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**Methyl red**
Methyl red:
Methyl red (2-(N,N-dimethyl-4-aminophenyl) azobenzenecarboxylic acid), also called C.I. Acid Red 2, is an indicator dye that turns red in acidic solutions. It is an azo dye, and is a dark red crystalline powder. Methyl red is a pH indicator; it is red in pH under 4.4, yellow in pH over 6.2, and orange in between, with a pKa of 5.1. Murexide and methyl red are investigated as promising enhancers of sonochemical destruction of chlorinated hydrocarbon pollutants. Methyl red is classed by the IARC in group 3 - unclassified as to carcinogenic potential in humans.
Preparation:
As an azo dye, methyl red may be prepared by diazotization of anthranilic acid, followed by reaction with dimethylaniline:
Properties:
Methyl red displays pH dependent photochromism, with protonation causing it to adopt a hydrazone/quinone structure.
Methyl Red has a special use in histopathology for showing acidic nature of tissue and presence of organisms with acidic natured cell walls.
Methyl Red is detectably fluorescent in 1:1 water:methanol (pH 7.0), with an emission maximum at 375 nm (UVA) upon excitation with 310 nm light (UVB).
Methyl red test:
In microbiology, methyl red is used in the methyl red test (MR test), used to identify bacteria producing stable acids by mechanisms of mixed acid fermentation of glucose (cf. Voges–Proskauer test).
Methyl red test:
The MR test, the "M" portion of the four IMViC tests, is used to identify enteric bacteria based on their pattern of glucose metabolism. All enterics initially produce pyruvic acid from glucose metabolism. Some enterics subsequently use the mixed acid pathway to metabolize pyruvic acid to other acids, such as lactic, acetic, and formic acids. These bacteria are called methyl-red positive and include Escherichia coli and Proteus vulgaris. Other enterics subsequently use the butylene glycol pathway to metabolize pyruvic acid to neutral end products. These bacteria are called methyl-red-negative and include Serratia marcescens and Enterobacter aerogenes.
Methyl red test:
Process A tube filled with a glucose phosphate broth is inoculated with a sterile transfer loop. The tube is incubated at 35 °C (95 °F) for 2–5 days. After incubation, 2.5 ml of the medium are transferred to another tube. Five drops of the pH indicator methyl red is added to this tube. The tube is gently rolled between the palms to disperse the methyl red.
Methyl red test:
Expected results Enterics that subsequently metabolize pyruvic acid to other acids lower the pH of the medium to 4.2. At this pH, methyl red turns red, a positive test. Enterics that subsequently metabolize pyruvic acid to neutral end products lower the pH of the medium to only 6.0. At this pH, methyl red is yellow, a negative test. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Kolitong**
Kolitong:
The kolitong is a bamboo polychordal tube zither from Bontok, Kalinga, Philippines with six strings that run parallel to its tube body. The strings are numbered from one to six, from lowest to highest pitch. The body acts as the instrument's resonator. The body may be a whole tube or a half tube. In both cases, the two ends of the body are closed by the bamboo nodes. To help with the resonance of the instrument, holes are made on both nodes and long cracks are made along the body parallel to the strings. A variety of bamboo tube zithers are found throughout the Philippine archipelago, with each zither differing from the other in name, size, and design, depending on its associated ethnic group. In the Kalinga group, men play the kolitong at night as a solo instrument.
Polychordal tube zithers:
Polychordal tube zithers are widespread in the Philippines. They are found in the Cordilleras and in the Mindanao and Palawan area. The instrument is made from a bamboo tube (approximately 10 cm. in diameter and averaging half a meter long) closed on both ends by nodes, which are partially opened for more resonance. Strings are etched out of the bamboo body and remain attached at both ends. To give the string more tension, two small wooden frets are inserted beneath each strings near the ends. The fret positions determine the pitch of the instrument when plucked. The number of strings vary from five to eight or nine and occasionally up to eleven.
Playing techniques:
The strings of the instrument are played mainly by plucking using the player's fingers. In the Kalinga kulibit, two strings on the frontal side are plucked by the thumbs of both hands and four strings on the dorsal side are plucked by the middle and index fingers. The player holds the instrument with both hands and plucks. One end of the instrument is made to rest against the player's lower waist. A continuous melody is formed by the use of alternate fingers of both hands. The Subanon sigitan player plucks the strings and may be joined by another performer who taps a drone on the body of the instrument with two bamboo sticks. The Ilonggot kollesing is played with the instrument being held by a man, while the woman strikes the strings with small bamboo sticks. The Tirurai tangke is played by two women. Using a plectrum, one plucks a drone while the other plucks a melody.
Instrument variations:
Polychordal tube zithers in the Philippines vary from place to place. Each instrument is different from the other by size, shape, aesthetic design, and the number of strings. The Kalinga kulibit has six or sometimes eleven strings. The Isneg ohitang has five strings: two in front and three in the back. The Ilonggot kollesing has five or six strings. The Subanon sigitan has five strings. The Tirurai tangke and the Maguindanao tangkel has eight strings. The Manobo tugo has seven strings. The Bukidnon Matigsulug saluray has six strings. The T'boli s'ludoy has five strings. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Appaloosa**
Appaloosa:
The Appaloosa is an American horse breed best known for its colorful spotted coat pattern. There is a wide range of body types within the breed, stemming from the influence of multiple breeds of horses throughout its history. Each horse's color pattern is genetically the result of various spotting patterns overlaid on top of one of several recognized base coat colors. The color pattern of the Appaloosa is of interest to those who study equine coat color genetics, as it and several other physical characteristics are linked to the leopard complex mutation (LP). Appaloosas are prone to develop equine recurrent uveitis and congenital stationary night blindness; the latter has been linked to the leopard complex.
Appaloosa:
Artwork depicting prehistoric horses with leopard spotting exists in prehistoric cave paintings in Europe. Images of domesticated horses with leopard spotting patterns appeared in artwork from Ancient Greece and Han dynasty China through the early modern period. In North America, the Nez Perce people of what today is the United States Pacific Northwest developed the original American breed. Settlers once referred to these spotted horses as the "Palouse horse", possibly after the Palouse River, which ran through the heart of Nez Perce country. Gradually, the name evolved into Appaloosa.
Appaloosa:
The Nez Perce lost most of their horses after the Nez Perce War in 1877, and the breed fell into decline for several decades. A small number of dedicated breeders preserved the Appaloosa as a distinct breed until the Appaloosa Horse Club (ApHC) was formed as the breed registry in 1938. The modern breed maintains bloodlines tracing to the foundation bloodstock of the registry; its partially open stud book allows the addition of some Thoroughbred, American Quarter Horse and Arabian blood.
Appaloosa:
Today, the Appaloosa is one of the most popular breeds in the United States; it was named the official state horse of Idaho in 1975. It is best known as a stock horse used in a number of western riding disciplines, but is also a versatile breed with representatives seen in many other types of equestrian activity. Appaloosas have been used in many movies; an Appaloosa is the mascot for the Florida State Seminoles. Appaloosa bloodlines have influenced other horse breeds, including the Pony of the Americas, the Nez Perce Horse, and several gaited horse breeds.
Breed characteristics:
The Appaloosa is best known for its distinctive, leopard complex-spotted coat, which is preferred in the breed. Spotting occurs in several overlay patterns on one of several recognized base coat colors. There are three other distinctive, "core" characteristics: mottled skin, striped hooves, and eyes with a white sclera.Skin mottling is usually seen around the muzzle, eyes, anus, and genitalia. Striped hooves are a common trait, quite noticeable on Appaloosas, but not unique to the breed. The sclera is the part of the eye surrounding the iris; although all horses show white around the eye if the eye is rolled back, to have a readily visible white sclera with the eye in a normal position is a distinctive characteristic seen more often in Appaloosas than in other breeds. Because the occasional individual is born with little or no visible spotting pattern, the ApHC allows "regular" registration of horses with mottled skin plus at least one of the other core characteristics. Horses with two ApHC parents but no "identifiable Appaloosa characteristics" are registered as "non-characteristic," a limited special registration status.
Breed characteristics:
There is a wide range of body types in the Appaloosa, in part because the leopard complex characteristics are its primary identifying factors, and also because several different horse breeds influenced its development. The weight range varies from 950 to 1,250 pounds (430 to 570 kg), and heights from 14 to 16 hands (56 to 64 inches, 142 to 163 cm). However, the ApHC does not allow pony or draft breeding.The original "old time" or "old type" Appaloosa was a tall, narrow-bodied, rangy horse. The body style reflected a mix that started with the traditional Spanish horses already common on the plains of America before 1700. Then, 18th-century European bloodlines were added, particularly those of the "pied" horses popular in that period and shipped en masse to the Americas once the color had become unfashionable in Europe. These horses were similar to a tall, slim Thoroughbred-Andalusian type of horse popular in Bourbon-era Spain. The original Appaloosa tended to have a convex facial profile that resembled that of the warmblood-Jennet crosses first developed in the 16th century during the reign of Charles V.The old-type Appaloosa was later modified by the addition of draft horse blood after the 1877 defeat of the Nez Perce, when U.S. Government policy forced the Native Americans to become farmers and provided them with draft horse mares to breed to existing stallions. The original Appaloosas frequently had a sparse mane and tail, but that was not a primary characteristic, as many early Appaloosas did have full manes and tails. There is a possible genetic link between the leopard complex and sparse mane and tail growth, although the precise relationship is unknown.After the formation of the Appaloosa Horse Club in 1938, a more modern type of horse was developed after the addition of American Quarter Horse and Arabian bloodlines. The addition of Quarter Horse lines produced Appaloosas that performed better in sprint racing and in halter competition. Many cutting and reining horses resulted from old-type Appaloosas crossed on Arabian bloodlines, particularly via the Appaloosa foundation stallion Red Eagle. An infusion of Thoroughbred blood was added during the 1970s to produce horses more suited for racing. Many current breeders also attempt to breed away from the sparse, "rat tail" trait, and therefore modern Appaloosas have fuller manes and tails.
Color and spotting patterns:
The coat color of an Appaloosa is a combination of a base color with an overlaid spotting pattern. The base colors recognized by the Appaloosa Horse Club include bay, black, chestnut, palomino, buckskin, cremello or perlino, roan, gray, dun and grulla. Appaloosa markings have several pattern variations. It is this unique group of spotting patterns, collectively called the "leopard complex", that most people associate with the Appaloosa horse. Spots overlay darker skin, and are often surrounded by a "halo", where the skin next to the spot is also dark but the overlying hair coat is white.It is not always easy to predict a grown Appaloosa's color at birth. Foals of any breed tend to be born with coats that darken when they shed their baby hair. In addition, Appaloosa foals do not always show classic leopard complex characteristics. Patterns sometimes change over the course of the horse's life although some, such as the blanket and leopard patterns, tend to be stable. Horses with the varnish roan and snowflake patterns are especially prone to show very little color pattern at birth, developing more visible spotting as they get older.The ApHC also recognizes the concept of a "solid" horse, which has a base color, "but no contrasting color in the form of an Appaloosa coat pattern". Solid horses can be registered if they have mottled skin, and one other leopard complex characteristic.Solid Appaloosa horses are not to be confused with gray horses, which display a similar mottling called "fleabitten gray". As they age, "fleabitten" gray horses, particularly those heterozygous for the gray gene, may develop pigmented speckles, in addition to a white coat. However, "fleabitten gray" is a different gene, and is unrelated to the leopard complex gene seen in the Appaloosa breed. While the Appaloosa Horse Club (ApHC) allows gray Appaloosa horses to be registered, gray is rare in the breed. Similarly, "dapple" gray horses are also different from Appaloosa horses, in terms of both coat color genes and patterning.Base colors are overlain by various spotting patterns, which are variable and often do not fit neatly into a specific category. These patterns are described as follows: Color genetics Any horse that shows Appaloosa core characteristics of coat pattern, mottled skin, striped hooves, and a visible white sclera, carries at least one allele of the dominant "leopard complex" (LP) gene. The use of the word "complex" is used to refer to the large group of visible patterns that may occur when LP is present. LP is an autosomal incomplete dominant mutation in the TRPM1 gene located at horse chromosome 1 (ECA 1). All horses with at least one copy of LP show leopard characteristics, and it is hypothesized that LP acts together with other patterning genes (PATN) that have not yet been identified to produce the different coat patterns. Horses that are heterozygous for LP tend to be darker than homozygous horses, but this is not consistent.Three single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the TRPM1 gene have been identified as closely associated with the LP mutation, although the mechanism by which the pattern is produced remains unclear. A commercially available DNA based test is likely to be developed in the near future, which breeders can use to determine if LP is present in horses that do not have visible Appaloosa characteristics.Not every Appaloosa exhibits visible coat spotting, but even apparently solid-colored horses that carry at least one dominant LP allele will exhibit characteristics such as vertically striped hooves, white sclera of the eye, and mottled skin around the eyes, lips, and genitalia. Appaloosas may also exhibit sabino or pinto type markings; as pinto genes may cover or obscure Appaloosa patterns, pinto breeding is discouraged by the ApHC, which will deny registration to horses with excessive white markings. The genes that create these different patterns can be present in the same horse. The Appaloosa Project, a genetic study group, researchers the interactions of Appaloosa and pinto genes, and how they affect each other.
History:
Recent research has suggested that Eurasian prehistoric cave paintings depicting leopard-spotted horses may have accurately reflected a phenotype of ancient wild horse. Domesticated horses with leopard complex spotting patterns have been depicted in art dating as far back as Ancient Greece, Ancient Persia, and the Han Dynasty in China; later depictions appeared in 11th-century France and 12th-century England. French paintings from the 16th and 17th centuries show horses with spotted coats being used as riding horses, and other records indicate they were also used as coach horses at the court of Louis XIV of France. In mid-18th-century Europe, there was a great demand for horses with the leopard complex spotting pattern among the nobility and royalty. These horses were used in the schools of horsemanship, for parade use, and other forms of display. Modern horse breeds in Europe today that have leopard complex spotting include the Knabstrupper and the Pinzgau, or Noriker horse.The Spanish probably obtained spotted horses through trade with southern Austria and Hungary, where the color pattern was known to exist. The Conquistadors and Spanish settlers then brought some vividly marked horses to the Americas when they first arrived in the early 16th century. One horse with snowflake patterning was listed with the 16 horses brought to Mexico by Cortez, and additional spotted horses were mentioned by Spanish writers by 1604. Others arrived in the western hemisphere when spotted horses went out of style in late 18th-century Europe, and were shipped to Mexico, California and Oregon.
History:
Nez Perce people The Nez Perce people lived in what today is eastern Washington, Oregon, and north central Idaho, where they engaged in agriculture as well as horse breeding. The Nez Perce first obtained horses from the Shoshone around 1730. They took advantage of the fact that they lived in excellent horse-breeding country, relatively safe from the raids of other tribes, and developed strict breeding selection practices for their animals, establishing breeding herds by 1750. They were one of the few tribes that actively used the practice of gelding inferior male horses and trading away poorer stock to remove unsuitable animals from the gene pool, and thus were notable as horse breeders by the early 19th century.Early Nez Perce horses were considered to be of high quality. Meriwether Lewis of the Lewis and Clark Expedition wrote in his February 15, 1806, journal entry: "Their horses appear to be of an excellent race; they are lofty, eligantly [sic] formed, active and durable: in short many of them look like fine English coarsers [sic] and would make a figure in any country." Lewis did note spotting patterns, saying, "... some of these horses are pided [pied] with large spots of white irregularly scattered and intermixed with the black brown bey [sic] or some other dark colour". By "pied", Lewis may have been referring to leopard-spotted patterns seen in the modern Appaloosa, though Lewis also noted that "much the larger portion are of a uniform colour". The Appaloosa Horse Club estimates that only about ten percent of the horses owned by the Nez Perce at the time were spotted. While the Nez Perce originally had many solid-colored horses and only began to emphasize color in their breeding some time after the visit of Lewis and Clark, by the late 19th century they had many spotted horses. As white settlers moved into traditional Nez Perce lands, a successful trade in horses enriched the Nez Perce, who in 1861 bred horses described as "elegant chargers, fit to mount a prince." At a time when ordinary horses could be purchased for $15, non-Indians who had purchased Appaloosa horses from the Nez Perce turned down offers of as much as $600.
History:
Nez Perce War Peace with the United States dated back to an alliance arranged by Lewis and Clark, but the encroachment of gold miners in the 1860s and settlers in the 1870s put pressure on the Nez Perce. Although a treaty of 1855 originally allowed them to keep most of their traditional land, another in 1863 reduced the land allotted to them by 90 percent. The Nez Perce who refused to give up their land under the 1863 treaty included a band living in the Wallowa Valley of Oregon, led by Heinmot Tooyalakekt, widely known as Chief Joseph. Tensions rose, and in May 1877, General Oliver Otis Howard called a council and ordered the non-treaty bands to move to the reservation. Chief Joseph considered military resistance futile, and by June 14, 1877, had gathered about 600 people at a site near present-day Grangeville, Idaho. But on that day a small group of warriors staged an attack on nearby white settlers, which led to the Nez Perce War. After several small battles in Idaho, more than 800 Nez Perce, mostly non-warriors, took 2000 head of various livestock including horses and fled into Montana, then traveled southeast, dipping into Yellowstone National Park. A small number of Nez Perce fighters, probably fewer than 200, successfully held off larger forces of the U.S. Army in several skirmishes, including the two-day Battle of the Big Hole in southwestern Montana. They then moved northeast and attempted to seek refuge with the Crow Nation; rebuffed, they headed for safety in Canada.Throughout this journey of about 1,400 miles (2,300 km) the Nez Perce relied heavily on their fast, agile and hardy Appaloosa horses. The journey came to an end when they stopped to rest near the Bears Paw Mountains in Montana, 40 miles (64 km) from the Canada–US border. Unbeknownst to the Nez Perce, Colonel Nelson A. Miles had led an infantry-cavalry column from Fort Keogh in pursuit. On October 5, 1877, after a five-day fight, Joseph surrendered. The battle—and the war—was over. With most of the war chiefs dead, and the noncombatants cold and starving, Joseph declared that he would "fight no more forever".
History:
Aftermath of the Nez Perce War When the U.S. 7th Cavalry accepted the surrender of Chief Joseph and the remaining Nez Perce, they immediately took more than 1,000 of the tribe's horses, sold what they could and shot many of the rest. But a significant population of horses had been left behind in the Wallowa valley when the Nez Perce began their retreat, and additional animals escaped or were abandoned along the way. The Nez Perce were ultimately settled on reservation lands in north central Idaho, were allowed few horses, and were required by the Army to crossbreed to draft horses in an attempt to create farm horses. The Nez Perce tribe never regained its former position as breeders of Appaloosas. In the late 20th century, they began a program to develop a new horse breed, the Nez Perce horse, with the intent to resurrect their horse culture, tradition of selective breeding, and horsemanship.Although a remnant population of Appaloosa horses remained after 1877, they were virtually forgotten as a distinct breed for almost 60 years. A few quality horses continued to be bred, mostly those captured or purchased by settlers and used as working ranch horses. Others were used in circuses and related forms of entertainment, such as Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show. The horses were originally called "Palouse horses" by settlers, a reference to the Palouse River that ran through the heart of what was once Nez Perce country. Gradually, the name evolved into "Apalouse", and then "Appaloosa". Other early variations of the name included "Appalucy", "Apalousey" and "Appaloosie". In one 1948 book, the breed was called the "Opelousa horse", described as a "hardy tough breed of Indian and Spanish horse" used by backwoodsmen of the late 18th century to transport goods to New Orleans for sale. By the 1950s, "Appaloosa" was regarded as the correct spelling.
History:
Revitalization The Appaloosa came to the attention of the general public in January 1937 in Western Horseman magazine when Francis D. Haines, a history professor from Lewiston, Idaho, published an article describing the breed's history and urging its preservation. Haines had performed extensive research, traveling with a friend and Appaloosa aficionado named George Hatley, visiting numerous Nez Perce villages, collecting history, and taking photographs. The article generated strong interest in the horse breed, and led to the founding of the Appaloosa Horse Club (ApHC) by Claude Thompson and a small group of other dedicated breeders in 1938. The registry was originally housed in Moro, Oregon; but in 1947 the organization moved to Moscow, Idaho, under the leadership of George Hatley. The Appaloosa Museum foundation was formed in 1975 to preserve the history of the Appaloosa horse. The Western Horseman magazine, and particularly its longtime publisher, Dick Spencer, continued to support and promote the breed through many subsequent articles.A significant crossbreeding influence used to revitalize the Appaloosa was the Arabian horse, as evidenced by early registration lists that show Arabian-Appaloosa crossbreeds as ten of the first fifteen horses registered with the ApHC. For example, one of Claude Thompson's major herd sires was Ferras, an Arabian stallion bred by W.K. Kellogg from horses imported from the Crabbet Arabian Stud of England. Ferras sired Red Eagle, a prominent Appaloosa stallion added to the Appaloosa Hall of Fame in 1988. Later, Thoroughbred and Quarter Horse lines were added, as well as crosses from other breeds, including Morgans and Standardbreds. In 1983 the ApHC reduced the number of allowable outcrosses to three main breeds: the Arabian horse, the American Quarter Horse and the Thoroughbred.By 1978 the ApHC was the third largest horse registry for light horse breeds. From 1938 to 2007 more than 670,000 Appaloosas were registered by the ApHC. The state of Idaho adopted the Appaloosa as its official state horse on March 25, 1975, when Idaho Governor Cecil Andrus signed the enabling legislation. Idaho also offers a custom license plate featuring an Appaloosa, the first state to offer a plate featuring a state horse.
Registration:
Located in Moscow, Idaho, the ApHC is the principal body for the promotion and preservation of the Appaloosa breed and is an international organization. Affiliate Appaloosa organizations exist in many South American and European countries, as well as South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Mexico and Israel. The Appaloosa Horse Club has 33,000 members as of 2010, circulation of the Appaloosa Journal, which is included with most types of membership, was at 32,000 in 2008. The American Appaloosa Association was founded in 1983 by members opposed to the registration of plain-colored horses, as a result of the color rule controversy. Based in Missouri, it has a membership of more than 2,000 as of 2008. Other "Appaloosa" registries have been founded for horses with leopard complex genetics that are not affiliated with the ApHC. These registries tend to have different foundation breeding and histories than the North American Appaloosa. The ApHC is by far the largest Appaloosa horse registry, and it hosts one of the world's largest breed shows.The Appaloosa is "a breed defined by ApHC bloodline requirements and preferred characteristics, including coat pattern". In other words, the Appaloosa is a distinct breed from limited bloodlines with distinct physical traits and a desired color, referred to as a "color preference". Appaloosas are not strictly a "color breed". All ApHC-registered Appaloosas must be the offspring of two registered Appaloosa parents or a registered Appaloosa and a horse from an approved breed registry, which includes Arabian horses, Quarter Horses, and Thoroughbreds. In all cases, one parent must always be a regular registered Appaloosa. The only exception to the bloodline requirements is in the case of Appaloosa-colored geldings or spayed mares with unknown pedigrees; owners may apply for "hardship registration" for these non-breeding horses. The ApHC does not accept horses with draft, pony, Pinto, or Paint breeding, and requires mature Appaloosas to stand, unshod, at least 14 hands (56 inches, 142 cm). If a horse has excessive white markings not associated with the Appaloosa pattern (such as those characteristic of a pinto) it cannot be registered unless it is verified through DNA testing that both parents have ApHC registration.Certain other characteristics are used to determine if a horse receives "regular" registration: striped hooves, white sclera visible when the eye is in a normal position, and mottled (spotted) skin around the eyes, lips, and genitalia. As the Appaloosa is one of the few horse breeds to exhibit skin mottling, this characteristic "...is a very basic and decisive indication of an Appaloosa." Appaloosas born with visible coat pattern, or mottled skin and at least one other characteristic, are registered with "regular" papers and have full show and breeding privileges. A horse that meets bloodline requirements but is born without the recognized color pattern and characteristics can still be registered with the ApHC as a "non-characteristic" Appaloosa. These solid-colored, "non-characteristic" Appaloosas may not be shown at ApHC events unless the owner verifies the parentage through DNA testing and pays a supplementary fee to enter the horse into the ApHC's Performance Permit Program (PPP). Solid-colored Appaloosas are restricted in breeding.
Registration:
Color rule controversy During the 1940s and 1950s, when both the Appaloosa Horse Club (ApHC) and the American Quarter Horse Association (AQHA) were in their formative years, minimally marked or roan Appaloosas were sometimes used in Quarter Horse breeding programs. At the same time, it was noted that two solid-colored registered Quarter Horse parents would sometimes produce what Quarter Horse aficionados call a "cropout", a foal with white coloration similar to that of an Appaloosa or Pinto. For a considerable time, until DNA testing could verify parentage, the AQHA refused to register such horses. The ApHC did accept cropout horses that exhibited proper Appaloosa traits, while cropout pintos became the core of the American Paint Horse Association. Famous Appaloosas who were cropouts included Colida, Joker B, Bright Eyes Brother and Wapiti.In the late 1970s, the color controversy went in the opposite direction within the Appaloosa registry. The ApHC's decision in 1982 to allow solid-colored or "non-characteristic" Appaloosas to be registered resulted in substantial debate within the Appaloosa breeding community. Until then, a foal of Appaloosa parents that had insufficient color was often denied registration, although non-characteristic Appaloosas were allowed into the registry. But breeder experience had shown that some solid Appaloosas could throw a spotted foal in a subsequent generation, at least when bred to a spotted Appaloosa. In addition, many horses with a solid coat exhibited secondary characteristics such as skin mottling, the white sclera, and striped hooves. The controversy stirred by the ApHC's decision was intense. In 1983 a number of Appaloosa breeders opposed to the registration of solid-colored horses formed the American Appaloosa Association, a breakaway organization.
Uses:
Appaloosas are used extensively for both Western and English riding. Western competitions include cutting, reining, roping and O-Mok-See sports such as barrel racing (known as the Camas Prairie Stump Race in Appaloosa-only competition) and pole bending (called the Nez Percé Stake Race at breed shows). English disciplines they are used in include eventing, show jumping, and fox hunting. They are common in endurance riding competitions, as well as in casual trail riding. Appaloosas are also bred for horse racing, with an active breed racing association promoting the sport. They are generally used for middle-distance racing at distances between 350 yards (320 m) and 0.5 miles (0.80 km); an Appaloosa holds the all-breed record for the 4.5 furlongs (3,000 ft; 910 m) distance, set in 1989.Appaloosas are often used in Western movies and television series. Examples include "Cojo Rojo" in the Marlon Brando film The Appaloosa, "Zip Cochise" ridden by John Wayne in the 1966 film El Dorado and "Cowboy", the mount of Matt Damon in True Grit. An Appaloosa horse is part of the controversial mascot team for the Florida State Seminoles, Chief Osceola and Renegade; even though the Seminole Tribe of Florida were not directly associated with Appaloosa horses.
Uses:
Influence There are several American horse breeds with leopard coloring and Appaloosa ancestry. These include the Pony of the Americas and the Colorado Ranger. Appaloosas were also crossbred with gaited horse breeds in an attempt to create leopard-spotted ambling horse breeds, including the Walkaloosa, the Spanish Jennet Horse, and the Tiger horse. Because such crossbred offspring are not eligible for ApHC registration, their owners have formed breed registries for horses with leopard complex patterns and gaited ability. In 1995 the Nez Perce tribe of Native Americans began a program to develop a new and distinct horse breed, the Nez Perce Horse, based on crossbreeding the Appaloosa with the Akhal-Teke breed from Central Asia. Appaloosa stallions have also been exported to Denmark to add new blood to the Knabstrupper breed.
Health issues:
Genetically linked vision issues Two genetically-linked conditions are linked to blindness in Appaloosas, both associated with the Leopard complex color pattern.
Health issues:
Appaloosas have an eightfold greater risk of developing Equine Recurrent Uveitis (ERU) than all other breeds combined. Up to 25 percent of all horses with ERU may be Appaloosas. Uveitis in horses has many causes, including eye trauma, disease, and bacterial, parasitic and viral infections, but ERU is characterized by recurring episodes of uveitis, rather than a single incident. If not treated, ERU can lead to blindness. Eighty percent of all uveitis cases are found in Appaloosas with physical characteristics including roan or light-colored coat patterns, little pigment around the eyelids and sparse hair in the mane and tail denoting the most at-risk individuals. Researchers may have identified a gene region containing an allele that makes the breed more susceptible to the disease.Appaloosas that are homozygous for the leopard complex (LP) gene are also at risk for congenital stationary night blindness (CSNB). This form of night blindness has been linked with the leopard complex since the 1970s, and in 2007 a "significant association" between LP and CSNB was identified. CSNB is a disorder that causes an affected animal to lack night vision, although day vision is normal. It is an inherited disorder, present from birth, and does not progress over time. Studies in 2008 and 2010 indicate that both CSNB and leopard complex spotting patterns are linked to TRPM1.
Health issues:
Drug rules In 2007 the ApHC implemented new drug rules allowing Appaloosas to show with the drugs furosemide, known by the trade name of Lasix, and acetazolamide. Furosemide is used to prevent horses who bleed from the nose when subjected to strenuous work from having bleeding episodes when in competition, and is widely used in horse racing. Acetazolamide ("Acet") is used for treating horses with the genetic disease hyperkalemic periodic paralysis (HYPP), and prevents affected animals from having seizures. Acet is only allowed for horses that test positive for HYPP and have HYPP status noted on their registration papers. The ApHC recommends that Appaloosas that trace to certain American Quarter Horse bloodlines be tested for HYPP, and owners have the option to choose to place HYPP testing results on registration papers. Foals of AQHA-registered stallions and mares born on or after January 1, 2007 that carry HYPP will be required to be HYPP tested and have their HYPP status designated on their registration papers.Both drugs are controversial, in part because they are considered drug maskers and diuretics that can make it difficult to detect the presence of other drugs in the horse's system. On one side, it is argued that the United States Equestrian Federation (USEF), which sponsors show competition for many different horse breeds, and the International Federation for Equestrian Sports (FEI), which governs international and Olympic equestrian competition, ban the use of furosemide. On the other side of the controversy, several major stock horse registries that sanction their own shows, including the American Quarter Horse Association, American Paint Horse Association, and the Palomino Horse Breeders of America, allow acetazolamide and furosemide to be used within 24 hours of showing under certain circumstances. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Cysteine methyl ester**
Cysteine methyl ester:
Cysteine methyl ester is the organic compound with the formula HSCH2CH(NH2)CO2CH3. A white solid, it is the methyl ester of the amino acid cysteine.
Uses:
Under the brand name Mecysteine, cysteine methyl ester is a commercial drug with mucolytic activity. It is used as mucolytic and fluidifying for chronic and acute respiratory disorders. The drug is sold under the commercial names Delta in Paraguay, and Pectite and Zeotin in Japan.Cysteine methyl ester is also used as a building block for synthesis of N,S-heterocycles. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**SLIP (programming language)**
SLIP (programming language):
SLIP is a list processing computer programming language, invented by Joseph Weizenbaum in the 1960s. The name SLIP stands for Symmetric LIst Processor. It was first implemented as an extension to the Fortran programming language, and later embedded into MAD and ALGOL. The best known program written in the language is ELIZA, an early natural language processing computer program created by Weizenbaum at the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory.
General overview:
In a nutshell, SLIP consisted of a set of FORTRAN "accessor" functions which operated on circular doubly linked lists with fixed-size data fields. The "accessor" functions had direct and indirect addressing variants.
List representation:
The list representation had four types of cell: a reader, a header, a sublist indicator, and a payload cell. The header included a reference count field for garbage collection purposes. The sublist indicator allowed it to be able to represent nested lists, such as (A, B, C, (1, 2, 3), D, E, F) where (1, 2, 3) is a sublist indicated by a cell in the '*' position in the list (A, B, C, *, D, E, F). The reader was essentially a state history stack—a good example of a memento pattern—where each cell pointed to the header of the list being read, the current position within the list being read, and the level or depth of the history stack. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Kinetic heap**
Kinetic heap:
A Kinetic Heap is a kinetic data structure, obtained by the kinetization of a heap. It is designed to store elements (keys associated with priorities) where the priority is changing as a continuous function of time. As a type of kinetic priority queue, it maintains the maximum priority element stored in it. The kinetic heap data structure works by storing the elements as a tree that satisfies the following heap property – if B is a child node of A, then the priority of the element in A must be higher than the priority of the element in B. This heap property is enforced using certificates along every edge so, like other kinetic data structures, a kinetic heap also contains a priority queue (the event queue) to maintain certificate failure times.
Implementation and operations:
A regular heap can be kinetized by augmenting with a certificate [A>B] for every pair of nodesA, B such that B is a child node of A. If the value stored at a node X is a function fX(t) of time, then this certificate is only valid while fA(t) > fB(t). Thus, the failure of this certificate must be scheduled in the event queue at a time t such that fA(t) > fB(t).
Implementation and operations:
All certificate failures are scheduled on the "event queue", which is assumed to be an efficient priority queue whose operations take O(log n) time.
Dealing with certificate failures When a certificate [A>B] fails, the data structure must swap A and B in the heap, and update the certificates that each of them was present in.
Implementation and operations:
For example, if B (with child nodes Y and Z) was a child node of A (with child nodes B and C and parent node X), and the certificate [A>B] fails, then the data structure must swap B and A, then replace the old certificates (and the corresponding scheduled events) [A>B], [A<X], [A>C], [B>Y], [B>Z] with new certificates [B>A], [B<X], [B>C], [A>Y] and [A>Z].
Implementation and operations:
Thus, assuming non-degeneracy of the events (no two events happen at the same time), only a constant number of events need to be de-scheduled and re-scheduled even in the worst case.
Operations A kinetic heap supports the following operations: create-heap(h): create an empty kinetic heap h find-max(h, t) (or find-min): – return the max (or min for a min-heap) value stored in the heap h at the current virtual time t.
Implementation and operations:
insert(X, fX, t): – insert a key X into the kinetic heap at the current virtual time t, whose value changes as a continuous function fX(t) of time t. The insertion is done as in a normal heap in O(log n) time, but O(log n) certificates might need to be changed as a result, so the total time for rescheduling certificate failures is O(log 2 n) delete(X, t) – delete a key X at the current virtual time t. The deletion is done as in a normal heap in O(log n) time, but O(log n) certificates might need to be changed as a result, so the total time for rescheduling certificate failures is O(log 2 n).
Performance:
Kinetic heaps perform well according to the four metrics (responsiveness, locality, compactness and efficiency) of kinetic data structure quality defined by Basch et al. The analysis of the first three qualities is straightforward: Responsiveness: A kinetic heap is responsive, since each certificate failure causes the concerned keys to be swapped and leads to only few certificates being replaced in the worst case.
Performance:
Locality: Each node is present in one certificate each along with its parent node and two child nodes (if present), meaning that each node can be involved in a total of three scheduled events in the worst case, thus kinetic heaps are local.
Compactness: Each edge in the heap corresponds to exactly one scheduled event, therefore the number of scheduled events is exactly n-1 where n is the number of nodes in the kinetic heap. Thus, kinetic heaps are compact.
Analysis of efficiency The efficiency of a kinetic heap in the general case is largely unknown. However, in the special case of affine motion f(t) = at + b of the priorities, kinetic heaps are known to be very efficient.
Affine motion, no insertions or deletions In this special case, the maximum number of events processed by a kinetic heap can be shown to be exactly the number of edges in the transitive closure of the tree structure of the heap, which is O(nlogn) for a tree of height O(logn).
Affine motion, with insertions and deletions If n insertions and deletions are made on a kinetic heap that starts empty, the maximum number of events processed is log n).
However, this bound is not believed to be tight, and the only known lower bound is log n)
Variants:
This article deals with "simple" kinetic heaps as described above, but other variants have been developed for specialized applications, such as: Fibonacci kinetic heap Incremental kinetic heapOther heap-like kinetic priority queues are: Kinetic heater Kinetic hanger | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Finite difference method**
Finite difference method:
In numerical analysis, finite-difference methods (FDM) are a class of numerical techniques for solving differential equations by approximating derivatives with finite differences. Both the spatial domain and time interval (if applicable) are discretized, or broken into a finite number of steps, and the value of the solution at these discrete points is approximated by solving algebraic equations containing finite differences and values from nearby points.
Finite difference method:
Finite difference methods convert ordinary differential equations (ODE) or partial differential equations (PDE), which may be nonlinear, into a system of linear equations that can be solved by matrix algebra techniques. Modern computers can perform these linear algebra computations efficiently which, along with their relative ease of implementation, has led to the widespread use of FDM in modern numerical analysis.
Finite difference method:
Today, FDM are one of the most common approaches to the numerical solution of PDE, along with finite element methods.
Derive difference quotient from Taylor's polynomial:
For a n-times differentiable function, by Taylor's theorem the Taylor series expansion is given as where n! denotes the factorial of n, and Rn(x) is a remainder term, denoting the difference between the Taylor polynomial of degree n and the original function. We will derive an approximation for the first derivative of the function f by first truncating the Taylor polynomial plus remainder: Dividing across by h gives: Solving for f′(x0) Assuming that R1(x) is sufficiently small, the approximation of the first derivative of f is: This is, not coincidentally, similar to the definition of derivative, which is given as: except for the limit towards zero (the method is named after this).
Accuracy and order:
The error in a method's solution is defined as the difference between the approximation and the exact analytical solution. The two sources of error in finite difference methods are round-off error, the loss of precision due to computer rounding of decimal quantities, and truncation error or discretization error, the difference between the exact solution of the original differential equation and the exact quantity assuming perfect arithmetic (that is, assuming no round-off).
Accuracy and order:
To use a finite difference method to approximate the solution to a problem, one must first discretize the problem's domain. This is usually done by dividing the domain into a uniform grid (see image to the right). This means that finite-difference methods produce sets of discrete numerical approximations to the derivative, often in a "time-stepping" manner.
Accuracy and order:
An expression of general interest is the local truncation error of a method. Typically expressed using Big-O notation, local truncation error refers to the error from a single application of a method. That is, it is the quantity f′(xi)−fi′ if f′(xi) refers to the exact value and fi′ to the numerical approximation. The remainder term of a Taylor polynomial is convenient for analyzing the local truncation error. Using the Lagrange form of the remainder from the Taylor polynomial for f(x0+h) , which is the dominant term of the local truncation error can be discovered. For example, again using the forward-difference formula for the first derivative, knowing that f(xi)=f(x0+ih) and with some algebraic manipulation, this leads to and further noting that the quantity on the left is the approximation from the finite difference method and that the quantity on the right is the exact quantity of interest plus a remainder, clearly that remainder is the local truncation error. A final expression of this example and its order is: This means that, in this case, the local truncation error is proportional to the step sizes. The quality and duration of simulated FDM solution depends on the discretization equation selection and the step sizes (time and space steps). The data quality and simulation duration increase significantly with smaller step size. Therefore, a reasonable balance between data quality and simulation duration is necessary for practical usage. Large time steps are useful for increasing simulation speed in practice. However, time steps which are too large may create instabilities and affect the data quality.The von Neumann and Courant-Friedrichs-Lewy criteria are often evaluated to determine the numerical model stability.
Example: ordinary differential equation:
For example, consider the ordinary differential equation The Euler method for solving this equation uses the finite difference quotient to approximate the differential equation by first substituting it for u'(x) then applying a little algebra (multiplying both sides by h, and then adding u(x) to both sides) to get The last equation is a finite-difference equation, and solving this equation gives an approximate solution to the differential equation.
