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train · 277k rows

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Naum (chess) Naum (chess): Naum is a computer chess engine by Canadian programmer Aleksandar Naumov. The last commercial version (4.2) was released in March 2010. The program supports both UCI and Winboard protocols and can therefore be operated under different graphical interfaces. Naum has commercial versions for single and multiple-processor systems, a freeware version (2.0, released September 2006) for single-processor systems, and a version for Palm OS (1.8, released in June 2006). The latest version, 4.6, was also freeware. History: After Naum tied for first with Rybka in the 2008 Internet Computer Chess Tournament, it did not compete in any other over-the-board (OTB) tournaments. In early 2009, Naum attained second place behind Rybka on chess engine rating lists, such as CCRL In 2012, the development of Naum was discontinued, and it has since only had minor updates. In 2013, Naum participated in the Thoresen Chess Engines Competition and the author released a software patch to enable the engine to run stably with 16 processors. Finally the author released it as freeware. Notable games: [Event "Chess960CWC 2008"] [Site "Mainz"] [Date "2008.07.30"] [Round "6"] [White "Rybka 3 "] [Black "Naum 3.1"] [Result "0–1"] [Variant "chess 960"] [SetUp "1"] [FEN "nnbbqrkr/pppppppp/8/8/8/8/PPPPPPPP/NNBBQRKR w HFhf - 0 1"] {SP 037} 1. Nb3 d6 2. e4 Nb6 3. f4 h5 4. h3 e5 5. fxe5 dxe5 6. d3 Be7 7. Nc3 Nc6 8. Be3 Qd8 9. Qd2 Nd4 10. Ne2 c5 11. c3 Ne6 12. c4 Qd6 13. Nc3 Bd7 14. Na5 Qc7 15. Kh2 Nd4 16. Rhg1 g6 17. Nb3 Kg7 18. Kh1 h4 19. Re1 f5 20. Bf2 f4 21. Nxd4 cxd4 22. Nd5 Nxd5 23. exd5 Bf5 24. Bf3 a5 25. Qe2 Bd6 26. Bg4 b6 27. Rc1 Qd7 28. Bxf5 gxf5 29. Rge1 Rfg8 30. Rb1 Ra8 31. Qc2 Ra6 32. Re2 Ra7 33. Rbe1 Qc7 34. Qa4 Kg6 35. Kg1 Kg5 36. Rf1 Rb7 37. Qc2 b5 38. b3 a4 39. Qc1 bxc4 40. bxc4 a3 41. Rc2 Bc5 42. Qa1 Qb8 43. Qd1 Rhh7 44. Re2 Rb2 45. Rfe1 Re7 46. Rf1 Reb7 47. Rc2 Rb1 48. Rc1 R1b4 49. Qe1 Qh8 50. Ra1 Rb2 51. Qa5 Bb4 52. Qa6 Rg7 53. Kh1 Rg8 54. Qa4 Bc3 55. Rac1 Qg7 56. Qd1 Rxa2 57. Qf3 Rb2 58. Rg1 a2 59. c5 Bd2 60. Ra1 Be3 61. Bxe3 dxe3 62. d6 Qf7 63. c6 Qe6 64. d7 Rf2 65. Rac1 Qd6 66. Qd1 a1=Q 67. Rxa1 Qxc6 68. Ra7 Kh6 69. d8=Q Rxd8 70. Qa1 Qf6 71. Qa3 Re8 72. Qc5 Rg8 73. Rc7 Rg6 74. Rc8 Rb2 75. Rf8 Rc2 76. Qa3 Qd6 77. Rh8+ Kg5 78. Qa8 Rc6 79. Qa7 Rc7 80. Qa1 Qf6 81. Re8 Re7 82. Rd8 Ra7 83. Qxa7 Qxd8 84. Qf7 Qf6 85. Qe8 Qd6 86. Rf1 Rg7 87. Qh8 Rd7 88. Re1 Qf6 89. Qg8+ Qg7 90. Qb3 Rd8 91. Qa3 Qf8 92. Qb3 Qd6 93. Qb7 Qd7 94. Qb4 Qc7 95. Qa3 Rc8 96. Qa2 Qc3 97. Rg1 Qc6 98. Qa7 Qc7 99. Qa6 Qd7 100. Qa1 Qd4 101. Qa2 Rd8 102. Qe6 Qd6 103. Qc4 Qxd3 104. Qc7 Kf6 105. Ra1 Rd7 106. Qc8 e2 107. Qf8+ Kg5 108. Qg8+ Kh5 109. Qh8+ Kg6 110. Qe8+ Kg7 111. Rg1 Kf6 112. Qh8+ Ke6 113. Qh5 Qd1 114. Qe8+ Kd6 115. Qb8+ Kd5 116. Qb4 Ke6 117. Qa5 Qd2 118. Qa1 Kf6 119. Qa6+ Rd6 120. Qc8 e1=Q 121. Qf8+ Ke6 122. Qe8+ Kd5 123. Rxe1 Qxe1+ 124. Kh2 f3 125. gxf3 Qg3+ 126. Kh1 Qxf3+ 127. Kh2 Qe2+ 128. Kg1 Qd1+ 129. Kh2 Ke4 130. Qg8 0–1	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
NOBM NOBM: NASA Ocean Biogeochemical Model (NOBM) is a three-dimensional representation of coupled circulation/biogeochemical/radiative processes in the global oceans. It was built at the Global Modeling and Assimilation Office and is in the process of being coupled to the Goddard Earth Observing System Model, Version 5 (GEOS-5) climate systems.It spans the domain from -84° to 72° latitude in increments of 1.25° longitude by 2/3° latitude, including only open ocean areas, where bottom depth are greater than 200 m. The biogeochemical model contains 4 phytoplankton groups, four nutrient groups, a single herbivore group, and three detrital pools.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Data dependency Data dependency: A data dependency in computer science is a situation in which a program statement (instruction) refers to the data of a preceding statement. In compiler theory, the technique used to discover data dependencies among statements (or instructions) is called dependence analysis. There are three types of dependencies: data, name, and control. Data dependencies: Assuming statement S1 and S2 , S2 depends on S1 if: [I(S1)∩O(S2)]∪[O(S1)∩I(S2)]∪[O(S1)∩O(S2)]≠∅ where: I(Si) is the set of memory locations read by Si ,O(Sj) is the set of memory locations written by Sj , and there is a feasible run-time execution path from S1 to S2 .This Condition is called Bernstein Condition, named by A. J. Bernstein. Three cases exist: Anti-dependence: I(S1)∩O(S2)≠∅ , S1→S2 and S1 reads something before S2 overwrites it Flow (data) dependence: O(S1)∩I(S2)≠∅ , S1→S2 and S1 writes before something read by S2 Output dependence: O(S1)∩O(S2)≠∅ , S1→S2 and both write the same memory location. Data dependencies: Flow dependency (True dependency) A Flow dependency, also known as a data dependency or true dependency or read-after-write (RAW), occurs when an instruction depends on the result of a previous instruction. 1. A = 3 2. B = A 3. C = B Instruction 3 is truly dependent on instruction 2, as the final value of C depends on the instruction updating B. Instruction 2 is truly dependent on instruction 1, as the final value of B depends on the instruction updating A. Since instruction 3 is truly dependent upon instruction 2 and instruction 2 is truly dependent on instruction 1, instruction 3 is also truly dependent on instruction 1. Instruction level parallelism is therefore not an option in this example. Data dependencies: Anti-dependency An anti-dependency, also known as write-after-read (WAR), occurs when an instruction requires a value that is later updated. In the following example, instruction 2 anti-depends on instruction 3 — the ordering of these instructions cannot be changed, nor can they be executed in parallel (possibly changing the instruction ordering), as this would affect the final value of A. 1. B = 3 2. A = B + 1 3. B = 7 Example : MUL R3,R1,R2 ADD R2,R5,R6 It is clear that there is anti-dependence between these 2 instructions. At first we read R2 then in second instruction we are Writing a new value for it. Data dependencies: An anti-dependency is an example of a name dependency. That is, renaming of variables could remove the dependency, as in the next example: 1. B = 3 N. B2 = B 2. A = B2 + 1 3. B = 7 A new variable, B2, has been declared as a copy of B in a new instruction, instruction N. The anti-dependency between 2 and 3 has been removed, meaning that these instructions may now be executed in parallel. However, the modification has introduced a new dependency: instruction 2 is now truly dependent on instruction N, which is truly dependent upon instruction 1. As flow dependencies, these new dependencies are impossible to safely remove. Data dependencies: Output dependency An output dependency, also known as write-after-write (WAW), occurs when the ordering of instructions will affect the final output value of a variable. In the example below, there is an output dependency between instructions 3 and 1 — changing the ordering of instructions in this example will change the final value of A, thus these instructions cannot be executed in parallel. Data dependencies: 1. B = 3 2. A = B + 1 3. B = 7 As with anti-dependencies, output dependencies are name dependencies. That is, they may be removed through renaming of variables, as in the below modification of the above example: 1. B2 = 3 2. A = B2 + 1 3. B = 7 A commonly used naming convention for data dependencies is the following: Read-after-Write or RAW (flow dependency), Write-After-Read or WAR (anti-dependency), or Write-after-Write or WAW (output dependency). Control dependency: An instruction B has a control dependency on a preceding instruction A if the outcome of A determines whether B should be executed or not. In the following example, the instruction S2 has a control dependency on instruction S1 . However, S3 does not depend on S1 because S3 is always executed irrespective of the outcome of S1 S1. if (a == b) S2. a = a + b S3. b = a + b Intuitively, there is control dependence between two statements A and B if B could be possibly executed after A The outcome of the execution of A will determine whether B will be executed or not.A typical example is that there are control dependences between the condition part of an if statement and the statements in its true/false bodies. Control dependency: A formal definition of control dependence can be presented as follows: A statement S2 is said to be control dependent on another statement S1 iff there exists a path P from S1 to S2 such that every statement Si ≠ S1 within P will be followed by S2 in each possible path to the end of the program and S1 will not necessarily be followed by S2 , i.e. there is an execution path from S1 to the end of the program that does not go through S2 .Expressed with the help of (post-)dominance the two conditions are equivalent to S2 post-dominates all Si S2 does not post-dominate S1 Construction of control dependences Control dependences are essentially the dominance frontier in the reverse graph of the control-flow graph (CFG). Thus, one way of constructing them, would be to construct the post-dominance frontier of the CFG, and then reversing it to obtain a control dependence graph. Control dependency: The following is a pseudo-code for constructing the post-dominance frontier: for each X in a bottom-up traversal of the post-dominator tree do: PostDominanceFrontier(X) ← ∅ for each Y ∈ Predecessors(X) do: if immediatePostDominator(Y) ≠ X: then PostDominanceFrontier(X) ← PostDominanceFrontier(X) ∪ {Y} done for each Z ∈ Children(X) do: for each Y ∈ PostDominanceFrontier(Z) do: if immediatePostDominator(Y) ≠ X: then PostDominanceFrontier(X) ← PostDominanceFrontier(X) ∪ {Y} done done done Here, Children(X) is the set of nodes in the CFG that are immediately post-dominated by X, and Predecessors(X) are the set of nodes in the CFG that directly precede X in the CFG. Control dependency: Note that node X shall be processed only after all its Children have been processed. Once the post-dominance frontier map is computed, reversing it will result in a map from the nodes in the CFG to the nodes that have a control dependence on them. Implications: Conventional programs are written assuming the sequential execution model. Under this model, instructions execute one after the other, atomically (i.e., at any given point in time, only one instruction is executed) and in the order specified by the program. However, dependencies among statements or instructions may hinder parallelism — parallel execution of multiple instructions, either by a parallelizing compiler or by a processor exploiting instruction-level parallelism. Recklessly executing multiple instructions without considering related dependences may cause danger of getting wrong results, namely hazards.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
C12orf66 C12orf66: C12orf66 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the C12orf66 gene. The C12orf66 protein is one of four proteins in the KICSTOR protein complex which negatively regulates mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) signaling. Gene: C12orf66 is located on the minus strand in the locus 12q14.2. C12orf66 variant 1 is 36 Mbp in length spanning the base pairs 64,186,312 - 64,222,296 on chromosome 12. There are 3 total C12orf66 transcript variants. C12orf66 variant 1 is the longest with 4 exons. C12orf66 variant 2 has a shortened exon 1 and is missing exon 4 compared to variant 1. C12orf66 variant 3 is missing exon 4. Gene: Expression In humans, C12orf66 has higher than average expression in a number of tissues such as endocrine glands as well as lymphoid tissues and cells. Additionally, C12orf66 expression is increased in a number of cancers including leukemia, breast cancer, cervical cancer, and a number of gastrointestinal related cancers. C12orf66 expression is higher earlier in development. A number of experiments using different human embryonic stem cell lines, oocytes, as well as erythroblasts found C12orf66 expression was increased in these cells earlier in development and expression decreased as these cells became more differentiated. Additionally, expression of C12orf66 in fetal organs is higher than C12orf66 expression in the same adult organs. Protein: The human C12orf66 protein is 446 amino acids in length with a molecular weight of 50kdal . C12orf66 contains the domain of unknown function 2003 (DUF2003) from amino acids 10-444. The DUF2003 is characterized by a series of alpha helices and beta sheets. Protein: Function C12orf66 is part of a larger protein complex called KICSTOR. KICSTOR is a complex of four proteins coded by the genes KPTN, ITFG2, C12orf66, and SZT2. The KICSTOR complex plays a role in regulating mTORC1 signaling. mTORC1 activates protein translation when the cell has sufficient amounts amino acids and energy. This ensures cell growth and proliferation occurs in ideal cellular environments. KICSTOR recruits the protein complex GATOR1, a negative regulator of mTORC1, to the correct location on the lysosome where mTORC1 signaling occurs. In addition to the localization of GATOR1 to the lysosome, KICSTOR is also necessary for the regulation of mTORC1 signaling by amino acid or glucose deprivation. Normally, amino acid or glucose deprivation inhibits mTORC1 signaling. However, loss of any one protein in the four protein KICSTOR complex resulted in a lack of inhibition of mTORC1 by amino acid or glucose deprivation and increased mTORC1 signaling. Thus, KICSTOR is a negative regulator of mTORC1 signaling that functions by localizing GATOR1 to the lysosomal surface as well inhibiting mTORC1 during periods of amino acid or glucose deprivation. How the KICSTOR complex directly inhibits mTORC1 as well as senses amino acid or glucose deprivation remains to be elucidated. Protein: Clinical Significance Loss of the genomic locus 12q14 which contains the human protein encoding gene C12orf66 is linked to a number of developmental delays and neurodevelopment disorders such as macrocephaly. Additionally, one study found the level of C12orf66 expression is down-regulated in colorectal cancer. In this study, the amount of C12orf66 down-regulation along with the expression of a number of other genes were used as an accurate indicator of clinical outcome in patients with colorectal cancer. Thus, the level of C12orf66 gene expression reflected the survivability of these patients. Protein: Protein-Protein Interactions C12orf66 interacts with the three proteins of the KICSTOR complex coded by the genes KPTN, ITFG2, and SZT2 as well as GATOR1. Additionally, C12orf66 is predicted to interact with KRAS, DEPDC5, and C7orf60. These interactions were detected by high throughput affinity capture chromatography. Homologs C12orf66 is a highly conserved protein with a large number of orthologs and no known paralogs. The list of C12orf66 orthologs includes mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, marine worms, mollusks, insects, and fungi.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Emmy Noether Program Emmy Noether Program: The Emmy Noether Program is a program introduced by the German Research Foundation (DFG) in 1997. Its aim as stated by the DFG is to support exceptionally qualified early career scientists. It was named after German mathematician Emmy Noether.: 67 Program: The intent of the program is to give participants the opportunity to lead a junior research group and to satisfy the prerequisites for appointment as a university professor.: 141 Further, the DFG states that the program aims to attract foreign talent to Germany and to keep talented German scientists from emigrating.: 95 According to the DFG, potential fellows have to "demonstrate significant achievements and the ability to lead from the early stages of their career on as well as substantial international experience and visibility".: 2 The application must describe a concrete research project that the potential fellow aims to conduct with their group. If successful, the duration of the fellowship is six years, in which the fellow is granted a salary as well as all funds necessary to build the group and complete the project.: 2 The program aims to offer an alternative to the conventional route to a professorship through habilitation and junior professorships. Emmy Noether Meetings: Since 2001, the Emmy Noether fellows meet at the so-called Emmy Noether Meetings as a platform for exchange between the fellows as well as workshops and talks on science policy.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Activity theory (aging) Activity theory (aging): The activity theory of aging, also known as the implicit theory of aging, normal theory of aging, and lay theory of aging, proposes that aging occurs with more positive outcomes when adults stay active and maintain social interactions as they get older. Activity theory suggests that the aging process is slowed or delayed, and quality of life is enhanced when the elderly remain socially active (attending or hosting events or pursuits that bring members of a community together to interact with each other). Book clubs, club sports, barbeques, volunteer work, fitness classes, brunch dates, holiday celebrations and protests are just a few examples of how people maintain a healthy social life, which the activity theory of aging reports contributes to overall health in later life. Activity theory (aging): The theory assumes a positive relationship between activity and life satisfaction. One author suggests that activity enables older adults to adjust to retirement in a more seamless and less stressful fashion. This is coined as "the busy ethic".Activity theory reflects the functionalist perspective that argues the equilibrium an individual develops in middle age should be maintained in later years. The theory predicts that older adults that face role loss will substitute former roles with other alternatives.The activity theory is one of three major psychosocial theories which describe how people develop in old age. The other two psychosocial theories are the disengagement theory, with which the activity comes to odds, and the continuity theory which modifies and elaborates upon the activity theory.Though in recent years the acceptance activity theory has diminished, it is still used as a standard to compare observed activity and life satisfaction patterns. History: The activity theory rose in opposing response to the disengagement theory. The activity theory and the disengagement theory were the two major theories that outlined successful aging in the early 1960s. The theory was developed by Robert J. Havighurst in 1961. In 1964, Bernice Neugarten asserted that satisfaction in old age depended on active maintenance of personal relationships and endeavors. In social science research: The activity theory has been found useful in various qualitative and quantitative research settings, with social scientists exploring the impact of activity on aspects of the aging life. In social science research: Historically, activity participation among aging populations has been well explained in research, yet the interaction of determinants like personality and health are seldom included. One quantitative study aimed to fill this gap by analyzing the effects of extraverted personality on aging activity levels through addressing its interaction with physical and mental health. Through a series of telephone interviews in Hong Kong, China, a sample of 304 adults over the age of 50 were surveyed on perceived physical and mental health, level of extraversion, and level of activity. The associations between activity level and each variable were examined by comparing results with low, moderate, and high activity levels of extraverted individuals. Findings of this study reveal that there is a strong, positive correlation between extraversion and activity level, with participants indicating that a high activity level was most likely paired with the perception of good mental and physical health.Another study analyzed the aging population's ability to "describe a friend" by utilizing the theory of mind, which describes an individual's capacity to understand other people by ascribing mental states to them. This research aimed to investigate the relationship between activity level, older people's social relationships, and their associated theory of mind. 72 participants aged 60–79 from northern Italy were recruited to describe their best friend, with stories being transcribed and coded based on the level of detailed vocabulary used. This was followed with a questionnaire that examined the participants' activity level and cognitive functioning. Findings revealed that, although data was variable among the sample group, there was a slight positive correlation between high activity level, high affinity to social relationships, and ability to utilize theory of mind.A different qualitative study aimed to investigate the impact of an intergenerational exchange between undergraduate students and nursing home residents on the social engagement and self-esteem of the elderly. 13 older adult participants residing in an assisted living community in the rural Rocky Mountains were surveyed about their preferences of entertainment from childhood. From this survey, undergraduate researchers chose and viewed two movies with their paired participants. Nursing home residents were then interviewed about their level of enjoyment or disdain from the movie-viewing experience. Results of this study show a positive correlation among meaningful intergenerational exchanges, use of activity theory, and social engagement in the aging population.Overall, these research findings, among others, have provided important evidence for social scientists to inform policy making and service provision that supports active aging. Critics of Activity Theory: The critics of the activity theory state that it overlooks inequalities in health and economics that hinders the ability for older people to engage in such activities. Also, some older adults do not desire to engage in new challenges.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
BoxRec BoxRec: BoxRec or boxrec.com is a website dedicated to holding updated records of professional and amateur boxers, both male and female. It also maintains a MediaWiki-based encyclopaedia of boxing. The objective of the site is to document every professional boxer and boxing match from the instigation of the Queensberry Rules up to the present times. BoxRec publishes ratings for all active boxers and all-time ratings. Since 2012 the site has hosted Barry Hugman's History of World Championship Boxing. Foundation: The site was founded by John Sheppard, an Englishman. Sheppard had never attended a boxing bout until 1995 when he attended a "Prince" Naseem Hamed fight with Hamed's older brothers Riath and Nabeel. Sheppard had considered boxing to be a "barbaric and degrading" spectacle, stating "I sat there watching people punch each other in the head, wondering why they were doing it... I was sprayed with blood, getting more and more miserable." However, Sheppard later explained, "[D]uring Naseem's fight, something clicked in my head. The subtlety of what he was doing, the genius of it all, became obvious to me. It wasn't a disgusting spectacle anymore. It was art, and I found myself cheering."Following Hamed's split with Frank Warren, Sheppard went to work for Hamed at "Prince Promotions" in 2000. Sheppard then began to compile record of active British boxers in an attempt to aid matchmaking of boxers and then decided to create a website which would store the records of all boxers. The site has grown so much that Sheppard has gone full-time since 2005. As of December 2008, on a typical day 50,000 visitors could view 700,000 pages with the record of 1,300,000 bouts in its database encompassing 17,000 active and 345,000 non-active fighters. Organization: The website is updated by volunteer editors from many countries around the world. Each editor is assigned a country or in some instances, regions within countries and they maintain the records for boxers in that country or region. BoxRec also rates each active fighter by weight division. Criticism of the website: BoxRec has been criticized for not keeping correct records for boxers, especially historic fighters. In 2005, BoxRec applied to become recognized as the official record keepers for the Association of Boxing Commissions (ABC). The ABC held interviews with both Fight Fax and BoxRec at their 2005 convention. Each applicant made a submission and presentation to the ABC panel which included state commissioners and attorneys. The panel then voted unanimously in favour to award Fight Fax the position. The ABC later revealed that they had performed tests to measure the accuracy of each website's records: Fight Fax's records were shown to be 100% accurate, while the accuracy of BoxRec's records was found to be "substantially lower". Nonetheless, in 2016 the ABC voted to recognize Boxrec as an official record-keeper alongside Fight Fax.Boxing promoter J. Russell Peltz stated "very few things in life are one hundred percent. But I've come across some glaring errors at BoxRec, mostly in the historical records." ESPN's Dan Rafael noted that "so many people have a hand in BoxRec that the records aren't always accurate. Ricardo Mayorga's record has been wrong for years. There's a mistake [in] Derrick Gainer's record too." Plaudits from boxing personalities: When asked how important BoxRec was to him, boxing promoter Lou DiBella stated that "anyone in boxing who says he doesn't use BoxRec is either a complete imbecile or lying" and Bruce Trampler, the matchmaker for Top Rank, said that "short of actually being at a fight, they're the best source of information out there."Boxing journalist Thomas Hauser also asked the chairman of the New York State Athletic Commission Ron Scott Stevens what his thoughts were, and Stevens was quoted as saying "Fight Fax is the mandated record-keeper for athletic commissions in the United States. But BoxRec does more than supplement Fight Fax. In many respects, it surpasses Fight Fax." David Haye, when commenting on what was his only professional loss at the time, stated I'd love to get revenge over Carl Thompson, I know I have improved and made the adjustments required, but still, I take a look at my record at BoxRec and I see this red blob there, that one loss there really does stick out at me.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
IFT80 IFT80: Intraflagellar transport protein 80 homolog (IFT80), also known as WD repeat-containing protein 56, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the IFT80 gene. Function: IFT80 is part of the intraflagellar transport complex B and is necessary for the function of motile and sensory cilia. Clinical significance: Mutations in the IFT80 gene are associated with asphyxiating thoracic dysplasia.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Buddhist meditation Buddhist meditation: Buddhist meditation is the practice of meditation in Buddhism. The closest words for meditation in the classical languages of Buddhism are bhāvanā ("mental development") and jhāna/dhyāna (mental training resulting in a calm and luminous mind).Buddhists pursue meditation as part of the path toward liberation from defilements (kleshas) and clinging and craving (upādāna), also called awakening, which results in the attainment of Nirvana, and includes a variety of meditation techniques, most notably anapanasati (mindfulness of breathing). Other techniques include asubha bhavana ("reflections on repulsiveness"); reflection on pratityasamutpada (dependent origination); anussati (recollections, including anapanasati) and sati (mindfulness), culminating in dhyana (developing an alert and luminous mind); and the Brahma-viharas (loving-kindness and compassion). These techniques aim to develop equanimity and sati (mindfulness); samadhi (unification of mind) c.q. samatha (tranquility) and vipassanā (insight); and are also said to lead to abhijñā (supramundane powers). These meditation techniques are preceded by and combined with practices which aid this development, such as moral restraint and right effort to develop wholesome states of mind. Buddhist meditation: While these techniques are used across Buddhist schools, there is also significant diversity. A basic classification of meditation techniques is samatha (calming the mind) and vipassana (gaining insight). In the Theravada tradition, emphasizing vipassana, these are seen as opposing techniques, while Mahayana Buddhism stresses the interplay between samatha and vipassana. In both traditions, breath meditation is a central practice. Chinese and Japanese Buddhism also preserved a wide range of meditation techniques, which go back to early Buddhism, and were transmitted via Sarvastivada Buddhism. In Tibetan Buddhism, deity yoga includes visualisations, which precede the realization of sunyata ("emptiness"). Etymology: The closest words for meditation in the classical languages of Buddhism are bhāvanā (mental development) and jhāna/dhyāna. Possible influence from pre-Buddhist India: Modern Buddhist studies have attempted to reconstruct the meditation practices of early Buddhism, mainly through philological and text critical methods using the early canonical texts.According to Indologist Johannes Bronkhorst, "the teaching of the Buddha as presented in the early canon contains a number of contradictions," presenting "a variety of methods that do not always agree with each other," containing "views and practices that are sometimes accepted and sometimes rejected." These contradictions are due to the influence of non-Buddhist traditions on early Buddhism. One example of these non-Buddhist meditative methods found in the early sources is outlined by Bronkhorst: The Vitakkasanthāna Sutta of the Majjhima Nikāya and its parallels in Chinese translation recommend the practicing monk to ‘restrain his thought with his mind, to coerce and torment it’. Exactly the same words are used elsewhere in the Pāli canon (in the Mahāsaccaka Sutta, Bodhirājakumāra Sutta and Saṅgārava Sutta) in order to describe the futile attempts of the Buddha before his enlightenment to reach liberation after the manner of the Jainas. Possible influence from pre-Buddhist India: According to Bronkhorst, such practices which are based on a "suppression of activity" are not authentically Buddhist, but were later adopted from the Jains by the Buddhist community. Possible influence from pre-Buddhist India: The two major traditions of meditative practice in pre-Buddhist India were the Jain ascetic practices and the various Vedic Brahmanical practices. There is still much debate in Buddhist studies regarding how much influence these two traditions had on the development of early Buddhist meditation. The early Buddhist texts mention that Gautama trained under two teachers known as Āḷāra Kālāma and Uddaka Rāmaputta, both of them taught formless jhanas or mental absorptions, a key practice of Theravada Buddhist meditation. Alexander Wynne considers these figures historical persons associated with the doctrines of the early Upanishads. Other practices which the Buddha undertook have been associated with the Jain ascetic tradition by the Indologist Johannes Bronkhorst including extreme fasting and a forceful "meditation without breathing". According to the early texts, the Buddha rejected the more extreme Jain ascetic practices in favor of the middle way. Pre-sectarian Buddhism: Early Buddhism, as it existed before the development of various schools, is called pre-sectarian Buddhism. Its meditation-techniques are described in the Pali Canon and the Chinese Agamas. Pre-sectarian Buddhism: Preparatory practices Meditation and contemplation are preceded by preparatory practices. As described in the Noble Eightfold Path, right view leads to leaving the household life and becoming a wandering monk. Sila, morality, comprises the rules for right conduct. Sense restraint and right effort, c.q. the four right efforts, are important preparatory practices. Sense restraint means controlling the response to sensual perceptions, not giving in to lust and aversion but simply noticing the objects of perception as they appear. Right effort aims to prevent the arising of unwholesome states, and to generate wholesome states. By following these preparatory steps and practices, the mind becomes set, almost naturally, for the onset of dhyana. Pre-sectarian Buddhism: Sati/smrti (mindfulness) An important quality to be cultivated by a Buddhist meditator is mindfulness (sati). Mindfulness is a polyvalent term which refers to remembering, recollecting and "bearing in mind". It also relates to remembering the teachings of the Buddha and knowing how these teachings relate to one's experiences. The Buddhist texts mention different kinds of mindfulness practice. Pre-sectarian Buddhism: The Pali Satipatthana Sutta and its parallels as well as numerous other early Buddhist texts enumerates four subjects (satipaṭṭhānas) on which mindfulness is established: the body (including the four elements, the parts of the body, and death); feelings (vedana); mind (citta); and phenomena or principles (dhammas), such as the five hindrances and the seven factors of enlightenment. Different early texts give different enumerations of these four mindfulness practices. Meditation on these subjects is said to develop insight.According to Bronkhorst, there were originally two kinds of mindfulness, "observations of the positions of the body" and the four satipaṭṭhānas, the "establishment of mindfulness," which constituted formal meditation. Bhikkhu Sujato and Bronkhorst both argue that the mindfulness of the positions of the body (which is actually "clear comprehension") wasn't originally part of the four satipatthana formula, but was later added to it in some texts.Bronkhorst (1985) also argues that the earliest form of the satipaṭṭhāna sutta only contained the observation of the impure body parts under mindfulness of the body, and that mindfulness of dhammas was originally just the observation of the seven awakening factors. Sujato's reconstruction similarly only retains the contemplation of the impure under mindfulness of the body, while including only the five hindrances and the seven awakening factors under mindfulness of dhammas. According to Analayo, mindfulness of breathing was probably absent from the original scheme, noting that one can easily contemplate the body's decay taking an external object, that is, someone else's body, but not be externally mindfull of the breath, that is, someone else's breath. According to Grzegorz Polak, the four upassanā have been misunderstood by the developing Buddhist tradition, including Theravada, to refer to four different foundations. According to Polak, the four upassanā do not refer to four different foundations of which one should be aware, but are an alternate description of the jhanas, describing how the samskharas are tranquilized: the six sense-bases which one needs to be aware of (kāyānupassanā); contemplation on vedanās, which arise with the contact between the senses and their objects (vedanānupassanā); the altered states of mind to which this practice leads (cittānupassanā); the development from the five hindrances to the seven factors of enlightenment (dhammānupassanā). Pre-sectarian Buddhism: Anussati (recollections) Anussati (Pāli; Sanskrit: Anusmriti) means "recollection," "contemplation," "remembrance," "meditation" and "mindfulness." It refers to specific meditative or devotional practices, such as recollecting the sublime qualities of the Buddha or anapanasati (mindfulness of breathing), which lead to mental tranquillity and abiding joy. In various contexts, the Pali literature and Sanskrit Mahayana sutras emphasize and identify different enumerations of recollections. Pre-sectarian Buddhism: Asubha bhavana (reflection on unattractiveness) Asubha bhavana is reflection on "the foul"/unattractiveness (Pāli: asubha). It includes two practices, namely cemetery contemplations, and Paṭikkūlamanasikāra, "reflections on repulsiveness". Patikulamanasikara is a Buddhist meditation whereby thirty-one parts of the body are contemplated in a variety of ways. In addition to developing sati (mindfulness) and samādhi (concentration, dhyana), this form of meditation is considered to be conducive to overcoming desire and lust. Pre-sectarian Buddhism: Anapanasati (mindfulness of breathing) Anapanasati, mindfulness of breathing, is a core meditation practice in Theravada, Tiantai and Chan traditions of Buddhism as well as a part of many mindfulness programs. In both ancient and modern times, anapanasati by itself is likely the most widely used Buddhist method for contemplating bodily phenomena.The Ānāpānasati Sutta specifically concerns mindfulness of inhalation and exhalation, as a part of paying attention to one's body in quietude, and recommends the practice of anapanasati meditation as a means of cultivating the Seven Factors of Enlightenment: sati (mindfulness), dhamma vicaya (analysis), viriya (persistence), which leads to pīti (rapture), then to passaddhi (serenity), which in turn leads to samadhi (concentration) and then to upekkhā (equanimity). Finally, the Buddha taught that, with these factors developed in this progression, the practice of anapanasati would lead to release (Pali: vimutti; Sanskrit mokṣa) from dukkha (suffering), in which one realizes nibbana. Pre-sectarian Buddhism: Dhyāna/jhāna Many scholars of early Buddhism, such as Vetter, Bronkhorst and Anālayo, see the practice of jhāna (Sanskrit: dhyāna) as central to the meditation of Early Buddhism. According to Bronkhorst, the oldest Buddhist meditation practice are the four dhyanas, which lead to the destruction of the asavas as well as the practice of mindfulness (sati). According to Vetter, the practice of dhyana may have constituted the core liberating practice of early Buddhism, since in this state all "pleasure and pain" had waned. According to Vetter, [P]robably the word "immortality" (a-mata) was used by the Buddha for the first interpretation of this experience and not the term cessation of suffering that belongs to the four noble truths [...] the Buddha did not achieve the experience of salvation by discerning the four noble truths and/or other data. But his experience must have been of such a nature that it could bear the interpretation "achieving immortality". Pre-sectarian Buddhism: Alexander Wynne agrees that the Buddha taught a kind of meditation exemplified by the four dhyanas, but argues that the Buddha adopted these from the Brahmin teachers Āḷāra Kālāma and Uddaka Rāmaputta, though he did not interpret them in the same Vedic cosmological way and rejected their Vedic goal (union with Brahman). The Buddha, according to Wynne, radically transformed the practice of dhyana which he learned from these Brahmins which "consisted of the adaptation of the old yogic techniques to the practice of mindfulness and attainment of insight". For Wynne, this idea that liberation required not just meditation but an act of insight, was radically different from the Brahminic meditation, "where it was thought that the yogin must be without any mental activity at all, ‘like a log of wood’." Four rupa-jhanas Qualities In the sutras, jhāna is entered when one 'sits down cross-legged and establishes mindfulness'. According to Buddhist tradition, it may be supported by ānāpānasati, mindfulness of breathing, a core meditative practice which can be found in almost all schools of Buddhism. The Suttapiṭaka and the Agamas describe four stages of rūpa jhāna. Rūpa refers to the material realm, in a neutral stance, as different from the kāma-realm (lust, desire) and the arūpa-realm (non-material realm). While interpreted in the Theravada-tradition as describing a deepening concentration and one-pointedness, originally the jhānas seem to describe a development from investigating body and mind and abandoning unwholesome states, to perfected equanimity and watchfulness, an understanding which is retained in Zen and Dzogchen. The stock description of the jhānas, with traditional and alternative interpretations, is as follows: First jhāna: Separated (vivicceva) from desire for sensual pleasures, separated (vivicca) from [other] unwholesome states (akusalehi dhammehi, unwholesome dhammas), a bhikkhu enters upon and abides in the first jhana, which is [mental] pīti ("rapture," "joy") and [bodily] sukha ("pleasure") "born of viveka" (traditionally, "seclusion"; alternatively, "discrimination" (of dhamma's)), accompanied by vitarka-vicara (traditionallly, initial and sustained attention to a meditative object; alternatively, initial inquiry and subsequent investigation of dhammas (defilements and wholesome thoughts); also: "discursive thought"). Pre-sectarian Buddhism: Second jhāna: Again, with the stilling of vitarka-vicara, a bhikkhu enters upon and abides in the second jhana, which is [mental] pīti and [bodily] sukha "born of samadhi" (samadhi-ji; trad. born of "concentration"; altern. "knowing but non-discursive [...] awareness," "bringing the buried latencies or samskaras into full view"), and has sampasadana ("stillness," "inner tranquility") and ekaggata (unification of mind, awareness) without vitarka-vicara; Third jhāna: With the fading away of pīti, a bhikkhu abides in upekkhā (equanimity," "affective detachment"), sato (mindful) and [with] sampajañña ("fully knowing," "discerning awareness"). [Still] experiencing sukha with the body, he enters upon and abides in the third jhana, on account of which the noble ones announce, "abiding in [bodily] pleasure, one is equanimous and mindful". Pre-sectarian Buddhism: Fourth jhāna: With the abandoning of [the desire for] sukha ("pleasure") and [aversion to] dukkha ("pain") and with the previous disappearance of [the inner movement between] somanassa ("gladness,") and domanassa ("discontent"), a bhikkhu enters upon and abides in the fourth jhana, which is adukkham asukham ("neither-painful-nor-pleasurable," "freedom from pleasure and pain") and has upekkhāsatipārisuddhi (complete purity of equanimity and mindfulness). Pre-sectarian Buddhism: Interpretation According to Richard Gombrich, the sequence of the four rupa-jhanas describes two different cognitive states. Alexander Wynne further explains that the dhyana-scheme is poorly understood. According to Wynne, words expressing the inculcation of awareness, such as sati, sampajāno, and upekkhā, are mistranslated or understood as particular factors of meditative states, whereas they refer to a particular way of perceiving the sense objects. Polak notes that the qualities of the jhanas resemble the bojjhaṅgā, the seven factors of awakening]], arguing that both sets describe the same essential practice. Polak further notes, elaborating on Vetter, that the onset of the first dhyana is described as a quite natural process, due to the preceding efforts to restrain the senses and the nurturing of wholesome states.Upekkhā, equanimity, which is perfected in the fourth dhyana, is one of the four Brahma-vihara. While the commentarial tradition downplayed the Brahma-viharas, Gombrich notes that the Buddhist usage of the brahma-vihāra, originally referred to an awakened state of mind, and a concrete attitude toward other beings which was equal to "living with Brahman" here and now. The later tradition took those descriptions too literally, linking them to cosmology and understanding them as "living with Brahman" by rebirth in the Brahma-world. According to Gombrich, "the Buddha taught that kindness - what Christians tend to call love - was a way to salvation. Pre-sectarian Buddhism: Arupas In addition to the four rūpajhānas, there are also meditative attainments which were later called by the tradition the arūpajhānas, though the early texts do not use the term dhyana for them, calling them āyatana (dimension, sphere, base). They are: The Dimension of infinite space (Pali ākāsānañcāyatana, Skt. ākāśānantyāyatana), The Dimension of infinite consciousness (Pali viññāṇañcāyatana, Skt. vijñānānantyāyatana), The Dimension of infinite nothingness (Pali ākiñcaññāyatana, Skt. ākiṃcanyāyatana), The Dimension of neither perception nor non-perception (Pali nevasaññānāsaññāyatana, Skt. naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñāyatana). Pre-sectarian Buddhism: Nirodha-samāpatti, also called saññā-vedayita-nirodha, 'extinction of feeling and perception'.These formless jhanas may have been incorporated from non-Buddhist traditions. Pre-sectarian Buddhism: Jhana and insight Various early sources mention the attainment of insight after having achieved jhana. In the Mahasaccaka Sutta, dhyana is followed by insight into the four noble truths. The mention of the four noble truths as constituting "liberating insight" is probably a later addition. Discriminating insight into transiency as a separate path to liberation may be a later development, under pressure of developments in Indian religious thinking, which saw "liberating insight" as essential to liberation. This may also have been due to an over-literal interpretation by later scholastics of the terminology used by the Buddha, and to the problems involved with the practice of dhyana, and the need to develop an easier method. Collett Cox and Damien Keown question the existence of a dichotomy between dhyana and insight, arguing that samadhi is a key aspect of the later Buddhist process of liberation, which cooperates with insight to remove the āsavas. Pre-sectarian Buddhism: Brahmavihāra Another important meditation in the early sources are the four Brahmavihāra (divine abodes) which are said to lead to cetovimutti, a “liberation of the mind”. The four Brahmavihāra are: Loving-kindness (Pāli: mettā, Sanskrit: maitrī) is active good will towards all; Compassion (Pāli and Sanskrit: karuṇā) results from metta, it is identifying the suffering of others as one's own; Empathetic joy (Pāli and Sanskrit: muditā): is the feeling of joy because others are happy, even if one did not contribute to it, it is a form of sympathetic joy; Equanimity (Pāli: upekkhā, Sanskrit: upekṣā): is even-mindedness and serenity, treating everyone impartially. Pre-sectarian Buddhism: According to Anālayo:The effect of cultivating the brahmavihāras as a liberation of the mind finds illustration in a simile which describes a conch blower who is able to make himself heard in all directions. This illustrates how the brahmavihāras are to be developed as a boundless radiation in all directions, as a result of which they cannot be overruled by other more limited karma.The practice of the four divine abodes can be seen as a way to overcome ill-will and sensual desire and to train in the quality of deep concentration (samadhi). Early Buddhism: Traditionally, Eighteen schools of Buddhism are said to have developed after the time of the Buddha. The Sarvastivada school was the most influential, but the Theravada is the only school that still exists. Early Buddhism: Samatha (serenity) and vipassana (insight) The Buddha is said to have identified two paramount mental qualities that arise from wholesome meditative practice: "serenity" or "tranquillity" (Pali: samatha; Sanskrit: samadhi) which steadies, composes, unifies and concentrates the mind; "insight" (Pali: vipassanā) which enables one to see, explore and discern "formations" (conditioned phenomena based on the five aggregates).The Buddha is said to have extolled serenity and insight as conduits for attaining Nibbana (Pali; Skt.: Nirvana), the unconditioned state as in the "Kimsuka Tree Sutta" (SN 35.245), where the Buddha provides an elaborate metaphor in which serenity and insight are "the swift pair of messengers" who deliver the message of Nibbana via the Noble Eightfold Path.In the Threefold training, samatha is part of samadhi, the eight limb of the threefold path, together with sati, mindfulness. According to Mahāsi Sayādaw, tranquility meditation can lead to the attainment of supernatural powers such as psychic powers and mind reading while insight meditation can lead to the realisation of nibbāna.In the Pāli Canon, the Buddha never mentions independent samatha and vipassana meditation practices; instead, samatha and vipassana are two qualities of mind, to be developed through meditation. Nonetheless, according to the Theravada tradition some meditation practices (such as contemplation of a kasina object) favor the development of samatha, others are conducive to the development of vipassana (such as contemplation of the aggregates), while others (such as mindfulness of breathing) are classically used for developing both mental qualities.In the "Four Ways to Arahantship Sutta" (AN 4.170), Ven. Ananda reports that people attain arahantship using serenity and insight in one of three ways: they develop serenity and then insight (Pali: samatha-pubbangamam vipassanam) they develop insight and then serenity (Pali: vipassana-pubbangamam samatham) they develop serenity and insight in tandem (Pali: samatha-vipassanam yuganaddham) as in, for instance, obtaining the first jhana, and then seeing in the associated aggregates the three marks of existence, before proceeding to the second jhana.While the Nikayas state that the pursuit of vipassana can precede the pursuit of samatha, according to the Burmese Vipassana movement vipassana be based upon the achievement of stabilizing "access concentration" (Pali: upacara samadhi). According to the Theravada tradition, through the meditative development of serenity, one is able to suppress obscuring hindrances; and, with the suppression of the hindrances, it is through the meditative development of insight that one gains liberating wisdom. Theravāda: Sutta Pitaka and early commentaries The oldest material of the Theravāda tradition on meditation can be found in the Pali Nikayas, and in texts such as the Patisambhidamagga which provide commentary to meditation suttas like the Anapanasati sutta. Theravāda: Buddhaghosa An early Theravāda meditation manual is the Vimuttimagga ('Path of Freedom', 1st or 2nd century). The most influential presentation though, is that of the 5th-century Visuddhimagga ('Path of Purification') of Buddhaghoṣa, which seems to have been influenced by the earlier Vimuttimagga in his presentation.The Visuddhimagga's doctrine reflects Theravāda Abhidhamma scholasticism, which includes several innovations and interpretations not found in the earliest discourses (suttas) of the Buddha. Buddhaghosa's Visuddhimagga includes non-canonical instructions on Theravada meditation, such as "ways of guarding the mental image (nimitta)," which point to later developments in Theravada meditation.The text is centered around kasina-meditation, a form of concentration-meditation in which the mind is focused on a (mental) object. According to Thanissaro Bhikkhu, "[t]he text then tries to fit all other meditation methods into the mold of kasina practice, so that they too give rise to countersigns, but even by its own admission, breath meditation does not fit well into the mold." In its emphasis on kasina-meditation, the Visuddhimagga departs from the Pali Canon, in which dhyana is the central meditative practice, indicating that what "jhana means in the commentaries is something quite different from what it means in the Canon."The Visuddhimagga describes forty meditation subjects, most being described in the early texts. Buddhaghoṣa advises that, for the purpose of developing concentration and consciousness, a person should "apprehend from among the forty meditation subjects one that suits his own temperament" with the advice of a "good friend" (kalyāṇa-mittatā) who is knowledgeable in the different meditation subjects (Ch. III, § 28). Buddhaghoṣa subsequently elaborates on the forty meditation subjects as follows (Ch. III, §104; Chs. IV–XI): ten kasinas: earth, water, fire, air, blue, yellow, red, white, light, and "limited-space". Theravāda: ten kinds of foulness: "the bloated, the livid, the festering, the cut-up, the gnawed, the scattered, the hacked and scattered, the bleeding, the worm-infested, and a skeleton". ten recollections: Buddhānussati, the Dhamma, the Sangha, virtue, generosity, the virtues of deities, death (see the Upajjhatthana Sutta), the body, the breath (see anapanasati), and peace (see Nibbana). four divine abodes: mettā, karuṇā, mudita, and upekkha. four immaterial states: boundless space, boundless