and men. In this theory, based in essentialism, there are certain universal, innate, biologically or psychologically based features of gender that are at the root of observed differences in the behavior of men and women. In Western civilization, it is suggested in writings going back to ancient Greece.: 1 With the advent of Christianity, the earlier Greek model was expressed in theological discussions as the doctrine that there are two distinct sexes, male and female, created by God, and that individuals are immutably one or the other. This view remained largely unchanged until the middle of the 19th century. This changed the locus of the origin of the essential differences from religion to biology, in Sandra Bem's words, "from God's grand creation [to] its scientific equivalent: evolution's grand creation," but the belief in an immutable origin had not changed.: 2 Alternatives to gender essentialism were proposed in the mid-20th century. During second-wave feminism, Simone de Beauvoir and other feminists in the 1960s and 70s theorized that gender differences were socially constructed. In other words, people gradually conform to gender differences through their experience of the social world. More recently, Judith Butler theorized that people construct gender by performing it. While still strongly criticized by many feminist theorists, gender essentialism sheds light on social constructs surrounding gender that are found in society as well as societal views on sex and sexuality.
Claims:
Biology The gender essentialist claim of biology theorizes that gender differences are rooted in nature and biology. Historical views based in gender essentialism claim that there are biological causes for the differences between men and women, such as women giving birth and men going out and hunting. This claim is analyzed in detail by Emily Martin in her article Medical Metaphors of Women’s Bodies: Menstruation and Menopause. In her article, Martin examines some of the historical views that used biology to explain the differences between women and men. One popular view in ancient Greece was that men were superior to women because they could sweat out their toxins while women had to menstruate to get rid of their toxins.In 1975, American biologist, Edward O. Wilson, claimed that “both human and social behavior and human organization” are encoded in human genes. He later added to this claim, using the example of reproduction and how one male can fertilize many females but a female can be fertilized by only one male.” Masculinity The gender essentialist claim of masculinity theorizes that men are dominant, and women are submissive. It is influenced by socially constructed gender roles and traditional, patriarchal views about how men and women should act. Feminist theorist Sandra Bem, analyzes the claim and its roots in her 1993 book, The Lenses of Gender: Transforming the Debate on Sexual Inequality. Bem also breaks down how gender differences are perceived in society and how patriarchal views and claims of biology work together to “reproduce male power.” Normal gender The gender essentialist theory of normal gender is rooted in the idea that there are only two genders – male and female. This claim is analyzed by feminist theorist Monique Wittig in her article, One Is Not Born A Woman. In her piece, Wittig's main claim counters the theory of gender essentialism, claiming that there is not a "natural" group of women and this idea is founded in patriarchal oppression, sexism, and homophobia.
In feminism:
In feminist theory and gender studies, gender essentialism is the attribution of a fixed essence to women. Women's essence is assumed to be universal and is generally identified with those characteristics viewed as being specifically feminine. These ideas of femininity are usually related to biology and often concern psychological characteristics such as nurturance, empathy, support, non-competitiveness, etc.
In feminism:
Feminist theory In 1980, feminist theorist Monique Witting published One Is Not Born A Woman, an article that discusses how gender essentialist views regarding men, women, and gender roles work to re-establish patriarchal roles and ideas in society. She also talks about how these views contribute to women’s oppression, focusing on “lesbianism” and how it goes against the “rules” that society has set in place. Witting’s piece shows how the gender essentialist claim of normal gender is rooted in homophobia and how these roots continue to allow women to be oppressed.In 1988, feminist theorist Emily Martin published Medical Metaphors of Women’s Bodies: Menstruation and Menopause. This piece analyzed the history of gender essentialist claims and how biology has been used to explain differences between genders. This claim of biology, according to Martin, dates back to ancient Greece Martin explains that, throughout history, views regarding women varied with menstruation originally being viewed as something important but still something that made women lesser, but later changing to be viewed as a disorder that negatively impacted women’s lives. Martin’s piece provides insight on how society places great importance on the different biological processes between genders.
In feminism:
The 1993 publication of The Lenses of Gender by feminist theorist Sandra Bem addresses how gender differences are perceived by society. She also talks about how essentialist gender roles reproduce male power.Feminist theorist Elizabeth Grosz states in her 1995 publication, Space, Time and Perversion: Essays on the Politics of Bodies, that essentialism "entails the belief that those characteristics defined as women's essence are shared in common by all women at all times. It implies a limit of the variations and possibilities of change—it is not possible for a subject to act in a manner contrary to her essence. Her essence underlies all the apparent variations differentiating women from each other. Essentialism thus refers to the existence of fixed characteristic, given attributes, and ahistorical functions that limit the possibilities of change and thus of social reorganization."(1995:47)
In biology:
Biologism Biologism is a particular form of essentialism that defines women's and men's essence in terms of biological capacities. This form of essentialism is based on a form of reductionism, meaning that social and cultural factors are the effects of biological causes. Biological reductivism "claim[s] that anatomical and physiological differences—especially reproductive differences—characteristic of human males and females determine both the meaning of masculinity and femininity and the appropriately different positions of men and women in society". Biologism uses the functions of reproduction, nurturance, neurology, neurophysiology, and endocrinology to limit women's social and psychological possibilities according to biologically established limits. It asserts the science of biology to constitute an unalterable definition of identity, which inevitably "amounts to a permanent form of social containment for women". Naturalism is also a part of the system of essentialism where a fixed nature is postulated for women through the means of theological or ontological rather than biological grounds. An example of this would be the claim that women's nature is a God-given attribute, or the ontological invariants in Sartrean existentialism or Freudian psychoanalysis that distinguish the sexes in the "claim that the human subject is somehow free or that the subjects social position is a function of his or her genital morphology". These systems are used to homogenize women into one singular category and to strengthen a binary between men and women.