Example: The heat equation:
Consider the normalized heat equation in one dimension, with homogeneous Dirichlet boundary conditions One way to numerically solve this equation is to approximate all the derivatives by finite differences. We partition the domain in space using a mesh x0,…,xJ and in time using a mesh t0,…,tN . We assume a uniform partition both in space and in time, so the difference between two consecutive space points will be h and between two consecutive time points will be k. The points will represent the numerical approximation of u(xj,tn).
Example: The heat equation:
Explicit method Using a forward difference at time tn and a second-order central difference for the space derivative at position xj (FTCS) we get the recurrence equation: This is an explicit method for solving the one-dimensional heat equation.
We can obtain ujn+1 from the other values this way: where r=k/h2.
So, with this recurrence relation, and knowing the values at time n, one can obtain the corresponding values at time n+1. u0n and uJn must be replaced by the boundary conditions, in this example they are both 0.
Example: The heat equation:
This explicit method is known to be numerically stable and convergent whenever r≤1/2 . The numerical errors are proportional to the time step and the square of the space step: Implicit method If we use the backward difference at time tn+1 and a second-order central difference for the space derivative at position xj (The Backward Time, Centered Space Method "BTCS") we get the recurrence equation: This is an implicit method for solving the one-dimensional heat equation.
Example: The heat equation:
We can obtain ujn+1 from solving a system of linear equations: The scheme is always numerically stable and convergent but usually more numerically intensive than the explicit method as it requires solving a system of numerical equations on each time step. The errors are linear over the time step and quadratic over the space step: Crank–Nicolson method Finally if we use the central difference at time tn+1/2 and a second-order central difference for the space derivative at position xj ("CTCS") we get the recurrence equation: This formula is known as the Crank–Nicolson method.
Example: The heat equation:
We can obtain ujn+1 from solving a system of linear equations: The scheme is always numerically stable and convergent but usually more numerically intensive as it requires solving a system of numerical equations on each time step. The errors are quadratic over both the time step and the space step: Comparison To summarize, usually the Crank–Nicolson scheme is the most accurate scheme for small time steps. For larger time steps, the implicit scheme works better since it is less computationally demanding. The explicit scheme is the least accurate and can be unstable, but is also the easiest to implement and the least numerically intensive. Here is an example. The figures below present the solutions given by the above methods to approximate the heat equation with the boundary condition The exact solution is
Example: The Laplace operator:
The (continuous) Laplace operator in n -dimensions is given by Δu(x)=∑i=1n∂i2u(x) The discrete Laplace operator Δhu depends on the dimension n In 1D the Laplace operator is approximated as This approximation is usually expressed via the following stencil and which represents a symmetric, tridiagonal matrix. For an equidistant grid one gets a Toeplitz matrix.
Example: The Laplace operator:
The 2D case shows all the characteristics of the more general n-dimensional case. Each second partial derivative needs to be approximated similar to the 1D case which is usually given by the following stencil Consistency Consistency of the above-mentioned approximation can be shown for highly regular functions, such as u∈C4(Ω) The statement is To prove this, one needs to substitute Taylor Series expansions up to order 3 into the discrete Laplace operator.
Example: The Laplace operator:
Properties Subharmonic Similar to continuous subharmonic functions one can define subharmonic functions for finite-difference approximations uh Mean value One can define a general stencil of positive type via If uh is (discrete) subharmonic then the following mean value property holds where the approximation is evaluated on points of the grid, and the stencil is assumed to be of positive type.
Example: The Laplace operator:
A similar mean value property also holds for the continuous case.
Maximum principle For a (discrete) subharmonic function uh the following holds where Ωh,∂Ωh are discretizations of the continuous domain Ω , respectively the boundary ∂Ω A similar maximum principle also holds for the continuous case.
The SBP-SAT method:
The SBP-SAT (summation by parts - simultaneous approximation term) method is a stable and accurate technique for discretizing and imposing boundary conditions of a well-posed partial differential equation using high order finite differences.The method is based on finite differences where the differentiation operators exhibit summation-by-parts properties. Typically, these operators consist of differentiation matrices with central difference stencils in the interior with carefully chosen one-sided boundary stencils designed to mimic integration-by-parts in the discrete setting. Using the SAT technique, the boundary conditions of the PDE are imposed weakly, where the boundary values are "pulled" towards the desired conditions rather than exactly fulfilled. If the tuning parameters (inherent to the SAT technique) are chosen properly, the resulting system of ODE's will exhibit similar energy behavior as the continuous PDE, i.e. the system has no non-physical energy growth. This guarantees stability if an integration scheme with a stability region that includes parts of the imaginary axis, such as the fourth order Runge-Kutta method, is used. This makes the SAT technique an attractive method of imposing boundary conditions for higher order finite difference methods, in contrast to for example the injection method, which typically will not be stable if high order differentiation operators are used. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Global Educational Network for Satellite Operations**
Global Educational Network for Satellite Operations:
The Global Educational Network for Satellite Operations (GENSO) is forming by a worldwide network of ground stations and spacecraft which can interact via a software standard. The GENSO aims to increase the return from educational space missions and changed the way that these missions are managed, dramatically increasing the level of access to orbital educational spacecraft.
History:
In November 2007, a kickoff meeting was held at the CubeSat workshop. This short presentation (at Aalborg University in Denmark) to the rest of the GENSO groups described work at Cal Poly for the project. This workshop kicked off the Alpha Test phase of the project. The entire project was successfully demoed in front of a live audience (us). The Mission Control Client booked downlink sessions with the Ground Station Server, and the Ground Station Server controlled the radio and rotors at the AAU ground station (across the building). The running Authentication Server authenticated people and registered satellites on the network.
History:
In February 2009, the ROBUSTA project joined the GENSO initiative. ROBUSTA is the first French university CubeSat. The objective of the payload experiment is to measure the radiation induced degradation of electronic devices. Flight data will be compared to the results of a novel prediction method taking into account the Enhanced Low Dose Rate Sensitivity. The second interesting point of this project is that it's a real educational project. Although the system hasn't yet grown to the "hundreds" of ground stations identified in Alexandru Munteanu's Thesis from 2009, testing and integration continue to proceed.
History:
The GENSO project initiated under the guidance of the International Space Education Board (ISEB) has many existing capabilities and is accumulating the interest of large groups inside and outside of the United States. However, it is still lacking a fully equipped ground station that can complement its capabilities.
Since 2011, a great deal of work has been done on Release 1E of GENSO to help make it more user friendly and reliable for the Amateur Radio community. Ground stations like the one at COSMIAC are now running 24/7 downloading data for educational satellites such as the University of Michigan RAX-2 spacecraft.
How GENSO works:
The GENSO system is a software networking standard which allows a user to communicate with a spacecraft by using a remote ground station which has a clear view of the spacecraft. Communications between the client computer (a mission controlcomputer) and the ground station server are conducted across the Internet.
How GENSO works:
There are three major components to the GENSO system : GSS – Ground Station Server MCC - The Mission Control Client is the control station for a satellite. Each satellite will have one MCC. A GSS will see a snapshot of the satellite but only MCC will have the entire picture AUS – The Authentication Server is the server that mediates communication between MCCs and GSSs on the GENSO network. When a ground station wants to join the network, the AUS permits them and then assigns them bookings to accomplish. The current AUS is located in Vigo, Spain and the backup is at Cal Poly: San Luis Obispo.There are also three main components that the GENSO system remotely controls: Rotator Controller Terminal node control Radio ControllerThe GENSO software is written in Java. GENSO was developed and is currently maintained under the auspices of the European Space Agency (ESA). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Chupe**
Chupe:
Chupe is a generic term used in South America to a variety of stew generally made with chicken, red meat, lamb or beef tripe and other offal, or with fish, shrimp, crayfish or shellfish such as loco, and vegetables, potatoes or yuca.Chupe de camarones (made with crayfish) is generally popular among the Southern coastal region of Peru (originally from Arequipa). Although the original recipe calls for crayfish, shrimp chupe has become more widely eaten, as fresh or frozen shrimp become more common. The preparation consists of cooking potatoes and onions in butter, then adding various spices, such as chilli powder. Then, water, tomatoes, and sometimes chicken broth are added. Before serving the broth, it is mixed with milk or cream.
Chupe:
Chupe is typical of South American cuisine, but more specifically to the cuisines of Bolivia, Chile and Peru. The city of Arequipa in Peru has a traditional sequence of chupes that are served on specific days of the week. On Fridays, the chupe is meatless because of the religious traditions of the country. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Hooley's Delta function**
Hooley's Delta function:
In mathematics, Hooley's delta function ( Δ(n) ), also called Erdős--Hooley delta-function, defines the maximum number of divisors of n in [u,eu] for all u , where e is the Euler's number. The first few terms of this sequence are 1,2,1,2,1,2,1,2,1,2,1,3,1,2,2,2,1,2,1,3,2,2,1,4 (sequence A226898 in the OEIS).
History:
The sequence was first introduced by Paul Erdős in 1974, then studied by Christopher Hooley in 1979.In 1985, Helmut Maier and Gérald Tenenbaum proved that the sum of the first n terms, log log log log log n for some constant c>0 and all 16 . In particular, the average order of Δ(n) to k is log n)k) for any k>0 .They also shows that log log log log log 2+O(1) for almost all n , with log log log 27 log 0.338...
History:
, further limiting the value of the function.
Usage:
This function measures the tendency of divisors of a number to cluster.
The growth of this sequence is limited by Δ(mn)≤Δ(n)d(m) where d(n) is the number of divisors of n | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Incidence and Symmetry in Design and Architecture**
Incidence and Symmetry in Design and Architecture:
Incidence and Symmetry in Design and Architecture is a book on symmetry, graph theory, and their applications in architecture, aimed at architecture students. It was written by Jenny Baglivo and Jack E. Graver and published in 1983 by Cambridge University Press in their Cambridge Urban and Architectural Studies book series. It won an Alpha Sigma Nu Book Award in 1983, and has been recommended for undergraduate mathematics libraries by the Basic Library List Committee of the Mathematical Association of America.
Topics:
Incidence and Symmetry in Design and Architecture is divided into two parts of roughly equal length, each divided into four chapters. The first part, "Incidence", is primarily on graph theory. Its topics include the basic definitions of directed graphs and undirected graphs, homeomorphisms of graphs, Dijkstra's algorithm for the shortest path problem, planar graphs, polyhedral graphs, and Euler's polyhedral formula. This theory is applied to the grid bracing problem in structural rigidity, where the authors derive a novel equivalence between stabilizing a square grid by cross bracing and the strong connectivity augmentation of directed bipartite graphs. Other applications include optimal route design for facilities such as roads and power lines, the connectivity of floor plans of buildings, and the arrangement of building corridors to optimize average distance. This part of the book concludes with a treatment of the classification of two-dimensional topological surfaces.The second part of the book is "Symmetry". Its first chapter includes the basic definitions of group theory and of a Euclidean plane isometry, and the classification of isometries into translations, rotations, reflections, and glide reflections. The second of its chapters concerns the discrete isometry groups in the plane including the frieze groups and wallpaper groups, and the classification of two-dimensional patterns by their symmetries. Another chapter provides some partial generalizations of this material into three dimensions, and the final chapter of this part concerns connections between group theory and problems of counting combinatorial objects, including Lagrange's theorem on the divisibility of orders of groups and their subgroups, and Burnside's lemma on the number of orbits of a group action.
Audience and reception:
The book is aimed at architecture and design students not already familiar with mathematics, and is self-contained although not always easy going. It includes many exercises and experiments, some of which involve paper folding or the uses of mirrors rather than being purely mathematical, and are often aimed at practical applications. Reviewer C. F. Earl strongly recommends the book to "students, practitioners, and researchers in architecture and design who wish to understand the properties of their designs and the possibilities for new designs". Ethan Bolker suggests that it could also be used by secondary school teachers wishing to brush up their background knowledge of mathematics, or as a textbook for an undergraduate course on mathematics for liberal arts students. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Capstone course**
Capstone course:
A capstone course, also known as a synthesis and capstone project, senior synthesis, among other terms, is a project that serves as the culminating and usually integrative praxis experience of an educational program mostly found in American-style pedagogy. Although somewhat different from an industry-oriented capstone project, case study, case method, or praxis commonly used in American-style higher education; in the Commonwealth of Nations, Bologna Process, and in other parts of the world influenced by their education systems, a senior thesis (thesis) usually takes its place as a culmination of an educational program but is much more theoretical and academia-oriented rather than the praxis and industry-oriented synthesis and capstone project.It is a hands-on project, essay, research paper, or other document submitted in support of a candidature for a degree or professional qualification, written in a professional writing format, presenting from the perspective of a professional in the field as opposed to the perspective of an academic researcher or student who typically use an academic writing format.Some universities and colleges award a Capstone Award or Capstone Prize based on merit in the capstone course.
Capstone course:
The term derives from the final decorative coping or "cap-stone" used to complete a building or monument. In higher education, the term has been in common use in the USA since the mid-twentieth century, although there is evidence that it was in use as early as the late 1800s. It has gradually been gaining currency in other countries, particularly where attention has focused on student outcomes and employability in undergraduate studies. National grant projects in Australia and the U.K. have further raised the profile of the capstone experience. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Methanophenazine**
Methanophenazine:
Methanophenazine, a phenazine derivative, is a strongly hydrophobic redox-active cofactor with a role in electron transport in some methanogens. This chromophore can be purified from membranes of methanogenic archaea such as Methanosarcina mazei. The enzyme methanosarcina-phenazine hydrogenase (EC 1.12.98.3) has the name methanophenazine hydrogenase as a synonym. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Meringue**
Meringue:
Meringue ( mə-RANG, French: [məʁɛ̃ɡ] (listen)) is a type of dessert or candy, traditionally made from whipped egg whites and sugar, and occasionally an acidic ingredient such as lemon, vinegar, or cream of tartar. A binding agent such as salt, flour or gelatin may also be added to the eggs. The key to the formation of a good meringue is the formation of stiff peaks by denaturing the protein ovalbumin (a protein in the egg whites) via mechanical shear. They are light, airy and sweet confections. Homemade meringues are often chewy and soft with a crisp exterior, while many commercial meringues are crisp throughout. A uniform crisp texture may be achieved at home by baking at a low temperature (80–90 °C or 176–194 °F) for an extended period of up to two hours.
History:
The Oxford English Dictionary states that the French word is of unknown origin. The name meringue for this confection first appeared in print in François Massialot's cookbook of 1692. The word meringue first appeared in English in 1706 in a translation of Massialot's book. The first documented recipes recognizable as meringues are found in two considerably earlier 17th-century English manuscript books of recipes which give instructions for confections called "white biskit bread" in the book of recipes written in 1604 by Elinor Fettiplace (c. 1570 – c. 1647) of Gloucestershire and called "pets" in the manuscript of collected recipes written by Lady Rachel Fane (1612/13 – 1680) of Knole, Kent. Slowly baked meringues are still referred to as "pets" in the Loire region of France due to their light and fluffy texture.Meringues were traditionally shaped between two large spoons, as they are generally at home today. Meringue piped through a pastry bag was introduced by Antonin Carême.
Types:
There are several types of meringue: the sweetened, beaten egg whites that form the "islands" of floating island (also known in French as île flottante); the partly cooked toppings of lemon meringue pie and other meringue-topped desserts; and the classic dry featherweight meringue. Different preparation techniques produce these results.
French meringue, or basic meringue, is the method best known to home cooks. Fine white sugar (caster sugar) is beaten into egg whites.
Types:
Italian meringue was invented by the French chef Lancelot de Casteau in 1604. It is made with boiling sugar syrup, instead of caster sugar. This creates a much more stable soft meringue which can be used in various pastries without collapsing. In an Italian meringue, a hot sugar syrup is whipped into softly whipped egg whites until stiff, and until the meringue becomes cool. It will not deflate for a long while and can be either used for decoration on pie, or spread on a sheet or baked Alaska base and baked.
Types:
Swiss meringue is whisked over a bain-marie to warm the egg whites, and then whisked steadily until it cools. This forms a dense, glossy marshmallow-like meringue. It is usually then baked.
Vegan meringue is imitation meringue made using aquafaba with a small dose of vinegar and caster sugar. It holds similar characteristics to that of egg-based meringue, but it will quickly burn if torched or baked incorrectly. Another variation uses potato protein instead of aquafaba.
Chemistry:
Protein distribution in egg whites is as follows: (54%) ovalbumin, (13%) conalbumin/ ovotransferrin, (11%) ovomucoid, (4%) ovoglobulins, (3.5%) lysozyme, and (2%) ovomucin. Ovoglobulins drive foaming, ovomucin is the main stabilization agent, and the remainder of the proteins interact to contribute to overall foaming and stability. When egg whites are beaten, some of the hydrogen bonds in the proteins break, causing the proteins to unfold ("denature") and to aggregate non-specifically. When these egg white proteins denature (due to agitation from beating), their hydrophobic regions are exposed and the formation of intermolecular protein-protein interactions is promoted. These protein-protein interactions, usually disulfide bridges, create networks responsible for the structure of the foam and this change in structure leads to the stiff consistency required for meringues. The use of a copper bowl, or the addition of cream of tartar is required to additionally denature the proteins to create the firm peaks, otherwise the whites will not be firm. Wiping the bowl with a wedge of lemon to remove any traces of grease can often help the process.
Chemistry:
When beating egg whites, they are classified in three stages according to the peaks they form when the beater is lifted: soft, firm, and stiff peaks.
Chemistry:
Egg whites and sugar are both hygroscopic (water-attracting) chemicals. Consequently, meringue becomes soggy when refrigerated or stored in a high-humidity environment. This quality also explains the problem called "weeping" or "sweating", in which beads of moisture form on all surfaces of the meringue. It can also happen if the meringue is undercooked (resulting in a puddle of liquid under the meringue) or overcooked (resulting in beading on top). Sweating is a particular problem for French meringues in which the granulated sugar is inadequately dissolved in the egg whites, and for high-moisture pie fillings.
Compound interactions:
There are three main ingredients in a meringue recipe that interact to form the foam structure: egg whites, sugar, and cream of tartar or acid. The backbone of the foam structure is made up of proteins, amino acid chains. Egg whites provide the meringue with necessary proteins that form the meringue foam. The proteins are originally oriented in a tangled ball but must be uncoiled into strands; this is referred to as denaturation. There are two ways a protein can be denatured: through physical or chemical process. When forming a meringue the egg whites are beat until the proteins are denatured - a physical process. Also by beating the egg whites, air is incorporated into the protein structure creating an air–water protein mixture interface. The friction from beating the eggs adds heat to the process, which causes the proteins to increase in elasticity. As the proteins are being stretched during the denaturation process they are also coagulating together forming a protein network. After the denaturation process the egg whites will become six to eight times their original size. If the proteins are beat for too long they will become stretched out too far and become too weak to support the foam structure.Cream of tartar, also known as potassium hydrogen tartrate, KC4H5O6, is added to the egg whites before the denaturation process. Cream of tartar is an acid that is used to help stabilize and coagulate the proteins, which aids in a stronger protein network to trap air for the foam formation. Cream of tartar has a low pH to help bring the proteins near their isoelectric point to allow them to be denatured easier. The isoelectric point is a specific pH where a molecule, in this case protein, has no net electrical charge. The electrical charge on a protein would normally hold the protein together in its coiled clump.The cream of tartar also acts as a catalyst affecting the sugar structure. Sucrose is a disaccharide made up of glucose and fructose. Cream of tartar inverts the sugar during the baking process, meaning the molecule is split into two parts containing glucose and fructose. This prevents the sugar from recrystallizing and giving the meringue a gritty, undesirable texture.Sugar is the final ingredient that is used to help form and stabilize the foam structure. Sugar is hydrophilic, extracting water out of the egg whites. This will lighten the protein network, allowing the foam to be stronger and more elastic. The sugar dissolves in the protein network but does not become part of the protein network. The sugar must be added slowly to the egg whites, while continuously mixing. If it is added all at once, it will not be evenly distributed, causing the protein network to collapse due to the weight of the sugar in one area of the meringue.After a strong protein network has formed a complete foam, the meringue is ready to be baked. Adding heat to the mixture is the final step to strengthen the foam structure. The meringue must be baked at a low temperature for a long period of time. This allows the proteins to finish coagulating, strengthening the meringue evenly throughout. If the proteins are not baked evenly, the bottom of the meringue will not be able to support the structural weight, causing the meringue to collapse. The heat causes the air bubbles to expand, creating an airier structure. The water in the structure evaporates, causing the meringue to become lighter with a stronger foam structure. It is important to not evaporate all of the water out of the meringue, as some water is necessary to hold the foam together.
Uses:
Cookies Meringue cookies are baked at a very low heat for a long time. Another name for them is forgotten cookies, as they can be left in an oven for a long time after the cooking is done. They are not supposed to become tan at all, but they need to be very crisp and dry. They will keep for at least a week if stored in an airtight container.
Uses:
Desserts Meringue can be used as the basis for various desserts including baked Alaska, bruttiboni, dacquoise, Esterházy torte, Eton mess, floating island, key lime pie, Kyiv cake, lemon meringue pie, macarons, merveilleux, pavlova, Queen of Puddings, sans rival, silvana, Spanische Windtorte, Turrón and Zuger Kirschtorte. In some recipes, the meringue may be cooked at a higher temperature for a shorter amount of time, resulting in a soft meringue with slightly browned peaks on top. Meringue by itself is also a dessert called "meringue kisses".
Uses:
In Switzerland, meringues are often associated with Gruyère cream.Another dish is meringue de angel, which consists of shortbread layered with meringue and lemon curd, topped off with drizzled lemon glaze. Variations include assorted fruits such as raspberries, peaches, mangoes, cherries, strawberries, blueberries, blackberries, pineapple, papayas, honeydew, oranges, and cantaloupe.
Embellishment Meringue may be used for embellishment. It can be formed into whimsical shapes, such as mushrooms, or piped into a crisp basket that is baked and filled with cake, fruit, or flowers.
Shelf life:
Meringue is not a stable structure and has a short shelf life of about two weeks if stored properly. Meringue is a hygroscopic food, thus it absorbs water from the air. The high sugar concentration in the meringue absorbs moisture from the air and will cause the meringue to become soft and chewy. The more water that is absorbed, the heavier the meringue becomes. After enough water is absorbed, the meringue will become too heavy for the foam structure to support itself, and it will start to collapse. Meringue is so susceptible to absorbing water that a rainy day may disrupt the foam structure formation and make it impossible to form a meringue.Storing meringues in an airtight container will prevent humidity from affecting the sugar. It is also recommended to store the meringue in a cooler area. If the meringue is stored in these conditions, its shelf life will be about two weeks. To extend the shelf life up to about three months, the meringue can be stored in the freezer. The colder temperatures in the freezer decrease the humidity. The meringue should still be stored in an airtight container, preventing water from affecting the meringue.
Nutritional content:
The principal nutritional components are protein from the egg whites and simple carbohydrates from the refined sugar. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Pogo (dance)**
Pogo (dance):
The pogo is a dance in which the dancers jump up and down, while either remaining on the spot or moving around; the dance takes its name from its resemblance to the use of a pogo stick, especially in a common version of the dance, where one keeps one's torso stiff, one's arms rigid, and one's legs close together. Pogo dancing is most associated with punk rock, and is a precursor to moshing.
Style:
The basic steps allow for a variety of interpretations, some of which might appear quite violent. Pogo dancers have their choice of: Keeping their torsos rigid or thrashing them about; Holding their arms stiffly at their sides or flailing them; Keeping their legs together or kicking about; Jumping straight up and down, jumping in any direction, or spinning in the air.
History:
In The Filth and the Fury, Sex Pistols bassist Sid Vicious claimed that he invented the pogo sometime around 1976 at punk shows in the early days of London's punk scene. Vicious supposedly invented the dance as a way of mocking people who came to see Sex Pistols' performances, but who were not part of the punk movement. Whether Vicious actually invented the dance or not, the pogo quickly became closely associated with punk rock. Shane MacGowan, himself an early follower of the punk scene, also attributes pogo dancing to Vicious, claiming that a leather poncho he wore to gigs prevented him from any form of dancing other than jumping up and down. In her autobiography, Clothes, Clothes, Clothes. Music, Music, Music. Boys, Boys, Boys., Viv Albertine of The Slits claims that the Pogo was inspired by the way Sid jumped up and down while playing saxophone. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Military-digital complex**
Military-digital complex:
The military-digital complex (MDC) is the militarization of cyber operations by governments and corporations, often through monetary relationships between computer programmers in private companies and the military to combat the threat of cyber terrorism and warfare. Cyber operations since 2000 have increased dramatically, with the recent branch of the US Strategic Command the United States Cyber Command. Cyber operations has been defined by the Washington Post as, "Offensive and defensive cyber (or digital) warfare, including the fields of computer network attack, computer network exploitation and computer network defense; as well as traditional electronic warfare (e.g., jamming) intended to deny an adversary use of their electronically dependent equipment through "non-kinetic" means—that is, by fighting with electrons rather than explosives."As cyber attacks become an increasingly common threat to the security of civilians and highly classified governmental information, a need to combat the threat by means of computer network operations and computer network defense have arisen. It is important to note however that protection is only one component of the Military-digital complex and that the use of information warfare within the complex can be used to achieve military operations and an upper-hand in economic exploits.
Military-digital complex:
The Military-digital complex contains many components which align it succinctly to its industrial counterpart, for example the use of defense contractors. Although hired Contractors may not be explicitly named as such they still expose the complex to complications such as the principal–agent problem and consequently moral hazard. The MDC is seen as a progression as nations move globally towards cyberwarfare, indeed the cyber war is increasingly being acknowledged as the "fifth domain of warfare".
Military-digital complex:
The MDC is a necessity for governmental bodies in order to maintain high standards within their cyber army, for example the USA boasts over "143 private companies involved in top secret cyber operations programs", however James Gosler a government specialist in cyber security indicates that the USA have a severe shortage of government cybersecurity specialists.
History:
Technology has been a part of war since the dawn of warfare. Neolithic tools such as daggers were used as weaponry and clan rivalry long before recorded history. The Bronze Age and Iron Age saw technological improvements namely in the advancements of weaponry and subsequently the arrival of complex industries. It was not until the late 19th and early 20th Century that weaponry advanced in leaps and bounds to the armaments mankind witnesses today, however even then industry was relatively independent of the government and military. World War I and World War II were two important factors that led to the consequent military-industrial complex. Eric Hobsbawm in his book Age of Extremes outlines how categorically countries like Japan, USA and Russia had to develop their own military industry to support their militaristic efforts, creating a complex whereby the economies then straddled on this arms industry. Consequently, the procurement of missiles, ballistics, nuclear weapons, destroyers and submarines shows a marked difference between the ancient acquisitions of countries.
History:
At the dawn on the 21st Century, the world has seen an emergence of digital equipment in the use of warfare, spanning from satellite surveillance systems all the way to dedicated agencies such as United States Cyber Command fully equipped with thousands of professionals manning computers on a 24/365 basis in order to prevent a cyber attack.
History:
The use of computers has long been an essential tool in warfare, however as warfare moves from the traditional frontiers of land, sea, air and space to "cyber space" the use of computers is becoming not only essential but vital. Gregory Rattray, author of Strategic Warfare in Cyberspace, explains how the history of warfare in the information age is far reaching and is well beyond military operation including financial crime and economic espionage. The history of this cyber warfare shows that it crosses global boundaries and encompasses political agendas, attacks on the USA such as Titan Rain show an attack from networks and computers situated in China for example. As the age of digital warfare progressed it has become evident that human reliance on technological equipment to monitor essential utilities such as our electricity grids has proven cataclysmic. As the threat became increasingly relevant, the emergence of big corporate players on the MDC scene including names such as Symantec, McAfee and traditional defense contractors such as Northrop Grumman and Lockheed Martin, as the cyber threat grows so does mankind's reliance on corporate players such as the aforementioned, creating an iron triangle among government, military and these global security corporations. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Crossloop**
Crossloop:
CrossLoop was a remote desktop service from CrossLoop Inc., which allowed users to share their computer screens and collaborate with others over the Internet. On July 6, 2012, AVG Technologies acquired CrossLoop Inc., and on January 31, 2014 it shut down the www.crossloop.com website and all former CrossLoop Inc. services, including its remote control screen sharing software products. AVG Technologies did not give a reason for this shut down, only commenting that it was a business decision.
Software Products:
CrossLoop Pro – subscription-based collection of tools for remote access and customer management CrossLoop Remote Access – subscription-based remote access software CrossLoop Free – A free screen-sharing and collaboration tool.
Marketplace Service:
The CrossLoop Marketplace was a place where people could get remote IT support 24 hours a day from a global network of experts through secure screen sharing technology. Individuals and businesses could get assistance with computers, mobile devices, peripherals, software and training. On January 31, 2014, this service was shut down by AVG Technologies.
Technology:
UltraVNC (formerly used TightVNC) on Windows and Chicken of the VNC on a Macintosh is used to establish a connection between computers, and a separate application to handle the billing of services between the two endpoints. CrossLoop encrypts the data sent across the computers. Data is encrypted using a 128-bit Blowfish encryption algorithm. The service might work even if one or both of the computers are behind a firewall.
Competitors:
RealVNC Splashtop Business & Enterprise LogMeIn GoToMyPC GoToAssist TeamViewer Bomgar | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**UModel**
UModel:
UModel is a UML (Unified Modeling Language) software modeling tool from Altova, the creator of XMLSpy. UModel supports all 14 UML 2 diagram types and adds a unique diagram for modeling XML Schemas in UML. UModel also supports SysML for embedded system developers, and business process modeling (BPMN notation) for enterprise analysts. UModel includes code engineering functionality including code generation in Java (programming language), C#, and Visual Basic, reverse engineering of existing applications, and round-trip engineering.
UModel:
UModel supports model interchange with other UML tools through the XMI standard, integrates with revision control systems, and operates as a plug-in for Eclipse and Visual Studio integrated development environments (IDE).
UModel was introduced in 2005, shortly after the ratification of the UML 2 standard.
Developer reviews:
While UModel supports the UML, SysML, and BPMN modeling languages, it does not promote a particular methodology for the modeling, software development, code generation, or round trip engineering processes. “This gives UModel the ability to allow you the maximum flexibility during these creative processes,” said one software developer in a review of UModel 2010.UModel has features that give flexibility and control to the software modeling process, is user-friendly and well-documented.
Licensing:
UModel is a licensed software product that uses key protection to prevent unlicensed usage. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Johnson's criteria**
Johnson's criteria:
Johnson's criteria, or the Johnson criteria, created by John Johnson, describe both spatial domain and frequency domain approaches to analyze the ability of observers to perform visual tasks using image intensifier technology. It was an important breakthrough in evaluating the performance of visual devices and guided the development of future systems. Using Johnson's criteria, many predictive models for sensor technology have been developed that predict the performance of sensor systems under different environmental and operational conditions.
History:
Night vision systems enabled the measurement of visual thresholds following World War II. The 1950s also marked a time of notable development in the performance modeling of night vision imaging systems. From 1957 to 1958, Johnson, a United States Army Night Vision & Electronic Sensors Directorate (NVESD) scientist, was working to develop methods of predicting target detection, orientation, recognition, and identification. Working with volunteer observers, Johnson used image intensifier equipment to measure the volunteer observer's ability to identify scale model targets under various conditions. His experiments produced the first empirical data on perceptual thresholds that was expressed in terms of line pairs. In the first Night Vision Image Intensifier Symposium in October 1958, Johnson presented his findings in a paper entitled "Analysis of Image Forming Systems", which contained the list that would later be known as Johnson's criteria.
Criteria:
The minimum required resolution according to Johnson's criteria are expressed in terms of line pairs of image resolution across a target, in terms of several tasks: Detection, an object is present (1.0 +/− 0.25 line pairs) Orientation, symmetrical, asymmetric, horizontal, or vertical (1.4 +/− 0.35 line pairs) Recognition, the type object can be discerned, a person versus a car (4 +/− 0.8 line pairs) Identification, a specific object can be discerned, a woman versus a man, the specific car (6.4 +/− 1.5 line pairs)These amounts of resolution give a 50 percent probability of an observer discriminating an object to the specified level.
Criteria:
Additionally, the line pairs refer to lines being displayed on an interlaced CRT monitor. Each line pair corresponds to 2 pixels of a film image, or an image displayed on an LCD monitor. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Vinyl roof membrane**
Vinyl roof membrane:
A vinyl roof membrane is a polyvinyl chloride (PVC) roofing membrane used in commercial construction. Vinyl roofing membranes have been around for over 40 years in the U.S. and longer in Europe. The British Board of Agrément states that certain vinyl roof membranes "should have a life in excess of 40 years." Vinyl roofs are also the only type of commercial roofing product that has an active recycling program in place. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Dichloroisoprenaline**
Dichloroisoprenaline:
Dichloroisoprenaline (DCI), also known as dichloroisoproterenol, was the first beta blocker ever to be developed. It is non-selective for the β1-adrenergic and β2-adrenergic receptors. DCI has low potency and acts as a partial agonist/antagonist at these receptors.Although DCI was of no clinical value itself, further developments from DCI eventually led to the development of the clinical candidate pronethalol (withdrawn due to carcinogenicity) and subsequently propranolol (the first clinically successful beta blocker).
Dichloroisoprenaline:
Dichloroisoprenaline is a racemic mixture of enantiomers. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Trusted computing base**
Trusted computing base:
The trusted computing base (TCB) of a computer system is the set of all hardware, firmware, and/or software components that are critical to its security, in the sense that bugs or vulnerabilities occurring inside the TCB might jeopardize the security properties of the entire system. By contrast, parts of a computer system that lie outside the TCB must not be able to misbehave in a way that would leak any more privileges than are granted to them in accordance to the system's security policy.
Trusted computing base:
The careful design and implementation of a system's trusted computing base is paramount to its overall security. Modern operating systems strive to reduce the size of the TCB so that an exhaustive examination of its code base (by means of manual or computer-assisted software audit or program verification) becomes feasible.
Definition and characterization:
The term trusted computing base goes back to John Rushby, who defined it as the combination of operating system kernel and trusted processes. The latter refers to processes which are allowed to violate the system's access-control rules.
Definition and characterization:
In the classic paper Authentication in Distributed Systems: Theory and Practice Lampson et al. define the TCB of a computer system as simply a small amount of software and hardware that security depends on and that we distinguish from a much larger amount that can misbehave without affecting security.Both definitions, while clear and convenient, are neither theoretically exact nor intended to be, as e.g. a network server process under a UNIX-like operating system might fall victim to a security breach and compromise an important part of the system's security, yet is not part of the operating system's TCB. The Orange Book, another classic computer security literature reference, therefore provides a more formal definition of the TCB of a computer system, as the totality of protection mechanisms within it, including hardware, firmware, and software, the combination of which is responsible for enforcing a computer security policy.In other words, trusted computing base (TCB) is a combination of hardware, software, and controls that work together to form a trusted base to enforce your security policy.
Definition and characterization:
The Orange Book further explains that [t]he ability of a trusted computing base to enforce correctly a unified security policy depends on the correctness of the mechanisms within the trusted computing base, the protection of those mechanisms to ensure their correctness, and the correct input of parameters related to the security policy.In other words, a given piece of hardware or software is a part of the TCB if and only if it has been designed to be a part of the mechanism that provides its security to the computer system. In operating systems, this typically consists of the kernel (or microkernel) and a select set of system utilities (for example, setuid programs and daemons in UNIX systems). In programming languages designed with built-in security features, such as Java and E, the TCB is formed of the language runtime and standard library.
Properties:
Predicated upon the security policy As a consequence of the above Orange Book definition, the boundaries of the TCB depend closely upon the specifics of how the security policy is fleshed out. In the network server example above, even though, say, a Web server that serves a multi-user application is not part of the operating system's TCB, it has the responsibility of performing access control so that the users cannot usurp the identity and privileges of each other. In this sense, it definitely is part of the TCB of the larger computer system that comprises the UNIX server, the user's browsers and the Web application; in other words, breaching into the Web server through e.g. a buffer overflow may not be regarded as a compromise of the operating system proper, but it certainly constitutes a damaging exploit on the Web application.
Properties:
This fundamental relativity of the boundary of the TCB is exemplified by the concept of the 'target of evaluation' ('TOE') in the Common Criteria security process: in the course of a Common Criteria security evaluation, one of the first decisions that must be made is the boundary of the audit in terms of the list of system components that will come under scrutiny.
Properties:
A prerequisite to security Systems that don't have a trusted computing base as part of their design do not provide security of their own: they are only secure insofar as security is provided to them by external means (e.g. a computer sitting in a locked room without a network connection may be considered secure depending on the policy, regardless of the software it runs). This is because, as David J. Farber et al. put it, [i]n a computer system, the integrity of lower layers is typically treated as axiomatic by higher layers. As far as computer security is concerned, reasoning about the security properties of a computer system requires being able to make sound assumptions about what it can, and more importantly, cannot do; however, barring any reason to believe otherwise, a computer is able to do everything that a general Von Neumann machine can. This obviously includes operations that would be deemed contrary to all but the simplest security policies, such as divulging an email or password that should be kept secret; however, barring special provisions in the architecture of the system, there is no denying that the computer could be programmed to perform these undesirable tasks.
Properties:
These special provisions that aim at preventing certain kinds of actions from being executed, in essence, constitute the trusted computing base. For this reason, the Orange Book (still a reference on the design of secure operating systems as of 2007) characterizes the various security assurance levels that it defines mainly in terms of the structure and security features of the TCB.
Properties:
Software parts of the TCB need to protect themselves As outlined by the aforementioned Orange Book, software portions of the trusted computing base need to protect themselves against tampering to be of any effect. This is due to the von Neumann architecture implemented by virtually all modern computers: since machine code can be processed as just another kind of data, it can be read and overwritten by any program. This can be prevented by special memory management provisions that subsequently have to be treated as part of the TCB. Specifically, the trusted computing base must at least prevent its own software from being written to.
Properties:
In many modern CPUs, the protection of the memory that hosts the TCB is achieved by adding in a specialized piece of hardware called the memory management unit (MMU), which is programmable by the operating system to allow and deny a running program's access to specific ranges of the system memory. Of course, the operating system is also able to disallow such programming to the other programs. This technique is called supervisor mode; compared to more crude approaches (such as storing the TCB in ROM, or equivalently, using the Harvard architecture), it has the advantage of allowing security-critical software to be upgraded in the field, although allowing secure upgrades of the trusted computing base poses bootstrap problems of its own.
Properties:
Trusted vs. trustworthy As stated above, trust in the trusted computing base is required to make any progress in ascertaining the security of the computer system. In other words, the trusted computing base is “trusted” first and foremost in the sense that it has to be trusted, and not necessarily that it is trustworthy. Real-world operating systems routinely have security-critical bugs discovered in them, which attests to the practical limits of such trust.The alternative is formal software verification, which uses mathematical proof techniques to show the absence of bugs. Researchers at NICTA and its spinout Open Kernel Labs have recently performed such a formal verification of seL4, a member of the L4 microkernel family, proving functional correctness of the C implementation of the kernel.
Properties:
This makes seL4 the first operating-system kernel which closes the gap between trust and trustworthiness, assuming the mathematical proof is free from error.