perception, nothingness, and neither perception nor non-perception. Theravāda: one perception (of "repulsiveness in nutriment") one "defining" (that is, the four elements)When one overlays Buddhaghosa's 40 meditative subjects for the development of concentration with the Buddha's foundations of mindfulness, three practices are found to be in common: breath meditation, foulness meditation (which is similar to the Sattipatthana Sutta's cemetery contemplations, and to contemplation of bodily repulsiveness), and contemplation of the four elements. According to Pali commentaries, breath meditation can lead one to the equanimous fourth jhanic absorption. Contemplation of foulness can lead to the attainment of the first jhana, and contemplation of the four elements culminates in pre-jhana access concentration. Theravāda: Contemporary Theravāda Vipassana and/or samatha The role of samatha in Buddhist practice, and the exact meaning of samatha, are points of contention and investigation in contemporary Theravada and western vipassanan. Burmese vipassana teachers have tended to disregard samatha as unnecessary, while Thai teachers see samatha and vipassana as intertwined. Theravāda: The exact meaning of samatha is also not clear, and westerners have started to question the received wisdom on this. While samatha is usually equated with the jhanas in the commentarial tradition, scholars and practitioners have pointed out that jhana is more than a narrowing of the focus of the mind. While the second jhana may be characterized by samadhi-ji, "born of concentration," the first jhana sets in quite naturally as a result of sense-restraint, while the third and fourth jhana are characterized by mindfulness and equanimity. Sati, sense-restraint and mindfulness are necessary preceding practices, while insight may mark the point where one enters the "stream" of development which results in vimukti, release.According to Anālayo, the jhanas are crucial meditative states which lead to the abandonment of hindrances such as lust and aversion; however, they are not sufficient for the attainment of liberating insight. Some early texts also warn meditators against becoming attached to them, and therefore forgetting the need for the further practice of insight. According to Anālayo, "either one undertakes such insight contemplation while still being in the attainment, or else one does so retrospectively, after having emerged from the absorption itself but while still being in a mental condition close to it in concentrative depth."The position that insight can be practiced from within jhana, according to the early texts, is endorsed by Gunaratna, Crangle and Shankaman. Anālayo meanwhile argues, that the evidence from the early texts suggest that "contemplation of the impermanent nature of the mental constituents of an absorption takes place before or on emerging from the attainment".Arbel has argued that insight precedes the practice of jhana. Theravāda: Vipassana movement Particularly influential from the twentieth century onward has been the Burmese Vipassana movement, especially the "New Burmese Method" or "Vipassanā School" approach to samatha and vipassanā developed by Mingun Sayadaw and U Nārada and popularized by Mahasi Sayadaw. Here samatha is considered an optional but not necessary component of the practice—vipassanā is possible without it. Another Burmese method popularized in the west, notably that of Pa-Auk sayadaw Bhaddanta Āciṇṇa, uphold the emphasis on samatha explicit in the commentarial tradition of the Visuddhimagga. Other Burmese traditions, derived from Ledi Sayadaw via Sayagyi U Ba Khin and popularized in the west by Mother Sayamagyi and S. N. Goenka, takes a similar approach. These Burmese traditions have been influential on Western Theravada-oriented teachers, notably Joseph Goldstein, Sharon Salzberg and Jack Kornfield. Theravāda: There are also other less well known Burmese meditation methods, such as the system developed by U Vimala, which focuses on knowledge of dependent origination and cittanupassana (mindfulness of the mind). Likewise, Sayadaw U Tejaniya's method also focuses on mindfulness of the mind. Theravāda: Thai Forest tradition Also influential is the Thai Forest Tradition deriving from Mun Bhuridatta and popularized by Ajahn Chah, which, in contrast, stresses the inseparability of the two practices, and the essential necessity of both practices. Other noted practitioners in this tradition include Ajahn Thate and Ajahn Maha Bua, among others. There are other forms of Thai Buddhist meditation associated with particular teachers, including Buddhadasa Bhikkhu's presentation of anapanasati, Ajahn Lee's breath meditation method (which influenced his American student Thanissaro) and the "dynamic meditation" of Luangpor Teean Cittasubho. Theravāda: Other forms There are other less mainstream forms of Theravada meditation practiced in Thailand which include the vijja dhammakaya meditation developed by Luang Pu Sodh Candasaro and the meditation of former supreme patriarch Suk Kai Thuean (1733–1822). Newell notes that these two forms of modern Thai meditation share certain features in common with tantric practices such as the use of visualizations and centrality of maps of the body.A less common type of meditation is practiced in Cambodia and Laos by followers of Borān kammaṭṭhāna ('ancient practices') tradition. This form of meditation includes the use of mantras and visualizations. Sarvāstivāda: The now defunct Sarvāstivāda tradition, and its related sub-schools like the Sautrāntika and the Vaibhāṣika, were the most influential Buddhists in North India and Central Asia. Their highly complex Abhidharma treatises, such as the Mahavibhasa, the Sravakabhumi and the Abhidharmakosha, contain new developments in meditative theory which had a major influence on meditation as practiced in East Asian Mahayana and Tibetan Buddhism. Individuals known as yogācāras (yoga practitioners) were influential in the development of Sarvāstivāda meditation praxis, and some modern scholars such as Yin Shun believe they were also influential in the development of Mahayana meditation. The Dhyāna sutras (Chinese: 禪経) or "meditation summaries" (Chinese: 禪要) are a group of early Buddhist meditation texts which are mostly based on the Yogacara meditation teachings of the Sarvāstivāda school of Kashmir circa 1st-4th centuries CE, which focus on the concrete details of the meditative practice of the Yogacarins of northern Gandhara and Kashmir. Most of the texts only survive in Chinese and were key works in the development of the Buddhist meditation practices of Chinese Buddhism. Sarvāstivāda: According to K.L. Dhammajoti, the Sarvāstivāda meditation practitioner begins with samatha meditations, divided into the fivefold mental stillings, each being recommended as useful for particular personality types: contemplation on the impure (asubhabhavana), for the greedy type person. Sarvāstivāda: meditation on loving kindness (maitri), for the hateful type contemplation on conditioned co-arising, for the deluded type contemplation on the division of the dhatus, for the conceited type mindfulness of breathing (anapanasmrti), for the distracted type.Contemplation of the impure, and mindfulness of breathing, was particularly important in this system; they were known as the 'gateways to immortality' (amrta-dvāra). The Sarvāstivāda system practiced breath meditation using the same sixteen aspect model used in the anapanasati sutta, but also introduced a unique six aspect system which consists of: counting the breaths up to ten, following the breath as it enters through the nose throughout the body, fixing the mind on the breath, observing the breath at various locations, modifying is related to the practice of the four applications of mindfulness and purifying stage of the arising of insight.This sixfold breathing meditation method was influential in East Asia, and expanded upon by the Chinese Tiantai meditation master Zhiyi.After the practitioner has achieved tranquility, Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma then recommends one proceeds to practice the four applications of mindfulness (smrti-upasthāna) in two ways. First they contemplate each specific characteristic of the four applications of mindfulness, and then they contemplate all four collectively.In spite of this systematic division of samatha and vipasyana, the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharmikas held that the two practices are not mutually exclusive. The Mahavibhasa for example remarks that, regarding the six aspects of mindfulness of breathing, "there is no fixed rule here — all may come under samatha or all may come under vipasyana." The Sarvāstivāda Abhidharmikas also held that attaining the dhyānas was necessary for the development of insight and wisdom. Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism: Mahāyāna practice is centered on the path of the bodhisattva, a being which is aiming for full Buddhahood. Meditation (dhyāna) is one of the transcendent virtues (paramitas) which a bodhisattva must perfect in order to reach Buddhahood, and thus, it is central to Mahāyāna Buddhist praxis. Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism: Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism was initially a network of loosely connected groups and associations, each drawing upon various Buddhist texts, doctrines and meditation methods. Because of this, there is no single set of Indian Mahāyāna practices which can be said to apply to all Indian Mahāyānists, nor is there is a single set of texts which were used by all of them. Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism: Textual evidence shows that many Mahāyāna Buddhists in northern India as well as in Central Asia practiced meditation in a similar way to that of the Sarvāstivāda school outlined above. This can be seen in what is probably the most comprehensive and largest Indian Mahāyāna treatise on meditation practice, the Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra (compiled c. 4th century), a compendium which explains in detail Yogācāra meditation theory, and outlines numerous meditation methods as well as related advice. Among the topics discussed are the various early Buddhist meditation topics such as the four dhyānas, the different kinds of samādhi, the development of insight (vipaśyanā) and tranquility (śamatha), the four foundations of mindfulness (smṛtyupasthāna), the five hindrances (nivaraṇa), and classic Buddhist meditations such as the contemplation of unattractiveness (aśubhasaṃjnā), impermanence (anitya), suffering (duḥkha), and contemplation death (maraṇasaṃjñā). Other works of the Yogācāra school, such as Asaṅga's Abhidharmasamuccaya, and Vasubandhu's Madhyāntavibhāga-bhāsya also discuss meditation topics such as mindfulness, smṛtyupasthāna, the 37 wings to awakening, and samadhi.Some Mahāyāna sutras also teach early Buddhist meditation practices. For example, the Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra and the Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra both teach the four foundations of mindfulness. Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Prajñāpāramitā Sutras are some of the earliest Mahāyāna sutras. Their teachings center on the bodhisattva path (viz. the paramitas), the most important of which is the perfection of transcendent knowledge or prajñāpāramitā. This knowledge is associated with the early Buddhist practice of the three samādhis (meditative concentrations): emptiness (śūnyatā), signlessness (animitta), and wishlessness or desirelessness (apraṇihita). These three samadhis are also mentioned in the Mahāprajñāpāramitōpadeśa (Ch. Dà zhìdù lùn), chapter X. In the Prajñāpāramitā Sutras, prajñāpāramitā is described as a kind of samādhi which is also a deep understanding of reality arising from meditative insight that is totally non-conceptual and completely unattached to any person, thing or idea. The Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā, possibly the earliest of these texts, also equates prajñāpāramitā with what it terms the aniyato (unrestricted) samādhi, “the samādhi of not taking up (aparigṛhīta) any dharma”, and “the samādhi of not grasping at (anupādāna) any dharma” (as a self). According to Shi Huifeng, this meditative concentration:entails not only not clinging to the five aggregates as representative of all phenomena, but also not clinging to the very notion of the five aggregates, their existence or non-existence, their impermanence or eternality, their being dissatisfactory or satisfactory, their emptiness or self-hood, their generation or cessation, and so forth with other antithetical pairs. To so mistakenly perceive the aggregates is to “course in a sign” (nimite carati; xíng xiāng 行相), i.e. to engage in the signs and conceptualization of phenomena, and not to course in Prajñāpāramitā. Even to perceive of oneself as a bodhisattva who courses, or the Prajñāpāramitā in which one courses, are likewise coursing in signs.Other Indian Mahāyāna texts show new innovative methods which were unique to Mahāyāna Buddhism. Texts such as the Pure Land sutras, the Akṣobhya-vyūha Sūtra and the Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra teach meditations on a particular Buddha (such as Amitābha or Akshobhya). Through the repetition of their name or some other phrase and certain visualization methods, one is said to be able to meet a Buddha face to face or at least to be reborn in a Buddha field (also known as "Pure land") like Abhirati and Sukhavati after death. The Pratyutpanna sutra for example, states that if one practices recollection of the Buddha (Buddhānusmṛti) by visualizing a Buddha in their Buddha field and developing this samadhi for some seven days, one may be able to meet this Buddha in a vision or a dream so as to learn the Dharma from them. Alternatively, being reborn in one of their Buddha fields allows one to meet a Buddha and study directly with them, allowing one to reach Buddhahood faster. A set of sutras known as the Visualization Sutras also depict similar innovative practices using mental imagery. These practices been seen by some scholars as a possible explanation for the source of certain Mahāyāna sutras which are seen traditionally as direct visionary revelations from the Buddhas in their pure lands.Another popular practice was the memorization and recitation of various texts, such as sutras, mantras and dharanis. According to Akira Hirakawa, the practice of reciting dharanis (chants or incantations) became very important in Indian Mahāyāna. These chants were believed to have "the power to preserve good and prevent evil", as well as being useful to attain meditative concentration or samadhi. Important Mahāyāna sutras such as the Lotus Sutra, Heart Sutra and others prominently include dharanis. Ryûichi Abé states that dharanis are also prominent in the Prajñāpāramitā Sutras wherein the Buddha "praises dharani incantation, along with the cultivation of samadhi, as virtuous activity of a bodhisattva". They are also listed in the Mahāprajñāpāramitōpadeśa, chapter X, as an important quality of a bodhisattva.A later Mahāyāna work which discusses meditation practice is Shantideva's Bodhicaryāvatāra (8th century) which depicts how a bodhisattva's meditation was understood in the later period of Indian Mahāyāna. Shantideva begins by stating that isolating the body and the mind from the world (i.e. from discursive thoughts) is necessary for the practice of meditation, which must begin with the practice of tranquility (śamatha). He promotes classic practices like meditating on corpses and living in forests, but these are preliminary to the Mahāyāna practices which initially focus on generating bodhicitta, a mind intent on awakening for the benefit of all beings. An important of part of this practice is to cultivate and practice the understanding that oneself and other beings are actually the same, and thus all suffering must be removed, not just "mine". This meditation is termed by Shantideva "the exchange of self and other" and it is seen by him as the apex of meditation, since it simultaneously provides a basis for ethical action and cultivates insight into the nature of reality, i.e. emptiness.Another late Indian Mahāyāna meditation text is Kamalaśīla's Bhāvanākrama ("stages of meditation", 9th century), which teaches insight (vipaśyanā) and tranquility (śamatha) from a Yogācāra-Madhyamaka perspective. East Asian Mahāyāna: The meditation forms practiced during the initial stages of Chinese Buddhism did not differ much from those of Indian Mahayana Buddhism, though they did contain developments that could have arisen in Central Asia. East Asian Mahāyāna: The works of the Chinese translator An Shigao (安世高, 147-168 CE) are some of the earliest meditation texts used by Chinese Buddhism and their focus is mindfulness of breathing (annabanna 安那般那). The Chinese translator and scholar Kumarajiva (344–413 CE) transmitted various meditation works, including a meditation treatise titled The Sūtra Concerned with Samādhi in Sitting Meditation (坐禅三昧经, T.614, K.991) which teaches the Sarvāstivāda system of fivefold mental stillings. These texts are known as the Dhyāna sutras. They reflect the meditation practices of Kashmiri Buddhists, influenced by Sarvāstivāda and Sautrantika meditation teachings, but also by Mahayana Buddhism. East Asian Mahāyāna: East Asian Yogācāra methods The East Asian Yogācāra school or "Consciousness only school" (Ch. Wéishí-zōng), known in Japan as the Hossō school was a very influential tradition of Chinese Buddhism. They practiced several forms of meditation. According to Alan Sponberg, they included a class of visualization exercises, one of which centered on constructing a mental image of the Bodhisattva (and presumed future Buddha) Maitreya in Tusita heaven. A biography the Chinese Yogācāra master and translator Xuanzang depicts him practicing this kind of meditation. The goal of this practice seems to have been rebirth in Tusita heaven, so as to meet Maitreya and study Buddhism under him.Another method of meditation practiced in Chinese Yogācāra is called "the five level discernment of vijñapti-mātra" (impressions only), introduced by Xuanzang's disciple, Kuījī (632–682), which became one of the most important East Asian Yogācāra teachings. According to Alan Sponberg, this kind of vipasyana meditation was an attempt "to penetrate the true nature of reality by understanding the three aspects of existence in five successive steps or stages". These progressive stages or ways of seeing (kuan) the world are: "dismissing the false - preserving the real" (ch 'ien-hsu ts'un-shih) "relinquishing the diffuse - retaining the pure" (she-lan liu-ch 'un) "gathering in the extensions - returning to the source" (she-mo kuei-pen) "suppressing the subordinate - manifesting the superior" (yin-lueh hsien-sheng) "dismissing the phenomenal aspects - realizing the true nature" (ch 'ien-hsiang cheng-hsing) Tiantai śamatha-vipaśyanā In China it has been traditionally held that the meditation methods used by the Tiantai school are the most systematic and comprehensive of all. In addition to its doctrinal basis in Indian Buddhist texts, the Tiantai school also emphasizes use of its own meditation texts which emphasize the principles of śamatha and vipaśyanā. Of these texts, Zhiyi's Concise Śamathavipaśyanā (小止観), Mohe Zhiguan (摩訶止観, Sanskrit Mahāśamathavipaśyanā), and Six Subtle Dharma Gates (六妙法門) are the most widely read in China. Rujun Wu identifies the work Mahā-śamatha-vipaśyanā of Zhiyi as the seminal meditation text of the Tiantai school. Regarding the functions of śamatha and vipaśyanā in meditation, Zhiyi writes in his work Concise Śamatha-vipaśyanā: The attainment of Nirvāṇa is realizable by many methods whose essentials do not go beyond the practice of śamatha and vipaśyanā. Śamatha is the first step to untie all bonds and vipaśyanā is essential to root out delusion. Śamatha provides nourishment for the preservation of the knowing mind, and vipaśyanā is the skillful art of promoting spiritual understanding. Śamatha is the unsurpassed cause of samādhi, while vipaśyanā begets wisdom. East Asian Mahāyāna: The Tiantai school also places a great emphasis on ānāpānasmṛti, or mindfulness of breathing, in accordance with the principles of śamatha and vipaśyanā. Zhiyi classifies breathing into four main categories: panting (喘), unhurried breathing (風), deep and quiet breathing (氣), and stillness or rest (息). Zhiyi holds that the first three kinds of breathing are incorrect, while the fourth is correct, and that the breathing should reach stillness and rest. Zhiyi also outlines four kinds of samadhi in his Mohe Zhiguan, and ten modes of practicing vipaśyanā. East Asian Mahāyāna: Esoteric practices in Japanese Tendai One of the adaptations by the Japanese Tendai school was the introduction of Mikkyō (esoteric practices) into Tendai Buddhism, which was later named Taimitsu by Ennin. Eventually, according to Tendai Taimitsu doctrine, the esoteric rituals came to be considered of equal importance with the exoteric teachings of the Lotus Sutra. Therefore, by chanting mantras, maintaining mudras, or performing certain meditations, one is able to see that the sense experiences are the teachings of Buddha, have faith that one is inherently an enlightened being, and one can attain enlightenment within this very body. The origins of Taimitsu are found in China, similar to the lineage that Kūkai encountered in his visit to Tang China and Saichō's disciples were encouraged to study under Kūkai. East Asian Mahāyāna: Huayan meditation theory The Huayan school was a major school of Chinese Buddhism, which also strongly influenced Chan Buddhism. An important element of their meditation theory and practice is what was called the "Fourfold Dharmadhatu" (sifajie, 四法界). Dharmadhatu (法界) is the goal of the bodhisattva's practice, the ultimate nature of reality or deepest truth which must be known and realized through meditation. According to Fox, the Fourfold Dharmadhatu is "four cognitive approaches to the world, four ways of apprehending reality". Huayan meditation is meant to progressively ascend through these four "increasingly more holographic perspectives on a single phenomenological manifold." These four ways of seeing or knowing reality are: All dharmas are seen as particular separate events or phenomena (shi 事). This is the mundane way of seeing. East Asian Mahāyāna: All events are an expression of li (理, the absolute, principle or noumenon), which is associated with the concepts of shunyata, “One Mind” (yi xin 一心) and Buddha nature. This level of understanding or perspective on reality is associated with the meditation on "true emptiness". East Asian Mahāyāna: Shi and Li interpenetrate (lishi wuai 理事無礙), this is illuminated by the meditation on the "non-obstruction of principle and phenomena." All events interpenetrate (shishi wuai 事事無礙), "all distinct phenomenal dharmas interfuse and penetrate in all ways" (Zongmi). This is seen through the meditation on “universal pervasion and complete accommodation.”According to Paul Williams, the reading and recitation of the Avatamsaka sutra was also a central practice for the tradition, for monks and laity. East Asian Mahāyāna: Pure land Buddhism In Pure Land Buddhism, repeating the name of Amitābha is traditionally a form of mindfulness of the Buddha (Skt. buddhānusmṛti). This term was translated into Chinese as nianfo (Chinese: 念佛), by which it is popularly known in English. The practice is described as calling the buddha to mind by repeating his name, to enable the practitioner to bring all his or her attention upon that Buddha (samādhi). This may be done vocally or mentally, and with or without the use of Buddhist prayer beads. Those who practice this method often commit to a fixed set of repetitions per day, often from 50,000 to over 500,000.Repeating the Pure Land Rebirth dhāraṇī is another method in Pure Land Buddhism. Similar to the mindfulness practice of repeating the name of Amitābha Buddha, this dhāraṇī is another method of meditation and recitation in Pure Land Buddhism. The repetition of this dhāraṇī is said to be very popular among traditional Chinese Buddhists.Another practice found in Pure Land Buddhism is meditative contemplation and visualization of Amitābha, his attendant bodhisattvas, and the Pure Land. The basis of this is found in the Amitāyurdhyāna Sūtra ("Amitābha Meditation Sūtra"). East Asian Mahāyāna: Chán During sitting meditation (坐禅, Ch. zuòchán, Jp. zazen, Ko. jwaseon), practitioners usually assume a position such as the lotus position, half-lotus, Burmese, or seiza, often using the dhyāna mudrā. Often, a square or round cushion placed on a padded mat is used to sit on; in some other cases, a chair may be used. Various techniques and meditation forms are used in the different Zen traditions. Mindfulness of breathing is a common practice, used to develop mental focus and concentration.Another common form of sitting meditation is called "Silent illumination" (Ch. mòzhào, Jp. mokushō). This practice was traditionally promoted by the Caodong school of Chinese Chan and is associated with Hongzhi Zhengjue (1091—1157). In Hongzhi's practice of "nondual objectless meditation" the mediator strives to be aware of the totality of phenomena instead of focusing on a single object, without any interference, conceptualizing, grasping, goal seeking, or subject-object duality. This practice is also popular in the major schools of Japanese Zen, but especially Sōtō, where it is more widely known as Shikantaza (Ch. zhǐguǎn dǎzuò, "Just sitting"). East Asian Mahāyāna: During the Sòng dynasty, a new meditation method was popularized by figures such as Dahui, which was called kanhua chan ("observing the phrase" meditation) which referred to contemplation on a single word or phrase (called the huatou, "critical phrase") of a gōng'àn (Koan). In Chinese Chan and Korean Seon, this practice of "observing the huatou" (hwadu in Korean) is a widely practiced method.In the Japanese Rinzai school, kōan introspection developed its own formalized style, with a standardized curriculum of kōans which must be studies and "passed" in sequence. This process includes standardized questions and answers during a private interview with one's Zen teacher. Kōan-inquiry may be practiced during zazen (sitting meditation), kinhin (walking meditation), and throughout all the activities of daily life. The goal of the practice is often termed kensho (seeing one's true nature). Kōan practice is particularly emphasized in Rinzai, but it also occurs in other schools or branches of Zen depending on the teaching line. Tantric Buddhism: Tantric Buddhism (Esoteric Buddhism or Mantrayana) refers to various traditions which developed in India from the fifth century onwards and then spread to the Himalayan regions and East Asia. In the Tibetan tradition, it is also known as Vajrayāna, while in China it is known as Zhenyan (Ch: 真言, "true word", "mantra"), as well as Mìjiao (Esoteric Teaching), Mìzōng ("Esoteric Tradition") or Tángmì ("Tang Esoterica"). Tantric Buddhism generally includes all of the traditional forms of Mahayana meditation, but its focus is on several unique and special forms of "tantric" or "esoteric" meditation practices, which are seen as faster and more efficacious. These Tantric Buddhist forms are derived from texts called the Buddhist Tantras. To practice these advanced techniques, one is generally required to be initiated into the practice by an esoteric master (Sanskrit: acarya) or guru (Tib. lama) in a ritual consecration called abhiseka (Tib. wang). Tantric Buddhism: In Tibetan Buddhism, the central defining form of Vajrayana meditation is Deity Yoga (devatayoga). This involves the recitation of mantras, prayers and visualization of the yidam or deity (usually the form of a Buddha or a bodhisattva) along with the associated mandala of the deity's Pure Land. Advanced Deity Yoga involves imagining yourself as the deity and developing "divine pride", the understanding that oneself and the deity are not separate. "Yidam" in Tibetan technically means "tight mind" which suggests that the use of a deity as an object of meditation is intended to create total absorption into the meditative experience. Yidam practice focuses on three essential aspects of deities which, in turn, are the three principal aspects of all being: body, speech and mind. Practitioners meditate on the body of the deity, usually visually themselves becoming that body. Chanting mantra becomes the manifestation of enlightened speech with the meditation ultimately aspiring to become Buddha mind. Most tantric practices incorporate these three aspects sequentially or simultaneously. Deity practice should be differentiated from worship of gods in other religions. One way of describing tantric practice is to understand it as a "strong method" for developing an awareness of the true nature of consciousness. Tantric Buddhism: Other forms of meditation in Tibetan Buddhism include the Mahamudra and Dzogchen teachings, each taught by the Kagyu and Nyingma lineages of Tibetan Buddhism respectively. The goal of these is to familiarize oneself with the ultimate nature of mind which underlies all existence, the Dharmakāya. There are also other practices such as Dream Yoga, Tummo, the yoga of the intermediate state (at death) or bardo, sexual yoga and chöd. The shared preliminary practices of Tibetan Buddhism are called ngöndro, which involves visualization, mantra recitation, and many prostrations. Tantric Buddhism: Chinese esoteric Buddhism focused on a separate set of tantras than Tibetan Buddhism (such as the Mahavairocana Tantra and Vajrasekhara Sutra), and thus their practices are drawn from these different sources, though they revolve around similar techniques such as visualization of mandalas, mantra recitation and use of mudras. This also applies for the Japanese Shingon school and the Tendai school (which, though derived from the Tiantai school, also adopted esoteric practices). In the East Asian tradition of esoteric praxis, the use of mudra, mantra and mandala are regarded as the "three modes of action" associated with the "Three Mysteries" (sanmi 三密) are seen as the hallmarks of esoteric Buddhism. Therapeutic uses of meditation: Meditation based on Buddhist meditation principles has been practiced by people for a long time for the purposes of effecting mundane and worldly benefit. Mindfulness and other Buddhist meditation techniques have been advocated in the West by psychologists and expert Buddhist meditation teachers such as Dipa Ma, Anagarika Munindra, Thích Nhất Hạnh, Pema Chödrön, Clive Sherlock, Mother Sayamagyi, S. N. Goenka, Jon Kabat-Zinn, Jack Kornfield, Joseph Goldstein, Tara Brach, Alan Clements, and Sharon Salzberg, who have been widely attributed with playing a significant role in integrating the healing aspects of Buddhist meditation practices with the concept of psychological awareness, healing, and well-being. Although mindfulness meditation has received the most research attention, loving kindness (metta) and equanimity (upekkha) meditation are beginning to be used in a wide array of research in the fields of psychology and neuroscience. Therapeutic uses of meditation: The accounts of meditative states in the Buddhist texts are in some regards free of dogma, so much so that the Buddhist scheme has been adopted by Western psychologists attempting to describe the phenomenon of meditation in general. However, it is exceedingly common to encounter the Buddha describing meditative states involving the attainment of such magical powers (Sanskrit ṛddhi, Pali iddhi) as the ability to multiply one's body into many and into one again, appear and vanish at will, pass through solid objects as if space, rise and sink in the ground as if in water, walking on water as if land, fly through the skies, touching anything at any distance (even the moon or sun), and travel to other worlds (like the world of Brahma) with or without the body, among other things, and for this reason the whole of the Buddhist tradition may not be adaptable to a secular context, unless these magical powers are seen as metaphorical representations of powerful internal states that conceptual descriptions could not do justice to.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
MAP2K2 MAP2K2: Dual specificity mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 2 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the MAP2K2 gene. It is more commonly known as MEK2, but has many alternative names including CFC4, MKK2, MAPKK2 and PRKMK2. Function: The protein encoded by this gene is a dual specificity protein kinase that belongs to the MAP kinase kinase family. This kinase is known to play a critical role in mitogen growth factor signal transduction. It phosphorylates and thus activates MAPK1/ERK2 and MAPK3/ERK1. The activation of this kinase itself is dependent on the Ser/Thr phosphorylation by MAP kinase kinase kinases. The inhibition or degradation of this kinase is found to be involved in the pathogenesis of Yersinia and anthrax. Interactions: MAP2K2 has been shown to interact with MAPK3 and ARAF.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Blind arcade Blind arcade: A blind arcade or blank arcade is an arcade (a series of arches) that has no actual openings and that is applied to the surface of a wall as a decorative element: i.e., the arches are not windows or openings but are part of the masonry face. It is designed as an ornamental architectural element and has no load-bearing function. Similar structures: Whereas a blind arch is usually a single arch or a series of joined arches as a frieze (sometimes called Lombard band), a blind arcade is composed of a series of arches that have well-defined columns in between its arches. A blind arcade may resemble several blind windows (false/blank windows or sealed-up windows) or blind niches that are side by side. Examples: Blind arcades are a common decorative features on the facades of Romanesque and Gothic buildings throughout Western Europe, and are also a common feature in Byzantine Orthodox churches in Eastern Europe, and in Armenian churches.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
ProtoShare ProtoShare: ProtoShare is a collaborative software tool from Astound Commerce, used for creating, reviewing, and refining website, mobile and web application prototypes. It enables individuals and companies to visualize project requirements by building website wireframes and application prototypes that team members and stakeholders can then review and comment on in real-time. ProtoShare is not a Flash tool; it uses HTML, CSS, and JavaScript. ProtoShare also helps development teams move from the waterfall method to the agile process through iterative development. It is available online as a SaaS (Software-as-a-Service) tool or as self-hosted for enterprise.ProtoShare allows prototyping of websites and web and mobile apps by enabling developers to create true interactive experiences with a drag-and-drop WYSIWYG interface. Development teams can create low-fidelity, clickable wireframes then evolve them into high-fidelity prototypes with the use of Rich Internet Application (RIA) functionality, such as state creation, the custom HTML component, and CSS styles. Team members and clients can then collaborate on its evolution with real-time comments, ideas, and decisions. Once the process of prototyping and collaboration is finished, the development team has a strong visual specification to follow, reducing misunderstandings and rework in the programming stages. The visual specification can be exported to a Microsoft Word doc, as an archived HTML site, or to a web URL. ProtoShare: ProtoShare is browser-based software, compatible with multiple operating systems. Internet Explorer 10, the latest Firefox, the latest Safari, and the latest Chrome browsers on both Windows and macOS are supported in the Review section of the tool, which is where collaborators interact with and comment on prototypes. Mobile prototypes can also be linked to a handheld mobile device's browser for app simulation. The build and edit functionality of ProtoShare, where developers create the prototypes, is supported by the latest Firefox, Safari, and Chrome browsers on Windows and macOS. ProtoShare: Main sections of a ProtoShare project: Review – to experience / walkthrough the site, make comments, respond to discussion, track decisions, and for user testing Editor – for page, wireframe and prototype creation, editing, and annotating Library – where project templates, masters, and project assets are centrally located Export – for selecting and exporting any part of a project into a Microsoft Word, HTML file, or web URL	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Ruthenium tetroxide Ruthenium tetroxide: Ruthenium tetroxide is the inorganic compound with the formula RuO4. It is a yellow volatile solid that melts near room temperature. It has the odor of ozone. Samples are typically black due to impurities. The analogous OsO4 is more widely used and better known. It is also the anhydride of hyperruthenic acid (H2RuO5). One of the few solvents in which RuO4 forms stable solutions is CCl4. Preparation: RuO4 is prepared by oxidation of ruthenium(III) chloride with NaIO4. 8 Ru3+(aq) + 5 IO4−(aq) + 12 H2O(l) → 8 RuO4(s) + 5 I−(aq) + 24 H+(aq)Due to its challenging reactivity, RuO4 it is always generated in situ and used in catalytic quantities, at least in organic reactions. Structure: RuO4 forms two crystal structures, one with cubic symmetry and another with monoclinic symmetry, isotypic to OsO4. The molecule adopts a tetrahedral geometry, with the Ru–O distances ranging from 169 to 170 pm. Uses: Isolation of ruthenium from ores The main commercial value of RuO4 is as an intermediate in the production of ruthenium compounds and metal from ores. Like other platinum group metals (PGMs), ruthenium occurs at low concentrations and often mixed with other PGMs. Together with OsO4, it is separated from other PGMs by distillation of a chlorine-oxidized extract. Ruthenium is separated from OsO4 by reducing RuO4 with hydrochloric acid, a process that exploits the highly positive reduction potential for the [RuO4]0/- couple. Uses: Organic chemistry RuO4 is of specialized value in organic chemistry because it oxidizes virtually any hydrocarbon. For example, it will oxidize adamantane to 1-adamantanol. Because it is such an aggressive oxidant, reaction conditions must be mild, generally room temperature. Although a strong oxidant, RuO4 oxidations do not perturb stereocenters that are not oxidized. Illustrative is the oxidation of the following diol to a carboxylic acid: Oxidation of epoxy alcohols also occurs without degradation of the epoxide ring: Under milder conditions, oxidative reaction yields aldehydes instead. RuO4 readily converts secondary alcohols into ketones. Although similar results can be achieved with other cheaper oxidants such as PCC- or DMSO-based oxidants, RuO4 is ideal when a very vigorous oxidant is needed, but mild conditions must be maintained. It is used in organic synthesis to oxidize internal alkynes to 1,2-diketones, and terminal alkynes along with primary alcohols to carboxylic acids. When used in this fashion, the ruthenium(VIII) oxide is used in catalytic amounts and regenerated by the addition of sodium periodate to ruthenium(III) chloride and a solvent mixture of acetonitrile, water and carbon tetrachloride. RuO4 readily cleaves double bonds to yield carbonyl products, in a manner similar to ozonolysis. OsO4, a more familiar oxidant that is structurally similar to RuO4, does not cleave double bonds, instead producing vicinal diol products. However, with short reaction times and carefully controlled conditions, RuO4 can also be used for dihydroxylation.Because RuO4 degrades the "double bonds" of arenes (especially electron-rich ones) by dihydroxylation and cleavage of the C-C bond in a way few other reagents can, it is useful as a "deprotection" reagent for carboxylic acids that are masked as aryl groups (typically phenyl or p-methoxyphenyl). Because the fragments formed are themselves readily oxidizable by RuO4, a substantial fraction of the arene carbon atoms undergo exhaustive oxidation to form carbon dioxide. Consequently, multiple equivalents of the terminal oxidant (often in excess of 10 equivalents per aryl ring) are required to achieve complete conversion to the carboxylic acid, limiting the practicality of the transformation. Uses: Although used as a direct oxidant, due to the relatively high cost of RuO4 it is also used catalytically with a cooxidant. For an oxidation of cyclic alcohols with RuO4 as a catalyst and bromate as oxidant under basic conditions, RuO4 is first activated by hydroxide, turning into the hyperruthenate anion: RuO4 + OH− → HRuO5−The reaction proceeds via a glycolate complex. Uses: Other uses Ruthenium tetroxide is a potential staining agent. It is used to expose latent fingerprints by turning to the brown/black ruthenium dioxide when in contact with fatty oils or fats contained in sebaceous contaminants of the print. Gaseous release by nuclear accidents: Because of the very high volatility of ruthenium tetroxide (RuO4) ruthenium radioactive isotopes with their relative short half-life are considered as the second most hazardous gaseous isotopes after iodine-131 in case of release by a nuclear accident. The two most important radioactive isotopes of ruthenium are 103Ru and 106Ru. They have half-lives of 39.6 days and 373.6 days, respectively.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Amalgamated Lace Operatives of America Amalgamated Lace Operatives of America: The Amalgamated Lace Operatives of America (ALOA) was a labor union representing workers involved in making items out of lace. Amalgamated Lace Operatives of America: The union was founded in Philadelphia in 1892, as the Chartered Society of Amalgamated Lace Curtain Operatives of America. On 28 November 1894, it received a charter from the American Federation of Labor (AFL). In about 1903, it shortened its name to become the ALOA, as it opened a new "lever section" for workers who operated other lace-making machinery. The union received a new AFL charter in 1912.In 1919, the AFL ordered the ALOA to merge into the United Textile Workers of America, but the ALOA refused and so was suspended from the federation at the end of the year. It continued on an independent basis, and by 1926 had about 1,600 members. At that time, it was affiliated to the Federated Textile Union, along with the International Spinners' Union, the American Federation of Textile Operatives, and the Tapestry Carpet Weavers.After World War II, the industry steadily declined, and with it, membership of the union. By 1983, the union had only 165 working members, and in 1992, it finally dissolved.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Complete Genomics Complete Genomics: Complete Genomics is a life sciences company that has developed and commercialized a DNA sequencing platform for human genome sequencing and analysis. This solution combines the company's proprietary human genome sequencing technology with its informatics and data management software to provide finished variant reports and assemblies at Complete Genomics’ own commercial genome center in Mountain View, California. History: Complete Genomics was founded in June 2005 by Clifford Reid, Radoje (Rade) Drmanac, and John Curson. Clifford Reid was the chairman, president and chief executive officer of Complete Genomics before leaving in 2015 to setup Genos, a spinoff of Complete Genomics' consumer division.In February 2009, Complete Genomics announced that it had sequenced its first human genome and submitted the resulting variant data to the National Center for Biotechnology Information database. Then, in November 2009, Complete Genomics published sequence data for three human genomes in the journal Science. By the end of 2009, Complete Genomics had sequenced 50 human genomes. To date, the company has sequenced more than 20,000 genomes. History: The resulting data has supported research in diverse areas such as screening of embryos, detection of genetic relationships, neurology, aging, a novel Mendelian disease with neuromuscular and cardiac involvement, eating disorders, Prader-Willi syndrome and autism, ophthalmology, and oncology. In 2014, a collaboration among Radboud University (The Netherlands), Maastricht University Medical Centre (The Netherlands), Central South University (China) and Complete Genomics identified major causes of intellectual disability using whole genome sequencing.In 2016, Complete Genomics contributed over 184 phased human genomes to George Church's Personal Genome Project. In 2019, they published on their new single-tube long fragment read (stLFR) technology, enabling construction of long DNA molecules from short reads using a combinatorial process of DNA barcoding. This enables phasing, SV detection, scaffolding, and cost-effective diploid de novo genome assembly, from second generation sequencing technology.In March 2013 Complete Genomics was acquired by BGI Group, a genomics services company in Shenzhen, Guangdong, China. After the acquisition Complete Genomics moved to San Jose, and in June 2018 become part of MGI. MGI was a subsidiary of BGI Group before, it was spun out and listed on the Shanghai stock exchange in 2022. Technology platform: Complete Genomics’ proprietary human genome sequencing technology is optimized for the exclusive study of human DNA, providing assembled sequences and variation files. The technology relies on DNA nanoball sequencing, which assembles short sequences of DNA into a full genome. It is designed to use lower volumes and concentrations of reagents than existing systems, and have large numbers of base reads per image.In 2023,Complete Genomics launched a new line of genetic sequencers DNBSEQ-T20, designed to decode DNA in greater quantities – and at a lower price point – than existing sequencing tools. The new products could signal a new era of more affordable testing, leading to wider availability and the potential to fulfill the long-desired promise of precision medicine. While the new platform — with its promise of sub-$100 human genomes — may sound enticing to those striving for lower sequencing costs, with limited performance data available and a requirement for ultra-high throughput, it remains to be seen how the instrument will resonate with the broader genomics community.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Enthesopathy Enthesopathy: An enthesopathy refers to a disorder involving the attachment of a tendon or ligament to a bone. This site of attachment is known as the enthesis (pl. entheses). If the condition is known to be inflammatory, it can more precisely be called an enthesitis. Forms: Enthesopathy can occur at the shoulder, elbow, wrist, carpus, hip, knee, ankle, tarsus, or heel bone, among other regions. Enthesopathies may take the form of spondyloarthropathies (joint diseases of the spine) such as ankylosing spondylitis, plantar fasciitis, and Achilles tendinitis. Further examples include: Adhesive capsulitis of shoulder Rotator cuff syndrome of shoulder and allied disorders Periarthritis of shoulder Scapulohumeral fibrositis Synovitis of hand or wrist Periarthritis of wrist Gluteal tendinitis Iliac crest spur Psoas tendinitis Trochanteric tendinitis Causes: Generalized involvement of the entheses with calcification of tendon and ligament insertions and of joint capsules has been found for example in people with X-linked hypophosphatemic rickets. Diagnosis: Mainly by clinical examination and provocative tests by counter acting the muscle action. Treatment: The natural history of the two most common enthesopathies (plantar fasciitis and lateral epicondylitis-both mislabeled as inflammatory) is resolution over a period of about 1 year without treatment. There are no known disease-modifying treatments for these enthesopathies. In other words, there is no experimental evidence that any treatment can alter the pathophysiology (mucoid degeneration) or the duration of symptoms. There is no evidence that activity modification alters the natural history of the disease. Treatment: To date, all treatments are palliative. The evidence suggests that most treatments have non-specific effects (e.g. placebo effect, regression to the mean, self-limiting course of symptoms). Treatment: Injection of corticosteroid, platelet-rich plasma, or stem cells are examples of treatments that are not supported by experimental evidence and remain open to debate. Extracorporeal shockwave therapy is also in that category. Palliative treatments consist of stretching, analgesics, and padding (e.g. cushioned foot wear for plantar fasciitis), splints (e.g. tennis elbow strap), and other treatments. The concept that a calcified attachment can be removed surgically is highly debatable as these calcifications are a regular part of an enthesopathy.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Scheffé's method Scheffé's method: In statistics, Scheffé's method, named after the American statistician Henry Scheffé, is a method for adjusting significance levels in a linear regression analysis to account for multiple comparisons. It is particularly useful in analysis of variance (a special case of regression analysis), and in constructing simultaneous confidence bands for regressions involving basis functions. Scheffé's method is a single-step multiple comparison procedure which applies to the set of estimates of all possible contrasts among the factor level means, not just the pairwise differences considered by the Tukey–Kramer method. It works on similar principles as the Working–Hotelling procedure for estimating mean responses in regression, which applies to the set of all possible factor levels. The method: Let μ1, ..., μr be the means of some variable in r disjoint populations. An arbitrary contrast is defined by C=∑i=1rciμi where 0. If μ1, ..., μr are all equal to each other, then all contrasts among them are 0. Otherwise, some contrasts differ from 0. The method: Technically there are infinitely many contrasts. The simultaneous confidence coefficient is exactly 1 − α, whether the factor level sample sizes are equal or unequal. (Usually only a finite number of comparisons are of interest. In this case, Scheffé's method is typically quite conservative, and the family-wise error rate (experimental error rate) will generally be much smaller than α.)We estimate C by C^=∑i=1rciY¯i for which the estimated variance is sC^2=σ^e2∑i=1rci2ni, where ni is the size of the sample taken from the ith population (the one whose mean is μi), and σ^e2 is the estimated variance of the errors.It can be shown that the probability is 1 − α that all confidence limits of the type C^±sC^(r−1)Fα;r−1;N−r are simultaneously correct, where as usual N is the size of the whole population. Draper and Smith, in their 'Applied Regression Analysis' (see references), indicate that 'r' should be in the equation in place of 'r-1'. The slip with 'r-1' is a result of failing to allow for the additional effect of the constant term in many regressions. That the result based on 'r-1' is wrong is readily seen by considering r = 2, as in a standard simple linear regression. That formula would then reduce to one with the usual t distribution, which is appropriate for predicting/estimating for a single value of the independent variable, not for constructing a confidence band for a range of values of the independent value. Also note that the formula is for dealing with the mean values for a range of independent values, not for comparing with individual values such as individual observed data values. Denoting Scheffé significance in a table: Frequently, superscript letters are used to indicate which values are significantly different using the Scheffé method. For example, when mean values of variables that have been analyzed using an ANOVA are presented in a table, they are assigned a different letter superscript based on a Scheffé contrast. Values that are not significantly different based on the post-hoc Scheffé contrast will have the same superscript and values that are significantly different will have different superscripts (i.e. 15a, 17a, 34b would mean that the first and second variables both differ from the third variable but not each other because they are both assigned the superscript "a"). Comparison with the Tukey–Kramer method: If only a fixed number of pairwise comparisons are to be made, the Tukey–Kramer method will result in a more precise confidence interval. In the general case when many or all contrasts might be of interest, the Scheffé method is more appropriate and will give narrower confidence intervals in the case of a large number of comparisons.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
