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**SLUC**
SLUC:
SLUC is a Spanish acronym for Software Libre para Uso Civil ("Free Software for Civil Use").
This is a software license published in Spain in December 2006 to allow all but military use of this kind of software.
SLUC:
The writers of the license maintain it is free software, but the Free Software Foundation says it is not free because it infringes the so-called "zero freedom" of the GPL, that is, the freedom to use the software for any purpose.The SLUC license avoids military use by prohibiting the use of the software to military personnel and to personnel in industries creating offensive weapons.
SLUC:
On the other hand, the SLUC license permits any other use of the software. It permits free copying, modification, and redistribution with the same freedom. This guarantees access to source code and adds some technical clauses to avoid software patents and any responsibility of the authors for the software's behavior or usability for any purpose.
The authors manifest the "Freedom of Conscience" of developers as the origin of the license. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Phloroglucinol reductase**
Phloroglucinol reductase:
In enzymology, a phloroglucinol reductase (EC 1.3.1.57) is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction dihydrophloroglucinol + NADP+ ⇌ phloroglucinol + NADPH + H+Thus, the two substrates of this enzyme are dihydrophloroglucinol and NADP+, whereas its 3 products are phloroglucinol, NADPH, and H+.
This enzyme belongs to the family of oxidoreductases, specifically those acting on the CH-CH group of donor with NAD+ or NADP+ as acceptor. The systematic name of this enzyme class is dihydrophloroglucinol:NADP+ oxidoreductase. This enzyme participates in benzoate degradation via coa ligation. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Hacksilver**
Hacksilver:
Hacksilver (sometimes referred to as hacksilber) consists of fragments of cut and bent silver items that were used as bullion or as currency by weight in antiquity.
Use:
Hacksilver was common among the Norsemen or Vikings, as a result of both their raiding and trade. Hacksilver may also have been used by Romans in their dealings with Pictish tribes. The name of the ruble, the basic unit of modern Russian currency, is derived from the Russian verb рубить ('rubit'), meaning "to chop", from the practice of the Rus', described by Ahmad ibn Fadlan visiting the Volga Vikings in 922. An example of the related Viking weighing scale with weights was found on the Isle of Gigha. Hacksilver may be derived from silver tableware, Roman or Byzantine, church plate and silver objects such as reliquaries or book-covers, and jewellery from a range of areas. Hoards may typically include a mixture of hacksilver, coins, ingots and complete small pieces of jewellery.
Use:
Hoards of hacksilver are also well known in pre and post-coinage antiquity, in European and Near Eastern contexts. The Cisjordan Corpus (c.1200-586 BC) is the largest identified concentration of pre-coinage hacksilver hoards, and provides key evidence for the Phoenician and wider Near Eastern roots of the development and proliferation of the earliest silver coinages in the Greek world and western tradition.
Use:
The widespread adoption of Greek silver coinages by c. 480 BC appears to have developed first out of cooperative relations between Greeks and Phoenicians, then partly as a competitive, culturally consolidating response to earlier Phoenician expansion and domination of silver trade, which had been conducted with hacksilver. Within the Cisjordan Corpus, a concentration of hacksilver hoards occurs in a part of southern Phoenicia that was recorded in antiquity as a territory of the Shardana tribes of Sea Peoples associated with Sardinia. Thompson, in her analyses of the hacksilver pieces, relates this textual evidence to lead isotope ratios that have ore signatures matching Sardinian ores. This is the first recognized material evidence linking the two regions in this critical period. The same hacksilver hoards have provided the first recognized provenance-evidence for far-reaching contact between Europe and Asia related to the prehistoric trafficking of metals.
Hacksilver hoards:
The 4th or 5th century hoard of Traprain Law (Traprain Treasure) consists of four silver coins and over 24 kilograms of sliced-up Late Roman silver tableware, much of it of very high quality. Whether this was handed over by Romans to the Pictish occupants of the site, or the products of raids on Roman Britain, is unclear.
The Vale of York hoard includes 617 silver coins and hacksilver.
The Cuerdale Hoard includes 8,600 items, silver coins and hacksilver.
The Skaill Hoard, the largest Viking Age silver hoard found in Scotland, consists of over 100 items, including jewelry, a few coins and assorted hacksilver. The hoard, dated to between 950 and 970, was found in Skaill, Sandwick, Orkney, in 1858.
The main Penrith Hoard is of Viking-period penannular brooches, but a separate hoard found very close by includes many pieces of hacksilver.
The 'southern Phoenician' hacksilver hoards in the Cisjordan Corpus were found at Ein Hofez, Tell Keisan, Dor and Akko.
Sources:
Graham-Campbell, James; Batey, Colleen E. (1998). Vikings in Scotland: An Archaeological Survey. Edinburgh University Press. p. 243. ISBN 0-7486-0641-6.
James Graham-Campbell: The Viking-age silver and gold hoards of Scandinavian character from Scotland M. Bogucki: Reasons for hiding Viking Age hack silver hoards Hacksilver in the database of the National Museums of Scotland Hacksilver in the database of the British Museum Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine Hacksilber Project | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Firewall pinhole**
Firewall pinhole:
In computer networking, a firewall pinhole is a port that is not protected by a firewall to allow a particular application to gain access to a service on a host in the network protected by the firewall.Leaving ports open in firewall configurations exposes the protected system to potentially malicious abuse. A fully closed firewall prevents applications from accessing services on the other side of the firewall. For protection, the mechanism for opening a pinhole in the firewall should implement user validation and authorization.
Firewall pinhole:
For firewalls performing a network address translation (NAT) function, the mapping between the external {IP address, port} socket and the internal {IP address, port} socket is often called a pinhole.
Pinholes can be created manually or programmatically. They can be temporary, created dynamically for a specific duration such as for a dynamic connection, or permanent, such as for signaling functions.
Firewalls sometimes automatically close pinholes after a period of time (typically a few minutes) to minimize the security exposure. Applications that require a pinhole to be kept open often need to generate artificial traffic through the pinhole in order to cause the firewall to restart its timer. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Elbow crater**
Elbow crater:
Elbow is a meteorite crater just north of the village of Riverhurst in Saskatchewan, Canada.
The crater is 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) in diameter with an age estimated to be 395 ± 25 million years (during the Devonian Period). The crater is buried beneath younger sediments and is not exposed at the surface. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Niementowski quinoline synthesis**
Niementowski quinoline synthesis:
The Niementowski quinoline synthesis is the chemical reaction of anthranilic acids and ketones (or aldehydes) to form γ-hydroxyquinoline derivatives.
Overview:
In 1894, Niementowski reported that 2-phenyl-4-hydroxyquinoline was formed when anthranilic acid and acetophenone were heated to 120–130 °C. He later found that at higher heat, 200 °C, anthranilic acid and heptaldehyde formed minimal yields of 4-hydroxy-3-pentaquinoline. Several reviews have been published.
Variations:
The temperatures required for this reaction make it less popular than other quinoline synthetic procedures. However, variations have been proposed to make this a more pragmatic and useful reaction. Adding phosphorus oxychloride to the reaction mixture mediates a condensation to make both isomers of an important precursor to an important α1-adrenoreceptor antagonist. When the 3 position of an arylketone is substituted, it has been shown that a Niementowski-type reaction with propionic acid can produce a 4-hydroxyquinoline with 2-thiomethyl substitute. The method has also been altered to occur with a catalytic amount of base, or in the presence of polyphosphoric acid.
Mechanism:
Because of the similarity of these to the reagents in the Friedlander quinolone synthesis, a benzaldehyde with an aldehyde or ketone, the Niementowski quinoline synthesis mechanism is minimally different from that of the Friedländer synthesis. While studied in depth, two reaction pathways are possible and both have significant support. The reaction is thought to begin with the formation of a Schiff base, and then proceed via an intra-molecular condensation to make an imine intermediate (see below). There is then a loss of water that leads to a ring closing and formation of the quinoline derivative. Most evidence supports this as the mechanism in normal conditions of 120–130 °C. Alternatively, the reaction begins with an intermolecular condensation and subsequent formation of the imine intermediate. The latter has been shown to be more common under acidic or basic conditions. A similar pathway has been proposed for the Niementowski quinazoline synthesis. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Hexadecanal**
Hexadecanal:
Hexadecanal is an organic compound with the chemical formula C16H32O.
In biology:
Hexadecanal is found in human skin, saliva, and feces. It has a calming effect on mice.A 2017 study found that neurotypical men demonstrate an increase in electrodermal activity when exposed to subliminal levels of hexadecanal while men with autism spectrum disorder do not.In 2021, inhalation of hexadecanal was found to reduce aggression in men but to trigger aggression in women. Hexadecanal is one of the most abundant substances emitted by human babies from their heads, which may be an evolutionary survival mechanism to induce mothers to defend the baby and fathers to not attack it. But it is not yet known whether the amount of hexadecanal emitted by humans is sufficient to affect other humans. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Proguanil**
Proguanil:
Proguanil, also known as chlorguanide and chloroguanide, is a medication used to treat and prevent malaria. It is often used together with chloroquine or atovaquone. When used with chloroquine the combination will treat mild chloroquine resistant malaria. It is taken by mouth.Side effects include diarrhea, constipation, skin rashes, hair loss, and itchiness. Because malaria tends to be more severe in pregnancy, the benefit typically outweighs the risk. If used during pregnancy it should be taken with folate. It is likely safe for use during breastfeeding. Proguanil is converted by the liver to its active metabolite, cycloguanil.It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. In the United States and Canada it is only available in combination as atovaquone/proguanil.
History:
When the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor started World War II in the Pacific, the US became very interested in antimalarial medications and funded a large joint US-UK program to find new non-toxic and easy to produce drugs of the type. It was joined by a team led by Frank Rose at the Medical Chemicals Section of Imperial Chemical Industries (later Pharmaceuticals Division, which ended up demerged into Zeneca) at Blackley, which earlier developed a way to manufacture mepacrine, an antimalarial made exclusively in Germany before the war.Rose and his colleague Frank Curd decided to concentrate on pyrimidines as relatively simple to synthetise, even though the Advisory Panel recommended against that because most antimalarials by then were either quinolines or acridines. Checking prospective 2,4-diaminopyridine derivatives with a basic side chain and a benzenoid moiety one after another, they noticed a geometric pattern in the effective analogs and wondered if they could reproduce their interesting biologic activity with molecules even simpler, without the pyrimidine ring, and tried biguanides (then called diguanides) with which Rose was familiar due to his earlier sulphonamide research to great effect. The drug was introduced by ICI in 1945.
Medical uses:
Proguanil is used for the prevention and treatment of malaria in both adults and children, particularly in areas where chloroquine-resistant P. falciparum malaria has been reported. It is usually taken in combination with atovaquone, another antimalarial drug.It is also effective in the treatment of most other multi-drug resistant forms of P. falciparum; the success rate exceeds 93%.
Side effects:
Proguanil is generally well tolerated, and most people do not experience side effects. However, common side effects include abdominal pain, nausea, headache, and fever. Taking proguanil with food may lessen these side effects. Proguanil should not be taken by people with severe renal impairment, pregnant women, or women who are breastfeeding children less than 5 kg. There have also been reports of increased levels of liver enzymes, which may remain high for up to 4 weeks after completion of treatment.
Mechanism:
When used alone, proguanil functions as a prodrug. Its active metabolite, cycloguanil, is an inhibitor of dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR). Although both mammals and parasites produce DHFR, cycloguanil's inhibitory activity is specific for parasitic DHFR. This enzyme is a critical component of the folic acid cycle. Inhibition of DHFR prevents the parasite from recycling dihydrofolate back to tetrahydrofolate (THF). THF is required for DNA synthesis, amino acid synthesis, and methylation; thus, DHFR inhibition shuts down these processes.Proguanil displays synergism when used in combination with the antimalarial atovaquone. This mechanism of action differs from when proguanil was used as a singular agent. In this case, it is not thought to function as a DHFR inhibitor. The addition of proguanil has shown to reduce resistance to atovaquone and increase the ability of atovaquone to trigger a mitochondrial apoptotic cascade. This is commonly referred to as "collapse of the mitochondrial membrane potential." Proguanil lowers the effective concentration of atovaquone needed to increase permeability of the mitochondrial membrane. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Matrix splitting**
Matrix splitting:
In the mathematical discipline of numerical linear algebra, a matrix splitting is an expression which represents a given matrix as a sum or difference of matrices. Many iterative methods (for example, for systems of differential equations) depend upon the direct solution of matrix equations involving matrices more general than tridiagonal matrices. These matrix equations can often be solved directly and efficiently when written as a matrix splitting. The technique was devised by Richard S. Varga in 1960.
Regular splittings:
We seek to solve the matrix equation where A is a given n × n non-singular matrix, and k is a given column vector with n components. We split the matrix A into where B and C are n × n matrices. If, for an arbitrary n × n matrix M, M has nonnegative entries, we write M ≥ 0. If M has only positive entries, we write M > 0. Similarly, if the matrix M1 − M2 has nonnegative entries, we write M1 ≥ M2.
Regular splittings:
Definition: A = B − C is a regular splitting of A if B−1 ≥ 0 and C ≥ 0.
Regular splittings:
We assume that matrix equations of the form where g is a given column vector, can be solved directly for the vector x. If (2) represents a regular splitting of A, then the iterative method where x(0) is an arbitrary vector, can be carried out. Equivalently, we write (4) in the form The matrix D = B−1C has nonnegative entries if (2) represents a regular splitting of A.It can be shown that if A−1 > 0, then ρ(D) < 1, where ρ(D) represents the spectral radius of D, and thus D is a convergent matrix. As a consequence, the iterative method (5) is necessarily convergent.If, in addition, the splitting (2) is chosen so that the matrix B is a diagonal matrix (with the diagonal entries all non-zero, since B must be invertible), then B can be inverted in linear time (see Time complexity).
Matrix iterative methods:
Many iterative methods can be described as a matrix splitting. If the diagonal entries of the matrix A are all nonzero, and we express the matrix A as the matrix sum where D is the diagonal part of A, and U and L are respectively strictly upper and lower triangular n × n matrices, then we have the following.
The Jacobi method can be represented in matrix form as a splitting The Gauss–Seidel method can be represented in matrix form as a splitting The method of successive over-relaxation can be represented in matrix form as a splitting
Example:
Regular splitting In equation (1), let Let us apply the splitting (7) which is used in the Jacobi method: we split A in such a way that B consists of all of the diagonal elements of A, and C consists of all of the off-diagonal elements of A, negated. (Of course this is not the only useful way to split a matrix into two matrices.) We have 47 18 13 16 11 21 15 13 12 22 ),B−1=(160001400015), D=B−1C=(013121401235150),B−1k=(56−32).
Example:
Since B−1 ≥ 0 and C ≥ 0, the splitting (11) is a regular splitting. Since A−1 > 0, the spectral radius ρ(D) < 1. (The approximate eigenvalues of D are 0.4599820 0.3397859 0.7997679.
Example:
) Hence, the matrix D is convergent and the method (5) necessarily converges for the problem (10). Note that the diagonal elements of A are all greater than zero, the off-diagonal elements of A are all less than zero and A is strictly diagonally dominant.The method (5) applied to the problem (10) then takes the form The exact solution to equation (12) is The first few iterates for equation (12) are listed in the table below, beginning with x(0) = (0.0, 0.0, 0.0)T. From the table one can see that the method is evidently converging to the solution (13), albeit rather slowly.
Example:
Jacobi method As stated above, the Jacobi method (7) is the same as the specific regular splitting (11) demonstrated above.
Gauss–Seidel method Since the diagonal entries of the matrix A in problem (10) are all nonzero, we can express the matrix A as the splitting (6), where We then have 120 20 30 13 24 ), 120 40 60 10 75 26 51 120 100 335 233 ).
The Gauss–Seidel method (8) applied to the problem (10) takes the form The first few iterates for equation (15) are listed in the table below, beginning with x(0) = (0.0, 0.0, 0.0)T. From the table one can see that the method is evidently converging to the solution (13), somewhat faster than the Jacobi method described above.
Successive over-relaxation method Let ω = 1.1. Using the splitting (14) of the matrix A in problem (10) for the successive over-relaxation method, we have 12 0.55 1.441 0.66 2.4 ), 12 1.2 4.4 6.6 0.33 0.01 8.415 0.8646 2.9062 5.0073 ), 12 11 36.575 25.6135 ).
The successive over-relaxation method (9) applied to the problem (10) takes the form The first few iterates for equation (16) are listed in the table below, beginning with x(0) = (0.0, 0.0, 0.0)T. From the table one can see that the method is evidently converging to the solution (13), slightly faster than the Gauss–Seidel method described above. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**ITIES**
ITIES:
In electrochemistry, ITIES (interface between two immiscible electrolyte solutions) is an electrochemical interface that is either polarisable or polarised. An ITIES is polarisable if one can change the Galvani potential difference, or in other words the difference of inner potentials between the two adjacent phases, without noticeably changing the chemical composition of the respective phases (i.e. without noticeable electrochemical reactions taking place at the interface). An ITIES system is polarised if the distribution of the different charges and redox species between the two phases determines the Galvani potential difference.
ITIES:
Usually, one electrolyte is an aqueous electrolyte composed of hydrophilic ions such as NaCl dissolved in water and the other electrolyte is a lipophilic salt such as tetrabutylammonium tetraphenylborate dissolved in an organic solvent immiscible with water such as nitrobenzene, or 1,2-dichloroethane.
Charge transfer reactions of an ITIES:
Three major classes of charge transfer reactions can be studied at an ITIES: Ion transfer reactions Assisted ion transfer reactions Heterogeneous electron transfer reactionsThe Nernst equation for an ion transfer reaction reads ln (aioaiw) ,where Δowϕi⊖ is the standard transfer potential defined as the Gibbs energy of transfer expressed in a voltage scale.
Δowϕi⊖=ΔGtr,i⊖,w→oziF The Nernst equation for a single heterogeneous electron transfer reaction reads ET ⊖+RTFln(aR1waO2oaO1waR2o) ,where ET ⊖ is the standard redox potential for the interfacial transfer of electrons defined as the difference the standard redox potentials of the two redox couples but referred to the aqueous standard hydrogen electrode (SHE).
ET SHE SHE w
Four-electrode cell:
To study charge transfer reactions of an ITIES, a four-electrode cell is used.
Two reference electrodes are used to control the polarisation of the interface, and two counter electrodes made of noble metals are used to pass the current. The aqueous supporting electrolyte must be hydrophilic, such as LiCl, and the organic electrolyte must be lipophilic, such as tetraheptylammonium tetra-pentafluorophenyl borate.
Ion partition coefficient and ion distribution coefficient:
Contrary to a neutral solute, the partition coefficient of an ion depends on the Galvani potential difference between the two phases: exp exp [ziFRTΔowϕ]
Distribution potential:
When a salt is distributed between two phases, the Galvani potential difference is called the distribution potential and is obtained from the respective Nernst equations for the cation C+ and the anion A– to read C+ A- ln C+ A- C+ A- o) where γ represents the activity coefficient. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide**
Electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide:
The electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide, also known as electrolysis of carbon dioxide, is the conversion of carbon dioxide (CO2) to more reduced chemical species using electrical energy. It is one possible step in the broad scheme of carbon capture and utilization, nevertheless it is deemed to be one of the most promising approaches.Electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide represents a possible means of producing chemicals or fuels, converting carbon dioxide (CO2) to organic feedstocks such as formic acid (HCOOH), carbon monoxide (CO), methane (CH4), ethylene (C2H4) and ethanol (C2H5OH). Among the more selective metallic catalysts in this field are tin for formic acid, silver for carbon monoxide and copper for methane, ethylene or ethanol. Methanol, propanol and 1-butanol have also been produced via CO2 electrochemical reduction, albeit in small quantities. The main challenges are the relatively high cost of electricity (vs petroleum) and the fact that most CO2 is diluted with O2 and thus is an unsuitable substrate.
Electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide:
The first examples of electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide are from the 19th century, when carbon dioxide was reduced to carbon monoxide using a zinc cathode. Research in this field intensified in the 1980s following the oil embargoes of the 1970s. As of 2021, pilot-scale carbon dioxide electrochemical reduction is being developed by several companies, including Siemens, Dioxide Materials, Twelve and GIGKarasek. The techno-economic analysis was recently conducted to assess the key technical gaps and commercial potentials of the carbon dioxide electrolysis technology at near ambient conditions.
Chemicals from carbon dioxide:
In carbon fixation, plants convert carbon dioxide into sugars, from which many biosynthetic pathways originate. The catalyst responsible for this conversion, RuBisCO, is the most common protein. Some anaerobic organisms employ enzymes to convert CO2 to carbon monoxide, from which fatty acids can be made.In industry, a few products are made from CO2, including urea, salicylic acid, methanol, and certain inorganic and organic carbonates. In the laboratory, carbon dioxide is sometimes used to prepare carboxylic acids in a process known as carboxylation. No electrochemical CO2 electrolyzer that operates at room temperature has been commercialized. Elevated temperature solid oxide electrolyzer cells (SOECs) for CO2 reduction to CO are commercially available. For example, Haldor Topsoe offers SOECs for CO2 reduction with a reported 6-8 kWh per Nm3 CO produced and purity up to 99.999% CO.
Electrocatalysis:
The electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide to various products is usually described as: The redox potentials for these reactions are similar to that for hydrogen evolution in aqueous electrolytes, thus electrochemical reduction of CO2 is usually competitive with hydrogen evolution reaction.Electrochemical methods have gained significant attention: at ambient pressure and room temperature; in connection with renewable energy sources (see also solar fuel) competitive controllability, modularity and scale-up are relatively simple.The electrochemical reduction or electrocatalytic conversion of CO2 can produce value-added chemicals such methane, ethylene, ethanol, etc., and the products are mainly dependent on the selected catalysts and operating potentials (applying reduction voltage). A variety of homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts have been evaluated.Many such processes are assumed to operate via the intermediacy of metal carbon dioxide complexes. Many processes suffer from high overpotential, low current efficiency, low selectivity, slow kinetics, and/or poor catalyst stability.The composition of the electrolyte can be decisive. Gas-diffusion electrodes are beneficial. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Tidal creek**
Tidal creek:
A tidal creek or tidal channel is a narrow inlet or estuary that is affected by the ebb and flow of ocean tides. Thus, it has variable salinity and electrical conductivity over the tidal cycle, and flushes salts from inland soils. Tidal creeks are characterized by slow water velocity, resulting in buildup of fine, organic sediment in wetlands. Creeks may often be a dry to muddy channel with little or no flow at low tide, but with significant depth of water at high tide. Due to the temporal variability of water quality parameters within the tidally influenced zone, there are unique biota associated with tidal creeks which are often specialised to such zones. Nutrients and organic matter are delivered downstream to habitats normally lacking these, while the creeks also provide access to inland habitat for salt-water organisms.
Terminology:
A "creek" normally refers to a tidal water channel in British English and in other parts of the Anglosphere. This is the case in many countries in the Commonwealth, such as The Bahamas, as well as some parts of the United States (near the Chesapeake Bay, parts of New England, and southern Florida). In the tidal section of the River Thames in London, the names of the rivers that flow into it all become Creeks for the lower section that is tidal; thus, for example, the River Lea becomes Bow Creek in its tidal section. In parts of southwest England and Wales, the term "pill" is used, and is found in placenames such as Huntspill.
Terminology:
A narrow channel between islands in the Florida Keys is known there as a creek. On the India and Pakistan borders, the term also applies to the salt water inlets enclosed by mangroves. Creeks are found dispersed all along the Indian coast.
Terminology:
A "tidal course" is the more general term for any elongated indentation or valley in a wetland originated by tidal processes along which water flows pumped by tidal influence. It includes a series of indentations within a wide spectrum of sizes (width, length, and depth) and with at least two levels of inundation. Subtypes are tidal rills, tidal grooves, tidal gullies, that normally do not contain water even during neap low tide, and tidal creeks and tidal channels, that have water permanently.
Terminology:
A tidal course creates a system for its ecosystem that circulates water, sediments, organic matter, nutrient, and pollutants.
A tidal course is essential to the surrounding flora and fauna because they provide protection, nutrients, a place to reproduce, and a habitat for juvenile species before they go into the ocean.
Development:
Whereas areas of coastline that experience high wave activity are usually characterized by beaches, areas sheltered from wave action may develop tidal wetland systems. In these areas, upland creeks drain towards the shore, draining the high part of the coast. At some point they become tidal, technically estuarine.
Development:
As they come closer to shore, they often become very sinuous, due to the flatness of the land. In addition to draining upland fresh water (in many instances) tidal creeks form by the ebb tide seaward flow and downward incision of the water as it flows from inland to the shore. At high tide and spring tide, large areas are covered with water. This huge volume of water retreats at the start of the ebb tide in a surge. Later on during the ebb tide, water remains only in the creeks and the current is mainly a river (drainage) current and not tidal. Tidal creeks deposit sediment in a process called accretion, during the flood tide, which can maintain a flat plain by counteracting sea level rise or land subsidence. High tidal flow will maintain channels, while slower flow velocity can lead to closure of tidal creeks as they become clogged with sediment. Well-developed wetlands have sharp-banked tidal creeks, with vegetation stabilizing the sides of the creeks. Such tidal creeks will also be connected in networks: a multitude of smaller creeks called first-order creeks will feed into large ones, creating complex patterns of drainage.
Human impact:
Especially in areas prone to compaction or subsidence - like peat wetlands - human use of tidal creek flow can lead to the expansion of the creeks. Natural subsidence is compounded by anthropogenic sediment compaction, lowering the land level. Deforestation and other human-development-related processes can destabilize the banks of creeks and increase the amount of sediment in them. This slows the velocity of the water, which means that instead of cutting deeper channels, the water flows gently farther inland in shallow channels. Human development in tidal areas often results in diking, which changes the course of the tidal creeks and the salinity of the tidal area into freshwater.Restoration of tidal wetlands begins with restoration of the creek systems, which determine the shape of the land, the nutrient and salinity levels, and the type of vegetation and animal communities in a wetland.
Examples:
There are thousands of examples of tidal creeks throughout the world. A few specific ones are: Burn of Ayreland, Mainland, Orkney, Scotland Americano Creek, California, US Crooked River, Florida, US Ennore Creek, Chennai, India Thane Creek, Mumbai Metropolitan Region, Maharashtra, India Gorai Creek, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India Vasai Creek, Thane, Maharashtra, India Dubai Creek, United Arab Emirates | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Sequence-related amplified polymorphism**
Sequence-related amplified polymorphism:
A sequence related amplified polymorphism (SRAP) is a molecular technique, developed by G. Li and C. F. Quiros in 2001, for detecting genetic variation in the open reading frames (ORFs) of genomes of plants and related organisms. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Ribonuclease F**
Ribonuclease F:
Ribonuclease F (EC 3.1.27.7, ribonuclease F (E. coli)) is an enzyme. This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction Endonucleolytic cleavage of RNA precursor into two, leaving 5'-hydroxy and 3'-phosphate groups | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Fireball (software)**
Fireball (software):
Fireball is a browser hijacking malware discovered by the security company Check Point. It takes over target browsers and turns them into zombies.
Discovery:
Check Point claims to have discovered Fireball malware in 2017 but Microsoft claims that it has been tracking the malware since 2015.
Authorship:
The malware has been tracked to a Chinese company called Rafotech. They are a digital marketing agency based in Beijing. They have been bundling it with legitimate software that they provide to users. Some of the programs that Rafotech bundled the Fireball software are Deal WiFi, Mustang Browser, SoSoDesk and FVP Image Viewer.Rafotech claims to have 300 million users (similar to the estimated number of infections) worldwide but denies that it uses these fake search engines. Security researchers dispute this claim, noting that Rafotech may have also purchased additional distribution means from other threat actors. Their fake search engines are popular with 14 of them ranked among the top 10,000 websites and some reaching the top 1,000.
Inner workings:
Malware has the ability of running any code on victim computers, such as downloading an arbitrary file and hijacking and manipulating infected user's web traffic in order to generate advertisement revenue. It installs plugins and additional configurations to boost its advertisements, and has potential to turn into a distributor for any additional malware. Malware is spread mostly via bundling. It is installed on a victim's machine alongside a wanted program, often without the user's consent. Digital marketing agency Rafotech has been indicated as producer of the software. The same company has been accused to host fake search engines, which redirect the queries to yahoo.com or google.com. The fake search engines include tracking pixels used to collect private information from users. Fireball manipulates the infected browsers and turn their default search engines and home pages into the above-mentioned fake search engines, which enable the software to spy on users of the infected browsers.
Inner workings:
The Fireball malware does not conform to usual characteristics of bundled software. Check Point asserts, “The malware and the fake search engines don’t carry indicators connecting them to Rafotech, they cannot be uninstalled by an ordinary user and they conceal their true nature.” Furthermore, Fireball “displays great sophistication and quality evasion techniques, including anti-detection capabilities, multilayer structure and a flexible C&C.”Another deception is the use of legitimate-seeming Digital certificates. Rafotech's fake search engines and the malware itself doesn't carry any identifying marks.The program has the capability to run arbitrary code, download applications and harvest more sensitive information, such as banking and medical details. Cyber criminals could leverage the source code to create new types of malware.
Infections:
It is estimated that 250 million computers are infected worldwide. Check Point researches also claim that this malware might have infected computers on 20% of corporate networks, making it a high volume internet threat. According to this source, the highest infection rates were discovered in Indonesia, India and Brazil. It is speculated that the related browser hijackers operations form possibly the largest infection operation in history.Table 1 The top countries that have been infected with the Fireball malware There is some dispute to these numbers according to Microsoft, it has been tracking the malware since 2015. Its results are based on the Fireball infections that have been cleaned by Windows Defender and the Malicious Software Removal Tool. Based on the collected data the total infections are 40 million. Check Point researchers used the number of visits to malware-carrying search pages not the device itself. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Endorheic lake**
Endorheic lake:
An endorheic lake (also called a sink lake or terminal lake) is a collection of water within an endorheic basin, or sink, with no evident outlet. Endorheic lakes are generally saline as a result of being unable to get rid of solutes left in the lake by evaporation. These lakes can be used as indicators of anthropogenic change, such as irrigation or climate change, in the areas surrounding them. Lakes with subsurface drainage are considered cryptorheic.
Components of endorheic lakes:
The two main ways that endorheic lakes accumulate water are through river flow into the lake (discharge) and precipitation falling into the lake. The collected water of the lake, instead of discharging, can only be lost due to either evapotranspiration or percolation (water sinking underground, e.g., to become groundwater in an aquifer). Because of this lack of an outlet, endorheic lakes are mostly salt water rather than fresh water. The salinity in the lake gradually builds up through years as water evaporates and leaves its solutes behind.
Similar types of lakes:
Depending on water losses, precipitation, and inflow (e.g., a spring, a tributary, or flooding), the temporal result of a lake in a sink may change. The lake could be a persistent lake, an intermittent lake, a playa lake (temporarily covered with water), or an ephemeral lake, which completely disappears (e. g. by evaporation) before reappearing in wetter seasons. These terms (playa, ephemeral lake, etc.) are sometimes used interchangeably, but there has been activity tending towards defining meanings for each term. This change would mean less confusion over the designations of different types of endorheic lakes.
Anthropogenic effects:
Many endorheic lakes exist in arid or semi-arid climates. Because these climates have limited rainfall, but also a high possibility of evaporation, endorheic lakes in these regions often experience flux in their water levels. This flux can be aggravated by anthropogenic intrusions (e.g. global warming).
Anthropogenic effects:
In Central Asia, a large percentage of water for farming comes from surface water, like endorheic lakes, rather than precipitation. Because of the overall lack of precipitation, farming in this area can only be sustained by irrigation. Massive amounts of irrigation in agrarian Central Asia have led to the reduction in size of endorheic lakes. The Aral Sea was once the second largest endorheic lake in the world, but anthropogenic effects such as bad irrigation practices have led to this lake's drastic decrease in size and turn into a desert named the Aralkum Desert.
Anthropogenic effects:
Endorheic lakes, because of the closed nature of their systems, are sensitive to new conditions. Records of previous environmental change are preserved in lake sediments in endorheic lakes that are being affected by climate change; these natural records can give information about past climates and conditions of the lake. Research on these lake sediments could lead to these lakes becoming archives of the effects of climate change. There is early evidence that in regions affected by irrigation the majority of endorheic lake area may have already been lost.
List of endorheic lakes:
Africa Afar Depression (Great Rift Valley in East Africa) Lake Chad (Central Africa) Asia Aral Sea (Kazakhstan; Uzbekistan) Caspian Sea (Iran; Azerbaijan; Russia; Kazakhstan; Turkmenistan) Dead Sea (Israel; Jordan; West Bank) Gavkhouni (Isfahan, Iran) Hamun-e Jaz Murian (Kerman and Sistan and Baluchistan, Iran) Hamun Lake (Iran) Lake Urmia (West Azerbaijan Province, Iran) Lake Van (Turkey) Maharloo Lake (Fars Province, Iran) Namak Lake (Qom, Iran) Qarhan Playa (Qinghai, China) Australia Kumpupintil Lake (Western Australia) Lake Eyre (South Australia) Lake George (New South Wales) North America Carson Sink (Churchill County, Nevada, U.S.) Devil's Lake (Wisconsin, U.S.) Lake Enriquillo (Dominican Republic) Etang Saumâtre (Haiti) Great Salt Lake (Utah, U.S.) Humboldt Sink (northwestern Nevada, U.S.) Owens Lake (Eastern Sierra, California, U.S.) Pyramid Lake (western Nevada, U.S.) Quinn River Sink (northwestern Nevada, U.S.) Salton Sink (southern California, U.S.) Eagle Lake (British Columbia, Canada) Choelquoit Lake (British Columbia, Canada) Martin Lake (British Columbia, Canada) Lake Xochimilco (Mexico City, Mexico) | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Breast eczema**
Breast eczema:
Breast eczema may affect the nipples, areolae, or surrounding skin, with eczema of the nipples being of the moist type with oozing and crusting, in which painful fissuring is frequently seen, especially in nursing mothers.: 78 It will often occur in pregnancy even without breast feeding.