In biology:
Superior gender Throughout history women have been viewed as the submissive and inferior gender. In ancient Greece, this view was supported by the belief that women had to rid their bodies of toxins by menstruating while men could sweat their toxins out. By the 1800s, this view remained the same, but the reasoning had changed. In 1879, the French doctor, Gustave Le Bon, explained this inferiority of women as their brains being closer to the size of gorillas than most male brains. Le Bon also stated that women were fickle, inconsistent, lacked thought and logic, and were not able to reason.
In biology:
Child development Children have been observed making gender categorizations and displaying essentialist beliefs about gender preferences and indications. Proponents of gender essentialism propose that children from the age of 4 to 10 show the tendency to endorse the role of nature in determining gender-stereotyped properties, an "early bias to view gender categories as predictive of essential, underlying similarities", which gradually declines as they pass elementary school years.
In religion:
The male–female dichotomy has been an important factor in most religions. In the Abrahamic religions the difference between man and woman is established at the origin of time, with the bible saying of Adam and Eve "...in the image of God he created them; male and female he created them", indicating that the difference is instituted by God. Some discuss if this verse is a expression of gender essentialism or a reference to humanity as a whole.In Norse mythology Ask and Embla were the first people, man and woman, created by the gods. Other Nordic myths have LGBT themes.
In religion:
Religion and biology Gender essentialism has been heavily influenced by both religion and by science, with religion being the prominent reasoning behind gender essentialism until the mid-1800s. The reasoning ultimately changed from religion to science, but still supported the same essentialist thinking.
In religion:
Latter-day Saints The official view of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) is an essentialist belief in gender. The 1995 LDS Church statement The Family: A Proclamation to the World declares gender to be an "essential characteristic" and an "eternal identity". Mormons generally believe in an eternal life and that it would be impossible for one's eternal gender to be different from one's physical, birth sex. Church regulations permit, but do not mandate, ex-communication for those who choose sexual reassignment surgery, and deny them membership in the priesthood.
Criticism and movements:
Social construction of gender The main alternative to gender essentialism is the theory of the social construction of gender. In contrast to gender essentialism, social constructionism views gender as created and influenced by society and culture, both of which differ according to time and place. Theories of the social construction of gender grew out of theories in second-wave feminism in the latter half of the 20th century.
Criticism and movements:
Women's suffrage movement Prior to the 1960s, dating back to the second half of the 1800s, feminists were beginning to actively identify and challenge “legal and social inequalities between the sexes."Feminist activists, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott were among some of the first to take a public stand against gender essentialist views that led to sexism. In 1848, Stanton and Mott held the first women’s rights conference. Then, in 1869. Stanton and Susan B. Anthony founded the National Women’s Suffrage Association.
Criticism and movements:
Second-wave feminism The start of second-wave feminism in the 1960s pushed for serious change in how society reacted towards sexism and gender essentialist views. Although it brought to attention gender segregation in the workplace and the gender pay gap, little has changed in the power dynamic as it is so deeply ingrained into society.
Alternative theories of gender:
Gender performativity Judith Butler's theory of gender performativity can be seen as a means to show "the ways in which reified and naturalized conceptions of gender might be understood as constituted and, hence, capable of being constituted differently". Butler uses the phenomenological theory of acts espoused by Edmund Husserl, Maurice Merleau-Ponty and George Herbert Mead, which seeks to explain the mundane way in which "social agents constitute social reality through language, gesture, and all manner of symbolic social sign", to create her conception of gender performativity. She begins by quoting Simone de Beauvoir's claim: "One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman."This statement distinguishes sex from gender suggesting that gender is an aspect of identity that is gradually acquired. This distinction between sex, as the anatomical aspects of the female body, and gender, as the cultural meaning that forms the body and the various modes of bodily articulation, means that it is "no longer possible to attribute the values or social functions of women to biological necessity". Butler interprets this claim as an appropriation of the doctrine of constituting acts from the tradition of phenomenology. Butler concludes that "gender is in no way a stable identity or locus of agency from which various acts proceed; rather, it is an identity tenuously constituted in time—an identity instituted through the stylization of the body and, hence, must be understood as the mundane way in which bodily gestures, movements and enactments of various kinds constitute the illusion of an abiding gendered self".Candace West and Sarah Fenstermaker also conceptualize gender "as a routine, methodical, and ongoing accomplishment, which involves a complex of perceptual, interactional and micropolitical activities that cast particular pursuits as expressions of manly and womanly 'natures'" in their 1995 text Doing Difference.This does not mean that the material nature of the human body is denied, instead, it is re-comprehended as separate from the process by which "the body comes to bear cultural meanings". Therefore, the essence of gender is not natural because gender itself is not a natural fact but the outcome of the sedimentation of specific corporeal acts that have been inscribed through repetition and rearticulation over time onto the body. "If the reality of gender is constituted by the performance itself, then there is no recourse to an essential and unrealized 'sex' or 'gender' which gender performances ostensibly express".