MN103 MN103: The MN103 (also called MN10300 or AM33) is a 32-bit microprocessor series developed by Matsushita Electric Industrial, now Panasonic Corporation. Most variants include a media processor, working as an image processor or video processor. It is used in digital cameras, set-top boxes and DVD players. It was supported by the Linux kernel from version 2.6.25 until version 4.16.It was also supported by Windows CE.A newer, enhanced version is the MN103S.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
NPT Places: Newport State Airport (IATA airport code NPT), Middletown, Rhode Island, USA Northville-Placid Trail, New York State, USA Neath Port Talbot (npt.gov.uk), Wales, UK Law: Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, since 1970 Neighbourhood Policing Team, UK Groups, Companies, Organizations: Nashville Public Television, or WNPT, a PBS member station licensed to Nashville, Tennessee National Philanthropic Trust, offering donor-advised funds The NonProfit Times, Morris Plains, New Jersey, USA; a newspaper West Atlantic UK (ICAO airline code NPT), British cargo airline Science and medicine: NpT ensemble or isothermal–isobaric ensemble Nasal provocation test Neonatal pediatric transport; see Certified in neonatal pediatric transport Nocturnal penile tumescence Normalization process theory Technology: National pipe thread, US standards Nissan NPT-90, a racing car Non-pneumatic tire or airless tire Electronics and computing National Periodic Test, a test of the U.S. Emergency Alert System Nested Page Tables, later Rapid Virtualization Indexing, an AMD technology IPv6-to-IPv6 Network Prefix Translation (NPTv6)	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Perl Compatible Regular Expressions Perl Compatible Regular Expressions: Perl Compatible Regular Expressions (PCRE) is a library written in C, which implements a regular expression engine, inspired by the capabilities of the Perl programming language. Philip Hazel started writing PCRE in summer 1997. PCRE's syntax is much more powerful and flexible than either of the POSIX regular expression flavors (BRE, ERE) and than that of many other regular-expression libraries. Perl Compatible Regular Expressions: While PCRE originally aimed at feature-equivalence with Perl, the two implementations are not fully equivalent. During the PCRE 7.x and Perl 5.9.x phase, the two projects coordinated development, with features being ported between them in both directions.In 2015, a fork of PCRE was released with a revised programming interface (API). The original software, now called PCRE1 (the 1.xx–8.xx series), has had bugs mended, but no further development. As of 2020, it is considered obsolete, and the current 8.45 release is likely to be the last. The new PCRE2 code (the 10.xx series) has had a number of extensions and coding improvements and is where development takes place. Perl Compatible Regular Expressions: A number of prominent open-source programs, such as the Apache and Nginx HTTP servers, and the PHP and R scripting languages, incorporate the PCRE library; proprietary software can do likewise, as the library is BSD-licensed. As of Perl 5.10, PCRE is also available as a replacement for Perl's default regular-expression engine through the re::engine::PCRE module. The library can be built on Unix, Windows, and several other environments. PCRE2 is distributed with a POSIX C wrapper, several test programs, and the utility program pcre2grep that is built in tandem with the library. Features: Just-in-time compiler support This optional feature is available if enabled when the PCRE2 library is built. Large performance benefits are possible when (for example) the calling program utilizes the feature with compatible patterns that are executed repeatedly. The just-in-time compiler support was written by Zoltan Herczeg and is not addressed in the POSIX wrapper. Features: Flexible memory management The use of the system stack for backtracking can be problematic in PCRE1, which is why this feature of the implementation was changed in PCRE2. The heap is now used for this purpose, and the total amount can be limited. The problem of stack overflow, which came up regularly with PCRE1, is no longer an issue with PCRE2 from release 10.30 (2017). Features: Consistent escaping rules Like Perl, PCRE2 has consistent escaping rules: any non-alpha-numeric character may be escaped to mean its literal value by prefixing a \ (backslash) before the character. Any alpha-numeric character preceded by a backslash typically gives it a special meaning. In the case where the sequence has not been defined to be special, an error occurs. This is different to Perl, which gives an error only if it is in warning mode (PCRE2 does not have a warning mode). In basic POSIX regular expressions, sometimes backslashes escaped non-alpha-numerics (e.g. \.), and sometimes they introduced a special feature (e.g. ). Features: Extended character classes Single-letter character classes are supported in addition to the longer POSIX names. For example, \d matches any digit exactly as [[:digit:]] would in POSIX regular expressions. Minimal matching (a.k.a. "ungreedy") A ? may be placed after any repetition quantifier to indicate that the shortest match should be used. The default is to attempt the longest match first and backtrack through shorter matches: e.g. a.?b would match first "ab" in "ababab", where a.b would match the entire string. If the U flag is set, then quantifiers are ungreedy (lazy) by default, while ? makes them greedy. Features: Unicode character properties Unicode defines several properties for each character. Patterns in PCRE2 can match these properties: e.g. \p{Ps}.?\p{Pe} would match a string beginning with any "opening punctuation" and ending with any "close punctuation" such as [abc]. Matching of certain "normal" metacharacters can be driven by Unicode properties when the compile option PCRE2_UCP is set. The option can be set for a pattern by including (UCP) at the start of pattern. The option alters behavior of the following metacharacters: \B, \b, \D, \d, \S, \s, \W, \w, and some of the POSIX character classes. For example, the set of characters matched by \w (word characters) is expanded to include letters and accented letters as defined by Unicode properties. Such matching is slower than the normal (ASCII-only) non-UCP alternative. Note that the UCP option requires the library to have been built to include Unicode support (this is the default for PCRE2). Very early versions of PCRE1 supported only ASCII code. Later, UTF-8 support was added. Support for UTF-16 was added in version 8.30, and support for UTF-32 in version 8.32. PCRE2 has always supported all three UTF encodings. Features: Multiline matching ^ and $ can match at the beginning and end of a string only, or at the start and end of each "line" within the string, depending on what options are set. Features: Newline/linebreak options When PCRE is compiled, a newline default is selected. Which newline/linebreak is in effect affects where PCRE detects ^ line beginnings and $ ends (in multiline mode), as well as what matches dot (regardless of multiline mode, unless the dotall option (?s) is set). It also affects PCRE matching procedure (since version 7.0): when an unanchored pattern fails to match at the start of a newline sequence, PCRE advances past the entire newline sequence before retrying the match. If the newline option alternative in effect includes CRLF as one of the valid linebreaks, it does not skip the \n in a CRLF if the pattern contains specific \r or \n references (since version 7.3). Since version 8.10, the metacharacter \N always matches any character other than linebreak characters. It has the same behavior as . when the dotall option aka (?s) is not in effect. Features: The newline option can be altered with external options when PCRE is compiled and when it is run. Some applications using PCRE provide users with the means to apply this setting through an external option. So the newline option can also be stated at the start of the pattern using one of the following: (LF) Newline is a linefeed character. Corresponding linebreaks can be matched with \n. Features: (CR) Newline is a carriage return. Corresponding linebreaks can be matched with \r. (CRLF) Newline/linebreak is a carriage return followed by a linefeed. Corresponding linebreaks can be matched with \r\n. (ANYCRLF) Any of the above encountered in the data will trigger newline processing. Corresponding linebreaks can be matched with (?:\r\n?\|\n) or with \R. See below for configuration and options concerning what matches backslash-R. (ANY) Any of the above plus special Unicode linebreaks.When not in UTF-8 mode, corresponding linebreaks can be matched with (?:\r\n?\|\n\|\x0B\|\f\|\x85) or \R. In UTF-8 mode, two additional characters are recognized as line breaks with (ANY): LS (line separator, U+2028), PS (paragraph separator, U+2029).On Windows, in non-Unicode data, some of the ANY linebreak characters have other meanings. For example, \x85 can match a horizontal ellipsis, and if encountered while the ANY newline is in effect, it would trigger newline processing. See below for configuration and options concerning what matches backslash-R. Features: Backslash-R options When PCRE is compiled, a default is selected for what matches \R. The default can be either to match the linebreaks corresponding to ANYCRLF or those corresponding to ANY. The default can be overridden when necessary by including (BSR_UNICODE) or (BSR_ANYCRLF) at the start of the pattern. When providing a (BSR..) option, you can also provide a (newline) option, e.g., (BSR_UNICODE)(ANY)rest-of-pattern. The backslash-R options also can be changed with external options by the application calling PCRE2, when a pattern is compiled. Features: Beginning of pattern options Linebreak options such as (LF) documented above; backslash-R options such as (BSR_ANYCRLF) documented above; Unicode Character Properties option (UCP) documented above; (UTF8) option documented as follows: if your PCRE2 library has been compiled with UTF support, you can specify the (UTF) option at the beginning of a pattern instead of setting an external option to invoke UTF-8, UTF-16, or UTF-32 mode. Features: Backreferences A pattern may refer back to the results of a previous match. For example, (a\|b)c\1 would match either "aca" or "bcb" and would not match, for example, "acb". Named subpatterns A sub-pattern (surrounded by parentheses, like (...)) may be named by including a leading ?P<name> after the opening parenthesis. Named subpatterns are a feature that PCRE adopted from Python regular expressions. This feature was subsequently adopted by Perl, so now named groups can also be defined using (?<name>...) or (?'name'...), as well as (?P<name>...). Named groups can be backreferenced with, for example: (?P=name) (Python syntax) or \k'name' (Perl syntax). Features: Subroutines While a backreference provides a mechanism to refer to that part of the subject that has previously matched a subpattern, a subroutine provides a mechanism to reuse an underlying previously defined subpattern. The subpattern's options, such as case independence, are fixed when the subpattern is defined. (a.c)(?1) would match "aacabc" or "abcadc", whereas using a backreference (a.c)\1 would not, though both would match "aacaac" or "abcabc". PCRE also supports a non-Perl Oniguruma construct for subroutines. They are specified using \g<subpat-number> or \g<subpat-name>. Features: Atomic grouping Atomic grouping is a way of preventing backtracking in a pattern. For example, a++bc will match as many "a"s as possible and never back up to try one less. Look-ahead and look-behind assertions Patterns may assert that previous text or subsequent text contains a pattern without consuming matched text (zero-width assertion). For example, /\w+(?=\t)/ matches a word followed by a tab, without including the tab itself. Look-behind assertions cannot be of uncertain length though (unlike Perl) each branch can be a different fixed length. \K can be used in a pattern to reset the start of the current whole match. This provides a flexible alternative approach to look-behind assertions because the discarded part of the match (the part that precedes \K) need not be fixed in length. Escape sequences for zero-width assertions E.g. \b for matching zero-width "word boundaries", similar to (?<=\W)(?=\w)\|(?<=\w)(?=\W)\|^\|$. Comments A comment begins with (?# and ends at the next closing parenthesis. Recursive patterns A pattern can refer back to itself recursively or to any subpattern. For example, the pattern $(a\|(?R))$ will match any combination of balanced parentheses and "a"s. Generic callouts PCRE expressions can embed (?Cn), where n is some number. This will call out to an external user-defined function through the PCRE API and can be used to embed arbitrary code in a pattern. Differences from Perl: Differences between PCRE2 and Perl (as of Perl 5.9.4) include but are not limited to: Until release 10.30 recursive matches were atomic in PCRE and non atomic in Perl This meant that "<<!>!>!>><>>!>!>!>" =~ /^(<(?:[^<>]+\|(?3)\|(?1))>)()(!>!>!>)$/ would match in Perl but not in PCRE2 until release 10.30. The value of a capture buffer deriving from the ? quantifier (match 1 or 0 times) when nested in another quantified capture buffer is different In Perl "aba" =~ /^(a(b)?)+$/; will result in $1 containing "a" and $2 containing undef, but in PCRE will result in $2 containing "b". PCRE allows named capture buffers to be given numeric names; Perl requires the name to follow the rule of barewords This means that \g{} is unambiguous in Perl, but potentially ambiguous in PCRE. This is no longer a difference since PCRE 8.34 (released on 2013-12-15), which no longer allows group names to start with a digit. PCRE allows alternatives within lookbehind to be different lengths Within lookbehind assertions, both PCRE and Perl require fixed-length patterns. That is, both PCRE and Perl disallow variable-length patterns using quantifiers within lookbehind assertions. However, Perl requires all alternative branches of a lookbehind assertion to be the same length as each other, whereas PCRE allows those alternative branches to have different lengths from each other as long as each branch still has a fixed length. PCRE does not support certain "experimental" Perl constructs Such as (??{...}) (a callback whose return is evaluated as being part of the pattern) nor the (?{}) construct, although the latter can be emulated using (?Cn). Recursion control verbs added in the Perl 5.9.x series are also not supported. Support for experimental backtracking control verbs (added in Perl 5.10) is available in PCRE since version 7.3. They are (FAIL), (F), (PRUNE), (SKIP), (THEN), (COMMIT), and (ACCEPT). Perl's corresponding use of arguments with backtracking control verbs is not generally supported. Note however that since version 8.10, PCRE supports the following verbs with a specified argument: (MARK:markName), (SKIP:markName), (PRUNE:markName), and (THEN:markName). Since version 10.32 PCRE2 has supported (ACCEPT:markName), (FAIL:markName), and (COMMIT:markName). PCRE and Perl are slightly different in their tolerance of erroneous constructs Perl allows quantifiers on the (?!...) construct, which is meaningless but harmless (albeit inefficient); PCRE produces an error in versions before 8.13. PCRE has a hard limit on recursion depth, Perl does not With default build options "bbbbXcXaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa" =~ /.X(.+)+X/ will fail to match due to the limit, but Perl will match this correctly. Perl uses the heap for recursion and has no hard limit for recursion depth, whereas PCRE2 has a compile-time default limit that can be adjusted up or down by the calling application. Verification With the exception of the above points, PCRE is capable of passing the tests in the Perl "t/op/re_tests" file, one of the main syntax-level regression tests for Perl's regular expression engine.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Hemoglobin H disease Hemoglobin H disease: Hemoglobin H (Hb H) Disease, also called alpha-thalassemia intermedia, is a disease affecting hemoglobin, the oxygen carrying molecule within red blood cells. It is a form of Alpha-thalassemia which most commonly occurs due to deletion of 3 out of 4 of the α-globin genes. Pathophysiology: Hemoglobin H disease is a genetic disorder resulting in absent or impaired production of the α-globin protein, a normal component of the hemoglobin. The disease occurs when the α-globin gene expression is reduced to less than 30% of the normal expression. In a healthy individual there are four copies of the gene which encode the alpha-globin protein. Alpha-globin is encoded by the HBA1 (2 copies) and HBA2 (2 copies) genes. The genotype of healthy individuals with four normal copies of α-globin is annotated as αα/αα. In individuals with deletional Hb H disease, there is deletion of three of the four α-globin alleles, which is annotated as --/-α. Non-deletional Hb H disease refers to a decreased alpha-globin that has not occurred as a result of the complete deletion of the DNA sequences encoding HBA1 and HBA2, and this is more rare than the deletional type.The most common hemoglobin found within adult red blood cells is Hemoglobin A. The structure of Hb A consists of two α-globin chains bound to two β-globin chains to form a tetramer (a protein made up four protein chains). When there is lower than normal production of α-globin, as in Hb H disease, the excess β-globin form β4-tetramers, termed Hemoglobin H. These β4-tetramers accumulate in red blood cells and precipitate to form Hb H inclusion bodies. The inclusion bodies in the mature red blood cells are removed by the spleen and this results in an early destruction of these red blood cells. This destruction of red blood cells by the spleen is termed extravascular hemolysis. Hemoglobin F is the predominant for in the fetus and it also contains α-globin, thus, in severe cases the disease can affect fetal development. Epidemiology: The prevalence of Hemoglobin H disease mirrors that of the hemoglobinopathies. As a whole, they are most prevalent in individuals of Asian, African, and Mediterranean decent. There is a protective effect against malaria for individuals carrying thalassemia genes, which explains the high frequency of thalassemia within the worldwide population. Clinical Presentation: Patients with Hemoglobin H Disease present with chronic hemolytic anemia that ranges in severity form mild to moderate disease. Anemia is the most common presenting symptom of patients with Hb H disease . Other common clinical features include jaundice, splenomegaly, hepatomegaly, and gallstones. All of these symptoms are related to the destruction of the red blood cells in the spleen and the associated increased hemoglobin metabolism. Patients with non-deletional Hb H disease are more likely to be symptomatic and have severe disease presentation when compared to individuals with deletional Hb H disease. Disease presentation varies from asymptomatic individuals to neonatal growth retardation and death in the most severe cases. Death in the neonatal period occurs due to the severe anemia resulting in Hydrops Fetalis.Patients most often present initially due to hemolytic episodes that occur during times of infection or inflammation. During these episodes, patients may develop hemolytic crisis, in which there is a rapid drop in the hemoglobin due to increased red blood cell destruction. Diagnosis: Hemoglobin analysis, with tests such as high-performance liquid chromatography, along with genetic testing are required for the confirmation of Hb H disease. Patients may also laboratory abnormalities indicative of low red blood cells, including changes in hemoglobin, red cell distribution width, hematocrit, mean corpuscular hemoglobin, and mean corpuscular volume. A peripheral blood smear stained with brilliant cresyl blue will show inclusion bodies within the red blood cells. Treatment: Due to the fact that Hb H disease does not commonly present with severe anemia, all patients do not require treatment or intervention. Some patients may require folic acid supplementation due to the increased turnover of red blood cells. In cases of hemolytic crisis, patients are treated with a blood transfusion and treatment of the underlying cause. In severe cases, regular blood transfuions may be needed, and these patients should be monitored for development of iron overload. For these severe cases, stem cell transplantation can be curative.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Striation (fatigue) Striation (fatigue): Striations are marks produced on the fracture surface that show the incremental growth of a fatigue crack. A striation marks the position of the crack tip at the time it was made. The term striation generally refers to ductile striations which are rounded bands on the fracture surface separated by depressions or fissures and can have the same appearance on both sides of the mating surfaces of the fatigue crack. Although some research has suggested that many loading cycles are required to form a single striation, it is now generally thought that each striation is the result of a single loading cycle.The presence of striations is used in failure analysis as an indication that a fatigue crack has been growing. Striations are generally not seen when a crack is small even though it is growing by fatigue, but will begin to appear as the crack becomes larger. Not all periodic marks on the fracture surface are striations. The size of a striation for a particular material is typically related to the magnitude of the loading characterised by stress intensity factor range, the mean stress and the environment. The width of a striation is indicative of the overall crack growth rate but can be locally faster or slower on the fracture surface. Striation features: The study of the fracture surface is known as fractography. Images of the crack can be used to reveal features and understand the mechanisms of crack growth. While striations are fairly straight, they tend to curve at the ends allowing the direction of crack growth to be determined from an image. Striations generally form at different levels in metals and are separated by a tear band between them. Tear bands are approximately parallel to the direction of crack growth and produce what is known as a river pattern, so called, because it looks like the diverging pattern seen with river flows. The source of the river pattern converges to a single point that is typically the origin of the fatigue failure.Striations can appear on both sides of the mating fracture surface. There is some dispute as to whether striations produced on both sides of the fracture surface match peak-to-peak or peak-to-valley. The shape of striations may also be different on each side of the fracture surface. Striations do not occur uniformly over all of the fracture surface and many areas of a fatigue crack may be devoid of striations. Striations are most often observed in metals but also occur in plastics such as Poly(methyl_methacrylate).Small striations can be seen with the aid of a scanning electron microscope. Once the size of a striation is over 500 nm (resolving wavelength of light), they can be seen with an optical microscope. The first image of striations was taken by Zapffe and Worden in 1951 using an optical microscope.The width of a striation indicates the local rate of crack growth and is typical of the overall rate of growth over the fracture surface. The rate of growth can be predicted with a crack growth equation such as the Paris-Erdogan equation. Defects such as inclusions and grain boundaries may locally slow down the rate of growth. Variable amplitude loads produce striations of different widths and the study of these striation patterns has been used to understand fatigue. Although various cycle counting methods can be used to extract the equivalent constant amplitude cycles from a variable amplitude sequence, the striation pattern differs from the cycles extracted using the rainflow counting method. The height of a striation has been related to the stress ratio R of the applied loading cycle, where min max and is thus a function of the minimum min and maximum max stress intensity of the applied loading cycle.The striation profile depends on the degree of loading and unloading in each cycle. The unloading part of the cycle causing plastic deformation on the surface of the striation. Crack extension only occurs from the rising part of the load cycle. Striation-like features: Other periodic marks on the fracture surface can be mistaken for striations. Striation-like features: Marker bands Variable amplitude loading causes cracks to change the plane of growth and this effect can be used to create marker bands on the fracture surface. When a number of constant amplitude cycles are applied they may produce a plateau of growth on the fracture surface. Marker bands (also known as progression marks or beach marks) may be produced and readily identified on the fracture surface even though the magnitude of the loads may too small to produce individual striations.In addition, marker bands may also be produced by large loads (also known as overloads) producing a region of fast fracture on the crack surface. Fast fracture can produce a region of rapid extension before blunting of the crack tip stops the growth and further growth occurs during fatigue. Fast fracture occurs through a process of microvoid coalescence where failures initiate around inter-metallic particles. The F111 aircraft was subjected to periodic proof testing to ensure any cracks present were smaller than a certain critical size. These loads left marks on the fracture surface that could be identified, allowing the rate of intermediate growth occurring in service to be measured.Marks also occur from a change in the environment where oil or corrosive environments can deposit or from excessive heat exposure and colour the fracture surface up to the current position of the crack tip.Marker bands may be used to measure the instantaneous rate of growth of the applied loading cycles. By applying a repeated sequence separated by loads that produce a distinctive pattern the growth from each segment of loading can be measured using a microscope in a technique called quantitative fractography, the rate of growth for loading segments of constant amplitude or variable amplitude loading can be directly measured from the fracture surface. Striation-like features: Tyre tracks Tyre tracks are the marks on the fracture surface produced by something making an impression onto the surface from the repeated opening and closing of the crack faces. This can be produced by either a particle that becomes trapped between the crack faces or the faces themselves shifting and directly contacting the opposite surface. Striation-like features: Coarse striations Coarse striations are a general rumpling of the fracture surface and do not correspond to a single loading cycle and are therefore not considered to be true striations. They are produced instead of regular striations when there is insufficient atmospheric moisture to form hydrogen on the surface of the crack tip in aluminium alloys, thereby preventing the slip planes activation. The wrinkles in the surface cross over and so do not represent the position of the crack tip. Striation formation in aluminium: Environmental influence Striations are often produced in high strength aluminium alloys. In these alloys, the presence of water vapour is necessary to produce ductile striations, although too much water vapour will produce brittle striations also known as cleavage striations. Brittle striations are flatter and larger than ductile striations produced with the same load. There is sufficient water vapour present in the atmosphere to generate ductile striations. Cracks growing internally are isolated from the atmosphere and grow in a vacuum. When water vapour deposits onto the freshly exposed aluminium fracture surface, it dissociates into hydroxides and atomic hydrogen. Hydrogen interacts with the crack tip affecting the appearance and size of the striations. The growth rate increases typically by an order of magnitude, with the presence of water vapour. The mechanism is thought to be hydrogen embrittlement as a result of hydrogen being absorbed into the plastic zone at the crack tip.When an internal crack breaks through to the surface, the rate of crack growth and the fracture surface appearance will change due to the presence of water vapour. Coarse striations occur when a fatigue crack grows in a vacuum such as when growing from an internal flaw. Striation formation in aluminium: Cracking plane In aluminium (a face-centred cubic material), cracks grow close to low index planes such as the {100} and the {110} planes (see Miller Index). Both of these planes bisect a pair of slip planes. Crack growth involving a single slip plane is term Stage I growth and crack growth involving two slip planes is termed Stage II growth. Striations are typically only observed in Stage II growth. Striation formation in aluminium: Brittle striations are typically formed on {100} planes. Models of striation formation: There have been many models developed to explain the process of how a striation is formed and their resultant shape. Some of the significant models are: Plastic blunting model of Laird Saw-tooth model of McMillan and Pelloux Coarse slip model of Neumman Shear band model by Zhang	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
El Viento El Viento: El Viento (エル・ヴィエント, Eru Viento, from Spanish meaning "The Wind") is a platform game developed and published by Wolf Team for the Sega Genesis game console in 1991. It is the first in a trilogy of games, which includes Earnest Evans and Anett Futatabi. Gameplay: El Viento is a platform game. The player has access to an endless supply of bladed boomerangs and eventually up to five spell attacks. Each level ends in a fight against a stage boss. Plot: The game shares the same fictional universe with Earnest Evans, and happens several years later. It also features many references to H. P. Lovecraft's Cthulhu Mythos. The game takes place in New York City during the late 1920s, when cult leader Henry, the gangster Al Capone (Vincente DeMarcoto in the American localization), and a sorceress named Restiana plot to awaken the ancient and malevolent god Hastur. There are some people that have descended from Hastur's ancient bloodline, one of which is the young Peruvian sorceress, Annet Myer. With some assistance from Earnest Evans, Annet attempts to stop the cult from resurrecting Hastur using the very spells of this bloodline. Reception: El Viento was given mixed but mostly positive reviews, including being rated 93% by Joystick in France, 66% by Super Play, and 68% by Video Games in Germany. Damian Butt from Sega Pro gave it a score of 89%: "With super fast graphics and brutal gameplay, El Viento will take your breath away." On the other hand, Entertainment Weekly gave it a D−, opining that "only the game's amusing historical anachronisms-like denim-clad blond bikers wielding scimitars-save it from rating as a total failure."Retrospectively, Rodger Swan from Sega-16 gave this "great and challenging action game" an 8 out of 10 in spite of being at times "far too difficult," stating: "It may not have as pretty graphics or music as the Valis titles, but it has some really fast game play that gets players in the mood for action. This is a game that I encourage all action fans to pick up, and fans of Valis will appreciate the sense of speed!" According to Kurt Kalata of Hardcore Gaming 101, "overall, it's a bit of a sloppy game, with haphazard action and iffy level design, but the fast pace and overall craziness make this worth looking into, especially since it's one of Wolf Team's better titles."	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Current Pharmaceutical Design Current Pharmaceutical Design: Current Pharmaceutical Design is a peer-reviewed medical journal which covers issues related to pharmacology and medicinal chemistry. Each issue is devoted to a single major therapeutic area. For each issue, an executive editor is chosen who is an acknowledged authority in that field. The Journal is published by Bentham Science Publishers, which have faced criticism due to potentially predatory publishing tactics. Abstracting and indexing: Current Pharmaceutical Design is abstracted and indexed in: According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2019 impact factor of 2.208.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
TCF/LEF family TCF/LEF family: The TCF/LEF family (T cell factor/lymphoid enhancer factor family) is a group of genes that encode transcription factors which bind to DNA through a SOX-like high mobility group domain. They are involved in the Wnt signaling pathway, particularly during embryonic and stem-cell development, but also had been found to play a role in cancer and diabetes. TCF/LEF factors recruit the coactivator beta-catenin to enhancer elements of genes they target. They can also recruit members of the Groucho family of corepressors. History: The discovery of the TCF/LEF genes as nuclear Wnt pathway components in the 90s was a pivotal breakthrough for the Wnt signalling research field, plugging an important knowledge gap and enabling subsequent understanding of transcriptional regulation of Wnt target genes, particularly in embryonic development and cancer. Before this discovery it was only known that upstream Wnt signalling mechanisms regulated the cytoplasmic abundance of the beta-catenin protein, which as a consequence translocated into the cell nucleus. However, since the protein structure of beta-catenin did not reveal any DNA-binding domain, it was still unclear how nuclear beta-catenin could regulate Wnt target genes. History: Following the discovery, a model was established whereby Wnt signalling-regulated beta-catenin in the nucleus attaches to TCF/LEF DNA binding proteins, which recognise the DNA consensus sequence around the core 'CTTTG', called Wnt Response Element (WRE).This rule that beta-catenin-TCF interaction on DNA regulates Wnt target gene expression, has nonetheless been broken by examples of Wnt- and beta-catenin-independent functions for TCF/LEF proteins (for instance in zebrafish CNS development) and functional association of Wnt-regulated beta-catenin with other DNA-binding transcription factors such as SOX, FOXO, TBX. Then again, this beta-catenin-TCF interaction on DNA is now revealed as but the core of much larger protein complexes regulating transcription, called the Wnt enhanceosomes. Conversely, additional mechanisms regulating TCF/LEF protein function have been discovered, such as phosphorylation and sumoylation. Structure: The structure and function of TCF/LEF proteins explains this bimodal function. TCF/LEF genes encode proteins with an elaborate structure that can however be summarised by considering four main domains: N-terminal domain: mediating interaction with beta-catenin, which is highly conserved and mediates the transcriptional activator function. Control region: includes sequences regulating and mediating the transcriptional repressor function and encoding a transcriptional repressor binding domain for the Groucho family. DNA-binding domain: includes a very highly conserved HMG (High Mobility Group) DNA-binding domain and the NLS (nuclear localisation sequence). Structure: C-terminal tail: may contain an additional DNA-binding domain and an additional transcriptional repressor binding domain.Diversity in TCF/LEF protein structure and function comes from having different genes. Humans and jawed vertebrates generally have four genes encoding TCF/LEF proteins: TCF7 (also called TCF1) LEF1 (also called TCF1α) TCF7L1 (also called TCF3) TCF7L2 (also called TCF4)Further diversity comes from expression from the same gene of alternative transcripts encoding different protein isoforms, particularly from the TCF7 and TCF7L2 genes: There are isoforms expressed from secondary promoters that encode proteins that lack the usual N-terminus and therefore specifically the beta-catenin binding domain (see above). These protein isoforms function not as bimodal transcription factors but as constitutive repressors, and they are refractory to upstream Wnt signalling regulation. Structure: There are isoforms from alternative splicing in the part of the transcript encoding the control region, which influence the propensity of the encoded protein isoforms to act as transcriptional repressors (without beta-catenin) or transcriptional activators (with beta-catenin). There are isoforms from alternative splicing in the part of the transcript encoding the C-terminal tail resulting in protein isoforms with and without the additional DNA-binding domain and resulting in changing the reading frame in which the last exon is translated with or without an additional transcriptional co-repressor binding domain. Function: TCF/LEF proteins function as bimodal transcription factors: As described, TCF/LEF proteins act as transcriptional activators in association with nuclear beta-catenin (and transcriptional co-activators attached to beta-catenin); but without beta-catenin, TCF/LEF proteins function as transcriptional repressors (attached to transcriptional co-repressors members of the Groucho family).Thus, as a consequence, Wnt target genes are actively repressed in the absence of Wnt signalling activity, then activated when Wnt signalling actively drives beta-catenin into the nucleus.TCF/LEF genes support diverse functions in embryonic development, stem cell biology, and in disease. Given the conservation of structure, functions of different TCF/LEF genes and proteins are often redundant in many organs and tissues where Wnt signalling is important, yet genetic analysis suggested from the beginning that this redundancy is only partial, suggesting TCF/LEF gene- and TCF isoform-specific functions, many of which are only now beginning to be discovered. Function: Prominent functions of TCF/LEF genes in embryonic development include vertebrate dorsal axis induction, anterior-posterior patterning of the developing Central Nervous System, neural crest development and many functions in organ development. Prominent functions of TCF/LEF genes in stem cell development have been particularly well dissected during the hair follicle cycle. TCF/LEF genes have roles in many cancers, with their role in colorectal cancer possibly being the best understood. However, other human diseases have also been linked to TCF/LEF genes, particularly type 2 diabetes.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Facility ID Facility ID: The facility ID number, also called a FIN or facility identifier, is a unique integer number of one to six digits, assigned by the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) Media Bureau to each broadcast station in the FCC Consolidated Database System (CDBS) and Licensing and Management System (LMS) databases, among others. Because CDBS includes information about foreign stations which are notified to the U.S. under the terms of international frequency coordination agreements, FINs are also assigned to affected foreign stations. However, this has no legal significance, and the numbers are not used by the regulatory authorities in those other countries. Facility ID: Current FCC practice is to assign facility ID numbers sequentially, but this is not an official requirement, so third-party users must not rely on it. Unlike call signs, however, the FIN associated with a particular station never changes; thus, the FCC staff and interested parties can be certain to which station an application pertains, even if it has changed its call sign since the application was originally filed. (The previous FCC database system, the Broadcast Application Processing System or BAPS, did not have such an identifier.) In several cases, television stations have swapped facilities, and thus their FIN numbers, as what occurred in 1995 in Miami, when NBC-owned station WTVJ swapped channels with CBS's WCIX-TV (after the swap, WFOR-TV); NBC thus took the FIN and transmitter formerly associated with WCIX-TV, while WFOR-TV continues to operate under the FIN originally established for WTVJ.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Paint stripper Paint stripper: Paint stripper or paint remover is a chemical product designed to remove paint, finishes, and coatings, while also cleaning the underlying surface. The product's material safety data sheet provides more safety information than its product labels. Paint can also be removed using mechanical methods (scraping or sanding) or heat (hot air, radiant heat, or steam). Types: Chemical paint removers work only on certain types of finishes, and when multiple types of finishes may have been used on any particular surface, trial-and-error testing is typical to determine the best stripper for each application. Two basic categories of chemical paint removers are caustic and solvent. Types: Caustics Caustic paint removers, typically sodium hydroxide (also known as lye or caustic soda), work by breaking down the chemical bonds of the paint, usually by hydrolysis of the chain bonds of the polymers forming the paint. Caustic removers must be neutralized or the new finish will fail prematurely. In addition, several side effects and health risks must be taken into account in using caustic paint removers. Such caustic aqueous solutions are typically used by antique dealers who aim to restore old furniture by stripping off worn varnishes, for example. Types: Solvents Solvent paint strippers penetrate the layers of paint and break the bond between the paint and the object by swelling the paint.The active ingredient in the most effective paint strippers is dichloromethane, also called methylene chloride. Dichloromethane has serious health risks including death, is likely a carcinogen, and is banned in some countries for consumer use. Despite this, deaths from dichloromethane are extremely rare at less than 2.4 cases per year and associated mostly with users applying large amounts in confined, poorly ventilated spaces. When applied in reasonable amounts and with typical levels of ventilation, or outdoors, it is generally safe to use. Types: Solvent strippers may also have formulations with limonene from orange peel (or other terpene solvents), n-methylpyrrolidone, esters such as dibasic esters (often dimethyl esters of shorter dicarboxylic acids, sometimes aminated, for example, adipic acid or glutamic acid), aromatic hydrocarbons, dimethylformamide, and other solvents are known as well. The formula differs according to the type of paint and the character of the underlying surface. Nitromethane is another commonly used solvent. Dimethyl sulfoxide is a less toxic alternative solvent used in some formulations. Unfortunately, these alternative stripping formulas are largely ineffective compared to those based on dichloromethane - removing only one layer at a time, or often no paint at all. When they do work they take hours, compared to minutes or seconds for dichloromethane-based strippers. Types: Paint strippers come in a liquid, or a gel ("thixotropic") form that clings even to vertical surfaces. The principle of paint strippers is penetration of the paint film by the molecules of the active ingredient, causing it to swell; this volume increase causes internal strains, which, together with the weakening of the layer's adhesion to the underlying surface, leads to separation of the layer of the paint from the substrate. Other components Various co-solvents are added to the primary active ingredient. These assist with penetration into the paint and its removal and differ according to the target paint. Ethanol is suitable for shellac, methyl ethyl ketone is used for cellulose nitrate, and phenol and cresols are employed in some industrial formulas. Benzyl alcohol is used as well. Types: Activators increase the penetration rate; for dichloromethane water is suitable, other choices are amines, strong acids or strong alkalis. The activator's role is to disrupt the molecular and intermolecular bonds in the paint film and assist with weakening this. Its composition depends on the character of the paint to be removed. Mineral acids are used for epoxy resins to hydrolyze their ether bonds. Alkaline activators are usually based on sodium hydroxide. Some cosolvents double as activators. Amine activators, alkalines weaker than inorganic hydroxides, are favored when the substrate could be corroded by strong acids or bases. Types: Surfactants assist with wetting the surface, increasing the area of where the solvent can penetrate the paint layer. Anionic surfactants (e.g., dodecyl benzenesulfonate or sodium xylene sulfonate) are used for acidic formulas, cationic or non-ionic are suitable for alkaline formulas. Paint strippers containing surfactants are excellent brush cleaners. Types: Thickeners are used for thixotropic formulas to help the mixture form gel that adheres to vertical surfaces and to reduce the evaporation of the solvents, thus prolonging the time the solvent can penetrate the paint. Cellulose-based agents, e.g., hydroxypropyl cellulose, are commonly used for mixtures that are not extremely acidic or basic; under such conditions cellulose undergoes hydrolysis and loses effectiveness, so fumed silica is used for these instead. Another possibility is using waxes (usually paraffin wax or polyethylene or polypropylene derivatives), or polyacrylate gels. Types: Corrosion inhibitors are added to the formula to protect the underlying substrate and the paint stripper storage vessel (usually a steel can) from corrosion. Dichloromethane decomposes with time to hydrochloric acid, which readily reacts with propylene oxide or butylene oxide and therefore is removed from the solution. Chromate-based inhibitors give the mixture a characteristic yellow color. Other possibilities include polyphosphates, silicates, borates, and various antioxidants. Types: Sequestrants and chelating agents are used to "disarm" metal ions present in the solution, which could otherwise reduce the efficiency of other components, and assist with cleaning stains, which often contain metal compounds. The most common sequestrants used in paint strippers are EDTA, tributyl phosphate, and sodium phosphate. Colorants may be added. Alternatives: Heat guns are an alternative to chemical paint strippers. When heated, softened paint clumps and is easier to contain. High-temperature heat guns at 1,100 °F (590 °C) or more create toxic lead fumes in lead-based paint, but low-temperature heat guns and 400 °F (200 °C) infrared paint removers do not create lead fumes. Fire is a possible hazard of using heat guns. Alternatives: Steam can be used on large surfaces or items to be stripped, such as window sash, can be placed inside a steam box. Local laws: Lead-based paint is banned in the United States. Removing old lead-based paint can disperse lead and cause lead poisoning, leading several US workplace and environmental regulations address removal of old paint that could contain lead.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Energy Recovery Energy Recovery: Energy Recovery Inc. (NASDAQ: ERII) manufactures energy recovery devices for water and CO2 refrigeration industries globally. The purpose of these devices, in various applications, is to facilitate the transfer between two different liquids, capturing energy and circulating it back into the system, reducing energy consumption and carbon emissions. Industries where this technology is used include desalination, industrial wastewater, lithium processing, and CO2 refrigeration. Energy Recovery produces its equipment in a facility located at the company's headquarters.Energy Recovery is based in San Leandro, California, with international offices in Dubai, United Arab Emirates; Shanghai, China; and Madrid, Spain. History: Energy Recovery was founded in 1992 by Leif and Marissa Hauge and incorporated in Virginia. The company was reincorporated in Delaware in 2001. Energy Recovery began selling its PX pressure exchanger products for seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) desalination applications in 1997 and went public in 2008.On October 19, 2015, Energy Recovery signed a 15-year licensing agreement with Schlumberger Technology Corporation granting Schlumberger the exclusive rights to utilize Energy Recovery's VorTeq technology in on-shore oil and gas well completions globally. As of 2022, Energy Recovery no longer produces the VorTeq product.In 2016, Forbes reported that Energy Recovery was the top performing company in California in terms of annual returns on investment, with a return of 317.3%.The company is currently led by president and chief executive officer Robert Mao who was appointed in May 2020. Products: PX Pressure Exchanger The PX Pressure Exchanger device is Energy Recovery's flagship product used in desalination. The Pressure Exchanger's technology utilizes pressure energy to reduce electricity and maintenance costs. The device collides two fluid flows, transferring the energy from one fluid to the next. This energy transfer occurs in a fraction of a second, reducing the interaction between the two fluids. Energy Recovery developed pressure exchanger products for specific applications, including its PX G1300™ for the CO2 refrigeration industry, and its Ultra PX™ for Ultra High-Pressure Reverse Osmosis (UHPRO) applications in wastewater treatment.Energy Recovery holds a majority market share in the desalination industry. There are more than 30,000 Pressure Exchangers supplied in more than 100 countries worldwide. The company's technologies have cut more than 14 billion kWh of energy each year and produced more than 12 billion liters of clean water daily.