Persisting eczema of the nipple in the middle-aged and elderly needs to be discussed with a doctor, as a rare type of breast cancer called Paget's disease can cause these symptoms. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Penmesterol**
Penmesterol:
Penmesterol (INN) (brand names Pandrocine, Testopan; former developmental code name RP-12222), or penmestrol, also known as 17α-methyltestosterone 3-cyclopentyl enol ether, is a synthetic, orally active anabolic-androgenic steroid (AAS) that was developed in the early 1960s. It is the 3-cyclopentyl enol ether of methyltestosterone. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**16-Methylene-17α-hydroxyprogesterone acetate**
16-Methylene-17α-hydroxyprogesterone acetate:
16-Methylene-17α-hydroxyprogesterone acetate is a progestin of the 17α-hydroxyprogesterone group which was never marketed. Given orally, it shows about 2.5-fold the progestogenic activity of parenteral progesterone in animal bioassays. It is a parent compound of the following clinically used progestins: Chlormethenmadinone acetate (6-chloro-16-methylene-17α-hydroxy-Δ6-progesterone acetate) Melengestrol acetate (6-methyl-16-methylene-17α-hydroxy-Δ6-progesterone acetate) Methenmadinone acetate (16-methylene-17α-hydroxy-Δ6-progesterone acetate) Segesterone acetate (16-methylene-17α-hydroxy-19-norprogesterone acetate) | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**SEC22A**
SEC22A:
Vesicle-trafficking protein SEC22a is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SEC22A gene.The protein encoded by this gene belongs to the member of the SEC22 family of vesicle trafficking proteins. This protein has similarity to rat SEC22 and may act in the early stages of the secretory pathway. There is evidence for the use of multiple poly A sites in this gene. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Hash chain**
Hash chain:
A hash chain is the successive application of a cryptographic hash function to a piece of data. In computer security, a hash chain is a method used to produce many one-time keys from a single key or password. For non-repudiation, a hash function can be applied successively to additional pieces of data in order to record the chronology of data's existence.
Definition:
A hash chain is a successive application of a cryptographic hash function h to a string x For example, h(h(h(h(x)))) gives a hash chain of length 4, often denoted h4(x)
Applications:
Leslie Lamport suggested the use of hash chains as a password protection scheme in an insecure environment. A server which needs to provide authentication may store a hash chain rather than a plain text password and prevent theft of the password in transmission or theft from the server. For example, a server begins by storing 1000 (password) which is provided by the user. When the user wishes to authenticate, they supply 999 (password) to the server. The server computes 999 1000 (password) and verifies this matches the hash chain it has stored. It then stores 999 (password) for the next time the user wishes to authenticate.
Applications:
An eavesdropper seeing 999 (password) communicated to the server will be unable to re-transmit the same hash chain to the server for authentication since the server now expects 998 (password) . Due to the one-way property of cryptographically secure hash functions, it is infeasible for the eavesdropper to reverse the hash function and obtain an earlier piece of the hash chain. In this example, the user could authenticate 1000 times before the hash chain were exhausted. Each time the hash value is different, and thus cannot be duplicated by an attacker.
Binary hash chains:
Binary hash chains are commonly used in association with a hash tree. A binary hash chain takes two hash values as inputs, concatenates them and applies a hash function to the result, thereby producing a third hash value.
The above diagram shows a hash tree consisting of eight leaf nodes and the hash chain for the third leaf node. In addition to the hash values themselves the order of concatenation (right or left 1,0) or "order bits" are necessary to complete the hash chain.
Winternitz chains:
Winternitz chains (also known as function chains) are used in hash-based cryptography. The chain is parameterized by the Winternitz parameter w (number of bits in a "digit" d) and security parameter n (number of bits in the hash value, typically double the security strength, 256 or 512). The chain consists of 2w values that are results of repeated application of a one-way "chain" function F to a secret key sk: sk,F(sk),F(F(sk)),...,F2w−1(sk) . The chain function is typically based on a standard cryptographic hash, but needs to be parameterized ("randomized"), so it involves few invocations of the underlying hash. In the Winternitz signature scheme a chain is used to encode one digit of the m-bit message, so the Winternitz signature uses approximately mn/w bits, its calculation takes about 2wm/w applications of the function F. Note that some signature standards (like Extended Merkle signature scheme, XMSS) define w as the number of possible values in a digit, so 16 in XMSS corresponds to w=4 in standards (like Leighton-Micali Signature, LMS) that define w in the same way as above - as a number of bits in the digit.
Hash chain vs. blockchain:
A hash chain is similar to a blockchain, as they both utilize a cryptographic hash function for creating a link between two nodes. However, a blockchain (as used by Bitcoin and related systems) is generally intended to support distributed agreement around a public ledger (data), and incorporates a set of rules for encapsulation of data and associated data permissions.
Sources:
Buchmann, Johannes; Dahmen, Erik; Ereth, Sarah; Hülsing, Andreas; Rückert, Markus (2011). "On the Security of the Winternitz One-Time Signature Scheme" (PDF). Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 6737. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 363–378. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-21969-6_23. eISSN 1611-3349. ISBN 978-3-642-21968-9. ISSN 0302-9743.
Hülsing, Andreas (2013b). Practical Forward Secure Signatures using Minimal Security Assumptions (PDF) (PhD). TU Darmstadt.
Hülsing, Andreas (2013a). "W-OTS+ – Shorter Signatures for Hash-Based Signature Schemes" (PDF). Progress in Cryptology – AFRICACRYPT 2013. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 7918. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 173–188. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-38553-7_10. eISSN 1611-3349. ISBN 978-3-642-38552-0. ISSN 0302-9743. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Bond valence method**
Bond valence method:
The bond valence method or mean method (or bond valence sum) (not to be mistaken for the valence bond theory in quantum chemistry) is a popular method in coordination chemistry to estimate the oxidation states of atoms. It is derived from the bond valence model, which is a simple yet robust model for validating chemical structures with localized bonds or used to predict some of their properties. This model is a development of Pauling's rules.
Method:
The basic method is that the valence V of an atom is the sum of the individual bond valences vi surrounding the atom: V=∑(vi) The individual bond valences in turn are calculated from the observed bond lengths.
exp (R0−Rib) Ri is the observed bond length, R0 is a tabulated parameter expressing the (ideal) bond length when the element i has exactly valence 1, and b is an empirical constant, typically 0.37 Å.
Another formula for vi has also been used: vi=(RiR0)−6
Theory:
Introduction Although the bond valence model is mostly used for validating newly determined structures, it is capable of predicting many of the properties of those chemical structures that can be described by localized bonds In the bond valence model, the valence of an atom, V, is defined as the number of electrons the atom uses for bonding. This is equal to the number of electrons in its valence shell if all the valence shell electrons are used for bonding. If they are not, the remainder will form non-bonding electron pairs, usually known as lone pairs.
Theory:
The valence of a bond, S, is defined as the number of electron pairs forming the bond. In general this is not an integral number. Since each of the terminal atoms contributes equal numbers of electrons to the bond, the bond valence is also equal to the number of valence electrons that each atom contributes. Further, since within each atom, the negatively charged valence shell is linked to the positively charged core by an electrostatic flux that is equal to the charge on the valence shell, it follows that the bond valence is also equal to the electrostatic flux that links the core to the electrons forming the bond. The bond valence is thus equal to three different quantities: the number of electrons each atom contributes to the bond, the number of electron pairs that form the bond, and the electrostatic flux linking each core to the bonding electron pair.
Theory:
The valence sum rule It follows from these definitions, that the valence of an atom is equal to the sum of the valences of all the bonds it forms. This is known as the valence sum rule, Eq. 1, which is central to the bond valence model.
Theory:
V=sum(Sj) (Eq. 1)A bond is formed when the valence shells of two atoms overlap. It is apparent that the closer two atoms approach each other, the larger the overlap region and the more electrons are associated with the bond. We therefore expect a correlation between the bond valence and the bond length and find empirically that for most bonds it can be described by Eq. 2: S=exp((Ro−R)/b) (Eq. 2)where S is the valence and R is the length of the bond, and Ro and b are parameters that are empirically determined for each bond type. For many bond types (but not all), b is found to be close to 0.37 Å. A list of bond valence parameters for different bond types (i.e. for different pairs of cation and anion in given oxidation states) can be found at the web site. It is this empirical relation that links the formal theorems of the bond valence model to the real world and allows the bond valence model to be used to predict the real structure, geometry and properties of a compound.
Theory:
If the structure of a compound is known, the empirical bond valence - bond length correlation of Eq. 2 can be used to estimate the bond valences from their observed bond lengths. Eq. 1 can then be used to check that the structure is chemically valid; any deviation between the atomic valence and the bond valence sum needs to be accounted for.
Theory:
The distortion theorem Eq. 2 is used to derive the distortion theorem which states that the more the individual bond lengths in a coordination sphere deviate from their average, the more the average bond length increases provided the valence sum is kept constant. Alternatively if the average bond length is kept constant, the more the bond valence sum increases The valence matching rule If the structure is not known, the average bond valence, Sa can be calculated from the atomic valence, V, if the coordination number, N, of the atom is known using Eq. 3.
Theory:
Sa=V/N (Eq. 3)If the coordination number is not known, a typical coordination number for the atom can be used instead. Some atoms, such as sulfur(VI), are only found with one coordination number with oxygen, in this case 4, but others, such as sodium, are found with a range of coordination numbers, though most lie close to the average, which for sodium is 6.2. In the absence of any better information, the average coordination number observed with oxygen is a convenient approximation, and when this number is used in Eq. 3, the resulting average bond valence is known as the bonding strength of the atom.
Theory:
Since the bonding strength of an atom is the valence expected for a bond formed by that atom, it follows that the most stable bonds will be formed between atoms with the same bonding strengths. In practice some tolerance is allowed, but bonds are rarely formed if the ratio of the bonding strengths of the two atoms exceeds two, a condition expressed by the inequality shown in Eq. 4. This is known and the valence matching rule.
Theory:
0.5 2.0 (Eq. 4)Atoms with non-bonding valence electrons, i.e., with lone pairs, have more flexibility in their bonding strength than those without lone pairs depending on whether the lone pairs are stereoactive or not. If the lone pairs are not stereoactive, they are spread uniformly around the valence shell, if they are stereoactive they are concentrated in one portion of the coordination sphere preventing that portion from forming bonds. This results in the atom having a smaller coordination number, hence a higher bonding strength, when the lone pair is stereoactive. Ions with lone pairs have a greater ability to adapt their bonding strength to match that of the counter-ion. The lone pairs become stereoactive when the bonding strength of the counter-ion exceeds twice the bonding strength of the ion when its lone pairs are inactive.Compounds that do not satisfy Eq. 4 are difficult, if not impossible, to prepare, and chemical reactions tend to favour the compounds that provide the best valence match. For example, the aqueous solubility of a compound depends on whether its ions are better matched to water than they are to each other.
Theory:
Electronegativity Several factors influence the coordination number of an atom, but the most important of these is its size; larger atoms have larger coordination numbers. The coordination number depends on the surface area of the atom, and so is proportional to r2. If VE is the charge on the atomic core (which is the same as the valence of the atom when all the electrons in the valence shell are bonding), and NE is the corresponding average coordination number, VE/NE is proportional to the electric field at the surface of the core, represented by SE in Eq. 5: SE=VE/NE (Eq. 5)Not surprisingly, SE gives the same ordering of the main group elements as the electronegativity, though it differs in its numerical value from traditional electronegativity scales. Because it is defined in structural terms, SE is the preferred measure of electronegativity in the bond valence model, The ionic model The bond valence model can be reduced to the traditional ionic model if certain conditions are satisfied. These conditions require that atoms be divided into cations and anions in such a way that (a) the electronegativity of every anion is equal to, or greater than, the electronegativity of any of the cations, (b) that the structure is electroneutral when the ions carry charges equal to their valence, and (c) that all the bonds have a cation at one end and an anion at the other. If these conditions are satisfied, as they are in many ionic and covalent compounds, the electrons forming a bond can all be formally assigned to the anion. The anion thus acquires a formal negative charge and the cation a formal positive charge, which is the picture on which the ionic model is based. The electrostatic flux that links the cation core to its bonding electrons now links the cation core to the anion. In this picture, a cation and anion are bonded to each other if they are linked by electrostatic flux, with the flux being equal to the valence of the bond. In a representative set of compounds Preiser et al. have confirmed that the electrostatic flux is the same as the bond valence determined from the bond lengths using Eq. 2.
Theory:
The association of the cation bonding electrons with the anion in the ionic model is purely formal. There is no change in physical locations of any electrons, and there is no change in the bond valence. The terms "anion" and "cation" in the bond valence model are defined in terms of the bond topology, not the chemical properties of the atoms. This extends the scope of the ionic model well beyond compounds in which the bonding would normally be considered as "ionic". For example, methane, CH4, obeys the conditions for the ionic model with carbon as the cation and hydrogen as the anion (or vice versa, since carbon and hydrogen have the same electronegativity).
Theory:
For compounds that contain cation-cation or anion-anion bonds it is usually possible to transform these homoionic bonds into cation-anion bonds either by treating the atoms linked by the homoionic bond as a single complex cation (e.g., Hg22+), or by treating the bonding electrons in the homoionic bond as a pseudo-anion to transform a cation-cation bond into two cation - pseudo-anion bonds, e.g., Hg2+-e2−-Hg2+.
Theory:
The covalent model Structures containing covalent bonds can be treated using the ionic model providing they satisfy the topological conditions given above, but a special situation applies to hydrocarbons which allows the bond valence model to be reduced to the traditional bond model of organic chemistry. If an atom has a valence, V, that is equal to its coordination number, N, its bonding strength according to Eq. 3 is exactly 1.0 vu (valence units), a condition that greatly simplifies the model. This condition is obeyed by carbon, hydrogen and silicon. Since these atoms all have bonding strengths of 1.0 vu the bonds between them are all predicted to have integral valences with carbon forming four single bonds and hydrogen one. Under these conditions, the bonds are all single bonds (or multiples of single bonds). Compounds can be constructed by linking carbon and hydrogen atoms with bonds that are all exactly equivalent. Under certain conditions, nitrogen can form three bonds and oxygen two, but since nitrogen and oxygen typically also form hydrogen bonds, the resulting N-H and O-H bonds have valences less than 1.0 vu, leading through the application of Eq. 1, to the C-C and C-H bonds having valences that differ from 1.0 vu. Nevertheless, the simple bonding rules of organic chemistry are still good approximations, though the rules of the bond valence model are better.
Theory:
Predicting bonding geometry A chemical structure can be represented by a bond network of the kind familiar in molecular diagrams. The infinitely connected bond networks found in crystals can be simplified into finite networks by extracting one formula unit and reconnecting any broken bonds to each other. If the bond network is not known, a plausible network can be created by connecting well matched cations and anions that satisfy Eq. 4. If the finite network contains only cation-anion bonds, every bond can be treated as an electric capacitor (two equal and opposite charges linked by electrostatic flux). The bond network is thus equivalent to a capacitive electrical circuit with the charge on each capacitor being equivalent to the bond valence. The individual bond capacitors are not initially known, but in the absence of any information to the contrary we assume that they are all equal. In this case the circuit can be solved using the Kirchhoff equations, yielding the valences of each bond. Eq. 2 can then be used to calculate bond lengths which are found to lie within a few picometres of the observed bond lengths if no additional constraints are present. Additional constraints include electronic anisotropies (lone pairs and Jahn-Teller distortions) or steric constraints, (bonds stretched or compressed in order to fit them into three-dimensional space). Hydrogen bonds are an example of a steric constraint. The repulsion resulting from the close approach of the donor and acceptor atoms causes the bonds to be stretched, and under this constraint the distortion theorem predicts that the hydrogen atom will move off-center.The bond valence is a vector directed along the bond since it represents the electrostatic field linking the ions. If the atom is unconstrained, the sum of the bond valence vectors around an atom is expected to be zero, a condition that limits the range of possible bond angles.
Theory:
Strengths and limitations of the model The bond valence model is an extension of the electron counting rules and its strength lies in its simplicity and robustness. Unlike most models of chemical bonding, it does not require a prior knowledge of the atomic positions and so can be used to construct chemically plausible structures given only the composition. The empirical parameters of the model are tabulated and are readily transferable between bonds of the same type. The concepts used are familiar to chemists and provide ready insight into the chemical restraints acting on the structure. The bond valence model uses mostly classical physics, and with little more than a pocket calculator, it gives quantitative predictions of bond lengths and places limits on what structures can be formed.
Theory:
However, like all models, the bond valence model has its limitations. It is restricted to compounds with localized bonds; it does not, in general, apply to metals or aromatic compounds where the electrons are delocalized. It cannot in principle predict electron density distributions or energies since these require the solution of the Schoedinger equation using the long-range Coulomb potential which is incompatible with the concept of a localized bond.
History:
The bond valence method is a development of Pauling's rules. In 1930, Lawrence Bragg showed that Pauling's electrostatic valence rule could be represented by electrostatic lines of force emanating from cations in proportion to the cation charge and ending on anions. The lines of force are divided equally between the bonds to the corners of the coordination polyhedron.
History:
Starting with Pauling in 1947 a correlation between cation–anion bond length and bond strength was noted. It was shown later that if bond lengths were included in the calculation of bond strength, its accuracy was improved, and this revised method of calculation was termed the bond valence. These new insights were developed by later workers culminating in the set of rules termed the bond valence model.
Actinide oxides:
It is possible by bond valence calculations to estimate how great a contribution a given oxygen atom is making to the assumed valence of uranium. Zachariasen lists the parameters to allow such calculations to be done for many of the actinides. Bond valence calculations use parameters which are estimated after examining a large number of crystal structures of uranium oxides (and related uranium compounds); note that the oxidation states which this method provides are only a guide which assists in the understanding of a crystal structure.
Actinide oxides:
For uranium binding to oxygen the constants R0 and B are tabulated in the table below. For each oxidation state use the parameters from the table shown below.
Doing the calculations:
It is possible to do these simple calculations on paper or to use software. A program which does it can be obtained free of charge. In 2020 David Brown published a nearly comprehensive set of bond valence parameters on the IuCr web site. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Army Combat Badge**
Army Combat Badge:
The Army Combat Badge (ACB) is a military decoration that is awarded to any member of the Australian Defence Force (ADF) for service with an Army combat element in warlike operations. Its equivalent is the Infantry Combat Badge.
History:
In 1970, the Infantry Combat Badge was instituted to recognise the service of Army personnel in battle or on operations; however, only personnel serving as infantry were eligible for the award. The Army Combat Badge (ACB) was instituted in 2005 to recognise the unique service of non infantry personnel operating with an Arms Corps unit within a warlike area of operations.The decoration is one of the few awarded by Army Headquarters; the majority of other Australian military honours and awards are issued by the Directorate of Honours and Awards.
Eligibility:
To be eligible to be issued the ACB, a member must have: been force assigned to a combat team for a period of either a continuous or an aggregate of 90 days satisfactory service; or been physically deployed in the same geographical location as a Combat Team and have a primary role to directly support that Combat Team for a period of either a continuous or an aggregate of 90 days satisfactory service.
Eligibility:
been serving on warlike operations; and not been previously issued the Infantry Combat Badge (ICB) or ACB. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Epiglottic vallecula**
Epiglottic vallecula:
The epiglottic valleculae are paired spaces between the root of the tongue and anterior surface of the epiglottis. Each vallecula is bordered medially by the median glossoepiglottic fold and laterally by the lateral glossoepiglottic fold.
The valleculae can collect saliva to prevent initiation of the swallowing reflex.
The vallecula is an important reference landmark used during intubation of the trachea. The procedure requires the blade-tip of a Macintosh-style laryngoscope to be placed as far as possible into the vallecula in order to facilitate directly visualizing the glottis. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**(-)-sabinene synthase**
(-)-sabinene synthase:
(–)-Sabinene synthase (EC 4.2.3.109) is an enzyme with systematic name geranyl-diphosphate diphosphate-lyase [cyclizing, (–)-sabinene-forming]. This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction geranyl diphosphate ⇌ (–)-sabinene + diphosphateThis enzyme requires Mg2+. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Methylenedioxymethoxyethylamphetamine**
Methylenedioxymethoxyethylamphetamine:
MDMEOET, or 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methoxyethylamphetamine, is a lesser-known psychedelic drug and a substituted amphetamine. It is also the N-methoxyethyl analogue of MDA. MDMEOET was first synthesized by Alexander Shulgin. In his book PiHKAL (Phenethylamines i Have Known And Loved), the minimum dosage is listed as 180 mg. MDMEOET produces few to no effects. Very little data exists about the pharmacological properties, metabolism, and toxicity of MDMEOET.
Legality:
United Kingdom This substance is a Class A drug in the Drugs controlled by the UK Misuse of Drugs Act. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Fragmentation (cell biology)**
Fragmentation (cell biology):
In cell biology, ways in which fragmentation is useful for a cell: DNA cloning and apoptosis. DNA cloning is important in asexual reproduction or creation of identical DNA molecules, and can be performed spontaneously by the cell or intentionally by laboratory researchers. Apoptosis is the programmed destruction of cells, and the DNA molecules within them, and is a highly regulated process. These two ways in which fragmentation is used in cellular processes describe normal cellular functions and common laboratory procedures performed with cells. However, problems within a cell can sometimes cause fragmentation that results in irregularities such as red blood cell fragmentation and sperm cell DNA fragmentation.
DNA Cloning:
DNA cloning can be performed spontaneously by the cell for reproductive purposes. This is a form of asexual reproduction where an organism splits into fragments and then each of these fragments develop into mature, fully grown individuals that are clones of the original organism (See reproductive fragmentation).
DNA cloning can also be performed intentionally by laboratory researchers. Here, DNA fragmentation is a molecular genetic technique that permits researchers to use recombinant DNA technology to prepare large numbers of identical DNA molecules.
DNA Cloning:
In order for DNA cloning to be completed, it is necessary to obtain discrete, small regions of an organism's DNA that constitute specific genes. Only relatively small DNA molecules can be cloned in any available vector. Therefore, the long DNA molecules that compose an organism's genome must be cleaved into fragments that can be inserted into the vector DNA. Two enzymes facilitate the production of such recombinant DNA molecules: 1. Restriction Enzymes Restriction enzymes are endonucleases produced by bacteria that typically recognize small base pair sequences (called restriction sites) and then cleave both strands of DNA at this site. A restriction site is typically a palindromic sequence, which means that the restriction-site sequence is the same on each strand of DNA when read in the 5' to 3' direction.
DNA Cloning:
For each restriction enzyme, bacteria also produce a modification enzyme so that a host bacterium's own DNA is protected from cleavage. This is done by modifying the host DNA at or near each potential cleavage site. The modification enzyme adds a methyl group to one or two bases, and the presence of this methyl group prevents the restriction endonuclease from cutting the DNA.Many restriction enzymes make staggered cuts in the two DNA strands at their recognition site, which generates fragments with a single stranded "tail" that overhangs at both ends, called a sticky end. Restriction enzymes can also make straight cuts in the two DNA strands at their recognition site, which generates blunt ends.
DNA Cloning:
2. DNA ligase During normal DNA replication, DNA ligase catalyzes end-to-end joining (ligation) of short fragments of DNA, called Okazaki fragments. For the purposes of DNA cloning, purified DNA ligase is used to covalently join the ends of a restriction fragment and vector DNA that have complementary ends. They are covalently ligated together through the standard 3' to 5' phosphodiester bonds of DNA.DNA ligase can ligate complementary sticky and blunt ends, but blunt-end ligation is inefficient and requires a higher concentration of both DNA and DNA ligase than the ligation of sticky ends does. For this reason, most restriction enzymes used in DNA cloning make staggered cuts in the DNA strands to create sticky ends.The key to cloning a DNA fragment is to link it to a vector DNA molecule that can replicate within a host cell. After a single recombinant DNA molecule (composed of a vector plus an inserted DNA fragment) is introduced into a host cell, the inserted DNA can be replicated along with the vector, generating a large number of identical DNA molecules.
DNA Cloning:
The basic scheme for this can be summarized as follows: Vector + DNA Fragment ↓ Recombinant DNA ↓ Replication of recombinant DNA within host cell ↓ Isolation, sequencing, and manipulation of purified DNA fragmentThere are numerous experimental variations to this scheme, but these steps are essential to DNA cloning in a laboratory.
Apoptosis:
Apoptosis refers to the demise of cells by a specific form of programmed cell death, characterized by a well-defined sequence of morphological changes. Cellular and nuclear shrinkage, chromatin condensation and fragmentation, formation of apoptotic bodies and phagocytosis by neighboring cells characterize the main morphological changes in the apoptosis process. Extensive morphological and biochemical changes during apoptosis ensure that dying cells leave minimal impact on neighboring cells and/or tissues.
Apoptosis:
Genes involved in controlling cell death encode proteins with three distinct functions: "Killer" proteins are required for a cell to begin the apoptotic process "Destruction" proteins do things such as digest DNA in a dying cell "Engulfment" proteins are required for phagocytosis of the dying cell by another cellThe cleavage of chromosomal DNA into smaller fragments is an integral part, and biochemical hallmark, of apoptosis. Apoptosis involves the activation of endonucleases with subsequent cleavage of chromatin DNA into fragments of 180 base pairs or multiples of 180 base pairs (e.g. 360, 540). This pattern of fragmentation can be used to detect apoptosis in tests such as a DNA laddering assay with gel electrophoresis, a TUNEL assay, or a Nicoletti assay.
Apoptosis:
Apoptotic DNA fragmentation relies on an enzyme called Caspase-Activated DNase (CAD). CAD is usually inhibited by another protein in the cell, called Inhibitor of caspase-activated DNase (ICAD). In order for apoptosis to begin, an enzyme called caspase 3 cleaves ICAD so that CAD becomes activated. CAD then cleaves the DNA between nucleosomes, which occur in chromatin at 180 base pair intervals. The sites between nucleosomes are the only parts of the DNA that are exposed and accessible to CAD.
Irregularities:
DNA fragmentation can occur under certain conditions in a few different cell types. This can lead to problems for a cell, or it may lead to a cell receiving a signal to undergo apoptosis. Below are a couple of examples of irregular fragmentation that can occur in cells.
Irregularities:
1. Red blood cell fragmentationA fragmented red blood cell is known as a schistocyte and is generally the result of an intracellular mechanical injury to the red blood cell. A wide variety of schistocytes may be observed. Schistocytes are usually seen in relatively low numbers and are associated with conditions in which the normally smooth endothelial lining, or endothelium, is roughened or irregular, and/or the vascular lumen is crossed by strands of fibrin. Schistocytes are commonly seen in patients that have hemolytic anemia. They are also a feature of advanced iron deficiency anemia, but in this case the observed fragmentation is most likely a result of the fragility of the cells produced under these conditions.
Irregularities:
2. Sperm cell DNA fragmentation In an average male, less than 4% of his sperm cells will contain fragmented DNA. However, partaking in behaviors such as smoking can significantly increase DNA fragmentation in sperm cells. There is a negative correlation between the percentage of DNA fragmentation and the motility, morphology, and concentration of sperm. There is also a negative association between the percentage of sperm that contain fragmented DNA and the fertilization rate and embryo cleavage rate. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Comm100 Live Chat**
Comm100 Live Chat:
Comm100 Live Chat is a paid basic live support software product offered via the SaaS (Software as a Service) model. It enables businesses or organizations to communicate with their website visitors in real time so as to improve conversions, sales, and customer satisfaction.
History:
The first version of Comm100 Live Chat was released on August 5, 2009. In October 2011, Comm100 Live Chat was featured in Apps of the Month on TechRepublic by Scott Lowe. The company hit the 200,000 registered business users mark in October, 2012. In January 2013, Comm100 Live Chat released version 7.0 which features Salesforce integration and a redesigned operator console. In the same month, Comm100 Live Chat was ranked top 3 in the "2013 Best Enterprise Chat Software" category on Top Ten Reviews. Zero downtime during the upgrade of Comm100 Live Chat was made possible in March 2013.
Controversies:
In 2022, Researchers discovered a sophisticated supply chain attack on chat service provider Comm100 that affected numerous companies. The attackers hacked the Comm100 desktop client to roll out a trojanized installer. While Comm100 has released a clean version, users must ensure they update their systems with the fixed installer version 10.0.9 to avoid any issues.
Attribution link: https://latesthackingnews.com/2022/10/05/comm100-chat-service-hacked-in-a-supply-chain-attack/ The Ceo broke his promise that Comm100 Chat would always be free for users who had a free package.
Features:
Comm100 Live Chat consists of 3 parts: web chat window, operator console and control panel. All of them have a totally web-based version that works with all major web browsers (Chrome, IE, Firefox, Safari, Opera, etc.) on all major operating systems (Windows, Mac, Linux) while the operator console also has a cross-platform compatible desktop app and apps for mobile devices (iPhone, iPad, Android, and BlackBerry).Key features of Comm100 Live Chat include: Online chat: The website visitor and the operator can have an online chat in real time.
Features:
Website Traffic Monitoring: The operator can see detailed information about the website visitors, including GEO info, navigation history, referrer, etc.
Auto Chat Invitation Rules: Automated chat invitations can be sent to visitors in a personal way based on pre-defined rules.
Reports & Analytics: A series of performance reports are available for users to identify areas for improvement.
Integrations:
Comm100 Live Chat offers plugins or integrations with the following: Customer relationship management software: Salesforce.com Content management systems: WordPress, Joomla, Drupal E-commerce platforms: Shopify, Magento Help desk solutions: Zendesk Web analytics tools: Google Analytics | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Hermite's cotangent identity**
Hermite's cotangent identity:
In mathematics, Hermite's cotangent identity is a trigonometric identity discovered by Charles Hermite. Suppose a1, ..., an are complex numbers, no two of which differ by an integer multiple of π. Let cot (ak−aj) (in particular, A1,1, being an empty product, is 1). Then cot cot cos cot (z−ak).
The simplest non-trivial example is the case n = 2: cot cot cot cot cot cot (z−a2). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Control flow**
Control flow:
In computer science, control flow (or flow of control) is the order in which individual statements, instructions or function calls of an imperative program are executed or evaluated. The emphasis on explicit control flow distinguishes an imperative programming language from a declarative programming language.
Within an imperative programming language, a control flow statement is a statement that results in a choice being made as to which of two or more paths to follow. For non-strict functional languages, functions and language constructs exist to achieve the same result, but they are usually not termed control flow statements.
A set of statements is in turn generally structured as a block, which in addition to grouping, also defines a lexical scope.
Interrupts and signals are low-level mechanisms that can alter the flow of control in a way similar to a subroutine, but usually occur as a response to some external stimulus or event (that can occur asynchronously), rather than execution of an in-line control flow statement.
At the level of machine language or assembly language, control flow instructions usually work by altering the program counter. For some central processing units (CPUs), the only control flow instructions available are conditional or unconditional branch instructions, also termed jumps.
Categories:
The kinds of control flow statements supported by different languages vary, but can be categorized by their effect: Continuation at a different statement (unconditional branch or jump) Executing a set of statements only if some condition is met (choice - i.e., conditional branch) Executing a set of statements zero or more times, until some condition is met (i.e., loop - the same as conditional branch) Executing a set of distant statements, after which the flow of control usually returns (subroutines, coroutines, and continuations) Stopping the program, preventing any further execution (unconditional halt)
Primitives:
Labels A label is an explicit name or number assigned to a fixed position within the source code, and which may be referenced by control flow statements appearing elsewhere in the source code. A label marks a position within source code and has no other effect.
Primitives:
Line numbers are an alternative to a named label used in some languages (such as BASIC). They are whole numbers placed at the start of each line of text in the source code. Languages which use these often impose the constraint that the line numbers must increase in value in each following line, but may not require that they be consecutive. For example, in BASIC: In other languages such as C and Ada, a label is an identifier, usually appearing at the start of a line and immediately followed by a colon. For example, in C: The language ALGOL 60 allowed both whole numbers and identifiers as labels (both linked by colons to the following statement), but few if any other ALGOL variants allowed whole numbers. Early Fortran compilers only allowed whole numbers as labels. Beginning with Fortran-90, alphanumeric labels have also been allowed.
Primitives:
Goto The goto statement (a combination of the English words go and to, and pronounced accordingly) is the most basic form of unconditional transfer of control.
Although the keyword may either be in upper or lower case depending on the language, it is usually written as: goto label The effect of a goto statement is to cause the next statement to be executed to be the statement appearing at (or immediately after) the indicated label.
Goto statements have been considered harmful by many computer scientists, notably Dijkstra.
Subroutines The terminology for subroutines varies; they may alternatively be known as routines, procedures, functions (especially if they return results) or methods (especially if they belong to classes or type classes).
In the 1950s, computer memories were very small by current standards so subroutines were used mainly to reduce program size. A piece of code was written once and then used many times from various other places in a program.
Today, subroutines are more often used to help make a program more structured, e.g., by isolating some algorithm or hiding some data access method. If many programmers are working on one program, subroutines are one kind of modularity that can help divide the work.
Sequence In structured programming, the ordered sequencing of successive commands is considered one of the basic control structures, which is used as a building block for programs alongside iteration, recursion and choice.
Minimal structured control flow:
In May 1966, Böhm and Jacopini published an article in Communications of the ACM which showed that any program with gotos could be transformed into a goto-free form involving only choice (IF THEN ELSE) and loops (WHILE condition DO xxx), possibly with duplicated code and/or the addition of Boolean variables (true/false flags). Later authors showed that choice can be replaced by loops (and yet more Boolean variables).
Minimal structured control flow:
That such minimalism is possible does not mean that it is necessarily desirable; after all, computers theoretically need only one machine instruction (subtract one number from another and branch if the result is negative), but practical computers have dozens or even hundreds of machine instructions.