Alternative theories of gender:
Intersectionality Analyzing gender has been a concern of feminist theory. There have been many modes of understanding how gender addresses meaning, but developing such theories of gender can obscure the significance of other aspects of women's identities, such as race, class, and sexual orientation, which marginalizes the experiences and voices of women of colour, non-Western women, working-class women, lesbian/bisexual women, and trans women. As a challenge to feminist theory, essentialism refers to the problem of theorizing gender as both an identity and a mark of difference. This refers to a problem for the concept of subjectivity presupposed by feminist theories of gender. There are arguments, made primarily by black and lesbian feminists, that feminist theory has capitalized on the idea of gender essentialism by using the category of gender to appeal to "women's experience" as a whole. By doing this, feminist theory makes universalizing and normalizing claims for and about women, which are only true of white, Western, heterosexual, cisgender, middle- or upper-class women, but which it implies are situations, perspectives and experiences true of all women. Patrice DiQuinzio discusses "how critics of exclusion see this as a function of feminist theory's commitment to theorizing gender exclusively and articulating women's experiences in terms of gender alone". Instead one must theorize feminism in a way that takes the interlocking category of experiences between race, class, gender, and sexuality into consideration; an intersectional model of thinking.
Alternative theories of gender:
Mothering Some feminists, such as DiQuinzio and Nancy Chodorow, have used the idea of a woman's essence to link gender socialization with exclusively female mothering. Butler disagreed, because not all women are mothers, due to age or personal choice, and even some mothers do not regard motherhood as the most important aspect of political struggle.
Alternative theories of gender:
Transfeminism Essentialism of gender in feminist theory presents a problem regarding transfeminism. Gayle Salamon writes about trans studies that they are to be "the breaking apart of this category, particularly if that breaking requires a new articulation of the relation between sex and gender, male and female". Transubjectivity challenges the binary of gender essentialism as it disrupts the "fixed taxonomies of gender" and this creates a resistance in women's studies, which as a discipline has historically depended upon the fixedness of gender. Trans identities break down the very possibility of gender essentialism by queering the binary of gender, gender roles and expectations. In recent years, through the work of transfeminists such as Sandy Stone, the theory of trans women and their inclusion into feminist spaces has opened, just as theories of race, class, sexuality and ability did.
Alternative theories of gender:
Post-structuralism Poststructuralism indicates "a field of critical practices that cannot be totalized and that, therefore, interrogate the formative and exclusionary power of sexual difference", says Butler. Therefore, through the poststructuralist lens, the critique of gender essentialism is possible because poststructuralist theory generates analyses, critiques, and political interventions, and opens up a political imaginary for feminism that is otherwise constrained. Feminist poststructuralism does not designate a position from which one operates, but offers a set of tools and terms to be "reused and rethought, exposed as strategic instruments and effects, and subjected to a critical reinscription and redeployment". Critics such as Susan Bordo suggest that Butler is reducing gender to language and abstraction. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Svenska Akademiens ordlista**
Svenska Akademiens ordlista:
Svenska Akademiens ordlista (Swedish: [ˈsvɛ̂nːska akadɛˈmiːns ˈûːɖˌlɪsːta], "Word list of the Swedish Academy"), abbreviated SAOL, is a spelling dictionary published every few years by the Swedish Academy. It is a single volume that is considered the final arbiter of Swedish spelling. Traditionally it carries the motto of the Swedish Academy, Snille och Smak ("Talent and Taste"), on its blue cloth cover.
Svenska Akademiens ordlista:
Whenever a new edition comes out lively discussions about new and changed entries erupt around the country. In some instances the Academy has been ahead of its times and has later had to change entries back to older spellings. Jos – juice is probably the most well-known instance. In 2015, the fourteenth edition (containing 126,000 entries) was published.
History:
The history of SAOL is the history of orthography of the Swedish language. While Swedish spelling was an entirely personal business in the Catholic Middle Ages, its gradual standardization (known as Modern Swedish) started in 1526 with the translation of the New testament of the Bible (Gustav Vasa Bible), as part of the Lutheran reformation. The edition was revised in 1703, known as the Swedish Bible of Carolus XII. The Swedish Academy was founded in 1786 with the task of caring for Swedish literature and language, including the publication of a grand dictionary. Spelling evolved slowly in the 18th century and was largely based on etymology: for instance, because of its historic relationship to English heart and German Herz, hjärta was spelled hjerta in Swedish even though it's pronounced [ˈjæ̂ʈːa]; the word for "woman" (now kvinna) was spelled qvinna, similar to English queen; the question words hvad, hvar, hvilken had a silent H, like English what, where, which still have in most accents. In 1801 the Academy published an official orthography (Carl Gustaf af Leopold, Afhandling om svenska stafsättet, 266 pages). A shorter version for schools was published by Carl Jonas Love Almqvist, Svensk Rättstafnings-Lära in 1829.Already in the 1750s, voices had been raised to adapt spelling to pronunciation, but this didn't resonate with the conservatively minded Academy. Public schools were made mandatory in Sweden by law in 1842 and the influence of school teachers increased, as did the pressure to reform Swedish spelling. The most radical reformists wanted to do away with all silent letters and change the remaining ones to a smaller subset of the alphabet. A similar reform movement for Danish, which at this time was the written language also in Norway, was led by Rasmus Rask (1787–1832) and his follower Niels Matthias Petersen (1791–1862). In 1869 a pan-Scandinavian orthography congress (Nordiska rättstavningsmötet) gathered in Stockholm. Secretary for the Swedish section was Artur Hazelius, who in 1871 published the proceedings of the conference. The Academy was not pleased, and as a countermeasure Johan Erik Rydqvist (1800–1877) published the first edition of SAOL in 1874, based on the orthography in Leopold's work of 1801. A second edition followed in the same year and new ones in 1875, 1880 and the 5th edition in 1883, without much change.