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Phosphonium Phosphonium: In chemistry, the term phosphonium (more obscurely: phosphinium) describes polyatomic cations with the chemical formula PR+4 (where R is a hydrogen or an alkyl, aryl, or halide group). These cations have tetrahedral structures. The salts are generally colorless or take the color of the anions. Types of phosphonium cations: Protonated phosphines The parent phosphonium is PH+4 as found in the iodide salt, phosphonium iodide. Salts of the parent PH+4 are rarely encountered, but this ion is an intermediate in the preparation of the industrially useful tetrakis(hydroxymethyl)phosphonium chloride: PH3 + HCl + 4 CH2O → P(CH2OH)+4Cl−Many organophosphonium salts are produced by protonation of primary, secondary, and tertiary phosphines: PR3 + H+ → HPR+3The basicity of phosphines follows the usual trends, with R = alkyl being more basic than R = aryl. Types of phosphonium cations: Tetraorganophosphonium cations The most common phosphonium compounds have four organic substituents attached to phosphorus. The quaternary phosphonium cations include tetraphenylphosphonium, (C6H5)4P+ and tetramethylphosphonium P(CH3)+4. Quaternary phosphonium cations (PR+4) are produced by alkylation of organophosphines. For example, the reaction of triphenylphosphine with methyl bromide gives methyltriphenylphosphonium bromide: PPh3 + CH3Br → [CH3PPh3]+Br−The methyl group in such phosphonium salts is mildly acidic, with a pKa estimated to be near 15: [CH3PPh3]+ + base → CH2=PPh3 + [Hbase]+This deprotonation reaction gives Wittig reagents. Types of phosphonium cations: Phosphorus pentachloride and related compounds Solid phosphorus pentachloride is an ionic compound, formulated PCl+4PCl−6, that is, a salt containing the tetrachlorophosphonium cation. Dilute solutions dissociate according to the following equilibrium: PCl5 ⇌ PCl+4 + Cl−Triphenylphosphine dichloride (Ph3PCl2) exists both as the pentacoordinate phosphorane and as the chlorotriphenylphosphonium chloride, depending on the medium. The situation is similar to that of PCl5. It is an ionic compound (PPh3Cl)+Cl− in polar solutions and a molecular species with trigonal bipyramidal molecular geometry in apolar solution. Types of phosphonium cations: Alkoxyphosphonium salts: Arbuzov reaction The Michaelis–Arbuzov reaction is the chemical reaction of a trivalent phosphorus ester with an alkyl halide to form a pentavalent phosphorus species and another alkyl halide. Commonly, the phosphorus substrate is a phosphite ester (P(OR)3) and the alkylating agent is an alkyl iodide. Uses: Textile finishes Tetrakis(hydroxymethyl)phosphonium chloride has industrial importance in the production of crease-resistant and flame-retardant finishes on cotton textiles and other cellulosic fabrics. A flame-retardant finish can be prepared from THPC by the Proban Process, in which THPC is treated with urea. The urea condenses with the hydroxymethyl groups on THPC. The phosphonium structure is converted to phosphine oxide as the result of this reaction. Uses: Phase-transfer catalysts and precipitating agents Organic phosphonium cations are lipophilic and can be useful in phase transfer catalysis, much like quaternary ammonium salts. Salts or inorganic anions and tetraphenylphosphonium (PPh+4) are soluble in polar organic solvents. One example is the perrhenate (PPh4[ReO4]). Reagents for organic synthesis Wittig reagents are used in organic synthesis. They are derived from phosphonium salts. A strong base such as butyllithium or sodium amide is required for the deprotonation: [Ph3P+CH2R]X− + C4H9Li → Ph3P=CHR + LiX + C4H10One of the simplest ylides is methylenetriphenylphosphorane (Ph3P=CH2).The compounds Ph3PX2 (X = Cl, Br) are used in the Kirsanov reaction. Uses: The Kinnear–Perren reaction is used to prepare alkylphosphonyl dichlorides (RP(O)Cl2) and esters (RP(O)(OR′)2). A key intermediate are alkyltrichlorophosphonium salts, obtained by the alkylation of phosphorus trichloride: RCl + PCl3 + AlCl3 → [RPCl3]+AlCl−4 Ammonia production for "green hydrogen" The main industrial procedure for the production of ammonia today is the thermal Haber-Bosch process, which generally uses fossil gas as a source of hydrogen, which is then combined with nitrogen to produce ammonia. In 2021, Professor Doug MacFarlane and collaborators Alexandr Simonov and Bryan Suryanto of Monash University devised a method of producing green ammonia that has the potential to make Haber-Bosch plants obsolete. Their process is similar to the electrolysis approach for producing hydrogen. While working with local company Verdant, which wanted to make bleach from saltwater by electrolysis, Suryanto discovered that a tetraalkyl phosphonium salt allowed the efficient production of ammonia at room temperature.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Spymaster (character) Spymaster (character): Spymaster is a fictional supervillain appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Publication history: Spymaster is a supervillain and recurring foe to Iron Man. He is a master of industrial espionage. His identity has changed several times over the years.The first appearance of the character is in Iron Man #33 (Jan 1971), and he was created by Allyn Brodsky, Don Heck, and Stan Lee. Fictional character biography: Original Spymaster The original Spymaster was a costumed freelance industrial spy, saboteur, and assassin with advanced weaponry. He was a master of espionage, and died without revealing his true identity, although it is known that he was once a boxer. He and his team of assistants, the Espionage Elite, were hired by the criminal organization the Zodiac to infiltrate Stark Industries and steal all of company owner and genius inventor Tony Stark's secrets. His efforts were stopped by Stark's alter-ego, the armored superhero Iron Man. However, he was assigned by the Zodiac to capture Daredevil but failed at that as well. Spymaster aided Aquarius, Capricorn, and Sagittarius in an attempt to steal the Zodiac Key from Stark. The Spymaster was transported to the other-dimensional realm of the Brotherhood of the Ankh, but returned to Earth and escaped. Spymaster was assigned by renegade S.H.I.E.L.D. agents to assassinate Tony Stark, but failed. He was employed by Madame Masque to steal a prototype energizer link, and abducted Bethany Cabe.Spymaster came into conflict with Iron Man several more times, and on one occasion with the masked hero Daredevil. At one point Spymaster apparently succeeded in assassinating Tony Stark, but in reality it was a Life Model Decoy. He also succeeded in stealing many of Stark's Iron Man designs, giving them over to Stark's rival Justin Hammer, sparking the Armor Wars event. Stark believes that Spymaster may have found out his secret identity, but that Spymaster kept it to himself.The first Spymaster last appeared after coming into conflict with fellow Iron Man villain the Ghost, who has technology enabling him to become intangible. After Spymaster attempted to assassinate the Ghost in Los Angeles under orders from Roxxon, Iron Man arrived, causing the two villains to attempt an escape. The Ghost offered Spymaster one of his intangibility devices, and Spymaster used the device to pass through a wall. The Ghost removed the device from Spymaster's chest while he was still phasing halfway through a wall, causing him to rematerialize partially inside the wall and killing him instantly.During the Dark Reign storyline, it is revealed that he actually faked his own death and has been living in deep cover ever since until he is found by Norman Osborn. Spymaster is hired to steal a treasured photograph of Tony Stark's parents, which Norman Osborn then burns.During the Infinity storyline, Spymaster recruits Blizzard II, Constrictor, Firebrand IV, Unicorn I, Whiplash IV, and Whirlwind to help him in a plot to attack the almost-defenseless Stark Tower while the Avengers were away from Earth fighting the Builders. In the same issue, Spymaster apparently runs the Black Market Club (a nightclub for supervillains). Fictional character biography: Nathan Lemon The second Spymaster was an accomplished student of the Taskmaster who won the right to the name in a series of tests including a final test of killing all other contenders in a battleground simulator, with all contestants blindfolded. This new Spymaster was appointed by the Taskmaster for Justin Hammer, and battled Iron Man in his first appearance. This iteration had one of his own Espionage Elite bug Tony Stark's office, and overheard Stark and his secretary Pepper Potts talking about Stark's double identity. Acting under orders from the Mandarin, his Elite ambushed and beat Stark severely, until the Black Widow intervened. In 2007, Spymaster II, who has had no known identity, was retroactively named Nathan Lemon due to a series' 'flashback' episode in which Stark delves into his mind and figures out his name. Sinclair Abbot, the third Spymaster, claimed he had Lemon killed in prison. Fictional character biography: Sinclair Abbot Sinclair Abbot, a wealthy industrialist, is the latest person to hold the Spymaster mantle. He achieved this by having the previous one arrested, severely beaten in jail, and then killed in intensive care by his wife. His debut was in the miniseries Iron Man: The Inevitable. He has yet to attempt any direct action against Iron Man, choosing to send Ghost against him, and playing mind-games with Stark at public events, subtly jabbing him about his alcoholism and former military contracts. Abbot feels that to be a true supervillain, he needs to prove his mettle against Iron Man, while at the same time, to humble Iron Man; it has been an extended period of time since Iron Man has fought a "supervillain" in the classical sense, and Abbot resents the apparent indication that Iron Man is "too good" for supervillains, as if he is above that station.With the Civil War causing Tony Stark considerable problems, the Spymaster was hired by Karim Wahwash Najeeb (chairman of the World Islamic Peace Coalition and one of the men responsible for the death of Stark's mentor Ho Yinsen) to kill Iron Man. Spymaster killed Tony Stark's chauffeur and attempted to use Happy Hogan as live bait to draw Iron Man, but Hogan managed to attack him and both fell several stories to the ground, which led to the death of Hogan, one of Tony's oldest and dearest friends.Spymaster later resurfaced where he has a bomb planted in him by Mandarin and Zeke Stane as they force him to assist other villains in attacking Iron Man.After being defeated and rendered powerless during an attempted assault on Stark Resilient (deprived of his suit and weaponry while awaiting transfer to a Supermax prison), he apparently commits "Suicide by cop" and is shot multiple times by the policemen guarding him. Powers and abilities: Each Spymaster has no superhuman abilities. However, each is an exceptional fighter and strategist. The first Spymaster was an excellent hand-to-hand combatant, with formal training in boxing and various martial arts. The second Spymaster is also an excellent hand-to-hand combatant, having been trained at the Taskmaster's Academy. Each is also an extraordinary industrial spy and saboteur, master of disguise, a superb actor, a highly agile and skilled athlete, and greatly skilled in the uses of virtually any kind of gun. Spymaster always has access to cutting-edge technology for a number of espionage-related devices and weapons, both of his own design and those of Justin Hammer's. The original Spymaster used various special devices including, devices in his gloves and mask that projected concussive energy blasts, small and powerful hovering electromagnets, incendiary missiles, "razor-discs" that could pierce Iron Man's armor, devices that enabled him to absorb Iron Man's repulsor energy, stunguns, sleep inducing "somnu-gas", boot jets that allowed flight, and a device in his belt buckle that summoned an advanced model hovercraft that could operate automatically according to pre-programmed instructions. Both the first and second Spymasters have employed electronically amplified nun-chakas that can damage Iron Man's armor. The Spymaster wears a battlesuit of bulletproof Kevlar body armor which provides some protection from physical attacks, and contains various pockets for holding weaponry. In other media: Television Spymaster appears in The Incredible Hulk episode "Prisoner of the Monster". This version is an overweight man with black hair and a white suit.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
APLX APLX: APLX is a cross-platform dialect of the programming language APL, created by British company MicroAPL, Ltd. APLX is intended for uses such as financial planning, market research, statistics, management information, and various kinds of scientific and engineering work. APLX is based on IBM's APL2, but includes several extensions. APLX version 3 was released in April and May 2005. It is available on Microsoft Windows, Linux, and macOS. Though APLX keeps APL's extended character set, APLX is a bit more verbose, due to the prevalence of system functions with long names, and the use of structured-control keywords. The use of explicit loops is a major deviation from earlier APL versions and derivatives. APLX: Other extensions include: Object-oriented programming Support for .NET Framework, ActiveX, operating system resources, and connectivity Extensible Markup Language (XML) array conversion primitivesEffective July 11, 2016, MicroAPL withdrew APLX from commercial sale. British firm Dyalog, authors of Dyalog APL, began hosting the APLX Archive website including a download area and documentation.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Potassium hexanitritocobaltate(III) Potassium hexanitritocobaltate(III): Potassium hexanitritocobaltate(III) is a salt with the formula K3[Co(NO2)6]. It is a yellow solid that is poorly soluble in water. The compound finds some use as a yellow pigment under the name Indian Yellow. Potassium hexanitritocobaltate(III): The salt features potassium cations and an trianionic coordination complex. In the anion, cobalt is bound by six nitrito ligands, the overall complex having octahedral molecular geometry. The oxidation state of cobalt is 3+. Its low-spin d6 configuration confers kinetic stability and diamagnetism. The compound is prepared by combining cobalt(II) and nitrite salts in the presence of oxygen. The corresponding sodium cobaltinitrite is significantly more soluble in water.The compound was first described in 1848 by Nikolaus Wolfgang Fischer in Breslau, and it is used as a yellow pigment called Aureolin.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Binaural recording Binaural recording: Binaural recording is a method of recording sound that uses two microphones, arranged with the intent to create a 3-D stereo sound sensation for the listener of actually being in the room with the performers or instruments. This effect is often created using a technique known as dummy head recording, wherein a mannequin head is fitted with a microphone in each ear. Binaural recording is intended for replay using headphones and will not translate properly over stereo speakers. This idea of a three-dimensional or "internal" form of sound has also translated into useful advancement of technology in many things such as stethoscopes creating "in-head" acoustics and IMAX movies being able to create a three-dimensional acoustic experience. Binaural recording: The term "binaural" has frequently been confused as a synonym for the word "stereo", due in part to systematic misuse in the mid-1950s by the recording industry, as a marketing buzzword. Conventional stereo recordings do not factor in natural ear spacing or "head shadow" of the head and ears, since these things happen naturally as a person listens, generating interaural time differences (ITDs) and interaural level differences (ILDs) specific to their listening position. Because loudspeaker-crosstalk with conventional stereo interferes with binaural reproduction (i.e. because the sound from each channel's speaker is heard by both ears rather than only by the ear on the corresponding side, as would be the case with headphones), either headphones are required, or crosstalk cancellation of signals intended for loudspeakers such as Ambiophonics is required. For listening using conventional speaker-stereo, or MP3 players, a pinna-less dummy head may be preferable for quasi-binaural recordings such as the sphere microphone or Ambiophone. As a general rule, for true binaural results, an audio recording and reproduction system chain, from the microphone to the listener's brain, should contain one and only one set of pinnae (preferably the listener's own), and one head-shadow. History: The history of binaural recording goes back to 1881. The first binaural unit, the théâtrophone, was invented by Clément Ader. It consisted of an array of carbon telephone microphones installed along the front edge of the Opera Garnier. The signal was sent to subscribers through the telephone system, and required that they wear a special headset, which had a tiny speaker for each ear. History: In 1978, Lou Reed released the first commercially produced binaural pop record, Street Hassle, a combination of live and studio recordings.Binaural stayed in the background due to the expensive, specialized equipment required for quality recordings, and the requirement of headphones for proper reproduction. Particularly in pre-Walkman days, most consumers considered headphones an inconvenience, and were only interested in recordings that could be listened to on a home stereo system or in automobiles. Lastly, the types of things that can be recorded do not have a typically high market value. Studio recordings would have little to benefit from using a binaural set up, beyond natural cross-feed, as the spatial quality of the studio would not be very dynamic and interesting. Recordings that are of interest are live orchestral performances, and ambient "environmental" recordings of city sounds, nature, and other such subject matters. History: The modern era has seen a resurgence of interest in binaural, partially due to the widespread availability of headphones, cheaper methods of recording and the general increased commercial interest in 360° audio technology. The online ASMR community is another movement that has widely employed binaural recordings. History: The rise of Dolby Atmos and other 360° audio film technology in relation to commercial entertainment has seen a rise in popularity of the use of binaural simulation. This is with the purpose of fully adapting the 360° soundtrack for headphones and earphones. Users can ostensibly watch 360° films and music with the immersive surround sound experience remaining intact despite using just the two headset speakers. Notably, any full 360° multi-channel soundtrack is automatically converted to simulated binaural audio when listened to with headphones. Recording techniques: With a simple recording method, two microphones are placed 18 cm (7") apart facing away from each other. This method will not create a real binaural recording. The distance and placement roughly approximate the position of an average human's ear canals, but that is not all that is needed. More elaborate techniques exist in pre-packaged forms. A typical binaural recording unit has two high-fidelity microphones mounted in a dummy head, inset in ear-shaped molds to fully capture all of the audio frequency adjustments (known as head-related transfer functions (HRTFs) in the psychoacoustic research community) that happen naturally as sound wraps around the human head and is "shaped" by the form of the outer and inner ear. Re-recording techniques: The technique of binaural re-recording is simple but has not been well established. It follows the same principles of Worldizing, a technique used by film sound designers in which sound is played over a loudspeaker in a real-world location and then re-recorded, taking along all the aspects and characteristics of the real-world environment with it.Using space to manipulate a sound and then re-recording it has been done through the use of echo chambers in recording studios for many years. In 1959, an echo chamber was famously used by Irving Townsend during the post-production process of Miles Davis's 1959 album Kind of Blue. "[the effect of the echo chamber on Kind of Blue is] just a bit of sweetening. At 30th Street, a line was run from the mixing console down into a low-ceilinged, concrete basement room—about 12 by 15 feet in size—anywhere we set up a speaker and a good omnidirectional microphone."In binaural re-recording, a binaural microphone is used to record content being played over a multi-channel speaker set-up. The binaural head, or microphone, is therefore theoretically making a recording of how humans will hear multi-channel content. The soundtrack to a film, for example, will be recorded by the binaural microphone with all the environmental cues of the given location, as well as reverberations, including those commonly created by the human torso (assuming a HATS model is used). This method, like certain binaural recordings made with a Neumann KU 100.Using an MRI scanner, Brüel & Kjær and DTU collected the geometries of a large population of human ears. By capturing the full ear canal geometry including the bony part adjoining the eardrum was, this data was post-processed to determine the average human ear canal geometry. Based on this, High-frequency Head and Torso Simulator (HATS) Type 5128, creates a very realistic reproduction of the acoustic properties, covering the full audible frequency range (up to 20 kHz). Playback: There are some complications with the playback of binaural recordings through headphones. The sound that is picked up by a microphone placed in or at the entrance of the ear channel has a frequency spectrum that is very different from the one that would be picked up by a free-standing microphone. The diffuse-field head-transfer function (HRTF), that is, the frequency response at the eardrum averaged for sounds coming from all possible directions, is quite grotesque, with peaks and dips exceeding 10 dB. Frequencies from around 2 to 5 kHz in particular are strongly amplified as compared to free field presentation. Known issues: Timbral issues In January 2012 BBC R&D worked together with BBC Radio 4 to produce a binaural production of Private Peaceful, the book by Michael Morpurgo. The 88 minute dramatization featured a reproduction of a 5.1 speaker system, and had 4 variations. At the start of each variation, the listener would hear a series of test signals allowing for a choice of which version gives the listener the best spatial experience. By doing this, BBC R&D have accepted that there will be variations on the success of the binaural reproduction, and therefore provided different mixes based on different sets of HRTF data. The release of Private Peaceful had an accompanying survey which all listeners were asked to complete. It asked questions about the success that the binaural reproduction had with the listeners and which version (1-4) the listener thought was most successful. Known issues: During an interview with Chris Pike from BBC R&D in September 2012, Pike stated that "you may get good spatial impression but timbral coloration is often an issue". The issue of timbral coloration is mentioned in a large amount of spatial enhancement research and is sometimes seen as the outcome of the misuse or insufficient amount of HRTF data when reproducing binaural audio for example, or the fact that the end-user simply will not respond well to the collected HRTF data. Francis Rumsey states in the 2011 article "Whose head is it anyway?" that "badly implemented HRTFs can give rise to poor timbral quality, poor externalisation, and a host of other unwanted results". Getting the HRTF data correct is a key point in making the final product a success, and possibly by making the HRTF data as extensive as possible, there will be less room for error such as timbral issues. The HRTFs used for Private Peaceful were designed by measuring impulse responses in a reverberant room, done so to capture a sense of space, but is not very external and there are obvious timbral issues as pointed out by Pike.Juha Merimaa from Sennheiser Research Laboratories found that using HRTF filters to reduce timbral issues did not affect the spatial localization previously achieved using the data when tested on a panel of listeners. This explains that there are ways of reducing the effects of timbral issues on audio that have been processed with HRTF data, but this does mean further EQ manipulation of the audio. If this route is to be further explored, researchers will have to be happy with the fact that the audio is being manipulated in great amounts to achieve a greater sense of spatial awareness, and that this further manipulation will cause irreversible changes to the audio, something content creators may not be happy with. Consideration will have to be taken into how much manipulation is appropriate and to what extent, if any, will this affect the end users experience. Known issues: Timbral issues related to headphones Ideal listening conditions will most likely be experienced with headphones designed and calibrated to give an as flat frequency response as possible in order to reduce colouration of the audio the user is listening to. In most circumstances this has not seemed enough of a problem for end-users to make an investment into headphones that will allow them to hear audio exactly how the creator of the content intended, and will instead continue to use bundled headphones, or in some cases make investments into headphones endorsed and branded by certain artists. As previously discussed, there are issues of timbral effects present while using BRIR and HRTF data to create spatially improved audio, techniques used by Chris Pike and BBC R&D. The results experienced timbral issues and therefore this method may not yet be a successful way of creating spatially enhanced audio for headphones, but these timbral issues are also experienced with headphone choice. "[Are timbral issues brought about by the use of BRIR and HRFT data] any worse than the difference between some cheap headphones that you get with an mp3 player versus some nice Sennheisers". Examples of commonly used binaural microphones: Brüel & Kjær Head and Torso Simulators (HATS) Designed to be used in-situ electroacoustics tests on, for example, telephone handsets, headsets, audio conference devices, microphones, headphones, hearing aids and hearing protectors. Neumann KU 100 The Neumann KU 100 is a dummy head microphone used to record in binaural stereo. "It resembles the human head and has two microphone capsules built into the ears". The Neumann is a commonly used binaural microphone and features use by BBC R&D teams. Examples of commonly used binaural microphones: G.R.A.S. Head & Torso Simulator KEMAR (HATS) KEMAR was initially invented in collaboration with the audiological industry for the use of hearing aid development, and is still the de facto standard for this industry – however since then the usage of KEMAR has spread into a multitude of other industries like: telecommunications, hearing protection test, automotive development etc. KEMAR is designed using large statistical research to as close to the average human measurements as possible. The KEMAR model is also the only microphone on this list to feature a torso model. Torso reflections have been seen to be a considerable contributor to creating a successful binaural recording. Examples of commonly used binaural microphones: 3Dio range The 3Dio range of binaural microphones feature two silicone ear (pinna) moulds separated by 19 centimetres (7.5 in)—close to average distance between human ears. Microphones are placed inside the ears range from Primo EM172 in the Free Space and Free Space XLR models, to DPA 4060s in the Pro II model. The 3Dio range is considerably cheaper than the Neumann KU 100 for example and therefore used more on a consumer to prosumer level. The main difference with the 3Dio models compared to the KEMAR or KU 100 is the absence of a head model. The 3Dio relies entirely in the use on pinna moulds to achieve a binaural effect from the stereo recording. Examples of commonly used binaural microphones: Sound.Codes Kaan Kaan is a DIY binaural microphone for sound artist. It is a 3D printed model averaging human ear canal to average the resonating frequency inherently present in every human. Because of the form factor and weight it makes it easy to sample environments which would be otherwise harder to with other Microphones along with ADC and recorders. Microphones are placed exactly at the ear drum using Primo EM 172 and 235mm being the average earlobe to earlobe distance. The sigmoid form in the canal of Kaan makes up for the missing head to a greater extent. Sound Professionals SP-TFB-2 An in-ear wearable stereo microphone used like earphones, placed inside the human pinna. This microphone uses the user's pinna to create the binaural effect. Examples of commonly used binaural microphones: Hooke Verse The Hooke Verse is a relatively newer binaural device that is an in-ear wearable set of microphones that connects to recording devices utilizing Bluetooth with lossless recording. The codec developed allows the user to capture audio along with video. Additionally, the device utilizes microphone windscreens to cut down on wind noise, a common problem with wearable devices and smart phones. "Smartphone manufacturers face a double problem with wind noise. Not only is turbulence present in the airflow at large, but the rectangular shape of a smartphone produces miniscule eddies around itself."	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Ramp meter Ramp meter: A ramp meter, ramp signal, or metering light is a device, usually a basic traffic light or a two-section signal light (red and green only, no yellow) together with a signal controller, that regulates the flow of traffic entering freeways according to current traffic conditions. Ramp meters are used at freeway on-ramps to manage the rate of automobiles entering the freeway. Ramp metering systems have proved to be successful in decreasing traffic congestion and improving driver safety. Ramp meter: Ramp meters are claimed to reduce congestion (increase speed and volume) on freeways by reducing demand and by breaking up platoons of cars. Two variations of demand reduction are commonly cited; one being access rate, the other diversion. Some ramp meters are designed and programmed to operate only at times of peak travel demand; during off-peak times, such meters are either showing a steady green, flashing yellow (Maryland), or are turned off altogether. This allows traffic to merge onto the freeway without stopping. Other ramp meters are designed to operate continuously, only being turned off for maintenance or repairs. Types: Some metered ramps have bypass lanes for high-occupancy vehicles, allowing carpoolers, buses, and other eligible vehicles to skip the queue and get directly on the highway. In other places such as Northern California, carpool lanes are still metered, but the queue is typically shorter in comparison to regular lanes. Meters often only operate in rush hour periods. Some ramp meters have only one lane of traffic at the signal; others may have two or more lanes of traffic. Generally, meters with multiple lanes only give one lane the green light at a time. In one common configuration, each entrance lane has two signals; a red-yellow-green signal perched overhead over each lane (or mounted high on a pole for a single lane), and a two-phase lamp mounted low on a pole next to the stop line. Types: The overhead lights are for cars approaching the metering point; the low-mounted two-phase lights are intended to be used by the vehicle at the front of the queue. In normal operation of the ramp meters, only the red and green lamps are used. However, when ramp metering is about to be enabled, the overhead lamps may show flashing or solid yellow to warn drivers to prepare to stop. (Once ramp metering is turned on, there is no further need for the yellow lamp.) In California, some meters allow two or three cars to proceed on a green light. These meters use red-yellow-green signals on both the upper and lower mounts on the pole, and operate in a standard green-yellow-red fashion. Types: In Ontario, the ramp meter lights are always green when there are no restrictions in place for traffic to proceed.The sophistication and extent of a ramp metering system should be based on the amount of improvement desired, existing traffic conditions, installation costs, and the continuing resource requirements that are necessary to operate and maintain the system effectively. The simplest form of control is a fixed time operation. It performs the basic functions of breaking up platoons into single-vehicle entries and setting an upper limit on the flow rates that enter the freeway. Presence and passage detectors may be installed on the ramp to actuate and terminate the metering cycles, but the metering rate is based on average traffic conditions at a particular ramp at a particular time. This type of operation provides the benefits associated with accident reductions, but is not as effective in regulating freeway volumes because there is no input about mainline traffic. Pre-timed control can be implemented on any number of ramps, and is often implemented as an initial operating strategy until individual ramps can be incorporated into a traffic responsive system. The next level of control, traffic responsive, establishes metering rates based on actual freeway conditions. The local traffic responsive approach utilizes detectors and a micro-processor to determine the mainline flow in the immediate vicinity of the ramp and the ramp demand to select an appropriate metering rate. Traffic responsive control also permits ramp metering to be used to help manage demand when incidents occur on the freeway, i.e. reduce the metering rate at ramps upstream of the incident and increase the rate at ramps downstream. System-wide control is a form of traffic responsive control but operates on the basis of total freeway conditions. Centralized computer controlled systems can handle numerous ramps in a traffic responsive scheme and feature multiple control programs and overrides. Control strategies can also be distributed among individual ramps. A significant feature of system control is interconnection that permits the metering rate at any ramp to be influenced by conditions at other locations. Denver showed that this type of control has significant benefits when properly applied. Types: System control need not be limited to the freeway and its ramps. The concept of integrated traffic control combines or coordinates freeway and arterial street control systems to operate on the basis of corridor wide traffic conditions. The potential advantages of integrated control include reduced installation and operating costs, corridor wide surveillance, better motorist information, and quicker and coordinated use of all of the control elements (meters, signals, signs, etc.) in response to real time traffic conditions. Simulation results from one study showed that, during an incident, coordination of arterial traffic signals and ramp meters can improve the traffic performance of a corridor. Ramp metering signal controls: Ramp meter signals are set according to the current traffic conditions on the road. Detectors (generally an induction loop) are installed in the road, both on the ramp and on the main road which measure and calculate the traffic flow, speed and occupancy levels. These are then used to alter the number of vehicles that can leave the ramp. The more congested the main freeway, the fewer vehicles are allowed to leave the ramp, this is effected by giving longer red times to the traffic signals. Ramp metering signal controls: Much research is currently being carried out into the most appropriate algorithms for controlling ramp meter signals. Some algorithms that are in use or have been evaluated are ALINEA, demand control and fuzzy algorithms. Demand control algorithms The demand control algorithms are examples of feed-forward control. One version of the demand control algorithm is the RWS strategy used in the Netherlands. In this algorithm the number of vehicles that the signals allow off the ramp is calculated as the difference between the flow before the ramp and the pre-specified capacity of the road. Ramp metering in North America: This first application involved a police officer who would stop traffic on an entrance ramp and release vehicles one at a time at a predetermined rate, so that the objectives of safer and smoother merging onto the freeway traffic was easier without disrupting the mainline flows. Ramp metering in North America: Ramp metering was first implemented in 1963 on the Eisenhower Expressway (Interstate 290) in Chicago by Adolf D. May, now a UC Berkeley professor. Development in systems control theory allowed for improved traffic regulation throughout the early 1970s, pioneered by Leif Isaksen in his paper "Suboptimal Control of Large Scale Systems with Application to Freeway Traffic Regulation." Since then ramp-meters have been systematically deployed in many urban areas including Los Angeles; San Diego; Sacramento; the San Francisco Bay Area; Fresno; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Seattle; Spokane; Denver; Phoenix; Las Vegas; Salt Lake City; Portland, Oregon; Minneapolis-St. Paul; Milwaukee; Columbus; Cincinnati; Houston; Atlanta; Miami; Washington, DC (only along Interstate 270 in Montgomery County, Maryland and Interstate 395 and Interstate 66 in Arlington County, Virginia); Kansas City, Missouri; and along the Queen Elizabeth Way in Mississauga, Ontario (Toronto-bound ramps from Cawthra Road, Hurontario Street, Mississauga Road, Erin Mills Parkway, Winston Churchill Boulevard, Ford Drive) Canada since the 1970s. In the early 1970s, this traffic control practice drew the attention of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, which was looking for innovative ways to reduce air pollution in California by make the transportation system more effective. Ramp metering in North America: Ramp meters are commonplace in the New York City, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Chicago, Seattle, Phoenix, Houston, Atlanta, Milwaukee, Columbus, and Minneapolis-St. Paul metropolitan areas, and they are also found in more than two dozen smaller metropolitan areas. In the New York City metro area, locals refer to ramp meters as "merge lights" and in Houston they're known as "flow signals." Ramp meters have been withdrawn after initial introduction in several cities, including Dallas, San Antonio, and Austin, Texas. Disused metering signals can still be found along some parkways surrounding New York City and Detroit. Although deactivated shortly after they were added, ramp meters have been reactivated at select interchanges of Interstate 476 in suburban Philadelphia. Ramp metering in North America: Ramp meters were installed along Interstate 435 in Overland Park, Kansas and Kansas City, Missouri in 2009.Ramp meters in Mississauga, Ontario are designed in such a way so that if the queue waiting to enter the QEW grows to the point where it may back up onto city streets, the meter is lifted and all traffic entering the highway is able to move freely without waiting for the meter. The meter goes back into service once the ramp queue is reduced to a reasonable level. While this method may increase congestion on the highway itself, it has the benefit of keeping city arterials free of stopped traffic waiting in queue. Ramp queues are usually quite short, lasting only 5–6 seconds on average before the driver may continue to the freeway. Ramp metering in North America: Minneapolis–Saint Paul ramp meter experiment In 2000, a $650,000 experiment was mandated by the Minnesota State Legislature in response to citizen complaints and the efforts of State Senator Dick Day. The study involved shutting off all 433 ramp meters in the Minneapolis-St. Paul area for eight weeks to test their effectiveness. The study was conducted by Cambridge Systematics and concluded that when the ramp meters were turned off freeway capacity decreased by 9%, travel times increased by 22%, freeway speeds dropped by 7% and crashes increased by 26%. However, ramp meters remain controversial, and the Minnesota State Department of Transportation has developed new ramp control strategies. Fewer meters are activated during the course of a normal day than prior to the 2000 study, some meters have been removed, timing has been altered so that no driver waits more than four minutes in ramp queue, and vehicles are not allowed to back up onto city streets. Ramp metering in North America: Mainline metering A mainline meter throttles traffic flow from one segment of a highway to the next by directly metering the highway's traffic. Such a scheme is typically implemented in specialized situations such as bridges and tunnels. A mainline meter was installed at the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge toll plaza in the early 1970s. Similar mainline meters have also been installed downstream from the toll plazas at two other San Francisco Bay crossings, the San Mateo Bridge and the Dumbarton Bridge. However, these mainline meters have not yet been activated (as of September 2006). A mainline meter also exists on California State Route 125 southbound at its junction with Interstate 8 in La Mesa, California. Ramp metering in Europe: Ramp metering has been installed in several countries in Europe, including the United Kingdom, Germany and the Netherlands. A research project, EURAMP - European Ramp Metering Project, funded by the European Union was completed in March 2007. The EURAMP Project Deliverables included information about the results of ramp metering in a number of locations and situations, and whether they were helpful in those situations, and a Handbook of ramp metering. Ramp metering in Europe: United Kingdom The first trial in the UK was on the M6 J10 near Walsall in 1986. No more sites were developed for the next two decades until a second 'pilot' study in 2006 by the Highways Agency (HA) concluded that ramp metering provides a net benefit under certain conditions - generally more congested junctions. A Summary Report by the HA, dated November 2007, includes an overview of the background and history, international experience, limitations, system operation, algorithms and implementation of ramp metering. In its conclusion it "envisaged ramp metering will be deployed more widely in the coming period." Ramp metering was then introduced widely in England - Phase 1 involved the implementation of approximately 30 sites and was completed by 2008. Phase 2 followed and as of March 2011 there are 88 Ramp Metering sites on the 4,500 miles (7,242 km) of strategic highways operated and maintained by the HA. Ramp metering in Europe: The Netherlands The first ramp metering in the Netherlands was introduced in 1989. Ramp metering is being introduced more widely in the Netherlands after a pilot study by the AVV Transport Research Centre which concluded that ramp metering can provide a small benefit for the traffic flow on the highway, leading to a higher capacity. Ramp meters can also contribute to decreasing 'rat running'. By 2006 50 ramp meters were installed. This number increases by 4 to 5 each year. Ramp metering in Europe: Germany Ramp metering has been implemented on Autobahns in several areas in Germany, including the Rhine-Ruhr area, Munich, and Hamburg. Italy Ramp metering has been implemented on Tangenziale di Venezia (A57) as temporary solution for the increased traffic before the definitive solution (building of the Passante di Mestre). Ireland There is one metered ramp in Ireland, located at J1 on the M1 Motorway (Ireland) Northbound. It is on the entry ramp from Coolock Lane, and is used when the M1 gets congested due to the M1 Port Tunnel and the M1 meeting further up. Ramp metering elsewhere: Japan Ramp metering is being installed in Japan in the next few years to keep the flow of traffic moving in Japan. There are plans to install ramp meters on every on-ramp in the Japan motorway system. Ramp metering elsewhere: Australia The largest ramp metering network in the country is in Melbourne (managed and controlled through VicRoads) on the Eastern Freeway and most of all, on the entire inner-city M1 route which includes the Monash Freeway, the CityLink Tollway, the West Gate Freeway and the metropolitan section (south of the beginning of the Monash Freeway) for the Princes Freeway. There are also various ramp meters on the inner-city section of the Calder Freeway. Brisbane's Pacific Motorway and Bruce Highway (S/Bound Caboolture - Gateway Mwy) also uses ramp metering on some on-ramps, as does the northbound on-ramps of Perth's Kwinana Freeway between Roe and Canning Highways. On most motorways, ramp metering is activated when sensors indicate that traffic is heavy, however, some motorways without sensors use time-based activation. Ramp metering elsewhere: The 2010 M1 Upgrade in Melbourne installed 62 ramp meters that are coordinated using the HERO suite of algorithms developed by Markos Papageorgiou and Associates from the Technical University of Crete. The system was built on the STREAMS platform and utilises the state-of-the-art ITS architecture. All the ramps can be linked when required to resolve motorway bottlenecks before they emerge. The results of a trial improved capacity by 9% over the previous fixed-time ramp-metering system, average speeds increased by 20 km/h (12 MPH) and traffic throughput at bottleneck locations can be reliably maintained around 2200 PCE per lane. The HERO system takes real time data every 20 seconds from the motorway, ramps and arterial road in order determine the best signal timing for the next 20 seconds. The data detection system comprises Sensys detectors in every freeway lane at 500 m (1,640 feet ) spacings with a minimum detectors at three locations on each ramp including the freeway entrance with the arterial road. The system also manages the arterial road interface with the freeway, balances ramp queues and delays across ramps, and is capable of managing bottlenecks 3–4 km (1.8 - 2.4 mi) downstream of a ramp entrance. The system is also supplemented by real-time travel-time information to key destinations and incident and congestion information displayed on specially designed full-colour VMS on the approaches to the freeway entrance ramps. This information provides sufficient advice for motorists to determine whether or not to use the freeway during incidents etc. The system also provides dynamic ramp closure in the event of a major incident. Ramp metering elsewhere: New Zealand Auckland has currently 91 ramp meters across the Southern, South Western, Northern and North Western motorways making it the largest Southern Hemisphere ramp metering system. Ramp metering was installed Auckland-wide after a successful trial on Mahunga Drive in 2004, before the Mangere Bridge. Ramp metering elsewhere: Traffic data collected from 25 ramp metering sites in 2007 (before ramp metering deployment) and 2009 (after) shows an average 25% improvement in both congestion duration and traffic speed as well as an 8% increase in traffic throughput. The data also shows an average reduction in crashes of 22%. This performance and safety data translates into estimated benefits of US$1.6M per ramp metering site per year. Ramp metering elsewhere: The system controlling the ramps promotes the traditional coordination among on-ramps as well as real-time integration with traffic signals on the adjacent arterial network allowing the whole road network to be managed as a single integrated network. For example, when motorway incidents adversely impact the adjacent arterial roads, an automatic response to the arterial traffic signals can be triggered to mitigate the impacts of the incident and vice versa. Recurrent and excessive traffic queues at on-ramp and off-ramp can also be managed in an integrated way in real-time. This integrated management is possible in Auckland because the same adaptive SCATS system controls both arterial traffic lights and motorway ramp meters. Ramp metering elsewhere: The term Ramp Signalling rather than Ramp Metering is purposefully adopted in New Zealand as a user-oriented name. South Africa Ramp meters were, for a while, installed on the Samrand South bound, Old Johannesburg South bound and on New Road North and South bound interchanges on the N1 Ben Schoeman highway. The ramp metering was part of the Intelligent Transport System launched in October 2007 to aid traffic flow between Johannesburg and Pretoria. A ramp meter has also been installed on the northbound on-ramp from Blue Lagoon to the M4 Highway in Durban since early 2007. Ramp metering elsewhere: Taiwan Freeways in Taiwan use ramp meters during peak hours since 1993. Traffic enforcement cameras are deployed to deter running the red lights, but a bus lane at Taipei Interchange from northbound Chongqing North Road to southbound National Highway No. 1 in northern Datong District, Taipei allows buses and properly indicated emergency vehicles to bypass the traffic control imposed by the ramp meters. Ramp metering elsewhere: Turkey In 2016, two ramp meters were installed on a major highway in Istanbul. It has been noted that there is a 10% improvement in traffic provement along with 20% decrease in delays. Enforcement: On some ramp meters, there is a singular red light on the backside of the signal that is synchronized with the red light on the traffic signal that the drivers see when queueing. When the queueing drivers see the red light on the traffic signal, the backside red light is on, when the traffic signal displays green or yellow, the backside red light is off. This allows highway patrol to enforce the metering lights by having an officer park their car or motorcycle on the shoulder a short distance past the targeted signal, watch the red light for any offenders, and pull them over. Additionally, if the given ramp has a carpool bypass lane, officers from that vantage point may also catch and pull over non-carpoolers who are illegally using the carpool lane to skip past the ramp meter queue. Enforcement: On westbound I-80 in Oakland, California just past the Bay Bridge toll plaza, there is a section with overhead metering lights that cycle when the freeway traffic volumes are high, equipped with cameras that capture license plate images of drivers who run the red light and then send a fine.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Anthocyanin 6"-O-malonyltransferase Anthocyanin 6"-O-malonyltransferase: In enzymology, an anthocyanin 6"-O-malonyltransferase (EC 2.3.1.171) is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction malonyl-CoA + an anthocyanidin 3-O-beta-D-glucoside ⇌ CoA + an anthocyanidin 3-O-(6-O-malonyl-beta-D-glucoside)Thus, the two substrates of this enzyme are malonyl-CoA and anthocyanidin 3-O-beta-D-glucoside, whereas its two products are CoA and anthocyanidin 3-O-(6-O-malonyl-beta-D-glucoside). This enzyme belongs to the family of transferases, specifically those acyltransferases transferring groups other than aminoacyl groups. The systematic name of this enzyme class is malonyl-CoA:anthocyanidin-3-O-beta-D-glucoside 6"-O-malonyltransferase.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Baculoviral IAP repeat-containing protein 3 Baculoviral IAP repeat-containing protein 3: Baculoviral IAP repeat-containing protein3 (also known as cIAP2) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the BIRC3 gene.cIAP2 is a member of the inhibitor of apoptosis family that inhibit apoptosis by interfering with the activation of caspases. The encoded protein inhibits apoptosis induced by serum deprivation but does not affect apoptosis resulting from exposure to menadione, a potent inducer of free radicals. The cIAP2 protein contains three BIR domains, a UBA domain, a CARD domain and a RING finger domain. Transcript variants encoding the same isoform have been identified. Interactions: Baculoviral IAP repeat-containing protein 3 has been shown to interact with: CASP9, RIPK1, TRAF1, TRAF2, and UBE2D2.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