Minimal structured control flow:
What Böhm and Jacopini's article showed was that all programs could be goto-free. Other research showed that control structures with one entry and one exit were much easier to understand than any other form, mainly because they could be used anywhere as a statement without disrupting the control flow. In other words, they were composable. (Later developments, such as non-strict programming languages – and more recently, composable software transactions – have continued this strategy, making components of programs even more freely composable.) Some academics took a purist approach to the Böhm–Jacopini result and argued that even instructions like break and return from the middle of loops are bad practice as they are not needed in the Böhm–Jacopini proof, and thus they advocated that all loops should have a single exit point. This purist approach is embodied in the language Pascal (designed in 1968–1969), which up to the mid-1990s was the preferred tool for teaching introductory programming in academia. The direct application of the Böhm–Jacopini theorem may result in additional local variables being introduced in the structured chart, and may also result in some code duplication. Pascal is affected by both of these problems and according to empirical studies cited by Eric S. Roberts, student programmers had difficulty formulating correct solutions in Pascal for several simple problems, including writing a function for searching an element in an array. A 1980 study by Henry Shapiro cited by Roberts found that using only the Pascal-provided control structures, the correct solution was given by only 20% of the subjects, while no subject wrote incorrect code for this problem if allowed to write a return from the middle of a loop.
Control structures in practice:
Most programming languages with control structures have an initial keyword which indicates the type of control structure involved. Languages then divide as to whether or not control structures have a final keyword.
Control structures in practice:
No final keyword: ALGOL 60, C, C++, Haskell, Java, Pascal, Perl, PHP, PL/I, Python, PowerShell. Such languages need some way of grouping statements together: ALGOL 60 and Pascal: begin ... end C, C++, Java, Perl, PHP, and PowerShell: curly brackets { ... } PL/I: DO ... END Python: uses indent level (see Off-side rule) Haskell: either indent level or curly brackets can be used, and they can be freely mixed Lua: uses do ... end Final keyword: Ada, ALGOL 68, Modula-2, Fortran 77, Mythryl, Visual Basic. The forms of the final keyword vary: Ada: final keyword is end + space + initial keyword e.g., if ... end if, loop ... end loop ALGOL 68, Mythryl: initial keyword spelled backwards e.g., if ... fi, case ... esac Fortran 77: final keyword is END + initial keyword e.g., IF ... ENDIF, DO ... ENDDO Modula-2: same final keyword END for everything Visual Basic: every control structure has its own keyword. If ... End If; For ... Next; Do ... Loop; While ... Wend
Choice:
If-then-(else) statements Conditional expressions and conditional constructs are features of a programming language which perform different computations or actions depending on whether a programmer-specified boolean condition evaluates to true or false. IF..GOTO. A form found in unstructured languages, mimicking a typical machine code instruction, would jump to (GOTO) a label or line number when the condition was met.
IF..THEN..(ENDIF). Rather than being restricted to a jump, any simple statement, or nested block, could follow the THEN key keyword. This a structured form.
IF..THEN..ELSE..(ENDIF). As above, but with a second action to be performed if the condition is false. This is one of the most common forms, with many variations. Some require a terminal ENDIF, others do not. C and related languages do not require a terminal keyword, or a 'then', but do require parentheses around the condition.
Choice:
Conditional statements can be and often are nested inside other conditional statements. Some languages allow ELSE and IF to be combined into ELSEIF, avoiding the need to have a series of ENDIF or other final statements at the end of a compound statement.Less common variations include: Some languages, such as Fortran, have a three-way or arithmetic if, testing whether a numeric value is positive, negative or zero.
Choice:
Some languages have a functional form of an if statement, for instance Lisp's cond.
Some languages have an operator form of an if statement, such as C's ternary operator.
Perl supplements a C-style if with when and unless.
Smalltalk uses ifTrue and ifFalse messages to implement conditionals, rather than any fundamental language construct.
Choice:
Case and switch statements Switch statements (or case statements, or multiway branches) compare a given value with specified constants and take action according to the first constant to match. There is usually a provision for a default action ("else", "otherwise") to be taken if no match succeeds. Switch statements can allow compiler optimizations, such as lookup tables. In dynamic languages, the cases may not be limited to constant expressions, and might extend to pattern matching, as in the shell script example on the right, where the *) implements the default case as a glob matching any string. Case logic can also be implemented in functional form, as in SQL's decode statement.
Loops:
A loop is a sequence of statements which is specified once but which may be carried out several times in succession.
The code "inside" the loop (the body of the loop, shown below as xxx) is obeyed a specified number of times, or once for each of a collection of items, or until some condition is met, or indefinitely.
In functional programming languages, such as Haskell and Scheme, both recursive and iterative processes are expressed with tail recursive procedures instead of looping constructs that are syntactic.
Count-controlled loops Most programming languages have constructions for repeating a loop a certain number of times.
In most cases counting can go downwards instead of upwards and step sizes other than 1 can be used.
In these examples, if N < 1 then the body of loop may execute once (with I having value 1) or not at all, depending on the programming language.
Loops:
In many programming languages, only integers can be reliably used in a count-controlled loop. Floating-point numbers are represented imprecisely due to hardware constraints, so a loop such as for X := 0.1 step 0.1 to 1.0 do might be repeated 9 or 10 times, depending on rounding errors and/or the hardware and/or the compiler version. Furthermore, if the increment of X occurs by repeated addition, accumulated rounding errors may mean that the value of X in each iteration can differ quite significantly from the expected sequence 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, ..., 1.0.
Loops:
Condition-controlled loops Most programming languages have constructions for repeating a loop until some condition changes. Some variations test the condition at the start of the loop; others test it at the end. If the test is at the start, the body may be skipped completely; if it is at the end, the body is always executed at least once.
A control break is a value change detection method used within ordinary loops to trigger processing for groups of values. Values are monitored within the loop and a change diverts program flow to the handling of the group event associated with them.
Loops:
DO UNTIL (End-of-File) IF new-zipcode <> current-zipcode display_tally(current-zipcode, zipcount) current-zipcode = new-zipcode zipcount = 0 ENDIF zipcount++ LOOP Collection-controlled loops Several programming languages (e.g., Ada, D, C++11, Smalltalk, PHP, Perl, Object Pascal, Java, C#, MATLAB, Visual Basic, Ruby, Python, JavaScript, Fortran 95 and later) have special constructs which allow implicit looping through all elements of an array, or all members of a set or collection.
Loops:
for Item in Collection do begin xxx end; foreach (item; myCollection) { xxx } foreach someArray { xxx } foreach ($someArray as $k => $v) { xxx } Collection<String> coll; for (String s : coll) {} foreach (string s in myStringCollection) { xxx } someCollection | ForEach-Object { $_ } forall ( index = first:last:step... ) Scala has for-expressions, which generalise collection-controlled loops, and also support other uses, such as asynchronous programming. Haskell has do-expressions and comprehensions, which together provide similar function to for-expressions in Scala.
Loops:
General iteration General iteration constructs such as C's for statement and Common Lisp's do form can be used to express any of the above sorts of loops, and others, such as looping over some number of collections in parallel. Where a more specific looping construct can be used, it is usually preferred over the general iteration construct, since it often makes the purpose of the expression clearer.
Loops:
Infinite loops Infinite loops are used to assure a program segment loops forever or until an exceptional condition arises, such as an error. For instance, an event-driven program (such as a server) should loop forever, handling events as they occur, only stopping when the process is terminated by an operator.
Loops:
Infinite loops can be implemented using other control flow constructs. Most commonly, in unstructured programming this is jump back up (goto), while in structured programming this is an indefinite loop (while loop) set to never end, either by omitting the condition or explicitly setting it to true, as while (true) .... Some languages have special constructs for infinite loops, typically by omitting the condition from an indefinite loop. Examples include Ada (loop ... end loop), Fortran (DO ... END DO), Go (for { ... }), and Ruby (loop do ... end).
Loops:
Often, an infinite loop is unintentionally created by a programming error in a condition-controlled loop, wherein the loop condition uses variables that never change within the loop.
Loops:
Continuation with next iteration Sometimes within the body of a loop there is a desire to skip the remainder of the loop body and continue with the next iteration of the loop. Some languages provide a statement such as continue (most languages), skip, cycle (Fortran), or next (Perl and Ruby), which will do this. The effect is to prematurely terminate the innermost loop body and then resume as normal with the next iteration. If the iteration is the last one in the loop, the effect is to terminate the entire loop early.
Loops:
Redo current iteration Some languages, like Perl and Ruby, have a redo statement that restarts the current iteration from the start.
Restart loop Ruby has a retry statement that restarts the entire loop from the initial iteration.
Loops:
Early exit from loops When using a count-controlled loop to search through a table, it might be desirable to stop searching as soon as the required item is found. Some programming languages provide a statement such as break (most languages), Exit (Visual Basic), or last (Perl), which effect is to terminate the current loop immediately, and transfer control to the statement immediately after that loop. Another term for early-exit loops is loop-and-a-half.
Loops:
The following example is done in Ada which supports both early exit from loops and loops with test in the middle. Both features are very similar and comparing both code snippets will show the difference: early exit must be combined with an if statement while a condition in the middle is a self-contained construct.
Loops:
Python supports conditional execution of code depending on whether a loop was exited early (with a break statement) or not by using an else-clause with the loop. For example, The else clause in the above example is linked to the for statement, and not the inner if statement. Both Python's for and while loops support such an else clause, which is executed only if early exit of the loop has not occurred.
Loops:
Some languages support breaking out of nested loops; in theory circles, these are called multi-level breaks. One common use example is searching a multi-dimensional table. This can be done either via multilevel breaks (break out of N levels), as in bash and PHP, or via labeled breaks (break out and continue at given label), as in Java and Perl. Alternatives to multilevel breaks include single breaks, together with a state variable which is tested to break out another level; exceptions, which are caught at the level being broken out to; placing the nested loops in a function and using return to effect termination of the entire nested loop; or using a label and a goto statement. C does not include a multilevel break, and the usual alternative is to use a goto to implement a labeled break. Python does not have a multilevel break or continue – this was proposed in PEP 3136, and rejected on the basis that the added complexity was not worth the rare legitimate use.The notion of multi-level breaks is of some interest in theoretical computer science, because it gives rise to what is today called the Kosaraju hierarchy. In 1973 S. Rao Kosaraju refined the structured program theorem by proving that it is possible to avoid adding additional variables in structured programming, as long as arbitrary-depth, multi-level breaks from loops are allowed. Furthermore, Kosaraju proved that a strict hierarchy of programs exists: for every integer n, there exists a program containing a multi-level break of depth n that cannot be rewritten as a program with multi-level breaks of depth less than n without introducing added variables.One can also return out of a subroutine executing the looped statements, breaking out of both the nested loop and the subroutine. There are other proposed control structures for multiple breaks, but these are generally implemented as exceptions instead.
Loops:
In his 2004 textbook, David Watt uses Tennent's notion of sequencer to explain the similarity between multi-level breaks and return statements. Watt notes that a class of sequencers known as escape sequencers, defined as "sequencer that terminates execution of a textually enclosing command or procedure", encompasses both breaks from loops (including multi-level breaks) and return statements. As commonly implemented, however, return sequencers may also carry a (return) value, whereas the break sequencer as implemented in contemporary languages usually cannot.
Loops:
Loop variants and invariants Loop variants and loop invariants are used to express correctness of loops.In practical terms, a loop variant is an integer expression which has an initial non-negative value. The variant's value must decrease during each loop iteration but must never become negative during the correct execution of the loop. Loop variants are used to guarantee that loops will terminate.
Loops:
A loop invariant is an assertion which must be true before the first loop iteration and remain true after each iteration. This implies that when a loop terminates correctly, both the exit condition and the loop invariant are satisfied. Loop invariants are used to monitor specific properties of a loop during successive iterations.
Some programming languages, such as Eiffel contain native support for loop variants and invariants. In other cases, support is an add-on, such as the Java Modeling Language's specification for loop statements in Java.
Loop sublanguage Some Lisp dialects provide an extensive sublanguage for describing Loops. An early example can be found in Conversional Lisp of Interlisp. Common Lisp provides a Loop macro which implements such a sublanguage.
Loop system cross-reference table a while (true) does not count as an infinite loop for this purpose, because it is not a dedicated language structure.
a b c d e f g h C's for (init; test; increment) loop is a general loop construct, not specifically a counting one, although it is often used for that.
a b c Deep breaks may be accomplished in APL, C, C++ and C# through the use of labels and gotos.
a Iteration over objects was added in PHP 5.
a b c A counting loop can be simulated by iterating over an incrementing list or generator, for instance, Python's range().
a b c d e Deep breaks may be accomplished through the use of exception handling.
a There is no special construct, since the while function can be used for this.
a There is no special construct, but users can define general loop functions.
a The C++11 standard introduced the range-based for. In the STL, there is a std::for_each template function which can iterate on STL containers and call a unary function for each element. The functionality also can be constructed as macro on these containers.
a Count-controlled looping is effected by iteration across an integer interval; early exit by including an additional condition for exit.
a Eiffel supports a reserved word retry, however it is used in exception handling, not loop control.
a Requires Java Modeling Language (JML) behavioral interface specification language.
a Requires loop variants to be integers; transfinite variants are not supported. [1] a D supports infinite collections, and the ability to iterate over those collections. This does not require any special construct.
a Deep breaks can be achieved using GO TO and procedures.
a Common Lisp predates the concept of generic collection type.
Structured non-local control flow:
Many programming languages, especially those favoring more dynamic styles of programming, offer constructs for non-local control flow. These cause the flow of execution to jump out of a given context and resume at some predeclared point. Conditions, exceptions and continuations are three common sorts of non-local control constructs; more exotic ones also exist, such as generators, coroutines and the async keyword.
Structured non-local control flow:
Conditions PL/I has some 22 standard conditions (e.g., ZERODIVIDE SUBSCRIPTRANGE ENDFILE) which can be raised and which can be intercepted by: ON condition action; Programmers can also define and use their own named conditions.
Like the unstructured if, only one statement can be specified so in many cases a GOTO is needed to decide where flow of control should resume.
Unfortunately, some implementations had a substantial overhead in both space and time (especially SUBSCRIPTRANGE), so many programmers tried to avoid using conditions.
Structured non-local control flow:
Common Syntax examples: ON condition GOTO label Exceptions Modern languages have a specialized structured construct for exception handling which does not rely on the use of GOTO or (multi-level) breaks or returns. For example, in C++ one can write: Any number and variety of catch clauses can be used above. If there is no catch matching a particular throw, control percolates back through subroutine calls and/or nested blocks until a matching catch is found or until the end of the main program is reached, at which point the program is forcibly stopped with a suitable error message.
Structured non-local control flow:
Via C++'s influence, catch is the keyword reserved for declaring a pattern-matching exception handler in other languages popular today, like Java or C#. Some other languages like Ada use the keyword exception to introduce an exception handler and then may even employ a different keyword (when in Ada) for the pattern matching. A few languages like AppleScript incorporate placeholders in the exception handler syntax to automatically extract several pieces of information when the exception occurs. This approach is exemplified below by the on error construct from AppleScript: David Watt's 2004 textbook also analyzes exception handling in the framework of sequencers (introduced in this article in the section on early exits from loops). Watt notes that an abnormal situation, generally exemplified with arithmetic overflows or input/output failures like file not found, is a kind of error that "is detected in some low-level program unit, but [for which] a handler is more naturally located in a high-level program unit". For example, a program might contain several calls to read files, but the action to perform when a file is not found depends on the meaning (purpose) of the file in question to the program and thus a handling routine for this abnormal situation cannot be located in low-level system code. Watts further notes that introducing status flags testing in the caller, as single-exit structured programming or even (multi-exit) return sequencers would entail, results in a situation where "the application code tends to get cluttered by tests of status flags" and that "the programmer might forgetfully or lazily omit to test a status flag. In fact, abnormal situations represented by status flags are by default ignored!" Watt notes that in contrast to status flags testing, exceptions have the opposite default behavior, causing the program to terminate unless the programmer explicitly deals with the exception in some way, possibly by adding explicit code to ignore it. Based on these arguments, Watt concludes that jump sequencers or escape sequencers are not as suitable as a dedicated exception sequencer with the semantics discussed above.In Object Pascal, D, Java, C#, and Python a finally clause can be added to the try construct. No matter how control leaves the try the code inside the finally clause is guaranteed to execute. This is useful when writing code that must relinquish an expensive resource (such as an opened file or a database connection) when finished processing: Since this pattern is fairly common, C# has a special syntax: Upon leaving the using-block, the compiler guarantees that the stm object is released, effectively binding the variable to the file stream while abstracting from the side effects of initializing and releasing the file. Python's with statement and Ruby's block argument to File.open are used to similar effect.
Structured non-local control flow:
All the languages mentioned above define standard exceptions and the circumstances under which they are thrown.
Users can throw exceptions of their own; in fact C++ allows users to throw and catch almost any type, including basic types like int, whereas other languages like Java are not as permissive.
Continuations Async C# 5.0 introduced the async keyword for supporting asynchronous I/O in a "direct style".
Generators Generators, also known as semicoroutines, allow control to be yielded to a consumer method temporarily, typically using a yield keyword (yield description) . Like the async keyword, this supports programming in a "direct style".
Coroutines Coroutines are functions that can yield control to each other - a form of co-operative multitasking without threads.
Coroutines can be implemented as a library if the programming language provides either continuations or generators - so the distinction between coroutines and generators in practice is a technical detail.
Non-local control flow cross reference
Proposed control structures:
In a spoof Datamation article in 1973, R. Lawrence Clark suggested that the GOTO statement could be replaced by the COMEFROM statement, and provides some entertaining examples. COMEFROM was implemented in one esoteric programming language named INTERCAL.
Donald Knuth's 1974 article "Structured Programming with go to Statements", identifies two situations which were not covered by the control structures listed above, and gave examples of control structures which could handle these situations. Despite their utility, these constructs have not yet found their way into mainstream programming languages.
Proposed control structures:
Loop with test in the middle The following was proposed by Dahl in 1972: loop loop xxx1 read(char); while test; while not atEndOfFile; xxx2 write(char); repeat; repeat; If xxx1 is omitted, we get a loop with the test at the top (a traditional while loop). If xxx2 is omitted, we get a loop with the test at the bottom, equivalent to a do while loop in many languages. If while is omitted, we get an infinite loop. The construction here can be thought of as a do loop with the while check in the middle. Hence this single construction can replace several constructions in most programming languages.
Proposed control structures:
Languages lacking this construct generally emulate it using an equivalent infinite-loop-with-break idiom: while (true) { xxx1 if (not test) break xxx2 } A possible variant is to allow more than one while test; within the loop, but the use of exitwhen (see next section) appears to cover this case better.
In Ada, the above loop construct (loop-while-repeat) can be represented using a standard infinite loop (loop - end loop) that has an exit when clause in the middle (not to be confused with the exitwhen statement in the following section).
Naming a loop (like Read_Data in this example) is optional but permits leaving the outer loop of several nested loops.
Multiple early exit/exit from nested loops This construct was proposed by Zahn in 1974. A modified version is presented here.
Proposed control structures:
exitwhen EventA or EventB or EventC; xxx exits EventA: actionA EventB: actionB EventC: actionC endexit; exitwhen is used to specify the events which may occur within xxx, their occurrence is indicated by using the name of the event as a statement. When some event does occur, the relevant action is carried out, and then control passes just after endexit. This construction provides a very clear separation between determining that some situation applies, and the action to be taken for that situation.
Proposed control structures:
exitwhen is conceptually similar to exception handling, and exceptions or similar constructs are used for this purpose in many languages.
The following simple example involves searching a two-dimensional table for a particular item.
exitwhen found or missing; for I := 1 to N do for J := 1 to M do if table[I,J] = target then found; missing; exits found: print ("item is in table"); missing: print ("item is not in table"); endexit;
Security:
One way to attack a piece of software is to redirect the flow of execution of a program. A variety of control-flow integrity techniques, including stack canaries, buffer overflow protection, shadow stacks, and vtable pointer verification, are used to defend against these attacks. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Dog walking**
Dog walking:
Dog walking is the act of a person walking with a dog, typically from the dog's residence and then returning. Leashes are commonly used for this. Both owners and pets receive many benefits, including exercise and companionship.
Description:
Dogs are restrained by a collar around their neck or a harness, or by simply following their guardian with familiarity and verbal control. Commonly, the dog is walked by the guardian or another family member, but there are also professional dog walkers.Dog owners can also go hiking with their dogs. Many trails mandate that the dogs are on leash, in view of the dogs' safety and the safety of other hikers.
Health benefits:
A study by Michigan State University showed that people who walk their dogs are 34% more likely to meet expected goals of exercise, with a recommended level of 150 minutes of activity such as dog walking per week. Matthew Reeves, the co-author of the study said, "There is no magic bullet in getting people to reach those benchmarks but walking a dog has a measurable impact."Research conducted by the University of Western Australia has suggested that a higher rate of dog walking within a community tends to cause more interpersonal relationships within that community. The research suggested that people in the community would acknowledge and greet other people in the street, and exchange favors with neighbors, which could possibly encourage more exercise in the community, by giving pets and owners a chance at a healthier lifestyle.
Professional dog walkers:
Professional dog walkers, both individuals and businesses, are paid by dog owners to walk their dogs for them. Some dog walkers will take many dogs for a walk at once, while others will only take a single dog. The length of a walk might vary by breed or owner's request, ranging from short walks intended to last no longer than the time it takes for the dog to relieve itself of waste, to longer walks with a specific amount of time set by the owner.
Professional dog walkers:
The length of walks should take into account the dog's age and health status. Long walks (over 1 hour) should not be undertaken by dogs under 12 months of age for smaller breeds, up to 18 months for large breeds, to protect their bones and joints while they are still growing. Also growing in popularity is "dog running". Dog runners are professionals who run with dogs, rather than walking with them. In some jurisdictions, dog walking businesses must be licensed and have employees trained in animal first aid. Professional dog walking services can be obtained locally or through online referral services. Obtaining a position as a professional dog walker has become more difficult, with applicants having to pass rigorous exams and go through extensive training. However, whether or not licensing or training is required, all dog walkers who walk other people's dogs must be aware of best practices such as using a fixed-length leash and weather considerations.
Professional dog walkers:
In the United States, the first professional dog walker is believed to have been Jim Buck, who in 1960 launched his dog walking service in New York City. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Acoustic resonance spectroscopy**
Acoustic resonance spectroscopy:
Acoustic resonance spectroscopy (ARS) is a method of spectroscopy in the acoustic region, primarily the sonic and ultrasonic regions. ARS is typically much more rapid than HPLC and NIR. It is non destructive and requires no sample preparation as the sampling waveguide can simply be pushed into a sample powder/liquid or in contact with a solid sample. To date, the AR spectrometer has successfully differentiated and quantified sample analytes in various forms; (tablets, powders, and liquids). It has been used to measure and monitor the progression of chemical reactions, such as the setting and hardening of concrete from cement paste to solid. Acoustic spectrometry has also been used to measure the volume fraction of colloids in a dispersion medium, as well as for the investigation of physical properties of colloidal dispersions, such as aggregation and particle size distribution. Typically, these experiments are carried out with sinusoidal excitation signals and the experimental observation of signal attenuation. From a comparison of theoretical attenuation to experimental observation, the particle size distribution and aggregation phenomena are inferred.
History:
Dipen Sinha of the Los Alamos National Laboratory developed ARS in 1989. Most published work in acoustics has been in the ultrasonic region and their instrumentation has dealt with propagation through a medium and not a resonance effect. One of the first, if not the first publication related to acoustic resonance was in 1988 in the journal of Applied Spectroscopy. The researchers designed a V shaped quartz rod instrument that utilized ultrasonic waves to obtain signatures of microliters of different liquids. The researchers did not have any type of classification statistics or identification protocols; the researchers simply observed ultrasonic resonance signatures with these different materials. Specifically, Sinha was working on developing an ARS instrument that can detect nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons. By 1996, he had successfully developed a portable ARS unit that can be used in a battlefield. The unit can detect and identify deadly chemicals that are stored in containers in matter of minutes. In addition, the instrument was further developed by a different research group (Dr. Robert Lodder, University of Kentucky) and their work was also published in Applied Spectroscopy. The researchers created a V-shaped instrument that could breach the sonic and ultrasonic regions creating more versatility. The term acoustic resonance spectrometer was coined for the V-shaped spectrometer as well. Since the study in 1994, the ARS has evolved and been used to differentiate wood species, differentiate pharmaceutical tablets, determine burn rates and determine dissolution rates of tablets. In 2007 Analytical Chemistry featured the past and current work of the lab of Dr. Lodder discussing the potential of acoustics in the analytical chemistry and engineering fields.
Theory:
Vibrations There are two main types of vibrations: free and forced. Free vibrations are the natural or normal modes of vibration for a substance. Forced vibrations are caused by some sort of excitation to make the analyte resonate beyond its normal modes. ARS employs forced vibrations upon the analyte unlike most commonly used techniques which use free vibrations to measure the analyte. ARS excites multiple normal modes by sweeping the excitation frequency of an analyte with no internal vibrations to obtain a resonance spectrum. These resonance frequencies greatly depend on the type of analyte being measured and also depend greatly on the physical properties of the analyte itself (mass, shape, size, etc.). The physical properties will greatly influence the range of frequencies produced by the resonating analyte. In general small analytes have megahertz frequencies while larger analytes can be only a few hundred hertz. The more complex the analyte the more complex the resonance spectrum.
Theory:
Quartz Rod The ARS is essentially set up to create a fingerprint for different samples by constructive and destructive interferences. Figure 1 is a schematic of the quartz rod ARS which illustrates the path of the sound through the quartz rod. A function generator is the source though any device that is capable of outputting sound in voltage form could be used (i.e. CD player, MP3 player or sound card). White noise is generated and the voltage is converted into a sound wave by a piezoelectric disc coupled to the quartz rod. The sound resonates down the quartz rod which is shown as a blue sinusoidal wave and two key interactions occur. A portion of the energy (red) is introduced into the sample and interacts in a specific manner dependent of the sample and another portion of the energy (blue) continues unaltered through the quartz rod. The two energies will still have the same frequency though they will have changes in their phase and possibly amplitude. The two waves recombine after the sample and constructive or destructive interference occurs depending on the phase shift and amplitude change due to the sample. The altered combined energy is converted to an electrical voltage by another piezoelectric disc at the end of the quartz rod. The voltage is then recorded onto a computer by a sound card. The sample is coupled to the quartz rod at constant pressure which is monitored by a pressure transducer which also acts as the sample holder. Rubber grommets are used to secure the quartz rod to a stable stand minimizing coupling of the rod to the surroundings. Broadband white noise is used to obtain a full spectrum; however, most sound cards only pick up between 20 and 22,050 Hz. The waveform that is sent to the computer is a time-based signal of the interactions of white noise with the sample. Fast Fourier transform (FFT) is performed on the waveform to transform the time-based signal into the more useful frequency spectrum.
Detection limits:
A multidimensional population translation experiment was utilized to determine the detection limits of an ARS device, Populations with small multidimensional separation, in this case aspirin and ibuprofen, were used to determine that tablets with a 0.08 mm difference in thickness, 0.0046 g mass difference, and a difference in density of 0.01658 g/mL were not separable by ARS. Using vitamin C and acetaminophen for the largest multidimensional separation, tablets with a thickness difference of 0.27 mm, 0.0756 g mass difference, and 0.01157 g/mL density difference in density were inseparable. Experimentally the dynamic range of ARS is a factor of ten.
Applications:
One potential application of ARS involves the rapid and nondestructive identification of drug tablet verification. Currently, there are no unfailing methods to eliminate contaminated or mislabeled products, a process which sometimes results in millions of pills having to be recalled. More studies need to be completed to determine if ARS could be used as a process analytical technique in industry to prevent problems with pills before they are shipped. ARS may also be useful for quantifying the active ingredient in pharmaceutical ointments and gels. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Quantum dimer magnet**
Quantum dimer magnet:
In condensed matter physics, the quantum dimer magnet state is one in which quantum spins in a magnetic structure entangle to form a singlet state. These entangled spins act as bosons and their excited states (triplons) can undergo Bose-Einstein condensation (BEC). The quantum dimer system was originally proposed by Matsubara and Matsuda as a mapping of the lattice Bose gas to the quantum antiferromagnet. Quantum dimer magnets are often confused as valence bond solids; however, a valence bond solid requires the breaking of translational symmetry and the dimerizing of spins. In contrast, quantum dimer magnets exist in crystal structures where the translational symmetry is inherently broken. There are two types of quantum dimer models: the XXZ model and the weakly-coupled dimer model. The main difference is the regime in which BEC can occur. For the XXZ model (commonly referred to as the magnon BEC), the BEC occurs upon cooling without a magnetic field and manifests itself as a symmetric dome in the field versus temperature phase diagram centered about H = 0. The weakly-coupled dimer model does not magnetically order in zero magnetic field, but instead orders upon the closing of the spin gap, where the BEC regime begins and is a dome centered at non-zero field.
Quantum dimer magnet:
Quantum dimer systems are considered to be of interest due to their relatively simple interactions and their BEC state is of interest as a novel playground for testing BEC physics. In addition, the BEC state of the quantum dimer magnet is thought to be a spin superfluid which could allow for the transfer of spin information over long distances without loss.
Bose-Einstein condensation in the weakly-coupled dimer model:
The Bose-Einstein condensation in quantum dimer systems is, at its essence, a field-induced magnetically ordered state that comes about from the Zeeman splitting of the triplet states. The bosons of the Bose-Einstein condensate can be thought of as the component of the spin parallel to the applied magnetic field, reaching a maximum when the spins become polarized by the field. The difference between the Bose-Einstein condensation and a typical ordered state is the spontaneous breaking of the spin's U(1) symmetry (i.e. the circular symmetry transverse to an applied magnetic field). This spontaneous symmetry breaking gives rise to a Goldstone boson that is measureable via a inelastic neutron scattering (amongst other techniques). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**RailML**
RailML:
railML (Railway Markup Language) is a proprietary freeware XML Schema-based data exchange format for data interoperability of railway applications.
Motivation:
The growing number of computer applications modeling different aspects of railway operations, with different operators developing separate solutions parallelly, bore a chronic difficulty of connecting different railway IT applications. The exchange of data for operation concepts, slot management, simulation or infrastructure planning, etc. was possible either by hand or with a lot of special developed interfaces with loss of time and cost problems for railway companies. If there are n applications that are supposed to exchange data, with a special interface for each pair of programs respectively, n⋅(n−1)2 interfaces are required — only one, if n=2, but 10, if n=5 — increasing the complexity above average.This problem can be mitigated by means of Enterprise application integration with a single, universal exchange format that is supported by all applications and meets the needs of all kinds of data exchange in the field of railway operation: The number of required interfaces decreases to n — one interface to the exchange format for each application respectively. railML tries to place at disposal a free and self-describing format close to existing standards. The paradigm is to meet the demands of the data exchange processes of railways, industry and authorities rather than describing the complete railway system.
Outline:
History The development of railML was initiated in early 2002 by the Fraunhofer-IVI (Dresden, Germany) and the ETH Zürich – IVT (Zurich, Switzerland) against the background of the chronic difficulty of connecting different railway IT applications. railML is changed and adapted to the needs of railway infrastructure managers (IM's) and railway undertakings (RU's) within discussions. The first stable version 1.0 was released in 2005 for productive usage. Up to now the versions 1.0; 1.1; 2.0 to 2.5 were released for download and productive use. railML's version 3 with a new topology model based on RailTopoModel and other evolutions was under development since mid 2015 to be released as beta in mid 2016 and finally released with 3.1 for productive use in February 2019 and evolved to 3.2 in 2022.
Outline:
In 2015 a viewer and validator programme for railML data named railVIVID was released.
Outline:
Working principle railML (railway mark-up language) is a common exchange format, which employs XML for the description of rail-specific data. railML enables the exchange of railway data between internal and external railway applications. railML is developed within the so-called “railML consortium” from railML.org. The model language of railML is UML and the documentation language is English. Every railML developer and user is invited to contribute or propose scheme extensions.
Outline:
Applications can exchange data via railML either via exporting respectively importing railML files, or as a direct Inter-process communication via TCP/IP.
Licensing and pricing The usage of railML is possible at no charge as long as users register at railML.org, do not redistribute or modify the code, and do not use railML commercially. It is a free data exchange format but not open due to being licensed under a heavily restricted and non-permissive Creative Commons license.
Outline:
Versions 0.x and 1.x were licensed under a proprietary license, where version 0.x was intended only for internal use and shared within the consortium.Version 2.0 to 2.2 used to be licensed with the Creative Commons license CC-BY-NC-SA until June 2013. Since July 2013 all versions from 2.0 onward were offered parallelly either with a commercial usable CC-BY-ND (V 3) license or with a restricted CC-BY-NC-ND (V 3) license. The organization behind railML claims that the restrictions preventing redistribution and modifications are for quality control purposes, the means of which is requiring application developers to purchase a certification.Version 3.x is licensed under the same Creative Commons conditions, but in CC version 4.0. With this railML.org adapts the enhancements made by CC and garanties schema user the same usage rights as in previous years and railML versions.The Logo and the word railML are a registered as trademarks by the railML consortium at the EUIPO.
Outline:
Legal entity Legal entity for the so-called railML consortium is the railML.org e.V. a registered non-profit association by German law (registration number VR 5750 at the local court in Dresden/Germany) since April 23, 2012.
railML schemes:
railML is based on XML and sub-areas use other existing XML-schemes such as MathML and GML. It is composed of sub-schemes. Through version 2.4, three sub-schemes are in productive use: timetable for the description of timetables, infrastructure for the (priority topological) description of tracks and signalling equipment and rolling stock for the description of vehicles.Since railML version 3.1 an additional sub-scheme was introduced due to the demand of the community: interlocking for the description of signaling routesAdditional sub-schemes are station facilities (ticket machines, waiting rooms, vending machines, etc.) or crew rostering (shift planning/rosters and working time management for conductors, etc.) are currently on hold, as there is no demand from the users.
railML schemes:
Timetable This sub-schema serves the exchange of detailed timetables. Particularly, the schema is designed for the following information: Train running times (arrivals, departures and passing times) Operating Periods: the days on which a train is operated Train Parts: scheduling and routing information for through coaches in trains, e.g. the Orient Express on the traject from Budapest to Beograd on Mondays.
railML schemes:
Trains: a collection of train parts, adding up to the colloquial perspective, e.g. the Orient Express.