History:
To further reform, a Swedish orthographic society (Svenska rättstavningssällskapet) was formed on November 28, 1885, chaired by linguist Adolf Noreen (1854–1925), and published a journal Nystavaren. Tidskrift för rättskrivningsfrågor (4 volumes, 1886–1898, edited by Otto Hoppe). There was continued opposition, not least from Academy member Esaias Tegnér Jr. (1843–1928). However, many of the proposed changes, albeit far from all, were introduced in the 6th edition of SAOL in 1889. Many words spelled with E were changed to Ä (elf → älf, hjerta → hjärta, jern → järn), and under Q it was stated that Q may at will be replaced with K. By a government resolution on November 16, 1889, the spelling used in this edition of SAOL was to be used for teaching in Swedish high schools (allmänna läroverk) and teacher colleges (seminarier). This was a direct blow against the society's own dictionary published in 1886, and reform movement lost much of its momentum. In the 7th edition of SAOL in 1900, many of the old optional forms with Q were dropped.
History:
In 1898, school teachers started to sign mass petitions for further reform. In 1903, the association of Swedish public school teachers (Sveriges allmänna folkskollärarförening) requested a government ruling that it "would no longer be considered wrong" (ej måtte betraktas som fel) to write TT instead of DT and V instead of F, FV and HV. More associations joined this petition in 1905. A government proposal to this effect was signed on April 7, 1906, by education minister Fridtjuv Berg (1851–1916), and put before the parliament of 1907. A protest against the reform signed by 40,000 concerned citizens was handed to the government in 1908, but had no effect. The liberal Fridtjuv Berg was a former school teacher and one of the founding members of the orthographic society.
History:
The reform of 1906 was the most radical in the history of Swedish orthography. Spelling with dt, fv and hv is now commonly known as "old spelling" (gammalstavning). The new spelling was adopted in schools starting in 1907. It was used from the first edition of Selma Lagerlöf's geography textbook Nils Holgerssons underbara resa genom Sverige (1906, The Wonderful Adventures of Nils). The proceedings of the Swedish parliament adopted the new spelling from the year 1913. After endless discussions through the 19th century, a new Swedish Bible translation was finally adopted in 1917, using the new spelling. Sweden's largest printed encyclopedia of all times, the 2nd edition of Nordisk familjebok was started in 1904 and used the old spelling through all 38 volumes until 1926. The Academy introduced the new spelling in the 8th edition of SAOL in 1923. The 9th edition appeared in 1950.
History:
In the 10th edition in 1973, the Academy tried to launch new alternative spellings such as jos ("juice"), without attracting any significant number of followers. The 11th edition of SAOL appeared in 1986 and the 12th edition in 1998. While the letter Q in the 8th edition only listed the letter Q itself, the 11th edition also listed quantum satis, quenell, quilt and quisling.
History:
From the beginning of times, W had in Swedish been considered as a mere decoration of V. In Swedish typography, blackletter (fraktur) used W where antiqua used V. With orthographic standardization and spelling reform, W was abandoned except for some proper names and a few loan words such as whisky, wobbler (also spelled visky and vobbler), whist and wienerbröd. In Swedish dictionaries and telephone books, V and W have been sorted as one letter. In the 13th edition of SAOL in 2006, the Academy broke with this tradition, listing W as a letter of its own. This change was sparked by a new influx of loan words such as webb ("World Wide Web"). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**CCBP2**
CCBP2:
Chemokine-binding protein 2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CCBP2 gene.This gene encodes a beta chemokine receptor, which is predicted to be a seven transmembrane protein similar to G protein-coupled receptors. Chemokines and their receptor-mediated signal transduction are critical for the recruitment of effector immune cells to the inflammation site. This gene is expressed in a range of tissues and hemopoietic cells. The expression of this receptor in lymphatic endothelial cells and overexpression in vascular tumors suggested its function in chemokine-driven recirculation of leukocytes and possible chemokine effects on the development and growth of vascular tumors. This receptor appears to bind the majority of beta-chemokine family members; however, its specific function remains unknown. This gene is mapped to chromosome 3p21.3, a region that includes a cluster of chemokine receptor genes. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**INPP5A**
INPP5A:
Type I inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate 5-phosphatase is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the INPP5A gene.The protein encoded by this gene is a membrane-associated type I inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP3) 5-phosphatase. InsP3 5-phosphatases hydrolyze Ins(1,4,5)P3, which mobilizes intracellular calcium and acts as a second messenger mediating cell responses to various stimulation. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Pneumocystosis**
Pneumocystosis:
Pneumocystosis is a fungal infection that most often presents as Pneumocystis pneumonia in people with HIV/AIDS or poor immunity. It usually causes cough, difficulty breathing and fever, and can lead to respiratory failure. Involvement outside the lungs is rare but, can occur as a disseminated type affecting lymph nodes, spleen, liver, bone marrow, eyes, kidneys, thyroid, gastrointestinal tract or other organs. If occurring in the skin, it usually presents as nodular growths in the ear canals or underarms.It is caused by Pneumocystis jirovecii, a fungus which is usually breathed in and found in the lungs of healthy people without causing disease, until the person's immune system becomes weakened.Diagnosis is by identifying the organism from a sample of fluid from affected lungs or a biopsy. Prevention in high risk people, and treatment in those affected is usually with trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (co-trimoxazole).The prevalence is unknown. Less than 3% of cases do not involve the lungs. The first cases of pneumocystosis affecting lungs were described in premature infants in Europe following the Second World War.