JournalSeek JournalSeek: JournalSeek is an online database covering academic journals. It includes journals published by over 5400 publishers. The database includes journal descriptions and links to the journals' homepages.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Osmiridium Osmiridium: Osmiridium and iridosmine are natural alloys of the elements osmium and iridium, with traces of other platinum-group metals. Osmiridium has been defined as containing a higher proportion of iridium, with iridosmine containing more osmium. However, as the content of the natural Os-Ir alloys varies considerably, the constituent percentages of specimens often reflects the reverse situation of osmiridium describing specimens containing a higher proportion of osmium and iridosmine specimens containing more iridium. Nomenclature: In 1963, M. H. Hey proposed using iridosmine for hexagonal specimens with 32% < Os < 80%, osmiridium for cubic specimens with Os < 32% and native osmium for specimens Os > 80% (the would-be mineral native iridium of >80% purity was not known at that time). Nomenclature: In 1973, Harris and Cabri defined the following names for Os-Ir-Ru alloys: ruthenosmiridium was applied to cubic Os-Ir-Ru alloys, where Ir < 80% of (Os+Ir+Ru) and Ru > 10% of (Os+Ir+Ru) with no single other element >10% of the total; Rutheniridosmine was applied to cubic Os-Ir-Ru alloys, where Os < 80% of (Os+Ir+Ru) and Ru is 10–80% of (Os+Ir+Ru) with no single other element >10% of the total; the Ru-Os alloys be known as ruthenian osmium (>50% Os), osmian ruthenium (>50% Ru); the Ru-Ir alloys be known as iridian ruthenium and ruthenian iridium where the boundary between them is defined by the alloy's miscibility gap (a minimum 57% Ir for ruthenian iridium and a minimum of 55% Ru for iridian ruthenium). Nomenclature: The nomenclature of Os-Ir-Ru alloys were revised again by Harris and Cabri in 1991. Afterwards, only four names were applied to minerals whose compositions lie within the ternary Os-Ir-Ru system: osmium (native osmium) for all hexagonal alloys with Os the major element; iridium (native iridium) for all cubic alloys with iridium the major element; rutheniridosmine for all hexagonal alloys with Ir the major element; and ruthenium (native ruthenium) for all hexagonal alloys with Ru the major element. The mineral names iridosmine, osmiridium, rutheniridosmium, ruthenian osmium, osmian ruthenium, ruthenium iridium and iridian ruthenium were proposed to be retired. Related compounds: Natural alloys also occur in the systems Ir-Os-Rh, Os-Ir-Pt, Ru-Ir-Pt, Ir-Ru-Rh and Pd-Ir-Pt. Names used in these systems have included platiniridium (or platinian iridium) and iridrhodruthenium. However, there is no universally accepted method of plotting these compositions and their names, especially in the ternary systems. Properties: The properties of all these alloys generally fall between those of the members, but hardness is greater than the individual constituents. Occurrence: Os-Ir alloys are very rare, but can be found in mines of other platinum-group metals. One very productive mine was operated at Adamsfield near Tyenna in Tasmania during the Second World War with the ore shipped out by railway from Maydena. The site of the mine is now totally reclaimed by dense natural bush. It was once one of the world's major producers of this rare metal, and the osmiridium was mostly found in shallow alluvial workings. The alloy is currently valued at about US$400 per troy ounce. Isolation: It can be isolated by adding a piece to aqua regia, which has the ability to dissolve gold and platinum but not osmiridium. It occurs naturally as small, extremely hard, flat metallic grains with hexagonal crystal structure.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Tolevamer Tolevamer: Tolevamer is a medication developed to combat Clostridium difficile associated diarrhea. It is a potassium sodium polystyrene sulfonate. It was never marketed. Mechanism of action: Tolevamer was designed to bind the enterotoxins of Clostridium difficile. Since it has no antibiotic properties, it does not harm the gut flora. Early studies used the sodium salt, but it was soon replaced with the potassium sodium salt to prevent hypokalaemia, which is often associated with diarrhea. History: Termination of development In early 2008, a noninferiority study versus vancomycin or metronidazole for Clostridium difficile associated diarrhea (CDAD) found that about half of the patients in the tolevamer group did not complete the treatment, versus 25% in the vancomycin and 29% in the metronidazole groups. CDAD recurrence in patients reaching clinical success was reduced significantly by tolevamer (6% recurrence rate), vancomycin (18%) and metronidazole (19%). However, the good result of tolevamer is partly due to the high drop-out rate in this group. Since tolevamer did not reach its primary endpoint in this study, its development was halted.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Scrambled egg (uniform) Scrambled egg (uniform): Scrambled eggs (American English) or scrambled egg (British English) is a slang term for the typically leaf-shaped embellishments found on the visors of peaked caps worn by military officers and (by metonymy) for the senior officers who wear them. The phrase is derived from the resemblance that the emblems have to scrambled eggs, particularly when the embellishments are gold in color. Scrambled egg (uniform): Today the "scrambled eggs" emblem, in one form or another, has been adopted by the majority of the world's navies. Exceptions include the French Navy and Italian armed forces, which use, respectively, embroideries or different varieties of chin straps on the officers' cap bands to indicate seniority. Although the use of the term is principally military, some civilians (such as airline and merchant ship captains, and senior uniformed law enforcement officers) have similar embellishments on the peaks or visors of their hats. British and Commonwealth countries: In the British Armed Forces, and in the armed forces of several other Commonwealth countries, scrambled egg (singular) is a nickname for the gold braid (called an "oak leaf sprig") on the peak of senior officers' peaked caps, and by extension a nickname for an officer. Specifically, flag officers, general officers, and air officers have two rows of golden oak leaves, while commodores, captains, and commanders (Royal Navy), brigadiers and colonels (Army), and group captains (RAF) have one row. British and Commonwealth countries: Amongst the one-star ranks there is disparity. Specifically, as Navy commodores are not classified as flag officers and Army brigadiers are not general officers, they only have one row of golden oak leaves. However, the equivalent (but lower in precedence) Air Force rank of air commodore is classified as an air officer and hence has two rows of golden oak leaves. Disparities also exist at the OF-4 rank level with Navy commanders having one row of golden oak leaves whereas their Army and RAF counterparts (lieutenant colonel and wing commander) do not have any embellishments on their peaks. United States: In the United States armed forces, "scrambled eggs" is the nickname for the golden oak leaf and acorn embellishments (known as fretting) on the bills (visors) of framed service and dress uniform caps (called service caps in the Army, combination covers in the Navy and Coast Guard, barracks covers in the Marine Corps) worn by field grade and general officers in the rank and grade of major (O-4) or higher in the Army and Marine Corps, and senior and flag officers in the rank and grade of commander (O-5) or higher in the Navy and Coast Guard. The embellishments are also on the service caps of (Army) warrant officers serving in the ranks of chief warrant officer 3 with the grade of (W-3) to chief warrant officer 5 with the grade of (W-5). Commissioned Officers of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration wear similar uniforms and wear the same embellishments as the Navy while Commissioned Officers of the Public Health Service wear similar uniforms and wear the same embellishments as the Navy or Coast Guard depending upon the duties they are performing. United States: Majors (O-4) and higher ranks in the Air Force wear silver clouds and lightning bolts in lieu of oak leaves, sometimes referred to as "farts and darts". Majors (O-4), Lieutenant Colonels (O-5), and Colonels (O-6) wear silver clouds and lightning bolts where there are two clouds on each side of the visor while all Generals (O-7 to O-10) wear silver clouds and lightning bolts where there are three clouds on each side. Additionally, Generals serving as the Chief of Staff of the Air Force (CSAF) or as the Chairman or Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (CJCS, VJCS) wears a row of silver clouds and lightning bolts around the cap band of their service caps or dress caps (refer to the photo of General Nathan Farragut Twining). United States: The difference in grades when an officer assumes the wearing of embellishments is peculiar to the individual customs and traditions of each service. The number of years of service required to be considered for promotion to the grade of O-4 in the Navy and Coast Guard is fewer than the number of years of service required to be promoted in the Army, Air Force, and Marine Corps. Accordingly, the Army, Air Force, and Marine Corps consider the grade of O-4 to be the first field grade officer rank, while the Navy and Coast Guard consider O-4 to still be a junior officer rank. United States: At the flag or general officer level, O-7 and higher, additional embellishments are added to distinguish them from the USN/USCG senior officer and USAF/USMC field grade officer ranks. Civilian usage: "eggs" is also used to nickname the leaf-shaped visor decorations on the peaked caps of merchant ships' captains also indicated as shipmasters and airline pilots. By convention this is reserved to Captains or Deputy-Captains (of four-striped rank), in contrast to the Anglo-American naval traditions, where officers of Commander rank and above are entitled to it. Moreover, in the case of airline pilots, such "leaves", may be oak-leaf or laurel-leaf, may be gold or silver in colour, depending on individual airline uniform. Civilian usage: Law enforcement, fire and public safety Many American police chiefs, sheriffs and command staff law enforcement officers such as assistant chiefs and majors may wear scrambled eggs on their ball caps or dress covers' visors. Additionally, fire chiefs, rescue squad chiefs, assistant chiefs, senior fire marshals and other senior ranking personnel such as battalion chiefs may also wear scrambled eggs on the visors of their ball cap and dress cover visors In 1969, the Seattle Pilots of MLB's American League wore caps with gold scrambled eggs on the visor. The team failed financially, however, and moved to Milwaukee to become the Milwaukee Brewers. This was the only time in the history of major league baseball where a visor had any embellishments.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Decoglurant Decoglurant: Decoglurant (INN) (code name RG1578, RO4995819) is a negative allosteric modulator of the mGlu2 and mGlu3 receptors which was under development by Roche for the adjunctive treatment of major depressive disorder. Decoglurant progressed as far as phase II clinical trials but was ultimately discontinued from further development due to disappointing efficacy results.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Ulcer (dermatology) Ulcer (dermatology): An ulcer is a sore on the skin or a mucous membrane, accompanied by the disintegration of tissue. Ulcers can result in complete loss of the epidermis and often portions of the dermis and even subcutaneous fat. Ulcers are most common on the skin of the lower extremities and in the gastrointestinal tract. An ulcer that appears on the skin is often visible as an inflamed tissue with an area of reddened skin. A skin ulcer is often visible in the event of exposure to heat or cold, irritation, or a problem with blood circulation. Ulcer (dermatology): They can also be caused due to a lack of mobility, which causes prolonged pressure on the tissues. This stress in the blood circulation is transformed to a skin ulcer, commonly known as bedsores or decubitus ulcers. Ulcers often become infected, and pus forms. Signs and symptoms: Skin ulcers appear as open craters, often round, with layers of skin that have eroded. The skin around the ulcer may be red, swollen, and tender. Patients may feel pain on the skin around the ulcer, and fluid may ooze from the ulcer. In some cases, ulcers can bleed and, rarely, patients experience fever. Ulcers sometimes seem not to heal; healing, if it does occur, tends to be slow. Ulcers that heal within 12 weeks are usually classified as acute, and longer-lasting ones as chronic.Ulcers develop in stages. In stage 1 the skin is red with soft underlying tissue. In the second stage the redness of the skin becomes more pronounced, swelling appears, and there may be some blisters and loss of outer skin layers. During the next stage, the skin may become necrotic down through the deep layers of skin, and the fat beneath the skin may become exposed and visible. In stage 4, deeper necrosis usually occurs, the fat underneath the skin is completely exposed, and the muscle may also become exposed. In the last two stages the sore may cause a deeper loss of fat and necrosis of the muscle; in severe cases it can extend down to bone level, destruction of the bone may begin, and there may be sepsis of joints. Signs and symptoms: Chronic ulcers may be painful. Most patients complain of constant pain at night and during the day. Chronic ulcer symptoms usually include increasing pain, friable granulation tissue, foul odour, and wound breakdown instead of healing. Symptoms tend to worsen once the wound has become infected. Signs and symptoms: Venous skin ulcers that may appear on the lower leg, above the calf or on the lower ankle usually cause achy and swollen legs. If these ulcers become infected they may develop an unpleasant odour, increased tenderness and redness. Before the ulcer establishes definitively, there may be a dark red or purple skin over the affected area as well as a thickening, drying, and itchy skin. Signs and symptoms: Although skin ulcers do not seem of great concern at a first glance, they are worrying conditions especially in people with diabetes, as they are at risk of developing diabetic neuropathy. Ulcers may also appear on the cheeks, soft palate, the tongue, and on the inside of the lower lip. These ulcers usually last from 7 to 14 days and can be painful. Discharges Different types of discharges from ulcer are: Serous, usually seen in healing ulcer Purulent, seen in infected ulcer. Yellow creamy discharge is observed in staphylococcal infection; bloody opalescent discharge in streptococcal infection, while greenish discharge is seen in the case of Pseudomonas infection. Bloody (sanguineous), usually seen in malignant ulcers and in healing ulcers with healthy granulation tissue Seropurulent Serosanguinous Serous with sulphur granules, seen in actinomycosis Yellowish, as seen in tuberculous ulcer Causes: The wounds from which ulcers arise can be caused by a wide variety of factors, but the main cause is impaired blood circulation. Especially, chronic wounds and ulcers are caused by poor circulation, either through cardiovascular issues or external pressure from a bed or a wheelchair. A very common and dangerous type of skin ulcer is caused by what are called pressure-sensitive sores, more commonly called bed sores, which are frequent in people who are bedridden or who use wheelchairs for long periods.Other causes producing skin ulcers include bacterial and viral infections, fungal infections and cancers. Blood disorders and chronic wounds can result in skin ulcers as well. Venous leg ulcers due to impaired circulation or a blood flow disorder are more common in the elderly. Causes: Rare causes of skin ulcers include pyoderma gangraenosum, lesions caused by Crohn's disease or ulcerative colitis, granulomatosis with polyangiitis, morbus Behçet and infections that are usually seen in those who are immunocompromised, for example ecthyma gangraenosum. It is important to consider such causes if the skin ulcerations don't show improvement with antibiotic treatments and when other systemic symptoms are present. It is advised not to use surgical procedures on ulcerations caused by Behçet or pyoderma gangraenosum since those diseases usually exhibit pathergy. Diagnosis: Grading Wagner's grading of ulcer follows: Management: Investigations Some of the investigations done for ulcer are:: 19 Study of discharging fluid: Culture and sensitivity Edge biopsy: Edge contains multiplying cells Radiograph of affected area to look for periostitis or osteomyelitis Fine needle aspiration cytology (FNAC) of lymph node Chest X-ray and Mantoux test in suspected tuberculous ulcer Treatment Skin ulcers may take a very long time to heal. Treatment is typically to avoid the ulcer getting infected, remove any excess discharge, maintain a moist wound environment, control the edema, and ease pain caused by nerve and tissue damage. Management: Topical antibiotics are normally used to prevent the ulcer getting infected, and the wound or ulcer is usually kept clear of dead tissue through surgical debridement. Commonly, as a part of the treatment, patients are advised to change their lifestyle if possible and to change their diet. Improving the circulation is important in treating skin ulcers, and patients are consequently usually recommended to exercise, stop smoking, and lose weight. Management: In recent years, advances have been made in accelerating healing of chronic wounds and ulcers. Chronic wounds produce fewer growth hormones than necessary for healing tissue, and healing may be accelerated by replacing or stimulating growth factors while controlling the formation of other substances that work against them.Leg ulcers can be prevented by using compression stockings to prevent blood pooling and back flow. It is likely that a person who has had a skin ulcer will have it again; use of compression stockings every day for at least 5 years after the skin ulcer has healed may help to prevent recurrence. Management: There is limited evidence that negative pressure wound therapy may be effective in reducing the time to healing of leg ulcers. Specific types: Arterial insufficiency ulcer: mostly located on the lateral surface of the ankle or the distal digits Cortisol ulcer: caused by long term application of cortisol (steroid) topical creams to certain skin diseases. Diabetic foot ulcer: a major complication of diabetes mellitus, and probably the major component of the diabetic foot. Venous ulcer: thought to occur due to improper functioning of venous valves, usually of the legs	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Organoiridium chemistry Organoiridium chemistry: Organoiridium chemistry is the chemistry of organometallic compounds containing an iridium-carbon chemical bond. Organoiridium compounds are relevant to many important processes including olefin hydrogenation and the industrial synthesis of acetic acid. They are also of great academic interest because of the diversity of the reactions and their relevance to the synthesis of fine chemicals. Classification based on principal oxidation states: Organoiridium compounds share many characteristics with those of rhodium, but less so with cobalt. Iridium can exist in oxidation states of -III to +V, but iridium(I) and iridium(III) are the more common. iridium(I) compounds (d8 configuration) usually occur with square planar or trigonal bipyramidal geometries, whereas iridium(III) compounds (d6 configuration) typically have an octahedral geometry. Iridium(0) Iridium(0) complexes are binary carbonyls, the principal member being tetrairidium dodecacarbonyl, Ir4(CO)12. Unlike the related Rh4(CO)12, all CO ligands are terminal in Ir4(CO)12, analogous to the difference between Fe3(CO)12 and Ru3(CO)12. Classification based on principal oxidation states: Iridium(I) A well known example is Vaska's complex, bis(triphenylphosphine)iridium carbonyl chloride. Although iridium(I) complexes are often useful homogeneous catalysts, Vaska' complex is not. Rather it is iconic in the diversity of its reactions. Other common complexes include Ir2Cl2(cyclooctadiene)2, chlorobis(cyclooctene)iridium dimer, The analogue of Wilkinson's catalyst, IrCl(PPh3)3), undergoes orthometalation: IrCl(PPh3)3 → HIrCl(PPh3)2(PPh2C6H4)This difference between RhCl(PPh3)3 and IrCl(PPh3)3 reflects the generally greater tendency of iridium to undergo oxidative addition. A similar trend is exhibited by RhCl(CO)(PPh3)2 and IrCl(CO)(PPh3)2, only the latter oxidatively adds O2 and H2. The olefin complexes chlorobis(cyclooctene)iridium dimer and cyclooctadiene iridium chloride dimer are often used as sources of "IrCl", exploiting the lability of the alkene ligands or their susceptibility to removal by hydrogenation. Crabtree's catalyst ([Ir(P(C6H11)3)(pyridine)(cyclooctadiene)]PF6) is a versatile homogeneous catalyst for hydrogenation of alkenes.(η5-Cp)Ir(CO)2 oxidatively adds C-H bonds upon photolytic dissociation of one CO ligand. Classification based on principal oxidation states: Iridium(II) As is the case for rhodium(II), iridium(II) is rarely encountered. One example is iridocene, IrCp2. As with rhodocene, iridocene dimerises at room temperature. Classification based on principal oxidation states: Iridium(III) Iridium is usually supplied commercially in the Ir(III) and Ir(IV) oxidation states. Important starting reagents being hydrated iridium trichloride and ammonium hexachloroiridate. These salts are reduced upon treatment with CO, hydrogen, and alkenes. Illustrative is the carbonylation of the trichloride: IrCl3(H2O)x + 3 CO → [Ir(CO)2Cl2]− + CO2 + 2 H+ + Cl− + (x-1) H2O Many organoiridium(III) compounds are generated from pentamethylcyclopentadienyl iridium dichloride dimer. Many of derivatives feature kinetically inert cyclometalated ligands. Related half-sandwich complexes were central in the development of C-H activation. Classification based on principal oxidation states: Iridium(V) Oxidation states greater than III are more common for iridium than rhodium. They typically feature strong-field ligands. One often cited example is oxotrimesityliridium(V). Uses: The dominant application of organoiridium complexes is as catalyst in the Cativa process for carbonylation of methanol to produce acetic acid. Optical devices and photoredox Iridium complexes such as cyclometallated derived from 2-phenylpyridines are used as phosphorescent organic light-emitting diodes. Related complexes are photoredox catalysts. Potential applications Iridium complexes are highly active for hydrogenation both directly and via transfer hydrogenation. The asymmetric versions of these reactions are widely studied. Many half-sandwich complexes have been investigated as possible anti-cancer drugs. Related complexes are electrocatalysts for the conversion of carbon dioxide to formate. In academic laboratories, iridium complexes are widely studied because its complexes promote C-H activation, but such reactions are not employed in any commercial process.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Conceptual graph Conceptual graph: A conceptual graph (CG) is a formalism for knowledge representation. In the first published paper on CGs, John F. Sowa (Sowa 1976) used them to represent the conceptual schemas used in database systems. The first book on CGs (Sowa 1984) applied them to a wide range of topics in artificial intelligence, computer science, and cognitive science. Research branches: Since 1984, the model has been developed along three main directions: a graphical interface for first-order logic, a diagrammatic calculus of logics, and a graph-based knowledge representation and reasoning model. Graphical interface for first-order logic In this approach, a formula in first-order logic (predicate calculus) is represented by a labeled graph. A linear notation, called the Conceptual Graph Interchange Format (CGIF), has been standardized in the ISO standard for common logic. Research branches: The diagram above is an example of the display form for a conceptual graph. Each box is called a concept node, and each oval is called a relation node. In CGIF, this CG would be represented by the following statement: [Cat Elsie] [Sitting x] [Mat y] (agent ?x Elsie) (location ?x ?y) In CGIF, brackets enclose the information inside the concept nodes, and parentheses enclose the information inside the relation nodes. The letters x and y, which are called coreference labels, show how the concept and relation nodes are connected. In CLIF, those letters are mapped to variables, as in the following statement: (exists ((x Sitting) (y Mat)) (and (Cat Elsie) (agent x Elsie) (location x y))) As this example shows, the asterisks on the coreference labels x and y in CGIF map to existentially quantified variables in CLIF, and the question marks on ?x and ?y map to bound variables in CLIF. A universal quantifier, represented @every*z in CGIF, would be represented forall (z) in CLIF. Research branches: Reasoning can be done by translating graphs into logical formulas, then applying a logical inference engine. Research branches: Diagrammatic calculus of logics Another research branch continues the work on existential graphs of Charles Sanders Peirce, which were one of the origins of conceptual graphs as proposed by Sowa. In this approach, developed in particular by Dau (Dau 2003), conceptual graphs are conceptual diagrams rather than graphs in the sense of graph theory, and reasoning operations are performed by operations on these diagrams. Research branches: Graph-based knowledge representation and reasoning model Key features of GBKR, the graph-based knowledge representation and reasoning model developed by Chein and Mugnier and the Montpellier group (Chein & Mugnier 2009), can be summarized as follows: All kinds of knowledge (ontology, rules, constraints and facts) are labeled graphs, which provide an intuitive and easily understandable means to represent knowledge. Reasoning mechanisms are based on graph notions, basically the classical notion of graph homomorphism; this allows, in particular, to link basic reasoning problems to other fundamental problems in computer science (e.g., problems concerning conjunctive queries in relational databases, or constraint satisfaction problems). The formalism is logically founded, i.e., it has a semantics in first-order logic and the inference mechanisms are sound and complete with respect to deduction in first-order logic. Research branches: From a computational viewpoint, the graph homomorphism notion was recognized in the 1990s as a central notion, and complexity results and efficient algorithms have been obtained in several domains.COGITANT and COGUI are tools that implement the GBKR model. COGITANT is a library of C++ classes that implement most of the GBKR notions and reasoning mechanisms. COGUI is a graphical user interface dedicated to the construction of a GBKR knowledge base (it integrates COGITANT and, among numerous functionalities, it contains a translator from GBKR to RDF/S and conversely).	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
WIN 54,461 WIN 54,461: WIN 54,461 (6-Bromopravadoline) is a drug that acts as a potent and selective inverse agonist for the cannabinoid receptor CB2.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Motorcycle stunt riding Motorcycle stunt riding: Streetbike freestyle is a motorsport which involves wheelie, stoppie, acrobatics, burnout and drifting. Motorcycles are modified to do multiple tricks (handbreak, sucage, crashcage, stopper, etc.) Stunters: Stunters are a controversial subculture of motorcycling. Stunters perform motorcycle stunts on motor bikes, both on public roads and in private venues. Some stunters have organized commercial teams. History: A wheelie on a motorized vehicle is nothing new. In drag racing they are considered a problem, robbing power that could be used to accelerate the vehicle faster, and many classes of drag racing use wheelie bars to prevent them. However, those are for vehicles specifically built for drag racing, which rarely are street-legal, or unmodified from stock. In contrast, since at least the 1970s, some motorcycles straight from the showroom floor were able to be wheelied. History: One of the original public stunts done on a motorcycle was riding the Globe of Death. In this stunt, one or more riders enter a steel banded sphere through a trap door and begin circling. The centripetal force of accelerating along the curve allows the rider to eventually circle on any plane inside the sphere, including sideways and upside-down. Though this is one of the original stunts, it is still commonly seen among circus acts.In the late 1980s and continuing today, motorcycles, and especially sportbikes, have become lighter and more powerful, and have therefore become easier to wheelie. Other stunts have also become possible if not easy with the advancement of motorcycle technology. As Martin Child wrote in Bike, "With lighter, shorter, better-braked bikes on the market, the stoppie has never been so easy for so many." But at the same time, the cost of a motorcycle has remained relatively low compared to other street-legal vehicles with similar power-to-weight ratios. History: In the 1990s some riders made performing stunts the primary focus of their riding. A wheelie or other stunt was not just something to do while riding, it became the main goal in this type of riding. Towards the mid 90s, modern stunt riding began to gain traction as riders would take these antics to the highway. A few groups of riders came about during this time, the most well known and popular being the Starboyz. They would regularly film each other performing high speed dangerous motorcycle stunts on the highway. They were also the first to release tapes commercially with the main content being highway stunts and various slow speed stunts. As the 90s came to an end, stunt riding had begun to grow bigger with more and more people coming into the new style of riding. It was extremely controversial with many news outlets reporting on it and local police in different areas realizing it may be a problem that will be difficult to address. By 1999, many groups and teams had formed and films were being made on motorcycle stunt riding. Riders began to pioneer new tricks and throw actual events. Equipment: Stunters will modify their motorcycles to better adapt them to the sport. Stunting equipment includes: Frame sliders — These large knobs are attached to a motorcycle's frame to protect the fairing from damage should the rider lay down the bike, and are used by many non-stunters. Frame sliders should not be considered a substitute for a cage when learning how to stunt. Although Frame sliders will reduce the damage to the plastics and certain parts of the bike they are not enough to keep from cracking motor cases and or cracking the frame itself. Equipment: Crash cages — These cages provide more protection from damage than frame sliders and are mostly used by stunters. There are many examples of cages on the market today and a vast array of different designs and styles. It is very important to search for cages specifically designed to your bike's make and model to work best at maximizing the protection for your specific motorcycle. A cage should be one of the first things purchased when learning how to stunt due to the fact that most drops and falls will occur during this time. Equipment: Subcages — Subcages are very similar to crash cages, but for protection of a different sort. While crash cages are protection for the frame itself, motor mounts and cases subcages focus on protecting the subframe of the motorcycle. In certain cases, subcage applications will also eliminate the stock passenger pegs and relocate them to a different spot. This is more becoming for staggered stance wheelies among other tricks. These pegs will in some cases be solid mounted to eliminate the possibility of them folding up on the rider when doing wheelies on the passenger pegs. Equipment: front Upper Stay — This bracket is meant to replace the upper stay on the motorcycle which usually holds the upper fairing and gauges in place. This is only necessary when running a full fairing bike and is meant in like fashion as both the subcage and crash cage to protect the front of the bike and provide increased stability for the front end of the motorcycle. This will not save the front fairing from damage. Equipment: 12 o'clock bar — 12 bars, as they are referred to, are commonly used on stunt bikes. These bars attach to the subframe of the motorcycle and are used when 12ing the bike. These bars are meant to scrape the ground in place of the exhaust or tail section. Furthermore, with the introduction of the 12 bar came an array of bar tricks which all occur while the motorcycle is resting on the bar itself. These tricks include but are not limited to the ape hanger, watch tower, and various other acrobatics while the bike is on the bar. This modification is only used by stunters. Equipment: Hand Brake — The handbrake came onto the stunting scene much later and in actuality within recent years gained popularity. With the sport pushing its bounds into new territory came tricks that involved the rider in a position in which he cannot access the rear brake to control the balance point of the motorcycle. When tricks such as seat standers, highchairs, and spreaders came on the scene at first it was not necessary to use a handbrake, however these tricks quickly developed into scraping while in a highchair or spreader which involved the use of a hand mounted rear brake Round bar— A variation of the 12 bar, round bars are becoming more and more popular nowadays with riders straying away from bar tricks and increasing the technicality of Circle combinations. A round bar is the same principle of a 12 bar as far as scraping the bar instead of the tail section or exhaust with one difference. The round bar is just that, it is a curved bar that hugs the contour of the motorcycle tail section with no flat sections. Equipment: Sprocket Kit - Most stunters upgrade the gearing to allow for slower wheelies. Typical gearing consists of 1 down (-1) for the front sprocket and anywhere from 55 tooth to 66 tooth for the rear sprocket. Common stunts: Wheelies A basic wheelie is the lifting of the front of the motorcycle off the ground by means of either power or use of clutching. There are many variations of the basic wheelie... Power Wheelies - This wheelie can be done by either accelerating rapidly in a low gear, or by reaching the power band and then chopping the throttle. The Clutch-up Is done by either slipping the clutch lever as you accelerate, or by completely pulling in the clutch, riding up the rpm's, and then quickly releasing, or 'dumping' the clutch. The "circle" is a wheelie performed traveling entirely within a circle, which is very difficult to do. Even more difficult is a circle wheelie with the rider's right foot on the left peg, which is called a "Ralph Loui". Common stunts: The "high chair" is a wheelie with the rider's legs over the handlebars, while a "tank wheelie" is one in which rider sits on the tank with legs spread. A "frog" is a wheelie in which the rider stands on the tank, and a "seat stander" is performed with the rider standing on the motorcycle's saddle. Standing on the windshield while riding the bike at 12 o'clock is called a "watch tower". Common stunts: The "12 o'clock" is a very high wheelie, past the normal balance point of the motorcycle. A variation of this is the "coaster", in which the bike is balanced without the acting force of the motor, that is, with the clutch pulled in. The motorcycle is pulled so far back beyond the balance point of the wheel that the rider must constantly ride the rear brake to keep his machine from falling over backwards, causing him to slow down. A rider can pull in the clutch to create the effect of a wheelie with no engine noise. Conversely, some riders will pull in the clutch and peg the engine on its rev-limiter, called a "rev-limiter coaster". Common stunts: The opposite of the 12 o'clock is a wheelie in which momentum is used to lean forward, lifting the rear wheel while continuing to move forward at a high speed — this is called a "nose wheelie". A wheelie performed by two or more men on the same motorcycle is called "man-dom". Bar tricks Ape Hanger — Hanging from the bars with one's hands while doing a 12 O'clock, scraping the bike's 12 o'clock bar and allowing the riders feet to drag behind the bike. Cliff Hanger — Hanging from the bars with one's feet while doing a 12 O'clock. Stoppie — Lifting the rear wheel of the motorcycle using momentum and braking force. Also referred to as an Endo. Common stunts: Biscuit Eater — Stoppie with the rider's legs over the handlebars. Also known as the "highchair endo"Burnouts use the power of the engine and braking force to cause the rear wheel to spin, heating the rear tire and producing smoke. There are different types of burnouts, like the "suicide burnout" with the rider dismounted and standing in front of the motorcycle. The "chainsaw" is a form of burnout performed by the stunter standing beside a motorcycle lying on its side holding the motorcycle exclusively by the right handle bar then causing the bike to "orbit" around the rider while maintaining control during the burnout. In a "merry-go-round", the rider lays the bike on its side and climbs onto it, then leans back on the bike while holding the throttle, causing the bike to spin round while doing a burnout. Common stunts: Acrobatics Hyperspin— Kneeling on the right side of the bike, with the bike lying on the ground, and feathering the gas to spin around on the ground Switchback — Any stunt performed with the body facing the rear of the motorcycle, opposite the direction of travel. Christ — A stunt performed with the rider standing straight up on the seat or tank of the motorcycle with both arms extended while the bike is in motion. Also called a "Jesus Christ" or a "Cross". Can be combined with a switchback. De activator — Riding a wheelie on idle and jumping off the back of the motorcycle. Notable performers: Dale Buggins 1978 set world record by jumping over 25 cars Doug Domokos (1955–2000), "The Wheelie King" — held the record for longest wheelie for 8 years after a 145 miles (233 km) wheelie at Talladega Speedway in 1984. Among his other performances were the movie The Cannonball Run and wheelies up and down Lombard Street (San Francisco). Royal Signals Motorcycle Display Team, "The White Helmets" — a British military team started in the 1920s and also known as the White Helmets since 1963 Eddie Kidd, OBE (born 22 June 1959). Former British stunt rider. Notable performers: Evel Knievel, (Robert Craig Knievel Jr.) was an American stunt performer who attempted more than 75 ramp-to-ramp motorcycle jumps and was inducted into the Motorcycle Hall of Fame in 1999 Robbie Knievel an American daredevil and son of stunt performer Evel Knievel. Robbie has completed over 350 jumps, setting 20 world records., Motobirds, the UK's first all-women motorcycle stunt display group, formed in 1972 Dave McKenna (stunt rider), Australia's number one Freestyle Street Bike Stunt Rider since 2011 Robbie Maddison, in April 2015 successfully rode a modified dirt motorbike to surf on a wave near Teahupoo in Tahiti. Notable performers: Dave Taylor MBE, The Wheelie King, active in the 70s and 80s, was the first man to wheelie around the Isle of Man TT Mountain Course Cytrix display team Cytrix, a display team formed by members of the White Helmets at the end of World War II, toured for 20 years up to 1967. They toured mainly the UK, but also on two occasions the US (across 23 mid-west states over 4 months) and Europe. They appeared at UK agricultural shows and at Wembley on a number of occasions during the Speedway finals. The four consistent members of the team were Basil Shelbourne, Ted Way, Jet Jones and Neil Hack. Originally they rode Matchless bikes but later rode BSA Gold Stars. Stunts were typically run at speeds of 60 mph and included tunnel-of-fire jumps. They rode without crash helmets or leathers, just shirt, tie, jodhpurs and riding boots.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Tecolote (crater) Tecolote (crater): This is a list of craters on Mars. There are hundreds of thousands of impact craters on Mars, but only some of them have names. This list here contains only named Martian craters starting with the letter O – Z (see also lists for A – G and H – N). Tecolote (crater): Large Martian craters (greater than 60 kilometers in diameter) are named after famous scientists and science fiction authors; smaller ones (less than 60 km in diameter) get their names from towns on Earth. Craters cannot be named for living people, and small crater names are not intended to be commemorative – that is, a small crater isn't actually named after a specific town on Earth, but rather its name comes at random from a pool of terrestrial place names, with some exceptions made for craters near landing sites. Latitude and longitude are given as planetographic coordinates with west longitude.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Slapd Slapd: The SLAPD (Standalone LDAP Daemon) and SLURPD (Stand-alone LDAP update replication daemon) originally evolved within the long-running project that developed the LDAP protocol. It was developed at the University of Michigan, and was the first Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) software.Today, many LDAP Server Implementations are derived from the same code base of the original SLAPD and/or evolutions of it. University of Michigan: Tim Howes of the University of Michigan, Steve Kille of Isode Limited, Wengyik Yeong of Performance Systems International and Colin Robbins of Nexor authored the original LDAP specification. In 1993, initial implementations of the LDAP standard were made by Howes at the University of Michigan, in the form of LDAPD as a proxy for the Quipu X.500 directory and SLAPD. Netscape Communications Corporation: In 1996 Netscape Communications Corporation hired several of the project's developers, who then worked on what became known as the Netscape Directory Server.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Magic number (oil) Magic number (oil): The magic number is a term in economics that denotes the price of crude oil (measured in dollars per barrel) at which a crude oil exporting economy runs a deficit. Magic number (oil): Some countries support almost all spending from income derived from oil exports. As the price of oil drops, these countries take in less revenue from oil. The magic number denotes the point at which the revenue from oil is no longer sufficient to pay for spending. Mathematically, this can be expressed by the inequality: Q×P>S where Q is the quantity of oil exported, P is the price, and S is spending. The magic number is the value of P at which this inequality no longer holds true — that is, that the economy runs a deficit. PFC Energy publishes the magic number for all the OPEC nations. "Qatar is at $21 a barrel, because it brings in much more oil money than it spends. Saudi Arabia's break-even point is at $49 a barrel. And Venezuela is at $58, second only to Nigeria's $65."	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Webreep model Webreep model: The Webreep model is an information systems theory that explains and predicts website satisfaction, loyalty, and word-of-mouth. The model suggests that four factors (in the model called dimensions) directly influence website satisfaction. Website satisfaction, in turn, directly influences website visitor loyalty and likelihood of referral. Each factor is "shaped" by facets. The four dimensions and factors include: Navigation (facets: ease of use, ease of search) Content (information quality, information relevancy) Performance (page load speed, visual appeal) Trust (trustworthiness)Recent studies have found these four factors account for as much as 87% of the variance in website satisfaction. History: The Webreep model was developed by Brent Coker in 2007. It expands upon an earlier model developed by Coker in 2005 as part of his PhD research. The inspiration for the Webreep model might have come from Stuart Barnes who developed the WebQual scale with Vidgen in 2001. Barnes was Coker's PhD supervisor for a short time in 2004. Several of the factors in the Webreep model share similarities to existing information systems models. Notably, ease of use features in the technology acceptance model (TAM) and unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT), and trust features in Gefen and Karahanna's trust and TAM integrated model.The Webreep model combines theories from information systems and marketing. Satisfaction is the primary antecedent of loyalty and word-of-mouth in the model. This part of the model is consistent with marketing theorists who have promoted satisfaction as antecedent to loyalty and word-of-mouth. Usage: The Webreep model was designed to be parsimonious, in its extended form requiring just 10 questions. For this reason the Webreep model is often used in the field, and is the basis of the website feedback tool 'Webreep'. The scope of Webreep was designed to be broad, and is currently used to measure website customer satisfaction in a wide range of websites from brochure through to e-commerce.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Jordi Cortadella Jordi Cortadella: Jordi Cortadella Fortuny is a Spanish computer scientist specializing in electronic design automation. He is a professor of computer science at the Polytechnic University of Catalonia. Cortadella was elected to the Academia Europaea in 2013. He was named as a Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) in 2015 for contributions to the design of asynchronous and elastic circuits.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Melanoma with features of a Spitz nevus Melanoma with features of a Spitz nevus: Melanoma with features of a Spitz nevus (also known as a "Spitzoid melanoma") is a cutaneous condition characterized histologically with tissue similar to a spitz nevus and with overall symmetry and a dermal nodule of epithelioid melanocytes that do not mature with progressively deeper dermal extension.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Coding strand Coding strand: When referring to DNA transcription, the coding strand (or informational strand) is the DNA strand whose base sequence is identical to the base sequence of the RNA transcript produced (although with thymine replaced by uracil). It is this strand which contains codons, while the non-coding strand contains anticodons. During transcription, RNA Pol II binds to the non-coding template strand, reads the anti-codons, and transcribes their sequence to synthesize an RNA transcript with complementary bases. Coding strand: By convention, the coding strand is the strand used when displaying a DNA sequence. It is presented in the 5' to 3' direction. Wherever a gene exists on a DNA molecule, one strand is the coding strand (or sense strand), and the other is the noncoding strand (also called the antisense strand, anticoding strand, template strand or transcribed strand). Strands in transcription bubble: During transcription, RNA polymerase unwinds a short section of the DNA double helix near the start of the gene (the transcription start site). This unwound section is known as the transcription bubble. The RNA polymerase, and with it the transcription bubble, travels along the noncoding strand in the opposite, 3' to 5', direction, as well as polymerizing a newly synthesized strand in 5' to 3' or downstream direction. The DNA double helix is rewound by RNA polymerase at the rear of the transcription bubble. Like how two adjacent zippers work, when pulled together, they unzip and rezip as they proceed in a particular direction. Various factors can cause double-stranded DNA to break; thus, reorder genes or cause cell death. RNA-DNA hybrid: Where the helix is unwound, the coding strand consists of unpaired bases, while the template strand consists of an RNA:DNA composite, followed by a number of unpaired bases at the rear. This hybrid consists of the most recently added nucleotides of the RNA transcript, complementary base-paired to the template strand. The number of base-pairs in the hybrid is under investigation, but it has been suggested that the hybrid is formed from the last 10 nucleotides added. Works cited: Griffiths, A.J.F.; et al. (2005). Introduction to Genetic Analysis (8th ed.). W.H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-4939-4. Lewin, B. (2000). Genes VII. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-879277-8.