Properties:
TCB size Due to the aforementioned need to apply costly techniques such as formal verification or manual review, the size of the TCB has immediate consequences on the economics of the TCB assurance process, and the trustworthiness of the resulting product (in terms of the mathematical expectation of the number of bugs not found during the verification or review). In order to reduce costs and security risks, the TCB should therefore be kept as small as possible. This is a key argument in the debate preferring microkernels to monolithic kernels.
Examples:
AIX materializes the trusted computing base as an optional component in its install-time package management system. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Vegetable juice**
Vegetable juice:
Vegetable juice is a juice drink made primarily of blended vegetables and also available in the form of powders. Vegetable juice is often mixed with fruits such as apples or grapes to improve flavor. It is often touted as a low-sugar alternative to fruit juice, although some commercial brands of vegetable juices use fruit juices as sweeteners, and may contain large amounts of sodium.
Home-made juice:
Making vegetable juice at home is an alternative to buying commercial juices, and may augment diets low in vegetables and fruits. The juicer separates juice from pulp fibers. Masticating juicers employ a slow-geared grinding mechanism. A cheaper and faster alternative uses centrifugal force to achieve separation. The slower speed of the masticating process is held to protect the vegetables from oxidation and heat (from friction), reducing nutrient breakdown. Advocates of masticating juicers often cite the preservation of enzymes, though these are rarely specified and the claims are unsubstantiated by a body of academic support. Juicing the fine leaves of wheatgrass usually requires a masticating process.
Varieties:
Commercial vegetable juices are commonly made from varying combinations of carrots, beets, pumpkin, and tomatoes. The latter two, although not technically vegetables, are commonly used to increase palatability. Other popular items in vegetable juices are parsley, dandelion greens, kale, celery, fennel, and cucumbers. Lemon, garlic and ginger may be added by some for medicinal purposes.
Other common juices include carrot juice, tomato juice, and turnip juice.
In Asian cultures, primarily Chinese, Chinese yam (Chinese: shān yào, Japanese: nagaimo) is also used for vegetable juices. They are used quite sparingly, however, for many Chinese consider it to be a medicine rather than a vegetable.
Kale juice marketed as Aojiru in Japan has become well known for its purported health benefits and bitter taste.
Japan also markets several kinds of vegetable juices which, unlike Western juices, usually depend on carrots and fruits instead of large amounts of tomato juice for their flavor.
Nutrition:
In general, vegetable juices are recommended as supplements to whole vegetables, rather than as a replacement. However, the actual nutritional value of juices versus whole vegetables is still contested.
Nutrition:
USDA guidelines for Americans states that 3/4 cup of 100% vegetable juice is equivalent to one serving of vegetables. This is upheld by a 2006 study, which found that juices provide similar health benefits as whole vegetables in terms of reducing risks of cardiovascular disease and cancer although the authors noted "a lack of human data and contradictory findings hampered conclusions". Another study has found that drinking vegetable juice reduces risks of Alzheimer's disease by 76%.However, the British Nutrition Foundation holds that although vegetable juice counts as a serving, it can only count as one serving, regardless of the amount of juice drunk. Additionally, A 2007 Japanese study showed that although Japanese commercial juices had nutritional benefits, they were insufficient as a primary mode of vegetable consumption.Many popular vegetable juices, particularly ones with high tomato content, are high in sodium, and therefore consumption of them for health must be carefully considered. Some vegetables such as beets also contain large amounts of sugar, so care must be taken when adding these to juices. Consumption of certain vegetable juices can also contribute substantially to oxalate intake; people who form calcium oxalate stones may be advised to limit consumption of vegetable juices. Cases of oxalate nephropathy associated with oxalate-rich juice intake have also been documented in susceptible individuals.Although the actual nutritional benefits of vegetable juice are contested, a 2008 UC Davis study found that drinking vegetable juice daily significantly increased drinkers' chances of meeting the daily recommended number of vegetable servings. Having an easy source of vegetables encouraged drinkers to incorporate more vegetables into their diets. Children who refuse whole vegetables may find vegetable juice, when blended with fruit juice, a palatable alternative. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Irminger Rings**
Irminger Rings:
Irminger Rings (IRs) are mesoscale (15-50 kilometers) ocean eddies that are formed off the West coast of Greenland and travel southwestwards through the Labrador Sea. Most IRs are anti-cyclonic (clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere). There is considerable interest in researching IRs, because they have been hypothesized to influence deep convection in the Labrador sea, and therefore the formation of deep water.
Basin overview:
The Irminger Current (IC) is a branch of the North Atlantic Drift (NAD) that flows westward from Iceland. Because of its Atlantic origins, IC waters are relatively warm and saline compared to the cold, fresh water of the East Greenland Current (EGC) originating from the Greenland Sea. Off the East coast of Greenland, the IC and the EGC meet and "combine" after rounding Cape Farewell to form the heavily stratified current system known as the West Greenland Current (WGC). The top layer of the WGC is 200 meters deep and consists of fresh EGC water. The layer below, from 200 to 700 meters, consists of salty Irminger Water (IW).
Irminger Ring formation:
The topography of the Greenland coast steepens rapidly between 60° and 62°N, near Cape Desolation. This steep slope can induce instabilities in the WGC, leading to the formation of Irminger rings. It is unclear whether these instabilities are mainly barotropic or baroclinic, with contradicting outcomes between models.Barotropic instabilities can be created by a large horizontal shear in the current. The sudden change in topography causes the geostrophic contours of the flow to converge, which increases the vertical extent and a decreases the width of the WGC. The resulting horizontal shears are sufficient to create barotropic instability.Baroclinic instability is induced by the large horizontal density gradient in the WGC near the bottom. The misalignment of surfaces of equal pressure and density induces a vertical velocity gradient. The energy of the baroclinic instability is proportional to the potential energy of the environmental flow related to the vertical shear of the current.
Irminger Ring formation:
Both barotropic and baroclinic instabilities generate vorticity leading to eddies called Irminger Rings. Associated with the formation of IRs is an increase in Eddy Kinetic Energy (EKE). IRs are not the only type of eddy spawned around the Labrador Sea. Convective events in the interior Labrador sea create steep density gradients. The associated baroclinic instability gives rise to Convective Eddies (CEs) (20-30 kilometers in diameter) that are more vertically homogeneous. In addition, weak instabilities in the WGC and LC along the West Greenland and Labrador coast spawn Boundary Current Eddies (BCEs).
Irminger Ring formation:
Irminger Ring characteristics Irminger Rings are mostly anticyclonic eddies with surface-intensified currents ranging from 30 to 80 cm/s in magnitude. The Rossby number of IRs is between 0.1 and 0.5. Since IRs are shed off the WGC, their vertical structure is similar to the WGC. The upper layer of IRs consists of freshwater, originating from the EGC. Below the upper layer is the relatively warm and saline IW. IRs are also regularly found to have secondary cores at depths between 1–1.5 km related to an enhanced downward isopycnal depression. Due to the contribution of IW, IRs are less dense and therefore more buoyant than typical water at the same depth. Both the freshwater and IW layer have a steep vertical density gradient, which results in strongly stratified IRs. The freshwater layer is found to be the largest contributor to Irminger ring stratification. Over the lifetime of IRs, the stratification decreases as the upper layer becomes saltier and the lower layer becomes fresher. During winter, the freshwater layer often erodes, which also drastically reduces the stratification.
Irminger Ring formation:
Propagation The main mode of propagation of IRs is in southwestward direction with an approximate speed of 5 cm/s. Modelled IRs roughly follow the 3000 meter depth isobath. IRs have a typical lifetime of a few months. Models find that IRs are prone to decay during winters with large convection events, but some survive up to 2 years. IRs that spawn in the south are likely to live long enough to reach the deep basin of the Labrador Sea, while IRs spawned further north are more likely to be disrupted by Boundary Currents (BCs).
Irminger Ring formation:
Temporal variability IR production increases during winter, due to the EKE maximum associated with higher WGC velocities. During fall the core of IRs has been measured to be warmer (1.9 °C) and saltier (0.07 psu saltier) than in spring. This is theorized to be a response to the seasonal cycle of IW, which reaches the highest current velocities in fall.On interannual timescales, the Arctic Oscillation influences the formation of IRs. If the Arctic Oscillation is its positive phase, this leads to stronger currents in the WGC and other boundary currents. The larger WGC current increases the available EKE for IR generation.
Influence on Labrador Sea deep convection:
The Labrador Sea is one of the few places in the ocean where deep convection occurs. Due to the cyclonic large scale flow and high latitude positioning, the stratification in the Labrador Sea is usually weak. Deep convection events can occur during winter, if the cooling in the top layer is large enough to create a higher density in the top layer than the water below. As a consequence of this unstable stratification, large scale vertical mixing can be induced, which creates a deep mixed layer. The homogeneous water mass that is formed during deep convection is called Labrador Sea Water (LSW). LSW is a source of North Atlantic Deep Water, which is essential for the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation. Deep convection also allows for mixing of oxygen and carbon dioxide into the deep ocean. Variations in the magnitude of deep convection are large, and can be up to 2000 meter depth. After a convective event, the Labrador Sea gradually restratifies during spring. The extent of this restratification influences the variability of future convective events.
Influence on Labrador Sea deep convection:
Suppression of deep convection Due to the long lifetime of Irminger rings, some reach the convective area in the interior Labrador Sea. Since IRs are highly stratified and buoyant, they enhance the stratification of the Labrador Sea. Consequently, Irminger Rings suppress deep convection in the Labrador Sea, which decreases Labrador Sea Water production. Specifically, IRs limit the area of deep convection in the North. Although IRs are more abundant during the positive phase of the Arctic Oscillation, this doesn't lead to reduced deep convection since the positive Arctic Oscillation phase simultaneously enhances deep convection.
Influence on Labrador Sea deep convection:
Restratification In addition to suppressing deep convection, IRs enhance restratification after convective events. The extent of IR-induced restratification is not clear. Possibly, IRs contribute to restratification only rarely and not on an annual basis. Convective Eddies (CEs) and Boundary Current Eddies (BCEs) also enhance restratification in the Labrador Sea. The relative contribution of IRs, CEs and BCEs to restratification is disputed. Some modelling studies find that IRs resupply more heat after a convective event than CEs and BCEs, while others find that CEs or BCEs are the main contributor. This variation can be explained partly by inter-model differences in position of the convective area in the Labrador Sea.
Influence of Labrador Sea deep convection on Irminger Rings:
Some interannual variability of IRs is related to the intensity of convective events, as more intense deep convection produces higher density Labrador Sea Water. This in turn causes a greater density gradient between the sea and the buoyant West Greenland Current, which positively correlates with eddy fluxes.Although Irminger Rings decrease the production of LSW by suppressing deep convection, LSW can also be produced by IRs. During deep convection events, vertical mixing can take place inside long lived IRs that have reached the convective area. The typical extent of IR convective vertical mixing is between 100 and 700 meters deep, but can be up to 1300 meter during large convective events. This is almost as deep as in the rest of the convective area. In an ocean model, LSW was produced during this mixing by Irminger Rings that lived over 2 years. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Energy Matters**
Energy Matters:
Energy Matters was the title of a magazine published by students at the University of Cambridge between November 1980 and June 1984. Its objective, outlined in the editorial to the first edition, was to provide facts, details and opinions relating to energy, in a way accessible to interested students.
Energy Matters:
"Energy Matters" was notable in a number ways. Its dispassionate and technical approach to this controversial topic was possibly unprecedented at a British University, at a time when many student publications were highly partisan on the issue. It was an independent undergraduate student magazine wholly funded (initially) by a University department, an unusual and possibly unique arrangement in the UK. It received endorsement from the British Royal Family, a significant and unusual gesture at the time for a magazine dealing with political matters. It was where a number of subsequently famous journalists and academics showed their first public work.
Energy Matters:
The magazine was founded at a time of high public interest in energy issues, due to the second oil crisis and the Three Mile Island accident the previous year, and to a wave of public interest in energy conservation stimulated by environmental concerns. The topic had become highly political; for example a debate took place in the Cambridge Union Society (the University's debating club) in November 1980 under the title "This House Believes Britain's Dependence on Nuclear Power will Result in Disaster", opposed by Bernard Jenkin.In this context, the magazine was founded by two undergraduates at the Cambridge University Engineering Department, Richard Davies and Andrew Bud. They secured funding from the Engineering Department which agreed to supply materials and printing services. The first edition ran to 52 pages, and 500 copies were distributed free throughout the University immediately after the Union Society debate. Thanks to the support of one of the Department's professors, Sir William Hawthorne, an expert in energy conservation, the magazine carried an introduction specially provided by Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh.
Energy Matters:
The magazine was well received and a team of volunteer student journalists created the second edition, published in April 1981, catalogued as ISSN 0260-809X. This ran to 100 pages, and the printing of 1000 copies entirely blocked the Engineering Department's reprographic department for three weeks, driving the in-house printer to the edge of despair. Regretfully, the Department withdrew its logistical support.As a result, commercial sponsorship was sought and successfully raised from the energy industry. Funding came from the oil industry, the electricity and nuclear sectors and several University departments, and the magazine was commercially printed. Under new editors Helen Field and Anne Pudsey-Dawson, the third edition appeared in November 1981.Although interest in the magazine amongst students beyond the science and engineering faculties was limited, it attracted considerable attention in Whitehall and within the industry. Dozens of copies were requested by these institutions. As a result, the magazine's editors were able to secure interviews with cabinet ministers and heads of the nationalised energy industries and trades unions. As a spin-off, a number of branded seminars were organised at the University, featuring leaders of the energy industry.The magazine's editorial line was rigorously neutral, and substantial space was given to the thoughts of leading anti-nuclear campaigners, proponents of conservation and evangelists of combined heat and power.By 1984, the magazine's editor Roger Tredre merged it with the activities of the Cambridge student magazine Cantab, and its main function became to generate advertising revenue to cross-subsidise Cantab. It ceased publication after its seventh edition in summer 1984, its final editors being Richard Penty (now Professor of Photonics at the University of Cambridge) and John Crowther.Amongst those who worked on the magazine a number subsequently became influential in the fields of journalism or energy policy. The 1983 edition was edited by Vanessa Houlder (currently a leading business journalist on the Financial Times of London), and included contributions from Mike Grubb (now a senior academic working for the Carbon Trust). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Norepinephrine (medication)**
Norepinephrine (medication):
Norepinephrine, also known as noradrenaline, is a medication used to treat people with very low blood pressure. It is the typical medication used in sepsis if low blood pressure does not improve following intravenous fluids. It is the same molecule as the hormone and neurotransmitter norepinephrine. It is given by slow injection into a vein.Common side effects include headache, slow heart rate, and anxiety. Other side effects include an irregular heartbeat. If it leaks out of the vein at the site it is being given, norepinephrine can result in limb ischemia. If leakage occurs the use of phentolamine in the area affected may improve outcomes. Norepinephrine works by binding and activating alpha adrenergic receptors.Norepinephrine was discovered in 1946 and was approved for medical use in the United States in 1950. It is available as a generic medication.
Medical uses:
Norepinephrine is used mainly as a sympathomimetic drug to treat people in vasodilatory shock states such as septic shock and neurogenic shock, while showing fewer adverse side-effects compared to dopamine treatment.
Mechanism of action:
It stimulates α1 and α2 adrenergic receptors to cause blood vessel contraction, thus increases peripheral vascular resistance and resulted in increased blood pressure. This effect also reduces the blood supply to gastrointestinal tract and kidneys. Norepinephrine acts on beta-1 adrenergic receptors, causing increase in heart rate and cardiac output. However, the elevation in heart rate is only transient, as baroreceptor response to the rise in blood pressure as well as enhanced vagal tone ultimately result in a sustained decrease in heart rate. Norepinephrine acts more on alpha receptors than the beta receptors.
Names:
Norepinephrine is the INN while noradrenaline is the BAN. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Fluclotizolam**
Fluclotizolam:
Fluclotizolam is a thienotriazolodiazepine derivative which was first synthesised in 1979, but was never marketed. It has subsequently been sold as a designer drug, first being definitively identified in 2017. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Pulse (signal processing)**
Pulse (signal processing):
A pulse in signal processing is a rapid, transient change in the amplitude of a signal from a baseline value to a higher or lower value, followed by a rapid return to the baseline value.
Pulse shapes:
Pulse shapes can arise out of a process called pulse-shaping. Optimum pulse shape depends on the application.
Pulse shapes:
Rectangular pulse These can be found in pulse waves, square waves, boxcar functions, and rectangular functions. In digital signals the up and down transitions between high and low levels are called the rising edge and the falling edge. In digital systems the detection of these sides or action taken in response is termed edge-triggered, rising or falling depending on which side of rectangular pulse. A digital timing diagram is an example of a well-ordered collection of rectangular pulses.
Pulse shapes:
Nyquist pulse A Nyquist pulse is one which meets the Nyquist ISI criterion and is important in data transmission. An example of a pulse which meets this condition is the sinc function. The sinc pulse is of some significance in signal-processing theory but cannot be produced by a real generator for reasons of causality.
In 2013, Nyquist pulses were produced in an effort to reduce the size of pulses in optical fibers, which enables them to be packed 10 times more closely together, yielding a corresponding 10-fold increase in bandwidth. The pulses were more than 99 percent perfect and were produced using a simple laser and modulator.
Pulse shapes:
Dirac pulse A Dirac pulse has the shape of the Dirac delta function. It has the properties of infinite amplitude and its integral is the Heaviside step function. Equivalently, it has zero width and an area under the curve of unity. This is another pulse that cannot be created exactly in real systems, but practical approximations can be achieved. It is used in testing, or theoretically predicting, the impulse response of devices and systems, particularly filters. Such responses yield a great deal of information about the system.
Pulse shapes:
Gaussian pulse A Gaussian pulse is shaped as a Gaussian function and is produced by the impulse response of a Gaussian filter. It has the properties of maximum steepness of transition with no overshoot and minimum group delay. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Estrapronicate**
Estrapronicate:
Estrapronicate (INN), also known as estradiol nicotinate propionate is an estrogen medication and estrogen ester which was never marketed. It was studied as a component of the experimental tristeroid combination drug Trophobolene, which contained nandrolone decanoate, estrapronicate, and hydroxyprogesterone heptanoate. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**OAZ2**
OAZ2:
Ornithine decarboxylase antizyme 2 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the OAZ2 gene.Ornithine decarboxylase catalyzes the conversion of ornithine to putrescine in the first and apparently rate-limiting step in polyamine biosynthesis. The ornithine decarboxylase antizymes play a role in the regulation of polyamine synthesis by binding to and inhibiting ornithine decarboxylase. Antizyme expression is auto-regulated by polyamine-enhanced translational frameshifting. The antizyme encoded by this gene inhibits ornithine decarboxylase but does not accelerate its degradation. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Étale morphism**
Étale morphism:
In algebraic geometry, an étale morphism (French: [etal]) is a morphism of schemes that is formally étale and locally of finite presentation. This is an algebraic analogue of the notion of a local isomorphism in the complex analytic topology. They satisfy the hypotheses of the implicit function theorem, but because open sets in the Zariski topology are so large, they are not necessarily local isomorphisms. Despite this, étale maps retain many of the properties of local analytic isomorphisms, and are useful in defining the algebraic fundamental group and the étale topology.
Étale morphism:
The word étale is a French adjective, which means "slack", as in "slack tide", or, figuratively, calm, immobile, something left to settle.
Definition:
Let ϕ:R→S be a ring homomorphism. This makes S an R -algebra. Choose a monic polynomial f in R[x] and a polynomial g in R[x] such that the derivative f′ of f is a unit in (R[x]/fR[x])g . We say that ϕ is standard étale if f and g can be chosen so that S is isomorphic as an R -algebra to (R[x]/fR[x])g and ϕ is the canonical map.
Definition:
Let f:X→Y be a morphism of schemes. We say that f is étale if and only if it has any of the following equivalent properties: f is flat and unramified.
f is a smooth morphism and unramified.
Definition:
f is flat, locally of finite presentation, and for every y in Y , the fiber f−1(y) is the disjoint union of points, each of which is the spectrum of a finite separable field extension of the residue field κ(y) .f is flat, locally of finite presentation, and for every y in Y and every algebraic closure k′ of the residue field κ(y) , the geometric fiber f−1(y)⊗κ(y)k′ is the disjoint union of points, each of which is isomorphic to Spec k′ .f is a smooth morphism of relative dimension zero.
Definition:
f is a smooth morphism and a locally quasi-finite morphism.
Definition:
f is locally of finite presentation and is locally a standard étale morphism, that is, For every x in X , let y=f(x) . Then there is an open affine neighborhood Spec R of y and an open affine neighborhood Spec S of x such that f(Spec S) is contained in Spec R and such that the ring homomorphism R → S induced by f is standard étale.
Definition:
f is locally of finite presentation and is formally étale.
Definition:
f is locally of finite presentation and is formally étale for maps from local rings, that is: Let A be a local ring and J be an ideal of A such that J2 = 0. Set Z = Spec A and Z0 = Spec A/J, and let i : Z0 → Z be the canonical closed immersion. Let z denote the closed point of Z0. Let h : Z → Y and g0 : Z0 → X be morphisms such that f(g0(z)) = h(i(z)). Then there exists a unique Y-morphism g : Z → X such that gi = g0.Assume that Y is locally noetherian and f is locally of finite type. For x in X , let y=f(x) and let O^Y,y→O^X,x be the induced map on completed local rings. Then the following are equivalent: f is étale.
Definition:
For every x in X , the induced map on completed local rings is formally étale for the adic topology.
Definition:
For every x in X , O^X,x is a free O^Y,y -module and the fiber O^X,x/myO^X,x is a field which is a finite separable field extension of the residue field κ(y) . (Here my is the maximal ideal of O^Y,y .) f is formally étale for maps of local rings with the following additional properties. The local ring A may be assumed Artinian. If m is the maximal ideal of A, then J may be assumed to satisfy mJ = 0. Finally, the morphism on residue fields κ(y) → A / m may be assumed to be an isomorphism.If in addition all the maps on residue fields κ(y)→κ(x) are isomorphisms, or if κ(y) is separably closed, then f is étale if and only if for every x in X , the induced map on completed local rings is an isomorphism.
Examples:
Any open immersion is étale because it is locally an isomorphism.
Covering spaces form examples of étale morphisms. For example, if d≥1 is an integer invertible in the ring R then Spec Spec (R[t,t−1]) is a degree d étale morphism.
Examples:
Any ramified covering π:X→Y has an unramified locus π:Xun→Yun which is étale. Morphisms Spec Spec (K) induced by finite separable field extensions are étale — they form arithmetic covering spaces with group of deck transformations given by Gal (L/K) Any ring homomorphism of the form R→S=R[x1,…,xn]g/(f1,…,fn) , where all the fi are polynomials, and where the Jacobian determinant det (∂fi/∂xj) is a unit in S , is étale. For example the morphism C[t,t−1]→C[x,t,t−1]/(xn−t) is etale and corresponds to a degree n covering space of Gm∈Sch/C with the group Z/n of deck transformations.
Examples:
Expanding upon the previous example, suppose that we have a morphism f of smooth complex algebraic varieties. Since f is given by equations, we can interpret it as a map of complex manifolds. Whenever the Jacobian of f is nonzero, f is a local isomorphism of complex manifolds by the implicit function theorem. By the previous example, having non-zero Jacobian is the same as being étale.
Examples:
Let f:X→Y be a dominant morphism of finite type with X, Y locally noetherian, irreducible and Y normal. If f is unramified, then it is étale.For a field K, any K-algebra A is necessarily flat. Therefore, A is an etale algebra if and only if it is unramified, which is also equivalent to A⊗KK¯≅K¯⊕...⊕K¯, where K¯ is the separable closure of the field K and the right hand side is a finite direct sum, all of whose summands are K¯ . This characterization of etale K-algebras is a stepping stone in reinterpreting classical Galois theory (see Grothendieck's Galois theory).
Properties:
Étale morphisms are preserved under composition and base change.
Properties:
Étale morphisms are local on the source and on the base. In other words, f:X→Y is étale if and only if for each covering of X by open subschemes the restriction of f to each of the open subschemes of the covering is étale, and also if and only if for each cover of Y by open subschemes the induced morphisms f(U):X×YU→U is étale for each subscheme U of the covering. In particular, it is possible to test the property of being étale on open affines Spec Spec (A) The product of a finite family of étale morphisms is étale.
Properties:
Given a finite family of morphisms {fα:Xα→Y} , the disjoint union ∐fα:∐Xα→Y is étale if and only if each fα is étale.
Let f:X→Y and g:Y→Z , and assume that g is unramified and gf is étale. Then f is étale. In particular, if X and X′ are étale over Y , then any Y -morphism between X and X′ is étale.
Quasi-compact étale morphisms are quasi-finite.
A morphism f:X→Y is an open immersion if and only if it is étale and radicial.
If f:X→Y is étale and surjective, then dim dim Y (finite or otherwise).
Inverse function theorem:
Étale morphisms f: X → Yare the algebraic counterpart of local diffeomorphisms. More precisely, a morphism between smooth varieties is étale at a point iff the differential between the corresponding tangent spaces is an isomorphism. This is in turn precisely the condition needed to ensure that a map between manifolds is a local diffeomorphism, i.e. for any point y ∈ Y, there is an open neighborhood U of x such that the restriction of f to U is a diffeomorphism. This conclusion does not hold in algebraic geometry, because the topology is too coarse. For example, consider the projection f of the parabola y = x2to the y-axis. This morphism is étale at every point except the origin (0, 0), because the differential is given by 2x, which does not vanish at these points.
Inverse function theorem:
However, there is no (Zariski-)local inverse of f, just because the square root is not an algebraic map, not being given by polynomials. However, there is a remedy for this situation, using the étale topology. The precise statement is as follows: if f:X→Y is étale and finite, then for any point y lying in Y, there is an étale morphism V → Y containing y in its image (V can be thought of as an étale open neighborhood of y), such that when we base change f to V, then X×YV→V (the first member would be the pre-image of V by f if V were a Zariski open neighborhood) is a finite disjoint union of open subsets isomorphic to V. In other words, étale-locally in Y, the morphism f is a topological finite cover.
Inverse function theorem:
For a smooth morphism f:X→Y of relative dimension n, étale-locally in X and in Y, f is an open immersion into an affine space AYn . This is the étale analogue version of the structure theorem on submersions. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Matthew 10:30**
Matthew 10:30:
Matthew 10:30 is a verse in the ninth chapter of the Gospel of Matthew in the New Testament.
Content:
In the original Greek according to Westcott-Hort for this verse is: ὑμῶν δὲ καὶ αἱ τρίχες τῆς κεφαλῆς πᾶσαι ἠριθμημέναι εἰσί.In the King James Version of the Bible the text reads: But the very hairs of your head are all numbered.The New International Version translates the passage as: And even the very hairs of your head are all numbered.
Analysis:
Lapide says in a symbolic sense, "the hairs of Christ are all the elect and those who shall be saved, for these adorn Christ as hair does the head." He goes on to say that "the hairs are all the thoughts, words, and deeds of the faithful."
Commentary from the Church Fathers:
Jerome: " That He says, The hairs of your head are all numbered, shows the boundless providence of God towards man, and a care unspeakable that nothing of ours is hid from God."Hilary of Poitiers: " For when any thing is numbered it is carefully watched over."Chrysostom: " Not that God reckons our hairs, but to show His diligent knowledge, and great carefulness over us."Jerome: " Those who deny the resurrection of the flesh ridicule the sense of the Church on this place, as if we affirmed that every hair that has ever been cut off by the razor rises again, when the Saviour says, Every hair of your head—not is saved, but—is numbered. Where there is number, knowledge of that number is implied, but not preservation of the same hairs."Augustine: "Though we may fairly enquire concerning our hair, whether all that has ever been shorn from us will return; for who would not dread such disfigurement. When it is once understood that nothing of our body shall be lost, so as that the form and perfectness of all the parts should be preserved, we at the same time understand that all that would have disfigured our body is to be united or taken up by the whole mass, not affixed to particular parts so as to destroy the frame of the limbs; just as a vessel made of clay, and again reduced to clay, is once more reformed into a vessel, it needs not that that portion of clay which had formed the handle should again form it, or that which had composed the bottom, should again go to the bottom, so long as the whole was remoulded into the whole, the whole clay into the whole vessel, no part being lost. Wherefore if the hair so often shorn away would be a deformity if restored to the place it had been taken from, it will not be restored to that place, but all the materials of the old body will be revived in the new, whatever place they may occupy so as to preserve the mutual fitness of parts. Though what is said in Luke, Not a hair of your head shall fall to the ground, (Luke 21:18.) may be taken of the number, not the length of the hairs, as here also it is said, The hairs of your head are all numbered." | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Photoionization detector**
Photoionization detector:
A photoionization detector or PID is a type of gas detector.
Photoionization detector:
Typical photoionization detectors measure volatile organic compounds and other gases in concentrations from sub parts per billion to 10 000 parts per million (ppm). The photoionization detector is an efficient and inexpensive detector for many gas and vapor analytes. PIDs produce instantaneous readings, operate continuously, and are commonly used as detectors for gas chromatography or as hand-held portable instruments. Hand-held, battery-operated versions are widely used in military, industrial, and confined working facilities for health and safety. Their primary use is for monitoring possible worker exposure to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as solvents, fuels, degreasers, plastics & their precursors, heat transfer fluids, lubricants, etc. during manufacturing processes and waste handling.
Photoionization detector:
Portable PIDs are used for monitoring: Industrial hygiene and safety Environmental contamination and remediation Hazardous materials handling Ammonia detection Lower explosive limit measurements Arson investigation Indoor air quality Cleanroom facility maintenance
Principle:
In a photoionization detector high-energy photons, typically in the vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) range, break molecules into positively charged ions. As compounds enter the detector they are bombarded by high-energy UV photons and are ionized when they absorb the UV light, resulting in ejection of electrons and the formation of positively charged ions. The ions produce an electric current, which is the signal output of the detector. The greater the concentration of the component, the more ions are produced, and the greater the current. The current is amplified and displayed on an ammeter or digital concentration display. The ions can undergo numerous reactions including reaction with oxygen or water vapor, rearrangement, and fragmentation. A few of them may recapture an electron within the detector to reform their original molecules; however only a small portion of the airborne analytes are ionized to begin with so the practical impact of this (if it occurs) is usually negligible. Thus, PIDs are non-destructive and can be used before other sensors in multiple-detector configurations.
Principle:
The PID will only respond to components that have ionization energies similar to or lower than the energy of the photons produced by the PID lamp. As stand-alone detectors, PIDs are broad band and not selective, as these may ionize everything with an ionization energy less than or equal to the lamp photon energy. The more common commercial lamps have photons energy upper limits of approximately 8.4 eV, 10.0 eV, 10.6 eV, and 11.7 eV. The major and minor components of clean air all have ionization energies above 12.0 eV and thus do not interfere significantly in the measurement of VOCs, which typically have ionization energies below 12.0 eV.
Lamp types and detectable compounds:
PID lamp photon emissions depend on the type of fill gas (which defines the light energy produced) and the lamp window, which affects the energy of photons that can exit the lamp: The 10.6 eV lamp is the most common because it has strong output, has the longest life and responds to many compounds. In approximate order from most sensitive to least sensitive, these compounds include: Aromatics Olefins Bromides & Iodides Sulfides & mercaptans Organic amines Ketones Ethers Esters & acrylates Aldehydes Alcohols Alkanes Some inorganics, including NH3, H2S, and PH3
Applications:
The first commercial application of photoionization detection was in 1973 as a hand-held instrument for the purpose of detecting leaks of VOCs, specifically vinyl chloride monomer (VCM), at a chemical manufacturing facility. The photoionization detector was applied to gas chromatography (GC) three years later, in 1976. A PID is highly selective when coupled with a chromatographic technique or a pre-treatment tube such as a benzene-specific tube. Broader cuts of selectivity for easily ionized compounds can be obtained by using a lower energy UV lamp. This selectivity can be useful when analyzing mixtures in which only some of the components are of interest.
Applications:
The PID is usually calibrated using isobutylene, and other analytes may produce a relatively greater or lesser response on a concentration basis. Although many PID manufacturers provide the ability to program an instrument with a correction factor for quantitative detection of a specific chemical, the broad selectivity of the PID means that the user must know the identity of the gas or vapor species to be measured with high certainty. If a correction factor for benzene is entered into the instrument, but hexane vapor is measured instead, the lower relative detector response (higher correction factor) for hexane would lead to underestimation of the actual airborne concentration of hexane.
Matrix gas effects:
With a gas chromatograph, filter tube, or other separation technique upstream of the PID, matrix effects are generally avoided because the analyte enters the detector isolated from interfering compounds.
Matrix gas effects:
Response to stand-alone PIDs is generally linear from the ppb range up to at least a few thousand ppm. In this range, response to mixtures of components is also linearly additive. At the higher concentrations, response gradually deviates from linearity because of recombination of oppositely charged ions formed in close proximity and/or 2) absorption of UV light without ionization. The signal produced by a PID may be quenched when measuring in high humidity environments, or when a compound such as methane is present in high concentrations of ≥1% by volume This attenuation is due to the ability of water, methane, and other compounds with high ionization energies to absorb the photons emitted by the UV lamp without leading to the production of an ion current. This reduces the number of energetic photons available to ionize target analytes. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Aluminum cycle**
Aluminum cycle:
Aluminum is the third most abundant element in the lithosphere at 82,000 ppm. It occurs in low levels, 0.9 ppm, in humans. Aluminum is known to be an ecotoxicant and expected to be a health risk to people. Global primary production (GPP) of aluminum was about 52 million tons in 2013 and remains one of the world's most important metals. It is used for infrastructure, vehicles, aviation, energy and more due to its lightweight, ductility, and cheap cost. Aluminum is harvested from gibbsite, boehmite, and diaspore which make up bauxite. The aluminum cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which aluminum is moved through the environment by natural and anthropogenic processes. The biogeochemical cycle of aluminum is integral with silicon and phosphorus. For example, phosphates store aluminum that has been sedimented and aluminum is found in diatoms (made of silica). Aluminum has been found to prevent growth in organisms by making phosphates less available. The humans/lithosphere ratio (B/L) is very low at 0.000011. This level shows that aluminum is more essential in the lithospheric cycle than in the biotic cycle.
Natural fluxes:
Lithospheric cycle Aluminum makes up 8% of the Earth’s crust. The majority of aluminum cycling takes place in the lithosphere via sedimentary processes, with 99.999% of aluminum cycled within the lithosphere in the form of primary and secondary minerals as well as colloidal phases. Primary aluminum-rich minerals, such as feldspars, in the Earth's crust are weathered to clay-like materials such as kaolinite. Feldspars are formed when magma cools within Earth’s crust and are weathered away from the parent material. The secondary mineral, kaolinite, forms from carbonic acid weathering. Other secondary minerals include hydroxyaluminosilicates and aluminum hydroxide which are insoluble. They adsorb on mineral and organic surfaces. Clays generally have low solubility and are eventually returned to crust through sedimentation and subduction. Aluminum is then found as an unstable primary mineral. Aluminum goes through several dissolution and precipitation processes when the element is in an aqueous phase, meaning it was dissolved. With further weathering, aluminum is transported as particulates in rivers. Aluminum can also be carried through the atmosphere via dust.
Natural fluxes:
Biotic cycle Aluminum enters the biosphere through water and food as soluble aluminum, Al3+ or AlF2+. It is then cycled through the food chain. Aluminum has a low abundance in the biosphere but can be found in all organisms. Humans, animals, and plants accumulate aluminum throughout their lives as it cycled throughout the food chain. There is no evidence to support aluminum being essential to humans or in any other forms of life. It causes no harm or good unless over-consumed. The low abundance of aluminum in biology may be due to Al3+ being held in the lithosphere and/or organisms have evolved to lose Al3+.Aluminum can be toxic to plants when the soil is acidic with a pH of 5 or below. Half of the world’s agricultural lands experience this acidity so aluminum is a limiting factor of a crop’s success. Plants can become resistant to Al by methods such as internal detoxification with carboxylate ligands or sequestration of Aluminum complexes.
Natural fluxes:
In a study on the translocation and transformation of Aluminum in the Calhoun Experimental Forest in South Carolina, an average annual uptake of Al was 2.28 kg/ha/year while the average annual accumulation in biomass off the ground was 0.48 kg/ha/year. Aluminum was found to not leach through the soil so the only method of removal was in the biomass.
Anthropogenic influence:
Acid rain Human activity has influenced the aluminum cycle through the acidification of the environment. Acid rain increases weathering of the lithosphere through sulfuric acid weathering instead of the usual carbonic acid weathering. This alters the aluminum cycle by reducing the availability of silicic acid and lowering the pH of the environment. The depletion of silicic acid causes the solubility of aluminum to switch from being dependent on relatively stable hydroxyaluminosilicates to much more unstable solubility controls, such as amorphous aluminum hydroxide and organoaluminum complexes. These complexes are more able to move around in the environment which causes an increase in the dissolution of aluminum into the water ways. Aluminum is usually physically weathered and remains in a stable state, acid rain chemically weathers aluminum deposits. This creates a toxic form of aluminum while also increasing the total amount of aluminum being weathered.
Anthropogenic influence:
Mining and industrial use Mining for aluminum and the subsequent industrial usage disrupts the natural burial processes of the aluminum cycle. By the year 2050 the need for aluminum is expected to increase by 200-300%. Aluminum is mined in the form of bauxite ore. Bauxite is only 40-60% aluminum oxide. The elements that make up the rest of bauxite are also very useful. Globally, 68 million tons of aluminum were mined in 2021. This aluminum is mostly used in vehicle production, construction, and packaging like cans and foil. The two largest bauxite producers are China and Australia. Bauxite is mined with traditional strip mining techniques. This harms the environment by removing top soil, disturbing the ecosystem, and increasing erosion. Aluminum mined from the earth is transported from its original location to all over the world through international trade. It is mainly shipped from the southern hemisphere to the northern hemisphere. This means that most of the environmental impacts from mining are suffered by the southern hemisphere. Aluminum is able to be recycled an infinite amount of times.
Oceanic cycling:
Aluminum primarily enters oceans by the process of mineral dust deposition. Dust deposition mainly occurs in the Atlantic Ocean, and in the Indian Ocean to a lesser extent, with dust mainly originating from Western Africa and Southern Asia, respectively. From here, some aluminum dust dissolves into the oceans' water columns. Aluminum may also enter or re-enter the cycle from sedimentary sources from oceanic basins.Recent research suggests that dissolved aluminum is transported by ocean currents through advection. Because of advection, dissolved aluminum is present in a greater area within the ocean's surface. Dissolved aluminum is especially dispersed over the greater Atlantic ocean, first towards Central America and eventually as far as Iceland.The process of particle scavenging is the main source of dissolved aluminum removal, with dissolved aluminum accumulating on sinking particulates. However, some particulate aluminum is released during sinking, as a result of this scavenging being reversible. The reversibility of this scavenging allows for the distribution of aluminum across depth, with dissolved aluminum becoming more common at greater depths, albeit in lesser concentrations than that of the surface.Phytoplankton may contribute to the removal of aluminum within the scavenging process. At the ocean's surface, dissolved aluminum is incorporated into phytoplankton, primarily within the cell walls of diatoms. Particulate aluminum—whether adsorbed onto mineral or biotic particulates—eventually sinks to the ocean floor, where it is buried. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Radius of gyration**
Radius of gyration:
Radius of gyration or gyradius of a body about the axis of rotation is defined as the radial distance to a point which would have a moment of inertia the same as the body's actual distribution of mass, if the total mass of the body were concentrated there.