Signs and symptoms:
Pneumocystosis is generally an infection in the lungs. Involvement outside the lungs is rare but, can occur as a disseminated type affecting lymph nodes, bone marrow, liver or spleen. It may also affect skin, eyes, kidneys, thyroid, heart, adrenals and gastrointestinal tract.
Lungs When the lungs are affected there is usually a dry cough, difficulty breathing and fever, usually present for longer than four weeks. There may be chest pain, shivering or tiredness. The oxygen saturation is low. The lungs may fail to function.
Eyes Pneumocystosis in eyes may appear as a single or multiple (up to 50) yellow-white plaques in the eye's choroid layer or just beneath the retina. Vision is usually not affected and it is typically found by chance.
Signs and symptoms:
Skin If occurring in the skin, pneumocystosis most often presents as nodular growths in the ear canals of a person with HIV/AIDS. There may be fluid in the ear. Skin involvement may appear outside the ear, usually palms, soles or underarms; as a rash, or small bumps with a dip. It can occur on the face as brownish bumps and plaques. The bumps may be tender and the ulcerate. Infection in the ear may result in a perforated ear drum or destruction of the mastoid bone. The nerves in the head may be affected.
Cause:
Pneumocystosis is caused by Pneumocystis jirovecii, a fungus which is generally found in the lungs of healthy people, without causing disease until the person's immune system becomes weakened.
Risk factors:
Pneumocystosis occurs predominantly in people with HIV/AIDS. Other risk factors include chronic lung disease, cancer, autoimmune diseases, organ transplant, or taking corticosteroids.
Diagnosis:
Diagnosis of Pneumocystis pneumonia is by identifying the organism from a sample of sputum, fluid from affected lungs or a biopsy. A chest X-ray of affected lungs show widespread shadowing in both lungs, with a "bat-wing" pattern and ground glass appearance. Giemsa or silver stains can be used to identify the organism, as well as direct immunofluorescence of infected cells.Diagnosis in the eye involves fundoscopy. A biopsy of the retina and choroid layer may be performed. In affected liver, biopsy shows focal areas of necrosis and sinusoidal widening. H&E staining show extracellular frothy pink material. Typical cysts with a solid dark dot can be seen using a Grocott silver stain.
Diagnosis:
Differential diagnosis Pneumocystosis may appear similar to pulmonary embolism or adult respiratory distress syndrome. Other infections can present similarly such as tuberculosis, Legionella, and severe flu.
Prevention:
There is no vaccine that prevents pneumocystosis. Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (co-trimoxazole) might be prescribed for people at high risk.
Treatment:
Treatment is usually with co-trimoxazole. Other options include pentamidine, dapsone and atovaquone.
Outcomes:
It is fatal in 10-20% of people with HIV/AIDS. Pneumocystosis in people without HIV/AIDS is frequently diagnosed late and the death rate is therefore higher; 30-50%.
Epidemiology:
The exact number of people in the world affected is not known. Pneumocystosis affects lungs in around 97% of cases and is often fatal without treatment.
History:
The first cases of pneumocystosis affecting lungs were described in premature infants in Europe following the Second World War. It was then known as plasma cellular interstitial pneumonitis of the newborn.Pneumocystis jirovecii (previously called Pneumocystis carinii) is named for Otto Jírovec, who first described it in 1952. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Tesla Model X**
Tesla Model X:
The Tesla Model X is a battery electric mid-size luxury crossover SUV produced by Tesla, Inc. since 2015. Developed from the full-sized sedan platform of the Tesla Model S, the vehicle notably uses falcon wing doors for passenger access.
Tesla Model X:
The Model X has an EPA size class as an SUV, and shares around 30 percent of its content with the Model S, half of the originally planned 60 percent, and weighs about 10 percent more. Both the Model X and Model S are produced at the Tesla Factory in Fremont, California. The prototype was unveiled at Tesla's design studios in Hawthorne, California on February 9, 2012. First deliveries of the Model X began in September 2015. After one full year on the market, in 2016, the Model X ranked seventh among the world's best-selling plug-in cars. A refresh of the Tesla Model X was introduced in 2021, offering a new "Plaid" performance model, along with a revised interior, powertrain, and suspension.As of August 2023, the Model X is available as a Standard Range version with an estimated EPA range of 269 miles (433 km), a Long-Range version with an estimated EPA range of 348 miles (560 km), and a high performance "Plaid" version with an estimated EPA range of 333 miles (536 km).