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Product code Product code: Product code is a unique identifier, assigned to each finished/manufactured product which is ready, to be marketed or for sale. Product code may also refer to: Universal Product Code, common barcode used to identify packaged products Electronic Product Code, an RFID code mainly applied as a packaging code for packaged products Motion Picture Production Code (production code for short) Product key, a number used to verify the authenticity of a software as a license code Serial number, a number identifying an item per instance	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Says You! Says You!: Says You! is a word game quiz show that airs weekly in the United States on public radio stations. Richard Sher created the show in 1996 with the guiding philosophy: "It's not important to KNOW the answers: it's important to LIKE the answers." The first episode to broadcast on radio took place in Cambridge, Massachusetts in February 1997. Says You!: Recorded in front of live audiences in theaters around the United States, the show is produced in Boston, Massachusetts. Its format, emphasis on witty repartee, and its tagline—"a game of bluff and bluster, words and whimsy"—are reminiscent of the similarly long-running BBC program My Word! (1956–1990). The first ten seasons of Says You! aired in a half hour timeslot before expanding to one hour in 2006, though half hour versions were offered to stations who wanted them. Season 21 of Says You! marked the show's 500th episode.Richard Sher hosted Says You!'s first eighteen seasons, before his death on February 9, 2015. Original panelist Barry Nolan took over as host for the next two seasons, before returning to his seat as a panelist in early 2017. He was replaced as host by occasional panelist Gregg Porter of Seattle's KUOW-FM, with author/public radio contributor Dave Zobel (who came on as a Says You! writer after Sher's death) frequently guest hosting in 2018 and 2019 when Porter was absent or returning as a panelist. Porter left Says You! in the summer of 2019, with Zobel serving as permanent host until the end of season 25. Two final episodes hosted by former guest panelist Tom Bergeron and Richard Sher's son Ben (who voiced the episode-ending Pipit & Finch credit as a child and later served as a guest scorekeeper) were held in late 2022, but have yet to be posted online. Says You!: The COVID-19 pandemic forced taping for season 24 to conclude earlier than expected, with the last first-run episode with a live audience airing from Palo Alto, California on May 1, 2020. The remainder of the season and the entirety of season 25 consisted of new episodes recorded via Zoom or without a live audience, supplemented by reruns as well as 21 "Back 9" episodes, featuring nine rounds taken from three episodes apiece of early half-hour seasons. The final four first-run episodes featured a remote audience of ticket-buyers watching from home, with the last of these airing on August 13, 2021, with the season concluding primarily with "Back 9" re-airings. Stations that aired the half hour version of Says You! aired reruns from seasons 1-10 instead of "Back 9" episodes. Says You!: At the end of the 25th season, executive producer Laura Sher announced that production was ending and further seasons would consist of rebroadcasts. Season 26 premiered on October 8, 2021, and consisted of repeats from the show's eighth & ninth seasons, with season 27 in 2022-23 primarily featuring episodes from the tenth-twelfth seasons. Two final live episodes with studio audiences were held in Seattle & San Francisco at the start of season 27, but have not yet been aired on the radio. Says You! episodes continued airing on public radio affiliates until the end of season 27 in February 2023, when reruns of the series became exclusive to podcasting services, starting with select half hour episodes from seasons 1-10. Says You!: Over 250 episodes can be heard for free on-demand via Public Radio Exchange, including all first-run and Back 9 episodes from seasons 18-25, and all of the succeeding seasons' reruns. Says You!'s official website posts new episodes on a one week delay from PRX, while also selling over 370 episodes from seasons 1-6 and 11-20 in their online store. Reruns of half hour episodes are posted on a generally weekly basis on major podcasting platforms. Format: The show features a regular group of panelists—the cast—divided into two three-person teams. The two teams are made up of the show’s original cast members and occasional guest players. Teams answer a series of questions to earn up to ten points for each correct—or humorously suitable—answer. As the host provides more clues, and/or panelists get extra help from their teammates, fewer points are awarded, while partially correct or objectively humorous responses may also receive lesser points. Score-keepers (usually children or teenagers) keep track of the score of each game. Format: Rounds of the game Rounds 1, 3, and 5 vary from week to week and consist of signature categories such as "What's the Difference?", "Odd Man Out", "Melded Movies", and "Common Threads", as well as a variety of miscellaneous literary wordplay. Typically, six questions per round are asked, one aimed at each individual panelist, though assistance and interjections from their teammates are common. The host traditionally advises listeners to grab a pen & paper to play along with the teams, as "that's how we do it here". On occasion, that week's musical guest aids in a game themed around song lyrics, typically played as the final round. Some rounds reflected the culture, community names, and history of the location of that taping. Format: Rounds 2 and 4 are the Bluffing Rounds. Similar to the game show Liar's Club and the radio show Call My Bluff, the three members of one team are given an obscure word (e.g. cacafuego); one of them gets the actual definition, and the other two must bluff with fake definitions composed during a brief musical interlude, traditionally provided by a live musical guest. The other team attempts to determine the correct definition from the three presented. Ten points are awarded for guessing or bluffing successfully. Select early episodes instead featured a "Biofictionary" round, where teams had to guess the claim to fame of a person rather than a word's definition; this round was last held in season 11. Format: Compilation episodes occurred sporadically in early seasons, usually featuring rounds not included from a set of tapings, before the conceit returned via the "Back 9" episodes during the COVID-19 pandemic. To pad out the runtime of hour-long episodes, bonus content included a longer introduction, plugs from the host/panelists for their website, upcoming episodes, and ticket availability, as well as a mailbag segment where Richard Sher answered listener questions and issued corrections. Also commonly heard between rounds 4 and 5 was a "Spotlight Round", which highlighted memorable rounds from earlier seasons, often suggested by listeners. Following host Richard Sher's death in 2015, Spotlight Rounds were often picked to honour him. Format: Through the show's website, people could suggest questions and segments for the show, with frequent contributors nicknamed as "Says You! Hall of Famers". Players: Hosts Richard Sher (creator, producer, host from 1996 to 2015) Barry Nolan (host from 2015 to 2017; regular panelist in other seasons) Gregg Porter (host from 2017 to 2019; recurring panelist from 2015 to 2018) Dave Zobel (host from 2019 to 2021, frequent guest host from 2017 to 2019; question writer from 2015-2021) Original panelists Francine Achbar Carolyn Faye Fox Tony Kahn Paula Lyons (wife of Arnie Reisman) Barry Nolan (host from 2015 to 2017; husband of Garland Waller) Arnie Reisman (husband of Paula Lyons)The first team was typically introduced as sitting "stereo left/right" and the other was introduced as "Team 2", but they were usually referred to by whoever the captains were on that episode afterwards. Episodes usually featured Carolyn Faye Fox, Arnie Reisman, and Paula Lyons on one team and Tony Kahn, Francine Achbar, and Barry Nolan on the other team, with substitutions for panelist unavailability where needed. Crossovers between these panelist pairings on the same team only happened on rare occasions. During Barry Nolan's two seasons as host of Says You!, Murray Horwitz took his place as a regular panelist in most episodes, and remained a regular after Barry returned to the panel. Players: Regular and featured panelists Pat Bagley, editorial cartoonist May Berenbaum, entemologist Tom Bergeron, television host Tim Brooks, historian Callie Crossley, journalist & radio host Alan Dershowitz, Harvard professor and lawyer Walter Egan, musician Norman Gilliland, radio producer Deb Hiett (regular panelist in seasons 24-25; recurring panelist in seasons 22-23) Murray Horwitz (regular panelist in seasons 12 and 19-25; recurring panelist in other seasons) Philip Klinkner, political scientist Joyce Kuhwalik (regular panelist in season 25) Paul Magid (regular panelist in season 25; recurring panelist in seasons 23-24) Wendie Malick, actress Constance McCashin, psychotherapist & actress; wife of Sam Weisman Erin McKean, founder of Wordnik Phil Proctor, member of the Firesign Theatre Ammon Shea, writer Jimmy Tingle, political humorist Garland Waller, professor; wife of Barry Nolan Sam Weisman, film director; husband of Constance McCashin Robin Young, radio host Writers Nat Segaloff Dave Zobel	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Anvil (insecticide) Anvil (insecticide): Anvil is an insecticide widely employed to combat West Nile fever, a mosquito-borne disease identified in approximately 10,000 residents of the United States from 1999-2006. It is sprayed in Chicago and many other cities. Sumithrin, a synthetic pyrethroid, is the main active ingredient. Anvil (insecticide): Anvil is applied aerially via fixed-wing and rotary aircraft or via ground applications (truck/ATV/backpack) using ultra-low volume (ULV) sprayers. According to the Anvil Technical Bulletin published in January 2006, these sprayers create a fine mist of drops that average 17 micrometres in size. A very small amount of active ingredient is used; about 0.6 ounces (17 g) of active ingredient is used to treat 1 acre (0.40 ha) (4.2 kg/km²). Anvil (insecticide): The active ingredients in Anvil break down quickly in sunlight and do not bioaccumulate. There are no reentry precautions for Anvil. Anvil has been tested in 43 field trials in the United States against 30 mosquito species. History: Sumithrin was registered for use by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in 1975 and Anvil is registered for ground and aerial application in outdoor residential and recreational areas. Anvil is manufactured and distributed by Clarke Mosquito Control.In 2003, Anvil was used to treat more than one million acres (4,000 km²) in Larimer County, Colorado during a West Nile virus outbreak. According to the Anvil Technical Bulletin, this application reduced mosquito populations by approximately 80 percent. History: In 2006, Anvil was used in Massachusetts after Governor Mitt Romney declared a state of emergency after the virus that causes Eastern equine encephalitis (EEE) was identified in large quantities in mosquito populations and again in 2019 via aerial spraying after multiple people tested positive for EEE. Controversy: No-spray protests have called for more organic methods of preventing West Nile fever due to concerns about the potential health and environmental effects of the spray as well as recent studies showing the ineffectiveness of the spray. The active compound is an endocrine disruptor and toxic to bees and fish.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Big Bucks Trivia Big Bucks Trivia: Big Bucks Trivia is a quiz arcade game released by Dynasoft in 1986. The player answers questions from various trivia categories, in order to win "big bucks".	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Aerial application Aerial application: Aerial application, or what is informally referred to as crop dusting, involves spraying crops with crop protection products from an agricultural aircraft. Planting certain types of seed are also included in aerial application. The specific spreading of fertilizer is also known as aerial topdressing in some countries. Many countries have severely limited aerial application of pesticides and other products because of environmental and public health hazards like spray drift; most notably, the European Union banned it outright with a few highly restricted exceptions in 2009, effectively ending the practice in all member states. Aerial application: Agricultural aircraft are highly specialized, purpose-built aircraft. Today's agricultural aircraft are often powered by turbine engines of up to 1,500 shp (1,100 kW) and can carry as much as 800 US gallons (3,000 L) of crop protection product. Helicopters are sometimes used, and some aircraft serve double duty as water bombers in areas prone to wildfires. These aircraft are referred to as SEAT, or "single engine air tankers." History: Aerial seed sowing The first known aerial application of agricultural materials was by John Chaytor, who in 1906 spread seed over a swamped valley floor in Wairoa, New Zealand using a hot air balloon with mobile tethers. Aerial sowing of seed still continues to this day with cover crop applications and rice planting. History: Crop dusting The first known use of a heavier-than-air machine to disperse products occurred on August 3, 1921. Crop dusting was developed under the joint efforts of the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the U.S. Army Signal Corps' research station at McCook Field in Dayton, Ohio. Under the direction of McCook engineer Etienne Dormoy, a United States Army Air Service Curtiss JN4 Jenny piloted by John A. Macready was modified at McCook Field to spread lead arsenate to kill catalpa sphinx caterpillars at a catalpa farm near Troy, Ohio in the United States. The first test was considered highly successful.The first commercial cropdusting operations began in 1924 in Macon, Georgia by Huff-Daland Crop Dusting, which was co-founded by McCook Field test pilot Lt. Harold R. Harris. Use of insecticide and fungicide for crop dusting slowly spread in the Americas and, to a lesser extent, other nations in the 1930s. The name 'crop dusting' originated here, as actual dust was spread across the crops. Today, aerial applicators use liquid crop protection products in very small doses. History: Top dressing Aerial topdressing is the aerial application of fertilisers over farmland using agricultural aircraft. It was developed in New Zealand in the 1940s and rapidly adopted elsewhere in the 1950s. History: Purpose-built aircraft In 1951, Leland Snow designed the first aircraft specifically built for aerial application, the S-1. In 1957, The Grumman G-164 Ag-Cat was the first aircraft designed by a major company for agricultural aviation. Currently, the most common agricultural aircraft are the Air Tractor, Cessna Ag-wagon, Gippsland GA200, Grumman Ag Cat, PZL-106 KRUK, M-18 Dromader, PAC Fletcher, Piper PA-36 Pawnee Brave, Embraer EMB 202 Ipanema, and Rockwell Thrush Commander, but multi-purpose helicopters are also used. History: Unmanned aerial application Since the late 1990s, unmanned aerial vehicles have also been used for agricultural spraying. This phenomenon started in Japan and South Korea, where mountainous terrain and relatively small family-owned farms required lower-cost and higher-precision spraying. As of 2014, the use of UAV crop dusters, such as the Yamaha R-MAX, is being expanded to the United States for use in spraying at vineyards. Concerns: The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences keeps track of relevant research. Historically, there has been concerns about the effects of aerial applications of pesticides and the chemicals' effects as they spread in the air. For example, the aerial application of mancozeb is likely a source of concern for pregnant women. Concerns: Bans Since the 1970s, multiple countries started to limit or ban the aerial application of pesticides, fertilizers, and other products out of environmental and public health concerns, in particular from spray drift. Most notably, in 2009, the European Union prohibited aerial spraying of pesticides with a few highly-restricted exceptions in article 9 of Directive 2009/128/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing a framework for Community action to achieve the sustainable use of pesticides, which effectively ended most aerial application in all member states and overseas territories. Concerns: Guidelines The United States Environmental Protection Agency provides guideline documents and hosts webinars about best practices for aerial application.In 2010, the United States Forest Service collected public comments to use within a Draft Environmental Impact Statement (DEIS), which was developed because the Montana Federal District Court ruled that aerial application of fire retardants during wildfires violated the Endangered Species Act.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Jerome A. Feldman Jerome A. Feldman: Jerome A. Feldman is professor emeritus of electrical engineering and computer science at the University of California, Berkeley. He is a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science since 2005 and a fellow of the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence since 1990. Selected publications: From Molecule to Metaphor: A Neural Theory of Language. Bradford Books, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2006.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Mucus fishing syndrome Mucus fishing syndrome: Mucus fishing syndrome is a rare condition caused by repeated self damage to the conjunctiva.The condition causes excessive mucus production. Patients with this condition make their condition worse by removing mucus from their eyes. Causes: The condition often starts due to other untreated conditions.Patients with Vernal keratoconjunctivitis may develop this condition due to irritation from the mucus thread. Diagnosis: The condition is hard to diagnose because the patient may not admit to it due to embarrassment and shame.Doctors may find signs of damage at the surface of the eye due to self inflicted trauma. Treatment: Treatment for this condition requires treatment of the underlying condition.Patients should be told to refrain from rubbing or removing mucus from their eyes. Patients are also given treatment for their underlying conjunctival disorder. Lubrication and topical acetylcysteine are also a requirement.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Primer Premier Primer Premier: Primer Premier software combines design of primers for various PCR applications under one common platform. The software supports design of degenerate primers on alignments for amplifying a related set of nucleotide sequences for detecting many common traits amongst organisms and to determine heredity.The software also designs tagged and nested primers for multiplex PCR reactions.The Primer Premier software supports motif analysis and ORF search along with finding restriction cut sites on the nucleotide sequence. Primer Premier: The software has a built-in nucleotide-protein and protein-nucleotide sequence translator which can be used for designing degenerate primers for codons that code for multiple amino acid sequences. It is also understood that the primers designed by Primer Premier are effective and confirm to the design guidelines laid for designing primers for housekeeping genes with a high G+C%.The software also designs primers for flanking exons and introns in a gene, though there is no mention of it on the official Primer Premier page on the Premier Biosoft website. Primer Premier: The software calculates the hairpin structure stability and has been used to study its effect on PCR amplification. Competitors: There are many other software programs that design primers for the PCR reaction. Some of them are listed below: Geneious Primer3 DNASTAR's products such as SeqBuilder and PrimerSelect AlleleID (produced by the same company as Primer Premier) PrimerX (for site-directed mutagenesis) GenomePride OLIGO	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Technological changes at the Paralympic Games Technological changes at the Paralympic Games: Technological changes at the Paralympic Games have had major impacts on the types of sports that are played and how those sports are played. Assistive technology in sports can be “low-tech” or can be highly advanced. Over the past decades technology at the Paralympic Games has become more specialised; with the development of tailored technologies and equipment to individual athletes and uses. Archery: Para-archery is one of the original competitions that has been run since the original Paralympic games in 1960. It is open to athletes who have physical impairments who use assistive devices which are allowed under the classification rules. Some adaptations that are allowed are: Mechanical releases on the bow, Mouth slings, tabs or mounts for people with restricted arm movement, An assistant to relay information about position of arrows on target or to help nock the arrow to the bow, Strapping to support the body onto the wheelchair, Sight aids, Prosthesis with specialised attachments, Wheelchairs with additional back support. Cycling: Visually impaired athletes use the same type of equipment to able bodied athletes in a tandem format. There are a large range of prosthesis which allow for disabled athletes to participate in cycling. These include leg and arm prosthesis to allow for athletes to use the same types of bikes that able bodied athletes use. Prosthesis used for cycling are often very expensive and are manufactured from materials such as Carbon fiber. New materials and methods such as 3D printing are being investigated in the aim to reduce the cost of prosthesis and to improve comfort for athletes. Hand cycling: Hand cycles initially developed due to a desire by people with impairments to participate in sports alongside non-disabled athletes. The Paralympic Games allow the use of two types of hand cycles, these are recumbent and kneeling hand cycles. Racing hand cycles often have many gears, which can range from 1 to 33. The construction of hand cycles often consists of materials such as aluminium, titanium and carbon fibre. Wheelchair basketball: Wheelchair basketball is an adaptation of the able-bodied version. Since the beginning of wheelchair basketball in 1946 there have been significant changes in wheelchair technology. Modern wheelchairs used in wheelchair basketball have highly cambered wheels (to prevent injury to players hands). There have also been the addition of rear castor wheels to prevent falling backwards, and high tech materials such as carbon fibre and titanium are being used in the seats, frames and spokes Wheelchair rugby: Wheelchair rugby is played by athletes with quadriplegia who was played as a demonstration sport at the 1996 Atlanta Paralympic Games. Wheelchairs made its debut as a medal sport at the 2000 Sydney Paralympic games. These wheelchairs have these following characteristics, they have: A higher back for trunk control, A greater degree of dump (seat angle) to stop the player from falling forward. The angle also helps the player carry the ball in their lap, Metal shroud covering spokes, Forward metal protection for contact, High wheel camber to prevent injury to player’s hands.The wheels used between the 1996 and 2000 Paralympic Games were considerably different in their construction. With wheelchairs used in the 1996 Paralympic Games having a greater resemblance to the wheelchairs used in wheelchair basketball. Wheelchairs designs also allow for specialisations between defensive and offensive positions; these consist mainly of added components. Offensive chairs often have shrouds to make it harder for opponents to impede them and the design of defensive chairs allow for bumpers which are intended to impede the opposition. Shooting: Shooting is a test of both accuracy and control. Paralympic shooting events involve athletes with physical impairments who compete in rifle and pistol events. Disabled shooters use the same firearms and clothing as able-bodied shooters however adaptations to equipment are allowed to accommodate for disabilities. These may include rifle and pistol supports, or aids to allow for visually impaired athletes to aim. Technology changes over the past few decades have allowed for visually impaired athletes to compete in shooting events. These athletes use audio signals to guide them in their aiming, with variable pitch and intensity to indicate closeness to the target. Systems such as the Ecoaims VIS500 use infrared LEDs which are placed above the target and are recognised by the camera module within the aiming device. Shooters who compete in wheelchairs (as shown in the photos) compete in special wheelchairs which comply with the governing body's regulations. These wheelchairs have relatively low back support and no armrests. The mechanical support is used to brace the rifles for shooting. Wheelchair racing: Wheelchair racing equipment designs were limited from the 1940s until the 1990s, these restrictions greatly inhibited the innovation and design of racing wheelchairs. Modern racing wheelchairs have been developed solely for speed. Hence they use large rear wheels, a long wheelbase, small hand rims and a forward-leaning bucket seat. There are three methods to steering racing wheelchairs, by using the handlebars, the compensator or by doing a wheelie. The wheelchairs used at the beginning of wheelchair racing were slightly modified everyday chairs. Modern racing wheelchairs are made of advanced materials such as titanium and carbon fiber and have a significant amount of research and development behind them into factors such as rolling resistance and aerodynamics.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Class implementation file Class implementation file: In object-oriented programming, a class implementation file is often used to contain the implementation code for the method(s) of a class. Programming languages like C and C++ make use of these implementation files so as to separate the interface and implementation of these methods. Motivation: Using this structure, a class definition file containing the declaration of the class and its members is also created. If the class definition has been included and the implementation file for its methods is available, the user can instantiate an object of the class. The purpose of this structure is to keep the implementation code hidden, but allow the user to view the design.Users make use of the public interface of an object so as to make creating objects as simple as possible, ensuring that client code does not distract the user with unnecessary details of the class's implementation. Motivation: This allows the user the information needed to use the class effectively, but prevents him or her from damaging the compiled code. The structure of a class implementation file: An implementation file is used in C++ programming when creating a class definition to split the interface from the implementation. The header file would declare all the member functions (methods) and data methods (fields) that the class has.The implementation file will contain the actual definition or source code of the methods declared in the header file. This file can start with a header block, which provides comments that describe the purpose of the defined class and any details about the creation of the actual file, such as the author of the file and date the file was created. The structure of a class implementation file: It can also include any libraries from the C++ Standard Library that will be used by any of the declared methods in the file. The class implementation file will usually have a line to include the associated header file (see examples below). The structure of a class implementation file: Example in C++ An example would be having a class called ExampleClass. The header file of this C++ file would be named "example_class.h" and the implementation file would be "example_class.cc".An example of the structure of example_class.cc would look like this: In this example, the implementation for the functions has been omitted, but the functions must be declared in example_class.h like this: Example in Objective-C Another example of how a class implementation file would be structured can be seen with Objective-C, which is used in iOS programming. The structure of a class implementation file: This example will use "ExampleClass". A notable difference between C++ and Objective-C when making use of these implementation files is the extensions used at the end of the files. In C++ it will be .cpp and in Objective-C it will be .m, but both will use the same .h extension for their header file(s) as shown in the example below. The structure of a class implementation file: This is an example of ExampleClass.h in Objective-C: This is an example of the class's implementation file Exampleclass.m in Objective-C:	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Imaginary number Imaginary number: An imaginary number is a real number multiplied by the imaginary unit i, which is defined by its property i2 = −1. The square of an imaginary number bi is −b2. For example, 5i is an imaginary number, and its square is −25. By definition, zero is considered to be both real and imaginary.Originally coined in the 17th century by René Descartes as a derogatory term and regarded as fictitious or useless, the concept gained wide acceptance following the work of Leonhard Euler (in the 18th century) and Augustin-Louis Cauchy and Carl Friedrich Gauss (in the early 19th century). Imaginary number: An imaginary number bi can be added to a real number a to form a complex number of the form a + bi, where the real numbers a and b are called, respectively, the real part and the imaginary part of the complex number. History: Although the Greek mathematician and engineer Hero of Alexandria is noted as the first to present a calculation involving the square root of a negative number, it was Rafael Bombelli who first set down the rules for multiplication of complex numbers in 1572. The concept had appeared in print earlier, such as in work by Gerolamo Cardano. At the time, imaginary numbers and negative numbers were poorly understood and were regarded by some as fictitious or useless, much as zero once was. Many other mathematicians were slow to adopt the use of imaginary numbers, including René Descartes, who wrote about them in his La Géométrie in which he coined the term imaginary and meant it to be derogatory. The use of imaginary numbers was not widely accepted until the work of Leonhard Euler (1707–1783) and Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855). The geometric significance of complex numbers as points in a plane was first described by Caspar Wessel (1745–1818).In 1843, William Rowan Hamilton extended the idea of an axis of imaginary numbers in the plane to a four-dimensional space of quaternion imaginaries in which three of the dimensions are analogous to the imaginary numbers in the complex field. Geometric interpretation: Geometrically, imaginary numbers are found on the vertical axis of the complex number plane, which allows them to be presented perpendicular to the real axis. One way of viewing imaginary numbers is to consider a standard number line positively increasing in magnitude to the right and negatively increasing in magnitude to the left. At 0 on the x-axis, a y-axis can be drawn with "positive" direction going up; "positive" imaginary numbers then increase in magnitude upwards, and "negative" imaginary numbers increase in magnitude downwards. This vertical axis is often called the "imaginary axis" and is denoted iR, I, or ℑ.In this representation, multiplication by –1 corresponds to a rotation of 180 degrees about the origin, which is a half circle. Multiplication by i corresponds to a rotation of 90 degrees about the origin which is a quarter of a circle. Both these numbers are roots of 1 : (−1)2=1 , i4=1 . In the field of complex numbers, for every n∈N , 1 has nth roots φn , meaning φnn=1 , called roots of unity. Multiplying by the first n th root of unity causes a rotation of 360 n degrees about the origin. Geometric interpretation: Multiplying by a complex number is the same as rotating around the origin by the complex number's argument, followed by a scaling by its magnitude. Square roots of negative numbers: Care must be used when working with imaginary numbers that are expressed as the principal values of the square roots of negative numbers: 36 6. That is sometimes written as: (fallacy) 1. The fallacy occurs as the equality xy=xy fails when the variables are not suitably constrained. In that case, the equality fails to hold as the numbers are both negative, which can be demonstrated by: −x−y=ixiy=i2xy=−xy≠xy, where both x and y are positive real numbers.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
ConnMan ConnMan: ConnMan is an internet connection manager for embedded devices running the Linux operating system. ConnMan: The Connection Manager is designed to be slim and to use as few resources as possible, so it can be easily integrated. It is a fully modular system that can be extended, through plug-ins, to support all kinds of wired or wireless technologies. Also, configuration methods, like DHCP and domain name resolving, are implemented using plug-ins. The plug-in approach allows for easy adaptation and modification for various use cases. ConnMan: Originally created as part of Intel's Moblin effort, it's now used by OpenELEC as well as Mer and therefore also Sailfish OS by Jolla, which is based on it. It is also used in a number of Google Nest products, including Nest Cam, Nest Guard, Nest Hello, and Nest Learning Thermostat.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Grosshans subgroup Grosshans subgroup: In mathematics, in the representation theory of algebraic groups, a Grosshans subgroup, named after Frank Grosshans, is an algebraic subgroup of an algebraic group that is an observable subgroup for which the ring of functions on the quotient variety is finitely generated.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Sains Formation Sains Formation: The Sains Formation is a geologic formation in France. It preserves fossils dating back to the Devonian period.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Biological Trace Element Research Biological Trace Element Research: Biological Trace Element Research is a journal established in 1979 and published by Springer Science+Business Media. The editor-in-chief is M.F. Flores-Arce (International Association of Bioorganic Scientists). According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2020 impact factor of 3.738.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Cone top Cone top: A cone top (also called a cap-sealed can, cone-top, or conetop) is a type of can, especially a type of beverage can, introduced in 1935. Cone tops were designed in response to flat top beer cans as a hybrid between beer bottle and flat top can. Cone tops were especially attractive to smaller breweries which did not have the capital necessary to buy new canning machinery; cone tops could be filled on standard bottling equipment. Because they were typically made with steel, beverage cans faded out during the metal shortages of World War II. They were continued after the war, but fell out of use in 1960. They are now considered collector's items. Cone top: Types: Low Profile, manufactured by Continental Can Co., was first marketed in 1935. It is named as such because the neck of the cone top is low. The earliest version of the low profile set the way for the Quart cone top which was produced until 1937. High Profile, manufactured by American Can Company, was the last cone top to enter the market and remained in use after World War II along with the Crowntainer. Cone top: J Spout, manufactured by Crown Cork & Seal Company, was launched right after Continental Can Co.’s low profile version of the cone top. It is named “J Spout” because the thin neck resembles the letter J. It was Crown’s official move to canning beer instead of solely producing crown caps. The design was phased out during the beginning of World War II. Cone top: Crowntainer, manufactured by Crown Cork & Seal Company, is unique because it has a continuous form instead of a separate cone top. Between 1940 and 1955 over 70 different breweries in the United States used the container which developed over 250 designs incorporating the metallic background.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Over-the-shoulder shot Over-the-shoulder shot: The over-the-shoulder shot (OTS or short over) is a camera angle used in film and television, where the camera is placed above the back of the shoulder and head of a subject. This shot is most commonly used to present conversational back and forth between two subjects. With the camera placed behind one character, the shot then frames the sequence from the perspective of that character. The over-the-shoulder shot is then utilised in a shot-reverse-shot sequence where both subject's OTS perspectives are edited consecutively to create a back and forth interplay, capturing dialogue and reactions. This inclusion of the back of the shoulder allows audiences to understand the spatial relationships between two subjects, while still being able to capture a closer shot of each subject’s facial expression. In film and television, the filmmaker or cinematographer’s choice of an OTS shot’s camera height, the use of focus and lenses affect the way audiences interpret subjects and their relationships to others and space. History: The over-the-shoulder angle was employed in numerous artworks before the invention of photography or film making. The art of painting, by the Dutch painter Johannes Vermeer uses the OTS angle and was created between 1666–1668. It is considered one of the earliest appearances of the angle, which is said to include a self-portrait of the artist himself from behind. Similarly, nineteenth-century German romantic painter Caspar David Fredrich's artwork Moonrise over the sea, painted in 1822, depicts three rear facing figures looking out to sea. The OTS perspective captured in the artwork was common amongst Fredrich’s works and allowed audiences to identify with the figures in the painting, as they participated in the same visual experience as the subjects in frame. History: In the early years of silent film making, cameras were kept stationary and distant from the action, mirroring the position an audience would be viewing a stage production. The blocking and staging of scenes in early film was heavily influenced by theatrical conventions. For example, "cheating out", which meant to face outward towards an audience more than would be natural. This technique was utilised by filmmakers to position both subjects towards the camera, during a conversational scene, in order to capture the front and side profiles of both subjects, rather than turning away from the camera. History: By the early 20th century, films had evolved from static one shot takes to longer form films that utilised multiple camera angles and multiple shots within a scene and setting. James Williamson’s Attack on a China Mission Station, made in 1900, used the first reverse angle cut in film history. With the introduction of cutting and multiple shots being used for one scene, actors no longer had to "cheat out" towards the camera. Instead, the subjects could face one another and the filmmaker could capture conversation in two reverse over-the-shoulder shots from both subject’s perspectives. The technological improvements in cameras also meant they were smaller, lighter, could be moved far closer to subjects and have a greater range in controlling light, exposure and focus. Practical application: An OTS is composed, when used to capture dialogue, to make the subject facing the camera the shot’s focal point. A conventional OTS shot always has at least three layers of depth: the foreground, middle ground and background. The inclusion of a subject’s shoulder, and often the back of their head in the foreground, adds depth to the frame. Because an object appears bigger when it is closer to the camera than they do when viewed at a greater distance, objects and subjects appear different sizes on screen which increases viewers sense of the depth of the space depicted. This occurs because the filmmaker has placed the subject as an overlapping object along the Z-axis of the frame, the Z-axis meaning the imaginary line that runs from the foreground to the background of a shot. Practical application: To capture a turn-taking conversation, this OTS is then flipped to a reverse OTS angle that depicts the other subject’s perspective. Edited together, the interplay of these two shots often depicts a first subjects’ action and a second subject’s corresponding reaction. This sequence of two OTS shots that depict a back and forth between two subjects is called a shot-reverse-shot. Filmmakers aim to ‘match’ the OTS shots within a shot-reverse-shot in order to ensure spatial continuity so audiences quickly understand the physical distance between the two subjects, and their physical distance to the space around them. "Matching" means the two people involved remain on the same sides of the shot. For these shots to ‘match’, filmmakers may take into consideration the 180-degree rule, which dictates that the camera should be kept on one side of an imaginary axis between two characters. Similarly the 30 degree rule is also used, which specifies that if two shots of the same character or object are cut together, the viewpoints must be at least 30 degrees away from each other or entail significantly different shot sizes. This problem can be avoided by inserting a different shot between the two similar shots. Filmmakers also aim to create an eye line match, within conventional OTS shot-reverse sequences, to match the angle of the subject’s eye line with its corresponding position in the next shot. These rules dictate the placement of the camera and their direction to ensure spatial continuity. This tradition of ‘matching’ shots allows viewers to, often unconsciously, cognitively piece together the different camera angles and, with the inclusion of a subjects shoulder, positions the subject’s physical perspective clearly to then interact with the focal subject.The use of alternating over the shoulder shots contrasts with the use of single person shots during a conversation, with one person shown then the other, then the first, then the second, etc., throughout a conversation. This method does not establish a spacial relationship between the two persons. (In fact, the two speakers in this kind of sequence can be filmed days or months apart because the two actors are not shown together.) The two methods often are combined in a sequence, however. Practical application: The over-the-shoulder camera angle is also simulated in third-person shooter video gaming. Within this category of 3D gaming the player’s avatar is visible on screen, as opposed to a first-person shooter game that centres the weapon in the frame and adopts a Point-of-view immersive angle. The OTS angle is utilised in third-person shooter games as a way to allow both game designers and players to further customise the avatar characters and to display a greater range of vision of the surrounding area. This increase in a player’s field of vision allows for clearer close combat and interaction with physical objects in the game space. The earliest existence of this OTS angle being used in video games was in Spacewar! (1962), written for the DEC PDP-1 minicomputer at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Technology: To capture an OTS shot, a wide angle, normal or telephoto lens can be used. The type of lens a cinematographer may decide to use for a shot depends on the distance they want to create between the subject and the camera or subject in the foreground. In a conventional presentation of an OTS shot, the image is captured with a normal lens, with a very short camera to subject distance and a shallow depth of field in the foreground and background, leaving the main subject in sharp focus. A shallow depth of field is created when there is a small area in an image that is in focus, while the background is blurred, leaving only the subject in focus. This effect is achieved by increasing the camera's aperture or by decreasing the cameras f number.Computer technology is being developed to accurately classify shot types in film and television. Within an SVM learning machine, human presence detectors and context saliency mapping technologies have been combined to analyse all the visual data presented in a shot in order to identify its set-up. The OTS is one of the more difficult camera angles to classify, using these human presence recognition technologies, as the subject with their back to the camera isn’t easily detected as a human. This occurs because the image lacks face, upper body or full body classifiers the computer requires to determine a human presence. The continued improvement of this computer technology aims to increase the ‘visual saliency’ of the presence of actors on screen even when they are shown only partially and from behind, as in an OTS shot. Interpretation: The OTS shot is used as a way to capture the perspective of the subject whose shoulder the camera is placed behind. This technique can often be used to manipulate the level of identification an audience has with a character or can display a relationship dynamic between two characters on screen. This is achieved by controlling the camera’s angle in relation to the subject in focus. Similarly, the duration of a shot of one perspective more than another may lead an audience to further relate to one subject over another. This may be because the audience shares one subject’s perspective more often or contrastingly, if shown one subject as a focal point more often an audience may further identify with them. The more the camera matches the eye-line of the shot’s subject can also be a way in which audiences interpret relationships between characters or change their level of identification with one subject over another. As the OTS is so heavily used in film and television, breaking the ‘rules’ of the OTS is often an unconscious marker to audiences of a shift in mood or tone due to the discontinuity.It has also been suggested that the OTS shot had been used to depict homosexual kissing in order to surpass production codes of the time. This angle was utilised as characters could be shot from behind and therefore filmmakers could infer a kiss hidden from the view of the camera, rather than capturing the kiss from a straight-on angle. The Motion Picture Production Code, often referred to as the "Hays Code" after its creator Will H. Hays, stated "no picture shall be produced which will lower the moral standards of those who see it. Hence the sympathy of the audience shall never be thrown to the side of crime, wrongdoing, evil, or sin". The production code also referred to the depiction of homosexual intimacy on screen specifying "sex perversion or any inference of it is forbidden". Despite the production code’s abandonment by the late 1960s, the over-the-shoulder shot continually is used to obscure intimacy between same sex couples. This use of the OTS shot in television especially, combined with quick editing cuts, works to minimise the impact of same sex intimacy. This film making technique presents a "blink-and-you-missed-it peck in the corner of the screen, unassuming and un-obstructive" in order to maintain a broad viewership and network support. Examples: An example of the use of an OTS for dramatic effect is throughout Robert Zemeckis’s Back to the Future (1985) to show the dynamic between Marty McFly (the film's main character) and Biff (a bully). The differing camera angles used in their exchanges depict the power imbalance between the two characters. When capturing Marty as the subject from Biff’s perspective, he is shown from a high angle shot, as if Biff is physically and symbolically looking down on Marty. In the reverse shot, then capturing Biff as the subject from Marty’s perspective, he is shown from a low angle shot, positioning the camera from Marty’s viewpoint looking up at Biff.A single shot example of the OTS shot occurs in Citizen Kane. Cinematographer Gregg Toland uses a specially-made wide-angle lens with a very deep depth of field to get sharp focus from three feet from the camera to 25 feet away, which seems further because of the wide-angle lens. In the scene, Kane is preparing to sign away control of his fortune because of financial reverses. The right side of the shot is filled with the left shoulder and left side of Bernstein, Kane's former protector, reading the terms of the agreement. Sitting across a table from him and signing the agreement is Thatcher, Kane's banker, who is made to appear much smaller in the shot. Across the room, Kane paces back and forth, moving to and from the table, before he finally comes to the table and signs the agreement.A film that breaks the rules of the OTS is Matteo Garrone’s Gomorrah (2008) which always does not have a matched reversed shot. The focus is also often kept on the foreground instead of the middle ground, with the subject the camera is facing deliberately out of focus. This is demonstrated throughout the film as a way to convey a sense of mystery and instability by confusing the films continuity.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Double-system recording Double-system recording: Double-system recording is a form of sound recording used in motion picture production whereby the sound for a scene is recorded on a machine that is separate from the camera or picture-recording apparatus. Double-system recording: Double-system recording is the standard procedure on motion pictures that are originally photographed on film. Recording sound-on-film directly at the time of photography has several technical limitations, and no professional motion picture camera supports this option, so all production sound is recorded on a separate recorder. This procedure requires that both camera and sound recorder share a very accurate time reference, and that the speed of the camera and sound recorders be carefully governed. Originally this was done with an electro-mechanical interlock between the camera and recorder, necessitating a physical link, a cable, between recorder and camera. As quartz-based timers came into common use, film cameras and sound recorders adopted these, and these were accurate enough to remove the need for an interlock cable. Double-system recording: Double-system recording requires that sound and picture be manually synchronized at the start of every "take" or camera run. This task was performed by the clapper slate. A clap sound on the recording is matched to the closed clapper image on the printed film, and thus the two recordings can be realigned into sync. Before magnetic recording, a double-system sound recorder was generally a phonograph lathe. Once magnetic recording became viable, a succession of magnetic sound recorders, culminating in the Nagra, were the standard. As of 2007, most double-system production sound is recorded with hard disk drive-based digital recorders, with a DAT backup. When the apparatus recording sound and image are the same, as in a video tape recorder, sound is recorded directly onto the picture medium, and this procedure is called 'single-system recording'. On feature films that are photographed on high-definition video, audio is often recorded on the video recorder and also on secondary recorder.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Imd pathway Imd pathway: The Imd pathway is a broadly-conserved NF-κB immune signalling pathway of insects and some arthropods that regulates a potent antibacterial defence response. The pathway is named after the discovery of a mutation causing severe immune deficiency (the gene was named "Imd" for "immune deficiency"). The Imd pathway was first discovered in 1995 using Drosophila fruit flies by Bruno Lemaitre and colleagues, who also later discovered that the Drosophila Toll gene regulated defence against Gram-positive bacteria and fungi. Together the Toll and Imd pathways have formed a paradigm of insect immune signalling; as of September 2, 2019, these two landmark discovery papers have been cited collectively over 5000 times since publication on Google Scholar.The Imd pathway responds to signals produced by Gram-negative bacteria. Peptidoglycan recognition proteins (PGRPs) sense DAP-type peptidoglycan, which activates the Imd signalling cascade. This culminates in the translocation of the NF-κB transcription factor Relish, leading to production of antimicrobial peptides and other effectors. Insects lacking Imd signalling either naturally or by genetic manipulation are extremely susceptible to infection by a wide variety of pathogens and especially bacteria. Similarity to human pathways: The Imd pathway bears a number of similarities to mammalian TNFR signalling, though many of the intracellular regulatory proteins of Imd signalling also bear homology to different signalling cascades of human Toll-like receptors. Similarity to human pathways: Similarity to TNFR signalling The following genes are analogous or homologous between Drosophila melanogaster (in bold) and human TNFR1 signalling: Imd: human orthologue = RIP1 Tak1: human orthologue = Tak1 TAB2: human orthologue = TAB2 Dredd: human orthologue = caspase-8 FADD: human orthologue = FADD Key/Ikkγ: human orthologue = NEMO Ird5: human orthologue = IKK2 Relish: human orthologues = p65/p50 and IκB Iap2: human orthologue = cIAP2 UEV1a: human orthologue = UEV1a bend: human orthologue = UBC13 In Drosophila: While the exact epistasis of Imd pathway signalling components is continually scrutinized, the mechanistic order of many key components of the pathway is well-established. The following sections discuss Imd signalling as it is found in Drosophila melanogaster, where it is exceptionally well-characterized. Imd signalling is activated by a series of steps from recognition of a bacterial substance (e.g. peptidoglycan) to the transmission of that signal leading to activation of the NF-κB transcription factor Relish. Activated Relish then forms dimers that move into the nucleus and bind to DNA leading to the transcription of antimicrobial peptides and other effectors. In Drosophila: Peptidoglycan recognition proteins (PGRPs) The sensing of bacterial signals is performed by peptidoglycan recognition protein LC (PGRP-LC), a transmembrane protein with an intracellular domain. Binding of bacterial peptidoglycan leads to dimerization of PGRP-LC which generates the conformation needed to bind and activate the Imd protein. However alternate isoforms of PGRP-LC can also be expressed with different functions: PGRP-LCx recognizes polymeric peptidoglycan, while PGRP-LCa does not bind peptidoglycan directly but acts alongside PGRP-LCx to bind monomeric peptidoglycan fragments (called tracheal cytotoxin or "TCT"). Another PGRP (PGRP-LE) also acts intracellularly to bind TCT that has crossed the cell membrane or is derived from an intracellular infection. PGRP-LA promotes the activation of Imd signalling in epithelial cells, but the mechanism is still unknown.Other PGRPs can inhibit the activation of Imd signalling by binding bacterial signals or inhibiting host signalling proteins: PGRP-LF is a transmembrane PGRP that lacks an intracellular domain and does not bind peptidoglycan. Instead PGRP-LF forms dimers with PGRP-LC preventing PGRP-LC dimerization and consequently activation of Imd signalling. A number of secreted PGRPs have amidase activity that downregulate the Imd pathway by digesting peptidoglycan into short, non-immunogenic fragments. These include PGRP-LB, PGRP-SC1A, PGRP-SC1B, and PGRP-SC2. Additionally, PGRP-LB is the major regulator in the gut. In Drosophila: Intracellular signalling components The principle intracellular signalling protein is Imd, a death domain-containing protein that binds with FADD and Dredd to form a complex. Dredd is activated following ubiquitination by the Iap2 complex (involving Iap2, UEV1a, bend, and eff), which allows Dredd to cleave the 30 residue N-terminus of Imd, allowing it to also be ubiquitinated by Iap2. Following this, the Tak1/TAB2 complex binds to the activated form of Imd and subsequently activates the IKKγ/Ird5 complex through phosphorylation. This IKKγ complex activates Relish by phosphorylation, leading to cleavage of Relish and thereby producing both N-terminal and C-terminal Relish fragments. The N-terminal Relish fragments dimerize leading to their translocation into the nucleus where these dimers bind to Relish-family NF-κB binding sites. Binding of Relish promotes the transcription of effectors such as antimicrobial peptides.While Relish is integral for transcription of Imd pathway effectors, there is additional cooperation with other pathways such as Toll and JNK. The TAK1/TAB2 complex is key to propagating intracellular signalling of not only the Imd pathway, but also the JNK pathway. As a result, mutants for JNK signalling have severely reduced expression of Imd pathway antimicrobial peptides. In Drosophila: The antimicrobial response Imd signalling regulates a number of effector peptides and proteins that are produced en masse following immune challenge. This includes many of the major antimicrobial peptide genes of Drosophila, particularly: Diptericin, Attacin, Drosocin, Cecropin, and Defensin. The Imd pathway regulates hundreds of genes after infection, however the antimicrobial peptides play one of the most essential roles of Imd signalling in defence. Flies lacking multiple antimicrobial peptide genes succumb to infections by a broad suite of Gram-negative bacteria. Classical thinking suggested that antimicrobial peptides worked as a generalist cocktail in defence, where each peptide provided a small and somewhat redundant contribution. However Hanson and colleagues found that single antimicrobial peptide genes displayed an unexpectedly high degree of specificity for defence against specific microbes. The fly Diptericin A gene is essential for defence against the bacterium Providencia rettgeri (also suggested by an earlier evolutionary study). A second specificity is encoded by the gene Drosocin. Flies lacking Drosocin are highly susceptible to Enterobacter cloacae infection. The Drosocin gene itself encodes two peptides (named Drosocin and Buletin), wherein it is specifically the Drosocin peptide that is responsible for defence against E. cloacae, while the Buletin peptide instead mediates a specific defence against another bacterium, Providencia burhodogranariea. These works accompany others on antimicrobial peptides and effectors regulated by the Drosophila Toll pathway, which also display a specific importance in defence against certain fungi or bacteria.This work on Drosophila immune antimicrobial peptides and effectors has greatly revised the former view that such peptides are generalist molecules. The modern interpretation is now that specific molecules might provide a somewhat redundant layer of defence, but also single peptides can have critical importance, individually, against relevant microbes. Conservation in insects: The Imd pathway appears to have evolved in the last common ancestor of centipedes and insects. However certain lineages of insects have since lost core components of Imd signalling. The first-discovered and most famous example is the pea aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum. It is thought that plant-feeding aphids have lost Imd signalling as they bear a number of bacterial endosymbionts, including both nutritional symbionts that would be disrupted by aberrant expression of antimicrobial peptides, and defensive symbionts that cover for some of the immune deficiency caused by loss of Imd signalling. It has also been suggested that antimicrobial peptides, the downstream components of Imd signalling, may be detrimental to fitness and lost by insects with exclusively plant-feeding ecologies. Conservation in insects: Crosstalk between the Imd and Toll signalling pathways While the Toll and Imd signalling pathways of Drosophila are commonly depicted as independent for explanatory purposes, the underlying complexity of Imd signalling involves a number of likely mechanisms wherein Imd signalling interacts with other signalling pathways including Toll and JNK. While the paradigm of Toll and Imd as largely independent provides a useful context for the study of immune signalling, the universality of this paradigm as it applies to other insects has been questioned. In Plautia stali stinkbugs, suppression of either Toll or Imd genes simultaneously leads to reduced activity of classic Toll and Imd effectors from both pathways. Conservation in insects: Insects and arthropods lacking Imd signalling The pea aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum The bed bug Cimex lectularius The mite Tetranychus urticae	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Ultracote Ultracote: Ultracote is a commercially available light-weight plastic shrink-wrap film available in various color schemes with an adhesive on one side, used to cover and form the surfaces of a model aircraft. The material is cut to size and applied to the aircraft surfaces using a hobby iron or heat gun. This product is also sometimes referred to as Oracover in Europe (also Profilm in United Kingdom). Ultracote: Ultracote is distributed in the United States and Canada by http://www.horizonhobby.com. Ultracote is not manufactured by Horizon. It is a product manufactured with the trade name Oracover in Europe and manufactured by Lanitz-Prena Folien Factory GmbH http://buegelfolie.de/home.jsp?root_node_id=0&node_id=2005291153607563158 Horizon Hobby Distributors have exclusive distribution rights from the manufacturer for Oracover to be sold as Ultracote in the US and Canada. At one time Ultracote was sold in the United States as Carl Goldberg Ultracote.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