Formulation:
Mathematically the radius of gyration is the root mean square distance of the object's parts from either its center of mass or a given axis, depending on the relevant application. It is actually the perpendicular distance from point mass to the axis of rotation. One can represent a trajectory of a moving point as a body. Then radius of gyration can be used to characterize the typical distance travelled by this point.
Formulation:
Suppose a body consists of n particles each of mass m . Let r1,r2,r3,…,rn be their perpendicular distances from the axis of rotation. Then, the moment of inertia I of the body about the axis of rotation is I=m1r12+m2r22+⋯+mnrn2 If all the masses are the same ( m ), then the moment of inertia is I=m(r12+r22+⋯+rn2) Since m=M/n (M being the total mass of the body), I=M(r12+r22+⋯+rn2)/n From the above equations, we have MRg2=M(r12+r22+⋯+rn2)/n Radius of gyration is the root mean square distance of particles from axis formula Rg2=(r12+r22+⋯+rn2)/n Therefore, the radius of gyration of a body about a given axis may also be defined as the root mean square distance of the various particles of the body from the axis of rotation. It is also known as a measure of the way in which the mass of a rotating rigid body is distributed about its axis of rotation.
Applications in structural engineering:
In structural engineering, the two-dimensional radius of gyration is used to describe the distribution of cross sectional area in a column around its centroidal axis with the mass of the body. The radius of gyration is given by the following formula: Rg=IA Where I is the second moment of area and A is the total cross-sectional area.
The gyration radius is useful in estimating the stiffness of a column. If the principal moments of the two-dimensional gyration tensor are not equal, the column will tend to buckle around the axis with the smaller principal moment. For example, a column with an elliptical cross-section will tend to buckle in the direction of the smaller semiaxis.
In engineering, where continuous bodies of matter are generally the objects of study, the radius of gyration is usually calculated as an integral.
Applications in mechanics:
The radius of gyration about a given axis ( axis ) can be calculated in terms of the mass moment of inertia axis around that axis, and the total mass m; axis axis m axis is a scalar, and is not the moment of inertia tensor.
Molecular applications:
In polymer physics, the radius of gyration is used to describe the dimensions of a polymer chain. The radius of gyration of a individual homopolymer with degree of polymerization N at a given time is defined as: Rg2=def1N∑k=1N|rk−rmean|2 where rmean is the mean position of the monomers.
As detailed below, the radius of gyration is also proportional to the root mean square distance between the monomers: Rg2=def12N2∑i,j|ri−rj|2 As a third method, the radius of gyration can also be computed by summing the principal moments of the gyration tensor.
Molecular applications:
Since the chain conformations of a polymer sample are quasi infinite in number and constantly change over time, the "radius of gyration" discussed in polymer physics must usually be understood as a mean over all polymer molecules of the sample and over time. That is, the radius of gyration which is measured as an average over time or ensemble: Rg2=def1N⟨∑k=1N|rk−rmean|2⟩ where the angular brackets ⟨…⟩ denote the ensemble average.
Molecular applications:
An entropically governed polymer chain (i.e. in so called theta conditions) follows a random walk in three dimensions. The radius of gyration for this case is given by Rg=16Na Note that although aN represents the contour length of the polymer, a is strongly dependent of polymer stiffness and can vary over orders of magnitude. N is reduced accordingly.
One reason that the radius of gyration is an interesting property is that it can be determined experimentally with static light scattering as well as with small angle neutron- and x-ray scattering. This allows theoretical polymer physicists to check their models against reality.
The hydrodynamic radius is numerically similar, and can be measured with Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS).
Derivation of identity To show that the two definitions of Rg2 are identical, we first multiply out the summand in the first definition: Rg2=def1N∑k=1N(rk−rmean)2=1N∑k=1N[rk⋅rk+rmean⋅rmean−2rk⋅rmean] Carrying out the summation over the last two terms and using the definition of rmean gives the formula Rg2=def−rmean⋅rmean+1N∑k=1N(rk⋅rk)
Applications in geographical data analysis:
In data analysis, the radius of gyration is used to calculate many different statistics including the spread of geographical locations. These locations have recently been collected from social media users to investigate the typical mentions of a user. This can be useful for understanding how a certain group of users on social media use the platform.
Rg=∑i=1Nmi(ri−rC)2∑i=1Nmi | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Phenazocine**
Phenazocine:
Phenazocine (brand names Prinadol, Narphen) is an opioid analgesic drug, which is related to pentazocine and has a similar profile of effects.Effects of phenazocine include analgesia and euphoria, also may include dysphoria and hallucinations at high doses, most likely due to action at κ-opioid and σ receptors.
Phenazocine:
Phenazocine appears to be a much stronger analgesic with fewer side effects than pentazocine, probably due to a more favorable μ/κ binding ratio. Phenazocine is a much more potent analgesic than pentazocine and other drugs in the benzomorphan series, most probably due to the presence of an N-phenethyl substitution, which is known to boost μ-opioid activity in many classes of opioid analgesics. Also, it does not cause spasm of the sphincter of Oddi, making it more suitable than morphine for the treatment of biliary or pancreatic pain.Regarding the two enantiomers of phenazocine, (R)-phenazocine has twenty times the potency of morphine as an analgesic, while (S)-phenazocine has about four times the potency of morphine.
History:
Phenazocine was invented in the 1950s. It was one of a number of benzomorphan opioids (including pentazocine, dezocine, and cyclazocine) developed in the search for non-addictive strong analgesics.
History:
Phenazocine was once widely used, and was mainly supplied as 5 mg tablets of the hydrobromide salt for sublingual use (Narphen, Prinadol and other names), but its use was discontinued in the United Kingdom in 2001.Phenazocine was briefly used in the United States but fell out of favor; it remains a Schedule II substance under the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Control & Prevention Act (Controlled Substances Act) of 1970 (CSA) but is not manufactured. The DEA ACSCN for phenazocine is 9715 and its 2013 annual manufacturing quota was 6 grams. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**GoLoco motif**
GoLoco motif:
GoLoco motif is a protein structural motif. In heterotrimeric G-protein signalling, cell surface receptors (GPCRs) are coupled to membrane-associated heterotrimers comprising a GTP-hydrolyzing subunit G-alpha and a G-beta/G-gamma dimer. The inactive form contains the alpha subunit bound to GDP and complexes with the beta and gamma subunit. When the ligand is associated to the receptor, GDP is displaced from G-alpha and GTP is bound. The GTP/G-alpha complex dissociates from the trimer and associates to an effector until the intrinsic GTPase activity of G-alpha returns the protein to GDP bound form. Reassociation of GDP-bound G-alpha with G-beta/G-gamma dimer terminates the signal. Several mechanisms regulate the signal output at different stage of the G-protein cascade. Two classes of intracellular proteins act as inhibitors of G protein activation: GTPase activating proteins (GAPs), which enhance GTP hydrolysis (see PDOC50132), and guanine dissociation inhibitors (GDIs), which inhibit GDP dissociation. The GoLoco or G-protein regulatory (GPR) motif found in various G-protein regulators. acts as a GDI on G-alpha(i).
Structure:
The crystal structure of the GoLoco motif in complex with G-alpha(i) has been solved. It consists of three small alpha helices. The highly conserved Asp-Gln-Arg triad within the GoLoco motif participates directly in GDP binding by extending the arginine side chain into the nucleotide binding pocket, highly reminiscent of the catalytic arginine finger employed in GTPase-activating protein (see PDOC50238). This addition of an arginine in the binding pocket affects the interaction of GDP with G-alpha and therefore is certainly important for the GoLoco GDI activity.
Examples:
Some proteins known to contain a GoLoco motif are listed below: Mammalian regulators of G-protein signaling 12 and 14 (RGS12 and RGS14), multifaceted signal transduction regulators.
Loco, the drosophila RGS12 homologue.
Mammalian Purkinje-cell protein-2 (Pcp2). It may function as a cell-type specific modulator for G protein-mediated cell signaling. It is uniquely expressed in cerebellar Purkinje cells and in retinal bipolar neurons.
Eukaryotic Rap1GAP. A GTPase activator for the nuclear ras-related regulatory protein RAP-1A.
Drosophila protein Rapsynoid (also known as Partner of Inscuteable, Pins) and its mammalian homologues, AGS3 and LGN. They form a G-protein regulator family that also contains TPR repeats.Human proteins containing this domain include: GPSM1, GPSM2, GPSM3 PCP2 RAP1GAP. RGS12, RGS14 | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Bassinet**
Bassinet:
A bassinet, bassinette, or cradle is a bed specifically for babies from birth to about four months. Bassinets are generally designed to work with fixed legs or caster wheels, while cradles are generally designed to provide a rocking or gliding motion. Bassinets and cradles are distinguished from Moses baskets and carry cots, which are designed to be carried and sit directly on the floor or furniture. After four months, babies are often transferred to a crib (North American usage) or cot (UK usage). In the United States, however, the bedside sleeper is the prevalent option, since they are generally bigger, recommended up to 6 months, and often used up to a year.
Design:
A bassinet is typically a basket-like structure on free-standing legs, often with casters. A cradle is typically set in a fixed frame, but with the ability to rock or glide.
Use:
Bassinet usage in the United States nearly doubled to 20% from 1992–2006. Greater than 45% of babies up to two months used a bassinet. By 5–6 months, however, fewer than 10% of babies sleep in bassinets. In a hospital environment, a special form of sealed bassinet is used in a neonatal intensive care unit.
Use:
On many long-haul flights, most airlines provide a bassinet (which is attached to a bulkhead) to adults travelling with an infant, i.e., a child under the age of two. The use of the bassinet is restricted by the infant's size and weight. These need to be requested in advance with the airline. However, most USA and Canadian airlines have bassinet policies which mean they are only allocated at the airport gate.Research has shown that the mattress influences SIDS outcomes; a firm mattress lowers SIDS risk.Some bassinets are designed to rock or swing freely, with many carers finding their child calmed by this action. The process of lulling the child to sleep may be accompanied by prerecorded or live performance of lullabies.
Stationary or portable:
Although there are many variations, they fall generally into two categories: light and portable types sometimes called Moses baskets sturdier but less portable cradlesIn both cases, they are generally designed to allow the resting baby to be carried from place to place. Within the home, they are often raised on a stand or other surface to reduce back strain when bending over to tend the baby. Wheeled frames to convert a bassinet into a pram or baby carriage are common.
Smart Bassinets:
Bassinets that automatically soothe babies by sound and motion in response to crying recently have become available, starting with the Snoo in October 2016. The Snoo has been criticized for its high price. Graco, 4Moms, and other companies have introduced cheaper competing products.
Rolling:
At three or four months of age babies are able to roll over by themselves; this means they could tip the bassinet over, so for safety they must use an infant bed or toddler bed instead. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Peer learning**
Peer learning:
One of the most visible approaches to peer learning comes out of cognitive psychology, and is applied within a "mainstream" educational framework: "Peer learning is an educational practice in which students interact with other students to attain educational goals." Other authors including David Boud describe peer learning as a way of moving beyond independent to interdependent or mutual learning among peers. In this context, it can be compared to the practices that go by the name cooperative learning. However, other contemporary views on peer learning relax the constraints, and position "peer-to-peer learning" as a mode of "learning for everyone, by everyone, about almost anything." Whether it takes place in a formal or informal learning context, in small groups or online, peer learning manifests aspects of self-organization that are mostly absent from pedagogical models of teaching and learning.
Connections with other practices:
Constructivism In his 1916 book, Democracy and Education, John Dewey wrote, “Education is not an affair of 'telling' and being told, but an active and constructive process.” In a later essay, entitled "Experience and Education", Dewey went into greater detail about the science of child development and developed the basic Constructivist theory that knowledge is created through experience, rather than passed down from teacher to student through rote memorization. Soviet psychologist Lev Vygotsky, who developed the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development, was another proponent of constructivist learning: his book, Thought and Language, provides evidence that students learn better through collaborative, meaningful problem-solving activities than through solo exercises.
Connections with other practices:
The three distinguishing features of constructivist theory are claims that: Learning occurs within a context that is itself part of what is learned Knowing and doing cannot be separated Learning is a process that is extended over timeThese are clearly meaningful propositions in a social context with sustained relationships, where people work on projects or tasks that are collaborative or otherwise shared.
Connections with other practices:
Educational Psychology Professor Alison King explains in "Promoting Thinking Through Peer Learning" that peer learning exercises as simple as having students explain concepts to one another are proof of social constructivism theory at work; the act of teaching another individual demands that students “clarify, elaborate on, and otherwise reconceptualize material.” Joss Winn, Senior Lecturer in Educational Research at University of Lincoln, proposes that schools radically redefine the teacher-student relationship to fit this constructivist theory of knowledge in his December 2011 paper, "Student as Producer". Carl Rogers' "Personal Thoughts on Learning" focus on the individual’s experience of effective learning, and eventually conclude that nearly the entire traditional educational structure is at odds with this experience. Self-discovered learning in a group that designates a facilitator is the “new approach” Rogers recommends for education.
Connections with other practices:
In general, peer learning may adapt constructivist or discovery learning methods for the peer-to-peer context: however, peer learning typically manifests constructivist ideas in a more informal way, when learning and collaboration are simply applied to solve some real shared problem.
Connections with other practices:
Critical pedagogy Critical pedagogy engages students and instructors in analyzing and critiquing power structures around them. The most influential scholar in the development of this field was Paulo Freire, whose book Pedagogy of the Oppressed described the traditional teaching framework as a “banking system” in which students are thought of as empty vessels to be filled with knowledge and concepts. Instead, Freire advocated a more equitable relationship between teachers and students, one in which information is questioned and situated in political context, and all participants in the classroom work together to create knowledge.
Connections with other practices:
Freire’s vision for dialogical education, where learning is situated within students’ lived experience, has been commonly deemed idealistic by modern educators. Yet Paulo Blikstein, Assistant Professor of Education at Stanford University wrote in Travels in Troy with Freire: Technology as an Agent of Emancipation that through exploratory building activities, “Not only did students become more autonomous and responsible, they learned to teach one another.” Connectivism Yochai Benkler explains how the now-ubiquitous computer helps us produce and process knowledge together with others in his book, The Wealth of Networks. George Siemens argues in Connectivism: A Learning Theory for the Digital Age, that technology has changed the way we learn, explaining how it tends to complicate or expose the limitations of the learning theories of the past. In practice, the ideas of connectivism developed in and alongside the then-new social formation, "massive open online courses" or MOOCs.
Connections with other practices:
Connectivism proposes that the knowledge we can access by virtue of our connections with others is just as valuable as the information carried inside our minds. The learning process, therefore, is not entirely under an individual’s control—learning can happen outside ourselves, as if we are a member of a large organization where many people are continuously updating a shared database.
Connections with other practices:
Rita Kop and Adrian Hill, in their critique of connectivism, state that: it does not seem that connectivism’s contributions to the new paradigm warrant it being treated as a separate learning theory in and of its own right. Connectivism, however, continues to play an important role in the development and emergence of new pedagogies, where control is shifting from the tutor to an increasingly more autonomous learner.
Perspectives of other modern theorists:
In a joint paper, Roy Williams, Regina Karousou, and Jenny Mackness argue that educational institutions should consider "emergent learning," in which learning arises from a self-organized group interaction, as a valuable component of education in the Digital Age. Web 2.0 puts distributed individuals into a group setting where emergent learning can occur. However, deciding how to manage emergence is important; “fail-safe” management drives activity towards pre-determined outcomes, while “safe/fail experiments” steer away from negative outcomes while leaving space open for mistakes and innovation. Williams et al. also distinguish between the term “environment” as controlled, and “ecology” as free/open.
Perspectives of other modern theorists:
Cathy Davidson and David Theo Goldberg write in The Future of Learning Institutions in a Digital Age about the potential of “participatory learning,” and a new paradigm of education that is focused on mediated interactions between peers.
Perspectives of other modern theorists:
They argue that if institutions of higher learning could begin to value this type of learning, instead of simply trying to implement “Instructional Technology” in classrooms, they could transform old models of university education. Davidson and Goldberg introduce “Ten Principles for the Future of Learning,” which include self-learning, horizontal structures, and open source education. Peter Sloterdijk's recent book "You Must Change Your Life" proposes similar ideas in the context of a "General Disciplinics" that would "counteract the atrophy of the educational system" by focusing on forms of learning that takes place through direct participation in the disciplines. (p. 156) Yochai Benkler and Helen Nissenbaum discuss implications for the realm of moral philosophy in their 2006 essay, "Commons-Based Peer Production and Virtue". They argue that the “socio-technical systems” of today’s Internet make it easier for people to role-model and adopt positive, virtuous behaviors on a large scale.
Perspectives of other modern theorists:
Joseph Corneli and Charles Jeffrey Danoff proposed the label “paragogy” to describe a collection of “best practices of effective peer learning”. They published a short book along with several papers in which they discuss five "paragogical principles" that form the core of their proposed learning theory. These were generated by rethinking Malcolm Knowles principles of andragogy for a learning context that is co-created by the learners.
Experiments:
The learning theories and approaches described above are currently being tested in peer-learning communities around the world, often adapting educational technology to support informal learning, though results in formal learning contexts exist too. For example, Eric Mazur and colleagues report on "Ten years of experience and results" with a teaching technique they call "Peer Instruction": Peer Instruction engages students during class through activities that require each student to apply the core concepts being presented, and then to explain those concepts to their fellow students.This approach made early use of a variant of the technique that is now known as the "flipped classroom": To free up class time for ConcepTests, and to prepare students better to apply the material during class, students are required to complete the reading on the topics to be covered before class.Peer 2 Peer University, or P2PU, which was founded in 2009 by Philipp Schmidt and others, is an example from the informal learning side. Speaking about the beginnings of P2PU, Schmidt echoes Siemens’ connectivism ideas and explains that, “The expertise is in the group. That’s the message, that everyone can bring something to the conversation.” In numerous public talks, Schmidt argues that current educational models are "broken" (particularly on the basis of the high cost of university-level training). He suggests that social assessment mechanisms similar to those applied in open-source software development can be applied to education. In practice, this approach uses peer-based assessment including recommendations and badges to provide an alternative form of accreditation.Jeff Young’s article in the Chronicle of Higher Education, "When Professors Print Their Own Diplomas", sparked a conversation about the necessity of formal degrees in an age when class lectures can be uploaded for free. The MIT Open Teaching initiative, for example, has since 2001 put all of its course materials online. But David A. Wiley, then Psychology Professor at Utah State, went further, signing certificates for whoever takes his class. A similar practice has become even more visible in learning projects like Udacity, Coursera, and EdX. Although these projects attempt to "scale education" by distributing learning materials produced by experts (not classic examples of peer learning), they do frequently feature peer-to-peer discussions in forums or offline.
Applications in development:
In the forward to a book on the Power of peer learning by Jean-H. Guilmette, Maureen O'Neil, then president of Canada's International Development Research Centre, states that Our experience has proven that [peer learning] is an efficient way to transmit knowledge across a wide range of groups or regions. Peer learning, based on jointly generated evidence, is also an effective means to build capacity and foster scientific excellence. The body of knowledge it generates is a powerful tool for the development of evidence-based policy.Guilmette suggests that peer learning is useful in the development context because It is my view that managing networks, especially those that are made up of sovereign nations, is fundamentally different from managing companies, organizations, or ministries that fall under a single authority. In essence, the dominant management approach for companies and institutions rests on cybernetics, with the view of keeping communications and accountability simple and clear. Managing methods that are successful in such a context [are] counterproductive when managing networks.Guilmette cites Anne K. Bernard, who in a report based on extensive interviews, concludes: Effective networks act not simply on the basis of optimizing within constraints by attempting to force-fit predicted, linear and regulated programmes of work onto dynamic policy and client communities. Rather, they hone capacities and create mechanisms for the regular feedback and reflected analyses which are needed to deal with the ambiguity of these environments, and to adapt interactively with them.
Challenges:
Scardamalia and Bereiter explain in "Computer Support for Knowledge-Building Communities" that computers in the classroom have the opportunity to restructure the learning environment, but too often they are simply used to provide a digital version of a normal lesson or exam. They propose that classrooms be exchanged for “knowledge-building communities” where students can use computers to connect to and create knowledge in the outside world. However, as illustrated in citations above, this way of thinking about learning is often at odds with traditional educational praxis.
Challenges:
In "The Role of the Learning Platform in Student-Centered E-Learning", Kurliha, Miettinen, Nokelainen, and Tirri found a "difference in learning outcomes based on the tools used." However, the variables at work are not well understood, and are the subject of ongoing research. Within a formal education setting, a 1994 study found that students were more responsive to feedback from a teacher than they were to peer feedback. However, another later study showed that training in assessment techniques had a positive impact on individual student performance.
Challenges:
A classic study on motivation in peer tutoring showed that "reward is no motivator." Although other more recent work has shown that non-monetary rewards or acknowledgement can make a difference in performance (for certain populations of peer producers), the exact motivations for going out of the way to teach or tutor someone else are not clearly understood. As mentioned above, learning is often just part of solving a problem, so "peer learning" and "peer teaching" would tend to happen informally when people solve problems in groups.
In practice:
Research Research on peer learning may involve participant observation, and may itself be peer produced. Some of this research falls under the broader umbrella of Scholarship of Teaching and Learning. Computer-supported collaborative learning is one obvious context in which to study peer learning, since in such settings "learning is observably and accountably embedded in collaborative activity." However, peer learning can play a role in settings where traditional conceptions of both "teaching" and "learning" do not apply, for instance, in academic peer review, in organizational learning, in development work, and in public health programmes. Research in these areas may fall within the area of organization science, science, technology and society (STS) or other fields. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Mir-279 microRNA precursor family**
Mir-279 microRNA precursor family:
mir-279 is a short RNA molecule found in Drosophila melanogaster that belongs to a class of molecules known as microRNAs. microRNAs are ~22nt-long non-coding RNAs that post-transcriptionally regulate the expression of genes, often by binding to the 3' untranslated region of mRNA, targeting the transcript for degradation. miR-279 has diverse tissue-specific functions in the fly, influencing developmental processes related to neurogenesis and oogenesis, as well as behavioral processes related to circadian rhythms. The varied roles of mir-279, both in the developing and adult fly, highlight the utility of microRNAs in regulating unique biological processes.
Function:
Regulation of neuronal cell fate In Drosophila melanogaster the loss of microRNA-279 results in the ectopic formation of CP2 neurons (a type of CO2-sensing neuron) within the maxillary palp, a distal segment in the antenna. The pleiotropic transcription factor Prospero regulates miR-279 expression, and this appears to indirectly restrict CO2 neuron formation. Loss of function in either Prospero or miR-270 results in a similar ectopic formation of CO2 neurons within the maxillary palp. This is likely results from gain-of-function in the miR-279 target genes nerfin-1 and escargot during olfactory development. This observation highlights how microRNAs regulate pleiotropic neural genes, determining the divergence of sensory systems.
Function:
Regulation of circadian activity rhythms via unpaired In Drosophila melanogaster, miR-279 influences circadian rhythms by regulating the expression of the cytokine unpaired (upd). Flies with mutant alleles affecting miR-279 fail to maintain robust rest/activity rhythms when housed in free-running conditions (i.e. when they are maintained in the absence of any external cues). Given this phenotype, one might expect miR-279 to directly regulate clock genes within the core-clock neurons. However, this does not appear to be the case. Rather, miR-279 affects the output from core-clock neurons by post-transcriptionally regulating upd, a ligand for JAK/STAT signaling. Because miR-279 regulates upd, which is downstream of the circadian-activated Pigment-Dispersing Factor Receptor, miR-279 indirectly regulates JAK/STAT signaling. Similar to upd, modulating JAK/STAT signaling also affects circadian activity rhythms, suggesting that upd works through JAK/STAT signaling to affect this phenotype.There is also evidence suggesting that the effect miR-279 on circadian rhythms requires a concurrent loss of function in a similar miRNA, miR-996. Flies with a double mutation for miR-279 and miR-996 have disrupted circadian rhythms, and restoring function in either of these microRNAs appears to restore circadian rhythms to a wild-type level. Given that miR-279 and miR-996 share a similar seed region (i.e. the a short span of nucleotides in the 5' end of the miRNA that determines mRNA specificity), they likely share similar mRNA targets. However, the role miR-996 in regulating upd expression and subsequently JAK/STAT activation has yet to be demonstrated in Drosophila.
Function:
Regulation of border cell fate via stat Border cells in the ovary of Drosophila melanogaster are set of ~8 migratory cells that support the oocyte during oogenesis. Specifically, these cells migrate from the anterior of the egg chamber toward the posterior, where they ultimately aid in forming a pore for sperm entry. The differentiation of border cells from the static follicular epithelium is set by a morphogen gradient, from the morphogen Unpaired (Upd). Like the aforementioned neuronal Upd, ovarian Upd acts as a ligand for JAK/STAT signaling. Elevated JAK/STAT signaling ensures that cells in the anterior follicular epithelium adopt a migratory border cell fate, whereas diminished JAK/STAT signaling ensures the opposite. miR-279 fine-tunes JAK/STAT signaling in the ovary by negatively regulating stat (unlike the neurons, where it is reported to regulate upd). Loss of function in miR-279 within the Drosophila ovary results in aberrant border cell formation, characterized by an unusually large number of follicular epithelial cells adopting border cell fate. This phenotype, however, can be rescued by diminishing STAT signaling. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Parvocellular neurosecretory cell**
Parvocellular neurosecretory cell:
Parvocellular neurosecretory cells are small neurons that produce hypothalamic releasing and inhibiting hormones. The cell bodies of these neurons are located in various nuclei of the hypothalamus or in closely related areas of the basal brain, mainly in the medial zone of the hypothalamus. All or most of the axons of the parvocellular neurosecretory cells project to the median eminence, at the base of the brain, where their nerve terminals release the hypothalamic hormones. These hormones are then immediately absorbed into the blood vessels of the hypothalamo-pituitary portal system, which carry them to the anterior pituitary gland, where they regulate the secretion of hormones into the systemic circulation.
Types:
The parvocellular neurosecretory cells include those that make: Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), which acts as the primary regulator of TSH and a regulator of prolactin Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), which acts as the primary regulator of ACTH Neurotensin, which acts as a regulator of luteinizing hormone and prolactin | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Bitting rig**
Bitting rig:
A bitting rig or bitting harness is a training tool for horses that can teach a horse to accept a bridle and bit, and later assist a horse in developing the necessary musculature for a given equestrianism discipline. Generally used in conjunction with training on a longe line, it is most often seen in the training of Saddle seat horses, but also is used by some dressage trainers and as a tool to start horses in driving.
Bitting rig:
A basic bitting rig consists of a surcingle (also known as a roller) that has a number of rings on either side, placed at varying heights, usually with a crupper to prevent the surcingle from sliding forward. A bridle is also part of a bitting rig, with side reins and rings or small pulleys on either side of the browband to accommodate an overcheck. Some variations use pulleys and leverage on side reins to create a given "headset." Other designs add straps resembling breeching on the hindquarters to encourage engagement of the horse's rear end.
Bitting rig:
The use of only a surcingle and side reins, a common component in basic horse training across all equestrian disciplines, is not usually considered a "bitting rig." It is the use of additional reins such as the overcheck, or the use of leverage to place the horse's head in a set position that turns a classic surcingle into a bitting rig.
Bitting rig:
Both a bitting rig and a classic surcingle with side reins are intended only to be used while longeing a horse. They are not to be used on a horse that is standing in a stall (though this is a very common type of misuse), nor are they used while riding. However, the surcingle and side reins are used as safety tools in the sport of equestrian vaulting.
Bitting rig:
While a surcingle and side reins are considered classical training tools, the use of the full bitting rig is controversial in some circles. The basic debate is whether the use of the overcheck or any other rein setup other than the classic side rein is unnatural and develops incorrect musculature in the neck, back, and hindquarters. Like any tool, a bitting rig can be overused, leading to soreness and fatigue in the horse, and in some cases, improper use may teach a horse to lean on the bit and develop a hard mouth rather than relaxing and giving to it. Misuse can also lead to a horse that holds its head in a set position, but fails to properly engage the hindquarters and learn proper collection. Proponents argue that it safely teaches a horse a correct head position and gently accustoms a horse to what will be expected of it when carrying a rider. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Star Fox Command**
Star Fox Command:
Star Fox Command is a shoot 'em up video game, the fifth game in the Star Fox series, published by Nintendo for the Nintendo DS in 2006. Star Fox Command was announced at the E3 2006 conference, under the name Star Fox DS. Command is the first Star Fox game for a handheld, and supports the Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection, making it the first online Star Fox game. The game was re-released for the Wii U Virtual Console service in 2015.
Star Fox Command:
The game follows Fox McCloud attempting to defend the galaxy from aliens known as the Anglar. Q-Games originally worked on Intersect, which Nintendo decided to turn into a DS game. The game was generally well-received; it has achieved an average score of 76% from GameRankings, a reviews aggregate.
Gameplay:
The game has two types of single-player gameplay including a strategic map and battle mode. The overworld-like map mode is where the player takes command of several ships. The mode is used to get ships into the battle mode and is essentially a simple turn-based strategy game. Up to four ships can be maneuvered at a time. The object of the mode is to prevent the enemy ones from reaching the Great Fox. It also allows players to fire missiles from the Great Fox that they have picked up from exploring in this mode, or from meeting certain conditions in the battle mode (usually destroying all enemies). When a craft that is controlled by the player encounters an enemy group or missile in this mode, the gameplay switches to the battle mode.Battle mode is similar to the "all-range mode" employed in Star Fox 64 for some bosses and levels. Like the cancelled Star Fox 2 the game is completely all-range, as opposed to the "on-rails" levels featured in most other Star Fox games (however, the game will sometimes force the player to engage in classic "chase" missions in order to complete an objective). The usual objectives are to destroy a base ship, destroy all enemies, or collect a number of cores to complete the battle mode. Once the battle mode is completed, the game returns to the map mode. As players progress through the game, they are able to choose to go different routes upon completing certain levels. Each route has its own character dialogue to accompany it, and players are able to visit differing planets depending on what routes they choose. The game features 9 different endings altogether, and gamers can access all of them by playing the game multiple times, selecting different routes each time. Instead of merely giving different perspectives on what happens to the Star Fox team, each ending is unique — the characters go in various directions depending on what ending is watched. Star Fox Command does not feature traditional voice acting. Instead it outputs gibberish akin to the "voices" in Star Fox for the SNES, or the "Lylat speech" present in Lylat Wars. Players can also record their own voices into the game's "gibberish generator" using the built-in DS microphone where it is converted into the garbled speech of the various characters.
Gameplay:
Multiplayer Star Fox Command supports six players in local wireless multiplayer matches via DS Download Play and up to three players on the Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection. In Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection matches, only the Arwing II is available. Players score not by killing opponents, but by collecting stars from them when they have been destroyed. It is also possible to collect a star from an opponent not killed by the player. This is a modified version of the mode from Star Fox 64/Lylat Wars. Nintendo Wi-Fi uses a ranking system based on rankings of the alphabet with Z being the lowest and A being the highest. Players work their way up from Z by collecting wins (they could be based on points). For every win a player gains a certain amount of percentage and once they reach 100% they move to the next letter. The highest rank a player can get is 100% of the A rank.
Plot and setting:
Setting and characters The game is set in the Lylat system, using a similar map as Star Fox 64 to switch between each areas. However, two planets, Zoness and Macbeth, did not appear in the game, unlike Star Fox 64. Command has the largest number of playable characters in any Star Fox game, with a total of fourteen, including Fox McCloud, Falco Lombardi, Krystal, Slippy Toad, Peppy Hare, Wolf O'Donnell, Panther Caroso, Leon Powalski, Slippy's fiancée Amanda, Peppy's daughter Lucy Hare, Bill Grey, Katt Monroe, Andross' grandson Dash Bowman and James McCloud.Andrew Oikonny is one of the game's bosses. Slippy's father Beltino Toad makes an appearance during a mission briefing. ROB 64 is not playable, but pilots the Great Fox when on the map screen. Pigma Dengar appears as a boss in two of Falco's stories. The ghost of Andross, possessing a different bioweapon (Monarch Dodra, Grunner, Killer Bee, or Dune Worm) depending on the mission, appears as a boss on Titania. Octoman, an F-Zero racer, appears as a boss in certain Aquas and Venom missions.
Plot and setting:
Story The planet Venom's forces were all but destroyed, and there is thought to be peace. This is not to be, however, as a race of beings known as the Anglar rise from the acidic oceans of Venom, thought to be unable to support life. The Anglar Emperor plans on destroying the Lylat system, which Fox McCloud and crew set out to save. The Star Fox team has broken up, but re-assembles to fight the threat. Peppy is made the General of the Cornerian Army, replacing Pepper. Fox flew around the Lylat system with ROB on patrol, and Krystal broke off her relationship with Fox after she left the team, because he was afraid she would get injured and it would affect him. Slippy finds love with a frog named Amanda, and spends less time with the team. Falco left the team and went around on solo missions (as he has done before in Star Fox Adventures), spending less time with the team also. Peppy's daughter Lucy joins the team for some missions. There are nine endings depending on paths chosen by the player, though the player is required to finish the game before having the options.Dylan Cuthbert and Takaya Imamura stated in an interview with IGN that if this storyline was continued, it would begin in the middle of Star Fox Command. On Reddit Cuthbert stated that "canon is something the fans like to try to follow but Command was meant to be an alternate timeline kind of game, hence the choices you make. It let us have a lot more fun with the characters".
Development:
Star Fox Command was co-developed by Q-Games and directed by its founder, Dylan Cuthbert, who previously served as a lead programmer of the original Star Fox duology. Q-Games was working on a puzzle game called Digidrive for Nintendo when they were approached to do a mock-up of the game demo. After three months, using the original Star Fox, it was shown to Takaya Imamura at Nintendo who said that the company would redesign it for better compatibility with the Nintendo DS and add some ideas from Star Fox 2. Nintendo EAD was responsible for the music and production of the game, while Q-Games handled the main development. The game was re-released for Wii U Virtual Console worldwide in June and August 2015.
Reception:
Star Fox Command debuted on the Japanese best seller list as number 14, selling over 20,000 copies on the first day. In the United States, it was the 5th best seller in the first week. Star Fox Command has received mostly positive reviews, with a Metacritic score of 76/100 and a GameRankings score of 76%. IGN gave it an 8 out of 10, or "Impressive", calling it a "surprisingly rich and faithful action game" that had similar game play to Star Fox and Star Fox 64. Star Fox Command received IGN DS's August 2006 Game of the Month Award for capturing the fun and essence that made the series significant. Famitsu gave a 32/40, and was cited as an influence for the game's large initial sales. It received a 4 out of 5 star rating on G4's X-Play, praising the stylus control and the strategy elements. The Associated Press noted the game for having developed the game to work well with the DS controls, but had mixed feelings about the turn-based sections of gameplay. Electronic Gaming Monthly claimed that while the game has its own charm, it lacks the original gameplay from Star Fox and Star Fox 64 and becomes repetitive. UK website Mansized gave Command a three out of five stars. Command was nominated in three categories in Nintendo Power's annual vote-in awards, although it did not win in any of them. Star Fox Command has also received an 8 from Game Informer magazine. Although it was criticized for its brevity, the game was lauded for its solid gameplay mechanics. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Speech delay**
Speech delay:
Speech delay, also known as alalia, refers to a delay in the development or use of the mechanisms that produce speech. Speech – as distinct from language – is the actual process of making sounds, using such organs and structures as the lungs, vocal cords, mouth, tongue, teeth, etc. Language delay refers to a delay in the development or use of the knowledge of language.
Speech delay:
Because language and speech are two independent stages, they may be individually delayed. For example, a child may be delayed in speech (i.e., unable to produce intelligible speech sounds), but not delayed in language. In this case, the child would be attempting to produce an age appropriate amount of language, but that language would be difficult or impossible to understand. Conversely, since a child with a language delay typically has not yet had the opportunity to produce speech sounds, it is likely to have a delay in speech as well.
Signs and symptoms:
The warning signs of early speech delay are categorized into age-related milestones, beginning at the age of 12 months and continuing through early adolescence.At the age of 12 months, there is cause for concern if the child is not able to do the following: Using gestures such as waving good-bye and pointing at objects Practicing the use of several different consonant sounds Vocalizing or communicating needsBetween the ages of 15 and 18 months children are at a higher risk for speech delay if they are displaying the following: Not saying "momma" and "dada" Not reciprocating when told "no", "hello", and "bye" Does not have a one to three word vocabulary at 12 months and up to 15 words by 18 months Is unable to identify body parts Displaying difficulties imitating sounds and actions Shows preference to gestures over verbalizationAdditional signs of speech delay after the age of 2 years and up to the age of 4 include the following: Inability to spontaneously produce words and phrases Inability to follow simple directions and commands Cannot make two word connections Lacks consonant sounds at the beginning or end of words Is difficult to understand by close family members Is not able to display the tasks of common household objects Is unable to form simple 2 to 3 word sentences
Effects:
Studies show that children diagnosed with speech delay are more likely to present with behavioral and social emotional problems both in childhood and as adults. Decreased receptive language, reading, and learning skills are common side effects for children that have a speech delay and do not receive adequate intervention. Similar studies suggest that children with speech delays are more likely to have a difficult time communicating and bonding with peers, which could have negative effects on their psychosocial health later in life.
Causes:
At times, speech delay and impairment is caused by a physical disruption in the mouth such as a deformed frenulum, lips, or palate. If the motion or ability to form words and appropriate sounds is disrupted, the child may be slow to pick up words and lack the ability to shape their mouth and tongue in the formation of words.Other more serious concerns are those that can be caused by oral-motor issues. Oral-motor dysfunction refers to a lack or delay in the area of the brain that speech is formed and created and communicated to the mouth and tongue. While speech may be the only concern, this disorder can be highlighted with feeding issues as well.Children that are having speech delay disorders could have the following characteristics (Shriberg 1982): Speech mechanism in which speech is associated with hearing, motor speech and craniofacial malfunction Cognitive-linguistic aspects in which the impairment is associated with the child's intellectual, receptive, expressive and linguistic ability.
Causes:
Psychosocial issues in which the impairment is associated with caregiver, school environment, and the child's self behaviors such as aggression and maturityThe many other causes of speech delay include bilingual children with phonological disorders, autism spectrum conditions, childhood apraxia, auditory processing disorder, prematurity, cognitive impairment and hearing loss. In addition, when children are addicted to screens, they aren't stimulated to be involved in conversations, causing speech delays. Broomfield and Dodd's (2004a) found out after survey that 6.4% of children who are perfectly normal showed speech difficulty while they lacked these disorders will often show early signs and are at times identified as "at risk" when the speech delay is diagnosed. However, a study done in Saudi Arabia showed no relationship between smart device use and speech delay, although 64.8% of the parents believed that the smart devices are a "problem". A review study from Indonesia points out the existence of contradicting results on that issue.In the case of speech delay in a child with autism, there may not be a physiological cause such as an oral-motor issue or hearing loss. The child may prefer to communicate using non-spoken language or use a nonverbal communication method. Studies show that early interventions may help a child with cerebral palsy, autism spectrum disorder or Down syndrome acquire language skills necessary for social communication to a certain degree.