Rostering: Circulation plans for rolling stock, linked with Train Parts.
railML schemes:
Infrastructure The focus of this sub-schema is the infrastructure of railway networks. Important aspects are: Network topology Coordinates Geometry: track geometry (gradient, curve radius) Railway infrastructure elements: inventory like balises and signals Further located elements: abstract things that cannot be touched but located, like speed limits and track condition Rolling stock While the Infrastructure sub-schema is focused on immobile assets, Rolling stock describes assets circulating in the network.
railML schemes:
Vehicles Formations: the combination of vehicles as a train Tractive effort of locomotives and motor units Interlocking Signal aspects derived from train routes through stations Code example Example for a time table formulated in railML Line 3 expresses that the employed railML-version is 1.1.
Line 4 bears the train code.
Lines 5 and 15 frame the itinerary with, in this case, 8 itinerary entries.
The itinerary entries in line 6 to 14 have arguments like position ID (e.g. a station), time of departure or arrival, and in line 9 an obligation to stop.
Versions
Usage of railML data:
At the beginning the most employed usage of railML data was timetable data for passenger information, duty planning for conductors and drivers and timetable simulation, following the usage of railML data for interlocking planning and infrastructure like network statements of IM's.
Usage of railML data:
Computer programmes Applications using railML version 2.x include a lot of timetable related programmes like OpenTrack (interactive railway simulator), FBS (planning software for railway operation), Viriato (scheduling system) and OpenTimeTable (real time analysis of network operation data). Applications using railML version 3.x include additionally BIM related infrastructure planning software like VIS All 3D or railway survey systems like GPSinfradat.A complete list of programmes with (certified) interfaces is available at railML's website of compatible applications.
Usage of railML data:
railVIVID railVIVID is a free tool provided by UIC and railML.org to validate railML files of version 2.x or higher and to show the content of railML files in some special views. The intention of the tool is to allow less technical users access to data described in railML. Therefore, some sights of railway data can be shown, copied and printed with railVIVID: Graphic viewer for Timetable data Tabular viewer for Timetable data with spreadsheet export Rolling Stock data viewer Topologic viewer for Infrastructure data Geographic viewer for Infrastructure data Schema validator for railMLrailVIVID is available via railML's website under terms similar to those of the railML schema. There are binary versions for Microsoft Windows and Java, also the source code was published in Autumn 2015 under the EUPL licence.
railML.org initiative:
The development of railML is driven by the railML.org – Initiative, a development partnership of independent companies and organizations and European railways. The participation on the development and semi-annual conferences to exchange experience and discuss basics is open. The continuous development work is mainly internet-based (German and English forums). The organisation of the discussions is managed by so-called railML Coordinators. The railML.org Consortium membership is mandatory for the download and usage of railML schemes. Obtaining a commercial certification is required before any commercial or productive use of software interfaces for the format.
railML.org initiative:
Members Members of railML.org are currently: Railways like Austrian Federal Railways, BLS, French Railways, German State Railway, Infrabel, Norwegian Rail Infrastructure Manager, Swiss Federal Railways, ...
Software manufacturers like Hacon (Hanover/Germany), iRFP (Dresden/Germany), PTV (Karlsruhe/Germany), SMA (Zurich/Switzerland), Trapeze Group (Hamburg/Germany), Siemens (Brunswick/Erlangen/Germany), Thales (Berlin & Ditzingen/Germany), ...
Authorities like Bavarian Passenger Transport Authority (Munich/Germany), Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure (Berlin/Germany), High Speed Two (London/Great Britain), Jernbanedirektoratet (Oslo/Norway), ...
Universities and Research institutes like Czech Technical University Prague, Dresden University, DLR, ETH Zurich, University of Birmingham, ...A complete and updated list is published at the website of railML.org community.
Cooperations railML.org works in the ERIM (abbreviation for European Rail Infrastructure Masterplan) project of the International Union of Railways (UIC) for the development of RailTopoModel as a common data model in the railway sector. Also railML.org cooperates with Eurocontrol and European Union Agency for Railways. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Safety Pharmacology Society**
Safety Pharmacology Society:
The Safety Pharmacology Society (SPS) is a global scientific society fostering best practice around the discipline of safety pharmacology. The Society has a mission statement which declares it is a nonprofit organization that promotes knowledge, development, application, and training in safety pharmacology—a distinct scientific discipline that integrates the best practices of pharmacology, physiology and toxicology. The objective of safety pharmacology studies is to further the discovery, development and safe use of biologically active chemical entities and large molecules by the identification, monitoring and characterization of potentially undesirable pharmacodynamic activities in nonclinical studies. The Safety Pharmacology Society also supports the human safety of drugs and biologicals by fostering scientific research, education, and dissemination of scientific information through meetings and other scientific interactions.
Safety Pharmacology Society:
The Safety Pharmacology Society was incorporated in 2000, at the time when the International Conference on Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use was issuing ICH S7A, a regulatory guidance covering safety pharmacology and drafting ICH S7B which is more specific to potential effects of new drugs on cardiac repolarization. Prior to 2001 many of the same scientific experts met once a year in Philadelphia. The historical birth of safety pharmacology is described by Alan Bass, Lewis Kinter, Patricia Williams. Two of the authors, Alan Bass and Lewis Kinter, are past presidents of the Safety Pharmacology Society.The Safety Pharmacology Society is composed of members from across the globe and reaches out internationally through meetings, webinars and publications. The Society provides a number of resources that are available to members and nonmembers. The Safety Pharmacology Society also offers a certification exam, Diplomate in Safety Pharmacology (DSP). The certification examination is offered online one time a year.
Safety Pharmacology Society:
The key values of the SPS embrace scientific excellence, knowledge, improving human and animal life, collaboration and cooperation, integrity, quality, and respect for individual diversity, initiative, education and personal development.
Safety Pharmacology Society:
The Safety Pharmacology Society organizes an annual meeting in the Fall, comprising invited speakers, posters, continuing education courses and exhibits. This meeting has alternated between North America and Europe. Recent meetings have been held in: Montréal, Canada (2022) Barcelona, Spain (2019) Washington, District of Columbia (2018) Berlin, Germany (2017) Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada (2016) Prague, Czech Republic (2015) Washington, District of Columbia (2014) Rotterdam, Netherlands (2013) Phoenix, Arizona (2012) Innsbruck, Austria (2011) Boston, Massachusetts (2010) Strasbourg, France (2009) Madison, Wisconsin (2008) Edinburgh, United Kingdom (2007) San Diego, California (2006) Mannheim, Germany (2005) Covington, Kentucky (2004) Noordwyk, Netherlands (2003) Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (2002) Chicago, Illinois (2001)The Safety Pharmacology Society also organizes local (regional) meetings and webinars. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Dienochlor**
Dienochlor:
Dienochlor is an organochlorine compound included in the group of cyclic chlorinated hydrocarbons. Its chemical formula is C10Cl10. Dienochlor is mostly used as a pesticide and ovicide.
Synthesis:
Dienochlor can be obtained by catalytic reduction of hexachlorocyclopentadiene (e.g. with copper or hydrogen).
Properties:
Dienochlor is a combustible yellow solid which is practically insoluble in water. It decomposes when heated above 250 °C. It decomposes rapidly under the influence of sunlight.
Applications:
Dienochlor is used as an acaricide under the trade name Pentac for combating mites (Tetranychus, Polyphagotarsonemus latus) on roses, chrysanthemums, and other ornamental plants.
Regulations:
Dienochlor was approved for use in the Western Germany between 1971 and 1990. In the European Union, no plant protection products containing dienochlor are authorized. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**NERV (reactor)**
NERV (reactor):
The NERV (natural endogenous respiration vessel) is a specialised bioreactor, designed to operate under high and varying load and flow conditions.
Description:
The NERV system allows the bacteria cultures within the reactor to be controlled both by type and volume. Fresh bacteria are bred and cultured outside of the reactor; regular dosing ensures that a constant supply of fresh bacteria is always on hand, even during periods of low nutrient values or high toxicity. This ensures that cultures are not 'wiped out' and that immediate recovery of bio-remediation takes place.
Description:
NERV is more compact than traditional technology and during times of low nutrient levels the bacteria enter the state of endogenous respiration, a situation where they eat their own biomass. This results in dramatically lower sludge production compared with traditional biological systems. This technology benefits from a much smaller footprint than traditional systems and the concept of breeding bacteria outside of the unit removes the reliance on self-generating bacteria within the system giving it the ability to absorb toxic shocks and extreme nutrient variations.
Use:
A typical NERV installation would be a cooked meat production plant with regularly washed down ovens. The effluent from such a factory would be very high in FOG (fats, oils and grease) but would frequently contain cleaning fluids and biocides. The bacteria in a traditional treatment system would be killed by this kind of shock, rendering the systems useless. Some food plants alternate their wash downs to be acidic and basic to avoid build up of resistant organisms, a properly set-up NERV reactor can deal with this variation. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Roback**
Roback:
Roback is a surname. People with that name include: Abraham Aaron Roback (1890–1965), Jewish American psychologist and promoter of Yiddish Brogan Roback (born 1994), American football quarterback Charles W. Roback (1811-1867), Swedish fraudster, Swedish-American patent medicine manufacturer, astrologist and charlatan David Roback (1958–2020), American guitarist and songwriter Emil Roback (born 2003), Swedish football player Léa Roback (1903–2000), Canadian trade union organizer, social activist, pacifist, and feminist Jennifer Roback Morse (born 1953), American economist, writer and Catholic social conservative | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Huayacocotla Formation**
Huayacocotla Formation:
The Huayacocotla Formation is a geologic formation in Mexico. It preserves fossils dating back to the Jurassic period. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Thrombospondin**
Thrombospondin:
Thrombospondins (TSPs) are a family of secreted glycoproteins with antiangiogenic functions. Due to their dynamic role within the extracellular matrix they are considered matricellular proteins. The first member of the family, thrombospondin 1 (THBS1), was discovered in 1971 by Nancy L. Baenziger.
Types:
The thrombospondins are a family of multifunctional proteins. The family consists of thrombospondins 1-5 and can be divided into 2 subgroups: A, which contains TSP-1 and TSP-2, and B, which contains TSP-3, TSP-4 and TSP-5 (also designated cartilage oligomeric protein or COMP). TSP-1 and TSP-2 are homotrimers, consisting of three identical subunits, whereas TSP-3, TSP-4 and TSP-5 are homopentamers.
TSP-1 and TSP-2 are produced by immature astrocytes during brain development, which promotes the development of new synapses.
Thrombospondin 1 Thrombospondin 1 (TSP-1) is encoded by THBS1. It was first isolated from platelets that had been stimulated with thrombin, and so was designated 'thrombin-sensitive protein'. Since its first recognition, functions for TSP-1 have been found in multiple biological processes including angiogenesis, apoptosis, activation of TGF-beta and Immune regulation. As such, TSP-1 is designated a multifunctional protein.
TSP-1 has multiple receptors, among which CD36, CD47 and integrins are of particular note.
Types:
TSP-1 is antiangiogenic, inhibiting the proliferation and migration of endothelial cells by interactions with CD36 expressed on their surface of these cells. Inhibitory peptides and fragments of TSP1 bind to CD36, leading to the expression of FAS ligand (FasL), which activates its specific, ubiquitous receptor, Fas. This leads to the activation of caspases and apoptosis of the cell. Since tumors overexpressing TSP-1 typically grow slower, exhibit less angiogenesis, and have fewer metastases, TSP1 is an attractive target for cancer treatment. Because TSP1 is extremely large (~120 kDa monomer), not very abundant and exerts multiple actions, its clinical usefulness is questionable. However, small-molecules based on a CD36-binding peptide sequence from TSP1 are being tested. One analog, ABT-510, exhibits potent proapoptotic activity in cultured cells, while clinically it is very well tolerated with therapeutic benefits reported against several malignancies. In 2005, ABT-510 was evaluated in phase II clinical trials for the treatment of several types of cancer.
Human proteins containing this domain:
ADAMTS1; ADAMTS10; ADAMTS12; ADAMTS13; ADAMTS14; ADAMTS15; ADAMTS16; ADAMTS17; ADAMTS18; ADAMTS19; ADAMTS2; ADAMTS20; ADAMTS3; ADAMTS4; ADAMTS5; ADAMTS6; ADAMTS7; ADAMTS8; ADAMTS9; ADAMTSL1; ADAMTSL2; ADAMTSL3; ADAMTSL4; ADAMTSL5; BAI1; BAI2; BAI3; C6; C7; C8A; C8B; C9; C9orf8; C9orf94; CFP; CILP; CILP2; CTGF; CYR61; HMCN1; LIBC; NOV; PAPLN; RSPO1; RSPO3; SEMA5A; SEMA5B; SPON1; SPON2; SSPO; THBS1; THBS2; THSD1; THSD3; THSD7A; THSD7B; UNC5A; UNC5B; UNC5C; UNC5D; WISP1; WISP2; WISP3; | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**1000 Tiny Claws**
1000 Tiny Claws:
1000 Tiny Claws is an action game developed and published by Mediatonic for PlayStation Portable in 2011.
Gameplay:
The player takes control of Rana, the first mate of sky pirate Captain Bluebell, who has removed a magical sword and accidentally released a curse plaguing the world with insects. With Captain Bluebell and his crew arrested and sentenced to hang, Rana has only 24 hours to remove the curse by returning the pilfered sword to its rightful place.
Gameplay:
The game consists of five regions each made up of five hovering islands, and the player is tasked with fighting off each insect swarm that will attempt to knock them off the island. When the player hits an enemy, they get knocked back, and the more the enemies get hit, the further they fly, until they get knocked off the island. If the player gets hit, they will get knocked further and further with each hit. Eating an apple that bugs drop when they get knocked off will restore the player's defense, making it harder for the insects to push them off the island. If the player gets knocked off completely, the game is over and they are given an option to try again.
Reception:
The game received "generally favorable reviews" according to the review aggregation website Metacritic. Pocket Gamer said of the game, "It's a pity that the quality of swordplay at higher levels doesn't quite match up to the polished piratical trimmings of this snappily designed little number, leaving a considerable - but never quite deal-breaking - blemish on an otherwise charming downloadable fighter." Push Square said that the game "doesn't quite live up to the pedigree of Mediatonic's previous PlayStation Minis, with the quality of the swordplay in the game's concluding third detracting from the experience. But issues aside, this is still a delightfully conceived piratical package with a great sense of humour, and thus entirely worthy of your time." However, PlayStation Official Magazine – UK said, "Sometimes you'll want to hit yourself hard in the head with your controller, just to break up the monotony." | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Achard syndrome**
Achard syndrome:
Achard syndrome is a syndrome consisting of arachnodactyly, receding lower jaw, and joint laxity limited to the hands and feet. Hypermobility and subluxations of the joints, increased lateral excursion of the patellas and other findings reflect the increased ligament laxity. It is clinically similar to Marfan syndrome.
Symptoms:
Presentation is the following: Small thumbs Joint laxity in hands Joint laxity in feet Brachycephaly Short mandibular rami | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Parity drive**
Parity drive:
A parity drive is a hard drive used in a RAID array to provide fault tolerance. For example, RAID 3 uses a parity drive to create a system that is both fault tolerant and, because of data striping, fast. Basically, a single data bit is added to the end of a data block to ensure the number of bits in the message is either odd or even.One way to implement a parity drive in a RAID array is to use the exclusive or, or XOR, function. XOR is a Boolean logic function which means 'one or the other, but not both'. The XOR of all of the data drives in the RAID array is written to the parity drive. If one of the data drives fails, the XOR of the remaining drives is identical to the data of the lost drive. Therefore, when a drive is lost, recovering the drive is as simple as copying the XOR of the remaining drives to a fresh data drive. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Open carry guitar rally**
Open carry guitar rally:
Open Carry Guitar Rally is a concept created by Barry Kooda in response to the Open Carry gun movement. During an Open Carry Guitar Rally, citizens congregate in a public place while displaying their instruments, a parody of similar gatherings held by gun rights activists.
Background:
The event originated in Dallas, Texas, where it received the support of the local Dallas art and music communities. Kooda is a member of the Dallas-based punk rock band The Nervebreakers. Since then, these rallies have occurred in several cities across the United States. These events are attended by people with varying degrees of opinions concerning gun rights and legislation; while some attendees express anti-gun sentiment, others view the gatherings simply as an opportunity to enjoy the camaraderie of fellow guitar enthusiasts.
Background:
The Open Carry Guitar Rally was organized using the open source concept. The idea, and all artwork and images are free for use for others to use to organize their own open carry guitar rallies, provided proper credit is given to the artists and contributors.
Events:
Dallas, Texas The original Open Carry Guitar Rally occurred on July 4, 2014, at the Continental Avenue Bridge Park in Dallas, Texas. This event was conceived and coordinated by Barry Kooda, co-coordinated by Kyle Reynolds, and promoted by graphic designer Pat Ramseur with event coordination assistance from Mike Schwedler and Reid Robinson. Over 1,000 people RSVP'ed on the group's Facebook page.The event was continued in 2015, 2016, and 2017 as well.
Events:
Next one is October 27, 2019.
Cleveland, Ohio Inspired by the Dallas event, an open carry guitar rally was held on July 13, 2014, in Public Square in Cleveland, Ohio. This event was co-organized by Daniel McGraw and Ariel Clayton.
Fresno, California On August 30, 2014, a group gathered at KJWL ("Jewel FM") radio station and exercised their right to bear guitars through the streets of downtown Fresno, California.
Austin, Texas On August 30, 2014, a group assembled at the Texas State Capitol building in Austin in another iteration of the Open Carry Guitar Rally. This event was organized by Scott Carlin and attended by Dallas coordinators Barry Kooda and Kyle Reynolds.
Medford, Oregon The rally took place on October 5, 2014, at Vogel Plaza in downtown Medford, Oregon. The rally was organized by Roger Lemstrom.
Bend, Oregon The "happening" was on June 30, 2014, at the corner of Wall Street and Franklin Avenue in Bend, Oregon, and was organized by William L. Valenti. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Facet syndrome**
Facet syndrome:
Facet syndrome is a syndrome in which the facet joints (synovial diarthroses) cause painful symptoms. In conjunction with degenerative disc disease, a distinct but functionally related condition, facet arthropathy is believed to be one of the most common causes of lower back pain.
Signs and symptoms:
The symptoms of facet joint arthropathy depend entirely on the location of the degenerated spinal joint, the severity of the damage and the amount of pressure that is being placed on the surrounding structures. It's important to note that the amount of pain a person experiences does not correlate well with the amount of degeneration that has occurred within the joint. Many people experience little or no pain while others, with exactly the same amount of pathology, experience chronic pain.Additionally, in symptomatic facet arthropathy the location of the degenerated joint plays a significant role in the symptoms that are experienced. People with degenerated joints in the upper spine will often feel pain radiating throughout the upper neck and shoulders (cervical facet syndrome.) That said, symptoms often manifest themselves in the lumbar spine, since they are highest here due to the overlying body weight, mobility and geometry. Affected persons usually feel dull pain in the lumbar spine that can radiate into the buttocks and legs. Typically, the pain is worsened by stress on the facet joints, e.g. by lumbar extension and loading (the basis of the Kemp Test) or lateral flexion but also by prolonged standing or walking.Pain associated with facet syndrome is often called "referred pain" because symptoms do not follow a specific nerve root pattern. This is why patients experiencing symptomatic facet syndrome can feel pain in their shoulders, legs and even manifested in the form of headaches.
Cause:
Like many other joints throughout the human body, facets can experience natural degeneration from normal aging. Over time, the cartilage within the joints can naturally begin to wear out, allowing it to become thin or disappear entirely which, in turn, allows the conjoining vertebrae to rub directly against one another with little or no lubricant or separation. A result of this rubbing is often swelling, inflammation causing pain.Over time, the body will naturally respond to the instability within the spine by developing bone spurs, thickened ligaments or even synovial cysts that contact nerve roots exiting the spinal column.While primarily caused through natural wear and tear and degeneration, facet syndrome can also occur as a result of injury to the spine, or lifestyle choices. These causes can include: Osteoarthritis Spondylolisthesis Obesity Smoking Malnutrition Trauma such as a car accident, fall or sports injury.
Cause:
Lack of physical exercise or daily activity (questionably)
Pathophysiology:
55% of facet syndrome cases occur in cervical vertebrae, and 31% in lumbar. Spinal osteoarthritis is known as spondylosis. Pathology of the C1-C2 (atlantoaxial) joint, the most mobile of all vertebral segments, accounts for 4% of all spondylosis.
Pathophysiology:
Facet joints The facet joints are formed by the superior and inferior processes of each vertebra. The first cervical vertebra has an inferior articulating surface but, as it does not restrict lateral or posterior translation, is not always considered a proper zygoma (zygoma is Greek for "yoke", i.e. something that restrains movement). In the lumbar spine, facets provide about 20 percent of the twisting stability in the low back. Each facet joint is positioned at each level of the spine to provide the needed support especially with rotation.Facet joints also prevent each vertebra from slipping over the one below. A small capsule surrounds each facet joint providing a nourishing lubricant for the joint. Also, each joint has a rich supply of tiny nerve fibers that provide a painful stimulus when the joint is injured or irritated. Inflamed facets can cause a powerful muscle spasm.
Diagnosis:
Facet arthropathy or 'facet syndrome' can typically be diagnosed through a physical examination, MRI, x-rays and/or a diagnostic block into the suspected joint.
Treatment:
In general, anti-inflammatory drugs are prescribed initially. This medical treatment is usually accompanied by physiotherapy to increase back and stomach muscles. Thus, the spine can be both relieved and stabilized. If these conservative measures do not bring about betterment, minimally invasive procedures such as a facet infiltration can be conducted to offer relief. In this procedure, a local anesthetic is injected directly into the respective joint, usually in combination with a cortisone preparation (corticosteroid). For long- term relief in more severe cases, Radio Frequency Ablation or Rhyzotomy, where the anterior and posterior spinal nerve root is burnt may be performed. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**DNA origami**
DNA origami:
DNA origami is the nanoscale folding of DNA to create arbitrary two- and three-dimensional shapes at the nanoscale. The specificity of the interactions between complementary base pairs make DNA a useful construction material, through design of its base sequences. DNA is a well-understood material that is suitable for creating scaffolds that hold other molecules in place or to create structures all on its own.
DNA origami:
DNA origami was the cover story of Nature on March 16, 2006. Since then, DNA origami has progressed past an art form and has found a number of applications from drug delivery systems to uses as circuitry in plasmonic devices; however, most commercial applications remain in a concept or testing phase.
Overview:
The idea of using DNA as a construction material was first introduced in the early 1980s by Nadrian Seeman. The current method of DNA origami was developed by Paul Rothemund at the California Institute of Technology. The process involves the folding of a long single strand of viral DNA (typically the 7,249 bp genomic DNA of M13 bacteriophage) aided by multiple smaller "staple" strands. These shorter strands bind the longer in various places, resulting in the formation of a pre-defined two- or three-dimensional shape. Examples include a smiley face and a coarse map of China and the Americas, along with many three-dimensional structures such as cubes.
Overview:
To produce a desired shape, images are drawn with a raster fill of a single long DNA molecule. This design is then fed into a computer program that calculates the placement of individual staple strands. Each staple binds to a specific region of the DNA template, and thus due to Watson-Crick base pairing, the necessary sequences of all staple strands are known and displayed. The DNA is mixed, then heated and cooled. As the DNA cools, the various staples pull the long strand into the desired shape. Designs are directly observable via several methods, including electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, or fluorescence microscopy when DNA is coupled to fluorescent materials.
Overview:
Bottom-up self-assembly methods are considered promising alternatives that offer cheap, parallel synthesis of nanostructures under relatively mild conditions.
Overview:
Since the creation of this method, software was developed to assist the process using CAD software. This allows researchers to use a computer to determine the way to create the correct staples needed to form a certain shape. One such software called caDNAno is an open source software for creating such structures from DNA. The use of software has not only increased the ease of the process but has also drastically reduced the errors made by manual calculations.
Applications:
Many potential applications have been suggested in literature, including enzyme immobilization, drug delivery systems, and nanotechnological self-assembly of materials. Though DNA is not the natural choice for building active structures for nanorobotic applications, due to its lack of structural and catalytic versatility, several papers have examined the possibility of molecular walkers on origami and switches for algorithmic computing. The following paragraphs list some of the reported applications conducted in the laboratories with clinical potential.
Applications:
Researchers at the Harvard University Wyss Institute reported the self-assembling and self-destructing drug delivery vessels using the DNA origami in the lab tests. The DNA nanorobot they created is an open DNA tube with a hinge on one side which can be clasped shut. The drug filled DNA tube is held shut by a DNA aptamer, configured to identify and seek certain diseased related protein. Once the origami nanobots get to the infected cells, the aptamers break apart and release the drug. The first disease model the researchers used was leukemia and lymphoma.Researchers in the National Center for Nanoscience and Technology in Beijing and Arizona State University reported a DNA origami delivery vehicle for Doxorubicin, a well-known anti-cancer drug. The drug was non-covalently attached to DNA origami nanostructures through intercalation and a high drug load was achieved. The DNA-Doxorubicin complex was taken up by human breast adenocarcinoma cancer cells (MCF-7) via cellular internalization with much higher efficiency than doxorubicin in free form. The enhancement of cell killing activity was observed not only in regular MCF-7, more importantly, also in doxorubicin-resistant cells. The scientists theorized that the doxorubicin-loaded DNA origami inhibits lysosomal acidification, resulting in cellular redistribution of the drug to action sites, thus increasing the cytotoxicity against the tumor cells.In a study conducted by a group of scientists from iNANO center and CDNA Center at Aarhus university, researchers were able to construct a small multi-switchable 3D DNA Box Origami. The proposed nanoparticle was characterized by AFM, TEM and FRET. The constructed box was shown to have a unique reclosing mechanism, which enabled it to repeatedly open and close in response to a unique set of DNA or RNA keys. The authors proposed that this "DNA device can potentially be used for a broad range of applications such as controlling the function of single molecules, controlled drug delivery, and molecular computing.".Nanorobots made of DNA origami demonstrated computing capacities and completed pre-programmed task inside the living organism was reported by a team of bioengineers at Wyss Institute at Harvard University and Institute of Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials at Bar-Ilan University. As a proof of concept, the team injected various kinds of nanobots (the curled DNA encasing molecules with fluorescent markers) into live cockroaches. By tracking the markers inside the cockroaches, the team found the accuracy of delivery of the molecules (released by the uncurled DNA) in target cells, the interactions among the nanobots and the control are equivalent to a computer system. The complexity of the logic operations, the decisions and actions, increases with the increased number of nanobots. The team estimated that the computing power in the cockroach can be scaled up to that of an 8-bit computer.DNA is folded into an octahedron and coated with a single bilayer of phospholipid, mimicking the envelope of a virus particle. The DNA nanoparticles, each at about the size of a virion, are able to remain in circulation for hours after injected into mice. It also elicits much lower immune response than the uncoated particles. It presents a potential use in drug delivery, reported by researchers in Wyss Institute at Harvard University.
Similar approaches:
The idea of using protein design to accomplish the same goals as DNA origami has surfaced as well. Researchers at the National Institute of Chemistry in Slovenia are working on using rational design of protein folding to create structures much like those seen with DNA origami. The main focus of current research in protein folding design is in the drug delivery field, using antibodies attached to proteins as a way to create a targeted vehicle. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**216 (number)**
216 (number):
216 (two hundred [and] sixteen) is the natural number following 215 and preceding 217. It is a cube, and is often called Plato's number, although it is not certain that this is the number intended by Plato.
In mathematics:
216 is the cube of 6, and the sum of three cubes: It is the smallest cube that can be represented as a sum of three positive cubes, making it the first nontrivial example for Euler's sum of powers conjecture. It is, moreover, the smallest number that can be represented as a sum of any number of distinct positive cubes in more than one way. It is a highly powerful number: the product 3×3 of the exponents in its prime factorization 216 =23×33 is larger than the product of exponents of any smaller number.Because there is no way to express it as the sum of the proper divisors of any other integer, it is an untouchable number. Although it is not a semiprime, the three closest numbers on either side of it are, making it the middle number between twin semiprime-triples, the smallest number with this property. Sun Zhiwei has conjectured that each natural number not equal to 216 can be written as either a triangular number or as a triangular number plus a prime number; however, this is not possible for 216. If the conjecture is true, 216 would be the only number for which this is not possible.There are 216 ordered pairs of four-element permutations whose products generate all the other permutations on four elements. There are also 216 fixed hexominoes, the polyominoes made from 6 squares, joined edge-to-edge. Here "fixed" means that rotations or mirror reflections of hexominoes are considered to be distinct shapes.
In other fields:
216 is one common interpretation of Plato's number, a number described in vague terms by Plato in the Republic. Other interpretations include 3600 and 12960000.There are 216 colors in the web-safe color palette, a 6×6×6 color cube.In the game of checkers, there are 216 different positions that can be reached by the first three moves.The proto-Kabbalistic work Sefer Yetzirah states that the creation of the world was achieved by the manipulation of 216 sacred letters. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Roland Octapad**
Roland Octapad:
Roland Octapad is a range of MIDI electronic drum percussion controllers produced by the Roland Corporation.
Roland Pad-8:
The first model, introduced in 1985, was the Pad-8. Originally to be called MPC-8 (MIDI Percussion Controller 8), but was renamed Pad-8 to avoid legal implications with MPC Electronics. It was an influential device at that time, allowing drummers and percussionists the opportunity to trigger virtually any MIDI sound source without the need of a full electronic drum set.
Roland Pad-8:
Features The Pad 8 Consists of eight individual pads (divided in two rows of four pads) and six external pad trigger ports. The controlled had no internal sound source and limited memory for four user patches. A unique initialization procedure, when powered on, would load a "patch preset" and configure the Pad-8 to work with either the Roland's TR-909 or TR-707/TR-727.The Pad 8 could only transmit on a single MIDI channel (channel 10 on power up), however each of the 14 pads is assigned a different MIDI-Note number. Both MIDI channel and note numbers could be edited to suite the device being controlled over MIDI.
Roland Pad-8:
There is one parameter adjustable for each pad: MIDI Note. The remaining five parameters adjustable are global: MIDI Channel; Pad Sensitivity; Volume Curve; Minimum Velocity; and the Gate Time.
Notable Users/Endorsers Hard Corps Michael Shrieve/ David Beal Stephen Morris (New Order) John Molo (Bruce Hornsby & The Range) Norman Hassas (UB40) Eric Clapton Phil Collins (Genesis, Mike & Mechanics, Howard Jones, and Solo project) Danny Carey (Tool)
Roland Pad-80:
The second model, introduced in 1989, was the Pad-80 Octapad II. Again the Pad-80 was an eight pad MIDI controller that allowed for various types of MIDI sound sources. Improvements in this second model included the ability to play up to three notes per pad, and velocity switching, which allowed the user to stack or alternate between the assigned notes depending on how hard the pads were struck. This feature became useful for creating more realistic sounding drum parts, and in addition allowed drummers to play melodic instruments with greater ease. These new features were groundbreaking at the time, and are still utilized in Roland's electronic percussion today.
Roland Pad-80:
The memory was increased, allowing up to 64 different patches internally and another 64 patches to be stored on a Roland M-256E memory card. Further improvements to the MIDI specification included the control of modulation, pitch bend and aftertouch using a foot pedal, along with full System Exclusive (SysEx) capability. The Pad-80 had a patch chain function that allowed a series of 32 patches to be arranged in any sequence, eight of these chains could be stored in memory.
Roland SPD-8 (1990), SPD-11 (1993), and SPD-20 (1998):
After the Pad-80, Roland continued to release SPD-8 with on-board sounds, as a standalone instrument in 1990, SPD-11 in 1993, which not only had more sounds but also built-in effects processing, and SPD-20 in 1998, which had more on-board sounds. These SPD Series products apart from the SPD-20 and 20x had not been named "Octapad" on the product panel.
Octapad SPD-30 (2010):
Roland continued the line in 2010 with the Octapad SPD-30 which includes on-board sounds and effects. Version 2 was released as a firmware update in 2012.
Octapad SPD-20x (2015) and SPD-20 Pro (2020):
Roland released the SPD-20x in 2015 and the SPD-20 Pro in 2020 with more on-board sounds and an additional external trigger socket. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Busdma**
Busdma:
In computing, busdma, bus_dma and bus_space is a set of application programming interfaces designed to help make device drivers less dependent on platform-specific code, thereby allowing the host operating system to be more easily ported to new computer hardware. This is accomplished by having abstractions for direct memory access (DMA) mapping across popular machine-independent computer buses like PCI, which are used on distinct architectures from IA-32 (NetBSD/i386) to DEC Alpha (NetBSD/alpha). Additionally, some devices may come in multiple flavours supporting more than one bus, e.g., ISA, EISA, VESA Local Bus and PCI, still sharing the same core logic irrespective of the bus, and such device drivers would also benefit from this same abstraction.: §1.2 Thus the rationale of busdma is to facilitate maximum code reuse across a wide range of platforms.: §5 Circa 2006, bus and DMA abstractions made it possible for NetBSD to support 50 hardware platforms and 14 CPU architectures out of a single source tree, compared to the forking model used by Linux ports.Originally implemented as the "bus_dma" APIs by the developers of the NetBSD operating system, busdma has been adopted by OpenBSD, FreeBSD and their derivatives; with FreeBSD incorporating it under a busdma umbrella (without an underscore). Both NetBSD and OpenBSD have additional "bus_space" APIs that have been amalgamated into the version of busdma incorporated into FreeBSD. DragonFly BSD developers are also slowly converting their drivers to use busdma. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Weight loss effects of water**
Weight loss effects of water:
Water consumption may be effective for reducing energy intake and human body weight.Water is essential for life, but it can also aid in weight loss. The amount of water a person needs to drink depends on many factors, such as age, weight, activity level, climate, and health conditions. However, a general rule of thumb is to drink at least 2 liters (68 oz) of water per day, or more if you exercise or sweat a lot. You can also drink other fluids, such as tea, coffee, juice, or milk, but be careful of their calorie and sugar content. You should also avoid drinking alcohol, soda, and other sugary drinks, as they can dehydrate you and add extra calories to your diet.