History:
Initially, Tesla planned for deliveries to commence in early 2014. However, in February 2013, the company announced that deliveries had been rescheduled to begin by late 2014 in order to achieve its production target of 20,000 Model S cars in 2013. In November 2013, Tesla said it expected to begin Model X high volume production the second quarter of 2015. In November 2014, Tesla again delayed and announced that Model X deliveries would begin in the third quarter of 2015. Deliveries began on September 29, 2015. Among the reasons for delay were problems with the falcon-wing doors and cooling the motors when hauling trailers.In 2016, the company filed a lawsuit against Swiss hydraulics firm Hoerbiger Holding for not producing satisfactory falcon-wing doors for the Model X. Tesla claimed the doors suffered from oil leakage and overheating. Many believe this is one of the reasons for the delay of the Model X. The lawsuit was settled in September 2016.On July 13, 2016, Tesla introduced its Model X 60D, which is slightly lower priced than the Model X's starting price. The Model X 60D has a 200 mi (320 km) range and can accelerate from 0 to 60 mph (0 to 97 km/h) in 6 seconds, with a top speed of 130 mph (210 km/h). The battery capacity in the Model X 60D is 75 kWh but has been software restricted to 60 kWh. Post purchase, owners have the option to unlock the additional 15 kWh, bringing the 60D to 75D range specifications.Global sales passed the 10,000 unit mark in August 2016, with most cars delivered in the United States. In August 2016, Tesla introduced the P100D with Ludicrous Mode to be the new top Model X. The P100D has a 100 kWh battery, accelerate from 0 to 60 mph (0 to 97 km/h) in 2.9 seconds (0 to 100 km/h (0 to 62 mph) in 3.1 seconds) and 289 mi (465 km) of range. In October 2016 Tesla discontinued the 60D version and made the "Smart Air Suspension" standard instead of coil springs, increasing the base price to $85,000. In June 2017, the 90D version was discontinued.
History:
In August 2017, Tesla announced that HW2.5 included a secondary processor node to provide more computing power and additional wiring redundancy to slightly improve reliability; it also enabled dashcam and sentry mode capabilities.In March 2018 it was announced that Tesla upgraded the MCU to version 2. MCU 2 improved the performance of the 17 inch center console screen.
Global cumulative sales since inception totaled 106,689 units through September 2018.
In January 2019, Tesla discontinued the 75D version, making the 100D the base version of the Model X. The base price of the Model X 100D is $97,000 as of Jan 2019. In July 2019, Tesla added a Long Range model of the Model X with a 325-mile EPA range priced at $84,500.
History:
In an engineering refresh in May 2019, range was increased to 325 mi (523 km) and smart air suspension was added.In February 2020 Tesla increased the range of the Model X to 351 mi (565 km) of range.In October 2020 Tesla increased the range of the Long Range Plus to 371 mi (597 km), and the Performance increased to 341 mi (549 km).
Design:
A series production vehicle was unveiled on September 29, 2015. It has a panoramic windshield. According to Tesla CEO Elon Musk, it is the safest SUV in terms of frontal and side impact crash, being more than twice as safe as the next closest SUV in rollover tests as well. The Model X does come with Autopilot as standard, and has an optional full self-driving system. The Model X has standard a collision avoidance system that uses radar-based autonomous emergency braking (AEB) and side-directed ultrasound detection that steers the car away from threats. Tesla uses a wide-band radar system to help prevent the falcon wing doors from hitting nearby objects when opening or closing.
Design:
The Model X has double-hinged falcon wing doors which open upwards, allowing the leading edge of the door to remain tucked close to the body, unlike traditional gull-wing doors. Tesla claims the falcon-wing (modified gull-wing) doors ease access to the vehicle by having the door raise up vertically, rather than swinging out hinged at the front, which tremendously reduces accessibility. The Model X offers room for seven adults and their luggage in three rows of seating and front and rear trunks.As of mid 2021 it's the largest fully electric SUV in terms of exterior dimensions.
Specifications:
The Model X weighs about 8% more than the Model S and shares about 30% of its parts content – down from around 60% expected when development began. The cargo space is 87.8 ft³.Over the years, the Model X has been available with four lithium-ion battery packs, rated at either 60, 75, 90, or 100 kW·h. The highest performance version, the Model X Performance, goes from 0 to 60 mph (0 to 97 km/h) in 2.6 seconds and the 1⁄4 mile (400 meters) in 11.4 seconds, outperforming the fastest SUVs and most sports cars. The Model X's all-wheel-drive system uses two motors (one for the front and the other for the rear wheels), unlike conventional AWD systems that have a single source of power. The 2020 Tesla Model X Long Range Plus has an official EPA rated range of up to 371 mi (597 km).The company planned to offer rear-wheel-drive models, but instead all models use all-wheel drive. The standard AWD has 259 horsepower (193 kilowatts) on both the front and rear motors, while the performance edition has 259 hp (193 kW) front and 503 hp (375 kW) rear. With an optional towbar, the Model X has a towing capacity of up to 5000 lb or 2250 kg. At the 55 mph (89 km/h) towing speed limit in California, a Model X may have 70% of the 257 mi (414 km) EPA-registered range when pulling a 2,300 lb (1,000 kg) travel trailer.
Specifications:
Energy consumption The following table shows the EPA's official ratings for fuel economy in miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (MPGe) for the variants of the Model X rated as of 30 September 2015 and as displayed in the Monroney label.