Therapies and treatments:
After the initial diagnosis of speech delay, a hearing test will be administered to ensure that hearing loss or deafness is not an underlying cause of the delay. If a child has successfully completed the hearing test, the therapy or therapies used will be determined. There are many therapies available for children that have been diagnosed with a speech delay, and for every child, the treatment and therapies needed vary with the degree, severity, and cause of the delay. While speech therapy is the most common form of intervention, many children may benefit from additional help from occupational and physical therapies as well. Physical and occupational therapies can be used for a child that has a speech delay due to physical malformations and children that have also been diagnosed with a developmental delay such as autism or a language processing delay. Music therapy has effective results in the fundamentals of speech development, including phonological memory, sentence understanding, sentence memory, and morphological rule generation. Children that have been identified with hearing loss can be taught simple sign language to build and improve their vocabulary in addition to attending speech therapy.
Therapies and treatments:
The parents of a delayed child are the first and most important tool in helping overcome the speech delay. The parent or caregiver of the child can provide the following activities at home, in addition to the techniques suggested by a speech therapist, to positively influence the growth of speech and vocabulary: Reading to the child regularly Use of questions and simple, clear language Positive reinforcement in addition to patienceFor children that have a physical disorder that is causing difficulty forming and pronouncing words, parents and caregivers suggest using and introducing different food textures to exercise and build jaw muscles while promoting new movements of the jaw while chewing. Another less studied technique used to combat and treat speech delay is a form of therapy using music to promote and facilitate speech and language development. It is important to understand that music therapy is a newer therapy and has yet to be thoroughly studied and practiced on children with speech delays and impediments. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Data transfer object**
Data transfer object:
In the field of programming a data transfer object (DTO) is an object that carries data between processes. The motivation for its use is that communication between processes is usually done resorting to remote interfaces (e.g., web services), where each call is an expensive operation. Because the majority of the cost of each call is related to the round-trip time between the client and the server, one way of reducing the number of calls is to use an object (the DTO) that aggregates the data that would have been transferred by the several calls, but that is served by one call only.The difference between data transfer objects and business objects or data access objects is that a DTO does not have any behavior except for storage, retrieval, serialization and deserialization of its own data (mutators, accessors, serializers and parsers). In other words, DTOs are simple objects that should not contain any business logic but may contain serialization and deserialization mechanisms for transferring data over the wire.This pattern is often incorrectly used outside of remote interfaces. This has triggered a response from its author where he reiterates that the whole purpose of DTOs is to shift data in expensive remote calls.
Terminology:
A "Value Object" is not a DTO. The two terms have been conflated by Sun/Java community in the past. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**MK-2206**
MK-2206:
MK-2206 is a drug candidate being investigated to help treat cancer. Its chemical formula is C25H21N5O. It acts as an allosteric AKT inhibitor.It is a highly selective inhibitor of pan-Akt, namely, of all three Akt isoforms Akt1, Akt2, and Akt3.It is intended to be used with other cancer therapies that advanced tumours may become resistant to.
Clinical trials:
2011: A phase 1 clinical trial of MK-2206 alone has reported it was well tolerated.2014: A phase 1 clinical trial of MK-2206 with a variety of other agents in 72 patients with advanced cancer reported acceptable side-effects.2016: MK-2206 is one of the treatments in the I-SPY2 Adaptive clinical trial for breast cancer that had been selected for later stage trials.As of August 2017 31 phase II clinical trials are registered, many completed. e.g. in colorectal cancer, breast cancer, and many others.
MK-2206 and COVID-19:
Data shown in a study preprint suggest that SARS-CoV-2 infection decreases cellular autophagy and that MK-2206, which induces autophagy, reduced virus replication by up to 88% in vitro. The study's authors propose that MK-2206 should be tested in clinical trials as a potential treatment for COVID-19. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Claudia Clopath**
Claudia Clopath:
Claudia Clopath is a Professor of Computational Neuroscience at Imperial College London and research leader at the Sainsbury Wellcome Centre for Neural Circuits and Behaviour. She develops mathematical models to predict synaptic plasticity for both medical applications and the design of human-like machines.
Early life and education:
Clopath studied physics at École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne. She remained there for her graduate studies, where she worked alongside Wulfram Gerstner. Together they worked on models of spike-timing-dependent plasticity (STPD) that included both the presynaptic and postsynaptic membrane potentials. After earning her PhD she worked as a postdoctoral fellow with Nicolas Brunel at Paris Descartes University. She subsequently joined Columbia University where she worked in the Center for Theoretical Neuroscience.
Research and career:
Clopath uses mathematical models to predict synaptic plasticity and to study the implications of synaptic plasticity in artificial neural networks. These models can explain the origins of vibrations in neural networks, and could determine the activities of excitatory and inhibitory neurons. She used this model to explain that inhibitory neurons are important in the determination of the oscillatory frequency of a network. She hopes that the models she generates of the brain will be able to be used in medical applications as well as designing machines that can achieve human-like learning.
Research and career:
She has studied the connections of nerve cells in the visual cortex. The model developed by Clopath, Sandra Sadeh and Stefan Rotter at the Bernstein Center Freiburg was the first to combine biological neural networks in a computational neural network. It allows users to make visual system nerve cells able to detect different features, as well as coordinating the synapses between cells. It can be used to understand how nerve cells develop as they receive information from each eye.Clopath has worked with DeepMind to create artificial intelligence systems that can be applied to multiple tasks, making them able to remember information or master a series of steps. Together Clopath and DeepMind used synaptic consolidation, a mechanism that allows neural networks to remember. The algorithm, Elastic Weight Consolidation, can compute how important different connections in a neural network are, and apply a weighting factor that dictates its importance. This determines the rate at which values of a node within the neural network are altered. They demonstrated that software that used Elastic Weight Consolidation could learn and achieve human-level performance in ten games. Developing machine learning systems for continual learning tasks has become the focus of Clopath's research, using computational models in recurrent neural networks to establish how inhibition gates synaptic plasticity.In 2015 she was awarded a Google Faculty Research Award.
Selected publications:
Clopath, Claudia; Vasilaki, Eleni; Gerstner, Wulfram (2010). "Connectivity reflects coding: a model of voltage-based STDP with homeostasis". Nature Neuroscience. 13 (3): 344–352. doi:10.1038/nn.2479. PMID 20098420. S2CID 8046538.
Vogels, Tim; Sprekeler, Henning; Zenke, Friedemann; Clopath, Claudia; Gerstner, Wulfram (2011). "Inhibitory Plasticity Balances Excitation and Inhibition in Sensory Pathways and Memory Networks". Science. 334 (6062): 1569–1573. Bibcode:2011Sci...334.1569V. doi:10.1126/science.1211095. hdl:10044/1/21441. PMID 22075724. S2CID 45134325.
Clopath, Claudia; Hofer, Sonia B.; Mrsic-Flogel, Thomas D. (2013). "The emergence of functional microcircuits in visual cortex". Nature. 496 (7443): 96–100. Bibcode:2013Natur.496...96K. doi:10.1038/nature12015. PMC 4843961. PMID 23552948. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Size zero**
Size zero:
Size zero or size 0 is a women's clothing size in the US catalog sizes system. Size 0 and 00 were invented due to increasing body sizes and therefore the changing of clothing sizes over time (referred to as vanity sizing or size inflation), which has caused the adoption of lower numbers. For example, a 2011 size 0 is equivalent to a 2001 size 2, and is larger than a 1970 size 6 or 1958 size 8. Modern size 0 clothing, depending on brand and style, fits measurements of chest-stomach-hips from 30-22-32 inches (76-56-81 cm) to 33-25-35 inches (84-64-89 cm). Size 00 can be anywhere from 0.5 to 2 inches (1 to 5 cm) smaller than size 0. Size zero often refers to thin individuals (especially women and adolescent girls), or trends associated with them.
Criticism:
The use of size 0 in advertisements and products of the clothing industry has been met with some media attention. In July 2009, Katie Green won a competition to represent Wonderbra. They referred her to the Premier Model Management agency for representation. Green reported that "one of the guys from the PR agency from Wonderbra" insisted that she lose weight, that it wasn't normal for models to be a (UK) size 8. "Unless I could drop down to that weight, they wouldn't be willing to get me more work." Green at first complied, but then quit the agency. She then, with Liberal Democrat MP Lembit Öpik, launched a campaign titled "Say No to Size Zero". They began a petition drive with the goal to put an end to size zero and underweight models on the catwalk or working in the fashion industry. They set a goal to obtain 20,000 signatures and plan to present it to the UK Prime Minister and Parliament. They are campaigning for legislation that would require regular health checkups for all models before undertaking any assignments.
Movement against size zero:
After the death of Luisel Ramos from anorexia in August, 2006, Madrid Fashion Week banned size-zero models the following month, and the Milan fashion show took the same action shortly afterward, banning models with a body mass index (BMI) of 18 or below. As a result, five models were banned from taking part.As of 2007, the British Fashion Council promoted the creation of a task force to establish guidelines for the fashion industry. They also urged fashion designers to use healthy models. In September 2019, Victoria Beckham received criticism on social media over thin models who appeared "ill" in her Fall fashion show. In 2015 she had "vowed that her agents were in touch with the agents of all the models she uses in an effort to make sure that the women are healthy". Representatives for Beckham did not respond to Fox News’s request for comment.Italian fashion labels Prada, Versace and Armani have agreed to ban size-zero models from their catwalks. Under the new self-regulation code drawn up in Italy by the government and designers, all models in future shows will be "full-bodied", and larger sizes will be introduced at shows. Fashion designer Giorgio Armani has given support to the effort to eliminate ultra-thin models. "The time has now come for clarity. We all need to work together against anorexia." France banned size-zero models by law stipulating that models needed a doctor’s note attesting to their health in regards to their age, weight and body shape. The new charter brought forth by the iconic fashion companies take the 2015 legislation further, committing their brands to banning models who are smaller than size 34 for women and 44 for men (for reference, a French size 34 is roughly equivalent to a size 0 in the US). Paris fashion week has also banned size-zero models from their catwalks. Kering and LVMH, parent company of brands like Christian Dior, Louis Vuitton, Yves Saint Laurent and Givenchy have created a new charter that bans the hiring of excessively thin models. The CEO of Kering, Francois-Henri Pinault spoke of the decision, “We hope to inspire the entire industry to follow suit, thus making a real difference in the working conditions of fashion models industry-wide." [1] Israel banned underweight models in March 2012. Their law stipulates that women and men hired as models must be certified by a physician as having a body mass index (BMI) of no less than 18.5. The legislation also requires the inclusion of an informational note in adverts using photos manipulated to make models look thinner. There were divergent views on the ban within the Israeli fashion industry. One modelling agent, who had helped promote the bill, suggested that the fall in typical dress sizes for models in the preceding 15–20 years amounted to "the difference between death and life". However, another described the law as "arbitrary" and "not appropriate for every model". | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**TRIM68**
TRIM68:
Tripartite motif-containing protein 68 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the TRIM68 gene.The protein encoded by this gene contains a RING finger domain, a motif present in a variety of functionally distinct proteins and known to be involved in protein-protein and protein-DNA interactions. This gene is expressed in many cancer cell lines. Its expression in normal tissues, however, was found to be restricted to prostate. This gene was also found to be differentially expressed in androgen-dependent versus androgen-independent prostate cancer cells.
Interactions:
TRIM68 has been shown to interact with Androgen receptor. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Stereospecificity**
Stereospecificity:
In chemistry, stereospecificity is the property of a reaction mechanism that leads to different stereoisomeric reaction products from different stereoisomeric reactants, or which operates on only one (or a subset) of the stereoisomers.In contrast, stereoselectivity is the property of a reactant mixture where a non-stereospecific mechanism allows for the formation of multiple products, but where one (or a subset) of the products is favored by factors, such as steric access, that are independent of the mechanism.
Stereospecificity:
A stereospecific mechanism specifies the stereochemical outcome of a given reactant, whereas a stereoselective reaction selects products from those made available by the same, non-specific mechanism acting on a given reactant. Given a single, stereoisomerically pure starting material, a stereospecific mechanism will give 100% of a particular stereoisomer (or no reaction), although loss of stereochemical integrity can easily occur through competing mechanisms with different stereochemical outcomes. A stereoselective process will normally give multiple products even if only one mechanism is operating on an isomerically pure starting material.
Stereospecificity:
The term stereospecific reaction is ambiguous, since the term reaction itself can mean a single-mechanism transformation (such as the Diels–Alder reaction), which could be stereospecific, or the outcome of a reactant mixture that may proceed through multiple competing mechanisms, specific and non-specific. In the latter sense, the term stereospecific reaction is commonly misused to mean highly stereoselective reaction.
Chiral synthesis is built on a combination of stereospecific transformations (for the interconversion of existing stereocenters) and stereoselective ones (for the creation of new stereocenters), where also the optical activity of a chemical compound is preserved.
The quality of stereospecificity is focused on the reactants and their stereochemistry; it is concerned with the products too, but only as they provide evidence of a difference in behavior between reactants. Of stereoisomeric reactants, each behaves in its own specific way. Stereospecificity towards enantiomers is called enantiospecificity.
Examples:
Nucleophilic substitution at sp3 centres can proceed by the stereospecific SN2 mechanism, causing only inversion, or by the non-specific SN1 mechanism, the outcome of which can show a modest selectivity for inversion, depending on the reactants and the reaction conditions to which the mechanism does not refer. The choice of mechanism adopted by a particular reactant combination depends on other factors (steric access to the reaction centre in the substrate, nucleophile, solvent, temperature).
Examples:
For example, tertiary centres react almost exclusively by the SN1 mechanism whereas primary centres (except neopentyl centres) react almost exclusively by the SN2 mechanism. When a nucleophilic substitution results in incomplete inversion, it is because of a competition between the two mechanisms, as often occurs at secondary centres, or because of double inversion (as when iodide is the nucleophile).
The addition of singlet carbenes to alkenes is stereospecific in that the geometry of the alkene is preserved in the product. For example, dibromocarbene and cis-2-butene yield cis-2,3-dimethyl-1,1-dibromocyclopropane, whereas the trans isomer exclusively yields the trans cyclopropane.
This addition remains stereospecific even if the starting alkene is not isomerically pure, as the products' stereochemistry will match the reactants'.
The disrotatory ring closing reaction of conjugated trienes is stereospecific in that isomeric reactants will give isomeric products. For example, trans,cis,trans-2,4,6-octatriene gives cis-dimethylcyclohexadiene, whereas the trans,cis,cis reactant isomer gives the trans product and the trans,trans,trans reactant isomer does not react in this manner. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Autostick**
Autostick:
The name Autostick has been used for a Volkswagen semi-automatic transmission, which is a vacuum-operated automatic clutch system, coupled with a conventional 3-speed manual transmission. The "AutoStick" system designed by Chrysler allows for manual selection of gears with a standard hydraulic automatic transmission, also known as a manumatic.The Autostick systems used by Volkswagen and Chrysler are unrelated, not mechanically similar in their operation, and do not share any similarities with their internal design and build.
Autostick:
The manumatic transmission systems are variously described or marketed under names that including "e-stick", "shift-command", "steptronic", and "geartronic". Manufacturers increasingly offer electronically-controlled automatic transmissions that provide drivers with an ability to shift gears on their own.
The objective of these systems is to provide a sportier, more driver-focused feel. They combine the convenience of an automatic with the ability for the driver to have an increased degree of control in gear selection process. Due to modern automatic transmissions becoming almost as efficient and responsive, cars with fully manual transmissions are less in demand.
Volkswagen Autostick:
Marketed as the Volkswagen Automatic Stickshift, the three-speed manual transmission was connected to a vacuum-operated automatic clutch. The top of the gear shift was designed to easily depress and activate an electric switch, i.e. when engaged by the driver's hand. When pressed, the switch operated a 12-volt solenoid, in turn, operating the vacuum clutch servo, thus disengaging the clutch and allowing shifting between gears. With the driver's hand removed from the gearshift, the clutch would re-engage automatically. The transmission was also equipped with a torque converter, allowing the car to idle in gear, like an automatic. The torque converter was operated by transmission fluid. This would allow the car to stop in any gear and start from a standing stop in any gear.The Autostick debuted on the 1968 Volkswagen Beetle and Karmann Ghia (Type 14) at mid-model year along with a fully-independent rear suspension that debuted in August 1968 for the 1969 model year. VW ended Autostick production with the 1976 model year.
Chrysler AutoStick:
Chrysler developed an automatic transmission with electronic transaxle controls in that had an Autostick mode providing more aggressive shifting between gears when there was increased throttle. "Essentially a driver-interactive automatic transmission that offers gear-shifting capability" the Jazz show car featured the new system.Marketed as the Chrysler AutoStick, the Dodge Intrepid ES and Eagle Vision TSi were the first production automobile models in North America that came equipped with the system, the former as an option, the latter as standard. The system was standard equipment on the 1997 Plymouth Prowler and 1999 Chrysler 300M. It was added to the JA cars on the 1997 Stratus. This system was standard on 1999 to 2003 model year Dodge Grand Caravan ES, but only the front-wheel drive models since the AWD used a different TCM. Many Chrysler models were later fitted with this system, including the 300, 300C, Charger, Challenger, Sebring, PT Cruiser, Crossfire, Pacifica, Chrysler Town & Country, Dodge Avenger, Dodge Stratus R/T, Dodge Journey R/T and SXT and Dodge Grand Caravan.
Chrysler AutoStick:
System advantages Ability to manually select gears Ability to start from 2nd or 3rd in inclement weather to improve traction Allows downshifting while coming down steep inclines to maintain speed Improved performance with quicker, more firm shifts Removes clutching with a pedal, instead it is operated by hand Components and operation Components of the Autostick system in the first Chrysler vehicles to have the design included a different TCM (Transmission Control Module), shift assembly utilizing a unique PRNDL design invented by Peter Gruich in 1994, and gauge cluster. The gauge cluster includes a read-out to let the driver know which gear is selected. Switching between automatic and manual transmission modes is by moving the shift lever to the bottom that then allows upshifts and downshifts by moving the lever left and right.The system works with shifter down into a gated area on the shift assembly that allows the shifter to be pushed to the right (up-shift) or to the left (down-shift). Pushing the shifter sends a signal to the TCM to shift up, or down depending on the driver's actions. Dropping the shifter into the Autostick gate while the vehicle is moving will keep the transmission in the current automatically selected gear.
Chrysler AutoStick:
For the column-shift third- and fourth-generation Dodge Grand Caravan ES, Chrysler Town and Country 1999–2003, four-speed automatic transmission models with FWD (41TE) or AWD (41AE) transmission only. The Autostick feature is activated by moving the "PRNDL" transmission selection on the steering column clockwise past D where L is usually found. When selected the current gear ratio is not changed, the "Autostick" indicator illuminates in the instrument cluster, the numbers 3 2 1 illuminate to the right of D, and a square appears around the gear currently engaged, D 3 2 or 1. The button on the end of the handle is used to engage/disengage overdrive lockout, the same function as selecting L when not equipped with Autostick. When engaged the transmission will not enter 4th gear and downshifts to 3rd if it is in 4th gear. Specific gears are selected by an up/off/down 3 position momentary switch in the middle of the handle on the PRNDL lever, up to upshift and down to downshift. OD lockout and specific gear selection are mutually exclusive. While in OD lockout the transmission behaves as a 3-speed automatic transmission. Autostick gear selection holds a specific gear 1, 2, or 3 until another gear is selected by the up/down switch, the vehicle comes to a complete stop, and Autostick forces a shift to 1st gear, Autostick operation is canceled by selecting 4th gear, aka D, or Autostick is disengaged by moving the PRNDL.
Chrysler AutoStick:
The service manual explains that Autostick signaling is multiplexed on a single wire. The transmission control module outputs a 5v signal to the handle and monitors it for voltage drop The voltage ranges 0.3-1.6,1.6-2.8, 2.8-3.8, and 3.8-4.8 representing down, up, overdrive lockout, and all open respectively. The vehicle drops into 1st after stopping but can be launched in 1st, 2nd, or 3rd gear. The speed (or cruise) control operates only in 3rd and 4th gear while in Autostick mode and is deactivated if shifted to 2nd gear, just as it would if the driver had braked. Shifting into 4th (aka D) cancels Autostick single gear selection mode, and gears are automatically selected as usual until down or OD lockout is pressed.
Chrysler AutoStick:
System failsafes In modern implementations, if the user does not shift while driving in the Autostick mode, the transmission will automatically up-shift at redline (the exception being the Plymouth/Chrysler Prowler which will not shift automatically at redline when in AutoStick mode) to prevent engine/transmission damage, and will not downshift into the redline. When coming to a complete stop, the system will automatically return to the first gear. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Study Archive**
Study Archive:
The Study Archive file format is a data compression and archive format, based directly on the ZIP file format. Study archives are intended for the development and use of sets of interactive flashcards, which may contain not only text but also images and audio files, in various applications.
Study Archive:
The format was created in 2011 by The Mental Faculty, made for use with its Mental Case series of flashcard applications for the Mac OS X and iOS platforms, but intended to be a cross-platform format compatible with other applications, to allow for ease of import/export and portability.Study archives are collections of data (in CSV and/or TSV files), images, and audio files, arranged in an organized hierarchical directory structure and packaged in a compressed ZIP archive for use with flashcard applications. As ZIP archives, the file format extension is simply .zip The standard hierarchal structure for study archives is illustrated in the following example: Archive Ungrouped Data.csv Groups Case Collection 1 Case 1 Data.csv Case 2 Data.tsv Case Collection 2 Case 3 Data.csv Image 1.jpg Audio 1.wav Case 4 Data.tsv The study archive documentation also defines a studyarch URL protocol for study archives on the Internet to be directly opened in a supporting application. The protocol simply replaces http:// with studyarch:// in a standard direct link to a given study archive .zip file. Currently the Mental Case applications support this protocol. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Milk churn**
Milk churn:
A milk churn is a tall, conical or cylindrical container for the transportation of milk. It is sometimes referred to as a milk can.
History:
The usage of the word 'churn' was retained for describing these containers, although they were not themselves used for 'churning' butter. The milk churn was also known as the milk kit in the Yorkshire Dales. The 12-gallon steel churns were later replaced with 10-gallon aluminium alloy churns. Their lids had a small hole in its outer rim for tying the producers label on.
Milk churn stands:
In Britain, Ireland and other European countries, milk churns would be left by dairy farmers by the roadside on purpose-built platforms, or stands, at the right height to be loaded on to the dairy's cart or lorry. They fell out of use when milk began to be collected by tanker from the farm and ceased entirely by 1979. Some stands remain in the countryside as historical features, but most have been dismantled or left to decay. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Verbal noun**
Verbal noun:
A verbal noun or gerundial noun is a verb form that functions as a noun. An example of a verbal noun in English is 'sacking' as in the sentence "The sacking of the city was an epochal event" (sacking is a noun formed from the verb sack).
Verbal nouns are morphologically related to non-finite verb forms, but they are not themselves non-finite verbs. Non-finite verb forms are forms such as gerunds, infinitives and participles in English.
Verbal noun:
Some grammarians use the term "verbal noun" to cover verbal noun, gerund, and nominal infinitive. Some may use the term "gerund" to cover both verbal noun and gerund. "Verbal noun" has often been treated as a synonym for "gerund". This article includes only gerundial nouns within the scope of "verbal nouns", excluding gerunds, nominal infinitives, and nouns formed from verbs through derivational processes.
Verbal noun:
Outside of English, the term "verbal noun" may be used for 1) the citation form of verbs such as the masdar in Arabic and the verbal noun (berfenw) in Welsh or 2) declinable verb forms in Mongolian that can serve as predicates, comparable to participles but with a larger area of syntactic use
Types:
Verbal or gerundial nouns, while being derived from verbs, behave grammatically entirely as nouns. For example, they do not take direct objects as verbs can, they may be preceded by the definite article, and they are modified by adjectives rather than adverbs. They may also be used as count nouns and pluralized. In English, verbal nouns are formed from verbs with the suffix -ing, that is, they take the same form as the gerund. Examples of such uses are given below: The killing of the president was an atrocious crime. (Verbal noun) Killing the president was an atrocious crime. (Gerund) The rapid erasing of the tape saved our bacon. (Verbal noun) Rapidly erasing the tape saved our bacon. (Gerund)Note how the undergoer of killing and erasing is specified in the form of a prepositional phrase in the case of the verbal noun: of the president and of the tape. This is because killing and erasing function as nouns in this sentence and as such cannot take an object directly; instead the words president and tape (respectively) must be made object of the preposition of.
Types:
Verbs also may be nominalized through derivational processes, such as adding different suffixes, as in discovery from the verb discover, or by simple conversion, as with the noun love from the verb love. The formation of such deverbal nouns is not generally a productive process, that is, it cannot be indiscriminately applied to form nouns from any verb (for example, there is no noun *uncovery for the verb uncover). When they exist, such deverbal nouns often tend to replace the regularly formed verbal noun (as discovery is usually used rather than discovering, although the latter is still common as a gerund), or else a differentiation in meaning becomes established.
Types:
Other verb forms serving as nouns within the sentence include gerunds and infinitives. However, these are excluded from the scope of verbal nouns at this article. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Thymosin beta-4**
Thymosin beta-4:
Thymosin beta-4 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the TMSB4X gene. Recommended INN (International Nonproprietary Name) for thymosin beta-4 is 'timbetasin', as published by the World Health Organization (WHO).The protein consists (in humans) of 43 amino acids (sequence: SDKPDMAEI EKFDKSKLKK TETQEKNPLP SKETIEQEKQ AGES) and has a molecular weight of 4921 g/mol.Thymosin-β4 is a major cellular constituent in many tissues. Its intracellular concentration may reach as high as 0.5 mM. Following Thymosin α1, β4 was the second of the biologically active peptides from Thymosin Fraction 5 to be completely sequenced and synthesized.
Function:
This gene encodes an actin sequestering protein which plays a role in regulation of actin polymerization. The protein is also involved in cell proliferation, migration, and differentiation. This gene escapes X inactivation and has a homolog on chromosome Y (TMSB4Y).
Biological activities of thymosin β4 Any concepts of the biological role of thymosin β4 must inevitably be coloured by the demonstration that total ablation of the thymosin β4 gene in the mouse allows apparently normal embryonic development of mice which are fertile as adults.
Function:
Actin binding Thymosin β4 was initially perceived as a thymic hormone. However this changed when it was discovered that it forms a 1:1 complex with G (globular) actin, and is present at high concentration in a wide range of mammalian cell types. When appropriate, G-actin monomers polymerize to form F (filamentous) actin, which, together with other proteins that bind to actin, comprise cellular microfilaments. Formation by G-actin of the complex with β-thymosin (= "sequestration") opposes this.
Function:
Due to its profusion in the cytosol and its ability to bind G-actin but not F-actin, thymosin β4 is regarded as the principal actin-sequestering protein in many cell types. Thymosin β4 functions like a buffer for monomeric actin as represented in the following reaction:F-actin ↔ G-actin + Thymosin β4 ↔ G-actin/Thymosin β4Release of G-actin monomers from thymosin β4 occurs as part of the mechanism that drives actin polymerization in the normal function of the cytoskeleton in cell morphology and cell motility.
Function:
The sequence LKKTET, which starts at residue 17 of the 43-aminoacid sequence of thymosin beta-4, and is strongly conserved between all β-thymosins, together with a similar sequence in WH2 domains, is frequently referred to as "the actin-binding motif" of these proteins, although modelling based on X-ray crystallography has shown that essentially the entire length of the β-thymosin sequence interacts with actin in the actin-thymosin complex.
Function:
"Moonlighting" In addition to its intracellular role as the major actin-sequestering molecule in cells of many multicellular animals, thymosin β4 shows a remarkably diverse range of effects when present in the fluid surrounding animal tissue cells. Taken together, these effects suggest that thymosin has a general role in tissue regeneration. This has suggested a variety of possible therapeutic applications, and several have now been extended to animal models and human clinical trials.
Function:
It is considered unlikely that thymosin β4 exerts all these effects via intracellular sequestration of G-actin. This would require its uptake by cells, and moreover, in most cases the cells affected already have substantial intracellular concentrations.
Function:
The diverse activities related to tissue repair may depend on interactions with receptors quite distinct from actin and possessing extracellular ligand-binding domains. Such multi-tasking by, or "partner promiscuity" of, proteins has been referred to as protein moonlighting. Proteins such as thymosins which lack stable folded structure in aqueous solution, are known as intrinsically unstructured proteins (IUPs). Because IUPs acquire specific folded structures only on binding to their partner proteins, they offer special possibilities for interaction with multiple partners. A candidate extracellular receptor of high affinity for thymosin β4 is the β subunit of cell surface-located ATP synthase, which would allow extracellular thymosin to signal via a purinergic receptor.Some of the multiple activities of thymosin β4 unrelated to actin may be mediated by a tetrapeptide enzymically cleaved from its N-terminus, N-acetyl-ser-asp-lys-pro, brand names Seraspenide or Goralatide, best known as an inhibitor of the proliferation of haematopoietic (blood-cell precursor) stem cells of bone marrow.
Function:
Tissue regeneration Work with cell cultures and experiments with animals have shown that administration of thymosin β4 can promote migration of cells, formation of blood vessels, maturation of stem cells, survival of various cell types and lowering of the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. These multiple properties have provided the impetus for a worldwide series of on-going clinical trials of potential effectiveness of thymosin β4 in promoting repair of wounds in skin, cornea and heart.Such tissue-regenerating properties of thymosin β4 may ultimately contribute to repair of human heart muscle damaged by heart disease and heart attack. In mice, administration of thymosin β4 has been shown to stimulate formation of new heart muscle cells from otherwise inactive precursor cells present in the outer lining of adult hearts, to induce migration of these cells into heart muscle and recruit new blood vessels within the muscle.
Function:
Anti-inflammatory role for sulfoxide In 1999 researchers in Glasgow University found that an oxidised derivative of thymosin β4 (the sulfoxide, in which an oxygen atom is added to the methionine near the N-terminus) exerted several potentially anti-inflammatory effects on neutrophil leucocytes. It promoted their dispersion from a focus, inhibited their response to a small peptide (F-Met-Leu-Phe) which attracts them to sites of bacterial infection and lowered their adhesion to endothelial cells. (Adhesion to endothelial cells of blood vessel walls is pre-requisite for these cells to leave the bloodstream and invade infected tissue). A possible anti-inflammatory role for the β4 sulfoxide was supported by the group's finding that it counteracted artificially-induced inflammation in mice.
Function:
The group had first identified the thymosin sulfoxide as an active factor in culture fluid of cells responding to treatment with a steroid hormone, suggesting that its formation might form part of the mechanism by which steroids exert anti-inflammatory effects. Extracellular thymosin β4 would be readily oxidised to the sulfoxide in vivo at sites of inflammation, by the respiratory burst.
Function:
Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase Thymosin β4 induces the activity of the enzyme terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase in populations of thymocytes (thymus-derived lymphocytes). This suggests that the peptide may contribute to the maturation of these cells.
Clinical significance:
Tβ4 has been studied in a number of clinical trials.In phase 2 trials with patients having pressure ulcers, venous pressure ulcers, and epidermolysis bullosa, Tβ4 accelerated the rate of repair. It was also found to be safe and well tolerated.In human clinical trials, Tβ4 improves the conditions of dry eye and neurotrophic keratopathy with effects lasting long after the end of treatment.
Doping in sports:
Thymosin beta-4 is considered a performance enhancing substance and is banned in sports by the World Anti-Doping Agency due to its effect of aiding soft tissue recovery and enabling higher training loads. It was central to two controversies in Australia in the 2010s which saw a large proportion of the playing lists from two professional football clubs – the Cronulla-Sutherland Sharks of the National Rugby League and the Essendon Football Club of the Australian Football League – found guilty of doping and suspended from playing; in both cases, the players were administered thymosin beta-4 in a program organised by sports scientist Stephen Dank.
Interactions:
TMSB4X has been shown to interact with ACTA1 and ACTG1. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Color magazine (lighting)**
Color magazine (lighting):
A color magazine is a fixture attached to a follow spot that places different color filters in the path of the beam. Instead of working with comparatively cumbersome gel frames, the color magazine allows the spot operator to easily slide color frames in or out of place using a series of levers.
The term boomerang is also used to describe a color magazine.Color magazines are now becoming rarer with the widespread availability of programmable-colour LED lighting. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**MTA SZTAKI Laboratory of Parallel and Distributed Systems**
MTA SZTAKI Laboratory of Parallel and Distributed Systems:
The Laboratory of Parallel and Distributed Systems (LPDS), as a department of MTA SZTAKI, is a research laboratory in distributed grid and cloud technologies. LPDS is a founding member of the Hungarian Grid Competence Centre, the Hungarian National Grid Initiative, and the Hungarian OpenNebula Community, and also coordinates several European grid/cloud projects.
MTA SZTAKI Laboratory of Parallel and Distributed Systems:
LPDS laboratory, in cooperation with other departments of MTA SZTAKI, was involved in the development of the SZTAKI Cloud and takes part in many cloud-based projects. The LPDS cloud research is focusing on the field of Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)-based cloud systems to make the previously evolved products and services of LPDS available for cloud-based execution in a scalable and transparent way.
Main research areas:
Cloud systems Scientific gateways for grid and cloud systems Workflow-based IT Grid computing, especially Desktop Grids Interoperability between cloud and grid systems Resource brokering in cloud systems
Products:
gUSE (grid and cloud user support environment) is an open source science gateway framework that enables users access to grid and cloud infrastructures. It has been developed to support a large variety of user communities. It provides a general-purpose, workflow-oriented graphical user interface to create and run workflows on various Distributed Computing Infrastructures including clusters, grids, desktop grids, and clouds. The gUSE framework can be used by National Grid Initiatives (NGIs) to support small user communities that cannot afford to develop their own customized science gateway.
Products:
P-GRADE Portal is a Liferay technology-based web portal of gUSE. It can be accessed via major modern web browsers like Chrome, Firefox, etc. It supports the development and submission of distributed applications executed on the computational resources of various distributed computing infrastructures (DCIs) including clusters, service grids, desktop grids, and clouds.
Research:
LPDS has participated in national and international grid and cloud research projects since 2000, with notable results in the area of grid/cloud resources and in the development of high-level user interfaces. In this field, an important result is the WS-PGRADE/gUSE (used in several European grid), made for accessing grid and cloud systems through a portal in a convenient and user-friendly way.
Research:
Additionally, LPDS participates in Big data management and storage within the field of agricultural research.
Training:
LPDS has played an active role in providing grid and cloud training in Europe and worldwide. Through national and international training, the Laboratory provides knowledge transfer and targets new users from the industry as well as from science. LPDS organized and hosted summer schools and training on the grid- and cloud-related topics since 2005.
Personnel:
The Head of the LPDS is Prof. Dr. Péter Kacsuk.
The Deputy Head of the LPDS is Dr. Robert Lovas.
1 DSc, 10 PhDs, and over 20 full or part-time members work in the laboratory. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Massive online open research**
Massive online open research:
Massive online open research (MOOR) is an online research and development (R&D) open access platform or higher education study program aiming at unlimited participation via the internet.
It may be used to create, on a very large participative scale, a new discovery, development or creation which will be allegedly accompanied by a peer-review publication.
As a higher education online research program:
In September 2013, The University of California in San Diego bioinformatics department, proposed a massive online open course which would feature "an opportunity (for students) to work on specific research projects under the leadership of prominent bioinformatics scientists".
As an online internet platform:
Several internet platforms have shown their interest in bridging prominent science, technology, engineering and mathematics (i.e., STEM fields) researchers with students, as means to accelerate STEM discoveries and education. The internet social network Research Gate has unveiled that multiple discoveries and advancements in science have been made collaboratively in an open access scheme since its creation, essentially serving as a MOOR platform.
As an online internet platform:
The University of Amsterdam has been developing an online tool for massive online open research since February 2014. This tool will primarily focus on collaborative (qualitative) data analysis. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Reflective parenting**
Reflective parenting:
Reflective Parenting is a theory of parenting developed from the work of psychoanalyst Peter Fonagy and his colleagues at the Tavistock Clinic in London. Fonagy introduced the concept of “reflective functioning”, which is defined as the ability to imagine mental states in self and others. Through this capacity for reflection, we develop the ability to understand our own behavioral responses and the responses of others as a meaningful attempt to communicate those inner mental states. As Fonagy describes it, “reflective function is the… uniquely human capacity to make sense of each other”.Numerous researchers have studied how reflective functioning works in the parent-child relationship. They have learned that a mother with high reflective functioning has the ability to see her child as a separate, autonomous individual with “a mind of his own.” As a result, she attributes thoughts, feelings, intentionality and desires to her child, and can recognize her own thoughts, feelings, intentions and desires. This research has demonstrated that when a parent has this capacity, it 1) strengthens the parent-child relationship 2) teaches the child how to understand and regulate his behavior, and 3) supports cognitive development.Arietta Slade and her colleagues at Yale Child Study Center, John Grienenberger and his team at the Wright Institute in Los Angeles, Daniel Schechter and his colleagues at Columbia University and Alicia Lieberman and Patricia Van Horn at UC San Francisco are some of the first researchers and clinicians in the United States to use this research to develop reflective parenting programs and interventions. These programs share a common focus; to develop and enhance parents’ capacity for reflective thinking. They teach parents to understand and respond to a child’s motivations instead of her actions, in the belief that reflection is more productive for healthy family relationships than addressing specific actions. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Johnson-Grace**
Johnson-Grace:
Johnson-Grace is a data compression company based in the United States.
Johnson-Grace:
The company was founded by Steve Johnson and Chris Grace in Newport Beach, California in 1992 to develop a generic spreadsheet technology for simulation modeling. The founders later talked to Irving Reed at the University of Southern California, who had an idea for an improved image compression algorithm, and started implementing such an algorithm; this became the ART image file format.The company was acquired by AOL on February 1, 1996, for approximately 1.6 million shares of stock. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Pspell**
Pspell:
The purpose of Pspell (Portable Spell Checker Interface Library) was to provide a generic interface to the system spelling checking libraries. It was, and sometimes still is, used in computer programming such as C, and is licensed under the GNU Lesser General Public License.
Pspell has not been updated since 2001, but is still available on SourceForge at its project page. It has been replaced by GNU Aspell. PHP’s Pspell extension, while retaining its current name, now uses the Aspell library. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Astronomical nutation**
Astronomical nutation:
Astronomical nutation is a phenomenon which causes the orientation of the axis of rotation of a spinning astronomical object to vary over time. It is caused by the gravitational forces of other nearby bodies acting upon the spinning object. Although they are caused by the same effect operating over different timescales, astronomers usually make a distinction between precession, which is a steady long-term change in the axis of rotation, and nutation, which is the combined effect of similar shorter-term variations.An example of precession and nutation is the variation over time of the orientation of the axis of rotation of the Earth. This is important because the most commonly used frame of reference for measurement of the positions of astronomical objects is the Earth's equator — the so-called equatorial coordinate system. The effect of precession and nutation causes this frame of reference itself to change over time, relative to an arbitrary fixed frame.