COSMO solvation model COSMO solvation model: COSMO (COnductor-like Screening MOdel) is a calculation method for determining the electrostatic interaction of a molecule with a solvent. COSMO is a dielectric continuum model (a.k.a. continuum solvation model). These models can be used in computational chemistry to model solvation effects. COSMO has become a popular method of these solvation models in recent years. The COSMO formalism is similar to the method proposed earlier by Hoshi et al. The COSMO approach is based - as many other dielectric continuum models - on the surface segmentation of a molecule surface (usually referred to as 'solvent accessible surface' SAS approach). Continuum solvation models - such as COSMO - treat each solvent as a continuum with a permittivity ε . Continuum solvation models approximate the solvent by a dielectric continuum, surrounding the solute molecules outside of a molecular cavity. In most cases it is constructed as an assembly of atom-centered spheres with radii approximately 20% larger than the Van der Waals radius. For the actual calculation the cavity surface is approximated by segments, e.g., hexagons, pentagons, or triangles. COSMO solvation model: Unlike other continuum solvation models, COSMO derives the polarization charges of the continuum, caused by the polarity of the solute, from a scaled-conductor approximation. If the solvent were an ideal conductor the electric potential on the cavity surface must disappear. If the distribution of the electric charge in the molecule is known, e.g. from quantum chemistry, then it is possible to calculate the charge q∗ on the surface segments. For solvents with finite dielectric constant this charge q is lower by approximately a factor f(ε) :q=f(ε)q∗. COSMO solvation model: The factor f(ε) is approximately f(ε)=ε−1ε+x, where the value of x should be set to 0.5 for neutral molecules and to 0.0 for ions, see original derivation. The value of x is erroneously set to 0 in the popular C-PCM reimplementation of COSMO in Gaussian. From the thus determined solvent charges q and the known charge distribution of the molecule, the energy of the interaction between the solvent and the solute molecule can be calculated. The COSMO method can be used for all methods in theoretical chemistry where the charge distribution of a molecule can be determined, for example semiempirical calculations, Hartree–Fock-method calculations or density functional theory (quantum physics) calculations. Variants and implementations: COSMO has been implemented in a number of quantum chemistry or semi-empirical codes such as ADF, GAMESS-US, Gaussian, MOPAC, NWChem, TURBOMOLE, and Q-Chem. A COSMO version of the polarizable continuum model PCM has also been developed. Depending on the implementation, the details of the cavity construction and the used radii, the segments representing the molecule surface and the x value for the dielectric scaling function f(ε) may vary - which at times causes problems regarding the reproducibility of published results. Comparison with other methods: While models based on the multipole expansion of the charge distribution of a molecule are limited to small, quasi-spherical or ellipsoidal molecules, the COSMO method has the advantage (as many other dielectric continuum models) that it can be applied to large and irregularly formed molecular structures. Comparison with other methods: In contrast to the polarizable continuum model (PCM), which uses the exact dielectric boundary conditions, the COSMO method uses the approximative scaling function f(ε) . Though the scaling is an approximation, it turned out to provide a more accurate description of the so-called outlying charge, reducing the corresponding error. A method comparison of COSMO and the integral equation formalism PCM (IEFPCM), which combines the exact dielectric boundary conditions with a reduced outlying charge error, showed that the differences between the methods are small as compared to deviations to experimental solvation data. The errors introduced by treating a solvent as a continuum and thus neglecting effects like hydrogen bonding or reorientation are thus more relevant to reproduce experimental data than the details of the different continuum solvation methods.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Novell Storage Services Novell Storage Services: Novell Storage Services (NSS) is a file system used by the Novell NetWare operating system. Support for NSS was introduced in 2004 to SUSE Linux via low-level network NCPFS protocol. It has some unique features that make it especially useful for setting up shared volumes on a file server in a local area network. NSS is a 64-bit journaling file system with a balanced tree algorithm for the directory structure. Its published specifications (as of NetWare 6.5) are: Maximum file size: 8 EB Maximum partition size: 8 EB Maximum device size (Physical or Logical): 8 EB Maximum pool size: 8 EB Maximum volume size: 8 EB Maximum files per volume: 8 trillion Maximum mounted volumes per server: unlimited if all are NSS Maximum open files per server: no practical limit Maximum directory tree depth: limited only by client Maximum volumes per partition: unlimited Maximum extended attributes: no limit on number of attributes. Novell Storage Services: Maximum data streams: no limit on number of data streams. Unicode characters supported by default Support for different name spaces: DOS, Microsoft Windows Long names (loaded by default), Unix, Apple Macintosh Support for restoring deleted files (salvage) Support for transparent compression Support for encrypted volumes Support for data shredding	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Urethrotomy Urethrotomy: A urethrotomy is an operation which involves incision of the urethra, especially for relief of a stricture. It is most often performed in the outpatient setting, with the patient (usually) being discharged from the hospital or surgery center within six hours from the procedure's inception.Urethrotomy (also referred to as DVIU, or Direct Visual Internal Urethrotomy) is a popular treatment for male urethral strictures. However, the performance characteristics are poor. Success is less than 9% for the first or subsequent urethrotomies. Most patients will be expected to experience failure with longer followup and the expected long-term success rate from any urethrotomy approach is 0%. Beginning in 2003, several urology residency programs in the northeastern section of the United States began advocating the use of urethrotomy as initial treatment in the young stricture patient, versus urethral dilatation. It is theorized that the one-to-two years of relief from stricture disease will allow the practitioner and the patient to plan the most effective treatment regimen without having the concern that undergoing multiple dilatations cloud the judgment of the patient. Furthermore, should urethroplasty be selected by the patient, minimal scar tissue will have developed at the site of the stricture in the urethrotomy patient, as opposed to the patient who had undergone the more conventional (dilatation) route. The procedure: Now the diagnosis has been confirmed by either cystoscopy or a prior urethrography, the patient is placed in the lithotomy position, and the urinary meatus is cleansed with an appropriate surgical cleansing agent (scrub), usually containing Povidone-iodine, then surgically draped. An IV antibiotic or other anti-infective medication is administered in conjunction with intravenous normal saline, and allowed to run until administration of the prescribed dose is completed. Most often, procedural sedation will be the chosen adjunct to patient comfort, and the patient will have received intravenous anxiolytic medication at sometime prior to, or during the surgical preparation. This medication is usually a benzodiazepine, often, diazepam or midazolam is employed. The urological surgeon or anesthesia practitioner may also choose to administer a narcotic analgesic such as fentanyl citrate, depending on the level of discomfort anticipated by the surgeon. In some cases, usually where longer strictures are present, a rapidly metabolized hypnotic agent such as propofol may be selected, as this allows for the immediate induction of short-term general anesthesia (note:endotracheal intubation will also be necessary if general anesthesia is administered). Constant monitoring of vital signs including pulse oximetry, cardiac monitoring (ECG), body temperature and blood pressure are carried out by the anesthesia practitioner until the patient is discharged post-operatively to the post-surgical recovery unit.A topical anesthetic, usually viscous lidocaine is instilled into the urethra, and a penile (crown) clamp is applied for at least five minutes, then removed immediately prior to the insertion of a cystoscope equipped with a transurethral injection system containing a local anesthetic (most often 2% (plain) lidocaine, or 0.5% (plain) bupivicaine). The urological surgeon will inject the anesthetic at the twelve o'clock, four o'clock, and eight o'clock positions at the face of the stricture using infiltrative technique, and ensuring that the entire length of the stricture has been medicated. The cystoscope (and injection system) will be withdrawn, and sufficient time will be allowed for the local anesthetic to take effect (usually five-to-ten minutes).At this time a rigid urethrotome or a flexible cystoscope/urethrotome combination will be inserted and guided to the face of the stricture and a small blade towards the tip of the instrument will be deployed using a trigger mechanism to cut the stricture at locations determined by the surgeon. Upon completion of the internal incision(s), the instrument is withdrawn and an appropriately sized Foley catheter will be inserted through the repair and into the urinary bladder, and locked into place by filling its balloon (positioned inside of the bladder near the urethral junction) with sterile water. The Foley catheter serves two purposes, first, it provides drainage of the urine produced in the kidneys, and secondly, it secures the incised areas, holding them open for three to seven days to permit thorough healing of the urethra. The catheter is then attached to a urinary catheter drainage system (large bag or leg bag) via clear polypropylene tubing. Post procedural care: Prior to discharge from the surgical facility, the patient will be instructed on proper care of the urinary drainage system, how to monitor for signs of infection, and the limitations of physical activity necessary for the safety of the patient, and the success of the procedure. A course of oral antibiotics or anti-infective agents will be prescribed. Additionally, a urinary analgesic such as phenazopyridine or urinary analgesic/anti-spasmodic combination containing methanamine, methylene blue, and hyoscyamine sulfate will be offered. Palliative medications may sometimes be prescribed, but are often not necessary because there is usually minimal discomfort post-procedure.A few steps can be taken before surgery to reduce the discomfort of recovery. It is suggested to wear loose fitting undergarments after the procedure as there is a chance of having a catheter after the procedure. Men's cotton boxers work well for both comfort and containing any bleeding that may occur. (Note: bleeding after a urethrotomy is expected and can last up to 48 hours.) Purchasing cheap black or dark grey undergarments can help with post-surgery anxiety as light-colored undergarments can make the bleeding appear worse than it actually is and the undergarments can be thrown out after use. Additionally, applying water-based lubricant to the catheter and allowing it to run down and coat the opening of the urethra will prevent the catheter from rubbing and irritating the urethral opening. Lastly, preparing lean meals before surgery such as grilled chicken or salad is a good idea to ease recovery for the 48 hours after surgery. Post surgical evaluation and care: The surgeon will remove the catheter three to seven days after the surgery is completed. A baseline uroflowmetric study will be performed, and the patient will be instructed to return in thirty days for a follow-up evaluation. This evaluation will include another uroflowmetric study and a complete urinalysis. Follow-up visits are scheduled at six-month intervals, as determined by the practitioner responsible for the treatment plan.It has become common practice for urologists to prescribe self-catheterization at weekly intervals for the post-urethrotomy patient. After voiding, and using sterile technique, a lubricated Foley catheter is passed into the urethra, through the surgically modified area, into the bladder and allowed to remain in place for up to ten minutes. The catheter is then carefully withdrawn and discarded, and the patient is then instructed to void as soon as possible (this helps to cleanse the urethra of any blood or water-based lubricant and lessen the possibility of infection). Although no formal studies have been conducted, there does appear to be an improvement in intervals between subsequent urethrotomies and an improvement in uroflowmetric data for most patients who have undergone this regimen. Controversy: Many leading urologists in the United States consider urethrotomy to be (almost) totally ineffective at providing long-term resolution of urethral stricture disease, and advocate excision of the damaged area followed by either a surgical anastomosis of the (now) patent urethral ends, or a grafting of similar tissue harvested from elsewhere on the patients body.The cost-effectiveness of the procedure has come into question. In the May, 2006 issue of "Urology", a study undertaken by the Urology Department of the University of Washington essentially concluded that there is a statistical correlation between the length of the stricture and the cost versus benefit ratio of subsequent urethrotomies performed prior to the performance of urethroplasty in males suffering from bulbar strictures.Urethrotomy is a much simpler operation requiring much less recovery time and that open surgical excision of a simple, short stricture even if initially successful may still require the same repeated post operative self dilation that the simpler urethrotomy often requires. It may be that a longer complicated stricture may be better treated with an open procedure while the shorter simpler one with a urethrotomy. Research: Urethrotomy vs. urethroplasty Comparing the two surgical procedures, a UK trial found that both urethrotomy and urethroplasty are effective in treating urethral stricture in the bulbar region. At the same time the more invasive urethroplasty had longer-lasting benefit and was associated with fewer re-interventions. The results were integrated into the new UK guidelines on the treatment urethral narrowing by British Association of Urological Surgeons.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Window Maker Window Maker: Window Maker is a free and open-source window manager for the X Window System, allowing graphical applications to be run on Unix-like operating-systems. It is designed to emulate NeXTSTEP's GUI as an OpenStep-compatible environment. Window Maker is part of the GNU Project. Overview: Window Maker has been characterized as reproducing "the elegant look and feel of the NeXTSTEP GUI" and is noted as "easy to configure and easy to use." A graphical tool called Wprefs is included and can be used to configure most aspects of the UI. The interface tends towards a minimalist, high performance environment directly supporting XPM, PNG, JPEG, TIFF, GIF and PPM icons with an alpha-channel and a right-click, sliding-scrolling application menu system which can throw off pinnable menus, along with window-icon miniaturization and other animations on multiple desktops. Menus and preferences can be changed without restarting. As with most window managers it supports themes and many are available. Owing to its NeXT inspiration, Window Maker has a dock like macOS, but Window Maker's look and feel hews mostly to that of its NeXT forebear. Overview: Architecture Window Maker has window hints which allow seamless integration with the GNUstep, GNOME, KDE, Motif and OpenLook environments. Significantly it has almost complete ICCCM compliance and internationalization support for at least 11 locales. Window Maker uses the lightweight WINGs widget set which was built specifically for Window Maker as a way to skirt what its developers said would have been the "overkill" (or bloat) of using GNUstep. WINGs is common to other applications including a login display manager called WINGs Display Manager (WDM) and many dockapps. Window Maker dock and clip applets are compatible with those from AfterStep's wharf. History: Window Maker was written from scratch primarily by Brazilian programmer Alfredo Kojima as a window manager for the GNUstep desktop environment and originally meant as an improved take on the AfterStep window manager's design concept. The first release was in 1997. For a time it was included as a standard window manager in several Linux distributions and is also available in the FreeBSD and OpenBSD ports collection. Since the goal of the project has been to closely emulate the design of the defunct NeXTstep and OpenStep GUIs, further development has been light. In late 2007 the widely available, stable release version was at 0.92 from July 2005 with subsequent maintenance updates having been made to some distribution packages and ports.In late June 2008 a post on the project's website said active development would resume, noting, "...we are working very hard to revitalize Window Maker's presence on X Window (and perhaps beyond) desktops... We expect to once again provide the de-facto minimalist yet extremely functional window manager to the world." On 29 January 2012, Window Maker 0.95.1 was released, making it the first official release in almost seven years. This was followed by a number of releases; As of September 2020 the latest release was 0.95.9, released on 4 April 2020. History: Name The program's name, a pun on the term widowmaker, was originally WindowMaker (camel cased and without the space) but a naming conflict arose with an older product called Windowmaker from Windowmaker Software Ltd, a UK company producing software for companies that manufacture windows and doors. A 1998 agreement between the developers of Window Maker and Windowmaker Software specified that Window Maker (in the X sense) should never be used as a single word. Usage: Adhering closely to the NeXT interface, the default appearance can be confusing to someone expecting a Microsoft Windows-style taskbar and start menu. All applications can be accessed by right-clicking on the desktop background to access the fully configurable main menu. The menu can also be displayed using the keyboard, with F12 for the application menu and F11 for a window menu. Usage: Window Maker can be configured by double-clicking the screwdriver icon on the dock. An icon depicting a computer monitor is used to launch a command-window and a paperclip icon is used to cycle between workspaces. Any icon in Window Maker, including application icons, can be easily changed. Usage: Icons representing running applications appear at the bottom of the screen (the user can extend application windows to cover these). By default, the dock appears at upper right. Icons can be dragged onto the dock to make them permanent. The edge of an icon can be right-clicked to adjust its settings. A separate, dockable application called wmdrawer features a slide-out drawer which can hold application and file launching icons. Usage: Basic apps While any X application can be docked in Window Maker, the archetypical WM dockable applications are called dockapps. These tend to be clocks and system monitoring applications. There are many clock implementations, including wmcalclock, wmtime, wmclock (a NeXTStep-like calendar clock clone) and wmclockmon. Monitoring applets include wmload, wmavgload, wmmon, wmnet and wmnd. Many other dockapps are available, typically ones intended to interact with other "full fledged" applications. Usage: The WPrefs configuration tool enables tuning of most Window Maker preferences. wmakerconf was developed to provide more configuration options, notably theme customization. Configuration files are typically stored in ~/GNUstep/. The background can be changed from the command line with wmsetbg -s -u [filename.jpg] (wmsetbg stands for "window maker set background"). Usage: FSViewer is a separate, configurable Miller Columns file browser developed for Window Maker in 1998 by George Clernon as a visual and functional analogy to NeXTstep's Workspace Manager. In 2002, it was adapted to later versions of the WINGs libraries and Window Maker by Guido Scholz.aterm is an rxvt based terminal emulator developed for Afterstep mainly for visual appeal, featuring a NeXTstep style scrollbar (which matches Window Maker's look and feel) along with pseudo-transparency. Usage: Menu The application menu can be edited graphically with much versatility. The configuration is recorded in ~/GNUstep/Defaults/WMRootMenu as a text file which can be easily read and edited (in versions after 0.94.0 it can also be automatically generated from a list of installed applications using a program called wmgenmenu). Usage: Menu items can be set to: Launch a program or application with or without a filename and other arguments Launch a command line interface with or without further arguments Run a WM command, such as exiting a Window Maker session or listing windows and workspaces List a submenu containing any of the above tasksMany Linux distributions define their own applications menu for Window Maker. This cannot usually be edited using the configuration tool (which will instead offer to replace it with a generic default menu which can be edited). Mascot: Amanda the Panda is the mascot of Window Maker. She was designed by Agnieszka Czajkowska.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Web callback Web callback: Web callback is a technology where a person can enter his or her telephone number in a form on a web site. The company who owns that Web site will then receive the Web callback request and a call center agent will call the person who made the request back on the number they entered. In some implementations, the Web callback service provider will place outgoing calls to the owner of the web site, and the user, then connect the calls together. An alternative approach is for the web site owner to receive a SMS text message, so they can initiate the call to the web site user. Some Web callback service providers allow the callback form to be embedded into the web site, sometimes matching the look and feel of the existing site. Others simply add a hyperlink to the site, which is linked to the service providers own site. Web Callback vs Click To Call: Different than a simple computer Click To Call (CTC), Web Callbacks are not calls generated from the users computer, but will call any number entered. Web Callback vs Click To Call: Trends As more advanced Web Callback technology is becoming more available, businesses are finding it a useful tool to increase inbound marketing. Along with normal businesses that you would expect to use the tech, that want more calls from their website, the Pay Per Call Industry or Pay Per Call Arbitrage is now seeing an increase use of Web Callback technology to deliver more calls to their clients.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Convergence space Convergence space: In mathematics, a convergence space, also called a generalized convergence, is a set together with a relation called a convergence that satisfies certain properties relating elements of X with the family of filters on X. Convergence spaces generalize the notions of convergence that are found in point-set topology, including metric convergence and uniform convergence. Every topological space gives rise to a canonical convergence but there are convergences, known as non-topological convergences, that do not arise from any topological space. Examples of convergences that are in general non-topological include convergence in measure and almost everywhere convergence. Many topological properties have generalizations to convergence spaces. Convergence space: Besides its ability to describe notions of convergence that topologies are unable to, the category of convergence spaces has an important categorical property that the category of topological spaces lacks. The category of topological spaces is not an exponential category (or equivalently, it is not Cartesian closed) although it is contained in the exponential category of pseudotopological spaces, which is itself a subcategory of the (also exponential) category of convergence spaces. Definition and notation: Preliminaries and notation Denote the power set of a set X by ℘(X). The upward closure or isotonization in X of a family of subsets B⊆℘(X) is defined as := for some B∈B}=⋃B∈B{S:B⊆S⊆X} and similarly the downward closure of B is := {S⊆B:B∈B}=⋃B∈B℘(B). If B↑X=B (resp. B↓=B ) then B is said to be upward closed (resp. downward closed) in X. For any families C and F, declare that C≤F if and only if for every C∈C, there exists some F∈F such that F⊆C or equivalently, if F⊆℘(X), then C≤F if and only if C⊆F↑X. The relation ≤ defines a preorder on ℘(℘(X)). If F≥C, which by definition means C≤F, then F is said to be subordinate to C and also finer than C, and C is said to be coarser than F. The relation ≥ is called subordination. Two families C and F are called equivalent (with respect to subordination ≥ ) if C≤F and F≤C. Definition and notation: A filter on a set X is a non-empty subset F⊆℘(X) that is upward closed in X, closed under finite intersections, and does not have the empty set as an element (i.e. ∅∉F ). A prefilter is any family of sets that is equivalent (with respect to subordination) to some filter or equivalently, it is any family of sets whose upward closure is a filter. A family B is a prefilter, also called a filter base, if and only if ∅∉B≠∅ and for any B,C∈B, there exists some A∈B such that A⊆B∩C. Definition and notation: A filter subbase is any non-empty family of sets with the finite intersection property; equivalently, it is any non-empty family B that is contained as a subset of some filter (or prefilter), in which case the smallest (with respect to ⊆ or ≤ ) filter containing B is called the filter (on X ) generated by B . The set of all filters (resp. prefilters, filter subbases, ultrafilters) on X will be denoted by Filters ⁡(X) (resp. Prefilters ⁡(X), FilterSubbases ⁡(X), UltraFilters ⁡(X) ). The principal or discrete filter on X at a point x∈X is the filter {x}↑X. Definition and notation: Definition of (pre)convergence spaces For any ξ⊆X×℘(℘(X)), if F⊆℘(X) then define lim := {x∈X:(x,F)∈ξ} and if x∈X then define lim := {F⊆℘(X):(x,F)∈ξ} so if (x,F)∈X×℘(℘(X)) then lim ξF if and only if (x,F)∈ξ. The set X is called the underlying set of ξ and is denoted by := X. A preconvergence on a non-empty set X is a binary relation Filters ⁡(X) with the following property: Isotone: if Filters ⁡(X) then F≤G implies lim lim ξG In words, any limit point of F is necessarily a limit point of any finer/subordinate family G≥F. and if in addition it also has the following property: Centered: if x∈X then lim ξ({x}↑X) In words, for every x∈X, the principal/discrete ultrafilter at x converges to x. then the preconvergence ξ is called a convergence on X. A generalized convergence or a convergence space (resp. a preconvergence space) is a pair consisting of a set X together with a convergence (resp. preconvergence) on X. A preconvergence Filters ⁡(X) can be canonically extended to a relation on Prefilters ⁡(X), also denoted by ξ, by defining lim := lim ξ(F↑X) for all Prefilters ⁡(X). This extended preconvergence will be isotone on Prefilters ⁡(X), meaning that if Prefilters ⁡(X) then F≤G implies lim lim ξG. Examples: Convergence induced by a topological space Let (X,τ) be a topological space with X≠∅. If Filters ⁡(X) then F is said to converge to a point x∈X in (X,τ), written F→x in (X,τ), if F≥N(x), where N(x) denotes the neighborhood filter of x in (X,τ). The set of all x∈X such that F→x in (X,τ) is denoted by lim (X,τ)F, lim XF, or simply lim F, and elements of this set are called limit points of F in (X,τ). The (canonical) convergence associated with or induced by (X,τ) is the convergence on X, denoted by ξτ, defined for all x∈X and all Filters ⁡(X) by: lim ξτF if and only if F→x in (X,τ). Equivalently, it is defined by lim := lim (X,τ)F for all Filters ⁡(X). A (pre)convergence that is induced by some topology on X is called a topological (pre)convergence; otherwise, it is called a non-topological (pre)convergence. Power Let (X,τ) and (Z,σ) be topological spaces and let := C((X,τ);(Z,σ)) denote the set of continuous maps f:(X,τ)→(Z,σ). The power with respect to τ and σ is the coarsest topology θ on C that makes the natural coupling ⟨x,f⟩=f(x) into a continuous map (X,τ)×(C,θ)→(Z,σ). Examples: The problem of finding the power has no solution unless (X,τ) is locally compact. However, if searching for a convergence instead of a topology, then there always exists a convergence that solves this problem (even without local compactness). In other words, the category of topological spaces is not an exponential category (i.e. or equivalently, it is not Cartesian closed) although it is contained in the exponential category of pseudotopologies, which is itself a subcategory of the (also exponential) category of convergences. Examples: Other named examples Standard convergence on ℝ The standard convergence on the real line := R is the convergence ν on X defined for all x∈X=R and all Filters ⁡(X) by: lim νF if and only if F≥{(x−1n,x+1n):n∈N}. Discrete convergence The discrete preconvergence ιX on set non-empty X is defined for all x∈X and all Filters ⁡(X) by: lim ιXF if and only if F={x}↑X. A preconvergence ξ on X is a convergence if and only if ξ≤ιX. Empty convergence The empty preconvergence ∅X on set non-empty X is defined for all Filters ⁡(X) by: lim := ∅. Although it is a preconvergence on X, it is not a convergence on X. The empty preconvergence on X≠∅ is a non-topological preconvergence because for every topology τ on X, the neighborhood filter at any given point x∈X necessarily converges to x in (X,τ). Chaotic convergence The chaotic preconvergence oX on set non-empty X is defined for all Filters ⁡(X) by: lim := X. The chaotic preconvergence on X is equal to the canonical convergence induced by X when X is endowed with the indiscrete topology. Properties: A preconvergence ξ on set non-empty X is called Hausdorff or T2 if lim ξF is a singleton set for all Filters ⁡(X). It is called T1 if lim ξ({x}↑X)⊆{x} for all x∈X and it is called T0 if lim lim −1⁡ξ(y) for all distinct x,y∈X. Every T1 preconvergence on a finite set is Hausdorff. Every T1 convergence on a finite set is discrete.While the category of topological spaces is not exponential (i.e. Cartesian closed), it can be extended to an exponential category through the use of a subcategory of convergence spaces.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Nanquan (martial art) Nanquan (martial art): Nanquan refers to a classification of Chinese martial arts that originated in Southern China.The southern styles of Chinese martial arts are characterized by emphasis on "short hitting" and specific arm movements, predominantly in southern styles such as Hung Kuen, Choi Lei Fut, Hak Fu Mun, Wuzuquan, Wing Chun, and so on. History and development: During the Ming dynasty of the 16th century, there were Wokou (Japanese pirates) active on the coast of China. At one point, Generals Qi Jiguang and Yu Dayou were stationed in Fuqing and Putian in the Central Fujian. The local monks in those areas defended themselves using iron rods to repel the pirates. Yu Dayou and Qi Jiguang taught martial arts to the local armies and civilians to fight against the pirates, with General Qi teaching the use of javelins, knives and other weaponry. The fourteenth chapter of General Qi's Jixiao Xinshu includes a modified version of the 32nd posture of the Taizu Changquan. After Qi Jiguang left, the development of unarmed fighting methods was left for the soldiers. Southern Shaolin Monastery: The Southern Shaolin Monastery is considered a significant development in the history of Shaolin Wushu in Southern China. The Tang dynasty branched from the Shaolin Temple of Mount Song to Fujian. General Qi Jiguang of the Ming dynasty would later import Taizu Changquan and other martial arts to the region. Southern Shaolin Monastery: The Concept of Burning (South) Shaolin Temple The legend about the burning of the southern Shaolin Temple was recorded in a conference catalogue of the Guangzhou Hongmen Society meeting that took place in the late Qing dynasty. It is believed that it was written based on the history of the time and the information acquired by the Hongmen at the end of the Ming dynasty. Contemporary Wushu Nanquan: The contemporary Wushu event Nanquan is a modern style created in 1960, and was derived from martial arts from the Chinese provinces south of the Yangtze River, predominantly those styles popular in Guangdong, Guangxi, Fujian and Zhejiang. The basis of contemporary Nánquán hails primarily from traditional Cantonese family styles of 洪 (Hung), 李 (Lei), 劉 (Lau), 莫 (Mok) and 蔡 (Choi), along with their more contemporary Kung Fu variants of Choi Lei Fut, Hung Ga and Wing Chun.Contemporary Nanquan features vigorous, athletic movements with very stable, low stances, extensive hand techniques and a vocal articulation called fasheng ("release shout"), which is the predecessor of the Japanese and Korean martial arts kiai. Power is driven from sharp waist movements with special emphasis on fast stance transition to generate power and speed in the arms. Signature hand techniques of Nanquan are the consecutive downward strikes of the left and right fist called Gua Gai Quan (Gwa Kup Kuen; 挂盖拳), and consecutive upper cuts while driving forward called Paoquan (Pow Kuen; 抛拳). There are relatively few kicks in Nanquan although the Tengkong Pantui Cepu (腾空盘腿度侧扑; "flying cross legs kick and land on the side") and Li Yu Da Ting (鲤鱼打挺直立; carp skip-up) are very common in advanced Nanquan routines. Nanquan also has its own contemporary weapons – the Southern Broadsword (Nandao; 南刀) and Southern Staff (Nangun; 南棍), which were included in the International Wushu competition in 1999. Contemporary Wushu Nanquan: In 2003, the International Wushu Federation (IWUF) established rules of contemporary Nanquan to make jumping techniques (难度) mandatory in its Nanquan routines. Jump kicks spinning in mid-air between 360 and 720 degrees before touching the ground are now used in all IWUF Nanquan forms along with the Stationary Back Flip (原地后空翻) and the Single Step Back Tuck (单跳后空翻) for advanced IWUF competitors.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Prototile Prototile: In mathematics, a prototile is one of the shapes of a tile in a tessellation. Definition: A tessellation of the plane or of any other space is a cover of the space by closed shapes, called tiles, that have disjoint interiors. Some of the tiles may be congruent to one or more others. If S is the set of tiles in a tessellation, a set R of shapes is called a set of prototiles if no two shapes in R are congruent to each other, and every tile in S is congruent to one of the shapes in R.It is possible to choose many different sets of prototiles for a tiling: translating or rotating any one of the prototiles produces another valid set of prototiles. However, every set of prototiles has the same cardinality, so the number of prototiles is well defined. A tessellation is said to be monohedral if it has exactly one prototile. Aperiodicity: A set of prototiles is said to be aperiodic if every tiling with those prototiles is an aperiodic tiling. In March 2023, four researchers, Chaim Goodman-Strauss, David Smith, Joseph Samuel Myers and Craig S. Kaplan, announced the proof that the tile discovered by David Smith is an aperiodic monotile,i.e., a solution to a longstanding open einstein problem.In higher dimensions, the problem is solved: the Schmitt-Conway-Danzer tile is the prototile of a monohedral aperiodic tiling of three-dimensional Euclidean space, and cannot tile space periodically.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
India Backbone Implementation Network India Backbone Implementation Network: IbIn (pronounced as ‘Ib’+’in’) stands for India Backbone Implementation Network. Conceived during the creation of the 12th Five Year Plan, IbIn's objective is to systematically promote capabilities that ensure coordination, collaboration, and implementation on issues, projects and policy within India. These capabilities include stakeholder alignment, project management, and policy advisory all of which require technical skills (for the process) as well as domain knowledge (pertaining to the specific subject matter or sector) knowledge. Since no single entity can provide all these skills and knowledge, IbIn is designed as a network that will cross-share and cross-link this information by leveraging partner organizations Background: India has huge potential but there are many constraints to growth. A study of the root causes for why projects in India “get stuck” highlighted issues like conflicting interests amongst stakeholders, and poor coordination between agencies. As a result, implementation failures exist at many levels –at the centre, in the states, in districts and cities too. Therefore, to address these challenges to implementation, the 12th Five Year Plan recognized the need for a “backbone organization”, which led to the conceptualization of IbIn. Background: The concept of the IBIN was then developed through extensive discussions within the country of the root causes for coordination and implementation failures and through exploration of methods of coordination and effective implementation adopted by other countries. The concept was then offered for criticism to an international panel of experts in national evolution strategies, consisting of Dani Rodrik and Ricardo Hausmann (Harvard Kennedy School of Public Policy), Charles Sabel (Columbia Law School), Francis Fukuyama (Stanford University) and Mushtaq Khan (London Univ.) IbIn was launched in April 2013 as a Planning Commission initiative under the leadership of Arun Maira and anchored by India@75. The website of IbIn was launched in August 2013. The 'IbIn Way': Lack of multi-stakeholder alignment is one of the main reason for poor implementation in a cooperation setup. In a diverse country such as India, this alignment cannot be achieved by either imposing authority or appointing selected ‘experts’ to find a solution that will be imposed on the rest. An alternative approach would be to encourage all stakeholders to an open exploration towards achieving a common objective. Since such an open and deliberative process could be challenging to manage, the ‘IbIn’ way emphasizes the use of proven and tested processes. Structure of the IbIn movement: The movement has been modeled on the Total Quality Management (TQM) of Japan, which revolutionized Japan and made the manufacturing sector in Japan recognizable as an international benchmark for excellence. The IbIn movement has been envisaged as a backbone network structure.Since IbIn is modeled as a network, it will need some mechanism to disseminate its capabilities. One such mechanism is by establishing ‘nodes’. A node is a structural unit within another larger organization that promotes the use of IbIn processes and capabilities. Structure of the IbIn movement: Each node aims to bring three types of partners together. The partners either possess technical skills (in which case they are known as ‘enablers’) or the ability to dedicate resources – financial, human, knowledge, (known as ‘sponsors’). The network is also composed of organizations that generate the demand for IbIn capabilities and thus help spread the word (thus known as ‘Channels’). Structure of the IbIn movement: The IbIn cell is the first node of the IbIn movement. The cell's core group consists of 7-8 professionals under the mentorship of Arun Maira. The IbIn cell is endorsed by the Planning Commission but anchored outside the official government structure at India @ 75. IbIn activities: Projects IbIn cell is facilitating multi-stakeholder engagement over contentious issues like Industrial Relations and Affordable Healthcare. It is also involved projects that promote good practices like Business regulatory framework for India and Aspiration of elderly healthcare. Capability building IbIn cell is developing an India-centric tool box to develop capabilities in managing cooperation system. Match-making/Node formation Several nodes have also been by the IbIn cell to build specific capabilities in diverse areas: PCMD division of Planning Commission: The Planning-Coordinating-Managing division (PCMD) is working on initiatives like Policy coherence, Think tank for policy formulation etc. NIESBUD at Ministry of MSME: The National Institute for entrepreneurship and small business development (NIESBUD) is anchoring cluster stimulation cell for accelerated cluster growth. It is supported by Ministry of MSME. Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion (DIPP): DIPP is anchoring the business regulatory ratings initiative with the support from Planning Commission. Under this initiative, it would rank all the states in terms of ease of doing business in that state and promote good practices across states for improvement. Sakal-Pemandu: PEMANDU and Sakal have inked a 50: 50 JV to launch a joint program in Maharashtra for ‘Deliver Maharashtra’ program. They have already brought on board senior politicians from all parties and have kicked off "planning labs" from early-2014. Other states of India are also exploring application of PEMANDU methodology in their respective states. Bangalore Baptist Hospital: The BBH is anchoring an initiative for elderly healthcare.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Photoprotection Photoprotection: Photoprotection is the biochemical process that helps organisms cope with molecular damage caused by sunlight. Plants and other oxygenic phototrophs have developed a suite of photoprotective mechanisms to prevent photoinhibition and oxidative stress caused by excess or fluctuating light conditions. Humans and other animals have also developed photoprotective mechanisms to avoid UV photodamage to the skin, prevent DNA damage, and minimize the downstream effects of oxidative stress. In photosynthetic organisms: In organisms that perform oxygenic photosynthesis, excess light may lead to photoinhibition, or photoinactivation of the reaction centers, a process that does not necessarily involve chemical damage. When photosynthetic antenna pigments such as chlorophyll are excited by light absorption, unproductive reactions may occur by charge transfer to molecules with unpaired electrons. Because oxygenic phototrophs generate O2 as a byproduct from the photocatalyzed splitting of water (H2O), photosynthetic organisms have a particular risk of forming reactive oxygen species.Therefore, a diverse suite of mechanisms has developed in photosynthetic organisms to mitigate these potential threats, which become exacerbated under high irradiance, fluctuating light conditions, in adverse environmental conditions such as cold or drought, and while experiencing nutrient deficiencies which cause an imbalance between energetic sinks and sources. In photosynthetic organisms: In eukaryotic phototrophs, these mechanisms include non-photochemical quenching mechanisms such as the xanthophyll cycle, biochemical pathways which serve as "relief valves", structural rearrangements of the complexes in the photosynthetic apparatus, and use of antioxidant molecules. Higher plants sometimes employ strategies such as reorientation of leaf axes to minimize incident light striking the surface. Mechanisms may also act on a longer time-scale, such as up-regulation of stress response proteins or down-regulation of pigment biosynthesis, although these processes are better characterized as "photoacclimatization" processes. In photosynthetic organisms: Cyanobacteria possess some unique strategies for photoprotection which have not been identified in plants nor in algae. For example, most cyanobacteria possess an Orange Carotenoid Protein (OCP), which serves as a novel form of non-photochemical quenching. Another unique, albeit poorly-understood, cyanobacterial strategy involves the IsiA chlorophyll-binding protein, which can aggregate with carotenoids and form rings around the PSI reaction center complexes to aid in photoprotective energy dissipation. Some other cyanobacterial strategies may involve state-transitions of the phycobilisome antenna complex , photoreduction of water with the Flavodiiron proteins, and futile cycling of CO2 . In plants: It is widely known that plants need light to survive, grow and reproduce. It is often assumed that more light is always beneficial; however, excess light can actually be harmful for some species of plants. Just as animals require a fine balance of resources, plants require a specific balance of light intensity and wavelength for optimal growth (this can vary from plant to plant). Optimizing the process of photosynthesis is essential for survival when environmental conditions are ideal and acclimation when environmental conditions are severe. When exposed to high light intensity, a plant reacts to mitigate the harmful effects of excess light. In plants: To best protect themselves from excess light, plants employ a multitude of methods to minimize harm inflicted by excess light. A variety of photoreceptors are used by plants to detect light intensity, direction and duration. In response to excess light, some photoreceptors have the ability to shift chloroplasts within the cell farther from the light source thus decreasing the harm done by superfluous light. Similarly, plants are able to produce enzymes that are essential to photoprotection such as Anthocyanin synthase. Plants deficient in photoprotection enzymes are much more sensitive to light damage than plants with functioning photoprotection enzymes. Also, plants produce a variety of secondary metabolites beneficial for their survival and protection from excess light. These secondary metabolites that provide plants with protection are commonly used in human sunscreen and pharmaceutical drugs to supplement the inadequate light protection that is innate to human skin cells. Various pigments and compounds can be employed by plants as a form of UV photoprotection as well.Pigmentation is one method employed by a variety of plants as a form of photoprotection. For example, in Antarctica, native mosses of green color can be found naturally shaded by rocks or other physical barriers while red colored mosses of the same species are likely to be found in wind and sun exposed locations. This variation in color is due to light intensity. Photoreceptors in mosses, phytochromes (red wavelengths) and phototropins (blue wavelengths), assist in the regulation of pigmentation. To better understand this phenomenon, Waterman et al. conducted an experiment to analyze the photoprotective qualities of UVACs (Ultraviolet Absorbing Compounds) and red pigmentation in antarctic mosses. Moss specimens of species Ceratodon purpureus, Bryum pseudotriquetrum and Schistidium antarctici were collected from an island region in East Antarctica. All specimens were then grown and observed in a lab setting under constant light and water conditions to assess photosynthesis, UVAC and pigmentation production. Moss gametophytes of red and green varieties were exposed to light and consistent watering for a period of two weeks. Following the growth observation, cell wall pigments were extracted from the moss specimens. These extracts were tested using UV–Vis spectrophotometry which uses light from the UV and visible spectrum to create an image depicting light absorbance. UVACs are typically found in the cytoplasm of the cell; however, when exposed to high-intensity light, UVACs are transported into the cell wall. It was found that mosses with higher concentrations of red pigments and UVACs located in the cell walls, rather than intracellularly, performed better in higher intensity light. Color change in the mosses was found not to be due to chloroplast movement within the cell. It was found that UVACs and red pigments function as long-term photoprotection in Antarctic mosses. Therefore, in response to high-intensity light stress, the production of UVACs and red pigmentation is up-regulated.Knowing that plants are able to differentially respond to varying concentrations and intensities of light, it is essential to understand why these reactions are important. Due to a steady rise in global temperatures in recent years, many plants have become more susceptible to light damage. Many factors including soil nutrient richness, ambient temperature fluctuation and water availability all impact the photoprotection process in plants. Plants exposed to high light intensity coupled with water deficits displayed a significantly inhibited photoprotection response. Although not yet fully understood, photoprotection is an essential function of plants. In humans: Photoprotection of the human skin is achieved by extremely efficient internal conversion of DNA, proteins and melanin. Internal conversion is a photochemical process that converts the energy of the UV photon into small, harmless amounts of heat. If the energy of the UV photon were not transformed into heat, then it would lead to the generation of free radicals or other harmful reactive chemical species (e.g. singlet oxygen, or hydroxyl radical). In humans: In DNA this photoprotective mechanism evolved four billion years ago at the dawn of life. The purpose of this extremely efficient photoprotective mechanism is to prevent direct DNA damage and indirect DNA damage. The ultrafast internal conversion of DNA reduces the excited state lifetime of DNA to only a few femtoseconds (10−15s)—this way the excited DNA does not have enough time to react with other molecules. In humans: For melanin this mechanism has developed later in the course of evolution. Melanin is such an efficient photoprotective substance that it dissipates more than 99.9% of the absorbed UV radiation as heat. This means that less than 0.1% of the excited melanin molecules will undergo harmful chemical reactions or produce free radicals. Artificial melanin: The cosmetic industry claims that the UV filter acts as an "artificial melanin". But those artificial substances used in sunscreens do not efficiently dissipate the energy of the UV photon as heat. Instead these substances have a very long excited state lifetime. In fact, the substances used in sunscreens are often used as photosensitizers in chemical reactions. (see Benzophenone). Oxybenzone, titanium oxide and octyl methoxycinnamate are photoprotective agents used in many sunscreens, providing broad-spectrum UV coverage, including UVB and short-wave UVA rays.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