Production and sales:
Tesla started taking reservations for the Model X in February 2012 without announcing prices. The standard Model X required a US$5,000 deposit, while the limited time production Signature model required a US$40,000 deposit in 2013. More than 20,000 Model Xs had been reserved by September 2014. In August 2015, user groups estimated around 30,000 Model X pre-orders had been received, compared to 12,000 for the Model S.The first six Founders Series models were delivered at a market launch event in the Fremont factory on September 29, 2015. The first Signature edition was delivered on December 18, 2015. Pricing for the limited edition Signature version of the Model X varies between US$132,000 and US$144,000, while the standard production version of the Model X will be priced at US$5,000 more than a comparably equipped AWD Model S that is priced at US$75,000 for the base Model 70D.After the first quarter of 2016 all Tesla Model X deliveries had gone to US customers. Nevertheless, in January 2016 a Tesla car other than the Model S was registered in Germany and a Tesla Model X was sighted driving there with a license plate from Ingolstadt. Since the Audi headquarters are located in Ingolstadt, this led to speculation that Audi has acquired a Tesla Model X as part of its effort to develop its own battery-electric SUV.Tesla produced 507 Model X in the fourth quarter of 2015, of which 206 were delivered to customers. Model X sales totaled 2,400 units during the first quarter of 2016. According to Tesla Motors, deliveries were lower than expected because production was impacted by severe Model X supplier parts shortages in the first two months of 2016, and because Tesla had been too ambitious in wanting advanced features (committed "hubris"). The first Model X that didn't need corrections was made in April 2016.
Production and sales:
Sales during the second quarter of 2016 totaled 4,638 units. Although production was up 20% from the previous quarter, the number of vehicles in transit at the end of June 2016 was much higher than expected (5,150 including Model S cars), representing 35.8% of the number of cars delivered in the quarter (14,402 vehicles including the Model S). Global sales passed the 10,000 unit mark in August 2016. A total of 8,774 units were delivered in the third quarter of 2016, totaling 15,812 Model X cars sold during the first nine months of 2016.The Model X ranked as the top-selling plug-in electric car in Norway in September 2016. However, when Volkswagen Golf nameplate registrations are broken down by each variant's powertrain, the all-electric e-Golf registered 392 units, the Golf GTE plug-in hybrid 358, and the internal combustion-powered Golf only 242 units. Therefore, the Model X also ranked as the top-selling new car model in September 2016. Norway was the world's first country to have all-electric cars topping the new car sales monthly ranking. Previously, the Model S had been the top-selling new car four times, and the Nissan Leaf twice.
Production and sales:
According to Tesla, with 5,428 units sold in the U.S. in the third quarter of 2016, the Model X captured a 6% market share of the luxury SUV market segment, outselling Porsche and Land Rover, but behind seven SUV models manufactured by Mercedes, BMW, Cadillac, Volvo, Audi, and Lexus. With an estimated 9,500 units delivered worldwide during the fourth quarter of 2016, global sales in 2016 totaled 25,312 Model X cars, allowing the Model X to rank seventh among the world's top ten best-selling plug-in cars just in its first full year in the market.As of December 2016, cumulative sales totaled 25,524 units since its inception. The United States is its main country market with 18,240 units delivered through December 2016, of which, an estimated 18,028 Model X vehicles were delivered during 2016, making the electric SUV the third best-selling plug-in electric in the American market that year after the Tesla Model S and the Chevrolet Volt. Registrations in California totaled 6,289 units in 2016, representing a 7.0% market share of the state's luxury mid-size SUV segment, ranking as the fifth best-selling car in this class, which was led by the Lexus RX with 20,070 units. Retail deliveries in China began in June 2016, and a total of 4,065 Model X vehicles were sold in 2016.Global sales totaled about 11,550 units during the first quarter of 2017. A severe production shortfall of 100 kWh battery packs limited the second quarter of 2017 global deliveries to just about 10,000 Model X vehicles, with a slight increase to 11,865 vehicles during the third quarter of 2017. An additional 13,120 units were delivered in the fourth quarter of 2017, for total annual deliveries of 46,535 units globally. As of December 2017, cumulative sales since inception totaled about 72,059 units. Global sales during the first nine months of 2018 totaled 34,630 units, allowing the Model X to pass the 100,000 milestone in September 2018, with 106,689 units delivered since inception.On April 30, 2019, 5 Model X 75Ds were bought and operated by Blue Bird Group for their premium taxi service, Silver Bird, in Indonesia.In the UK from 2021 to 2022, deliveries of Model X vehicles dropped significantly to almost zero. In 2023, Tesla also stated that the Model X will not be sold in the UK or Ireland in right-hand drive for the 'foreseeable future'.
Reception:
Consumer Reports wrote that the all-wheel-drive Model X 90D largely disappoints, as rear doors are prone to pausing and stopping, the second-row seats that cannot be folded, and the cargo capacity is too limited. Even its panoramic, helicopter-like windshield was disapproved of as it is not tinted enough to offset the brightness of a sunny day. Also, Consumer Reports added that overall "the ride is too firm and choppy for a $110,000 car".Car and Driver, despite some criticism of the Model X's falcon wing doors, approved of the panoramic windshield, stating "We were left dumbfounded, like slack-jawed tourists endlessly looking upward. Lose the Falcon Wing doors, Elon; the windshield is the Model X's best gimmick". Overall, it was given a rating of 5/5 stars, stating "There are no other electric SUVs at the moment. And even against fossil-fuel-fed SUVs, the Tesla's effortless performance and efficiency can't be matched."Motoring journalist Jeremy Clarkson's made his first review of a Tesla vehicle after 10 years on his TV show The Grand Tour in February 2018; Clarkson gave a positive review of the car that he called "fabulous" that is unlike anything on the road. Lawyers were present during the review presumably because Clarkson's previous scathing review of the original Roadster caused a lawsuit.The 2016 Model X was named one of the top ten tech cars in 2016 by IEEE Spectrum.