Astronomical nutation:
Nutation is one of the corrections which must be applied to obtain the apparent place of an astronomical object. When calculating the position of an object, it is initially expressed relative to the mean equinox and equator — defined by the orientation of the Earth's axis at a specified date, taking into account the long-term effect of precession, but not the shorter-term effects of nutation. It is then necessary to apply a further correction to take into account the effect of nutation, after which the position relative to the true equinox and equator is obtained.
Astronomical nutation:
Because the dynamic motions of the planets are so well known, their nutations can be calculated to within arcseconds over periods of many decades. There is another disturbance of the Earth's rotation called polar motion that can be estimated for only a few months into the future because it is influenced by rapidly and unpredictably varying things such as ocean currents, wind systems, and hypothesised motions in the liquid nickel-iron outer core of the Earth.
Earth's nutation:
Precession and nutation are caused principally by the gravitational forces of the Moon and Sun acting upon the non-spherical figure of the Earth. Precession is the effect of these forces averaged over a very long period of time, and a time-varying moment of inertia (If an object is asymmetric about its principal axis of rotation, the moment of inertia with respect to each coordinate direction will change with time, while preserving angular momentum), and has a timescale of about 26,000 years. Nutation occurs because the forces are not constant, and vary as the Earth revolves around the Sun, and the Moon revolves around the Earth. Basically, there are also torques from other planets that cause planetary precession which contributes to about 2% of the total precession. Because periodic variations in the torques from the sun and the moon, the wobbling (nutation) comes into place. You can think of precession as the average and nutation as the instantaneous.
Earth's nutation:
The largest contributor to nutation is the inclination of the orbit of the Moon around the Earth, at slightly over 5° to the plane of the ecliptic. The orientation of this orbital plane varies over a period of about 18.6 years. Because the Earth's equator is itself inclined at an angle of about 23.4° to the ecliptic (the obliquity of the ecliptic, ϵ ), these effects combine to vary the inclination of the Moon's orbit to the equator by between 18.4° and 28.6° over the 18.6 year period. This causes the orientation of the Earth's axis to vary over the same period, with the true position of the celestial poles describing a small ellipse around their mean position. The maximum radius of this ellipse is the constant of nutation, approximately 9.2 arcseconds.
Earth's nutation:
Smaller effects also contribute to nutation. These are caused by the monthly motion of the Moon around the Earth and its orbital eccentricity, and similar terms caused by the annual motion of the Earth around the Sun.
Earth's nutation:
Effect on position of astronomical objects Because nutation causes a change to the frame of reference, rather than a change in position of an observed object itself, it applies equally to all objects. Its magnitude at any point in time is usually expressed in terms of ecliptic coordinates, as nutation in longitude ( Δψ ) in seconds of arc and nutation in obliquity ( Δϵ ) in seconds of arc. The largest term in nutation is expressed numerically (in arcseconds) as follows: 17.2 sin 9.2 cos Ω where Ω is the ecliptic longitude of the ascending node of the Moon's orbit. By way of reference, the sum of the absolute value of all the remaining terms is 1.4 arcseconds for longitude and 0.9 arcseconds for obliquity.Spherical trigonometry can then be used on any given object to convert these quantities into an adjustment in the object's right ascension ( α ) and declination ( δ ) For objects that are not close to a celestial pole, nutation in right ascension ( Δα ) and declination ( Δδ ) can be calculated approximately as follows: cos sin sin tan cos tan cos sin sin αΔϵ
History:
Nutation was discovered by James Bradley from a series of observations of stars conducted between 1727 and 1747. These observations were originally intended to demonstrate conclusively the existence of the annual aberration of light, a phenomenon that Bradley had unexpectedly discovered in 1725-6. However, there were some residual discrepancies in the stars' positions that were not explained by aberration, and Bradley suspected that they were caused by nutation taking place over the 18.6 year period of the revolution of the nodes of the Moon's orbit. This was confirmed by his 20-year series of observations, in which he discovered that the celestial pole moved in a slightly flattened ellipse of 18 by 16 arcseconds about its mean position.Although Bradley's observations proved the existence of nutation and he intuitively understood that it was caused by the action of the Moon on the rotating Earth, it was left to later mathematicians, d'Alembert and Euler, to develop a more detailed theoretical explanation of the phenomenon. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Inverse function rule**
Inverse function rule:
In calculus, the inverse function rule is a formula that expresses the derivative of the inverse of a bijective and differentiable function f in terms of the derivative of f. More precisely, if the inverse of f is denoted as f−1 , where f−1(y)=x if and only if f(x)=y , then the inverse function rule is, in Lagrange's notation, [f−1]′(a)=1f′(f−1(a)) .This formula holds in general whenever f is continuous and injective on an interval I, with f being differentiable at f−1(a) (∈I ) and where f′(f−1(a))≠0 . The same formula is also equivalent to the expression D[f−1]=1(Df)∘(f−1), where D denotes the unary derivative operator (on the space of functions) and ∘ denotes function composition.
Inverse function rule:
Geometrically, a function and inverse function have graphs that are reflections, in the line y=x . This reflection operation turns the gradient of any line into its reciprocal.Assuming that f has an inverse in a neighbourhood of x and that its derivative at that point is non-zero, its inverse is guaranteed to be differentiable at x and have a derivative given by the above formula.
Inverse function rule:
The inverse function rule may also be expressed in Leibniz's notation. As that notation suggests, 1.
This relation is obtained by differentiating the equation f−1(y)=x in terms of x and applying the chain rule, yielding that: dxdy⋅dydx=dxdx considering that the derivative of x with respect to x is 1.
Derivation:
Let f be an invertible (bijective) function, let x be in the domain of f , and let y be in the codomain of f . Since f is a bijective function, y is in the range of f . This also means that y is in the domain of f−1 , and that x is in the codomain of f−1 . Since f is an invertible function, we know that f(f−1(y))=y . The inverse function rule can be obtained by taking the derivative of this equation.
Derivation:
ddyf(f−1(y))=ddyy The right side is equal to 1 and the chain rule can be applied to the left side: d(f(f−1(y)))d(f−1(y))d(f−1(y))dy=1df(f−1(y))df−1(y)df−1(y)dy=1f′(f−1(y))(f−1)′(y)=1 Rearranging then gives (f−1)′(y)=1f′(f−1(y)) Rather than using y as the variable, we can rewrite this equation using a as the input for f−1 , and we get the following: (f−1)′(a)=1f′(f−1(a))
Examples:
y=x2 (for positive x) has inverse x=y .dydx=2x;dxdy=12y=12x 1.
At x=0 , however, there is a problem: the graph of the square root function becomes vertical, corresponding to a horizontal tangent for the square function.
y=ex (for real x) has inverse ln y (for positive y )dydx=ex;dxdy=1y=e−x 1.
Additional properties:
This is only useful if the integral exists. In particular we need f′(x) to be non-zero across the range of integration.It follows that a function that has a continuous derivative has an inverse in a neighbourhood of every point where the derivative is non-zero. This need not be true if the derivative is not continuous.Another very interesting and useful property is the following: ∫f−1(x)dx=xf−1(x)−F(f−1(x))+C Where F denotes the antiderivative of f .The inverse of the derivative of f(x) is also of interest, as it is used in showing the convexity of the Legendre transform.Let z=f′(x) then we have, assuming f″(x)≠0 :This can be shown using the previous notation y=f(x) . Then we have: Therefore: d(f′)−1(z)dz=dxdz=dydzdxdy=f′(x)f″(x)1f′(x)=1f″(x) By induction, we can generalize this result for any integer n≥1 , with z=f(n)(x) , the nth derivative of f(x), and y=f(n−1)(x) , assuming for 0<i≤n+1 :d(f(n))−1(z)dz=1f(n+1)(x)
Higher derivatives:
The chain rule given above is obtained by differentiating the identity f−1(f(x))=x with respect to x. One can continue the same process for higher derivatives. Differentiating the identity twice with respect to x, one obtains d2ydx2⋅dxdy+ddx(dxdy)⋅(dydx)=0, that is simplified further by the chain rule as 0.
Replacing the first derivative, using the identity obtained earlier, we get d2ydx2=−d2xdy2⋅(dydx)3.
Similarly for the third derivative: d3ydx3=−d3xdy3⋅(dydx)4−3d2xdy2⋅d2ydx2⋅(dydx)2 or using the formula for the second derivative, d3ydx3=−d3xdy3⋅(dydx)4+3(d2xdy2)2⋅(dydx)5 These formulas are generalized by the Faà di Bruno's formula.
These formulas can also be written using Lagrange's notation. If f and g are inverses, then g″(x)=−f″(g(x))[f′(g(x))]3
Example:
y=ex has the inverse ln y . Using the formula for the second derivative of the inverse function, dydx=d2ydx2=ex=y;(dydx)3=y3; so that d2xdy2⋅y3+y=0;d2xdy2=−1y2 ,which agrees with the direct calculation. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**ISO 1**
ISO 1:
ISO 1 is an international standard set by the International Organization for Standardization that specifies the standard reference temperature for geometrical product specification and verification. The temperature is fixed at 20 °C, which is equal to 293.15 kelvin and 68 degrees Fahrenheit.Due to thermal expansion, precision length measurements need to be made at (or converted to) a defined temperature. ISO 1 helps in comparing measurements by defining such a reference temperature. The reference temperature of 20 °C was adopted by the CIPM on 15 April 1931, and became ISO recommendation number 1 in 1951. It soon replaced worldwide other reference temperatures for length measurements that manufacturers of precision equipment had used before, including 0 °C, 62 °F, and 25 °C. Among the reasons for choosing 20 °C was that this was a comfortable and practical workshop temperature and that it resulted in an integer value on both the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales.
ISO 1:
It was the first ISO standard, issued originally as ISO/R 1, a ISO Recommendation. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**M-Coumaric acid**
M-Coumaric acid:
m-Coumaric acid is a hydroxycinnamic acid, an organic compound that is a hydroxy derivative of cinnamic acid. There are three isomers of coumaric acid – o-coumaric acid, m-coumaric acid, and p-coumaric acid – that differ by the position of the hydroxy substitution of the phenyl group.
m-Coumaric acid can be found in vinegar. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Comparison of bq smartphones**
Comparison of bq smartphones:
The following is a comparative list of smartphones belonging to the bq line of devices, using the Android/Ubuntu operating system. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Chord rewrite rules**
Chord rewrite rules:
In music, a rewrite rule is a recursive generative grammar, which creates a chord progression from another.
Steedman (1984) has proposed a set of recursive "rewrite rules" which generate all well-formed transformations of jazz, basic I–IV–I–V–I twelve-bar blues chord sequences, and, slightly modified, non-twelve-bar blues I–IV–V sequences ("rhythm changes").
Chord rewrite rules:
The typical 12-bar blues progression can be notated 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 I / I / I / I // IV /IV / I / I // V / IV / I / I where the top line numbers each bar, one slash indicates a bar line, two indicate both a bar line and a phrase ending and a Roman numeral indicates the chord function. Important transformations include replacement or substitution of a chord by its dominant or subdominant: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 I / IV / I / I7 // IV / VII7 / III7 / VI7 // II7 / V7 / I / I // use of chromatic passing chords: ...7 8 9 ...
Chord rewrite rules:
and chord alterations such as minor chords, diminished sevenths, etc.Sequences by fourth, rather than fifth, include Jimi Hendrix's version of "Hey Joe" and Deep Purple's "Hush": 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 ♭VI, ♭III / ♭VII, IV / I / I // ♭VI, ♭III / ♭VII, IV / I / I // ♭VI, ♭III / ♭VII, IV / I / I // These often result in Aeolian harmony and lack perfect cadences (V–I). Middleton (1990) suggests that both modal and fourth-oriented structures, rather than being, "distortions or surface transformations of Schenker's favoured V-I kernel, are more likely branches of a deeper principle, that of tonic/not-tonic differentiation." For the ♭ notation, see Borrowed chord. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Beta-lysine 5,6-aminomutase**
Beta-lysine 5,6-aminomutase:
In enzymology, a beta-lysine 5,6-aminomutase (EC 5.4.3.3) is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction (3S)-3,6-diaminohexanoate ⇌ (3S,5S)-3,5-diaminohexanoateHence, this enzyme has one substrate, (3S)-3,6-diaminohexanoate, and one product, (3S,5S)-3,5-diaminohexanoate.
This enzyme belongs to the family of isomerases, specifically those intramolecular transferases transferring amino groups. The systematic name of this enzyme class is (3S)-3,6-diaminohexanoate 5,6-aminomutase. Other names in common use include beta-lysine mutase, and L-beta-lysine 5,6-aminomutase. This enzyme participates in lysine degradation. It employs one cofactor, cobamide.
Structural studies:
As of late 2007, only one structure has been solved for this class of enzymes, with the PDB accession code 1XRS. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Unorthodox Engineers**
Unorthodox Engineers:
The Unorthodox Engineers were the subject of a series of science fiction short stories by Colin Kapp. They were a misfit bunch of engineers who solved problems of alien technology/weird planets in the future. The stories had a great deal of grain-of-salt-type humor.
They were commanded by maverick engineer Fritz van Noon and included, amongst others, a convicted bank robber as quartermaster (on the entirely-sound grounds that he was likely to be the most capable person for the job).
Unorthodox Engineers:
The Unorthodox Engineers originally appeared in various British SF magazines and anthologies: "The Railways Up on Cannis" (New Worlds October, 1959) "The Subways of Tazoo" (New Writings in SF 3) "The Pen and the Dark" (New Writings in SF 8) "Getaway from Getawehi" (New Writings in SF 16) "The Black Hole of Negrav" (New Writings in SF 25).Dobson Books published a collection of the stories as The Unorthodox Engineers ISBN 0-234-72072-7 in November 1979. A 2013 Kindle reprint is available from Gateway, ISBN 0234720727.
Unorthodox Engineers:
The short story "The Pen and the Dark" was adapted into a text-based computer adventure game by Keith Campbell, with text by Colin Kapp. It was published in 1984 by Mosaic Publishing with the packaging for the game including a book copy of the original story. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**WYSIWYM (interaction technique)**
WYSIWYM (interaction technique):
What you see is what you meant (WYSIWYM) is a text editing interaction technique that emerged from two projects at University of Brighton. It allows users to create abstract knowledge representations such as those required by the Semantic Web using a natural language interface. Natural language understanding (NLU) technology is not employed. Instead, natural language generation (NLG) is used in a highly interactive manner.
WYSIWYM (interaction technique):
The text editor accepts repeated refinement of a selected span of text as it becomes progressively less vacuous of authored semantics. Using a mouse, a text property held in the evolving text can be further refined by a set of options derived by NLG from a built-in ontology. An invisible representation of the semantic knowledge is created which can be used for multilingual document generation, formal knowledge formation, or any other task that requires formally specified information.The two projects at Brighton worked in the field of Conceptual Authoring to lay a foundation for further research and development of a Semantic Web Authoring Tool (SWAT). This tool has been further explored as a means for developing a knowledge base by those without prior experience with Controlled Natural Language tools. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Circulator**
Circulator:
In electrical engineering, a circulator is a passive, non-reciprocal three- or four-port device that only allows a microwave or radio-frequency signal to exit through the port directly after the one it entered. Optical circulators have similar behavior. Ports are where an external waveguide or transmission line, such as a microstrip line or a coaxial cable, connects to the device. For a three-port circulator, a signal applied to port 1 only comes out of port 2; a signal applied to port 2 only comes out of port 3; a signal applied to port 3 only comes out of port 1, and so on. An ideal three-port circulator has the following scattering matrix: S=(001100010)
Types:
Depending on the materials involved, circulators fall into two main categories: ferrite circulators and non-ferrite circulators.
Types:
Ferrite Ferrite circulators are radio-frequency circulators which employ magnetized microwave ferrite materials. They fall into two main classes: differential phase shift circulators and junction circulators, both of which are based on cancellation of waves propagating over two different paths in or near magnetized ferrite material. Waveguide circulators may be of either type, while more compact devices based on stripline are usually of the junction type. Two or more junction circulators can be combined in a single component to give four or more ports. Typically permanent magnets produce a static magnetic bias in the microwave ferrite material. Ferrimagnetic garnet crystal is used in optical circulators.
Types:
Junction type stripline circulators utilize two ferrite disks above and below the stripline. These ferrites are circularly magnetized in opposite directions. They form two separate resonators with the stripline disk between them. The static magnetic bias alters the effective permeabilities in the top and bottom ferrites. The ferrite whose circular magnetization is in the same direction as the resultant electron spin precession, will see a permeability increase. The ferrite that is magnetized opposite the electron spin precession will see a permeability decrease. These changing permeabilities result in resonant frequency shifts of the two resonators previously mentioned. The operating frequency is set between the two resonances such that the impedance angle of both resonators is set to 30 degrees (for a three port implementation). The ferrite with the higher permeability will have a higher resonance frequency and an inductive reactance component. The lower permeability ferrite has a lower resonance and capacitive reactance component. These circulator types operate based on faraday rotation. Wave cancellation occurs when waves propagate with and against the circulation direction. An incident wave arriving at any port is split equally into two waves. They propagate in each direction around the circulator with different phase velocities. When they arrive at the output port they have different phase relationships and thus combine accordingly. This combination of waves propagating at different phase velocities is how junction circulators fundamentally operate. Though ferrite circulators can provide good "forward" signal circulation while suppressing greatly the "reverse" circulation, their major shortcomings, especially at low frequencies, are the bulky sizes and the narrow bandwidths.
Types:
Non-ferrite Early work on non-ferrite circulators includes active circulators using transistors that are non-reciprocal in nature. In contrast to ferrite circulators which are passive devices, active circulators require power. Major issues associated with transistor-based active circulators are the power limitation and the signal-to-noise degradation, which are critical when it is used as a duplexer for sustaining the strong transmit power and clean reception of the signal from the antenna.
Types:
Varactors offer one solution. One study employed a structure similar to a time-varying transmission line with the effective nonreciprocity triggered by a one-direction propagating carrier pump. This is like an AC-powered active circulator. The research claimed to be able to achieve positive gain and low noise for receiving path and broadband nonreciprocity. Another study used resonance with nonreciprocity triggered by angular-momentum biasing, which more closely mimics the way that signals passively circulate in a ferrite circulator.In 1964, Mohr presented and experimentally demonstrated a circulator based on transmission lines and switches. In April, 2016 a research team significantly extended this concept, presenting an integrated circuit circulator based on N-path filter concepts. It offers the potential for full-duplex communication (transmitting and receiving at the same time with a single shared antenna over a single frequency). The device uses capacitors and a clock and is much smaller than conventional devices.
Applications:
Isolator When one port of a three-port circulator is terminated in a matched load, it can be used as an isolator, since a signal can travel in only one direction between the remaining ports. An isolator is used to shield equipment on its input side from the effects of conditions on its output side; for example, to prevent a microwave source being detuned by a mismatched load.
Applications:
Duplexer In radar, circulators are used as a type of duplexer, to route signals from the transmitter to the antenna and from the antenna to the receiver, without allowing signals to pass directly from transmitter to receiver. The alternative type of duplexer is a transmit-receive switch (TR switch) that alternates between connecting the antenna to the transmitter and to the receiver. The use of chirped pulses and a high dynamic range may lead to temporal overlap of the sent and received pulses, however, requiring a circulator for this function.
Applications:
Reflection amplifier A reflection amplifier is a type of microwave amplifier circuit utilizing negative differential resistance diodes such as tunnel diodes and Gunn diodes. Negative differential resistance diodes can amplify signals, and often perform better at microwave frequencies than two-port devices. However, since the diode is a one-port (two terminal) device, a nonreciprocal component is needed to separate the outgoing amplified signal from the incoming input signal. By using a 3-port circulator with the signal input connected to one port, the biased diode connected to a second, and the output load connected to the third, the output and input can be uncoupled.
Other types:
Optical In 1965, Ribbens reported an early form of optical circulator that utilized a Nicol prism with a Faraday rotator. With the advent of fiber and guided-wave optics, waveguide-integrable and polarization-independent optical circulators were later introduced. The concept was later extended to silicon photonic waveguide systems. In 2016, Scheucher et al. have demonstrated a fiber-integrated optical circulator whose nonreciprocal behavior originated from the chiral interaction between a single 85Rb atom and the confined light in a whispering-gallery mode microresonator. The routing direction of the device is controlled by the internal quantum state of the atom and the device is able to route individual photons.In 2013, Davoyan and Engheta proposed a nanoscale plasmonic Y-circulator based on three dielectric waveguides interconnected with a magneto-optical junction with plasmonic nanorods.
Other types:
Acoustic In 2014, Fleury et al. reported and experimentally demonstrated an acoustic Y-circulator by exploiting the acoustic analogue of the Zeeman effect: the structure is composed of a ring cavity with a circulating fluid that facilitates the nonreciprocal transmission of sound waves between acoustic waveguides. Similar circulator designs based on temporal modulation of the effective acoustic index and natural convection were later reported. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Penny board**
Penny board:
A Penny board is a type of skateboard that is characterized by a short and narrow plastic deck. Although such skateboards were first manufactured during the 1970s, their name and contemporary popularity comes from the Australian brand Penny Skateboards, founded in 2010. The company's name has since been widely genericized to describe all small plastic skateboards.
History:
The first line of plastic skateboards was launched in the 1970s by Larry Stevenson for his Makaha brand. Greentech also began to manufacture plastic skateboards. These plastic skateboards were widely popular during the early 1970s, although the era's professional skaters still shunned them in favor of wooden boards. By 1978, laminated wooden decks had become the industry standard.Ben Mackay created the Penny board in 2010, from which the brand Penny Skateboards was born. McKay named the brand for his sister, Penny. The idea behind the creation of the company was inspired by Mackay's first-ever skateboard, a small plastic cruiser his father bought for him at a garage sale.
History:
Ben Mackay first started manufacturing and designing his own skateboards to sell to local skate shops. Mackay began experimenting with different shapes and types of boards. He used a variety of materials, such as fiberglass and carbon inserts, as an alternative to timber.
By 2015, the Absolute Board Company was providing 36% of the market of boards under 34 inches.
Characteristics:
Penny boards are distinguished by a plastic deck. Different parts of the Penny board structure are available in a variety of colors and designs. They are sold in five different deck sizes, the 22 in (55.9 cm), 27 in (68.6 cm) (the Nickel), 29 in (73.7 cm) "Surf skate", 32 in (81.3 cm) cruiser and 36 in (91.4 cm) longboard. Customers can also buy each component of the board individually.
Characteristics:
Deck: Penny skateboard decks are made of plastic (polycarbonate) and feature a non-slip "waffle top" texture.
Grip tape: Grip tape is offered for 22" and 27" models.
Trucks: Penny trucks are made from cast aluminum.
Characteristics:
Wheels: Penny board wheels are made from Polyurethane, with a plastic core. The wheels on 22-inch (55.9 cm) and 27-inch (68.6 cm) Penny boards have a diameter of 59 mm (2.323 inches), while Penny longboard wheels have a larger diameter of 69 mm (2.717 inches). All Penny wheels are rated at 83A.The nickel skateboard is five inches larger than the Penny board and is suited for beginners because of its larger deck, but still remains lightweight due to its plastic design. Both the Penny board and the Nickel board are lighter than a regular wooden skateboard.
Reviews:
The Skater Oscar Candon complained that "you can’t even ollie up a curb" with a Penny board. According to the skateboarding historian Craig Snyder, plastic is not a popular board component among the skateboarding community. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Radiodensity**
Radiodensity:
Radiodensity (or radiopacity) is opacity to the radio wave and X-ray portion of the electromagnetic spectrum: that is, the relative inability of those kinds of electromagnetic radiation to pass through a particular material. Radiolucency or hypodensity indicates greater passage (greater transradiancy) to X-ray photons and is the analogue of transparency and translucency with visible light. Materials that inhibit the passage of electromagnetic radiation are called radiodense or radiopaque, while those that allow radiation to pass more freely are referred to as radiolucent. Radiopaque volumes of material have white appearance on radiographs, compared with the relatively darker appearance of radiolucent volumes. For example, on typical radiographs, bones look white or light gray (radiopaque), whereas muscle and skin look black or dark gray, being mostly invisible (radiolucent).
Radiodensity:
Though the term radiodensity is more commonly used in the context of qualitative comparison, radiodensity can also be quantified according to the Hounsfield scale, a principle which is central to X-ray computed tomography (CT scan) applications. On the Hounsfield scale, distilled water has a value of 0 Hounsfield units (HU), while air is specified as -1000 HU.
Radiodensity:
In modern medicine, radiodense substances are those that will not allow X-rays or similar radiation to pass. Radiographic imaging has been revolutionized by radiodense contrast media, which can be passed through the bloodstream, the gastrointestinal tract, or into the cerebral spinal fluid and utilized to highlight CT scan or X-ray images. Radiopacity is one of the key considerations in the design of various devices such as guidewires or stents that are used during radiological intervention. The radiopacity of a given endovascular device is important since it allows the device to be tracked during the interventional procedure.
Radiodensity:
The two main factors contributing to a material's radiopacity are density and atomic number. Two common radiodense elements used in medical imagery are barium and iodine.
Radiodensity:
Medical devices often contain a radiopacifier to enhance visualization during implantation for temporary implantation devices, such as catheters or guidewires, or for monitoring the position of permanently implanted medical devices, such as stents, hip and knee implants, and screws. Metal implants usually have sufficient radiocontrast that additional radiopacifier is not necessary. Polymer-based devices, however, usually incorporate materials with high electron density contrast compared to the surrounding tissue. Examples of radiocontrast materials include titanium, tungsten, barium sulfate, bismuth oxide and zirconium oxide. Some solutions involve direct binding of heavy elements, for instance iodine, to polymeric chains in order to obtain a more homogeneous material which has lower interface criticalities. When testing a new medical device for regulatory submission, device manufacturers will usually evaluate the radiocontrast according to ASTM F640 "Standard Test Methods for Determining Radiopacity for Medical Use." | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Somaek**
Somaek:
Somaek (소맥) is a beer cocktail made with soju and beer. The beer used is typically a lager-style.
Etymology:
It is a syllabic abbreviation of two Korean words, soju (소주) and maekju (맥주, "beer").
Preparation:
The ratio varies liberally. There is no consensus, but it is widely suggested that the ideal ratio is three parts soju to seven parts beer. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Hypogammaglobulinemia**
Hypogammaglobulinemia:
Hypogammaglobulinemia is a problem with the immune system in which not enough gamma globulins are produced in the blood (thus hypo- + gamma + globulin + -emia). This results in a lower antibody count, which impairs the immune system, increasing risk of infection. Hypogammaglobulinemia may result from a variety of primary genetic immune system defects, such as common variable immunodeficiency, or it may be caused by secondary effects such as medication, blood cancer, or poor nutrition, or loss of gamma globulins in urine, as in nonselective glomerular proteinuria. Patients with hypogammaglobulinemia have reduced immune function; important considerations include avoiding use of live vaccines, and take precautionary measures when traveling to regions with endemic disease or poor sanitation such as receiving immunizations, taking antibiotics abroad, drinking only safe or boiled water, arranging appropriate medical cover in advance of travel, and ensuring continuation of any immunoglobulin infusions needed.
Types:
The following lists types of "agammaglobulinemia" catalogued in the OMIM. Hypogammaglobulinemia can have other types; see sections "Causes" and "Etymology" below.
Symptoms and signs:
The presenting feature of hypogammaglobulinemia is usually a clinical history of recurrent, chronic, or atypical infections. These infections include but are not limited to: bronchitis, ear infections, meningitis, pneumonia, sinus infections, and skin infections. Such infections can potentially damage organs, leading to severe complications. Other symptoms of hypogammaglobulinemia include chronic diarrhea and complications from receiving live vaccines. Certain symptoms of chronic damage may be related to recurrent infection. For example, shortness of breath, chronic cough, and sputum production may indicate the presence of bronchiectasis. Sinus pain, nasal discharge, and postnasal drip may indicate the presence of chronic sinusitis. Diarrhea and steatorrhea may indicate malabsorption. Another sign or symptom that may occur in patients is blotchiness of the skin color, especially noticed above the waist, on the arms, neck, and upper chest areas, however, it may occur anywhere on the skin.Babies with transient hypogammaglobulinemia (THI) usually become symptomatic 6 to 12 months after birth, with the symptoms usually consisting of frequent ear, sinus, and lung infections. Other symptoms include respiratory tract infections, food allergies, eczema, urinary tract infections, and intestinal infections.
Causes:
Hypogammaglobulinemia can be caused by either a primary or secondary immunodeficiency. Primary immunodeficiencies are caused by a mutation or series of mutations to the genome. For example, a study from 2012 found that a compound heterozygous deleterious mutation in the CD21 gene is associated with hypogammaglobulinemia. Genetic analysis revealed the patient was heterozygous for CD21, with the paternally inherited allele (also shared with one sister) having a disrupted splicing donor site at exon 6, while the maternally inherited allele had a mutation resulting in a premature stop codon in exon 13. Neither mutation was found in 100 healthy control subjects, showing the rarity of the mutations. Around 300 different genes in total have been identified which account for different forms of primary immunodeficiency (PID). These different forms can affect different parts of the immune system, including immunoglobulin production. Primary immunodeficiencies usually have a delay of several years between initial clinical presentation and diagnosis. Some primary immune deficiencies include ataxia-telangiectasia (A-T), autosomal recessive agammaglobulinemia (ARA), common variable immunodeficiency (CVID), hyper-IgM syndromes, IgG subclass deficiency, isolated non-IgG immunoglobulin deficiencies, severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID), specific antibody deficiency (SAD), Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome, or X-linked agammaglobulinemia. CVID is the most common form of primary immunodeficiency. SCID is considered a medical emergency and suspected cases require immediate specialist center referral for diagnosis and treatment. It is more often that hypogammaglobulinemia develops as a result of another condition, which are called secondary or acquired immune deficiencies. These include blood cancers such as chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), lymphoma, or myeloma, HIV, nephrotic syndrome, poor nutrition, protein-losing enteropathy, getting an organ transplant, or radiation therapy. This also includes medications which can cause hypogammaglobulinemia such as corticosteroids, chemotherapy drugs, or antiseizure medication.
Screening:
Screening of immunoglobulin levels in relatives of CVID and IgA patients finds a familial inheritance rate of 10% to 20%. In cases where a carrier of such a mutation would like to have children, preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) has been offered. PGD is defined as the testing of pre-implantation stage embryos or oocytes for genetic defects. It requires in vitro fertilization, embryo biopsy, and either fluorescent in situ hybridization or polymerase chain reaction on a singular cell, making it a complex procedure. While some question the ethicality of such artificial selection, it is generally seen as an important alternative to prenatal diagnosis. Prevention of secondary immunodeficiency involves monitoring patients carefully with high risk of developing hypogammaglobulinemia. This entails measuring immunoglobulin levels in patients with hematologic malignancy, or those receiving chemotherapy or immunosuppressive therapy such as rituximab.
Treatment:
Protocols for different forms of primary immunodeficiency vary significantly. The aim of treatments implemented by specialist centers is usually to reduce the risk of complications. One method of treatment is by parenteral administration of gamma globulins, either monthly intravenously, subcutaneously, or more recently, by weekly self-administered hypodermoclysis. In either case, mild allergic reactions are common, and are usually manageable with oral diphenhydramine. Evidence comparing immunoglobulin replacement with no treatment is limited, and guidelines for treatment are therefore mainly derived from observational studies. Antibiotics are also frequently used as treatment. Other standard forms of treatment include a form of enzyme replacement therapy called PEG-ADA, and antibiotic treatment given for the prevention of Pneumocystis pneumonia.One emerging therapy is hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, which has been considered standard treatment for many combined primary immunodeficiencies including SCID, CD40 deficiency, CD40 ligand deficiency, and Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome, but has been extended to secondary immunodeficiencies over the last two decades. Another emerging therapy is gene therapy, which has been used to treat X-linked SCID, SCID due to adenosine deaminase deficiency, and chronic granulomatous disease.
Prognosis:
Early detection and treatment of hypogammaglobulinemia is known to reduce rates of morbidity and the chance of long-term pulmonary complications. Evidence shows that there is an association between achieving higher IgG levels and reduced infection frequency. If hypogammaglobulinemia remains undetected and untreated, outcomes are generally poor, especially if chronic lung damage or bronchiectasis has occurred. Unfortunately, the diagnosis of hypogammaglobulinemia is often significantly delayed.
Research:
In 2015, a journal article by McDermott et al. reported on a case in which chromothripsis, normally a catastrophic event in which chromosomes undergo massive deletion and rearrangement within a single stem cell's DNA, cured a patient with WHIM syndrome, a primary immunodeficiency disease. WHIM is autosomal dominant and is caused by a gain-of-function mutation of the chemokine receptor CXCR4. The mutation in CXCR4 increases signaling because it disrupts negative regulatory elements usually present, creating exaggerated functions of the receptor. The term "WHIM" is an acronym for the main manifestations of the disease: warts, hypogammaglobulinemia, recurrent infections, and myelokathexis. Myelokathexis is impaired escape of mature neutrophils from bone marrow, causing neutropenia. Patients with WHIM syndrome have severely reduced peripheral blood B cells and some reduction in peripheral blood T cells and monocytes (McDermott). The cured patient, designated WHIM-09, is a white female presented at age 58. She also presented with her two daughters, WHIM-10 (age 21) and WHIM-11 (age 23). Both daughters fulfilled all of the clinical criteria for WHIM syndrome, while WHIM-09 did not. She reported that she had had many serious infections from childhood until age 38 but had had none in the past 20 years. She has fulfilled none of the criteria for WHIM syndrome except for mild hypogammaglobulinemia since then. WHIM-09 was the first patient ever described with myelokathexis, the "M" in WHIM syndrome, and her parents and siblings showed no sign of the syndrome. Therefore, the evidence is compatible with a WHIM mutation occurring de novo in patient WHIM-09, an autosomal dominant transition to two of her three daughters, and a spontaneous and complete remission in WHIM-09. This provides the first evidence that chromothripsis may result in clinical benefit, in particular, the cure of a genetic disease. If a cell with chromothripsis dies, it is clinically undetectable, making the true frequency of its occurrence hard to determine. Therefore, it is only detected if it acquires a strong selective advantage creating a clinically apparent clonal population harboring the same pattern of deletions and arrangements. This results in either cancer, or if the location is fortuitous, the cure of a genetic condition as occurred in patient WHIM-09.
Research:
Effect on viral evolution One study of the genomic variation in the hepatitis C virus in patients with and without hypogammaglobulinemia found that patients with hypogammaglobulinemia had fewer nucleotide substitutions per year than the control patients, suggesting that in the absence of selective pressure caused by the immune system, the frequency of the occurrence of genetic variation in the major viral species is reduced. They used five control patients and four patients with CVID, a particularly severe form of hypogammaglobulinemia. The control patients had a mean nucleotide rate-of-change of 6.954 nucleotide substitutions per year while the patients with CVID had 0.415 nucleotide substitutions per year. While the mutations still occur in the patients with CVID, they tend to remain as a minor species in the absence of immune selection.
Terminology:
"Hypogammaglobulinemia" is largely synonymous with "agammaglobulinemia". When the latter term is used (as in "X-linked agammaglobulinemia") it implies that gamma globulins are not merely reduced, but completely absent. Modern assays have allowed most agammaglobulinemias to be more precisely defined as hypogammaglobulinemias, but the distinction is not usually clinically relevant.
"Hypogammaglobulinemia" is distinguished from dysgammaglobulinemia, which is a reduction in some types of gamma globulins, but not others. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Algol paradox**
Algol paradox:
In stellar astronomy, the Algol paradox is a paradoxical situation when elements of a binary star seem to evolve in discord with the established theories of stellar evolution. A fundamental feature of these theories is that the rate of evolution of stars depends on their mass: The greater the mass, the faster this evolution, and the more quickly it leaves the main sequence, entering either a subgiant or giant phase.
Algol paradox:
In the case of Algol and other binary stars, something completely different is observed: The less massive star is already a subgiant, while the star with much greater mass is still on the main sequence. Since the partner stars of the binary are thought to have formed at approximately the same time and so should have similar ages, this appears paradoxical. The more massive star, rather than the less massive one, should have left the main sequence.
Algol paradox:
The paradox is resolved by the fact that in many binary stars, there can be a flow of material between the two, disturbing the normal process of stellar evolution. As the flow progresses, their evolutionary stage advances, even as the relative masses change. Eventually, the originally more massive star reaches the next stage in its evolution despite having lost much of its mass to its companion. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Letters in Organic Chemistry**
Letters in Organic Chemistry:
Letters in Organic Chemistry (usually abbreviated as Lett. Org. Chem.), is a peer-reviewed monthly scientific journal, published since 2004 by Bentham Science Publishers. Letters in Organic Chemistry is indexed in: Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS), EBSCOhost, British Library, PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus.
Letters in Organic Chemistry publishes letters and articles on all areas related to organic chemistry.
According to the Journal Citation Reports, the impact factor of this journal is 0.867 for the year 2020. The Editor-in-Chief is Alberto Marra (University of Montpellier, France). who took over from Gwilherm Evano (Université libre de Bruxelles, Belgium) who resigned in February 2018 after a strong disagreement with Bentham on the scientific management of this journal. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**VirtualLogix**
VirtualLogix:
VirtualLogix, Inc. provides real-time virtualization software and related development tools for embedded systems. The company was founded in 2002.
In September 2010, VirtualLogix was acquired by Red Bend Software.
Products:
Real-time hypervisors VirtualLogix's VLX Hypervisor provides concurrent support for rich operating systems like Linux and Windows, and in-house or commercial real-time operating systems on general purpose processors and DSPs.
VLX supports a variety of 32-bit/64-bit processors, single and multi-core processors, including processors from Intel, Texas Instruments, Freescale and ARM and Power architectures. VLX supports devices with and without memory management units and can take advantage of hardware virtualization and security support.
Virtualization enabled high availability VirtualLogix's vHA is an add-on to VLX that provides high availability capability for embedded systems using virtualization and multi-core processors.
Development environment VirtualLogix’s VLX Developer is an Eclipse-based graphical environment, which is used to configure, build, monitor and optimize VLX virtualized platforms.
Competitors:
Today, their competitors include Trango's Virtual Processors, Open Kernel Labs's OKL4 and, to a lesser extent, open source hypervisors such as L4, XtratuM and Xen.
Notes:
VirtualLogix was founded as Jaluna and rebranded as VirtualLogix in September 2006. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Context principle**
Context principle:
In the philosophy of language, the context principle is a form of semantic holism holding that a philosopher should "never ... ask for the meaning of a word in isolation, but only in the context of a proposition" (Frege [1884/1980] x).
Analysis:
The context principle is one of Gottlob Frege's "three fundamental principles" for philosophical analysis, first discussed in his Introduction to The Foundations of Arithmetic (Grundlagen der Arithmetik, 1884). Frege argued that many philosophical errors, especially those related to psychologism in the philosophy of logic and philosophy of mathematics, could be avoided by adhering carefully to the context principle. The view of meaning expressed by the context principle is sometimes called semantic contextualism. This view need not be contrasted with the view that the meanings of words or expressions can (or must) be determined prior to, and independently of, the meanings of the propositions in which they occur, which is often referred to as compositionalism.
Analysis:
The context principle also figures prominently in the work of other analytic philosophers, such as Bertrand Russell and Ludwig Wittgenstein, who were greatly influenced by Frege's work.