Weight loss effects of water:
Water can be made more flavorful, by adding some fruits, herbs, or spices to it. For example, you can make lemon water, cucumber water, mint water, ginger water, or berry water. These natural ingredients can add some vitamins, antioxidants, and other health benefits to your water. You can also use a reusable water bottle or a glass jar to carry your water with you wherever you go.
Weight loss effects of water:
Drinking water is a simple and effective way to improve your health and lose weight. It can help you feel full, burn calories, exercise better, and detoxify your body. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Cymserine**
Cymserine:
Cymserine is a drug related to physostigmine, which acts as a reversible cholinesterase inhibitor, with moderate selectivity (15×) for the plasma cholinesterase enzyme butyrylcholinesterase, and relatively weaker inhibition of the better-known acetylcholinesterase enzyme. This gives it a much more specific profile of effects that may be useful for treating Alzheimer's disease without producing side effects such as tremors, lacrimation, and salivation that are seen with the older nonselective cholinesterase inhibitors currently used for this application, such as donepezil. A number of cymserine derivatives have been developed with much greater selectivity for butyrylcholinesterase, and both cymserine and several of its analogues have been tested in animals, and found to increase brain acetylcholine levels and produce nootropic effects, as well as reducing levels of amyloid precursor protein and amyloid beta, which are commonly used biomarkers for the development of Alzheimer's disease (potentially indicating the drugs as candidates to be the first medicine capable of stopping, and even reversing, the progression of the disease).Unfortunately, the extremely promising results of cymserine administration in Alzheimer's patients is hindered by its toxic metabolites. A portion of administered cymserine is metabolized in the body into eseroline, a potent mu opioid agonist and neurotoxin. As such, derivatives of cymserine which share its effects and mechanism of action but differ in their metabolic pathways would theoretically produce much fewer side-effects and have a greatly reduced risk of neurotoxic damage occurring with long-term administration (which could ultimately result in a greater loss of mental capacity than Alzheimer's itself). The search for cymserine derivatives which do not serve as prodrugs to eseroline is ongoing. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Cryptogram**
Cryptogram:
A cryptogram is a type of puzzle that consists of a short piece of encrypted text. Generally the cipher used to encrypt the text is simple enough that the cryptogram can be solved by hand. Substitution ciphers where each letter is replaced by a different letter or number are frequently used. To solve the puzzle, one must recover the original lettering. Though once used in more serious applications, they are now mainly printed for entertainment in newspapers and magazines. Other types of classical ciphers are sometimes used to create cryptograms. An example is the book cipher where a book or article is used to encrypt a message.
History of cryptograms:
The ciphers used in cryptograms were not originally created for entertainment purposes, but for real encryption of military or personal secrets.The first use of the cryptogram for entertainment purposes occurred during the Middle Ages by monks who had spare time for intellectual games. A manuscript found at Bamberg states that Irish visitors to the court of Merfyn Frych ap Gwriad (died 844), king of Gwynedd in Wales were given a cryptogram which could only be solved by transposing the letters from Latin into Greek. Around the thirteenth century, the English monk Roger Bacon wrote a book in which he listed seven cipher methods, and stated that "a man is crazy who writes a secret in any other way than one which will conceal it from the vulgar." In the 19th century Edgar Allan Poe helped to popularize cryptograms with many newspaper and magazine articles.Well-known examples of cryptograms in contemporary culture are the syndicated newspaper puzzles Cryptoquip and Cryptoquote, from King Features. And Celebrity Cipher, distributed by Andrew McMeel, is another captivating cipher game in contemporary culture, offering a stimulating challenge by decrypting quotes from famous personalities.In a public challenge, writer J.M. Appel announced on September 28, 2014, that the table of contents page of his short story collection, Scouting for the Reaper, also doubled as a cryptogram, and he pledged an award for the first to solve it.
Solving a cryptogram:
Cryptograms based on substitution ciphers can often be solved by frequency analysis and by recognizing letter patterns in words, such as one letter words, which, in English, can only be "i" or "a" (and sometimes "o"). Double letters, apostrophes, and the fact that no letter can substitute for itself in the cipher also offer clues to the solution. Occasionally, cryptogram puzzle makers will start the solver off with a few letters.
Other crypto puzzles:
While the Cryptogram has remained popular, over time other puzzles similar to it have emerged. One of these is the Cryptoquote, which is a famous quote encrypted in the same way as a Cryptogram. A more recent version, with a biblical twist, is CodedWord. This puzzle makes the solution available only online where it provides a short exegesis on the biblical text. Yet a third is the Cryptoquiz. This puzzle starts off at the top with a category (unencrypted). For example, "Flowers" might be used. Below this is a list of encrypted words which are related to the stated category. The person must then solve for the entire list to finish the puzzle. Yet another type involves using numbers as they relate to texting to solve the puzzle.
Other crypto puzzles:
The Zodiac Killer sent four cryptograms to police while he was still active. Despite much research and many investigations, only two of these have been translated, which was of no help in identifying the serial killer. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Emission channeling**
Emission channeling:
Emission channeling is an experimental technique for identifying the position of short-lived radioactive atoms in the lattice of a single crystal.When the radioactive atoms decay, they emit fast charged particles (e.g., α-particles and β-particles). Because of their charge, the emitted particles interact in characteristic ways with the electrons and nuclei of the crystal atoms, giving rise to channeling and blocking directions for the particle escaping the crystal. The intensity (or yield) of the emitted particles is therefore dependent on the position of the detector relative to crystal planes and axes. This fact is used to infer the location of the radioactive species in the lattice by varying the emission angles and subsequent comparison to simulation results. For the simulations, the manybeam formalism can be employed, and resolutions below 1 Å are achievable.
Emission channeling:
Among others, the technique has been used to determine the sites of manganese impurities implanted in semiconducting gallium arsenide: 70% occupy substitutional gallium sites and 28% are located at tetrahedral interstitial sites with arsenic as nearest neighbors. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Common plantar digital nerves of medial plantar nerve**
Common plantar digital nerves of medial plantar nerve:
The common plantar digital nerves of medial plantar nerve are nerves of the foot. The three common digital nerves (nn. digitales plantares communes) pass between the divisions of the plantar aponeurosis, and each splits into two proper digital nerves: Those of the first common digital nerve supply the adjacent sides of the great and second toes; Those of the second, the adjacent sides of the second and third toes; and those of the third, the adjacent sides of the third and fourth toes.
Common plantar digital nerves of medial plantar nerve:
The third common digital nerve receives a communicating branch from the lateral plantar nerve; the first gives a twig to the first Lumbricalis.Each proper digital nerve gives off cutaneous and articular filaments; and opposite the last phalanx sends upward a dorsal branch, which supplies the structures around the nail, the continuation of the nerve being distributed to the ball of the toe.
Common plantar digital nerves of medial plantar nerve:
It will be observed that these digital nerves are similar in their distribution to those of the median nerve in the hand. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**ATP-dependent Clp protease proteolytic subunit**
ATP-dependent Clp protease proteolytic subunit:
ATP-dependent Clp protease proteolytic subunit (ClpP) is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the CLPP gene. This protein is an essential component to form the protein complex of Clp protease (Endopeptidase Clp).
Structure:
Enzyme ClpP is a highly conserved serine protease present throughout bacteria and also found in the mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotic cells. The ClpP monomer is folded into three subdomains: the "handle", the globular "head", and the N-terminal region. By itself, ClpP can assemble into a tetradecamer complex (14-members) and form a closed proteolytic chamber. A fully assembled Clp protease complex has a barrel-shaped structure in which two stacked ring of proteolytic subunits (ClpP or ClpQ) are either sandwiched between two rings or single-caped by one ring of ATPase-active chaperon subunits (ClpA, ClpC, ClpE, ClpX or ClpY). ClpXP is presented in almost all bacteria while ClpA is found in the Gram-negative bacteria, ClpC in Gram-Positive bacteria and cyanobacteria. ClpAP, ClpXP and ClpYQ coexist in E. Coli while only ClpXP complex in present in humans.Some bacteria have multiple ClpPs, like P. aeruginosa, which has two distinct ClpP isoforms ClpP1 and ClpP2. These isoforms have differences in assembly and functional characteristics. P. aeruginosa produces two forms of the ClpP peptidase, PaClpP114 and PaClpP17P27, which in complex with ClpX or ClpA form functional proteases. PaClpP2 is not able to form an active peptidase on its own but it needs PaClpP1 to be active.
Function:
In bacteria, it was shown that ClpP is able to cleave full-length proteins without being associated with ClpA but the degradation is at a much slower rate. Fully functional Clp protease requires the participation of AAA+ ATPase. These ClpX chaperons recognize, unfold and transfer protein substrates to proteolytic core formed by ClpP tetradecamer. The proteolytic sites of ClpP subunits contain hydrophobic grooves which recruit substrate and host the catalytic triad Asp-His-Ser. In several bacteria, such as E. coli, proteins tagged with the SsrA peptide (ANDENYALAA) encoded by tmRNA are digested by Clp proteases. Proteases target damaged or misfolded proteins, transcription factors and signaling proteins in bacteria to coordinate complex cell responses and thus they have robust importance for the physiology and virulence of bacteria.In P. aeruginosa, ClpP1 is expressed constitutively throughout growth whereas ClpP2 expression is induced 10-fold in stationary phase. Quorum-sensing transcription factor LasR activates expression of ClpP2 in stationary phase. ClpP1 and ClpP2 have differential cleavage specificities which contributes to total peptidase activity of PaClpP17P27. Peptidase and protease action of PaClpP17P27 produces cleavage products that enhance biofilm formation in P. aeruginosa.The protein encoded by this gene belongs to the peptidase family S14 and hydrolyzes proteins into small peptides in the presence of ATP and magnesium. The protein is transported into mitochondrial matrix and is associated with the inner mitochondrial membrane.
Clinical significance:
ClpP protease is a major contributor for mitochondrial protein quality control system and removing damaged or misfolded proteins in mitochondrial matrix. Defects in mitochondrial Clp proteases have been associated with the progression of neurodegenerative diseases while upregulation of ClpP proteases has been implicated in preventing premature aging.Recessive CLPP mutations were recently observed in the human Perrault variant associating with ovarian failure and sensorineural hearing loss, in parallel with growth retardation. The clinical phenotype was accompanied by the accumulation of ClpP associating partner chaperon ClpX, mtRNA, and inflammatory factors. The disease pathological cause probably involves deficient clearance of mitochondrial components and inflammatory tissue destruction.ClpP has been shown to be over-expressed in the tumour cells of a subset of cancer patients. This can be exploited by therapeutic agents, including by the hyperactivation of ClpP to cause selective cancer cell lethality.Intracellular proteases have a role in bacterial virulence. Deletion of ClpP causes growth inhibition or loss of virulence in many bacterial species which makes them a good target for developing new antimicrobial agents. Currently there are no approved antimicrobial agents that target bacterial proteases. PaClpP2 is required for proper biofilm development in opportunistic pathogen P. aeruginosa. Deletion of PaClpP2 or mutation of PaClpP2 active site notably decrease biofilm thickness of P. aeruginosa. This founding has relevance in development of new antimicrobial agents against P. aeruginosa. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Bleeding time**
Bleeding time:
Bleeding time is a medical test done on someone to assess their platelets function. It involves making a patient bleed, then timing how long it takes for them to stop bleeding using a stopwatch or other suitable devices.
The term template bleeding time is used when the test is performed to standardized parameters.
Indications:
The bleeding time test is a method indicated when other more reliable and less invasive tests for determining coagulation are not available. However, it remains the most reliable way of assessing clinical bleeding in patients with uremia. Historically it was indicated whenever physicians needed information about platelet activation.
Process:
It involves cutting the underside of the subject's forearm, in an area where there is no hair or visible veins. The cut is of a standardized width and depth, and is done quickly by an automatic device.A blood pressure cuff is used above the wound, to maintain venous pressure at a specified value. The time it takes for the bleeding to stop (i.e. the time it takes for a platelet plug to form) is measured. Cessation of bleeding can be determined by blotting away the blood every several seconds until the site looks "glassy".
Process:
IVY method The IVY method is the traditional format for this test. While both the IVY and Duke's method require the use of a sphygmomanometer, or blood pressure cuff, the IVY method is more invasive than the Duke method, utilizing an incision on the ventral side of the forearm, whereas the Duke method involves puncture with a lancet or special needle. In the IVY method, the blood pressure cuff is placed on the upper arm and inflated to 40 mmHg. A lancet or scalpel blade is used to make a shallow incision that is 1 millimeter deep on the underside of the forearm.A standard-sized incision is made around 10 mm long and 1 mm deep. The time from when the incision is made until all bleeding has stopped is measured and is called the bleeding time. Every 30 seconds, filter paper or a paper towel is used to draw off the blood.
Process:
The test is finished when bleeding has stopped.A prolonged bleeding time may be a result from decreased number of thrombocytes or impaired blood vessels. However, the depth of the puncture or incision may be the source of error.
Normal values fall between 3 – 10 minutes depending on the method used.
A disadvantage of Ivy's method is closure of puncture wound before stoppage of bleeding.
Process:
Duke's method With the Duke's method, the patient is pricked with a special needle or lancet, preferably on the earlobe or fingertip, after having been swabbed with alcohol. The prick is about 3–4 mm deep. The patient then wipes the blood every 30 seconds with a filter paper. The test ceases when bleeding ceases. The usual time is about 2–5 minutes.
Process:
This method is not recommended and cannot be standardized because it can cause a large local hematoma.
Interpretation:
Bleeding time is affected by platelet function, certain vascular disorders and von Willebrand Disease—not by other coagulation factors such as haemophilia. Diseases that cause prolonged bleeding time include thrombocytopenia, disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), Bernard-Soulier disease, and Glanzmann's thrombasthenia.Aspirin and other cyclooxygenase inhibitors can significantly prolong bleeding time. While warfarin and heparin have their major effects on coagulation factors, an increased bleeding time is sometimes seen with use of these medications as well.
Interpretation:
People with von Willebrand disease usually experience increased bleeding time, as von Willebrand factor is a platelet adhesion protein, but this is not considered an effective diagnostic test for this condition.It is also prolonged in hypofibrinogenemia.
In popular culture:
In the British comedy film Doctor in the House (1954), Sir Lancelot Spratt, the intimidating chief of surgery played by James Robertson Justice is asking instructional questions of his medical students. He asks a young student, who has been distracted by a pretty nurse, what "the bleeding time" is. The student looks at his watch and answers "Ten past ten, sir." | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Clostridioides difficile**
Clostridioides difficile:
Clostridioides difficile (syn. Clostridium difficile) is a bacterium that is well known for causing serious diarrheal infections, and may also cause colon cancer. It is known also as C. difficile, or C. diff (), and is a Gram-positive species of spore-forming bacteria. Clostridioides spp. are anaerobic, motile bacteria, ubiquitous in nature and especially prevalent in soil. Its vegetative cells are rod-shaped, pleomorphic, and occur in pairs or short chains. Under the microscope, they appear as long, irregular (often drumstick- or spindle-shaped) cells with a bulge at their terminal ends (forms subterminal spores). Under Gram staining, C. difficile cells are Gram-positive and show optimum growth on blood agar at human body temperatures in the absence of oxygen. C. difficile is catalase- and superoxide dismutase-negative, and produces up to three types of toxins: enterotoxin A, cytotoxin B and Clostridioides difficile transferase (CDT). Under stress conditions, the bacteria produce spores that are able to tolerate extreme conditions that the active bacteria cannot tolerate.Clostridioides difficile is an important emerging human pathogen; according to the CDC, in 2017 there were 223,900 cases in hospitalized patients and 12,800 deaths in the United States. Although C. difficile is commonly known as a hospital and antibiotic associated pathogen, at most one third of infections can be traced to transmission from an infected person in hospitals, and only a small number of antibiotics are directly associated with an elevated risk of developing a C. difficile infection (CDI), namely clindamycin, fluoroquinolones and cephalosporins. The majority of infections are acquired outside of hospitals, and most antibiotics have similar elevated risk of infection on par with many non-antibiotic risk factors, such as using stool softeners and receiving an enema.Clostridioides difficile can also become established in the human colon without causing disease. Although early estimates indicated that C. difficile was present in 2–5% of the adult population, more recent research indicates colonization is closely associated with a history of unrelated diarrheal illnesses, such as food poisoning or laxative abuse. Individuals with no history of gastrointestinal disturbances appear unlikely to become asymptomatic carriers. These carriers are thought to be a major reservoir of infection.
Taxonomy:
The species was transferred from the genus Clostridium to Clostridioides in 2016, thus giving it the binomial Clostridioides difficile. This new name reflects the taxonomic differences between this species and members of the genus Clostridium, while maintaining the common name as C. diff. As of 2018, the only other species in this new genus is Clostridioides mangenotii (formerly known as Clostridium mangenotii).
Human pathogen:
Pathogenic C. difficile strains produce multiple toxins. The best-characterized are enterotoxin (C. difficile toxin A) and cytotoxin (C. difficile toxin B), both of which may produce diarrhea and inflammation in infected patients (C. difficile colitis), although their relative contributions have been debated. The diarrhea may range from a few days of intestinal fluid loss to life-threatening pseudomembranous colitis, which is associated with intense inflammation of the colon and formation of pseudomembranes on the intestinal mucosal surface. Toxins A and B are glucosyltransferases that target and inactivate the Rho family of GTPases. Toxin B (cytotoxin) induces actin depolymerization by a mechanism correlated with a decrease in the ADP-ribosylation of the low molecular mass GTP-binding Rho proteins. There is also a binary toxin (AB toxin), but its role in disease is not fully understood.Additional virulence factors include an adhesion factor that mediates the binding to human colonic cells and a hyaluronidase. The bacterium also produces the chemical para-cresol, which inhibits the growth of other microbes in its vicinity and allows it to outcompete normal human gut flora.Antibiotic treatment of C. diff infections may be difficult, due both to antibiotic resistance and physiological factors of the bacterium (spore formation, protective effects of the pseudomembrane). The emergence of a new, highly toxic strain of C. difficile, resistant to fluoroquinolone antibiotics, such as ciprofloxacin and levofloxacin, said to be causing geographically dispersed outbreaks in North America, was reported in 2005. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control in Atlanta warned of the emergence of an epidemic strain with increased virulence, antibiotic resistance, or both. Resistance to other antibiotics such as metronidazole, the first choice of antimicrobial drug when treating CDI, has been observed in up to 12% of clinical isolates, so as treatment with various antibiotics continues, more diverse and stronger resistances will continue to evolve in C. difficile populations, further complicating attempts at effective treatment.
Transmission:
Clostridioides difficile is transmitted from person or animal to person by the fecal-oral route, shed in faeces. The organism forms heat-resistant spores that are not killed by alcohol-based hand cleansers or routine surface cleaning, thus, these spores survive in clinical environments for long periods. Any surface, device, or material (e.g., toilets, bathing tubs, and electronic rectal thermometers) that becomes contaminated with faeces may serve as a reservoir for the C. difficile spores, and C. difficile spores can live for long periods of time on surfaces. Because of this, the bacterium may be cultured from almost any surface. Once spores are ingested, their acid resistance allows them to pass through the stomach unscathed. They germinate and multiply into vegetative cells in the colon upon exposure to bile acids. Consequently, the World Health Organization advocates the use of soap in addition to alcohol solutions to limit the spread of the spores. Sporulation was shown to be significantly reduced after inactivation of C. diffiicile's DNA methyltransferase CamA, raising the prospect of developing a drug that may inhibit this bacterium in a specific manner.
Transmission:
Susceptibility to colonization appears to be triggered by diarrheal illnesses, such as food poisoning or laxative abuse; people without a history of diarrheal illnesses who are exposed to C. difficile spores will not necessarily become carriers. Once people are colonized by C. difficile, they remain carriers for year-long time scales, but the day-to-day abundance of C. difficile fluctuates considerably - fluctuating from being below the limit of detection to high levels of shedding from one day to the next. GI disturbances in carriers appear to trigger periods of increased shedding which may be an important factor for transmission.
Host range:
Clostridioides difficile infects pigs, calves, and humans, and inhabits a natural reservoir of soil, faeces of domestic animals and humans, sewage, the human intestinal tract, and retail meat.A 2015 CDC study estimated that C. diff afflicted almost half a million Americans and caused 29,000 deaths in 2011. The study estimated that 40% of cases began in nursing homes or community health-care settings, while 24% occurred in hospitals.Clostridioides difficile is common in the human digestive system. However, it is a poor competitor, and is often outcompeted for nutrients by other bacteria in the digestive system. As a result, C. difficile is kept to a manageable number. If the sudden introduction of antibiotic disrupts the microbiome, C. difficile may be able to grow as a result of many of its competitors being killed off. The incubation period is 5–10 days, with a range of 1 day to weeks following antibiotic treatment for antibiotic associated diarrhea. Additionally, carriage of C. difficile with high levels of toxins is common in young children, while disease is rare. The production of one or even both toxins is not always sufficient for producing symptoms.
Signs and symptoms:
Symptoms of C. difficile infection include: diarrhea (at least three loose bowel movements a day), dehydration, abdominal pain that can be severe, loss of appetite, and nausea.
Host immune response:
The C. difficile secreted toxins A (TcdA) and B (TcdB), contain immunogenic antigens that are recognised by antibodies and T cells. However, the levels of anti-TcdA and -TcdB IgG antibodies have not been able to discriminate healthy individuals from patients with C. difficile infection, meaning they have limited clinical use. Recent work has shown these toxins are also recognised by helper CD4+ T cells, predominantly by the Th17 helper cells, which are important in maintaining a healthy gut environment, although in patients with severe infection these cells are impaired. Interestingly, individuals with severe C. difficile infection had significantly more toxin-specific T cells compared to those with mild infection, indicating T cells are playing a key role in fighting this infection. This immune response can further dysregulate microRNA expression. This is further evidenced by the recovery of the toxin-specific Th17 cells and microRNA expression following Fecal microbiota transplant of patients with severe disease.
Treatment:
Patients being treated with antibiotics when symptoms begin should stop taking them, if possible. This break in antibiotic therapy can sometimes lead to spontaneous resolution of symptoms. Patients who do not respond to the cessation of broad-spectrum antibiotics will need to be treated with antibiotics capable of killing C. difficile spores. Primary infections are typically treated with vancomycin, with a usual dosage of 125 mg every 6 hours. The vancomycin regimen has replaced the traditional use of metronidazole due to its greater efficacy, safety profile, and lower recurrence rates. In patients who cannot tolerate vancomycin, fidaxomicin is an acceptable option with similar efficacy and even lower recurrence rates than vancomycin. In cases of fulminant CDI, adjuvant therapy with parenteral metronidazole plus oral vancomycin or fidaxomicin is suggested.About 20% of patients who successfully complete therapy of primary infection with metronidazole or vancomycin will experience a relapse. A fraction of those patients will experience continuous reoccurrences of the infection. The first relapse of C. difficile is usually treated with the same antibiotic used to treat the primary infection. Any subsequent infections should not be treated with metronidazole. Occasionally, a standard 10-day course of oral vancomycin will not work. In these cases, a vancomycin taper is the preferred treatment. Patients take decreasing doses of vancomycin over a period of up to 3 months, depending on the severity of the infection.Each subsequent relapse of C. difficile tends to be more severe than previous infections. Long-term treatment with a vancomycin taper supplemented with probiotics, especially Saccharomyces boulardii, is associated with a higher rate of success.After three relapses, patients may be treated with oral fidaxomicin, a narrow-spectrum antibiotic. The usual dosage is 200 mg twice a day orally for 10 days. Fidaxomicin is considered to be superior to vancomycin for severe CDI. The major downside of treatment with fidaxomicin is the cost of medication. A 10-day course may cost up to US$3500.Patients who do not respond to traditional antibiotic therapy may be eligible for a fecal microbiota transplant (FMT). Healthcare providers can transfer stool from a healthy person to the colon of a patient with repeated CDI. This process is the most successful treatment for severe CDI with a cure rate around 93%. Recurrence rates of CDI in patients treated with a FMT are generally low, around 19%, which makes it very effective at treating chronic CDI cases. However, in some cases, flares of inflammatory bowel disease are a possible side effect of the treatment. Long-term effects of FMT are unknown, as the procedure has only been FDA-approved since 2011 and relatively few procedures have been performed. If transplantation is not an option, removal of the infected part of the colon can cure CDI.
Strains:
In 2005, molecular analysis led to the identification of the C. difficile strain type characterized as group BI by restriction endonuclease analysis, as North American pulse-field-type NAP1 by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis and as ribotype 027; the differing terminology reflects the predominant techniques used for epidemiological typing. This strain is referred to as C. difficile BI/NAP1/027.As of 2016, the NAP1 strain has been replaced by novel strains in some areas of British Columbia. These novel strains include NAP2 and NAP4, and some strains that do not have a NAP designation. The frequency of these novel strains increased from 2008 to 2013 in one studied region, displacing the originally more common and recognizable NAP1 bacteria.Two strains, ribotypes RT078 and RT027, can live on low concentrations of the sugar trehalose; both strains became more common after trehalose was introduced as a food additive in the early 2000s, thus increasing dietary trehalose intake.
Genome:
The first complete genome sequence of a C. difficile strain was published in 2005 by Sanger Institute in the UK. This was of the strain 630, a virulent and multiple drug-resistant strain isolated in Switzerland in 1982. Scientists at Sanger Institute have sequenced genomes of about 30 C. difficile isolates using next-generation sequencing technologies from 454 Life Sciences and Illumina.Researchers at McGill University in Montreal sequenced the genome of the highly virulent Quebec strain of C. difficile in 2005 using ultra-high throughput sequencing technology. The tests involved doing 400,000 DNA parallel-sequencing reactions of the bacterium's genome, which had been fragmented for sequencing. These sequences were assembled computationally to form a complete genome sequence.In 2012, scientists at University of Oxford sequenced C. difficile genomes from 486 cases arising over four years in Oxfordshire using next-generation sequencing technologies from Illumina.
Epigenome:
Clostridioides difficile has a highly diverse epigenome, with 17 high-quality methylation motifs reported so far, the majority pertaining to the 6mA type. Methylation at one of these motifs - CAAAAA, was shown to impact sporulation, a key step in C. difficile disease transmission, as well as cell length, biofilm formation, and host colonization.
Bacteriophage:
At least eight mainly temperate bacteriophages have been isolated from C. difficile, ranging in genome size from about 30 to about 60 kbp. Both environmentally and clinically derived C. difficile strains carry a diverse and prevalent set of prophages. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Spudcan**
Spudcan:
Spudcans are the base cones on mobile-drilling jack-up platform. These inverted cones are mounted at the base of the jack-up and provide stability to lateral forces on the jack-up rig when deployed into ocean-bed systems.
Important calculations for spudcan design include the response to vertical, horizontal and torsional forces on the jack-up leg. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Tunable laser**
Tunable laser:
A tunable laser is a laser whose wavelength of operation can be altered in a controlled manner. While all laser gain media allow small shifts in output wavelength, only a few types of lasers allow continuous tuning over a significant wavelength range.
Tunable laser:
There are many types and categories of tunable lasers. They exist in the gas, liquid, and solid state. Among the types of tunable lasers are excimer lasers, gas lasers (such as CO2 and He-Ne lasers), dye lasers (liquid and solid state), transition metal solid-state lasers, semiconductor crystal and diode lasers, and free electron lasers. Tunable lasers find applications in spectroscopy, photochemistry, atomic vapor laser isotope separation, and optical communications.
Types of tunability:
Single line tuning Since no real laser is truly monochromatic, all lasers can emit light over some range of frequencies, known as the linewidth of the laser transition. In most lasers, this linewidth is quite narrow (for example, the 1,064 nm wavelength transition of a Nd:YAG laser has a linewidth of approximately 120 GHz, or 0.45 nm). Tuning of the laser output across this range can be achieved by placing wavelength-selective optical elements (such as an etalon) into the laser's optical cavity, to provide selection of a particular longitudinal mode of the cavity.
Types of tunability:
Multi-line tuning Most laser gain media have a number of transition wavelengths on which laser operation can be achieved. For example, as well as the principal 1,064 nm output line, Nd:YAG has weaker transitions at wavelengths of 1,052 nm, 1,074 nm, 1,112 nm, 1,319 nm, and a number of other lines. Usually, these lines do not operate unless the gain of the strongest transition is suppressed; e.g., by use of wavelength-selective dielectric mirrors. If a dispersive element, such as a prism, is introduced into the optical cavity, tilting of the cavity's mirrors can cause tuning of the laser as it "hops" between different laser lines. Such schemes are common in argon-ion lasers, allowing tuning of the laser to a number of lines from the ultraviolet and blue through to green wavelengths.
Types of tunability:
Narrowband tuning For some types of lasers the laser's cavity length can be modified, and thus they can be continuously tuned over a significant wavelength range. Distributed feedback (DFB) semiconductor lasers and vertical cavity surface emitting lasers (VCSELs) use periodic distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) structures to form the mirrors of the optical cavity. If the temperature of the laser is changed, the index change of the DBR structure causes a shift in its peak reflective wavelength and thus the wavelength of the laser. The tuning range of such lasers is typically a few nanometres, up to a maximum of approximately 6 nm, as the laser temperature is changed over ~50 K. As a rule of thumb the wavelength is tuned by 0.08 nm/K for DFB lasers operating in the 1,550 nm wavelength regime. Such lasers are commonly used in optical communications applications such as DWDM-systems to allow adjustment of the signal wavelength. To get wideband tuning using this technique, some such as Santur Corporation or Nippon Telegraph and Telephone (NTT Corporation) contain an array of such lasers on a single chip and concatenate the tuning ranges.
Types of tunability:
Widely tunable lasers Sample Grating Distributed Bragg Reflector lasers (SG-DBR) have a much larger tunable range, by the use of vernier tunable Bragg mirrors and a phase section, a single mode output range of >50 nm can be selected.
Other technologies to achieve wide tuning ranges for DWDM-systems are: External cavity lasers using a MEMS structure for tuning the cavity length, such as devices commercialized by Iolon.
External cavity lasers using multiple-prism grating arrangements for wide-range tunability.
DFB laser arrays based on several thermal tuned DFB lasers: Coarse tuning is achieved by selecting the correct laser bar. Fine tuning is then done thermally, such as devices commercialized by Santur Corporation.
Types of tunability:
Tunable VCSEL: One of the two mirror stacks is movable. To achieve sufficient output power out of a VCSEL structure, lasers in the 1,550 nm domain are usually either optically pumped or have an additional optical amplifier built into the device.As of December 2008 there is no widely tunable VCSEL commercially available any more for DWDM-system application.It is claimed that the first infrared laser with a tunability of more than one octave was a germanium crystal laser.
Types of tunability:
Applications The range of applications of tunable lasers is extremely wide. When coupled to the right filter, a tunable source can be tuned over a few hundreds of nanometers with a spectral resolution that can go from 4 nm to 0,3 nm, depending on the wavelength range. With a good enough isolation (>OD4) tunable source can be used for basic absorption and photoluminescence study. It can be used for solar cells characterisation in a light beam induced current (LBIC) experiment from which external quantum efficiency (EQE) of a device can be mapped. It can also be used for the characterisation of gold nanoparticles and single-walled carbon nanotube thermopile where a wide tunable range from 400 nm to 1,000 nm is essential. Tunable sources were recently used for the development of hyperspectral imaging for early detection of retinal diseases where a wide range of wavelength, a small bandwidth and outstanding isolation is crucial in order to achieve an efficient illumination of the entire retina. Tunable source can be a powerful tool for reflection and transmission spectroscopy, photobiology, detector calibration, hyperspectral imaging and steady-state pump probe experiment to name only a few.
Types of tunability:
History The first true broadly tunable laser was the dye laser in 1966. Hänsch introduced the first narrow-linewidth tunable laser in 1972.
Types of tunability:
Dye lasers and some vibronic solid-state lasers have extremely large bandwidths, allowing tuning over a range of tens to hundreds of nanometres. Titanium-doped sapphire is the most common tunable solid-state laser, capable of laser operation from 670 nm to 1,100 nm wavelength. Typically these laser systems incorporate a Lyot filter into the laser cavity, which is rotated to tune the laser. Other tuning techniques involve diffraction gratings, prisms, etalons, and combinations of these. Multiple-prism grating arrangements, in several configurations, as described by Duarte, are used in diode, dye, gas, and other tunable lasers. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Life-like cellular automaton**
Life-like cellular automaton:
A cellular automaton (CA) is Life-like (in the sense of being similar to Conway's Game of Life) if it meets the following criteria: The array of cells of the automaton has two dimensions.
Each cell of the automaton has two states (conventionally referred to as "alive" and "dead", or alternatively "on" and "off") The neighborhood of each cell is the Moore neighborhood; it consists of the eight adjacent cells to the one under consideration and (possibly) the cell itself.
Life-like cellular automaton:
In each time step of the automaton, the new state of a cell can be expressed as a function of the number of adjacent cells that are in the alive state and of the cell's own state; that is, the rule is outer totalistic (sometimes called semitotalistic).This class of cellular automata is named for the Game of Life (B3/S23), the most famous cellular automaton, which meets all of these criteria. Many different terms are used to describe this class. It is common to refer to it as the "Life family" or to simply use phrases like "similar to Life".
Notation for rules:
There are three standard notations for describing these rules, that are similar to each other but incompatible. Wolfram & Packard (1985) use the Wolfram code, a decimal number the binary representation of which has bits that correspond to each possible number of neighbors and state of a cell; the bits of this number are zero or one accordingly as a cell with that neighborhood is dead or alive in the next generation. The other two notations unpack the same sequence of bits into a string of characters that is more easily read by a human.