ProCoder ProCoder: ProCoder is a video-encoding and transcoding software initially developed by the Canopus Corporation, now Thomson SA.Canopus ProCoder 1.2 was released in 2002, Canopus ProCoder 1.5 in 2003 and Canopus ProCoder 2 in 2004. In 2005 Thomson Multimedia acquired Canopus in order to bolster their Grass Valley broadcasting and network market. As of 2009 ProCoder is offered as a part of Thomson Grass Valley video products under the name Grass Valley ProCoder. Grass Valley ProCoder 3.0 was released in 2007.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Reactive neutrophilic dermatoses Reactive neutrophilic dermatoses: Reactive neutrophilic dermatoses are a spectrum of conditions mediated by neutrophils, and typically associated with underlying diseases, such as inflammatory bowel disease and hematologic malignancy.: 144 Conditions considered to be reactive neutrophilic dermatoses include:: 144–9 Erythema nodosum Marshall syndrome Sweet syndrome (Acute febrile neutrophilic dermatosis) Neutrophilic dermatosis of the dorsal hands (Pustular vasculitis of the dorsal hands) Neutrophilic eccrine hidradenitis Pyoderma gangrenosum PAPA syndrome	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Tachypnea Tachypnea: Tachypnea, also spelt tachypnoea, is a respiratory rate greater than normal, resulting in abnormally rapid and shallow breathing.In adult humans at rest, any respiratory rate of 12–20 per minute is considered clinically normal, with tachypnea being any rate above that. Children have significantly higher resting ventilatory rates, which decline rapidly during the first three years of life and then steadily until around 18 years. Tachypnea can be an early indicator of pneumonia and other lung diseases in children, and is often an outcome of a brain injury. Distinction from other breathing terms: Different sources produce different classifications for breathing terms. Distinction from other breathing terms: Some of the public describe tachypnea as any rapid breathing. Hyperventilation is then described as increased ventilation of the alveoli (which can occur through increased rate or depth of breathing, or a mix of both) where there is a smaller rise in metabolic carbon dioxide relative to this increase in ventilation. Hyperpnea, on the other hand, is defined as breathing an increased volume of air, with or without an increase in respiration rate.Others give another classification: tachypnea is as any rapid breathing, hyperventilation is increased rate of breathing at rest, hyperpnea is an increase in breathing that is appropriately proportional to an increase in metabolic rate.A third paradigm is: tachypnea is abnormally rapid and shallow respiration (though some may argue this is inaccurate as breathing differs from respiration), hyperventilation is increased rate or depth of respiration to abnormal levels causing decreased levels of blood carbon dioxide and hyperpnea is any increase in breathing rate or depth that is not normal. Distinction from other breathing terms: Threshold definition As normal respiratory rate varies with age, the definition of tachypnea also varies with age. Causes: Tachypnea may have physiological or pathological causes. Both of these categories would include large lists of individual causes. Physiological causes Physiological causes of tachypnea include exercise. This type is usually not a cause of concern unless it's excessive. Pathological causes Pathological causes of tachypnea include sepsis, compensation for diabetic ketoacidosis or other metabolic acidosis, pneumonia, pleural effusion, carbon monoxide poisoning, pulmonary embolism, asthma, COPD, laryngospasm, allergic reaction causing airway edema, foreign body aspiration, tracheobronchomalacia, congestive heart failure, anxiety states, haemorrhage, or many other medical issues. Etymology and pronunciation: The word tachypnea () uses combining forms of tachy- + -pnea, yielding "fast breathing". See pronunciation information at dyspnea.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Snowcat Snowcat: A snowcat (a portmanteau of snow and caterpillar) is an enclosed-cab, truck-sized, fully tracked vehicle designed to move on snow. Major manufacturers are PistenBully (Germany), Prinoth (Italy) and Tucker (United States). Snow groomers: A snowcat dedicated to snow maintenance rather than transport is a snow groomer. Other terms are "piste machines", "trail groomers" (in North American English) or "piste bashers" (in British English) because of their use in preparing ski trails ("pistes") or snowmobile trails. Other functions: In addition to grooming snow they are used for polar expeditions, logging in marsh areas, leveling sugar beet piles, medical evacuations, and seismic studies in the wild. Construction: Most snowcats, such as the ones produced by Bombardier or Aktiv in the past, have two sets of tracks, fitted with a Christie suspension or a Horstmann suspension. Others, like the Tucker Sno-Cat and Hägglunds Bandvagn 206 vehicles, have a complex arrangement of four or more tracks. The tracks are usually made of rubber, aluminum or steel and driven by a single sprocket on each side, and ride over rubber wheels with a solid foam interior. Their design is optimized for a snow surface, or soft grounds such as that of a peat bog. Construction: The cabs are optimized for use in sub-zero weather or cold conditions worsened by wind chill, with strong forced heating and a windshield designed to be kept clear of internal and external ice or condensation through a variety of means such as advanced coatings, external scrapers (windshield wipers of a modified type), and internal ducts blowing hot air on the surface. History: The forerunners of the snowcat were the tracked "motors" designed by Captain Scott and his engineer Reginald Skelton for the Antarctic Terra Nova Expedition of 1910–1913. These tracked motors were built by the Wolseley Tool and Motor Car Company in Birmingham. In the 1955–1958 Fuchs and Hillary Transantarctic Expedition, four modern snowcats were used, produced by the Tucker Sno-Cat Corporation of Medford, Oregon. These vehicles were highly modified for the purposes of the expedition. History: The name "snowcat" originates from the 1946 trademark by Tucker Sno-Cat Corporation. This specialized over-snow vehicle dominated the snow transportation market until the 1960s when other manufacturers entered the business. By then "snowcat" was such a common description that it was used to describe all over-snow vehicles (see generic trademark). Tucker is also well known for its use of four tracks on its vehicles. Tucker Sno-Cat is arguably the best known of the early manufacturers and remains in business today. Tucker Sno-Cats have been used by numerous military, governmental agencies and utilities. History: Another early model was the Swedish made Aktiv Snow Trac of which 2265 were manufactured in Sweden between 1957 and 1981. NATO forces used the Snow Trac successfully during the Cold War between NATO and the USSR. Numerous accounts from Antarctica related successful use of the Snow Trac by research organizations such as A.N.A.R.E. in Antarctica. History: Thiokol sold its ski-lift and snowcat operation in 1978 to John DeLorean, and changed its name to DeLorean Motor Company (DMC). DMC was later bought out by its management team and renamed Logan Machine Company (LMC). LMC ceased production in 2000. Thiokol's Imp, Super-Imp and Spryte were popular dual-track snowcats and Thiokol's production continued under DMC and LMC. The Spryte, sold later as 1200 and 1500 series machines, are still popular in commercial and industrial use, nearly 20 years after the end of their production runs. Many of these models are still in use today in the commercial market and are popular as privately owned snowcats. History: Between 1956 and 1968, KRISTI snowcat had a limited production of two-track snowcats in Colorado; it never became popular and ceased production with fewer than 200 total units produced. History: In 1982, Aktiv Snow Trac ceased assembly when its engine supplier (Volkswagen) ceased production of its air-cooled engines in Europe. Over 1000 Snow Tracs were imported to Canada and the United States, mostly by Canadian utilities and U.S. governmental agencies; the Snow Trac is still in common use in private ownership and to a lesser degree in commerce having produced over 2200 total machines which saw popular use all over the globe. Current production: Bombardier still continues in business but has radically altered its business model and product selection and sold its snow grooming division and no longer makes commercial snowcats. Bombardier sold over 3000 of its popular snow bus models which are still in use today and in popular demand by dedicated collectors; thousands of other Bombardier models were also produced as ski-slope and snowmobile trail groomers with the Bombi and BR100 to 180 series machines as notable units produced in high quantities. Bombardier Recreational Products still produces the Ski-Doo line of open ridge single-tracked personal snowmobiles. Current production: Russia as one of the snowiest countries in the world has a wide range of snowcat producers, from the big 30-ton load capacity two linked-track Vityaz vehicles to 0.4-2 ton load capacity ZZGT vehicles. The first 100% electric snow groomer was launched by Kässbohrer in June 2019. Notes and references: Books Preston, Diana (1999). A First Rate Tragedy: Captain Scott's Antarctic Expeditions (paperback ed.). London: Constable. ISBN 978-0-09-479530-3. OCLC 59395617.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
TuxGuitar TuxGuitar: TuxGuitar is a free and open-source tablature editor, which includes features such as tablature editing, score editing, and import and export of Guitar Pro gp3, gp4, and gp5 files. In addition, TuxGuitar's tablature and staff interfaces function as basic MIDI editors. TuxGuitar's mascot and namesake is Tux, the penguin mascot of many games and programs originally designed for Linux. The program is written in the Java programming language and is released under the LGPL-2.1-only license. Skins: TuxGuitar offers a set of three default skins that its users can choose from. These are: TuxGuitar also supports custom skins. The default skin for version 1.0 is Lavender. Reception: As of May 2014, TuxGuitar had 4/5 stars in the CNET user ratings. During the same time, TuxGuitar had 3.4/5 stars in the Softpedia user ratings. As of August 2016 the program has 4.7/5 stars on SourceForge. Reviewers at Software Informer gave version 1.0 of TuxGuitar 5/5 stars, praising the "very easy to use interface" and "very advanced functions" of the program.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Possible Minds Possible Minds: Possible Minds: Twenty-five Ways of Looking at AI, edited by John Brockman, is a 2019 collection of essays on the future impact of artificial intelligence. Structure: Twenty-five essayists contributed essays related to artificial intelligence (AI) pioneer Norbert Wiener's 1950 book The Human Use of Human Beings, in which Weiner, fearing future machines built from vacuum tubes and capable of sophisticated logic, warned that "The hour is very late, and the choice of good and evil knocks at our door. We must cease to kiss the whip that lashes us." Wiener stated that an AI "which can learn and can make decisions on the basis of its learning, will in no way be obliged to make such decisions as we should have made, or will be acceptable to us". The essayists seek to address the question: What dangers might advanced AI present to humankind? Prominent essayists include Daniel Dennett, Alison Gopnik, Jaan Tallinn, and George Dyson. Brockman interleaves his own intros and anecdotes between the contributors' essays. Ideas: Multiple essayists state that artificial general intelligence is still two to four decades away. Most of the essayists advice proceeding with caution. Hypothetical dangers discussed include societal fragmentation, loss of human jobs, dominance of multinational corporations with powerful AI, or existential risk if superintelligent machines develop a drive for self-preservation. Computer scientist W. Daniel Hillis states "Humans might be seen as minor annoyances, like ants at a picnic". Some essayists argue that AI has already become an integral part of human culture; geneticist George M. Church suggests that modern human are already "transhumans" when compared with humans in the Stone Age. Many of the essays are influenced by past failures of AI. MIT's Neil Gershenfeld states "Discussions about artificial intelligence have been (manic-depressive): depending on how you count, we're now in the fifth boom-and-bust cycle." Brockman states "over the decades I rode with (the AI pioneers) on waves of enthusiasm, and into valleys of disappointment". Many essayists emphasize the limitations of past and current AI; Church notes that 2011 Jeopardy! champion Watson required 85,000 watts of power, compared to a human brain which uses 20 watts. Reception: Kirkus Reviews stated readers who want to ponder the future impact of AI "will not find a better introduction than this book." Publishers Weekly called the book "enlightening, entertaining, and exciting reading". Future Perfect (Vox) noted the book "makes for gripping reading, (and the book) can get perspectives from the preeminent voices of AI... but (the book) cannot make those people talk to each other." Booklist stated the book includes "many rich ideas" to "savor and contemplate". In Foreign Affairs, technology journalist Kenneth Cukier called the book "a fascinating map".	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Foxtail (diaspore) Foxtail (diaspore): A foxtail is a spikelet or cluster of a grass, that serves to disperse its seeds as a unit. Thus, the foxtail is a type of diaspore or plant dispersal unit. Some grasses that produce a foxtail are themselves called "foxtail", also "spear grass". They can become a health hazard for dogs, cats, and other domestic animals, and a nuisance for people. Sources: The name "foxtail" is applied to a number of grasses that have bushy spikes of spikelets that resemble the tail of a fox. Not all of these are hazardous; most of the hazardous ones are in the genus Hordeum, and are also called "wild barley". Grasses known as foxtails include: Alopecurus (foxtail grasses — the scientific name literally means "fox tail") Bromus madritensis (foxtail brome) Hordeum jubatum (foxtail barley) Setaria (foxtail millets)Other grasses also produce hazardous spikelets. The spikelets are sometimes called foxtails, even though the grasses are not. Structure: All foxtails have a hardened tip, sometimes called a "callus", and retrorse barbs, pointing away from the tip of the callus. Wild barleys have clusters of three spikelets, and the callus is the portion of the rachis to which they attach. In other grasses, such as needlegrass and brome grasses, the foxtail consists of a single spikelet, with the callus being the hardened lemma tip. Retrorse barbs can be found on the callus, the lemmas, and the awns. Structure: The spikelets or spikelet clusters of foxtails are adapted for animal dispersal: The foxtails disarticulate easily, the barbs cause the foxtail to cling to fur, and movement of the animal causes the foxtail to burrow into the fur, since the barbs permit it to move only in the direction of the callus. In wild mammals that inhabit the native ranges of foxtail grasses, the fur is ordinarily short enough that the foxtails will eventually become dislodged, dispersing the seed. Hazard: Foxtails can become a health hazard for pets and other domestic animals, and a nuisance for people. Hazard: In dogs, cats, and other domestic animals the foxtails can become irreversibly lodged. Foxtails can also enter the nostrils and ear canals of many mammals. In all these cases, the foxtail can physically enter the body through muscular movements or, in the case of nostrils, air flow, can cause the foxtails to continue to burrow through soft tissues and organs, causing infection and physical disruption, which in some cases can result in death. In humans, foxtails can work through clothing, particularly fabric shoes and socks, causing discomfort to people while walking. Hazard: Foxtails are a problem beginning when the grass inflorescences begin to disarticulate, and ending when the spikelets or spikelet clusters are mechanically abraded or incorporated into the soil, turf, or leaf litter. In some habitats, this can be a matter of weeks, but in others it may require months, especially if different species flower and fruit at different times during the season. Foxtails that have progressed no further than surface lesions may be removed and the lesion treated with antiseptic and bandaged if necessary. Once a foxtail has passed beneath the skin, dogs and cats are often treated with systemic antibiotics, and the foxtail either allowed to encyst and degrade, or in the case of actual or imminent organ damage, removed surgically. However, surgical removal can be problematic, since foxtails cannot easily be imaged by x-ray or ultrasound. Foxtails embedded in the nostrils can migrate into the nasal turbinates, causing intense distress, and in rare cases into the brain. Foxtails in the ear canal can puncture the eardrum and enter the middle ear, causing hearing loss. Hazard: Combing of fur removes foxtails along with burrs and other detritus, but potentially the most dangerous foxtails are found in areas easily missed: the axillae, between the toes, and in nostrils and ear canals. Occasionally they can even lodge in the conjunctiva under the eyelid. Hazard: Many wild barley species are weeds in disturbed habitats, and their growth is encouraged by foot traffic of humans and domestic animals. Control methods consist of restricting traffic to established paths, and eradication of wild barley by mechanical removal or herbicide. Some other foxtail-producing grasses, especially needlegrasses, are dominant species in stable grassland habitats. Control attempts in these cases can actually be counterproductive, creating disturbed habitats where wild barleys may thrive.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Delay-line oscillator Delay-line oscillator: A delay-line oscillator is a form of electronic oscillator that uses a delay line as its principal timing element. Delay-line oscillator: The circuit is set to oscillate by inverting the output of the delay line and feeding that signal back to the input of the delay line with appropriate amplification. The simplest style of delay-line oscillator, when properly designed, will oscillate with period exactly two times the delay period of the delay line. Additional outputs that are correlated in frequency with the main output but vary in phase can be derived by using additional taps from within the delay line. Delay-line oscillator: The delay line may be realized with a physical delay line (such as an LC network or a transmission line). In contrast to a Phase-shift oscillator in which LC components are lumped, the capacitances and inductances are distributed through the length of the delay line. A ring oscillator uses a delay line formed from the gate delay of a cascade of logic gates. The timing of a circuit using a physical delay line is usually much more accurate. It is also easier to get such a circuit to oscillate in the desired mode. Delay-line oscillator: The delay-line oscillator may be allowed to free run or it may be gated for use in asynchronous logic. Since the optical cavity is a delay line, a laser can be regarded as a special case of the delay-line oscillator.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Metaphit Metaphit: Metaphit (1-[1-(3-Isothiocyanato)phenyl]cyclohexylpiperidine) is a research chemical that acts as an acylator of NMDARAn, sigma and DAT binding sites in the CNS. It is the m-isothiocyanate derivative of phencyclidine (PCP) and binds irreversibly (forming a covalent bond) to the PCP binding site on the NMDA receptor complex. However, later studies suggest the functionality of metaphit is mediated by sites not involved in PCP-induced passive avoidance deficit, and not related to the NMDA receptor complex. Metaphit was also shown to prevent d-amphetamine induced hyperactivity, while significantly depleting dopamine content in the nucleus accumbens. Metaphit was the first acylating ligand used to study the cocaine receptor. It is a structural isomer of the similar research compound fourphit, as it and metaphit both are isothiocyanate substituted derivatives of an analogous scaffold shared with PCP.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
WASP-35 WASP-35: WASP-35 is a G-type main-sequence star about 660 light-years away. The star's age cannot be well constrained, but it is probably older than the Sun. WASP-35 is similar in concentration of heavy elements compared to the Sun.The star has no detectable starspot activity. An imaging survey in 2015 found no detectable stellar companions, although a spectroscopic survey in 2016 yielded a suspected red dwarf companion with a temperature of 3800±1100 K. Planetary system: In 2011 a transiting hot Jupiter planet b was detected. The planet's equilibrium temperature is 1450±20 K.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Ipamorelin Ipamorelin: Ipamorelin (INN) (developmental code name NNC 26-0161) is a peptide selective agonist of the ghrelin/growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHS) and a growth hormone secretagogue. It is a pentapeptide with the amino acid sequence Aib-His-D-2-Nal-D-Phe-Lys-NH2 that was derived from GHRP-1.Ipamorelin significantly increases plasma growth hormone (GH) levels in both animals and humans. In addition, ipamorelin stimulates body weight gain in animals. Like pralmorelin and GHRP-6, ipamorelin does not affect prolactin, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), or thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) levels. However, unlike pralmorelin (GHRP-2) and GHRP-6, but similarly to growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH), ipamorelin does not stimulate the secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) or cortisol, and is highly selective for inducing the secretion only of GH.Ipamorelin was originally developed by Novo Nordisk, and was investigated in phase II clinical trials by Helsinn Therapeutics for the treatment of postoperative ileus, but was discontinued due to lack of efficacy.Ipamorelin has been used by athletes as a performance enhancing drug.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Traffic police Traffic police: Traffic police (also known as traffic officers, traffic enforcement units, traffic cops, traffic monitors, or traffic enforcers) are police officers, units, and agencies who enforce traffic laws and manage traffic. Traffic police include police who patrol highways, direct traffic, and address traffic infractions. They may be a separate agency from a main police agency, a unit or division within a police agency, or a type of assignment issued to officers; they can also be part of a transportation authority or highway authority. Traffic police: It has been noted that: ...traffic police, who are regarded as peripheral to most police forces, participate in both authoritative intervention and symbolic justice. Perhaps alone of all the assignments, traffic police are full-service police. They are different from the rest, however, because their work is limited to a particular venue—namely, public thoroughfares—and to particular people—namely, those who operate motor vehicles. But in terms of work, traffic police are detectives as well as patrol officers. Traffic police: In 1998 Stephen Chance and Stephen Dale proposed traffic policing as a model to deal with paperwork. History: Traffic police have existed in some form for nearly three centuries. Possibly the first traffic police force was established in London, England in 1722, when the Lord Mayor of London, in response to an increase in traffic during the 18th century, appointed three men to position themselves on London Bridge and ensure traffic kept to the left side of the road and did not stop in traffic, with the aim of ensuring traffic could continue to flow unabated. Enforcement methods: Traffic direction One of the oldest and most basic forms of traffic policing is directing traffic. This is conducted by a traffic officer (usually only one) who stands in the middle of an intersection, using hand signals and occasionally also a whistle, a handheld traffic sign (usually a stop sign), or a handheld light stick to manage the flow of vehicles and pedestrians. The officer directing traffic is usually a foot patrol officer or an auxiliary officer, though officers with vehicles may also direct traffic, parking their vehicles out of the way. Officers directing traffic typically wear high-visibility clothing to provide visibility and avoid being struck by traffic, ranging from brightly-colored uniforms (historically a white patrol cap or helmet with gloves) to neon-colored vests and coats with retroreflective strips. Enforcement methods: Though common worldwide before traffic signs and traffic lights became commonplace, traffic direction is now rare in places where traffic lights are the primary mode of traffic management, where it is mostly limited to incidents where roadways are closed or obstructed, traffic is heavier than usual, or traffic lights are disabled or otherwise unavailable, such as during a power outage or at the scene of a traffic collision. Traffic direction continues to be a mainstay in places where traffic lights and signs are not used, or where traffic is so dense that directing traffic is more effective than relying on lights and signs alone. Enforcement methods: Vehicular enforcement One of the most common forms of traffic policing in the modern day is vehicular enforcement. This is conducted by police officers using vehicles, typically cars or motorcycles but occasionally also aircraft or watercraft, who directly enforce vehicular traffic. Vehicular enforcement is often very similar to regular police patrols, and may be a standard police responsibility in some agencies. Vehicular enforcement usually consists of the enforcement of speed limits, registration and licensing, driving under the influence, commercial vehicle inspection, and other vehicle-related laws and crimes. The most common methods of vehicular enforcement are traffic stops, checkpoints, and "watching traffic" along the shoulder of roadways using radar speed guns. Enforcement methods: Some roads may be patrolled by aircraft, a declaration usually posted along such a roadway by the agency operating said aircraft. Though some motorists view this as mere deception used to promote slowing down, police aircraft actually do patrol some freeways, albeit rarely due to the costs in operating aircraft for lengthy periods. To measure a vehicle's speed, the pilots calculate the time it takes to travel between a set of road markings. Should the pilots determine the vehicle is speeding or violating a law, they follow it until a police unit in a land vehicle arrives to initiate a traffic stop. Enforcement methods: Remote enforcement Remote traffic enforcement is conducted using traffic enforcement cameras typically installed and managed by a transportation authority, highway authority, or police agency along roadways. These camera feeds are then monitored for visible crimes or incidents such as speeding, reckless driving, or traffic collisions, to which the proper services are then dispatched if needed. Some traffic cameras can automatically read plates to check for registration and licensing infractions or wants and warrants, or even fine the registered owner of the vehicle without having to dispatch a police unit to issue a ticket. Enforcement methods: Automation In the 2010s, the Congolese National Police deployed automated traffic police robots. Created by Thérèse Kirongozi, an engineer from the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the tall solar-powered aluminum robots are positioned in intersections and are able to rotate, but cannot actually move; rather, they contain closed-circuit television cameras in their "eyes" that record offenders for human traffic officers to handle. The robots also carry red and green lights to direct traffic, and can speak to pedestrians and help them cross roads. Five robots were installed in intersections in Kinshasa by 2015, with thirty more planned for highway patrol purposes. Enforcement agencies: Traffic policing is, as its name implies, usually the responsibility of police. Traffic police are often either independent police agencies, units within police agencies, or an assignment given to police officers or auxiliaries. Separate units and agencies usually have the same or similar enforcement powers as regular police, such as arrest powers, though they may or may not lack firearms. Enforcement agencies: Non-police traffic enforcement Some traffic officers are not part of police agencies, and are instead part of transportation authorities, highway authorities, or regulatory boards. They often work alongside police, and may call upon them to handle emergencies or road crimes. Enforcement agencies: In the United Kingdom, England's National Highways employs traffic officers, as does the Welsh Government, who also employ traffic officers; both are responsible for traffic management and roadside assistance on trunk roads in their respective jurisdictions. In the Philippines, the Land Transportation Office (LTO) and Land Transportation Franchising and Regulatory Board (LTFRB), the agencies under the Department of Transportation, enforces a range of vehicular laws. In the United States, some department of transportation (DOT) agencies are able to direct traffic, provide roadside assistance, and enforce traffic laws. Enforcement agencies: In some instances, civilians and unsworn personnel may be enlisted by police for auxiliary purposes, including traffic policing, while others may take it upon themselves to direct traffic in the absence of the proper authorities. For example, during the Northeast blackout of 2003, citizens in Toronto and New York City directed traffic while traffic lights were disabled. However, in some jurisdictions such as Ontario, such practices are illegal, and only law enforcement and authorized personnel can direct traffic due to liability concerns.In the United States, there have been some efforts to transfer traffic stop authority to some DOTs as part of police reform initiatives, most prominently in Berkeley, California, which planned to establish "BerkDOT" to enforce minor traffic violations while still allowing the Berkeley Police Department to handle major violations and road crimes. Proponents argue that shifting traffic enforcement from police to DOTs would reduce the chance of escalation in traffic stops, keep traffic enforcement related to traffic without police criminal record checks, and allow police to focus more on criminal concerns.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
MythTV MythTV: MythTV is a free and open-source home entertainment application with a simplified "10-foot user interface" design for the living room TV. It turns a computer with the necessary hardware into a network streaming digital video recorder, a digital multimedia home entertainment system, or home theater personal computer. It can be considered a free and open-source alternative to TiVo or Windows Media Center. It runs on various operating systems, primarily Linux, macOS, and FreeBSD. History: The MythTV project was started in April 2002 by Isaac Richards, who explained his motivation: I got tired of the rather low quality cable box that AT&T Broadband provides with their digital cable service. It's slow to change channels, ridden with ads, and the program guide is a joke. So, I figured it'd be fun to try and build a replacement. Yes, I could have just bought a TiVo, but I wanted to have more than just a DVR – I want a web browser built in, a mail client, maybe some games. Basically, I want the mythical convergence box that's been talked about for a few years now. Features: Pause, skip, and rewind live TV shows Completely automatic commercial detection and optional skipping Intelligently schedules recordings to avoid conflicts Interfaces with television listing sources such as XMLTV or PSIP Interfaces with nonprofit subscription listings service Schedules Direct in the United States and Canada. Schedules Direct delivers the same Tribune Media Services listings data that TiVo and other video recorders use. Features: Supports ATSC, QAM, DMB-T/H and DVB (everything supported by LinuxTV) high-definition television Supports Xv, OpenGL, and VDPAU video output Supports H.264 codec Supports VP9 and H.265 codecs as of version 0.28 A backend server and frontend client architecture, allowing multiple frontend client machines to be remotely served content from one or more backend servers. A single computer can perform as both the frontend client and the backend server. Features: Plays recordings at an accelerated or decelerated rate, adjusting the audio pitch as necessary Schedule and administer various system functions using a web browser-based interface Controls a set-top box using an infrared remote (IR blaster), or Firewire HDTV support MythTV is capable of capturing HDTV streams from any source that will provide unencrypted video. This means broadcast ATSC and DVB content, as well as encrypted DVB content when using a tuner with an integrated CI module. Most U.S. cable and satellite providers use encrypted video only accessible through their own set-top boxes. Cable systems may provide some unencrypted QAM channels, but these will generally only be local broadcast stations, and not cable programming or premium channels. Features: OpenCable devices are available to access encrypted content on U.S. cable systems, but as this is a full DRM system, and not just CA like DVB CI, every piece of hardware and software on the playback chain must be tested and licensed by CableLabs. At current, Windows Media Center is the only DVR software to meet these requirements, and only it, and other software using its recording libraries, can use these devices. In 2010, CableLabs relaxed the DRM restrictions allowing unlicensed devices to record copy freely content using these devices, however it is still entirely up to cable operators what content they provide flagged as such. Features: As an alternative to direct digital capture, one can use an external decoder to receive the channels, and then capture using digital-analog-digital conversion (the analog hole). A popular means of doing this conversion is to connect the component outputs of a set-top box to the Hauppauge HD PVR. Features: Modules MythTV's add-on modules (plugins) include: MythVideo plays various video file formats MythMusic a music player, jukebox, collection manager, and CD ripper MythGallery online photo gallery manager MythNews RSS feed news reader MythWeather fetches weather forecasts – including weather radar – from the Internet MythBrowser small web browser MythGame frontend for game console emulators MythWeb controls MythTV from a remote web browser MythArchive DVD burner MythNetvision streaming video player intended primarily for Flash-websites like YouTube MythZoneMinder frontend interface for a ZoneMinder system UPnP AV MediaServer v1.0 compliant server: share media files with UPnP-clientsThe base system integrates with its modules. A system can be controlled with an infrared remote control using LIRC, or radio remote control using kernel modules. Operating systems: MythTV is available for many operating systems based on Linux or Unix, including Mac OS. The MythTV website distributes only source code, which must be compiled for the desired system; executable programs can be downloaded from various third-party sources. The software runs on and is officially supported by Microsoft Windows, but as of January 2013 no official executable version was available; there are detailed instructions for compiling for Windows. All core frontend features work under Windows, including LiveTV, scheduling, and watching recordings, but most plugins do not work without additional patches. Operating systems: Bundles Notable projects that include a Linux distribution bundled with MythTV (and associated libraries) are: FreeBSD has several ports to support MythTV LinHES is a bootCD derivative of Arch Linux. Its MythTV frontend can be run from the CD. An entire installation to the hard disk can be made in minutes. LinuxMCE bundles MythTV with Kubuntu as the Linux distro, along with the Pluto Home automation suite. Mythbuntu combines Ubuntu distributions with MythTV. The Ubuntu community has built extensive resources for installing, configuring and troubleshooting MythTV. It was discontinued in 2016. Ubuntu TV integrates MythTV into a television-ready interface (based on the Ubuntu Unity user interface). Xebian is a distribution of Debian Linux for the Microsoft Xbox game console and includes MythTV.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Methylcyclohexene Methylcyclohexene: Methylcyclohexene refers to any one of three organic compounds consisting of cyclohexene with a methyl group substituent. The location of the methyl group relative to the cyclohexene double bond creates the three different structural isomers. These compounds are generally used as a reagent or intermediate to derive other organic compounds.Methylcyclohexenes are a cyclic olefins. Cyclic olefins can come together to form polymers. These polymers are thermoplastics that are advantageous due to their low moisture intake, their ability to resist high temperatures, have low bireinfringence, and excellent transparency. This type of polymer material is very useful in medical instruments, packaging, fibers, and optics. Methylcyclohexene: As simple molecules, methylcyclohexenes are generally available from different biochemical manufacturers. Synthesis: There are different ways to produce methylcyclohexenes. A mixture of 1- and 2-methylcyclohexene can be produced by first reacting cyclohexanone with methylmagnesium bromide to 1-methylcyclohexanol, then dehydrating by heating in the presence of an acid or a base. This yields the methylcyclohexenes as the major products along with methylenecyclohexane as the minor product. 1-methylcyclohexene is dominant because of the more stable trisubstituted alkene structure. Although it is not preferred due to the high activation energy requirement, synthesis of 1-methylcyclohexene can also be done by Diels–Alder reaction.Methylcyclohexene is also formed as a by-product in the hydrogenation of toluene to methylcyclohexane over ruthenium catalyst, which can lead to catalyst poisoning if the catalyst is insufficiently activated. Catalysts that have not been sufficiently hydrogenated prior to introduction of toluene will experience poisoning of active sites by methylcyclohexene, as the double bond adsorbs strongly to the catalyst surface. Structure and bonding: The isomers of methylcyclohexene each contain a six carbon ring structure, with one carbon-carbon double bond within the ring and one methyl substituent on the ring. The bond lengths in 1-methylcyclohexene are approximately 1.33 Å between C1 (the carbon in the ring with the methyl substituent) and C2 (the second carbon of the double bond), 1.51 Å between C2 and C3 (the next carbon around the ring) and between C6 and C1, 1.54 Å between C3 and C4, between C4 and C5, and between C5 and C6, and 1.50 Å between C1 and the carbon of the methyl substituent. The bond lengths of the other isomers of methylcyclohexene vary slightly from 1-methylcyclohexene, due to the different position of the double bond with respect to the methyl substituent. Reactions: Ozonolysis As an unsaturated molecule, methylcyclohexene can undergo oxidation with several oxidizing agents, including the strong oxidizing agent ozone, undergoing ozonolysis to release either atomic oxygen or a hydroxyl radical. Its reactivity towards ozone makes it an atmospheric pollutant, as it contributes to ozone depletion by trapping the oxygen atoms into its end products as carbonyl compounds. Reactions: Hydrosilyation The regioselectivity and stereoselectivity of hydrosilylation of 1-methylcyclohexene with chloro(methyl)silanes depends on the number of chlorine atoms in the hydrosilylating agent. Using chlorodimethylsilane produces a mixture of seven different products including cis- and trans-isomers of 2-, 3-, 4-chlorodimethyl(methylcyclohexyl)silanes and chlorodimethyl(cyclohexylmethyl)silane. The poor selectivity is due to the migration of the double bond in the cyclohexene ring. Reaction with dichloromethylsilane is more regioselective and stereoselective, only giving three of the seven products obtained from monochlorodimethylsilane. With trichloromethylsilane, trichlorocyclohexylmethylsilane is the only possible product and is obtained at 60 percent yield. All these products can be further reacted with Grignard reagents such as ethynylmagnesium bromide to synthesize ethynyl derivatives. Reactions: Oxidation with Cytochrome P450 1-methylcyclohexene can be oxidized with a Cytochrome P450 catalyst. The ratioof hydroxylation products to epoxidation products was shown to be 2:1. Reactions: Bromination In the presence of a Cinchona alkaloid, bromination of an alkene leads to optically active dibromides. For 4-methylcyclohexene, the (S)-configuration leads to two different products: the bromines can add at the axial positions, giving the orientation (1S:3R:4R), or at the equatorial positions, giving the orientation (1S:3S:4S). Similarly, the (R)-configuration produces two different products: axial addition yields the configuration (1R:3S:4S) and equatorial addition yields (1R:3R:4R).	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Mont Ventoux Formation Mont Ventoux Formation: The Mont Ventoux Formation is a geologic formation in France. It preserves fossils dating back to the Cretaceous period.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Single-chip Cloud Computer Single-chip Cloud Computer: The Single-Chip Cloud Computer (SCC) is a computer processor (CPU) created by Intel Corporation in 2009 that has 48 distinct physical cores that communicate through architecture similar to that of a cloud computer data center. Cores are a part of the processor that carry out instructions of code that allow the computer to run. The SCC was a product of a project started by Intel to research multi-core processors and parallel processing (doing multiple calculations at once). Additionally Intel wanted to experiment with incorporating the designs and architecture of huge cloud computer data centers (Cloud computing) into a single processing chip. They took the aspect of cloud computing in which there are many remote servers that communicate with each other and applied it to a microprocessor. It was a new concept that Intel wanted to experiment with. The name "Single-chip Cloud Computer" originated from this concept. Uses: The SCC is currently still being used for research purposes. It currently can run the GNU operating system on the chip, but cannot boot Windows. Some applications of the SCC are web servers, data informatics, bioinformatics, and financial analytics. Technical details: Intel developed this new chip architecture based on huge cloud data centers, the cores are separated across the chip but are able to directly communicate with each other. The chip contains 48 P54C Pentium cores connected with a 4×6 2D-mesh. This mesh is a group of 24 tiles set up in four rows and six columns. Each tile contained two cores and a 16 KB (8 per core) message passing buffer (MPB) shared by the two cores, essentially a router. This router allows each core to communicate with each other. Previously cores had to send information back to the main memory and there it would be re-routed to other cores. The SCC contains 1.3 billion 45 nm transistors that can amplify signals or act as a switch and turn core pairs on and off. These transistors use anywhere from 25 to 125 watts of power depending on the processing demand. For comparison the Intel i7 processor uses 156 watts of power. Four DDR3 memory controllers are on each chip, connected to the 2D-mesh as well. These controllers are capable of addressing 64 GB of random-access memory. The DDR3 memory is used to help each tile communicate with the others, without them the chip would not be functional. These controllers also work with the transistors to control when certain tiles are turned on and off to save power when not in use. When proper coding is implemented all of these pieces are put together you get a functional processor that is fast, powerful, and energy efficient with a framework resembling a network of cloud computers. Modes of operation: The SCC comes with RCCE, a simple message passing interface provided by Intel that supports basic message buffering operations. The SCC has two modes that it can operate under, processor mode and mesh mode: Processor mode In processor mode cores are on and executing code from the system memory and programmed I/O (inputs and outputs) through the system which is connected to the system board FPGA. Loading memory and configuring the processor for bootstrapping (sustaining after the initial load) is currently done by software running on the SCC's management console that's embedded in the chip. Modes of operation: Mesh mode Cores are turned off. Only the routers, transistors and RAM controllers are on and they are sending and receiving large packets of data. Additionally there is no memory map. The future: Intel plans to share this technology with other companies such as HP, Yahoo, and Microsoft to have multiple companies researching the SCC to more efficiently and quickly advance the technology. They hope to make the SCC scalable to 100+ cores. One way they hope to achieve this is by having each chip be able to communicate with another chip, and they could put two chips together to get double the cores. They hope to improve the parallel programming productivity and power management to take advantage of the chip's architecture and large number of cores. Additionally they plan to experiment more with this architecture and similar chip architectures to develop a many-core scalable processors that maximizes the processing power of the cores while being power efficient.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
Rhetorical velocity Rhetorical velocity: Rhetorical velocity is a term originating from the fields of Composition Studies and Rhetoric used to describe how rhetoricians may strategically theorize and anticipate the third party recomposition of their texts. In their 2009 article "Composing for Recomposition: Rhetorical Velocity and Delivery" in Kairos: A Journal of Rhetoric, Technology, and Pedagogy, Professors Jim Ridolfo and Dànielle Nicole DeVoss provide the example of a writer delivering a press release, where the writer of the release rhetorically anticipates the positive and negative ways in which the text may be recomposed into other texts, including news articles, blog posts, and video content. It is similar to having something go viral. Author, Sean Morey, agrees in his book "The Digital Writer" that rhetorical velocity is the way in which a creator predicts how the audience will make use of their original work.Practicing rhetorical velocity allows the speaker/writer to theorize of all possible outcomes with time and delivery (or Kairos) since it is information that could be in the Public sphere. Ridolfo and DeVoss argue that this thinking is indicative of the modern notion of actio, one that requires a new strategy and theory for thinking about the delivery, distribution, and recomposition of texts and rhetorical objects. It is stated in their article that "...composing in the digital age is different than traditional practices of composing." Since traditional composition consists of one's original thought that is transformed into writing, digital composition requires a lot more editing in its own sphere. Ridfolfo and DeVoss referred to its qualities as "mix, mass[,] and merge".For example, the rhetorical velocity of a press advisory encompasses the publication deadlines, reporters' material conditions (including how local reporters prefer to receive and process the text). These considerations are calculated alongside the rhetorical goals of the advisory writer(s). It takes into account the delivery and composition of the given work in relation to the writers' future goals for reproduction. In this sense, rhetorical velocity considers the future times (and in particular moments) and places of texts as part of a distributive strategy. Another example is the rhetorical velocity of an internet meme, which includes the various characteristics of rhetorical circulation, including economics, distribution, and transformation. For instance, memes can participate in the circulation of technical scientific and environmental communication for digital public discourse.	kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded

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