Formulations of the context principle:
Gottlob Frege, Introduction to The Foundations of Arithmetic (1884/1980)In the enquiry that follows, I have kept to three fundamental principles: always to separate sharply the psychological from the logical, the subjective from the objective; never to ask for the meaning of a word in isolation, but only in the context of a proposition never to lose sight of the distinction between concept and object.Ludwig Wittgenstein, Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (1921/1922)3.3 Only the proposition has sense; only in the context of a proposition has a name meaning. ...
Formulations of the context principle:
3.314 An expression has meaning only in a proposition. Every variable can be conceived as a propositional variable.
(Including the variable name.) | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Subnormal operator**
Subnormal operator:
In mathematics, especially operator theory, subnormal operators are bounded operators on a Hilbert space defined by weakening the requirements for normal operators. Some examples of subnormal operators are isometries and Toeplitz operators with analytic symbols.
Definition:
Let H be a Hilbert space. A bounded operator A on H is said to be subnormal if A has a normal extension. In other words, A is subnormal if there exists a Hilbert space K such that H can be embedded in K and there exists a normal operator N of the form N=[AB0C] for some bounded operators and C:H⊥→H⊥.
Normality, quasinormality, and subnormality:
Normal operators Every normal operator is subnormal by definition, but the converse is not true in general. A simple class of examples can be obtained by weakening the properties of unitary operators. A unitary operator is an isometry with dense range. Consider now an isometry A whose range is not necessarily dense. A concrete example of such is the unilateral shift, which is not normal. But A is subnormal and this can be shown explicitly. Define an operator U on H⊕H by U=[AI−AA∗0−A∗].
Normality, quasinormality, and subnormality:
Direct calculation shows that U is unitary, therefore a normal extension of A. The operator U is called the unitary dilation of the isometry A.
Normality, quasinormality, and subnormality:
Quasinormal operators An operator A is said to be quasinormal if A commutes with A*A. A normal operator is thus quasinormal; the converse is not true. A counter example is given, as above, by the unilateral shift. Therefore, the family of normal operators is a proper subset of both quasinormal and subnormal operators. A natural question is how are the quasinormal and subnormal operators related.
Normality, quasinormality, and subnormality:
We will show that a quasinormal operator is necessarily subnormal but not vice versa. Thus the normal operators is a proper subfamily of quasinormal operators, which in turn are contained by the subnormal operators. To argue the claim that a quasinormal operator is subnormal, recall the following property of quasinormal operators: Fact: A bounded operator A is quasinormal if and only if in its polar decomposition A = UP, the partial isometry U and positive operator P commute.Given a quasinormal A, the idea is to construct dilations for U and P in a sufficiently nice way so everything commutes. Suppose for the moment that U is an isometry. Let V be the unitary dilation of U, V=[UI−UU∗0−U∗]=[UDU∗0−U∗].
Normality, quasinormality, and subnormality:
Define Q=[P00P].
The operator N = VQ is clearly an extension of A. We show it is a normal extension via direct calculation. Unitarity of V means N∗N=QV∗VQ=Q2=[P200P2].
On the other hand, NN∗=[UP2U∗+DU∗P2DU∗−DU∗P2U−U∗P2DU∗U∗P2U].
Because UP = PU and P is self adjoint, we have U*P = PU* and DU*P = DU*P. Comparing entries then shows N is normal. This proves quasinormality implies subnormality.
For a counter example that shows the converse is not true, consider again the unilateral shift A. The operator B = A + s for some scalar s remains subnormal. But if B is quasinormal, a straightforward calculation shows that A*A = AA*, which is a contradiction.
Minimal normal extension:
Non-uniqueness of normal extensions Given a subnormal operator A, its normal extension B is not unique. For example, let A be the unilateral shift, on l2(N). One normal extension is the bilateral shift B on l2(Z) defined by B(…,a−1,a^0,a1,…)=(…,a^−1,a0,a1,…), where ˆ denotes the zero-th position. B can be expressed in terms of the operator matrix B=[AI−AA∗0A∗].
Another normal extension is given by the unitary dilation B' of A defined above: B′=[AI−AA∗0−A∗] whose action is described by B′(…,a−2,a−1,a^0,a1,a2,…)=(…,−a−2,a^−1,a0,a1,a2,…).
Minimal normal extension:
Minimality Thus one is interested in the normal extension that is, in some sense, smallest. More precisely, a normal operator B acting on a Hilbert space K is said to be a minimal extension of a subnormal A if K' ⊂ K is a reducing subspace of B and H ⊂ K' , then K' = K. (A subspace is a reducing subspace of B if it is invariant under both B and B*.)One can show that if two operators B1 and B2 are minimal extensions on K1 and K2, respectively, then there exists a unitary operator U:K1→K2.
Minimal normal extension:
Also, the following intertwining relationship holds: UB1=B2U.
This can be shown constructively. Consider the set S consisting of vectors of the following form: where hi∈H.
Minimal normal extension:
Let K' ⊂ K1 be the subspace that is the closure of the linear span of S. By definition, K' is invariant under B1* and contains H. The normality of B1 and the assumption that H is invariant under B1 imply K' is invariant under B1. Therefore, K' = K1. The Hilbert space K2 can be identified in exactly the same way. Now we define the operator U as follows: U∑i=0n(B1∗)ihi=∑i=0n(B2∗)ihi Because ⟨∑i=0n(B1∗)ihi,∑j=0n(B1∗)jhj⟩=∑ij⟨hi,(B1)i(B1∗)jhj⟩=∑ij⟨(B2)jhi,(B2)ihj⟩=⟨∑i=0n(B2∗)ihi,∑j=0n(B2∗)jhj⟩, , the operator U is unitary. Direct computation also shows (the assumption that both B1 and B2 are extensions of A are needed here) if g=∑i=0n(B1∗)ihi, then UB1g=B2Ug=∑i=0n(B2∗)iAhi.
Minimal normal extension:
When B1 and B2 are not assumed to be minimal, the same calculation shows that above claim holds verbatim with U being a partial isometry. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Endpoint Handlespace Redundancy Protocol**
Endpoint Handlespace Redundancy Protocol:
The Endpoint Handlespace Redundancy Protocol is used by the Reliable server pooling (RSerPool) framework for the communication between Pool Registrars to maintain and synchronize a handlespace.
It is allocated on the application layer like the Aggregate Server Access Protocol. It is a work in progress within the IETF. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Mithridatism**
Mithridatism:
Mithridatism is the practice of protecting oneself against a poison by gradually self-administering non-lethal amounts. The word is derived from Mithridates VI, the King of Pontus, who so feared being poisoned that he regularly ingested small doses, aiming to develop immunity.
Background:
Mithridates VI's father, Mithridates V, was assassinated by poisoning by a conspiracy among his attendants. After this, Mithridates VI's mother held regency over Pontus (a Hellenistic kingdom, 281 BC–62 AD) until a male heir came of age. Mithridates was in competition with his brother for the throne and his mother began to favor his brother.: 68 Supposedly, during his youth, he began to suspect plots against him at his own mother's orders and was aware of her possible connection with his father's death. He then began to notice pains in his stomach during his meals and suspected his mother had ordered small amounts of poison to be added to his food to slowly kill him off. With other assassination attempts, he fled into the wild.: 69 While in the wild, it is said that he began ingesting non-lethal amounts of poisons and mixing many into a universal remedy to make him immune to all known poisons.After Mithridates' death, many Roman physicians claimed to possess and improve the formula. In keeping with most medical practices of his era, Mithridates' anti-poison routines included a religious component, supervised by the Agari; a group of Scythian shamans derived from Indian Aghoris who never left him.It has been suggested that Russian mystic Rasputin's survival of a poisoning attempt was due to mithridatism, but this has not been proven.Indian epics talk about this practice as well. It has been said that, during the rule of the king Chandragupta Maurya (320–298 BC), there was a practice of selecting beautiful girls and administering poison in small amounts until they grew up, thus making them insensitive to poison. These maidens were called vishakanyas (visha 'poison' + kanya 'maiden'). It was believed that making love with vishakanyas could result in the death of their partners, hence they were employed to kill enemies.
Background:
The emperor Bindusara was the son of the first Mauryan emperor Chandragupta Maurya and his queen Durdhara. According to the Rajavalikatha, a Jain work, the original name of this emperor was Simhasena. According to a legend mentioned in the Jain texts, Chandragupta's Guru and advisor Chanakya used to feed the emperor with small doses of poison to build his immunity against possible poisoning attempts by the enemies. One day, Chandragupta, not knowing about the poison, shared his food with his pregnant wife, Queen Durdhara, who was seven days away from delivery. The queen, not immune to the poison, collapsed and died within a few minutes. Chanakya entered the room the very time she collapsed, and in order to save the child in the womb, he immediately cut open the dead queen's belly and took the baby out, by that time a drop of poison had already reached the baby and touched its head due to which the child got a permanent blueish spot (a "bindu") on his forehead. Thus, the newborn was named "Bindusara".
In practice:
It is important to note that mithridatism is not effective against all types of poison. Immunity is generally only possible with biologically complex types which the immune system can respond to. Depending on the toxin, the practice can lead to the lethal accumulation of a poison in the body. Results depend on how each poison is processed by the body, i.e. on how the toxic compound is metabolized or passed out of the body.However, in some cases, it is possible to build up a metabolic tolerance against specific non-biological poisons. This involves conditioning the liver to produce more of the particular enzymes that metabolize these poisons. For example, heavy drinkers develop a tolerance to the effects of alcohol. However, metabolic tolerance can also lead to accumulation of the less toxic metabolized compound which can slowly damage the liver. With alcohol this generally leads to conditions such as alcoholic fatty liver disease.Metabolic tolerance is not effective on all types of non-biological poisons. Exposure to certain toxic substances, such as hydrofluoric acid and heavy metals, is either lethal or has little to no effect. Arsenic is a minor exception as some people actually have a genetic adaptation granting them higher resistance. Another minor exception is cyanide, which can be metabolized by the liver. The enzyme rhodanese converts the cyanide into the much less toxic thiocyanate. This process allows humans to ingest small amounts of cyanide in food like apple seeds and survive small amounts of cyanide gas from fires and cigarettes. However, one cannot effectively condition the liver against cyanide, unlike alcohol. Relatively larger amounts of cyanide are still highly lethal because, while the body can produce more rhodanese, the process also requires large amounts of sulfur-containing substrates.
In literature:
Mithridatism has been used as a plot device in fiction and on-screen; including the Indian fantasy series Chandrakanta, Alexandre Dumas's The Count of Monte Cristo, Holly Black's "The Cruel Prince", Nathaniel Hawthorne's "Rappaccini's Daughter", Yoshiaki Kawajiri's Ninja Scroll, Dorothy Sayers's Strong Poison, Agatha Christie's Curtain, the manhwa Roxana, William Goldman's The Princess Bride (as well as its film adaptation), and the American historical series The Borgias.
In literature:
In Michael Curtis Ford's historical novel The Last King, on the life and conquests of Mithridates VI, the technique is used by Mithridates.
A. E. Housman's "Terence, this is stupid stuff" (originally published in A Shropshire Lad) invokes mithridatism as a metaphor for the benefit that serious poetry brings to the reader. The final section is a poetic rendition of the Mithridates legend. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Phosphorus pentasulfide**
Phosphorus pentasulfide:
Phosphorus pentasulfide is the inorganic compound with the formula P2S5 (empirical) or P4S10 (molecular). This yellow solid is the one of two phosphorus sulfides of commercial value. Samples often appear greenish-gray due to impurities. It is soluble in carbon disulfide but reacts with many other solvents such as alcohols, DMSO, and DMF.
Structure and synthesis:
Its tetrahedral molecular structure is similar to that of adamantane and almost identical to the structure of phosphorus pentoxide.Phosphorus pentasulfide is obtained by the reaction of liquid white phosphorus (P4) with sulfur above 300 °C. The first synthesis of P4S10 by Berzelius in 1843 was by this method. Alternatively, P4S10 can be formed by reacting elemental sulfur or pyrite, FeS2, with ferrophosphorus, a crude form of Fe2P (a byproduct of white phosphorus (P4) production from phosphate rock): 4 Fe2P + 18 S → P4S10 + 8 FeS 4 Fe2P + 18 FeS2 heat→ P4S10 + 26 FeS
Applications:
Approximately 150,000 tons of P4S10 are produced annually. The compound is mainly converted to other derivatives for use as lubrication additives such as zinc dithiophosphates. It is widely used in the production of sodium dithiophosphate for applications as a flotation agent in the concentration of molybdenite minerals. It is also used in the production of pesticides such as Parathion and Malathion. It is also a component of some amorphous solid electrolytes (e.g. Li2S-P2S5) for some types of lithium batteries.
Applications:
Phosphorus pentasulfide is a dual-use material, for the production of early insecticides such as Amiton and also for the manufacture of the related VX nerve agents.
Reactivity:
Due to hydrolysis by atmospheric moisture, P4S10 evolves hydrogen sulfide H2S, thus P4S10 is associated with a rotten egg odour. Aside from H2S, hydrolysis of P4S10 eventually gives phosphoric acid: P4S10 + 16 H2O → 4 H3PO4 + 10 H2SOther mild nucleophiles react with P4S10, including alcohols and amines. Aromatic compounds such as anisole, ferrocene and 1-methoxynaphthalene react to form 1,3,2,4-dithiadiphosphetane 2,4-disulfides such as Lawesson's reagent.
Reactivity:
P4S10 is used as a thionation reagent. Reactions of this type require refluxing solvents such as benzene, dioxane, or acetonitrile with P4S10 dissociating into P2S5. Some ketones, esters, and imides are converted to the corresponding thiocarbonyls. Amides give thioamides. With 1,4-diketones the reagent forms thiophenes. It is also used to deoxygenate sulfoxides. The use of P4S10 has been displaced by the aforementioned Lawesson's reagent.P4S10 reacts with pyridine to form the complex P2S5(pyridine)2. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Sulfoquinovosyl diacylglycerol**
Sulfoquinovosyl diacylglycerol:
Sulfoquinovosyl diacylglycerols, abbreviated SQDG, are a class of sulfur-containing but phosphorus-free lipids (sulfolipids) found in many photosynthetic organisms.
Discovery, structure and chemical properties:
In 1959 A. A. Benson and coworkers discovered a new sulfur-containing lipid in plants and identified it as sulfoquinovosyl diacylglycerol (SQDG). The sulfolipid structure was defined as 1,2-di-O-acyl-3-O-(6-deoxy-6-sulfo-α-D-glucopyranosyl)-sn-glycerol (SQDG). The distinctive feature of this substance is carbon bonded directly to sulfur as C-SO3. Sulfonic acids of this type are chemically stable and strong acids.
Biological occurrence and functions:
SQDGs have been found in all photosynthetic plants, algae, cyanobacteria, purple sulfur and non-sulfur bacteria and is localised in the thylakoid membranes, being the most saturated glycolipid.SQDGs have been found to be closely associated with certain membrane proteins. In some cases the (electrostatic) interactions may be very strong, as suggested by the inability of saturated SQDG molecules associated with purified chloroplast CF0-CF1 ATPase to exchange with other acidic lipids. It was shown also that SQDGs protect CF1 against cold inactivation in the presence of some ATP. CF1 bound to membranes was found to be much more resistant to heat and cold than solubilised protein. Mitochondrial coupling factor F1 is similarly protected by phospholipids and SQDGs although, in that case, both were equally effective.Information about SQDG and the Rieske protein interaction in the cyt b6f structures is also present. SQDGs seem to be involved in the turnover of cyt f in a similar manner like D1 and raises the question of whether a similar mechanism underlies the role of SQDG in the assembly of both subunits.Extensive SQDG accumulation was observed in apple shoot bark and wood (Okanenko, 1977) and in pine thylakoid during the autumn hardening, while heat and drought action upon wheat, at NaCl action in the halophyte Aster tripolium.SQDG also inhibits viral development by interfering with DNA-polymerase and reverse transcriptase activity.
Biosynthesis:
In cyanobacteria and plants, SQDG is synthesized in two steps. First, UDP-glucose and sulfite are combined by UDP-sulfoquinovose synthase (SQD1) to produce UDP-sulfoquinovose. Second, the sulfoquinovose portion of UDP-sulfoquinovose is transferred to diacylglycerol by the glycosyltransferase SQDG synthase, to form SQDG.
Degradation:
SQDGs degrade during sulfur starvation in some species such as Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. This response is for the redistribution of its sulfur to make new protein. A wide range of bacteria cleave SQDG to form sulfoquinovose, and then metabolize the sulfoquinovose through a process termed sulfoglycolysis. SQDG are cleaved by enzymes termed sulfoquinovosidases. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Racemic mixture**
Racemic mixture:
In chemistry, a racemic mixture or racemate (), is one that has equal amounts of left- and right-handed enantiomers of a chiral molecule or salt. Racemic mixtures are rare in nature, but many compounds are produced industrially as racemates.
History:
The first known racemic mixture was racemic acid, which Louis Pasteur found to be a mixture of the two enantiomeric isomers of tartaric acid. He manually separated the crystals of a mixture by hand, starting from an aqueous solution of the sodium ammonium salt of racemate tartaric acid. Pasteur benefited from the fact that ammonium tartrate salt gives enantiomeric crystals with distinct crystal forms (at 77 °F). Reasoning from the macroscopic scale down to the molecular, he reckoned that the molecules had to have non-superimposable mirror images.
History:
A sample with only a single enantiomer is an enantiomerically pure or enantiopure compound.
Etymology:
From racemic acid found in grapes; from Latin racemus, meaning a bunch of grapes. This acid, when naturally produced in grapes, is only the right-handed version of the molecule, better known as tartaric acid. In many Germanic languages racemic acid is called “grape acid” e.g. German traubensäure and Swedish druvsyra. Carl von Linné gave red elderberry the scientific name Sambucus racemosa as the Swedish name, druvfläder, means 'grape elder', so called because its berries grow in a grape-like cluster.
Nomenclature:
A racemic mixture is denoted by the prefix (±)- or dl- (for sugars the prefix dl- may be used), indicating an equal (1:1) mixture of dextro and levo isomers. Also the prefix rac- (or racem-) or the symbols RS and SR (all in italic letters) are used.
If the ratio is not 1:1 (or is not known), the prefix (+)/(−), d/l- or d/l- (with a slash) is used instead.
The usage of d and l is discouraged by IUPAC.
Properties:
A racemate is optically inactive (achiral), meaning that such materials do not rotate the polarization of plane-polarized light. Although the two enantiomers rotate plane-polarized light in opposite directions, the rotations cancel each other out because they are present in equal amounts of negative (-) counterclockwise (levorotatory) and positive (+) clockwise (dextrorotatory) enantiomers.In contrast to the two pure enantiomers, which have identical physical properties except for the direction of rotation of plane-polarized light, a racemate sometimes has different properties from either of the pure enantiomers. Different melting points are most common, but different solubilities and boiling points are also possible.
Properties:
Pharmaceuticals may be available as a racemate or as the pure enantiomer, which might have different potencies. Because biological systems have many chiral asymmetries, pure enantiomers frequently have very different biological effects; examples include glucose and methamphetamine.
Crystallization:
There are four ways to crystallize a racemate; three of which H. W. B. Roozeboom had distinguished by 1899: Conglomerate (sometimes racemic conglomerate) If the molecules of the substance have a much greater affinity for the same enantiomer than for the opposite one, a mechanical mixture of enantiomerically pure crystals will result. The mixture of enantiomerically pure R and S crystals forms a eutectic mixture. Consequently, the melting point of the conglomerate is always lower than that of the pure enantiomer. Addition of a small amount of one enantiomer to the conglomerate increases the melting point. Roughly 10% of racemic chiral compounds crystallize as conglomerates.Racemic compound (sometimes true racemate) If molecules have a greater affinity for the opposite enantiomer than for the same enantiomer, the substance forms a single crystalline phase in which the two enantiomers are present in an ordered 1:1 ratio in the elementary cell. Adding a small amount of one enantiomer to the racemic compound decreases the melting point. But the pure enantiomer can have a higher or lower melting point than the compound. A special case of racemic compounds are kryptoracemic compounds (or kryptoracemates), in which the crystal itself has handedness (is enantiomorphic), despite containing both enantiomorphs in a 1:1 ratio.Pseudoracemate (sometimes racemic solid solution) When there is no big difference in affinity between the same and opposite enantiomers, then in contrast to the racemic compound and the conglomerate, the two enantiomers will coexist in an unordered manner in the crystal lattice. Addition of a small amount of one enantiomer changes the melting point slightly or not at all.Quasiracemate A quasiracemate is a co-crystal of two similar but distinct compounds, one of which is left-handed and the other right-handed. Although chemically different, they are sterically similar (isosteric) and are still able to form a racemic crystalline phase. One of the first such racemates studied, by Pasteur in 1853, forms from a 1:2 mixture of the bis ammonium salt of (+)-tartaric acid and the bis ammonium salt of (−)-malic acid in water. Re-investigated in 2008, the crystals formed are dumbbell-shape with the central part consisting of ammonium (+)-bitartrate, whereas the outer parts are a quasiracemic mixture of ammonium (+)-bitartrate and ammonium (−)-bimalate.
Resolution:
The separation of a racemate into its components, the individual enantiomers, is called a chiral resolution. Various methods exist for this separation, including crystallization, chromatography, and the use of various reagents.
Synthesis:
Without a chiral influence (for example a chiral catalyst, solvent or starting material), a chemical reaction that makes a chiral product will always yield a racemate. That can make the synthesis of a racemate cheaper and easier than making the pure enantiomer, because it does not require special conditions. This fact also leads to the question of how biological homochirality evolved on what is presumed to be a racemic primordial earth.
Synthesis:
The reagents of, and the reactions that produce, racemic mixtures are said to be "not stereospecific" or "not stereoselective", for their indecision in a particular stereoisomerism. A frequent scenario is that of a planar species (such as an sp2 carbon atom or a carbocation intermediate) acting as an electrophile. The nucleophile will have a 50% probability of 'hitting' either of the two sides of the planar grouping, thus producing a racemic mixture:
Racemic pharmaceuticals:
Some drug molecules are chiral, and the enantiomers have different effects on biological entities. They can be sold as one enantiomer or as a racemic mixture. Examples include thalidomide, ibuprofen, cetirizine and salbutamol. A well known drug that has different effects depending on its ratio of enantiomers is amphetamine. Adderall is an unequal mixture of both amphetamine enantiomers. A single Adderall dose combines the neutral sulfate salts of dextroamphetamine and amphetamine, with the dextro isomer of amphetamine saccharate and D/L-amphetamine aspartate monohydrate. The original Benzedrine was a racemic mixture, and isolated dextroamphetamine was later introduced to the market as Dexedrine. The prescription analgesic tramadol is also a racemate.
Racemic pharmaceuticals:
In some cases (e.g., ibuprofen and thalidomide), the enantiomers interconvert or racemize in vivo. This means that preparing a pure enantiomer for medication is largely pointless. However, sometimes samples containing pure enantiomers may be made and sold at a higher cost in cases where the use requires specifically one isomer (e.g., for a stereospecific reagent); compare omeprazole and esomeprazole. Moving from a racemic drug to a chiral specific drug may be done for a better safety profile or an improved therapeutic index. This process is called chiral switching and the resulting enantiopure drug is called a chiral switch. As examples, esomeprazole is a chiral switch of (±)-omeprazole and levocetirizine is a chiral switch of (±)-cetirizine.
Racemic pharmaceuticals:
While often only one enantiomer of the drug may be active, there are cases in which the other enantiomer is harmful, like salbutamol and thalidomide. The (R) enantiomer of thalidomide is effective against morning sickness, while the (S) enantiomer is teratogenic, causing birth defects. Since the drug racemizes, the drug cannot be considered safe for use by women of child-bearing age, and its use is tightly controlled when used for treating other illness.Methamphetamine is available by prescription under the brand name Desoxyn. The active component of Desoxyn is dextromethamphetamine hydrochloride. This is the right-handed isomer of methamphetamine. The left-handed isomer of methamphetamine, levomethamphetamine, is an OTC drug that is less centrally-acting and more peripherally-acting. Methedrine during the 20th century was a 50:50 racemic mixture of both methamphetamine isomers (levo and dextro).
Wallach's rule:
Wallach's rule (first proposed by Otto Wallach) states that racemic crystals tend to be denser than their chiral counterparts. This rule has been substantiated by crystallographic database analysis. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Value-added network**
Value-added network:
A value-added network (VAN) is a hosted service offering that acts as an intermediary between business partners sharing standards based on proprietary data via shared business processes. The offered service is referred to as "value-added network services".
1960s: "Timesharing" and "network" service:
Following in the wake of timesharing providers, provision of leased lines between terminals and data centers proved a sustainable business which led to the establishment of dedicated business units and companies specialized in the management and marketing of such network services. See Tymshare for an example of a timeshare services company that spun off Tymnet as a data communications specialist with a complex product portfolio.
1970s: Marketisation of telecommunication:
The large-scale allocation of network services by private companies was in conflict with state-controlled telecommunications sector. To be able to gain a license for telecommunication service provision to customers, a private business had to "add value" to the communications line in order to be a distinguishable service. Therefore, the notion of "value-added network services" was established to allow for operation of such private businesses as an exemption from state control.
1970s: Marketisation of telecommunication:
The telecommunication operator sector was marketed in the USA in 1982 (see Modification of Final Judgment) and in the United Kingdom starting with the early 1980s (mainly due to the privatization of British Telecom under Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher). In the later 1980s, running a value-added network service required licensing in the U.K. while the term "value-added network" had merely become a functional description of a specific subset of networked data communication in the USA.
Since 1980s: International competition and standardization efforts:
On a multinational scale, and due to the heterogeneous telecommunication economy and infrastructure before the market penetration of the Internet, management of a value-added network service proved a complicated task leading to the idea of user-defined networks, a concept preceding the nowadays ubiquitous availability of internet service. Standardization efforts for data networking were made by ITU-T (formerly CCIT) and included X.25 packet-switched networks and X.400 message handling systems, specifically motivated by an emerging transatlantic competition in the early 1990s.
Perspective:
In the absence of state-operated telecommunication sector, value-added network services are still used, mainly as a functional description, in conjunction with dedicated leased lines for business-to-business communications (especially for EDIFACT data transfer).
Perspective:
Governments like South Africa still maintain explicit regulation, while others address specific services with licensing.Traditionally, most value-added network services mainly supported general-purpose business-to-business integration capabilities focused on electronic data interchanges, but service providers are evolving to become more process- and industry-specific over time, particularly in industries such as retail and hi-tech manufacturing. Some sources suggest that modern value-added network services should be called "trading grids" due to commonalities with grid computing.
Perspective:
Others distinguish internet service providers from international value-added network services (IVANS) operators. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Dynablaster**
Dynablaster:
Dynablaster or Dyna Blaster is a name that has been given to the European releases of four different games of the Bomberman franchise: Bomberman (TurboGrafx-16, MS-DOS, Amiga and Atari ST) Bomberman (Arcade) Bomberman II (NES) Atomic Punk (Game Boy)Bomberman was renamed Dyna Blaster due to the European mainstream media associating the original name with terrorist bombings. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Clathrochelate**
Clathrochelate:
In coordination chemistry, clathrochelates are ligands that encapsulate metal ions. Chelating ligands bind to metals more strongly than related monodentate ligands, and macrocyclic ligands bind more strongly than typical chelating ligands. It follows that bi- or polymacrocyclic ligands would bind to metals particularly strongly. Clathrochelates are usually derived from bimacrocyclic ligands.The first examples were derived from the tris(dioximate)s of cobalt(III) and iron(II). The synthesis entails replacement of the hydrogen-bonded proton center with BF2+ or BOR2+ group: [Fe(HON=CMeCMe=NOH)(ON=CMeCMe=NO)2]2− + 2 BF3 → Fe(ON=CMeCMe=NO)3(BF)2 + 2 HF−2Also well known are the clathrochelates called sepulchrates derived from tris(ethylenediamine)cobalt(III): [Co(H2NCH2CH2NH2)3]3+ + 6 CH2O + 2 NH3 → [Co[N(CH2HNCH2CH2NHCH2)3N]3+ + 6 H2OThe insertion and removal of metals from the binding pocket of clathrochelates can be very slow. For this reason, many clathrochelates are prepared by the reactions of pre-coordinated ligands. These reactions often do not directly break any metal-ligand bonds, but occur in the second coordination sphere. The slowness of the metal ion exchange enables certain experiments that would otherwise be difficult or impossible. For example, it is possible to optically resolve the equivalent of [Co(H2NCH2CH2NH2)3]2+. In the absence of the special geometry imposed by the clathrochelate, the lifetime of Co(II)-amine complexes is typically very short. In this way, this family of complexes enables studies on self-exchange redox reactions between Co(II) and Co(III) partners that would be impossible with simpler ligand systems. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Lead shielding**
Lead shielding:
Lead shielding refers to the use of lead as a form of radiation protection to shield people or objects from radiation so as to reduce the effective dose. Lead can effectively attenuate certain kinds of radiation because of its high density and high atomic number; principally, it is effective at stopping gamma rays and x-rays.
Operation:
Lead's high density is caused by the combination of its high atomic number and the relatively short bond lengths and atomic radius. The high atomic number means that more electrons are needed to maintain a neutral charge and the short bond length and a small atomic radius means that many atoms can be packed into a particular lead structure. Because of lead's density and large number of electrons, it is well suited to scattering x-rays and gamma-rays. These rays form photons, a type of boson, which impart energy onto electrons when they come into contact. Without a lead shield, the electrons within a person's body would be affected, which could damage their DNA. When the radiation attempts to pass through lead, its electrons absorb and scatter the energy. Eventually though, the lead will degrade from the energy to which it is exposed. However, lead is not effective against all types of radiation. High energy electrons (including beta radiation) incident on lead may create bremsstrahlung radiation, which is potentially more dangerous to tissue than the original radiation. Furthermore, lead is not a particularly effective absorber of neutron radiation.
Types:
Lead is used for shielding in x-ray machines, nuclear power plants, labs, medical facilities, military equipment, and other places where radiation may be encountered. There is great variety in the types of shielding available both to protect people and to shield equipment and experiments. In gamma-spectroscopy for example, lead castles are constructed to shield the probe from environmental radiation. Personal shielding includes lead aprons (such as the familiar garment used during dental x-rays), thyroid shields, and lead gloves. There are also a variety of shielding devices available for laboratory equipment, including lead castles, structures composed of lead bricks, and lead pigs, made of solid lead or lead-lined containers for storing and transporting radioactive samples. In many facilities where radiation is produced, regulations require construction with lead-lined plywood or drywall to protect adjoining rooms from scatter radiation.
Types:
Wear A lead apron or leaded apron is a type of protective clothing that acts as a radiation shield. It is constructed of a thin rubber exterior and an interior of lead in the shape of a hospital apron. The purpose of the lead apron is to reduce exposure of a hospital patient to x-rays to vital organs that are potentially exposed to ionizing radiation during medical imaging that uses x-rays (radiography, fluoroscopy, computed tomography).
Types:
Protection of the reproductive organs with a lead rubber apron is considered important because DNA changes to sperm or egg cells of the patient may pass on genetic defects to the offspring of the patient, causing serious and unnecessary hardship for child and parents.The thyroid gland is especially vulnerable to x-ray exposure. Care should be taken to place a lead apron over the thyroid gland before taking dental radiographs. Aprons used for dental imaging should include thyroid collars. However, in poorer or loosely regulated countries, possibly due to the cost of such equipment (approx. 40 USD), no such lead protection is given to the patients themselves, though the operators do get out of the x-ray room for their own safety.
Types:
The correct thickness of lead-equivalent (Pbeq) wear will depend on how long and how often the person is working in an exposed environment. The minimum requirement is to wear 0.25 mm Pbeq when not behind lead shielding. In a theatre using fluoroscopy (e.g. orthopaedics, cardiology or interventional radiology) 0.35 or 0.5 mm lead may be appropriate because of the higher KV employed, and on proximity to the primary beam. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**NDepend**
NDepend:
NDepend is a static analysis tool for .NET managed code. The tool proposes a large number features, from dependency visualization to Quality Gates and Smart Technical Debt Estimation. For that reasons the community refers to it as the "Swiss Army Knife" for .NET Developers.
Features:
The main features of NDepend are: Dependency Visualization (using dependency graphs, and dependency matrix) Smart Technical Debt Estimation Quality Gates Declarative code rule over C# LINQ query (CQLinq). The NDepend default Rules-Set has few overlap with popular Roslyn analyzers. Roslyn analyzers are good at analyzing the code flow - what is happening inside a method - while the NDepend code model, on which the NDepend rules are based, is optimized for a 360 view of particular higher-scale areas including OOP, dependencies, metrics, breaking changes, mutability, naming...
Features:
Software metrics (NDepend currently supports 82 code metrics: Cyclomatic complexity; Afferent and Efferent Coupling; Relational Cohesion; Google page rank of .NET types; Percentage of code covered by tests, etc.) Code Coverage data import from Visual Studio coverage, dotCover, OpenCover, NCover, NCrunch.
Version comparison of two versions of the same assembly Integration with Visual Studio 2022, 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013, 2012, 2010, or can run as a standalone through VisualNDepend.exe, side by side with Jetbrains Rider or Visual Studio Code.
Reporting and CI/CD Integration with Azure DevOps, Bamboo, Jenkins, TeamCity, AppVeyor
Code rules through LINQ queries (CQLinq):
Live code queries and code rules through LINQ queries is the backbone of NDepend, all features use it extensively. Here are some sample code queries: Base class should not use derivatives: Avoid making complex methods even more complex (source code cyclomatic complexity): Additionally, the tool provides a live CQLinq query editor with code completion and embedded documentation. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**UbiArt Framework**
UbiArt Framework:
The UbiArt Framework is a 2.5D video game engine developed by Ubisoft Montpellier. Its function is to organize 2D animated vector graphics into a playable video game without extensive coding.
History:
In 2010, Ubisoft announced Rayman Origins, first an episodic video game designed by Michel Ancel and developed by a small team of five people, but it was announced that it transformed into a full game. The title uses the UbiArt Framework developed by Ubisoft Montpellier and Ancel. UbiArt is a developer platform that allows artists and animators to easily create content and use it in an interactive environment. The engine is optimized for HD resolutions and is capable of running games at 60 frames per second in resolutions exceeding 1080p.
History:
Ancel has expressed his desire for the framework to be available for anybody to develop games with. However, no public release or licensing option has been made available.
History:
On April 9, 2019, in an interview with IGN, Yves explained why the engine was not being used as initially planned and explains that the "tools were difficult to use". The plan was to distribute the engine to other studios with Guillemot saying "at one point we wanted to give them to everybody [in Ubisoft].” However, they decided not to as they wanted to “spend a lot of time with a lot of people to actually help people to use it.” But the engine is not abandoned as Guillemot explained “It’s still there, and you will see other things using it, but it’s not as predominant as it used to be”, meaning the engine hasn't been forgotten. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Yusuke Nakamura (geneticist)**
Yusuke Nakamura (geneticist):
Yusuke Nakamura (中村 祐輔, Nakamura Yūsuke, born 8 December 1952) is a Japanese prominent geneticist and cancer researcher best known for developing Genome-Wide Association Study (GWAS). He is one of the world's pioneers in applying genetic variations (Variable Number Tandem Repeat (VNTR) and Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) markers) and whole genome sequencing, leading the research field of personalized medicine.
Scientific Contribution:
Nakamura successfully identified VNTR markers in 1987 and tumor suppressor gene APC in 1991. Furthermore, several genetic polymorphic markers developed and mapped by his research groups at the Japanese Foundation for Cancer Research and the University of Tokyo, have contributed to map and clone genes responsible to hereditary diseases, as well as those related to drug response and involved in cancer.
Scientific Contribution:
In 2001, Nakamura and his colleagues of RIKEN SNP Research Center developed the methodology of Genome-Wide Association Study (GWAS), and using this method his research gourp first discovered functional SNP in the lymphotoxin-α gene that are associated with susceptibility to myocardial infarction in 2002, which was a breakthrough in the research field of medical genetics.Furthermore, the RIKEN SNP Research Center led by him made the largest contribution in the Phase 1 HapMap project of the International HapMap Consortium published in the scientific journal Nature in 2005.Nakamura focused on applying genetic information to improve the care of cancer patients, working to bring his laboratory's discoveries into the clinical practice.In 2001, his cancer research at the University of Tokyo led to the formation of OncoTherapy Science, a successful public Japanese biotechnology company that concentrates on new cancer therapies.
Life and career:
Nakamura was born in Osaka, Japan on 8 December 1952. He received his medical degree in 1977 and his PhD in 1984 from Osaka University. While working as a surgeon in Japan, he witnessed a 27-year-old patient die of cancer, which affected him deeply.To pursue advanced study in genetics and oncology, he went to the US and spent five years as a postdoctoral fellow and then as a faculty member at the Howard Hughes Medical Institute at the University of Utah, an international center for gene mapping.In 1989, Nakamura became Head of the Biochemistry Department, at the Cancer Institute, Japanese Foundation for Cancer Research. He was appointed as Professor at the Institute of Medical Science, University of Tokyo in 1994. When the Japanese government launched its Millennium Genome Project in 2000, he was named group leader for the genetic diversity program at the renowned RIKEN SNP Research Center. He also served as director of the RIKEN Center from 2005 to 2010, as well as Director of National Cancer Research Research Institute from 2010-11.
Life and career:
From January to December 2011, he was Special Advisor to the Cabinet Secretary General, Office of Medical Innovation, Cabinet Secretariat, Government of Japan.In 2012, Nakamura moved to the Department of Medicine at the University of Chicago in 2012 as Professor and Deputy Director, Center for Personalized TherapeuticsIn 2018, after becoming the Emeritus Faculty Professor of the University of Chicago and returning to Japan, he was appointed Director of Cross-ministerial Strategic Innovation Promotion Program of Japanese Cabinet Office, as well as Director at the Cancer Precision Center, Japanese Foundation for Cancer Research.
Awards:
Nakamura received several honors and awards include the following.
1992: Princess Takamatsu Cancer Research Award 2000: Keio Medical Science Prize for "Elucidation of various genetic diseases through human genome analysis" 2002: Tomizo Yoshida Award of the Japanese Cancer Association 2004: Japanese Medal of Honor with purple ribbon 2010: Chen Award for Distinguished Academic Achievement in Human Genetic and Genomic Research, Human Genome Organization (HUGO) 2020: Clarivate Citation Laureate | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Genital ulcer**
Genital ulcer:
A genital ulcer is an open sore located on the genital area, which includes the vulva, penis, perianal region, or anus. Genital ulcers are most commonly caused by infectious agents (fungal infections, secondary bacterial infections, or sexually transmitted diseases such as genital herpes, syphilis or chancroid). However, this is not always the case, as a genital ulcer may have noninfectious causes as well.