Notation for rules:
In the notation used by Mirek's Cellebration, a rule is written as a string x/y where each of x and y is a sequence of distinct digits from 0 to 8, in numerical order. The presence of a digit d in the x string means that a live cell with d live neighbors survives into the next generation of the pattern, and the presence of d in the y string means that a dead cell with d live neighbors becomes alive in the next generation. For instance, in this notation, Conway's Game of Life is denoted 23/3.In the notation used by the Golly open-source cellular automaton package and in the RLE format for storing cellular automaton patterns, a rule is written in the form By/Sx where x and y are the same as in the MCell notation. Thus, in this notation, Conway's Game of Life is denoted B3/S23. The "B" in this format stands for "birth" and the "S" stands for "survival".
A selection of Life-like rules:
There are 218 = 262,144 possible Life-like rules, only a small fraction of which have been studied in any detail.
In the descriptions below, all rules are specified in Golly/RLE format.
A selection of Life-like rules:
Several more rules are listed and described in the MCell rule list and by Eppstein (2010), including some rules with B0 in which the background of the field of cells alternates between live and dead at each step.Any automaton of the above form that contains the element B1 (e.g. B17/S78, or B145/S34) will always be explosive for any finite pattern: at any step, consider the cell (x,y) that has minimum x-coordinate among cells that are on, and among such cells the one with minimum y-coordinate. Then the cell (x-1,y-1) must have exactly one neighbor, and will become on in the next step. Similarly, the pattern must grow at each step in each of the four diagonal directions. Thus, any nonempty starting pattern leads to explosive growth.Any automaton of the above form that does not include any of B0, B1, B2 or B3 cannot support movement or expansion of patterns because any cell outside a rectangular building box containing the pattern has at most three on neighbours. Most finite patterns in rules whose notation begins with B2, and all finite patterns in rules beginning with B1, grow in all directions rather than remaining of bounded size, with a front that moves at the speed of light. Thus, the remaining "interesting" rules are the ones beginning with B3 (Game of Life, Highlife, Morley, 2x2, Day&Night) or beginning with B0 (and not including S8, as otherwise the dual can be studied instead).
Generalizations:
There are other cellular automata which are inspired by the Game of Life, but which do not fit the definition of "life-like" given in this article, because their neighborhoods are larger than the Moore neighborhood, or they are defined on three-dimensional lattices, or they use a different lattice topology. For example: Non-totalistic rules depend on the configuration of live cells in the neighborhood.
Generalizations:
Non-isotropic rules that behave differently in different directions. There are 2512≈1.34*10154 rules of this kind, including isotropic rules.
Isotropic non-totalistic rules behave identically under rotation and reflection. There are 2102≈5.07*1030 rules of this kind, including outer-totalistic rules.
Generations rules include one or more "dying" states cells switch to instead of instantly dying. The most famous examples in this category are the rules "Brian's Brain" (B2/S/3) and "Star Wars" (B2/S345/4). Random patterns in these two rules feature a large variety of spaceships and rakes with a speed of c, often crashing and combining into even more objects.
Larger than Life is a family of cellular automata studied by Kellie Michele Evans. They have very large radius neighborhoods, but perform "birth/death" thresholding similar to Conway's life. These automata have eerily organic "glider" and "blinker" structures.
RealLife is the continuum limit of Evan's Larger Than Life CA, in the limit as the neighborhood radius goes to infinity, while the lattice spacing goes to zero. Technically, they are not cellular automata at all, because the underlying "space" is the continuous Euclidean plane R2, not the discrete lattice Z2. They have been studied by Marcus Pivato.
Lenia is a family of continuous cellular automata created by Bert Wang-Chak Chan. The space, time and states of the Game of Life are generalized to continuous domains, using large neighborhoods, fractional updates, and real number states, respectively.
Carter Bays has proposed a variety of generalizations of the Game of Life to three-dimensional CA defined on Z3 (3D Life). Bays has also studied two-dimensional life-like CA with triangular or hexagonal neighborhoods. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Cyclohexanone oxime**
Cyclohexanone oxime:
Cyclohexanone oxime is an organic compound containing the functional group oxime. This colorless solid is an important intermediate in the production of nylon 6, a widely used polymer.
Preparation:
Cyclohexanone oxime can be prepared from the condensation reaction between cyclohexanone and hydroxylamine: C5H10CO + H2NOH → C5H10C=NOH + H2OAlternatively, another industrial route involves the reaction of cyclohexane with nitrosyl chloride, which is a free radical reaction. This method is advantageous as cyclohexane is much cheaper than cyclohexanone.
Reactions:
The most famous and commercially important reaction of cyclohexanone oxime is Beckmann rearrangement yielding ε-caprolactam: This reaction is catalyzed by sulfuric acid, but industrial scale reactions use solid acids.Typical of oximes, the compound can be reduced by sodium amalgam to produce cyclohexylamine. It can also be hydrolyzed with acetic acid to give back cyclohexanone. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Hospitality suite**
Hospitality suite:
A hospitality suite is a room or suite of rooms in a hotel or convention center, provided during a convention or conference, in order for a business, candidate, or organization to meet and entertain current or potential clients, supporters, etc. providing free refreshments and a place for guests or visitors to rest and to mingle and network during the quiet times of an event such as between or after sessions. At science fiction conventions, this is paid for by the convention, and is known as a consuite or con suite.
Hospitality suite:
Some destination weddings include a hospitality suite, where wedding guests can come for refreshments and information. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Keystroke logging**
Keystroke logging:
Keystroke logging, often referred to as keylogging or keyboard capturing, is the action of recording (logging) the keys struck on a keyboard, typically covertly, so that a person using the keyboard is unaware that their actions are being monitored. Data can then be retrieved by the person operating the logging program. A keystroke recorder or keylogger can be either software or hardware.
Keystroke logging:
While the programs themselves are legal, with many designed to allow employers to oversee the use of their computers, keyloggers are most often used for stealing passwords and other confidential information.Keylogging can also be used to study keystroke dynamics or human-computer interaction. Numerous keylogging methods exist, ranging from hardware and software-based approaches to acoustic cryptanalysis.
Application of keylogger:
Software-based keyloggers A software-based keylogger is a computer program designed to record any input from the keyboard. Keyloggers are used in IT organizations to troubleshoot technical problems with computers and business networks. Families and businesspeople use keyloggers legally to monitor network usage without their users' direct knowledge. Microsoft publicly stated that Windows 10 has a built-in keylogger in its final version "to improve typing and writing services". However, malicious individuals can use keyloggers on public computers to steal passwords or credit card information. Most keyloggers are not stopped by HTTPS encryption because that only protects data in transit between computers; software-based keyloggers run on the affected user's computer, reading keyboard inputs directly as the user types.
Application of keylogger:
From a technical perspective, there are several categories: Hypervisor-based: The keylogger can theoretically reside in a malware hypervisor running underneath the operating system, which thus remains untouched. It effectively becomes a virtual machine. Blue Pill is a conceptual example.
Application of keylogger:
Kernel-based: A program on the machine obtains root access to hide in the OS and intercepts keystrokes that pass through the kernel. This method is difficult both to write and to combat. Such keyloggers reside at the kernel level, which makes them difficult to detect, especially for user-mode applications that do not have root access. They are frequently implemented as rootkits that subvert the operating system kernel to gain unauthorized access to the hardware. This makes them very powerful. A keylogger using this method can act as a keyboard device driver, for example, and thus gain access to any information typed on the keyboard as it goes to the operating system.
Application of keylogger:
API-based: These keyloggers hook keyboard APIs inside a running application. The keylogger registers keystroke events as if it was a normal piece of the application instead of malware. The keylogger receives an event each time the user presses or releases a key. The keylogger simply records it.
Windows APIs such as GetAsyncKeyState(), GetForegroundWindow(), etc. are used to poll the state of the keyboard or to subscribe to keyboard events. A more recent example simply polls the BIOS for pre-boot authentication PINs that have not been cleared from memory.
Form grabbing based: Form grabbing-based keyloggers log Web form submissions by recording the form data on submit events. This happens when the user completes a form and submits it, usually by clicking a button or pressing enter. This type of keylogger records form data before it is passed over the Internet.
JavaScript-based: A malicious script tag is injected into a targeted web page, and listens for key events such as onKeyUp(). Scripts can be injected via a variety of methods, including cross-site scripting, man-in-the-browser, man-in-the-middle, or a compromise of the remote website.
Application of keylogger:
Memory-injection-based: Memory Injection (MitB)-based keyloggers perform their logging function by altering the memory tables associated with the browser and other system functions. By patching the memory tables or injecting directly into memory, this technique can be used by malware authors to bypass Windows UAC (User Account Control). The Zeus and SpyEye trojans use this method exclusively. Non-Windows systems have protection mechanisms that allow access to locally recorded data from a remote location. Remote communication may be achieved when one of these methods is used: Data is uploaded to a website, database or an FTP server.
Application of keylogger:
Data is periodically emailed to a pre-defined email address.
Data is wirelessly transmitted employing an attached hardware system.
The software enables a remote login to the local machine from the Internet or the local network, for data logs stored on the target machine.
Keystroke logging in writing process research Since 2006, Keystroke logging has been an established research method for the study of writing processes. Different programs have been developed to collect online process data of writing activities, including Inputlog, Scriptlog, Translog and GGXLog.
Application of keylogger:
Keystroke logging is used legitimately as a suitable research instrument in several writing contexts. These include studies on cognitive writing processes, which include descriptions of writing strategies; the writing development of children (with and without writing difficulties), spelling, first and second language writing, and specialist skill areas such as translation and subtitling.Keystroke logging can be used to research writing, specifically. It can also be integrated into educational domains for second language learning, programming skills, and typing skills.
Application of keylogger:
Related features Software keyloggers may be augmented with features that capture user information without relying on keyboard key presses as the sole input. Some of these features include: Clipboard logging. Anything that has been copied to the clipboard can be captured by the program.
Application of keylogger:
Screen logging. Screenshots are taken to capture graphics-based information. Applications with screen logging abilities may take screenshots of the whole screen, of just one application, or even just around the mouse cursor. They may take these screenshots periodically or in response to user behaviors (for example, when a user clicks the mouse). Screen logging can be used to capture data inputted with an on-screen keyboard.
Application of keylogger:
Programmatically capturing the text in a control. The Microsoft Windows API allows programs to request the text 'value' in some controls. This means that some passwords may be captured, even if they are hidden behind password masks (usually asterisks).
The recording of every program/folder/window opened including a screenshot of every website visited.
The recording of search engines queries, instant messenger conversations, FTP downloads and other Internet-based activities (including the bandwidth used).
Hardware-based keyloggers Hardware-based keyloggers do not depend upon any software being installed as they exist at a hardware level in a computer system.
Firmware-based: BIOS-level firmware that handles keyboard events can be modified to record these events as they are processed. Physical and/or root-level access is required to the machine, and the software loaded into the BIOS needs to be created for the specific hardware that it will be running on.
Application of keylogger:
Keyboard hardware: Hardware keyloggers are used for keystroke logging utilizing a hardware circuit that is attached somewhere in between the computer keyboard and the computer, typically inline with the keyboard's cable connector. There are also USB connector-based hardware keyloggers, as well as ones for laptop computers (the Mini-PCI card plugs into the expansion slot of a laptop). More stealthy implementations can be installed or built into standard keyboards so that no device is visible on the external cable. Both types log all keyboard activity to their internal memory, which can be subsequently accessed, for example, by typing in a secret key sequence. Hardware keyloggers do not require any software to be installed on a target user's computer, therefore not interfering with the computer's operation and less likely to be detected by software running on it. However, its physical presence may be detected if, for example, it is installed outside the case as an inline device between the computer and the keyboard. Some of these implementations can be controlled and monitored remotely using a wireless communication standard.
Application of keylogger:
Wireless keyboard and mouse sniffers: These passive sniffers collect packets of data being transferred from a wireless keyboard and its receiver. As encryption may be used to secure the wireless communications between the two devices, this may need to be cracked beforehand if the transmissions are to be read. In some cases, this enables an attacker to type arbitrary commands into a victim's computer.
Application of keylogger:
Keyboard overlays: Criminals have been known to use keyboard overlays on ATMs to capture people's PINs. Each keypress is registered by the keyboard of the ATM as well as the criminal's keypad that is placed over it. The device is designed to look like an integrated part of the machine so that bank customers are unaware of its presence.
Application of keylogger:
Acoustic keyloggers: Acoustic cryptanalysis can be used to monitor the sound created by someone typing on a computer. Each key on the keyboard makes a subtly different acoustic signature when struck. It is then possible to identify which keystroke signature relates to which keyboard character via statistical methods such as frequency analysis. The repetition frequency of similar acoustic keystroke signatures, the timings between different keyboard strokes and other context information such as the probable language in which the user is writing are used in this analysis to map sounds to letters. A fairly long recording (1000 or more keystrokes) is required so that a large enough sample is collected.
Application of keylogger:
Electromagnetic emissions: It is possible to capture the electromagnetic emissions of a wired keyboard from up to 20 metres (66 ft) away, without being physically wired to it. In 2009, Swiss researchers tested 11 different USB, PS/2 and laptop keyboards in a semi-anechoic chamber and found them all vulnerable, primarily because of the prohibitive cost of adding shielding during manufacture. The researchers used a wide-band receiver to tune into the specific frequency of the emissions radiated from the keyboards.
Application of keylogger:
Optical surveillance: Optical surveillance, while not a keylogger in the classical sense, is nonetheless an approach that can be used to capture passwords or PINs. A strategically placed camera, such as a hidden surveillance camera at an ATM, can allow a criminal to watch a PIN or password being entered.
Application of keylogger:
Physical evidence: For a keypad that is used only to enter a security code, the keys which are in actual use will have evidence of use from many fingerprints. A passcode of four digits, if the four digits in question are known, is reduced from 10,000 possibilities to just 24 possibilities (104 versus 4! [factorial of 4]). These could then be used on separate occasions for a manual "brute force attack".
Application of keylogger:
Smartphone sensors: Researchers have demonstrated that it is possible to capture the keystrokes of nearby computer keyboards using only the commodity accelerometer found in smartphones. The attack is made possible by placing a smartphone near a keyboard on the same desk. The smartphone's accelerometer can then detect the vibrations created by typing on the keyboard and then translate this raw accelerometer signal into readable sentences with as much as 80 percent accuracy. The technique involves working through probability by detecting pairs of keystrokes, rather than individual keys. It models "keyboard events" in pairs and then works out whether the pair of keys pressed is on the left or the right side of the keyboard and whether they are close together or far apart on the QWERTY keyboard. Once it has worked this out, it compares the results to a preloaded dictionary where each word has been broken down in the same way. Similar techniques have also been shown to be effective at capturing keystrokes on touchscreen keyboards while in some cases, in combination with gyroscope or with the ambient-light sensor.
Application of keylogger:
Body keyloggers: Body keyloggers track and analyze body movements to determine which keys were pressed. The attacker needs to be familiar with the keys layout of the tracked keyboard to correlate between body movements and keys position. Tracking audible signals of the user' interface (e.g. a sound the device produce to informs the user that a keystroke was logged) may reduce the complexity of the body keylogging algorithms, as it marks the moment at which a key was pressed.
History:
In the mid-1970s, the Soviet Union developed and deployed a hardware keylogger targeting typewriters. Termed the "selectric bug", it measured the movements of the print head of IBM Selectric typewriters via subtle influences on the regional magnetic field caused by the rotation and movements of the print head. An early keylogger was written by Perry Kivolowitz and posted to the Usenet newsgroup net.unix-wizards, net.sources on November 17, 1983. The posting seems to be a motivating factor in restricting access to /dev/kmem on Unix systems. The user-mode program operated by locating and dumping character lists (clients) as they were assembled in the Unix kernel.
History:
In the 1970s, spies installed keystroke loggers in the US Embassy and Consulate buildings in Moscow.
They installed the bugs in Selectric II and Selectric III electric typewriters.Soviet embassies used manual typewriters, rather than electric typewriters, for classified information—apparently because they are immune to such bugs.
As of 2013, Russian special services still use typewriters.
Cracking:
Writing simple software applications for keylogging can be trivial, and like any nefarious computer program, can be distributed as a trojan horse or as part of a virus. What is not trivial for an attacker, however, is installing a covert keystroke logger without getting caught and downloading data that has been logged without being traced. An attacker that manually connects to a host machine to download logged keystrokes risks being traced. A trojan that sends keylogged data to a fixed e-mail address or IP address risks exposing the attacker.
Cracking:
Trojans Researchers Adam Young and Moti Yung discussed several methods of sending keystroke logging. They presented a deniable password snatching attack in which the keystroke logging trojan is installed using a virus or worm. An attacker who is caught with the virus or worm can claim to be a victim. The cryptotrojan asymmetrically encrypts the pilfered login/password pairs using the public key of the trojan author and covertly broadcasts the resulting ciphertext. They mentioned that the ciphertext can be steganographically encoded and posted to a public bulletin board such as Usenet.
Cracking:
Use by police In 2000, the FBI used FlashCrest iSpy to obtain the PGP passphrase of Nicodemo Scarfo, Jr., son of mob boss Nicodemo Scarfo.
Cracking:
Also in 2000, the FBI lured two suspected Russian cybercriminals to the US in an elaborate ruse, and captured their usernames and passwords with a keylogger that was covertly installed on a machine that they used to access their computers in Russia. The FBI then used these credentials to gain access to the suspects' computers in Russia to obtain evidence to prosecute them.
Countermeasures:
The effectiveness of countermeasures varies because keyloggers use a variety of techniques to capture data and the countermeasure needs to be effective against the particular data capture technique. In the case of Windows 10 keylogging by Microsoft, changing certain privacy settings may disable it. An on-screen keyboard will be effective against hardware keyloggers; transparency will defeat some—but not all—screen loggers. An anti-spyware application that can only disable hook-based keyloggers will be ineffective against kernel-based keyloggers.
Countermeasures:
Keylogger program authors may be able to update their program's code to adapt to countermeasures that have proven effective against it.
Countermeasures:
Anti-keyloggers An anti-keylogger is a piece of software specifically designed to detect keyloggers on a computer, typically comparing all files in the computer against a database of keyloggers, looking for similarities which might indicate the presence of a hidden keylogger. As anti-keyloggers have been designed specifically to detect keyloggers, they have the potential to be more effective than conventional antivirus software; some antivirus software do not consider keyloggers to be malware, as under some circumstances a keylogger can be considered a legitimate piece of software.
Countermeasures:
Live CD/USB Rebooting the computer using a Live CD or write-protected Live USB is a possible countermeasure against software keyloggers if the CD is clean of malware and the operating system contained on it is secured and fully patched so that it cannot be infected as soon as it is started. Booting a different operating system does not impact the use of a hardware or BIOS based keylogger.
Countermeasures:
Anti-spyware / Anti-virus programs Many anti-spyware applications can detect some software based keyloggers and quarantine, disable, or remove them. However, because many keylogging programs are legitimate pieces of software under some circumstances, anti-spyware often neglects to label keylogging programs as spyware or a virus. These applications can detect software-based keyloggers based on patterns in executable code, heuristics and keylogger behaviors (such as the use of hooks and certain APIs).
Countermeasures:
No software-based anti-spyware application can be 100% effective against all keyloggers. Software-based anti-spyware cannot defeat non-software keyloggers (for example, hardware keyloggers attached to keyboards will always receive keystrokes before any software-based anti-spyware application).
Countermeasures:
The particular technique that the anti-spyware application uses will influence its potential effectiveness against software keyloggers. As a general rule, anti-spyware applications with higher privileges will defeat keyloggers with lower privileges. For example, a hook-based anti-spyware application cannot defeat a kernel-based keylogger (as the keylogger will receive the keystroke messages before the anti-spyware application), but it could potentially defeat hook- and API-based keyloggers.
Countermeasures:
Network monitors Network monitors (also known as reverse-firewalls) can be used to alert the user whenever an application attempts to make a network connection. This gives the user the chance to prevent the keylogger from "phoning home" with their typed information.
Countermeasures:
Automatic form filler programs Automatic form-filling programs may prevent keylogging by removing the requirement for a user to type personal details and passwords using the keyboard. Form fillers are primarily designed for Web browsers to fill in checkout pages and log users into their accounts. Once the user's account and credit card information has been entered into the program, it will be automatically entered into forms without ever using the keyboard or clipboard, thereby reducing the possibility that private data is being recorded. However, someone with physical access to the machine may still be able to install software that can intercept this information elsewhere in the operating system or while in transit on the network. (Transport Layer Security (TLS) reduces the risk that data in transit may be intercepted by network sniffers and proxy tools.) One-time passwords (OTP) Using one-time passwords may prevent unauthorized access to an account which has had its login details exposed to an attacker via a keylogger, as each password is invalidated as soon as it is used. This solution may be useful for someone using a public computer. However, an attacker who has remote control over such a computer can simply wait for the victim to enter their credentials before performing unauthorized transactions on their behalf while their session is active.
Countermeasures:
Security tokens Use of smart cards or other security tokens may improve security against replay attacks in the face of a successful keylogging attack, as accessing protected information would require both the (hardware) security token as well as the appropriate password/passphrase. Knowing the keystrokes, mouse actions, display, clipboard, etc. used on one computer will not subsequently help an attacker gain access to the protected resource. Some security tokens work as a type of hardware-assisted one-time password system, and others implement a cryptographic challenge–response authentication, which can improve security in a manner conceptually similar to one time passwords. Smartcard readers and their associated keypads for PIN entry may be vulnerable to keystroke logging through a so-called supply chain attack where an attacker substitutes the card reader/PIN entry hardware for one which records the user's PIN.
Countermeasures:
On-screen keyboards Most on-screen keyboards (such as the on-screen keyboard that comes with Windows XP) send normal keyboard event messages to the external target program to type text. Software key loggers can log these typed characters sent from one program to another.
Keystroke interference software Keystroke interference software is also available.
These programs attempt to trick keyloggers by introducing random keystrokes, although this simply results in the keylogger recording more information than it needs to. An attacker has the task of extracting the keystrokes of interest—the security of this mechanism, specifically how well it stands up to cryptanalysis, is unclear.
Speech recognition Similar to on-screen keyboards, speech-to-text conversion software can also be used against keyloggers, since there are no typing or mouse movements involved. The weakest point of using voice-recognition software may be how the software sends the recognized text to target software after the user's speech has been processed.
Countermeasures:
Handwriting recognition and mouse gestures Many PDAs and lately tablet PCs can already convert pen (also called stylus) movements on their touchscreens to computer understandable text successfully. Mouse gestures use this principle by using mouse movements instead of a stylus. Mouse gesture programs convert these strokes to user-definable actions, such as typing text. Similarly, graphics tablets and light pens can be used to input these gestures, however, these are becoming less common.The same potential weakness of speech recognition applies to this technique as well.
Countermeasures:
Macro expanders/recorders With the help of many programs, a seemingly meaningless text can be expanded to a meaningful text and most of the time context-sensitively, e.g. "en.wikipedia.org" can be expanded when a web browser window has the focus. The biggest weakness of this technique is that these programs send their keystrokes directly to the target program. However, this can be overcome by using the 'alternating' technique described below, i.e. sending mouse clicks to non-responsive areas of the target program, sending meaningless keys, sending another mouse click to the target area (e.g. password field) and switching back-and-forth.
Countermeasures:
Deceptive typing Alternating between typing the login credentials and typing characters somewhere else in the focus window can cause a keylogger to record more information than it needs to, but this could be easily filtered out by an attacker. Similarly, a user can move their cursor using the mouse while typing, causing the logged keystrokes to be in the wrong order e.g., by typing a password beginning with the last letter and then using the mouse to move the cursor for each subsequent letter. Lastly, someone can also use context menus to remove, cut, copy, and paste parts of the typed text without using the keyboard. An attacker who can capture only parts of a password will have a larger key space to attack if they choose to execute a brute-force attack.
Countermeasures:
Another very similar technique uses the fact that any selected text portion is replaced by the next key typed. e.g., if the password is "secret", one could type "s", then some dummy keys "asdf". These dummy characters could then be selected with the mouse, and the next character from the password "e" typed, which replaces the dummy characters "asdf".
These techniques assume incorrectly that keystroke logging software cannot directly monitor the clipboard, the selected text in a form, or take a screenshot every time a keystroke or mouse click occurs. They may, however, be effective against some hardware keyloggers. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**ZACA reaction**
ZACA reaction:
The zirconium-catalyzed asymmetric carbo-alumination reaction (or ZACA reaction) was developed by Nobel laureate Ei-ichi Negishi. It facilitates the chiral functionalization of alkenes using organoaluminium compounds under the influence of chiral bis-indenylzirconium catalysts (e.g. bearing chiral terpene residues, as in (+)- or (−)-bis[(1-neomenthyl)indenyl]zirconium dichloride). In a first step the alkene inserts into an Al-C bond of the reagent, forming a new chiral organoaluminium compound in which the aluminium atom occupies the lesser hindered position. This intermediate is usually oxidized by oxygen to form the corresponding chiral alcohol (cf. hydroboration–oxidation reaction). The reaction can also be applied to dienes, where the least sterically hindered double bond is attacked selectively. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Monazite-(Ce)**
Monazite-(Ce):
Monazite-(Ce) is the most common representative of the monazite group. It is the cerium-dominant analogue of monazite-(La), monazite-(Nd), and monazite-(Sm). It is also the phosphorus analogue of gasparite-(Ce). The group contains simple rare earth phosphate minerals with the general formula of AXO4, where A = Ce, La, Nd, or Sm (or, rarely, Bi), and X = P or, rarely, As. The A site may also bear Ca and Th. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Virtual Medical Record**
Virtual Medical Record:
The Virtual Medical Record (vMR) is a simplified, standardised electronic health record data model designed to support interfacing to clinical decision support (CDS) systems. vMR is compatible with Service-oriented Architecture (SOA) of CDS.
The project is sponsored by HL7. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Valery Goppa**
Valery Goppa:
Valery Denisovich Goppa (Russian: Вале́рий Дени́сович Го́ппа; born 1939) is a Soviet and Russian mathematician.
Valery Goppa:
He discovered a relation between algebraic geometry and codes, utilizing the Riemann-Roch theorem. Today these codes are called algebraic geometry codes. In 1981 he presented his discovery at the algebra seminar of the Moscow State University. He also constructed other classes of codes in his career, and in 1972 he won the best paper award of the IEEE Information Theory Society for his paper "A new class of linear correcting codes". It is this class of codes that bear the name of “Goppa code”.
Selected publications:
V. D. Goppa (1988). Geometry and Codes (Mathematics and its Applications). Berlin: Springer. ISBN 90-277-2776-7.
E. N. Gozodnichev; V. D. Goppa (1995). Algebraic Information Theory (Series on Soviet and East European Mathematics, Vol 11). World Scientific Pub Co Inc. ISBN 981-02-0943-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) VD Goppa (1970). "A New Class of Linear Error Correcting Codes". Problemy Peredachi Informatsii.
VD Goppa (1971). "Rational Representation of Codes and (L,g)-Codes". Problemy Peredachi Informatsii.
VD Goppa (1972). "Codes Constructed on the Base of $(L,g)$-Codes". Probl. Peredachi Inf. 8 (2): 107–109.
VD Goppa (1974). "Binary Symmetric Channel Capacity Is Attained with Irreducible Codes". Probl. Peredachi Inf. 10 (1): 111–112.
VD Goppa (1974). "Correction of Arbitrary Noise by Irreducible Codes". Probl. Peredachi Inf. 10 (3): 118–119.
VD Goppa (1977). "Codes Associated with Divisors". Probl. Peredachi Inf. 13 (1): 33–39.
VD Goppa (1983). "Algebraico-Geometric Codes". Math. USSR Izv. 21 (1): 75–91. Bibcode:1983IzMat..21...75G. doi:10.1070/IM1983v021n01ABEH001641.
VD Goppa (1984). "Codes and information". Russ. Math. Surv. 39 (1): 87–141. Bibcode:1984RuMaS..39...87G. doi:10.1070/RM1984v039n01ABEH003062. S2CID 250898540.
VD Goppa (1995). "Group representations and algebraic information theory". Izv. Math. 59 (6): 1123–1147. Bibcode:1995IzMat..59.1123G. doi:10.1070/IM1995v059n06ABEH000051. S2CID 250882696. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Memory virtualization**
Memory virtualization:
In computer science, memory virtualization decouples volatile random access memory (RAM) resources from individual systems in the data centre, and then aggregates those resources into a virtualized memory pool available to any computer in the cluster. The memory pool is accessed by the operating system or applications running on top of the operating system. The distributed memory pool can then be utilized as a high-speed cache, a messaging layer, or a large, shared memory resource for a CPU or a GPU application.
Description:
Memory virtualization allows networked, and therefore distributed, servers to share a pool of memory to overcome physical memory limitations, a common bottleneck in software performance. With this capability integrated into the network, applications can take advantage of a very large amount of memory to improve overall performance, system utilization, increase memory usage efficiency, and enable new use cases. Software on the memory pool nodes (servers) allows nodes to connect to the memory pool to contribute memory, and store and retrieve data. Management software and the technologies of memory overcommitment manage shared memory, data insertion, eviction and provisioning policies, data assignment to contributing nodes, and handles requests from client nodes. The memory pool may be accessed at the application level or operating system level. At the application level, the pool is accessed through an API or as a networked file system to create a high-speed shared memory cache. At the operating system level, a page cache can utilize the pool as a very large memory resource that is much faster than local or networked storage.
Description:
Memory virtualization implementations are distinguished from shared memory systems. Shared memory systems do not permit abstraction of memory resources, thus requiring implementation with a single operating system instance (i.e. not within a clustered application environment).
Memory virtualization is also different from storage based on flash memory such as solid-state drives (SSDs) - SSDs and other similar technologies replace hard-drives (networked or otherwise), while memory virtualization replaces or complements traditional RAM.
Products:
RNA networks Memory Virtualization Platform - A low latency memory pool, implemented as a shared cache and a low latency messaging solution.
ScaleMP - A platform to combine resources from multiple computers for the purpose of creating a single computing instance.
Wombat Data Fabric – A memory based messaging fabric for delivery of market data in financial services.
Oracle Coherence is a Java-based in-memory data-grid product by Oracle AppFabric Caching Service is a distributed cache platform for in-memory caches spread across multiple systems, developed by Microsoft.
IBM Websphere extremeScale is a Java-based distributed cache much like Oracle Coherence GigaSpaces XAP is a Java based in-memory computing software platform like Oracle Coherence and VMware Gemfire
Implementations:
Application level integration In this case, applications running on connected computers connect to the memory pool directly through an API or the file system.
Operating System Level Integration In this case, the operating system connects to the memory pool, and makes pooled memory available to applications.
Background:
Memory virtualization technology follows from memory management architectures and virtual memory techniques. In both fields, the path of innovation has moved from tightly coupled relationships between logical and physical resources to more flexible, abstracted relationships where physical resources are allocated as needed.
Background:
Virtual memory systems abstract between physical RAM and virtual addresses, assigning virtual memory addresses both to physical RAM and to disk-based storage, expanding addressable memory, but at the cost of speed. NUMA and SMP architectures optimize memory allocation within multi-processor systems. While these technologies dynamically manage memory within individual computers, memory virtualization manages the aggregated memory of multiple networked computers as a single memory pool.
Background:
In tandem with memory management innovations, a number of virtualization techniques have arisen to make the best use of available hardware resources. Application virtualization was demonstrated in mainframe systems first. The next wave was storage virtualization, as servers connected to storage systems such as NAS or SAN in addition to, or instead of, on-board hard disk drives. Server virtualization, or Full virtualization, partitions a single physical server into multiple virtual machines, consolidating multiple instances of operating systems onto the same machine for the purpose of efficiency and flexibility. In both storage and server virtualization, the applications are unaware that the resources they are using are virtual rather than physical, so efficiency and flexibility are achieved without application changes. In the same way, memory virtualization allocates the memory of an entire networked cluster of servers among the computers in that cluster. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Typestry**
Typestry:
Typestry is a 3D software program released in the 1990s by Pixar for Apple Macintosh and Windows-based PC computer systems ($299 US). Unlike general purpose modellers and renderers, Typestry concentrated on rendering and animating text entered by the user in multiple fonts. The fonts were extruded into three dimensions, with various bevel styles and textures applied during rendering. Typestry creates 3D text with Type 1 and TrueType fonts and can do many different effects: 4 different bevel styles add Looks 9 front and 9 back lights (total 18 lights, turn off/on by change intensity, can shift relative positions, select lighting style for each light) one ambient front and one ambient back light scale, move, and rotate objects animate text animate lights Export TIFF, EPS, PICT, RIB file formatVersion 2.0 Load EPS file from Adobe Illustrator 3.0+ Particle system Put text on rubber sheets for flag effect Use tubes for out line text Fog effect Require Adobe Type Manager 2.0+ for Type 1 fonts RenderMan Expert mode for edit Looks Require Windows 3.11+ with Win 32s or Windows NT, 8MB RAM, 7MB hard drive space for Wintel.Version 2.1 Support TrueType GX fonts (Mac System 7 only) Import/export 3D Portable Digital Documents Native for PowerMacAll Mac version can't use outline font if not have screen font; no problem for Type 1 fonts because have screen font for each style (italic, bold, heavy, etc.) but TrueType fonts only have one screen font for main style. Windows version can use any Windows font.
Typestry:
Typestry was one of Pixar's several application software packages released in open markets (besides RenderMan, MacRenderMan, NetRenderMan, IceMan, Glimpse, Showplace, One Twenty Eight (textures)). It was discontinued when Pixar chose to concentrate on film production instead of application development.