Awards:
On November 16, 2015, the Tesla Model X was chosen as AutoGuide.com's 2016 Reader's Choice Green Car of the Year and Luxury Utility Vehicle of the Year awards. The model was noted for its falcon-wing doors, long range, efficiency, and acceleration.
Awards:
On November 8, 2016, the Model X was awarded the Golden Steering Wheel (Das Goldene Lenkrad), one of the most prestigious automotive awards in the world, in the "Large SUV" category. Candidates for this award are nominated by hundreds of thousands across Europe for excellence across six categories. The Golden Steering Wheel jury, composed of professional race car drivers, accomplished technicians, editors, designers, and digital and connectivity experts, then spent three days judging Model X.
Awards:
On April 18, 2017, the American Automobile Association named the Tesla Model X 75D its Top Green Vehicle overall, as well as best in the SUV/Minivan category, with a score of 100/130. The vehicle scored 10/10 for its EPA Emissions Score, crashworthiness, Fuel Economy and Luggage Capacity. Though ambivalent toward Autopilot and the Model X's glass roof, AAA favoured its falcon-wing doors, and approved of the vehicle's performance, stating that its "acceleration is smooth and strong, as is the braking." On June 8, 2017, the Model X was awarded the Australian Good Design Award in the Automotive and Transport category. The design of the vehicle was described as "set with an athletic build, whilst remaining proportional. Delivering on the functional form of a cross between SUV and people mover, the design remains true to a sports SUV." On December 11, 2017, Forbes named the Model X 100D Best Vehicle of the Year stating that "Tesla makes every internal combustion vehicle on the highway seem a clunky, clumsy relic of the 20th century."
Use by SpaceX:
Starting from 2020, modified Tesla Model X (with umbilical for the astronauts) were used to transport astronauts, especially for SpaceX Commercial Crew Program missions from NASA, for examples: Crew Dragon Demo-2 – the two vehicles used had the NASA meatball logos on the driver and passenger doors, while the Worm logos were on the upper part of the rear window, and have special license plates, dubbed ISSBND for "ISS Bound".
Use by SpaceX:
SpaceX Crew-1 – the three vehicles used had same characteristics as Demo-2 except for the special license plates, dubbed L8RERTH for "see you later, Earth".
SpaceX Crew-2 – the three vehicles used had no NASA logos (both meatball and worm) and have special license plates, each of them dubbed "REDUCE", "REUSE", and "RECYCLE", since the mission was originally scheduled on Earth Day.
SpaceX Crew-3 – all three vehicles had the NASA worm logo on the doors painted in grey. The meatball logo was on the rear windshield. The license plates on all of them read "S3ND IT" for "SEND IT".
Guinness World Record:
On May 15, 2018, the Tesla Model X and Qantas set the Guinness World Record for "heaviest tow by an electric production passenger vehicle." The Model X was able to tow a 287,000 lb (130,000 kg) Boeing 787–9 nearly one thousand feet (300 metres) on a taxiway at Melbourne Airport.
Issues with production units:
The Tesla Model X faced criticism in 2016 for issues with the falcon-wing doors, which sometimes did not open or latch properly in some early production units, and the windows, which sometimes did not open or close all the way. Tesla addressed these issues with several software updates, and no known issues remained after the 8.0 firmware was released. On June 27, 2016, Tesla settled on a lawsuit over usability concerns, accepting that the Model X was rushed to production before it was ready, and by October 2016, Tesla claimed the problems had been reduced by 92%.In 2017 Chinese newspaper Xinhua reported that security researchers from Keen Security Lab at Tencent were able to remotely gain control of the Tesla Model X, allowing them to remotely open the car's doors, blink the lights and control their brakes. They found zero day vulnerabilities that allowed them to install new firmware. The lead researcher for the team said they informed Tesla of the findings and most of the cars were patched by an update one month after Tesla was made aware of issues.
Issues with production units:
Recalls As of October 2017, Tesla has had four product safety recalls the Model X.
On April 11, 2016, Tesla voluntarily recalled 2,700 Model X due to safety concerns. During collision testing, it was found that the third-row seats would unlatch and fold over to the second row. Tesla urged customers to avoid using the third-row seats until after repairs.
Issues with production units:
On April 20, 2017, Tesla issued a worldwide recall of 53,000 (~70%) of the 76,000 Model S and Model X vehicles it sold in 2016 due to faulty parking brakes that affect the Model S and Model X. The recall caused Tesla stock to lose two percent of its value and added further questions about the reliability of Tesla's vehicles.
Issues with production units:
In October 2017, Tesla issued an 11,000 vehicle recall for a faulty locking cable mechanism in the second row seats, estimating that about 3% of recalled vehicles may be affected.
In February 2020, 15,000 vehicles recalled due to potential power steering issues.
Safety:
NHTSA On June 13, 2017, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration announced its crash testing results for the 2017-manufactured Tesla Model X, revealing 5-star ratings in all assessed categories, the only SUV to have done so. Tesla attributed the ratings to safety-focused design, in addition to a low centre-of-gravity resulting from its battery pack, adding "More than just resulting in a 5-star rating, the data from NHTSA's testing shows that Model X has the lowest probability of injury of any SUV it has ever tested. In fact, of all the cars NHTSA has ever tested, Model X's overall probability of injury was second only to Model S." Euro NCAP The Model X has been tested and received five stars from Euro NCAP, but hasn't been tested by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.