Overview:
A genital ulcer may be located on the vulva, penis, perianal region, or anus. Globally, the incidence of genital ulcers is estimated to be approximately 20 million cases annually. The most likely cause of a genital ulcer varies depending on the characteristics of a population and location. The most common cause of genital ulcers in the United States is herpes simplex infections, with syphilis the second most common cause, and chancroid the third. These common causes of genital ulcer disease (HSV-1, HSV-2 and treponema pallidum) can all be efficiently transmitted through oral sex.Important signs associated with genital ulcers that may assist in the diagnosis of the cause of the genital ulcer may include the presence of tender or non-tender enlarged lymph nodes in the groin area, a painful or non-painful genital ulcer, or the presence of vesicular lesions, which are small, painful, elevated blisters.The most common causes of a genital ulcer include infectious agents, with sexually transmitted diseases being the most common, but which can also include fungal infections and secondary bacterial infections. While infectious agents are the most common cause, a genital ulcer may also be the result of non-infectious causes such as Behcet's syndrome, lupus, or psoriasis.Since it is difficult to determine a cause of a genital ulcer from history, examination, and population characteristics alone, further testing is often needed. The most common diagnostic tools used are targeted towards the most common etiologies of genital ulcers: syphilis (syphilis serology, PCR testing, or dark-field examination), herpes simplex virus (PCR, culture, or type specific HSV antibodies), and haemophilus ducreyi (culture on special media currently not widely available in most hospital systems) if the individual is in a known endemic region. Further diagnostic tools such as a biopsy or culture are often utilized if ulcers appear unusual or do not respond as expected to therapy.Since genital ulcers are often infectious in origin, there is an increased risk of acquiring HIV in a HIV negative patient through viral introduction through the open sore Conversely, there is an increased risk of HIV transmission through increased shedding of viral HIV in the presence of a genital ulcer in a patient with a history of HIV. Available studies did not give enough evidence that treatment of genital ulcer reduce the sexual infection of HIV. However, genital ulcer need to be treated regardless of HIV infection probability of the treatment. The CDC recommends testing for HIV in any individual presenting for a genital ulcer who does not already have a history of HIV.
Infectious sexually transmitted causes:
Risk factors for sexually transmitted genital ulcers are similar to the risk factors for most sexually transmitted diseases which include multiple sex partners, alcohol, illicit drug use, homelessness, poverty, inmates, men who have sex with men, sexually active teenagers, sexual contact without contraceptive use, and unstable housing. The most common cause of genital ulcers in the North America and Western Europe are the result of HSV or syphilis infections, while the most common cause in other parts of the world is chancroid. Most sexually active adolescents with genital ulcers have a herpes simplex virus infection, more commonly type 2. Meanwhile, according to 2017 CDC reports, syphilis is more common in men who have sex with men populations although rates of syphilis have been rising in heterosexual men and women in the United States. Following syphilis and genital herpes infections, a chancroid is the third most common cause but tends to occur in focused outbreaks over time. While rates of H. ducreyi infection seem to be declining according to a 2017 report, it is possible this may be due to lack of testing since H. ducreyi requires a very specialized culture medium which is not commonly available. Less common causes include lymphogranuloma venereum, which is more common in men who have sex with men, and granuloma inguinale, which is more common in tropical regions globally. rather than in the United States.
Non-infectious causes:
Genital ulcers are not strictly a sign of a sexually transmitted illness, although non-infectious sources are significantly more infrequent in comparison. The most common non-infectious sources of genital ulcers are first Behcet's disease, and second drug reaction.Behcet's syndrome is a chronic systemic vasculitis infection that is defined by recurrent oral and genital aphthous ulcers but can also affect many other organ systems, such as the eyes, ears, nervous system, heart, lungs, joints, and intestines. Behcet's syndrome commonly presents in the 30-40 age range and is more common in the Middle East and Asia. There is a familial component to Behcet's syndrome since it has associations with the HLA-B51 gene.Causes of drug induced genital ulcers take the form of Stevens–Johnson syndrome, toxic epidermal necrolysis, erythema multiforme, and fixed drug eruptions in response to a diverse list of medications. Stevens–Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis are more likely than erythema multiforme to have genital manifestations although all present with a toxic appearing patient. A fixed drug eruption in comparison does not present as a toxic appearing patient but rather single or multiple erythematous patches that vary in size and shape which eventually turn dark brown in color and become itchy. The defining characteristic is that these drug eruptions appear in the same location each time the offending medication is used, and will resolve on their own.Other potential causes of non-infectious genital ulcers are diverse, but can include sexual trauma, Lipschutz ulcers, inflammatory bowel diseases such as Crohn's disease, lichen planus, lichen sclerosis, and immunobullous disease such as pemphigous vulgaris, since bullous pemphigoid is less likely to occur on the genitals. Cancers of the vulva and penis, with the most common subtype being squamous cell carcinoma, can also present as genital ulcers, but leukemias such as chronic lymphocytic leukemia and acute promyelotic leukemia have also been identified.
Infectious non-sexually transmitted causes:
Even lesser common etiologies of genital ulcers include fungal infection, secondary bacterial infections, and parasitic infections.Fungal infections are rare causes of genital ulcers, but candida albicans infection is typically the most common source, and is more prevalent in patients with a history of diabetes mellitus, chronic steroid use, or other immunodeficiencies. There have also been rare case reports of paracoccidioidomycosis, zygomycosis and histoplasmosis infections causing genital ulcers.Parasitic infections such as amoebiasis and leishmaniasis can present in cutaneous form in the genital regions. This can be confused with a sexually transmitted disease or sepsis due to their tendency to present with additional systemic symptoms.Genital tuberculosis can also present as a genital ulcer, either in the form of cutaneous tuberculosis from a systemic infection, or a primary tuberculosis chancre at the site of inoculation via direct genital contact with infected sputum. Cutaneous tuberculosis typically presents initially as red or yellow nodules that eventually break down to form soft, painful, and roughly circular ulcers, which as a rule are covered in a pseudomembrane. Primary tuberculosis chancre, on the other hand, often presents as a painless ulcer with well defined edges that appears rather nonspecific. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Boolean**
Boolean:
Any kind of logic, function, expression, or theory based on the work of George Boole is considered Boolean. Related to this, "Boolean" may refer to: Boolean data type, a form of data with only two possible values (usually "true" and "false") Boolean algebra, a logical calculus of truth values or set membership Boolean algebra (structure), a set with operations resembling logical ones Boolean domain, a set consisting of exactly two elements whose interpretations include false and true Boolean circuit, a mathematical model for digital logical circuits.
Boolean:
Boolean expression, an expression in a programming language that produces a Boolean value when evaluated Boolean function, a function that determines Boolean values or operators Boolean model (probability theory), a model in stochastic geometry Boolean network, a certain network consisting of a set of Boolean variables whose state is determined by other variables in the network Boolean processor, a 1-bit variable computing unit Boolean ring, a mathematical ring for which x2 = x for every element x Boolean satisfiability problem, the problem of determining if there exists an interpretation that satisfies a given Boolean formula Boolean prime ideal theorem, a theorem which states that ideals in a Boolean algebra can be extended to prime ideals | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Trac Tran**
Trac Tran:
Trac D. Tran received the B.S. and M.S. degrees from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, in 1993 and 1994, respectively, and the PhD degree from the University of Wisconsin, Madison, in 1998, all in Electrical Engineering. In July 1998, Tran joined the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, where he currently holds the rank of Professor. His research interests are in the field of digital signal processing, particularly in sparse representation, sparse recovery, sampling, multi-rate systems, filter banks, transforms, wavelets, and their applications in signal analysis, compression, processing, and communications. His pioneering research on integer-coefficient transforms and pre-/post-filtering operators has been adopted as critical components of Mozilla Daala, Microsoft Windows Media Video 9, and JPEG-XR (the latest international still-image compression standard ISO/IEC 29199-2).
Trac Tran:
Tran was named Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) in 2014 for contributions to multirate and sparse signal processing.
Awards and honors:
IEEE GRSS Highest Impact Paper Award, 2018 Second Prize by Information and Inference: A Journal of the IMA, 2017 IEEE Fellow, 2014 IEEE Mikio Takagi Best Paper Award, 2012 Capers and Marion McDonald Award for Excellence in Mentoring and Advising, 2009 William H. Huggins Excellence in Teaching Award, 2007 NSF CAREER award, 2001 | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Organocadmium chemistry**
Organocadmium chemistry:
Organocadmium chemistry describes the physical properties, synthesis, reactions, and use of organocadmium compounds, which are organometallic compounds containing a carbon to cadmium chemical bond. Cadmium shares group 12 with zinc and mercury and their corresponding chemistries have much in common. The synthetic utility of organocadmium compounds is limited. The simplest organocadmium compound is dimethylcadmium. It is a linear molecule with a C-Cd bond length of 213 pm. Organocadmium compounds are typically sensitive to air, light, and moisture.
Synthesis:
Dimethylcadmium and diethylcadmium were reported in 1917 by Erich Krause. In general, they are prepared by transmetalation or by an exchange reaction between an alkylating agent and a cadmium salt.According to one procedure, diethylcadmium is produced the reaction of cadmium bromide with two equivalents of the Grignard reagent ethylmagnesium bromide in diethyl ether. Diethylcadmium is a colorless oil with melting point −21 °C. Diphenylcadmium can be prepared by the reaction of phenyllithium with cadmium bromide. Diphenylcadmium is a solid with a melting point of 174 °C.
Synthesis:
Fluoroalkyl and alkenyl derivatives Following established trends, perfluorinated alkyl and alkenyl derivatives of cadmium exhibit improved thermal stability. The alkenyl derivatives are generated by the addition of iodotrifluoroethylene to cadmium metal.
Reactions:
Organocadmium compounds are less nucleophilic than the organozincs. This reduced reactivity is demonstrated in the conversion of acyl chlorides to ketones with these reagents. This reaction was reported by Henry Gilman in 1936 and was used until less toxic cuprates were available. The related Grignard reagent would react further, giving to the tertiary alcohol. Methyl cadmium was used in one of the steps leading to cholesterol total synthesis: Another synthetic use of an organocadmium is the reaction of diisoamylcadmium with β-carbomethoxypropionyl chloride to methyl 4-keto-7-methyloctanoate without reacting further with the ketone group or the ester group.This selectivity is observed provided that the reaction is carried out salt free. When the cadmium reagent is generated in situ from a cadmium salt, the halide generates a more nucleophilic organocadmium reagent, an ate complex. The same salt effect can be observed with organozinc compounds.
Reactions:
Dimethylcadmium has been used to synthesize colloidal nanocrystals of II-VI materials such as cadmium selenide. Its toxic and volatile nature has led researchers to look elsewhere for cadmium precursors such as cadmium oxide.
Toxicity:
Cadmium compounds are toxic. Dimethylcadmium is toxic to the kidney, the liver, the central nervous system, and the respiratory organs when inhaled. Cadmium compounds in general are considered to be carcinogen to humans by the IARC. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Inflammasome**
Inflammasome:
Inflammasomes are cytosolic multiprotein oligomers of the innate immune system responsible for the activation of inflammatory responses. Activation and assembly of the inflammasome promotes proteolytic cleavage, maturation and secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin 1β (IL-1β) and interleukin 18 (IL-18), as well as cleavage of gasdermin D. The N-terminal fragment resulting from this cleavage induces a pro-inflammatory form of programmed cell death distinct from apoptosis, referred to as pyroptosis, and is responsible for secretion of the mature cytokines, presumably through the formation of pores in the plasma membrane. Additionally, inflammasomes can be incorporated into larger cell death-inducing complexes called PANoptosomes, which drive another distinct form of pro-inflammatory cell death called PANoptosis.Inflammasome activation is initiated by different kinds of cytosolic pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) that respond to either microbe-derived pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) or damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) generated by the host cell. PRRs involved in inflammasomes comprise NLRs (nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain and leucine-rich repeat-containing receptors) as well as AIM2 (absent in melanoma 2), IFI16 (IFN-inducible protein 16) as well as pyrin. Through their caspase activation and recruitment domain (CARD) or pyrin domain (PYD), the inflammasome receptors interact with the adaptor protein ASC, which then recruits pro-caspase-1 via its CARD domain and activates the effector caspase through proteolytic cleavage. The activated caspase-1 finally cleaves the immature pro-inflammatory cytokines pro-IL-1β and pro-IL-18, as well as gasdermin D, which are responsible for inflammatory signaling and pyroptotic cell death, respectively. In addition to these so-called canonical inflammasomes, different studies also described non-canonical inflammasome complexes that act independently of caspase-1. In mice, the non-canonical inflammasome is activated by direct sensing of cytosolic bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) by caspase-11, which subsequently induces pyroptotic cell death. In human cells, the corresponding caspases of the non-canonical inflammasome are caspase 4 and caspase 5.Traditionally, inflammasomes have mainly been studied in professional immune cells of the innate immune system, such as macrophages. More recent studies, however, indicate high levels of inflammasome component expression in epithelial barrier tissues, where they have been shown to represent an important first line of defense.In the case of dysregulation of inflammasome activation, an assortment of major diseases, such as cancer, autoimmune, metabolic and neurodegenerative diseases may arise.
Discovery:
The inflammasome was discovered by the team of Jürg Tschopp, at the University of Lausanne, in 2002. In 2002, it was first reported by Martinon et al. that a subset of NLRs named NLRP1 were able to assemble and oligomerize into a common structure in vitro which collectively activated the caspase-1 cascade, thereby leading to the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines especially IL-1β and IL-18. This NLRP1 multi-molecular complex was dubbed the ‘inflammasome’, which spurred much interest in the following years. During that time, several other inflammasomes were discovered, two of which are also NLR subsets—NLRP3 and NLRC4. The physiological relevance of the inflammasome was then found in 2006 when three teams were able to articulate the inflammasome's role in diseases such as infection, exposure to toxins, gout and type 2 diabetes. A variety of danger signals were found that could provoke a response from an inflammasome including viral DNA, muramyl dipeptide (MDP), asbestos, and silica. Additional connections were also found between metabolic syndrome and NLRP3, a subset type of inflammasome. Ultimately, the work on inflammasomes led to the current research field, where disease mechanisms and treatments are being investigated.In addition to NLR proteins, other PRRs can form inflammasomes. In 2009, Hornung et al. classified an inflammasome of the PYHIN (pyrin and HIN domain-containing protein) family, termed absent in melanoma 2 (AIM2) which assembles upon sensing foreign cytoplasmic double-stranded DNA (dsDNA). Notably, the pyrin domain of the adaptor protein ASC has recently been shown to function as a prion-like domain, through a self-perpetuating manner upon activation.
Inflammation activation:
The inflammasome activates a pyroptotic inflammatory cascade. Once active, the inflammasome binds to pro-caspase-1 (the precursor molecule of caspase-1), either homotypically via its own caspase activation and recruitment domain (CARD) or via the CARD of the adaptor protein ASC which it binds to during inflammasome formation. In its full form, the inflammasome appositions together many p45 pro-caspase-1 molecules, inducing their autocatalytic cleavage into p20 and p10 subunits. Caspase-1 then assembles into its active form consisting of two heterodimers with a p20 and p10 subunit each.
Inflammation activation:
Once active, it can then carry out a variety of processes in response to the initial inflammatory signal. These include the proteolytic cleavage of pro-IL-1β at Asp116 into IL-1β, cleavage of pro-IL-18 into IL-18, as well as cleavage of gasdermin D to release its N-terminal fragment responsible for the induction of pyroptosis, an immunostimulatory form of programmed cell death in which the cell releases its cytoplasmic content to induce pro-inflammatory signaling. IL-1β and IL-18 released following inflammasome activation were found to induce IFN-γ secretion and natural killer cell activation, cleavage and inactivation of IL-33, DNA fragmentation and cell pore formation, inhibition of glycolytic enzymes, activation of lipid biosynthesis and secretion of tissue-repair mediators such as pro-IL-1α. Additionally, AIM2 contains a HIN200 domain which senses and binds foreign cytoplasmic dsDNA and activates NF-κB, a role that is crucial in bacterial and viral infection.
Inflammasome family:
NLRP1, NLRP3, NLRP6 and NLRC4 are subsets of the NLR family and thus have two common features: the first is a nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD) which is bound by ribonucleotide-phosphates (rNTP) and is important for self-oligomerization. The second is a C-terminal leucine-rich repeat (LRR), which serves as a ligand-recognition domain for other receptors (e.g. TLR) or microbial ligands. NLRP1 has been found in neurons, while both NLRP3 and NLRC4 (IPAF) have been identified in microglial cells.Apoptosis-associated speck like protein containing a caspase recruitment domain (ASC or Pycard) plays a key role in activation of the inflammasome. ASC helps recruit caspase-1 to associate with NLRs in the inflammasome complex via its CARD domain.ASC also has duties independent of the inflammasome as it has been shown to be required for MHC class II to present antigenic peptides in dendritic cells.
Inflammasome family:
NLRP1 inflammasome In addition to NOD and LRR, NLRP1 contains at its N-terminal a pyrin domain (PYD) and at its C-terminus an FIIND motif and a CARD, which distinguishes it from the other inflammasomes. While there is only one NLRP1 protein present in humans, rodents were found to have different paralogues. Upon activation, the C-terminal CARD homotypically interacts with the CARD of procaspase-1 or procaspase-5, while its N-terminal PYD homotypically interacts with the PYD of adaptor protein ASC, whose CARD can then recruit another pro-caspase-1. The overall recruitment and cleavage of procaspase-1 can then activate all downstream caspase-1 pathways.
Inflammasome family:
NLRP1B in mice and NLRP2 in rats were found to be responsive to Bacillus anthracis lethal toxin. The B. anthracis lethal factor proteolytically cleaves NLRP1B, which leads to ubiquitination of the receptor and targeting for degradation by the proteasome. This degradation generates a clipped C-terminal fragment, that subsequently binds to the rest of the protein in a non-covalent manner. During this process, a CARD on the C-terminal fragment becomes accessible for inflammasome assembly. So far, this activation mechanism depending on degradation by the proteasome machinery is unique among inflammasomes.NLRP1 activity is regulated by anti-apoptotic proteins Bcl-2 and Bcl-x(L) which, in resting cells, associate with and inhibit NLRP1 activity.
Inflammasome family:
NLRP3 inflammasome In addition to the NOD and LRR domains, NLRP3 contains a PYD domain like NLRP1 and thus activates caspase-1 the same way, using its PYD to recruit ASC. It forms only one oligomer per cell, and its oligomer is made of seven NLRP3 molecules. It is known to be the biggest inflammasome of all, covering about 2 um in diameter.NLRP3 oligomerization is activated by a large number of stimuli, including both PAMPs and DAMPs, which has implicated studies into its activation pathway. Examples of such stimuli from the DAMP group are crystalline matter such as monosodium urate (MSU) crystals, alum or asbestos, calcium influx, mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS), and extracellular ATP. The NLRP3 inflammasome was also found to respond to PAMPs of different pathogens, such as viruses, e.g. influenza A, bacteria, e.g. Neisseria gonorrhoeae, and bacterial toxins e.g. nigericin and maitotoxin.All NLRP3 activators induce cytosolic potassium efflux from cells and a sufficiently low cytosolic potassium concentration is capable of triggering NLRP3 activation in the absence other activators. Hence, the downstream point where all the different NLRP3 stimuli converge appears to be low intracellular potassium concentrations. NLRP3 inflammasome activation by cholesterol crystals and MSU crystals increase NLRP3-induced IL-1β-production and this process is thought to be abrogated in atherosclerosis and gout, where these crystals form in the cell. It has also been proven that inorganic particles like titanium dioxide, silicon dioxide and asbestos can trigger activation of the inflammasome. One study even indicates that NLRP3 inflammasome activation is involved in sleep regulation. Recent studies show that NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated neuroinflammation is involved in secondary brain injury after intracerebral hemorrhage.The major endogenous product of lipid peroxidation, 4-hydroxynonenal, directly bound to NLRP3 and inhibited the NLRP3 inflammasome activation independently of Nrf2 and NF-κB signaling NAIP/NLRC4 inflammasome NLRC4 is the subset of the NLRC family to form an inflammasome and contains only a CARD domain in addition to the NOD and LRR, which it uses to recruit the adaptor protein ASC or pro-caspase-1 directly.
Inflammasome family:
The NAIP/NLRC4 inflammasome is involved in host defense. In mice, NAIPs are activated by binding to the bacterial PAMPs in the cytosol, given by the rod (NAIP2) and needle (NAIP1) components of the bacterial type-3 secretion system (T3SS), as well as flagellin, the molecular building block of flagella (NAIP5 and 6). In humans, there is only one NAIP, and it responds only to needle component. Following ligand binding, NAIPs interact with NLRC4 to initiate the assembly of the NAIP/NLRC4 inflammasome, which then recruits and activates pro-caspase-1 via its CARD domain.Palmitate has been shown experimentally to induce the NLRC4 inflammasome without any bacteria present.The NAIP/NLRC4 inflammasome is the best described epithelial inflammasome and plays an important role in the restriction of intraepithelial bacterial populations during early stages of enterobacterial infection with e.g. Salmonella and Citrobacter rodentium. Intracellular bacteria trigger activation of the inflammasome, which results in specific expulsion of infected epithelial cells from the epithelium in order to reduce the bacterial loads. This process is also referred to as epithelial cell extrusion, and occurs without compromising the integrity of the epithelial barrier. Furthermore, the NAIP/NLRC4 inflammasome was found to reduce tumor loads in a mouse model of colorectal carcinoma (CRC), by triggering the removal of tumor-initiating cells.
Inflammasome family:
AIM2 inflammasome Main article: AIM2 The AIM2 inflammasome is a detector of cytosolic double stranded DNA (dsDNA) and plays an important role in the coordination of immune defense to DNA virus infections, as well as intracellular bacterial infections. AIM2 is activated by viral dsDNA, bacterial dsDNA and also aberrant host dsDNA., and consequently it has been linked to different human diseases. For example autoinflammation in psoriasis disease was found to be connected to recognition of self-DNA by AIM2. Furthermore, activation of the AIM2 is supposed to play role in autoimmune responses during the autoimmune disease systematic lupus erythematosus. The AIM2 inflammasome is also activated by pharmacological disruption of nuclear envelope integrity. AIM2 binds dsDNA with its C-terminal HIN-200 domain. The PYDdomain of AIM2 homotypically interacts by PYD-PYD interactions with ASC. The ASC CARD domain recruits pro-caspase-1 into the complex. Caspase-1 activates maturation of proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-18).
Inflammasome family:
IFI16 inflammasome Like AIM2, IFI16 (IFN-inducible protein 16) belongs to the PYHIN (pyrin and HIN domain-containing) family. IFI16 in humans, and IFI204 the mouse orthologue, play an important role in regulating the production of IFN during both bacterial and viral infections. In contrast to AIM2, IFI16 is a nuclear DNA sensor. Following interaction with viral DNAs, IFI16 was shown to recruit caspase-1 through interaction with ASC, resulting in cell death of CD4+ T cells in response to HIV infection.
Inflammasome family:
Pyrin Assembly of the pyrin inflammasome is triggered by bacterial toxins as well as effector proteins via the detection of pathogen-driven disturbances in cytoskeleton dynamics. More specifically, pyrin detects inactivation of the Rho GTPase RHOA by these bacterial factors. Following detection of RHOA inactivation, pyrin interacts with ASC through its N-terminal PYD domain to induce activation of caspase-1.
Inflammasome family:
Non-canonical inflammasomes The non-canonical inflammasomes are independent of caspase-1. In mice, the non-canonical inflammasome is dependent on caspase-11, whereas human non-canonical inflammasomes rely on caspase 4 and caspase 5. All of these caspases are able to directly bind intracellular LPS and subsequently form macromolecular complexes mediating gasdermin D cleavage and induction of pyroptotic cell death.In addition, non-canonical inflammasomes may also indirectly activate the NLRP3 inflammasome by triggering potassium efflux through membrane pores formed by Gasdermin-D. The NLRP3 inflammasome can then mediate processing of pro-inflammatory cytokines and result in release of IL-1β and IL-18 in response to non-canonical inflammasome activation.
Role in health:
Role in innate immunity As part of the innate immune system, inflammasomes play an important role in the induction of inflammatory cascades and coordination of host defenses, both via the activation and secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines and the induction of a specialized form of immune-stimulatory programmed cell death termed pyroptosis. Inflammasomes and their components can also be involved in PANoptosis, a unique form of inflammatory cell death that cannot be individually accounted for by pyroptosis, apoptosis, or necroptosis alone.In addition to professional cells of the innate immune system such as macrophages, several studies described various epithelial inflammasomes and highlighted their crucial role as a first line of defense. Considering the importance of epithelia as common pathogen entry sites as a result of their location at the interface to the environment, it seems intuitive that epithelial tissues do not merely fulfill a function as a physical barrier, but additionally initiate a defensive response upon initial contact with the pathogen. In agreement with this, different inflammasome components were found to be expressed in a variety of epithelial tissues. Expression of innate immune components at epithelial barriers furthermore facilitates pathogen detection given that expression of virulence factors and hence exposure of PAMPs is required for the breaching of these barriers during invasion, whereas these factors might be downregulated when the pathogen interacts with professional immune cells at later stages of infection. Epithelial inflammasomes have mainly been studied in the intestinal mucosa, but there is also evidence for inflammasomes in other types of epithelial such as the urinary bladder epithelium.While the murine caspase-11 is mainly expressed in macrophages, human caspase-4 is also expressed at high levels in intestinal epithelial cells. Similar to what was observed for the epithelial NAIP/NLRC4 inflammasome, human epithelial cells were shown to undergo caspase-4-dependent, caspase-1-independent cell death and extrusion in response to infection with the enteropathogens such as Salmonella, Shigella flexneri or Escherichia coli. Furthermore, secretion of IL-18 could be triggered by cytosolic LPS in epithelial cells.
Role in health:
Role of epithelial inflammasome Activation of epithelial inflammasomes in response to invading pathogens has important cell-autonomous effects on the infected cell itself as well as on its communication with other cell types on a local and global level. These downstream consequences of inflammasome activation can be divided into three categories, namely (1) death of the epithelial cell itself, (2) release of soluble pro-inflammatory molecules, and (3) effector cell recruitment and activation. In addition, epithelial inflammasome activation induces contraction of epithelial layers and prevents integrity loss at later stages of infection.In order to maintain the integrity of the epithelial barrier, cell death and subsequent extrusion of the infected cell have to occur in a coordinated manner to ensure sealing of the gap in the epithelium by neighboring cells. Epithelial cell death can be triggered in a direct, cell-autonomous manner by inflammasome activation itself, as well as by local recruitment of other death-inducing cell types, or global inflammation, resulting in increased epithelial turnover that removes both infected and uninfected cells. The most important consequence of epithelial cell death is the reduction of epithelial pathogen loads in order to maintain barrier integrity.Inflammasome activation is known to trigger cleavage, activation and secretion of pro-inflammatory IL-1β and IL-18, which then recruit different types of effector cells and coordinate the innate immune response. Expression of pro-IL-1β is dependent on Toll-like-receptor signaling, and hence intestinal epithelial cells produce very low levels of IL-1β themselves. Pro-IL-18, on the other hand, is constitutively expressed by different kinds of epithelial cells, and readily secreted upon inflammasome activation. The IL-18 secreted by the epithelium can induce production of IFN-γ by different cell types.
Role in health:
Importantly, inflammasome-derived IL-18 is also involved in recruitment of natural killer (NK) cells, that play a crucial role at early stages of innate immune responses. Furthermore, IL-18 can also stimulate the effector functions of NK cells that accumulated at the site of infection. The activated NK cells can then help in restricting the pathogen loads and spread to systemic sites at later time points compared to epithelium-autonomous induction of cell death. Finally, NK cells also secrete IFN-γ in order to recruit other inflammatory cell types.In a study of UPEC infection of the urinary bladder epithelium, epithelial cells were found to secrete IL-1β at high levels in response to bacterial infection. The study reported IL-1β secretion to be dependent on the NLRP3 inflammasome and caspase-1, and the secreted pro-inflammatory cytokine was required for recruitment of mast cells to the site of infection. The mast cells then induce a lytic form of cell death in the epithelium by secreting granules that are taken up by the epithelium.Besides NK cells and mast cells, neutrophils are other important innate immune effector cells that infiltrate the infected tissue after breaching of epithelial barriers by pathogens. Both IL-1β and IL-18 secreted in response to inflammasome activation are involved in the recruitment of neutrophils. Once they have reached the infected tissue, the neutrophils assist in immobilizing and eliminating the invading pathogens, whereby they either directly engulf or kill invading microbes. Furthermore, they secrete inflammatory mediators such as IFN-γ and IL-22. IFN-γ is known to drive activation of microbicidal capacity of mononuclear phagocytes. IL-22, on the other hand, will strengthen the epithelial barrier. Finally, neutrophils are responsible for the elimination of bacteria that are trapped within pyroptotic macrophages.
Role in disease:
Problems with regulating inflammasomes have been linked to several autoimmune diseases such as type I and type II diabetes, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), gouty arthritis, multiple sclerosis, and vitiligo as well as auto-inflammatory disorders.Gain-of-function mutations in inflammasome components are also known to cause cryopyrin-associated periodic syndrome (CAPS), a group of congenital diseases characterised by IL-1β-mediated systemic inflammation.
Clinical significance:
There has been some progress in the development of NLRP3 inhibitors some include: dapansutrile, and diarylsulfonylurea MCC-950. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Logarithmic mean temperature difference**
Logarithmic mean temperature difference:
In thermal engineering, the logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD) is used to determine the temperature driving force for heat transfer in flow systems, most notably in heat exchangers. The LMTD is a logarithmic average of the temperature difference between the hot and cold feeds at each end of the double pipe exchanger. For a given heat exchanger with constant area and heat transfer coefficient, the larger the LMTD, the more heat is transferred. The use of the LMTD arises straightforwardly from the analysis of a heat exchanger with constant flow rate and fluid thermal properties.
Definition:
We assume that a generic heat exchanger has two ends (which we call "A" and "B") at which the hot and cold streams enter or exit on either side; then, the LMTD is defined by the logarithmic mean as follows: ln ln ln ΔTB where ΔTA is the temperature difference between the two streams at end A, and ΔTB is the temperature difference between the two streams at end B. When the two temperature differences are equal, this formula does not directly resolve, so the LMTD is conventionally taken to equal its limit value, which is in this case trivially equal to the two differences.
Definition:
With this definition, the LMTD can be used to find the exchanged heat in a heat exchanger: Q=U×A×LMTD where (in SI units): Q is the exchanged heat duty (watts), U is the heat transfer coefficient (watts per kelvin per square meter), A is the exchange area.Note that estimating the heat transfer coefficient may be quite complicated.
This holds both for cocurrent flow, where the streams enter from the same end, and for countercurrent flow, where they enter from different ends.
In a cross-flow, in which one system, usually the heat sink, has the same nominal temperature at all points on the heat transfer surface, a similar relation between exchanged heat and LMTD holds, but with a correction factor. A correction factor is also required for other more complex geometries, such as a shell and tube exchanger with baffles.
Derivation:
Assume heat transfer is occurring in a heat exchanger along an axis z, from generic coordinate A to B, between two fluids, identified as 1 and 2, whose temperatures along z are T1(z) and T2(z).
The local exchanged heat flux at z is proportional to the temperature difference: q(z)=U(T2(z)−T1(z))=UΔT(z) The heat that leaves the fluids causes a temperature gradient according to Fourier's law: dT1dz=ka(T1(z)−T2(z))=−kaΔT(z)dT2dz=kb(T2(z)−T1(z))=kbΔT(z) where ka, kb are the thermal conductivities of the intervening material at points A and B respectively. Summed together, this becomes dΔTdz=d(T2−T1)dz=dT2dz−dT1dz=KΔT(z) where K = ka + kb.
The total exchanged energy is found by integrating the local heat transfer q from A to B: Q=D∫ABq(z)dz=UD∫ABΔT(z)dz=UD∫ABΔTdz, where D is the distance between the two fluids.
Derivation:
Use the fact that the heat exchanger area Ar is the pipe length B − A multiplied by the interpipe distance D: Q=UArB−A∫ABΔTdz=UAr∫ABΔTdz∫ABdz In both integrals, make a change of variables from z to ΔT: Q=UAr∫ΔT(A)ΔT(B)ΔTdzdΔTd(ΔT)∫ΔT(A)ΔT(B)dzdΔTd(ΔT) With the relation for ΔT found above, this becomes Q=UAr∫ΔT(A)ΔT(B)1Kd(ΔT)∫ΔT(A)ΔT(B)1KΔTd(ΔT) Integration at this point is trivial, and finally gives: ln (ΔT(B)ΔT(A)) ,from which the definition of LMTD follows.
Assumptions and limitations:
It has been assumed that the rate of change for the temperature of both fluids is proportional to the temperature difference; this assumption is valid for fluids with a constant specific heat, which is a good description of fluids changing temperature over a relatively small range. However, if the specific heat changes, the LMTD approach will no longer be accurate.
Assumptions and limitations:
A particular case for the LMTD are condensers and reboilers, where the latent heat associated to phase change is a special case of the hypothesis. For a condenser, the hot fluid inlet temperature is then equivalent to the hot fluid exit temperature.
Assumptions and limitations:
It has also been assumed that the heat transfer coefficient (U) is constant, and not a function of temperature. If this is not the case, the LMTD approach will again be less valid The LMTD is a steady-state concept, and cannot be used in dynamic analyses. In particular, if the LMTD were to be applied on a transient in which, for a brief time, the temperature difference had different signs on the two sides of the exchanger, the argument to the logarithm function would be negative, which is not allowable.
Assumptions and limitations:
No phase change during heat transfer Changes in kinetic energy and potential energy are neglected
Logarithmic Mean Pressure Difference:
A related quantity, the logarithmic mean pressure difference or LMPD, is often used in mass transfer for stagnant solvents with dilute solutes to simplify the bulk flow problem. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Postponement of affect**
Postponement of affect:
Postponement of affect is a defence mechanism which may be used against a variety of feelings or emotions. Such a 'temporal displacement, resulting simply in a later appearance of the affect reaction and in thus preventing the recognition of the motivating connection, is most frequently used against the affects of rage (or annoyance) and grief'.
Negative postponement: repression:
Grief In the affect of grief, postponement seems to be an essential component. What happens in mourning is nothing other than a gradual "working-through" of an affect which, if released in its full strength, would overwhelm the ego'. John Bowlby considered the first of the "four phases of mourning" to be a 'Phase of numbness that...may be interrupted by outbursts of extremely intense distress and/or anger'. Thus one can speak of 'a rather typical postponement of grief': '"I feel hurt about something and then automatically this kind of shields things up and then I feel like I can't really touch or feel anything very much"...postponement...[of] the weepiness'.Conversely, Eric Lindemann, describing 'the symptomatology and management of acute grief following the Coconut Grove night-club fire...showed that people who do not "break down" and express feelings appropriate to a bereavement may suffer from delayed or distorted grief'.
Negative postponement: repression:
Fright Investigation of 'the reaction of the ego to acute mortal danger...repeatedly found an absence of fear during the period of acute danger, but a subsequent appearance of acute fear when the danger was past'. This may be a contributing factor in post-traumatic stress disorder, where the sufferer may be 'the victim...of a blocked fear tension...he hadn't had the time to feel the fear'.'The postponement of fright is so well known to movie writers that it is not only frequently used but also designated by a special term: double-take'.
Negative postponement: repression:
Guilt Defence against guilt feelings may involve people using postponement by way of 'an isolation of guilt feeling...they do things without any guilt feeling, and experience an exaggerated feeling of guilt on some other occasion without being aware of the connection'. Such postponement can be linked to Nietzsche's concept of the "pale criminal" or 'neurotic immoralist...the "pale felon" who does not live up to his acts' – retrospective guilt: 'he was equal to his deed when he did it; but he could not bear its image after it was done...now the lead of his guilt lies upon him'.A similar postponement of guilt may be seen in everyday life, as when 'a woman may decide that her Superego will permit her to cheat on her spouse...[but] may begin to feel guilty many years afterwards.In pathological form something similar would seem to occur 'during a melancholic attack', or so Freud surmised: the 'super-ego becomes over-severe, abuses the poor ego...reproaches it for actions in the remotest past which had been taken lightly at the time – as though it had spent the whole interval in collecting accusations and had only been waiting for its current access of strength in order to bring them up'.Conversely, 'people who can muster the courage to face up to their guilt...will not suffer as long from the agony of the cognitive rehearsal of the guilt situation as people who postpone facing up to their guilt'.
Positive postponement: suppression:
Freud saw the development of the reality principle as a process which 'demands and carries into effect the postponement of satisfaction...and the temporary toleration of unpleasure as a step on the long indirect road to pleasure'. Such impulse control has been seen as a key component in emotional intelligence. 'The ability to delay gratification contributes powerfully to intellectual potential quite apart from IQ itself', while what has been called '"goal-directed self-imposed delay of gratification" is perhaps the essence of emotional self-regulation: the ability to deny impulse in the service of a goal'.Similarly, among the defence mechanisms, as part of 'the mature ways of dealing with real stress...there's suppression – instead of repressing a frightening feeling and pushing it right out of awareness, you hold it in check and bear the discomfort of feeling it. That means you are more likely to be able to work out how to handle it, given a bit of time'. In this sense, 'delaying, as opposed to avoidance, is a fine mechanism, another form of the method of learning I call step-by-step'. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Hemiaminal**
Hemiaminal:
In organic chemistry, a hemiaminal (also carbinolamine) is a functional group or type of chemical compound that has a hydroxyl group and an amine attached to the same carbon atom: −C(OH)(NR2)−. R can be hydrogen or an alkyl group. Hemiaminals are intermediates in imine formation from an amine and a carbonyl by alkylimino-de-oxo-bisubstitution. Hemiaminals can be viewed as a blend of aminals and geminal diol. They are a special case of amino alcohols.
Classification according to amine precursor:
Addition of ammonia The adducts formed by the addition of ammonia to aldehydes have long been studied. Compounds containing both a primary amino group and a hydroxyl group bonded to the same carbon atom are rarely stable, as they tend to dehydrate to form imines which polymerise to hexamethylenetetramine. A rare stable example is the adduct of ammonia and hexafluoroacetone, (CF3)2C(OH)NH2.The C-substituted derivatives are obtained by reaction of aldehydes and ammonia: RCHO NH RCHNH )3+3H2O Addition of primary amines N-substituted derivatives are somewhat stable. They are invoked but rarely observed as intermediates in the Mannich reaction. These N,N',N''-trisubstituted hexahydro-1,3,5-triazines arise from the condensation of the amine and formaldehyde as illustrated by the route to 1,3,5-trimethyl-1,3,5-triazacyclohexane: CH NMe CH NMe )3+3H2O Although adducts generated from primary amines or ammonia are usually unstable, the hemiaminals have been trapped in a cavity.
Classification according to amine precursor:
Addition of secondary amines: carbinolamines (hemiaminals) and bisaminomethanes One of the simplest reactions entails condensation of formaldehyde and dimethylamine. This reaction produces first the carbinolamine (a hemiaminal) and bis(dimethylamino)methane (Me = CH3): Me NH CH Me NCH OH Me NH Me NCH OH Me NCH NMe 2+H2O The reaction of formaldehyde with carbazole, which is weakly basic, proceed similarly: Again, this carbinol converts readily to the methylene-linked bis(carbazole).
Hemiaminal ethers:
Hemiaminal ethers have the following structure: R‴-C(NR'2)(OR")-R⁗. The glycosylamines are examples of cyclic hemiaminal ethers.
Hemiaminals and ethers
Use in total synthesis:
Hemiaminal formation is a key step in an asymmetric total synthesis of saxitoxin: In this reaction step the alkene group is first oxidized to an intermediate acyloin by action of osmium(III) chloride, oxone (sacrificial catalyst) and sodium carbonate (base). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
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