Glimpse:
Glimpse is "a sophisticated Renderman shader made easy to use as a glimpse look" for try help Renderman become standard for 3D shading like Postscript for DTP during middle of 1990s. Pixar also "sell Glimpse for 99$US (1993) to use in Typestry and ShowPlace". Later, ShowPlace 2.0 include Glimpse, a tool for edit Looks, "textures and surface effects" for render objects with RenderMan, with GUI. Glimpse have sliders for change material attributes like color, reflection coefficients, surface roughness and gives users real time preview of changes, not need wait for new RenderMan render. But Glimpse not let users edit shader source code. Looks have two parts, Look Masters (default setting for Look but can't can't edit them) and Looks Instances, version of Look with created by changing settings in Glimpse.Alternative tool from Valis Group have name Shader Toolkit for edit RenderMan Looks but more complex and not interactive like Glimpse. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Suppletion**
Suppletion:
In linguistics and etymology, suppletion is traditionally understood as the use of one word as the inflected form of another word when the two words are not cognate. For those learning a language, suppletive forms will be seen as "irregular" or even "highly irregular".
The term "suppletion" implies that a gap in the paradigm was filled by a form "supplied" by a different paradigm. Instances of suppletion are overwhelmingly restricted to the most commonly used lexical items in a language.
Irregularity and suppletion:
An irregular paradigm is one in which the derived forms of a word cannot be deduced by simple rules from the base form. For example, someone who knows only a little English can deduce that the plural of girl is girls but cannot deduce that the plural of man is men. Language learners are often most aware of irregular verbs, but any part of speech with inflections can be irregular.
Irregularity and suppletion:
For most synchronic purposes—first-language acquisition studies, psycholinguistics, language-teaching theory—it suffices to note that these forms are irregular. However, historical linguistics seeks to explain how they came to be so and distinguishes different kinds of irregularity according to their origins.
Most irregular paradigms (like man:men) can be explained by phonological developments that affected one form of a word but not another (in this case, Germanic umlaut). In such cases, the historical antecedents of the current forms once constituted a regular paradigm.
Historical linguistics uses the term "suppletion" to distinguish irregularities like person:people or cow:cattle that cannot be so explained because the parts of the paradigm have not evolved out of a single form.
Hermann Osthoff coined the term "suppletion" in German in an 1899 study of the phenomenon in Indo-European languages.Suppletion exists in many languages around the world. These languages are from various language families : Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Arabic, Romance, etc.
For example, in Georgian, the paradigm for the verb "to come" is composed of four different roots (di-, -val-, -vid-, and -sul-).Similarly, in Modern Standard Arabic, the verb jāʾ ("come") usually uses the form taʿāl for its imperative, and the plural of marʾah ("woman") is nisāʾ.
Some of the more archaic Indo-European languages are particularly known for suppletion. Ancient Greek, for example, has some twenty verbs with suppletive paradigms, many with three separate roots.
Example words:
To go In English, the past tense of the verb go is went, which comes from the past tense of the verb wend, archaic in this sense. (The modern past tense of wend is wended.) See Go (verb).
Example words:
The Romance languages have a variety of suppletive forms in conjugating the verb "to go", as these first-person singular forms illustrate (second-person singular forms in imperative): The sources of these forms, numbered in the table, are six different Latin verbs: vādere ‘to go, proceed’, īre ‘to go’ ambitāre ‘to go around’, also the source for Spanish and Portuguese andar ‘to walk’ ambulāre ‘to walk’, or perhaps another Latin root, a Celtic root, or a Germanic root halon or hala fuī suppletive perfective of esse ‘to be’.
Example words:
meāre ‘to go along’.Many of the Romance languages use forms from different verbs in the present tense; for example, French has je vais ‘I go’ from vadere, but nous allons ‘we go’ from ambulare. Galician-Portuguese has a similar example: imos from ire ‘to go’ and vamos from vadere ‘we go’; the former is somewhat disused in modern Portuguese but very alive in modern Galician. Even ides, from itis second-person plural of ire, is the only form for ‘you (plural) go’ both in Galician and Portuguese (Spanish vais, from vadere).
Example words:
Sometimes, the conjugations differ between dialects. For instance, the Limba Sarda Comuna standard of Sardinian supported of a fully regular conjugation of andare, but other dialects like Logudorese do not (see also Sardinian conjugation). In Romansh, Rumantsch Grischun substitutes present and subjunctive forms of ir with vom and giaja (both are from Latin vādere and īre, respectively) in the place of mon and mondi in Sursilvan.
Example words:
Similarly, the Welsh verb mynd ‘to go’ has a variety of suppletive forms such as af ‘I shall go’ and euthum ‘we went’. Irish téigh ‘to go’ also has suppletive forms: dul ‘going’ and rachaidh ‘will go’.
In Estonian, the inflected forms of the verb minema ‘to go’ were originally those of a verb cognate with the Finnish lähteä ‘to leave’, except for the passive and infinitive.
Good and bad In Germanic, Romance (except Romanian), Celtic, Slavic (except Bulgarian and Macedonian), and Indo-Iranian languages, the comparative and superlative of the adjective "good" is suppletive; in many of these languages the adjective "bad" is also suppletive.
The comparison of "good" is also suppletive in Estonian: hea → parem → parim and Finnish: hyvä → parempi → paras.
Similarly to the Italian noted above, the English adverb form of "good" is the unrelated word "well", from Old English wel, cognate to wyllan "to wish".
Great and small Celtic languages: In many Slavic languages, great and small are suppletive:
Examples in languages:
Albanian In Albanian there are 14 irregular verbs divided into suppletive and non-suppletive: Ancient Greek Ancient Greek had a large number of suppletive verbs. A few examples, listed by principal parts: erkhomai, eîmi/eleusomai, ēlthon, elēlutha, —, — "go, come".
legō, eraō (erô) / leksō, eipon / eleksa, eirēka, eirēmai / lelegmai, elekhthēn / errhēthēn "say, speak".
horaō, opsomai, eidon, heorāka / heōrāka, heōrāmai / ōmmai, ōphthēn "see".
pherō, oisō, ēnegka / ēnegkon, enēnokha, enēnegmai, ēnekhthēn "carry".
pōleō, apodōsomai, apedomēn, peprāka, peprāmai, eprāthēn "sell".
Examples in languages:
Bulgarian In Bulgarian, the word човек, chovek ("man", "human being") is suppletive. The strict plural form, човеци, chovetsi, is used only in Biblical context. In modern usage it has been replaced by the Greek loan хора, khora. The counter form (the special form for masculine nouns, used after numerals) is suppletive as well: души, dushi (with the accent on the first syllable). For example, двама, трима души, dvama, trima dushi ("two, three people"); this form has no singular either. (A related but different noun is the plural души, dushi, singular душа, dusha ("soul"), both with accent on the last syllable.) English In English, the complicated irregular verb to be has forms from several different roots: be, been, being—from Old English bēon ("to be, become"), from Proto-Germanic *beuną ("to be, exist, come to be, become"), from Proto-Indo-European *bʰúHt (“to grow, become, come into being, appear”), from the root *bʰuH- ("to become, grow, appear").
Examples in languages:
am, is, are—from Middle English am, em, is, aren, from Old English eam, eom, is, earun, earon, from Proto-Germanic *immi, *izmi, *isti, *arun, all forms of the verb *wesaną ("to be; dwell"), from Proto-Indo-European *h₁ésmi ("I am, I exist"), from the root *h₁es- ("to be").
was, were—from Old English wæs, wǣre, from Proto-Germanic *was, *wēz, from the Proto-Indo-European root *h₂wes- ("to dwell, reside")This verb is suppletive in most Indo-European languages, as well as in some non-Indo-European languages such as Finnish.
Examples in languages:
An incomplete suppletion exists in English with the plural of person (from the Latin persona). The regular plural persons occurs mainly in legalistic use. More commonly, the singular of the unrelated noun people (from Latin populus) is used as the plural; for example, "two people were living on a one-person salary" (note the plural verb). In its original sense of "populace, ethnic group", people is itself a singular noun with regular plural peoples.
Examples in languages:
Irish Several irregular Irish verbs are suppletive: abair (to say): derived from Old Irish as·beir, from Proto-Indo-European roots *h₁eǵʰs- ("out") and *bʰer- ("bear, carry"). However, the verbal noun rá is derived from Old Irish rád, ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *reh₂dʰ- ("perform successfully").
bí (to be): derived from Proto-Indo-European *bʰuH- ("grow, become, come into being, appear"). However, the present tense form tá is derived from Old Irish at·tá, from Proto-Celtic *ad-tāyeti, ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *steh₂- ("stand").
beir (to catch): derived from Proto-Indo-European *bʰer- ("bear, carry"). However, the past tense form rug is derived from Old Irish rouic, which is from Proto-Celtic *ɸro-ōnkeyo-, ultimately from Proto-Indo-European roots *pro- ("forth, forward") and *h₂neḱ- ("reach").
feic (to see): derived from Old Irish aicci, from Proto-Indo-European *kʷey- ("observe"). However, the past tense form chonaic is derived from Old Irish ad·condairc, ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *derḱ₂- ("see").
Examples in languages:
téigh (to go): derived from Old Irish téit, from Proto-Indo-European *stéygʰeti- ("to be walking, to be climbing"). However, the future form rachaidh is derived from Old Irish regae, ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *h₁r̥gʰ- ("go, move"), while the verbal noun dul is from *h₁ludʰét ("arrive").There are several suppletive comparative and superlative forms in Irish; in addition to the ones listed above, there is: fada, "long"; comparative níos faide or níos sia — fada is from Old Irish fota, from Proto-Indo-European *wasdʰos (“long, wide”); compare Latin vāstus (“wide”), while sia is from Old Irish sír ("long, long-lasting"), from Proto-Celtic *sīros (“long”); compare Welsh/Breton hir.
Examples in languages:
Latin Latin has several suppletive verbs. A few examples, listed by principal parts: sum, esse, fuī, futūrus - "be".
ferō, ferre, tulī or tetulī, lātus - "carry, bear".
Examples in languages:
fīō, fierī, factus sum (suppletive and semi-deponent) - "become, be made, happen" Polish In some Slavic languages, a few verbs have imperfective and perfective forms arising from different roots. For example, in Polish: Note that z—, przy—, w—, and wy— are prefixes and are not part of the root In Polish, the plural form of rok ("year") is lata which comes from the plural of lato ("summer"). A similar suppletion occurs in Russian: год, romanized: god ("year") > лет, let (genitive of "years").
Examples in languages:
Romanian The Romanian verb a fi ("to be") is suppletive and irregular, with the infinitive coming from Latin fieri, but conjugated forms from forms of already suppletive Latin sum. For example, eu sunt ("I am"), tu ești ("you are"), eu am fost ("I have been"), eu eram ("I used to be"), eu fusei/fui ("I was"); while the subjunctive, also used to form the future in o să fiu ("I will be/am going to be"), is linked to the infinitive.
Examples in languages:
Russian In Russian, the word человек, chelovek ("man, human being") is suppletive. The strict plural form, человеки, cheloveki, is used only in Orthodox Church contexts, with numerals (e. g. пять человек, pyat chelovek "five people") and in humorous context. It may have originally been the unattested *человекы, *cheloveky. In any case, in modern usage, it has been replaced by люди, lyudi, the singular form of which is known in Russian only as a component of compound words (such as простолюдин, prostolyudin). This suppletion also exists in Polish (człowiek > ludzie), Czech (člověk > lidé), Serbo-Croatian (čovjek > ljudi), Slovene (človek > ljudje), and Macedonian (човек (chovek) > луѓе (lugje)).
Generalizations:
Strictly speaking, suppletion occurs when different inflections of a lexeme (i.e., with the same lexical category) have etymologically unrelated stems. The term is also used in looser senses, albeit less formally.
Generalizations:
Semantic relations The term "suppletion" is also used in the looser sense when there is a semantic link between words but not an etymological one; unlike the strict inflectional sense, these may be in different lexical categories, such as noun/verb.English noun/adjective pairs such as father/paternal or cow/bovine are also referred to as collateral adjectives. In this sense of the term, father/fatherly is non-suppletive. Fatherly is derived from father, while father/paternal is suppletive. Likewise cow/cowish is non-suppletive, while cow/bovine is suppletive.
Generalizations:
In these cases, father/pater- and cow/bov- are cognate via Proto-Indo-European, but 'paternal' and 'bovine' are borrowings into English (via Old French and Latin). The pairs are distantly etymologically related, but the words are not from a single Modern English stem.
Generalizations:
Weak suppletion The term "weak suppletion" is sometimes used in contemporary synchronic morphology in reference to sets of stems whose alternations cannot be accounted for by synchronically productive phonological rules. For example, the two forms child/children are etymologically from the same source, but the alternation does not reflect any regular morphological process in modern English: this makes the pair appear to be suppletive, even though the forms go back to the same root.
Generalizations:
In that understanding, English has abundant examples of weak suppletion in its verbal inflection: e.g. bring/brought, take/took, see/saw, etc. Even though the forms are etymologically related in each pair, no productive morphological rule can derive one form from the other in synchrony. Alternations just have to be learned by speakers — in much the same way as truly suppletive pairs such as go/went.
Generalizations:
Such cases, which were traditionally simply labelled "irregular", are sometimes described with the term "weak suppletion", so as to restrict the term "suppletion" to etymologically unrelated stems. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Stock (food)**
Stock (food):
Stock, sometimes called bone broth, is a savory cooking liquid that forms the basis of many dishes – particularly soups, stews, and sauces. Making stock involves simmering animal bones, meat, seafood, or vegetables in water or wine, often for an extended period. Mirepoix or other aromatics may be added for more flavor.
Preparation:
Traditionally, stock is made by simmering various ingredients in water. A newer approach is to use a pressure cooker. The ingredients may include some or all of the following: Bones: Beef and chicken bones are most commonly used; fish is also common. The flavor of the stock comes from the bone marrow, cartilage and other connective tissue. Connective tissue contains collagen, which is converted into gelatin that thickens the liquid. Stock made from bones needs to be simmered for long periods; pressure cooking methods shorten the time necessary to extract the flavor from the bones.
Preparation:
Meat: Cooked meat still attached to bones is also used as an ingredient, especially with chicken stock. Meat cuts with a large amount of connective tissue, such as shoulder cuts, are also used.
Mirepoix: Mirepoix is a combination of onions, carrots, celery, and sometimes other vegetables added to flavor the stock. Sometimes, the less desirable parts of the vegetables that may not otherwise be eaten (such as carrot skins and celery cores and leaves) are used, as the solids are removed from stock.
Preparation:
Herbs and spices: The herbs and spices used depend on availability and local traditions. In classical cuisine, the use of a bouquet garni (or bag of herbs) consisting of parsley, bay leaves, a sprig of thyme, and possibly other herbs, is common. This is often placed in a sachet to make it easier to remove once the stock is cooked.
Types:
Basic stocks are usually named for the primary meat type. A distinction is usually made between fond blanc, or white stock, made by using raw bones and mirepoix, and fond brun, or brown stock, which gets its color by roasting the bones and mirepoix before boiling; the bones may also be coated in tomato paste before roasting. Chicken is most commonly used for fond blanc, while beef or veal are most commonly used in fond brun.
Types:
Other regional varieties include: Dashi is a fish stock in Japanese cooking made by briefly cooking fish flakes called katsuobushi with a variety of kelp called kombu in nearly boiling water.
Myeolchi yuksu is a stock in Korean cooking made by briefly cooking dried anchovies with kelp in nearly boiling water.
Glace de viande is stock, usually made from veal, that is highly concentrated by reduction.
Ham stock, common in Cajun cooking, is made from ham hocks.
Master stock is a Chinese stock used primarily for poaching meats, flavored with soy sauce, sugar, ginger, garlic, and other aromatics.
Prawn stock is made from boiling prawn shells. It is used in Southeast Asian dishes such as laksa.
Remouillage is a second stock made from the same set of bones.
Bran stock is bran boiled in water. It can be used to thicken meat soups, used as a stock for vegetable soups or made into soup itself with onions, vegetables and molasses
Stock versus broth:
Many cooks and food writers use the terms broth and stock interchangeably. In 1974, James Beard wrote that stock, broth, and bouillon "are all the same thing".While many draw a distinction between stock and broth, the details of the distinction often differ. One possibility is that stocks are made primarily from animal bones, as opposed to meat, and therefore contain more gelatin, giving them a thicker texture. Another distinction that is sometimes made is that stock is cooked longer than broth and therefore has a more intense flavor. A third possible distinction is that stock is left unseasoned for use in other recipes, while broth is salted and otherwise seasoned and can be eaten alone.Scotch broth is a soup which includes solid pieces of meat and vegetables. Its name reflects an older usage of the term "broth" that did not distinguish between the complete soup and its liquid component.
Health claims:
By early 2010s, "bone broth" had become a popular health food trend, due to the resurgence in popularity of dietary fat over sugar, and interest in "functional foods" to which "culinary medicinals" such as turmeric and ginger could be added. Bone broth bars, bone broth home delivery services, bone broth carts, and bone broth freezer packs grew in popularity in the United States. The fad was heightened by the 2014 book Nourishing Broth, in which authors Sally Fallon Morell and Kaayla T. Daniel claim that the broth's nutrient density has a variety of health effects.There is no scientific evidence to support many of the claims made for bone broth. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Pulsed Pressure Cavitation Technique**
Pulsed Pressure Cavitation Technique:
Pulsed Pressure Cavitation Technique (PPCT) is a method to simulate cavitation damage using repetitive pressure pulses. It is developed at Oak Ridge National Laboratory.The major components of PPCT include a repetitive pulse source and a testing chamber. For examples, a pulsed laser source can be used to generate large shock waves in a confined space. The shock waves then can induce cavitating bubbles. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Radiation-induced cancer**
Radiation-induced cancer:
Exposure to ionizing radiation is known to increase the future incidence of cancer, particularly leukemia. The mechanism by which this occurs is well understood, but quantitative models predicting the level of risk remain controversial. The most widely accepted model posits that the incidence of cancers due to ionizing radiation increases linearly with effective radiation dose at a rate of 5.5% per sievert; if correct, natural background radiation is the most hazardous source of radiation to general public health, followed by medical imaging as a close second. Additionally, the vast majority of non-invasive cancers are non-melanoma skin cancers caused by ultraviolet radiation (which lies on the boundary between ionizing and non-ionizing radiation). Non-ionizing radio frequency radiation from mobile phones, electric power transmission, and other similar sources have been investigated as a possible carcinogen by the WHO's International Agency for Research on Cancer, but to date, no evidence of this has been observed.
Causes:
According to the prevalent model, any radiation exposure can increase the risk of cancer. Typical contributors to such risk include natural background radiation, medical procedures, occupational exposures, nuclear accidents, and many others. Some major contributors are discussed below.
Causes:
Radon Radon is responsible for the worldwide majority of the mean public exposure to ionizing radiation. It is often the single largest contributor to an individual's background radiation dose, and is the most variable from location to location. Radon gas from natural sources can accumulate in buildings, especially in confined areas such as attics, and basements. It can also be found in some spring waters and hot springs.Epidemiological evidence shows a clear link between lung cancer and high concentrations of radon, with 21,000 radon-induced U.S. lung cancer deaths per year—second only to cigarette smoking—according to the United States Environmental Protection Agency. Thus in geographic areas where radon is present in heightened concentrations, radon is considered a significant indoor air contaminant.
Causes:
Residential exposure to radon gas has similar cancer risks as passive smoking. Radiation is a more potent source of cancer when it is combined with other cancer-causing agents, such as radon gas exposure plus smoking tobacco.
Causes:
Medical In industrialized countries, Medical imaging contributes almost as much radiation dose to the public as natural background radiation. Collective dose to Americans from medical imaging grew by a factor of six from 1990 to 2006, mostly due to growing use of 3D scans that impart much more dose per procedure than traditional radiographs. CT scans alone, which account for half the medical imaging dose to the public, are estimated to be responsible for 0.4% of current cancers in the United States, and this may increase to as high as 1.5-2% with 2007 rates of CT usage; however, this estimate is disputed. Other nuclear medicine techniques involve the injection of radioactive pharmaceuticals directly into the bloodstream, and radiotherapy treatments deliberately deliver lethal doses (on a cellular level) to tumors and surrounding tissues.
Causes:
It has been estimated that CT scans performed in the US in 2007 alone will result in 29,000 new cancer cases in future years. This estimate is criticized by the American College of Radiology (ACR), which maintains that the life expectancy of CT scanned patients is not that of the general population and that the model of calculating cancer is based on total-body radiation exposure and thus faulty.
Causes:
Occupational In accordance with ICRP recommendations, most regulators permit nuclear energy workers to receive up to 20 times more radiation dose than is permitted for the general public. Higher doses are usually permitted when responding to an emergency. The majority of workers are routinely kept well within regulatory limits, while a few essential technicians will routinely approach their maximum each year. Accidental overexposures beyond regulatory limits happen globally several times a year. Astronauts on long missions are at higher risk of cancer, see cancer and spaceflight.
Causes:
Some occupations are exposed to radiation without being classed as nuclear energy workers. Airline crews receive occupational exposures from cosmic radiation because of reduced atmospheric shielding at altitude. Mine workers receive occupational exposures to radon, especially in uranium mines. Anyone working in a granite building, such as the US Capitol, is likely to receive a dose from natural uranium in the granite.
Causes:
Accidental Nuclear accidents can have dramatic consequences to their surroundings, but their global impact on cancer is less than that of natural and medical exposures.
Causes:
The most severe nuclear accident is probably the Chernobyl disaster. In addition to conventional fatalities and acute radiation syndrome fatalities, nine children died of thyroid cancer, and it is estimated that there may be up to 4,000 excess cancer deaths among the approximately 600,000 most highly exposed people. Of the 100 million curies (4 exabecquerels) of radioactive material, the short lived radioactive isotopes such as 131I Chernobyl released were initially the most dangerous. Due to their short half-lives of 5 and 8 days they have now decayed, leaving the more long-lived 137Cs (with a half-life of 30.07 years) and 90Sr (with a half-life of 28.78 years) as main dangers.
Causes:
In March 2011, an earthquake and tsunami caused damage that led to explosions and partial meltdowns at the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant in Japan. Significant release of radioactive material took place following hydrogen explosions at three reactors, as technicians tried to pump in seawater to keep the uranium fuel rods cool, and bled radioactive gas from the reactors in order to make room for the seawater. Concerns about the large-scale release of radioactivity resulted in 20 km exclusion zone being set up around the power plant and people within the 20–30 km zone being advised to stay indoors. On March 24, 2011, Japanese officials announced that "radioactive iodine-131 exceeding safety limits for infants had been detected at 18 water-purification plants in Tokyo and five other prefectures".Also in Japan was the Tokaimura nuclear accidents of 1997 and 1999. The 1997 accident was far less fatal than the 1999 accident. The 1999 nuclear accident was caused by two faulty technicians who, in their desire to speed up the process of converting uranium hexafluoride to enriched uranium dioxide, resulted in a critical mass that resulted in technicians Hisashi Ouchi being dosed with approximately 17 sieverts of radiation and Masato Shinohara to be does with 10 sieverts of radiation, which resulted in their deaths. The two's supervisor, Yutaka Yokokawa, who was sitting in a desk far from the tank where the uranium hexafluoride was being poured into, was dosed with 3 sieverts and survived, but was charged with negligence in October 2000.In 2003, in autopsies performed on six dead children in the polluted area near Chernobyl where they also reported a higher incidence of pancreatic tumors, Bandazhevsky found a concentration of 137-Cs of 40-45 times higher than in their liver, thus demonstrating that pancreatic tissue is a strong accumulator of radioactive cesium. In 2020, Zrielykh reported a high and statistically significant incidence of pancreatic cancer in Ukraine for a period of 10 year, there have been cases of morbidity also in children in 2013 compared with 2003.Other serious radiation accidents include the Kyshtym disaster (estimated 49 to 55 cancer deaths), and the Windscale fire (an estimated 33 cancer deaths).The satellite Transit 5BN-3 accident. The satellite had a SNAP-3 radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) with approximately 1 kilogram of Plutonium-238 on board when on April 21, 1964 it burned up and re-entered the atmosphere. Dr. John Gofman claimed it increased the rate of lung cancer worldwide. He said "Although it is impossible to estimate the number of lung cancers induced by the accident, there is no question that the dispersal of so much Plutonium-238 would add to the number of lung cancer diagnosed over many subsequent decades." Other satellite failures include Kosmos 954 and Kosmos 1402.
Mechanism:
Cancer is a stochastic effect of radiation, meaning it is an unpredictable event. The probability of occurrence increases with effective radiation dose, but the severity of the cancer is independent of dose. The speed at which cancer advances, the prognosis, the degree of pain, and every other feature of the disease are not functions of the radiation dose to which the person is exposed. This contrasts with the deterministic effects of acute radiation syndrome which increase in severity with dose above a threshold. Cancer starts with a single cell whose operation is disrupted. Normal cell operation is controlled by the chemical structure of DNA molecules, also called chromosomes.
Mechanism:
When radiation deposits enough energy in organic tissue to cause ionization, this tends to break molecular bonds, and thus alter the molecular structure of the irradiated molecules. Less energetic radiation, such as visible light, only causes excitation, not ionization, which is usually dissipated as heat with relatively little chemical damage. Ultraviolet light is usually categorized as non-ionizing, but it is actually in an intermediate range that produces some ionization and chemical damage. Hence the carcinogenic mechanism of ultraviolet radiation is similar to that of ionizing radiation.
Mechanism:
Unlike chemical or physical triggers for cancer, penetrating radiation hits molecules within cells randomly. Molecules broken by radiation can become highly reactive free radicals that cause further chemical damage. Some of this direct and indirect damage will eventually impact chromosomes and epigenetic factors that control the expression of genes. Cellular mechanisms will repair some of this damage, but some repairs will be incorrect and some chromosome abnormalities will turn out to be irreversible.
Mechanism:
DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) are generally accepted to be the most biologically significant lesion by which ionizing radiation causes cancer. In vitro experiments show that ionizing radiation cause DSBs at a rate of 35 DSBs per cell per Gray, and removes a portion of the epigenetic markers of the DNA, which regulate the gene expression. Most of the induced DSBs are repaired within 24h after exposure, however, 25% of the repaired strands are repaired incorrectly and about 20% of fibroblast cells that were exposed to 200mGy died within 4 days after exposure. A portion of the population possess a flawed DNA repair mechanism, and thus suffer a greater insult due to exposure to radiation.Major damage normally results in the cell dying or being unable to reproduce. This effect is responsible for acute radiation syndrome, but these heavily damaged cells cannot become cancerous. Lighter damage may leave a stable, partly functional cell that may be capable of proliferating and eventually developing into cancer, especially if tumor suppressor genes are damaged. The latest research suggests that mutagenic events do not occur immediately after irradiation. Instead, surviving cells appear to have acquired a genomic instability which causes an increased rate of mutations in future generations. The cell will then progress through multiple stages of neoplastic transformation that may culminate into a tumor after years of incubation. The neoplastic transformation can be divided into three major independent stages: morphological changes to the cell, acquisition of cellular immortality (losing normal, life-limiting cell regulatory processes), and adaptations that favor formation of a tumor.In some cases, a small radiation dose reduces the impact of a subsequent, larger radiation dose. This has been termed an 'adaptive response' and is related to hypothetical mechanisms of hormesis.A latent period of decades may elapse between radiation exposure and the detection of cancer. Those cancers that may develop as a result of radiation exposure are indistinguishable from those that occur naturally or as a result of exposure to other carcinogens. Furthermore, National Cancer Institute literature indicates that chemical and physical hazards and lifestyle factors, such as smoking, alcohol consumption, and diet, significantly contribute to many of these same diseases. Evidence from uranium miners suggests that smoking may have a multiplicative, rather than additive, interaction with radiation. Evaluations of radiation's contribution to cancer incidence can only be done through large epidemiological studies with thorough data about all other confounding risk factors.
Skin cancer:
Prolonged exposure to ultraviolet radiation from the sun can lead to melanoma and other skin malignancies. Clear evidence establishes ultraviolet radiation, especially the non-ionizing medium wave UVB, as the cause of most non-melanoma skin cancers, which are the most common forms of cancer in the world.Skin cancer may occur following ionizing radiation exposure following a latent period averaging 20 to 40 years. A Chronic radiation keratosis is a precancerous keratotic skin lesion that may arise on the skin many years after exposure to ionizing radiation.: 729 Various malignancies may develop, most frequency basal-cell carcinoma followed by squamous-cell carcinoma. Elevated risk is confined to the site of radiation exposure. Several studies have also suggested the possibility of a causal relationship between melanoma and ionizing radiation exposure. The degree of carcinogenic risk arising from low levels of exposure is more contentious, but the available evidence points to an increased risk that is approximately proportional to the dose received. Radiologists and radiographers are among the earliest occupational groups exposed to radiation. It was the observation of the earliest radiologists that led to the recognition of radiation-induced skin cancer—the first solid cancer linked to radiation—in 1902. While the incidence of skin cancer secondary to medical ionizing radiation was higher in the past, there is also some evidence that risks of certain cancers, notably skin cancer, may be increased among more recent medical radiation workers, and this may be related to specific or changing radiologic practices. Available evidence indicates that the excess risk of skin cancer lasts for 45 years or more following irradiation.
Epidemiology:
Cancer is a stochastic effect of radiation, meaning that it only has a probability of occurrence, as opposed to deterministic effects which always happen over a certain dose threshold. The consensus of the nuclear industry, nuclear regulators, and governments, is that the incidence of cancers due to ionizing radiation can be modeled as increasing linearly with effective radiation dose at a rate of 5.5% per sievert. Individual studies, alternate models, and earlier versions of the industry consensus have produced other risk estimates scattered around this consensus model. There is general agreement that the risk is much higher for infants and fetuses than adults, higher for the middle-aged than for seniors, and higher for women than for men, though there is no quantitative consensus about this. This model is widely accepted for external radiation, but its application to internal contamination is disputed. For example, the model fails to account for the low rates of cancer in early workers at Los Alamos National Laboratory who were exposed to plutonium dust, and the high rates of thyroid cancer in children following the Chernobyl accident, both of which were internal exposure events. Chris Busby of the self styled "European Committee on Radiation Risk", calls the ICRP model "fatally flawed" when it comes to internal exposure.Radiation can cause cancer in most parts of the body, in all animals, and at any age, although radiation-induced solid tumors usually take 10–15 years, and can take up to 40 years, to become clinically manifest, and radiation-induced leukemias typically require 2–9 years to appear. Some people, such as those with nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome or retinoblastoma, are more susceptible than average to developing cancer from radiation exposure. Children and adolescents are twice as likely to develop radiation-induced leukemia as adults; radiation exposure before birth has ten times the effect.Radiation exposure can cause cancer in any living tissue, but high-dose whole-body external exposure is most closely associated with leukemia, reflecting the high radiosensitivity of bone marrow. Internal exposures tend to cause cancer in the organs where the radioactive material concentrates, so that radon predominantly causes lung cancer, iodine-131 for thyroid cancer is most likely to cause leukemia.
Epidemiology:
Data sources The associations between ionizing radiation exposure and the development of cancer are based primarily on the "LSS cohort" of Japanese atomic bomb survivors, the largest human population ever exposed to high levels of ionizing radiation. However this cohort was also exposed to high heat, both from the initial nuclear flash of infrared light and following the blast due their exposure to the firestorm and general fires that developed in both cities respectively, so the survivors also underwent Hyperthermia therapy to various degrees. Hyperthermia, or heat exposure following irradiation is well known in the field of radiation therapy to markedly increase the severity of free-radical insults to cells following irradiation. Presently however no attempts have been made to cater for this confounding factor, it is not included or corrected for in the dose-response curves for this group.
Epidemiology:
Additional data has been collected from recipients of selected medical procedures and the 1986 Chernobyl disaster. There is a clear link (see the UNSCEAR 2000 Report, Volume 2: Effects) between the Chernobyl accident and the unusually large number, approximately 1,800, of thyroid cancers reported in contaminated areas, mostly in children.
Epidemiology:
For low levels of radiation, the biological effects are so small they may not be detected in epidemiological studies. Although radiation may cause cancer at high doses and high dose rates, public health data regarding lower levels of exposure, below about 10 mSv (1,000 mrem), are harder to interpret. To assess the health impacts of lower radiation doses, researchers rely on models of the process by which radiation causes cancer; several models that predict differing levels of risk have emerged.
Epidemiology:
Studies of occupational workers exposed to chronic low levels of radiation, above normal background, have provided mixed evidence regarding cancer and transgenerational effects. Cancer results, although uncertain, are consistent with estimates of risk based on atomic bomb survivors and suggest that these workers do face a small increase in the probability of developing leukemia and other cancers. One of the most recent and extensive studies of workers was published by Cardis, et al. in 2005 . There is evidence that low level, brief radiation exposures are not harmful.
Epidemiology:
Modelling The linear dose-response model suggests that any increase in dose, no matter how small, results in an incremental increase in risk. The linear no-threshold model (LNT) hypothesis is accepted by the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) and regulators around the world. According to this model, about 1% of the global population develop cancer as a result of natural background radiation at some point in their lifetime. For comparison, 13% of deaths in 2008 are attributed to cancer, so background radiation could plausibly be a small contributor.Many parties have criticized the ICRP's adoption of the linear no-threshold model for exaggerating the effects of low radiation doses. The most frequently cited alternatives are the "linear quadratic" model and the "hormesis" model. The linear quadratic model is widely viewed in radiotherapy as the best model of cellular survival, and it is the best fit to leukemia data from the LSS cohort.
Epidemiology:
In all three cases, the values of alpha and beta must be determined by regression from human exposure data. Laboratory experiments on animals and tissue samples is of limited value. Most of the high quality human data available is from high dose individuals, above 0.1 Sv, so any use of the models at low doses is an extrapolation that might be under-conservative or over-conservative. There is not enough human data available to settle decisively which of these model might be most accurate at low doses. The consensus has been to assume linear no-threshold because it the simplest and most conservative of the three.
Epidemiology:
Radiation hormesis is the conjecture that a low level of ionizing radiation (i.e., near the level of Earth's natural background radiation) helps "immunize" cells against DNA damage from other causes (such as free radicals or larger doses of ionizing radiation), and decreases the risk of cancer. The theory proposes that such low levels activate the body's DNA repair mechanisms, causing higher levels of cellular DNA-repair proteins to be present in the body, improving the body's ability to repair DNA damage. This assertion is very difficult to prove in humans (using, for example, statistical cancer studies) because the effects of very low ionizing radiation levels are too small to be statistically measured amid the "noise" of normal cancer rates.
Epidemiology:
The idea of radiation hormesis is considered unproven by regulatory bodies. If the hormesis model turns out to be accurate, it is conceivable that current regulations based on the LNT model will prevent or limit the hormetic effect, and thus have a negative impact on health.Other non-linear effects have been observed, particularly for internal doses. For example, iodine-131 is notable in that high doses of the isotope are sometimes less dangerous than low doses, since they tend to kill thyroid tissues that would otherwise become cancerous as a result of the radiation. Most studies of very-high-dose I-131 for treatment of Graves disease have failed to find any increase in thyroid cancer, even though there is linear increase in thyroid cancer risk with I-131 absorption at moderate doses.
Public safety:
Low-dose exposures, such as living near a nuclear power plant or a coal-fired power plant, which has higher emissions than nuclear plants, are generally believed to have no or very little effect on cancer development, barring accidents. Greater concerns include radon in buildings and overuse of medical imaging.
Public safety:
The International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) recommends limiting artificial irradiation of the public to an average of 1 mSv (0.001 Sv) of effective dose per year, not including medical and occupational exposures. For comparison, radiation levels inside the US capitol building are 0.85 mSv/yr, close to the regulatory limit, because of the uranium content of the granite structure. According to the ICRP model, someone who spent 20 years inside the capitol building would have an extra one in a thousand chance of getting cancer, over and above any other existing risk. (20 yr X 0.85 mSv/yr X 0.001 Sv/mSv X 5.5%/Sv = ~0.1%) That "existing risk" is much higher; an average American would have a one in ten chance of getting cancer during this same 20-year period, even without any exposure to artificial radiation.
Public safety:
Internal contamination due to ingestion, inhalation, injection, or absorption is a particular concern because the radioactive material may stay in the body for an extended period of time, "committing" the subject to accumulating dose long after the initial exposure has ceased, albeit at low dose rates. Over a hundred people, including Eben Byers and the radium girls, have received committed doses in excess of 10 Gy and went on to die of cancer or natural causes, whereas the same amount of acute external dose would invariably cause an earlier death by acute radiation syndrome.Internal exposure of the public is controlled by regulatory limits on the radioactive content of food and water. These limits are typically expressed in becquerel/kilogram, with different limits set for each contaminant.
History:
Although radiation was discovered in late 19th century, the dangers of radioactivity and of radiation were not immediately recognized. Acute effects of radiation were first observed in the use of X-rays when Wilhelm Röntgen intentionally subjected his fingers to X-rays in 1895. He published his observations concerning the burns that developed, though he attributed them to ozone rather than to X-rays. His injuries healed later.
History:
The genetic effects of radiation, including the effects on cancer risk, were recognized much later. In 1927 Hermann Joseph Muller published research showing genetic effects, and in 1946 was awarded the Nobel prize for his findings. Radiation was soon linked to bone cancer in the radium dial painters, but this was not confirmed until large-scale animal studies after World War II. The risk was then quantified through long-term studies of atomic bomb survivors.
History:
Before the biological effects of radiation were known, many physicians and corporations had begun marketing radioactive substances as patent medicine and radioactive quackery. Examples were radium enema treatments, and radium-containing waters to be drunk as tonics. Marie Curie spoke out against this sort of treatment, warning that the effects of radiation on the human body were not well understood. Curie later died of aplastic anemia, not cancer. Eben Byers, a famous American socialite, died of multiple cancers in 1932 after consuming large quantities of radium over several years; his death drew public attention to dangers of radiation. By the 1930s, after a number of cases of bone necrosis and death in enthusiasts, radium-containing medical products had nearly vanished from the market.
History:
In the United States, the experience of the so-called Radium Girls, where thousands of radium-dial painters contracted oral cancers, popularized the warnings of occupational health associated with radiation hazards. Robley D. Evans, at MIT, developed the first standard for permissible body burden of radium, a key step in the establishment of nuclear medicine as a field of study. With the development of nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons in the 1940s, heightened scientific attention was given to the study of all manner of radiation effects. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Jason S. Lewis**
Jason S. Lewis:
Jason S. Lewis is a British radiochemist whose work relates to oncologic therapy and diagnosis. His research focus is a molecular imaging-based program focused on radiopharmaceutical development as well as the study of multimodality (PET, CT & MRI) small- and biomolecule-based agents and their clinical translation. He has worked on the development of small molecules as well as radiolabeled peptides and antibodies probing the overexpression of receptors and antigens on tumors.
Education:
Jason S. Lewis was born and raised in Horndean, Hampshire, England. Lewis received his Bachelor of Science in chemistry, B.Sc. from the University of Essex in 1992. He received his Master of Science in chemistry from the University of Essex in 1993.
In 1996, he received his Doctor of Philosophy in Biochemistry at the University of Kent.
Career:
Lewis was an instructor of Radiology at the Washington University School of Medicine, Mallinckrodt Institute of Radiology from 2000 to 2002. From 2003 to 2008, he was an assistant professor of radiology at the Washington University School of Medicine, Mallinckrodt Institute of Radiology. He is the Emily Tow Jackson Chair in Oncology, the Vice Chairman for Research (Radiology) and Chief Attending of the Radiochemistry and Imaging Sciences Service at Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. He also heads a laboratory in the Sloan Kettering Institute's Molecular Pharmacology Program and is a professor at the Gerstner Sloan Kettering Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences.Lewis holds joint appointments in the Departments of Radiology and the Department of Pharmacology at Weill Cornell Medical School, NY.
Research focus:
Lewis is a proponent of development imaging tools for use in personalized medicine. Lewis designs and develops radiochemical probes for use in nuclear medicine as well as multi-modality molecular imaging. The use of these probes span from oncological metabolic detection to understanding the biological processes of cancer and pharmacological modification. These probes can be used for biomarkers in clinical trials as well as used as an agent for oncological diagnostics. He has developed multiple new small molecules that target tumor metabolism, as well as radiolabeled peptides and antibodies for use in probing overexpression of receptors and antigens on tumors for research, clinical trials and in the clinic.
Recognition:
2014 Distinguished Investigator Award from the Academy of Radiology Research Fellow, World Molecular Imaging Society (FWMIS) 2017 Michael J. Welch Award, Society of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging (SNMMI) 2019 Paul C. Aebersold Award, Educational and Research Fund for Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging (ERF) & Society of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging 2019 Fellow, Society of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging (FSNMMI)
Editorial board memberships:
Molecular Imaging and Biology (Editor-in-Chief) Journal of Nuclear Medicine (Associate Editor) ACS Bioconjugate Chemistry (Editorial Advisory Board) Nuclear Medicine and Biology (Associate Editor-in-Chief) | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Kuratowski–Ulam theorem**
Kuratowski–Ulam theorem:
In mathematics, the Kuratowski–Ulam theorem, introduced by Kazimierz Kuratowski and Stanislaw Ulam (1932), called also the Fubini theorem for category, is an analog of Fubini's theorem for arbitrary second countable Baire spaces.
Let X and Y be second countable Baire spaces (or, in particular, Polish spaces), and let A⊂X×Y . Then the following are equivalent if A has the Baire property: A is meager (respectively comeager).
The set is meager (resp. comeager) in Y} is comeager in X, where Ax=πY[A∩{x}×Y] , where πY is the projection onto Y.Even if A does not have the Baire property, 2. follows from 1.
Note that the theorem still holds (perhaps vacuously) for X an arbitrary Hausdorff space and Y a Hausdorff space with countable π-base.
The theorem is analogous to the regular Fubini's theorem for the case where the considered function is a characteristic function of a subset in a product space, with the usual correspondences, namely, meagre set with a set of measure zero, comeagre set with one of full measure, and a set with the Baire property with a measurable set. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**R4 cartridge**
R4 cartridge:
The R4 (also known as Revolution for DS) is an unlicensed flash cartridge for the Nintendo DS handheld system. It allows ROMs and homebrew to be booted on the Nintendo DS handheld system from a microSD card. This allows the user to run homebrew applications, to store multiple games and MP3 music files on a single memory card, and to play games that have been backed up by the user.
R4 cartridge:
The R4 flashcard's original developer stopped production, however, due to the popularity of the original R4 there are many other Nintendo DS flashcards using the R4 name despite the lack of any connection to the original. Some of these cartridges can also store a 3DS boot image; a 3DS can in turn be made to boot from the cartridge by way of an undocumented button combination recognized by the system's bootloader. Since the 3DS's secure boot signature validation has been broken, this provides a useful means of installing custom firmware on a 3DS.
Original cards:
The original R4 cards use a microSD (≤2GB) card for its firmware and games, and does not support SDHC microSD cards. The original Revolution for DS card is no longer sold, however cards commonly referred to as 1:1 clones can still be purchased online. These are flashcards that use exactly the same hardware and are, for all intents and purposes, also referred to as the original R4 cartridge.
Notable clones:
Due to the popularity of the original R4 cartridge and subsequent continued popularity of other cards using the name, Nintendo DS flashcards using R4 in their names is still very common despite the original having long since stopped production. These flashcards, referred to as clones, commonly add words to their names to denote their features such as SDHC if it supports SDHC microSD cards, RTS if it has Real Time Save support, and DSi or 3DS often paired with changing R4 to R4i if it works on the Nintendo DSi or 3DS consoles. It is also very common for clone cartridges to include words such as Gold, Plus, Ultra, and Dual-Core which only serve to make the card sound impressive.
Notable clones:
R4i Gold 3DS Plus (r4ids.cn) The R4i Gold 3DS Plus from r4ids.cn is notable for featuring a switch inside that cartridge that allows easily switching between being a normal NintendoDS flashcard and a mode that allows it to be used for the ntrboot exploit for the Nintendo 3DS. This unique feature, combined with its high compatibility and support for RTS, made it formerly a highly recommended card, however its final production run was defective and unable to play Nintendo DS ROMs.
Notable clones:
r4isdhc.com r4isdhc.com has produced many R4 clones, typically going by the names "R4iSDHC Gold", "R4iSDHC RTS Lite", and "R4iSDHC Dual-Core". Despite the different names all cards from this website are exactly the same internally, only differing in the cartridge color and label. Cards branded r4isdhc.com are also labelled with a specific year and use a time bomb where the card refuses to load Nintendo DS ROMs after a certain date. This time bomb is only enforced by software, however, so it can be bypassed easily.
Notable clones:
Ace3DS+ Ace3DS+ carts use their own boards and are not clones of other carts, this cart often gets confused for the predecessor Ace3DS which was a DSTT clone. The Ace3DS+ is infamous for being one of the most cloned carts with most modern clone R4 cards running Ace3DS+ based software. The most infamous carts to run Ace3DS+ based codes are the carts that include often pirated games which are currently being sold on online shops like eBay and Amazon.
Legal issues:
R4 flash cartridges are banned in some countries due to copyright infringement lawsuits from Nintendo. In late 2007, Nintendo began a legal crackdown with a series of raids against R4 merchants.
Legal issues:
United Kingdom In 2010, the company Playables Limited, importers of R4 flashcards, was ruled against by the London High Court. The ruling outlawed any sales, importation, or advertising of the R4 flashcards. The defence of Playables Limited claimed that the R4 flashcards were legal because it uses a homebrew application. However, bypassing Nintendo's security system is against the law in the United Kingdom. After the news broke, Nintendo released on a statement saying that they do support game developers that create their own applications legitimately. 100,000 copying devices including R4s were seized in 2009. Nintendo claimed that the cards were not only seized for the benefit of their own company, but the benefit for over 1400 video game companies that depend on the sales of their games.
Legal issues:
France In October 2011, the R4 cards were banned in France. While Nintendo's original lawsuit was dismissed on the basis that the devices could be used to make homebrews and develop software in 2009, the 2011 ruling reversed this, and the Paris court of appeals ruled against five R4 sellers and distributors. The sellers and distributors were fined over €460,000, and some were sentenced to jail. Stephan Bole, the managing director of Nintendo France released a statement saying "Nintendo supported this criminal action not only for the company’s sake, but for the interests of its game developer partners who spend time and money legitimately developing software for Nintendo’s game platforms, and customers who expect the highest standards and integrity from products bearing the Nintendo name." Japan In 2009, the government of Japan outlawed the sales of the R4 flashcard. In 2012, the Japanese Ministry of Economy, Trade, and Industry revealed that the importing of R4 cards, and similar devices, is now punishable by law. In 2013, Nintendo won a court case against two R4 card distributors in Japan. The Tokyo district court ruled that the sellers of the R4 cards owed Nintendo and 49 other video game developers ¥95,625,000.
Legal issues:
Germany In 2009, Nintendo lost a lawsuit against a seller of flashcards, however Nintendo won the second and final instance. Since December 2014, flashcards are officially illegal due to Germany's copyright law. The seller and distributor of the R4 flashcards was fined over €1 million.
Legal issues:
Italy In 2009, Nintendo started a lawsuit against a seller of flashcards, which lasted three instances and ended only in 2017 with the sentence of the seller, however the punishment is undisclosed. Curiously, in another trial held in 2016 Court of Catania declared flashcards legal since they have been exchanged for microSD-to-DScart adapters, citing the fact the R4 is not able to run any copyrighted code without a kernel, which is not sold with the flashcard, and the hardware-embedded protection breaking functionalities were considered legitimate to run unsigned code.
Legal issues:
Other countries Other countries that have banned the R4 flashcards include Australia, Belgium, the Netherlands, and South Korea. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Mass start**
Mass start:
Mass start is a format of starting in some racing sports such as long-distance running in sport of athletics, speed skating, long-distance cross-country skiing and biathlon.
Mass start:
There are usually many competitors in such an event, and in order for all the competitors to have the same environmental conditions, which, among other things, include temperature, wind speed, rain or shine, etc., they need to start at the same time and same place and proceed along the same course. But the large number of competitors makes it impossible to fit all of them at the same starting line. So the athletes stand in a pack before they begin: some are behind others, sometimes by dozens of meters or more, depending on the number of competitors.
Mass start:
The tradition is that all the athletes start at the same time, the gun time, and use the same starting line and same finishing line as those in the front of the pack. This means that those in the back of the pack have to run an extra distance. One's position in the pack at starting is determined either based on their previous records, or chosen by the participant based on their own expectation and etiquette. Usually, the best athletes take the front positions.
Mass start:
Modern electronic technology has made it possible to get the time lapsed for each individual athlete from their crossing the starting line to their crossing the finishing line, the chip time. This is also called transponder timing. However, this has the disadvantage that the race finish is not simultaneous, so the race results do not match the finish line order. Other ways to avoid disadvantage towards those in the back of the pack are individual starts (where athletes start one at a time) and interval starts (where athletes are released in small batches). Chip time is normally not used to determine top positions. The first to reach the finish shall be the winner. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Egg carton**
Egg carton:
An egg carton (also known as an egg box in British English) is a carton designed for carrying and transporting whole eggs.
Description:
These cartons have a dimpled form in which each dimple accommodates an individual egg and isolates that egg from eggs in adjacent dimples. This structure helps protect eggs against stresses exerted during transportation and storage by absorbing a lot of shock and limiting the incidents of fracture to the fragile egg shells. An egg carton can be made of various materials, including foamed plastics such as polystyrene foam, clear plastic or may be manufactured from recycled paper and molded pulp by means of a mechanized papier-mâché process.
Origins:
Before its invention, eggs were carried in egg baskets. In 1906, Thomas Peter Bethell of Liverpool invented a predecessor to the modern egg box and marketed it as the Raylite Egg Box. He created frames of interlocking strips of cardboard, and packed these frames in cardboard or wooden boxes for transport by road or rail.In 1911, newspaper editor Joseph Coyle of Smithers, British Columbia, invented the egg carton, to solve a dispute between a local farmer, Gabriel LaCroix, and hotel owner in Aldermere, near present-day Telkwa, in British Columbia, over the farmer's eggs often being delivered broken.
Origins:
In 1921, Morris Koppelman patented an improved version of the egg carton made from cut, folded and glued cardboard and functions similar to today's egg cartons. The patent emphasized the ability for it to fold flat after use, which is a feature no longer considered important.In 1931, American Francis H Sherman of Palmer, Massachusetts, patented an egg carton formed with pressed paper pulp that is recognizable as the modern egg carton used today.In 1969, the United Industrial Syndicate (UIS) in Maine (a division of The Portland Company) patented an egg carton appears similar to Sherman's pressed paper pulp carton but has special pedestals formed into the carton to provide support for the weight of stacks of egg cartons and other strength related features and also an improved clasping closure feature. The three inventors listed on the filing are Walter H. Howarth, Gerald A. Snow, and Harold A. Doughty.Unlike many products, trademarks and advertisements for egg brands are usually printed on the food container itself rather than on a separate container (as with breakfast cereals). This single-layer, distinctive packaging distinguishes among egg cartons from different producers or levels of quality on the retail shelf.
Sizes:
Standard egg cartons have room for 10 or 12 eggs, but they can come in a variety of sizes, holding from one to 30 eggs.
Trays are usually used to store fresh eggs from farms or at farmers' markets. Plastic egg trays are also used by egg processors to wash and sanitize eggs. A cardboard sleeve or additional trays are used to protect eggs when using a tray format. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**SCSI host adapter**
SCSI host adapter:
In computer hardware, a host controller, host adapter, or host bus adapter (HBA), connects a computer system bus, which acts as the host system, to other network and storage devices. The terms are primarily used to refer to devices for connecting SCSI, SAS, NVMe, Fibre Channel and SATA devices. Devices for connecting to FireWire, USB and other devices may also be called host controllers or host adapters.
SCSI host adapter:
Host adapters can be integrated in the motherboard or be on a separate expansion card.The term network interface controller (NIC) is more often used for devices connecting to computer networks, while the term converged network adapter can be applied when protocols such as iSCSI or Fibre Channel over Ethernet allow storage and network functionality over the same physical connection.
SCSI:
A SCSI host adapter connects a host system and a peripheral SCSI device or storage system. These adapters manage service and task communication between the host and target. Typically a device driver, linked to the operating system, controls the host adapter itself.
SCSI:
In a typical parallel SCSI subsystem, each device has assigned to it a unique numerical ID. As a rule, the host adapter appears as SCSI ID 7, which gives it the highest priority on the SCSI bus (priority descends as the SCSI ID descends; on a 16-bit or "wide" bus, ID 8 has the lowest priority, a feature that maintains compatibility with the priority scheme of the 8-bit or "narrow" bus).
SCSI:
The host adapter usually assumes the role of SCSI initiator, in that it issues commands to other SCSI devices.
A computer can contain more than one host adapter, which can greatly increase the number of SCSI devices available.
Major SCSI adapter manufacturers are HP, ATTO Technology, Promise Technology, Adaptec, and LSI Corporation. LSI, Adaptec, and ATTO offer PCIe SCSI adapters which fit in Apple Mac, on Intel PCs, and low-profile motherboards which lack SCSI support due to the inclusion of SAS and/or SATA connectivity.
Fibre Channel:
The term host bus adapter (HBA) may be used to refer to a Fibre Channel interface card. In this case, it allows devices in a Fibre Channel storage area network to communicate data between each other – it may connect a server to a switch or storage device, connect multiple storage systems, or connect multiple servers. Fibre Channel HBAs are available for open systems, computer architectures, and buses, including PCI and SBus (obsolete today).
Fibre Channel:
Each Fibre Channel HBA has a unique World Wide Name (WWN), which is similar to an Ethernet MAC address in that it uses an OUI assigned by the IEEE. However, WWNs are longer (8 bytes). There are two types of WWNs on a HBA; a node WWN (WWNN), which is shared by all ports on a host bus adapter, and a port WWN (WWPN), which is unique to each port. There are HBA models of different speeds: 1Gbit/s, 2Gbit/s, 4Gbit/s, 8Gbit/s, 10Gbit/s, 16Gbit/s, 20Gbit/s and 32Gbit/s.
Fibre Channel:
The major Fibre Channel HBA manufacturers are QLogic and Broadcom. As of mid-2009, these vendors shared approximately 90% of the market. Other manufacturers include Agilent, ATTO, and Brocade.
HBA is also known to be interpreted as High Bandwidth Adapter in cases of Fibre Channel controllers.
InfiniBand:
The term host channel adapter (HCA) is usually used to describe InfiniBand interface cards.
ATA:
ATA host adapters are integrated into motherboards of most modern PCs. They are often improperly called disk controllers. The correct term for the component that allows a computer to talk to a peripheral bus is host adapter. A proper disk controller only allows a disk to talk to the same bus.
SAS and SATA:
SAS or serial-attached SCSI is the current connectivity to replace the previous generation parallel-attached SCSI (PAS) devices. Ultra320 was the highest level of parallel SCSI available, but SAS has since replaced it as the highest-performing SCSI technology.
SATA is a similar technology from the aspect of connection options. HBAs can be created using a single connector to connect both SAS and SATA devices.
Major SAS/SATA adapter manufacturers are Promise Technologies, Adaptec, HP, QLogic, Areca, LSI and ATTO Technology.
eSATA External Serial ATA (eSATA) disk enclosures and drives are available in the consumer computing market, but not all SATA-compatible motherboards and disk controllers include eSATA ports. As such, adapters to connect eSATA devices to ports on an internal SATA bus are available.
Mainframe channel I/O:
In the mainframe field, the terms host adapter or host bus adapter were traditionally not used.
Mainframe channel I/O:
A similar goal was achieved since the 1960s with channel I/O, a separate processor that can access main memory independently, in parallel with CPU (like later DMA in personal computer field), and that executes its own I/O-dedicated programs when pointed to such by the controlling CPU.Protocols used by channel I/O to communicate with peripheral devices include ESCON and newer FICON. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Intertragic notch**
Intertragic notch:
The intertragic notch is an anatomical feature of the ears of mammals. In humans, it is the space that separates the tragus from the antitragus in the outer ear.
It is the point specified (although not by that name) in the U.S. Army’s regulation governing the length of sideburns in male soldiers. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Atmospheric optics ray-tracing codes**
Atmospheric optics ray-tracing codes:
Atmospheric optics ray tracing codes - this article list codes for light scattering using ray-tracing technique to study atmospheric optics phenomena such as rainbows and halos. Such particles can be large raindrops or hexagonal ice crystals. Such codes are one of many approaches to calculations of light scattering by particles.
Geometric optics (ray tracing):
Ray tracing techniques can be applied to study light scattering by spherical and non-spherical particles under the condition that the size of a particle is much larger than the wavelength of light. The light can be considered as collection of separate rays with width of rays much larger than the wavelength but smaller than a particle. Rays hitting the particle undergoes reflection, refraction and diffraction. These rays exit in various directions with different amplitudes and phases. Such ray tracing techniques are used to describe optical phenomena such as rainbow of halo on hexagonal ice crystals for large particles. Review of several mathematical techniques is provided in series of publications.
Geometric optics (ray tracing):
The 46° halo was first explained as being caused by refractions through ice crystals in 1679 by the French physicist Edmé Mariotte (1620–1684) in terms of light refraction Jacobowitz in 1971 was the first to apply the ray-tracing technique to hexagonal ice crystal. Wendling et al. (1979) extended Jacobowitz's work from hexagonal ice particle with infinite length to finite length and combined Monte Carlo technique to the ray-tracing simulations.
Classification:
The compilation contains information about the electromagnetic scattering by hexagonal ice crystals, large raindrops, and relevant links and applications.
Codes for light scattering by hexagonal ice crystals
Relevant scattering codes:
Discrete dipole approximation codes Codes for electromagnetic scattering by cylinders Codes for electromagnetic scattering by spheres | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Ferroselite**
Ferroselite:
Orthorhombic ferroselite and its isometric polymorph dzharkenite are iron selenides of general formula FeSe2 precipitated under reducing conditions in anoxic environments. They are a source of selenium in the Rocky Mountains where selenium occurrence is associated with Upper Cretaceous shale deposits. In the frame of safety assessment calculations made for deep disposal of high-level radioactive waste, ferroselite and dzharkenite are also considered in geochemical calculations as one of the mineral phases limiting the solubility of Selenium-79.
Names:
Dzharkenite's type locale is in the Suluchekinskoye Se-U deposit in the Dzharkenskaya Depression of the Middle Ili River, Almaty Province, in southeastern Kazakhstan. It was discovered in 1995 and named after the depression. Ferroselite was first reported in 1955 for an occurrence in the Ust’-Uyuk uranium deposit in Tuva, Siberia. Its name comes from the Latin ferro (iron) and "sel" for selenium. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Npj Digital Medicine**
Npj Digital Medicine:
npj Digital Medicine is a peer-reviewed open-access medical journal covering all aspects of digital medicine. The journal was established in 2018 and is published by Nature Portfolio. The editor-in-chief is Joseph C. Kvedar (Harvard Medical School). The journal publishes research articles, brief communications, comments, editorials, and reviews.
Abstracting and indexing:
The journal is abstracted and indexed in: CINAHL Current Contents/Clinical Medicine Embase Inspec Science Citation Index Expanded ScopusAccording to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2021 impact factor of 15.357. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Bersirc**
Bersirc:
Bersirc is a discontinued open-source Internet Relay Chat client for the Microsoft Windows operating system. Linux and Mac OS X versions were "in development". Bersirc uses the Claro toolkit, which aims to provide an interface to native windowing systems and widgets on all operating systems. Microsoft .NET and Qt toolkit ports were also planned. The final version of Bersirc was 2.2.14.
Features:
Bersirc features connections to multiple servers, a finger client, DCC File Transfers and Chat, Smart Paste, Object Pascal Scripting, Internet Time Support (Swatch Netbeats), Channel Lists, Favorite Channels list, Ident Server, AutoJoin on Invite, AutoRejoin on Kick, configurable date formats, an ICQ-like notify list, advanced filtering, a configurable user interface, and a built in IRC user guide.
License:
Bersirc was licensed under the GNU Lesser General Public License and there are no plans to change this. Bersirc 2.1 was to be released under the Qt Public License, but the Qt toolkit and license were abandoned.
History:
Originally bersIRC was created as a TCL/TK script unrelated to the currently used Bersirc; it was created by the irc-user: SeLf-AdHeSiVe, it was last modified in 1998, and is freely downloadable at defiled.8m.com and has been for years.
Bersirc was originally written in Delphi by Jamie Frater in 1999 as a Windows-only IRC client, comparable to HydraIRC and Klient. But development stagnated due to his growing responsibilities in real life.
History:
On 10 February 2004 Nicholas Copeland bought the source code from Frater and released it as open-source. The older Delphi client, Bersirc 1.4, was supposed to be maintained under the name Bersirc 1.5. The original site was also archived by the new owner, including all the old plugins and extensions, but there has been almost no information about the future of the legacy clients since.
History:
Developers stated that development of the 1.4 client stalled because the original source code extensively used proprietary software components. The 1.4 client relies on many parts of old versions of the Raize Components package.The primary developer, Theo Julienne, announced plans to develop the 2.1 branch in C++ using the Qt toolkit, but with the release of the 2.2 branch this was changed to C using Claro Graphics.
Reception:
In 2001, New Zealand gaming website GamePlanet recommended Bersirc for users to connect to its IRC services.Bersirc has received positive reviews. The German website Winfuture referred to version 2.2.13 as a "great free alternative to the popular shareware IRC client mIRC. The program contains only what is necessary for chatting on IRC...". Snapfiles gave the program 3.5/5 stars, referring to it as "feature rich and nicely designed". | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**History of the compass**
History of the compass:
The compass is a magnetometer used for navigation and orientation that shows direction in regards to the geographic cardinal points. The structure of a compass consists of the compass rose, which displays the four main directions on it: East (E), South (S), West (W) and North (N). The angle increases in the clockwise position. North corresponds to 0°, so east is 90°, south is 180° and west is 270°.
History of the compass:
The history of the compass started more than 2000 years ago during the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD). The first compasses were made of lodestone, a naturally magnetized stone of iron, in Han dynasty China. It was called the "South Pointing Fish" and was used for land navigation by the mid-11th century during the Song dynasty (960–1279 AD). Shen Kuo provided the first explicit description of a magnetized needle in 1088 and Zhu Yu mentioned its use in maritime navigation in the text Pingzhou Table Talks, dated 1111–1117. Later compasses were made of iron needles, magnetized by striking them with a lodestone. Magnetized needles and compasses were first described in medieval Europe by the English theologian Alexander Neckam (1157–1217 AD). The first usage of a compass in Western Europe was recorded in around 1190 and in the Islamic world 1232. Dry compasses begin appearing around 1269 in Medieval Europe and 1300 in the Medieval Islamic world. This was replaced in the early 20th century by the liquid-filled magnetic compass.
Navigation prior to the compass:
Before the introduction of the compass, geographical position and direction at sea were primarily determined by the sighting of landmarks, supplemented with the observation of the position of celestial bodies. Other techniques included sampling mud from the seafloor (China), analyzing the flight path of birds, and observing wind, sea debris, and sea state (Polynesia and elsewhere). Objects that have been understood as having been used for navigation by measuring the angles between celestial objects, were discovered in the Indus Valley site of Lothal. The Norse are believed to have used a type of sun compass to locate true north. On cloudy days, the Vikings may have used cordierite or some other birefringent crystal to determine the sun's direction and elevation from the polarization of daylight; their astronomical knowledge was sufficient to let them use this information to determine their proper heading. The invention of the compass made it possible to determine a heading when the sky was overcast or foggy, and when landmarks were not in sight. This enabled mariners to navigate safely far from land, increasing sea trade, and contributing to the Age of Discovery.
Geomancy and Feng Shui:
The compass was invented in China during the Han dynasty between the 2nd century BC and 1st century AD where it was called the "south-governor"(sīnán 司南) or "South Pointing Fish" (指南魚). The magnetic compass was not, at first, used for navigation, but for geomancy and fortune-telling by the Chinese. The earliest Chinese magnetic compasses were possibly used to order and harmonize buildings by the geomantic principles of feng shui. These early compasses were made with lodestone, a form of the mineral magnetite that is a naturally occurring magnet and aligns itself with the Earth's magnetic field. People in ancient China discovered that if a lodestone was suspended so it could turn freely, it would always point toward the magnetic poles. Early compasses were used to choose areas suitable for building houses, growing crops, and to search for rare gems. Compasses were later adapted for navigation during the Song dynasty in the 11th century.Based on Krotser and Coe's discovery of an Olmec hematite artifact in Mesoamerica, radiocarbon dated to 1400–1000 BC, astronomer John Carlson has hypothesized that the Olmec might have used the geomagnetic lodestone earlier than 1000 BC for geomancy, a method of divination, which if proven true, predates the Chinese use of magnetism for feng shui by a millennium. Carlson speculates that the Olmecs used similar artifacts as a directional device for astronomical or geomantic purposes but does not suggest navigational usage. The artifact is part of a polished hematite bar with a groove at one end, possibly used for sighting. Carlson's claims have been disputed by other scientific researchers, who have suggested that the artifact is actually a constituent piece of a decorative ornament and not a purposely built compass. Several other hematite or magnetite artifacts have been found at pre-Columbian archaeological sites in Mexico and Guatemala.
Early navigational compass:
A number of early cultures used lodestone so they could turn, as magnetic compasses for navigation. Early mechanical compasses are referenced in written records of the Chinese, who began using it for navigation sometime between the 9th and 11th century, "some time before 1050, possibly as early as 850." At present, according to Kreutz, scholarly consensus is that the Chinese invention used in navigation pre-dates the first European mention of a compass by 150 years. The first recorded appearance of the use of the compass in Europe (1190) is earlier than in the Muslim world (1232), as a description of a magnetized needle and its use among sailors occurs in Alexander Neckam's De naturis rerum (On the Natures of Things), written in 1190.However, there are questions over diffusion. Some historians suggest that the Arabs introduced the compass from China to Europe. Some suggested the compass was transmitted from China to Europe and the Islamic world via the Indian Ocean, or was brought by the crusaders to Europe from China. However, some scholars proposed an independent European invention of the compass.
Early navigational compass:
China These are noteworthy Chinese literary references in evidence for its antiquity: The magnetic compass was first invented as a device for divination as early as the Chinese Han dynasty and Tang dynasty (since about 206 BC). The compass was used in Song dynasty China by the military for navigational orienteering by 1040–44, and was used for maritime navigation by 1111 to 1117.
Early navigational compass:
The earliest Chinese literature reference to magnetism lies in the 4th century BC writings of Wang Xu (鬼谷子): "The lodestone attracts iron." The book also notes that the people of the state of Zheng always knew their position using a "south-pointer"; some authors suggest that this refers to early use of the compass.
Early navigational compass:
The first mention of a spoon, speculated to be a lodestone, observed "pointing in a cardinal direction" is a Chinese work composed between 70 and 80 AD (Lunheng), which records that "But when the south-pointing spoon is thrown upon the ground, it comes to rest pointing at the south." Within the text, the author Wang Chong describes the spoon as a phenomenon that he has personally observed. Although the passage does not explicitly mention magnetism, according to Chen-Cheng Yih, the "device described by Wang Chong has been widely considered to be the earliest form of the magnetic compass." The first clear account of magnetic declination occurs in the Kuan Shih Ti Li Chih Meng ("Mr. Kuan's Geomantic Instructor"), dating to 880. Another text, the Chiu Thien Hsuan Nu Chhing Nang Hai Chio Ching ("Blue Bag Sea Angle Manual") from around the same period, also has an implicit description of magnetic declination. It has been argued that this knowledge of declination requires the use of the compass.
Early navigational compass:
A reference to a magnetized needle as a "mysterious needle" appears in 923–926 in the Chung Hua Ku Chin Chu text written by Ma Kao. The same passage is also attributed to the 4th-century AD writer Tshui Pao, although it is postulated that the former text is more authentic. The shape of the needle is compared to that of a tadpole, and may indicate the transition between "lodestone spoons" and "iron needles." The earliest reference to a specific magnetic "direction finder" device for land navigation is recorded in a Song dynasty book dated to 1040–44. There is a description of an iron "south-pointing fish" floating in a bowl of water, aligning itself to the south. The device is recommended as a means of orientation "in the obscurity of the night." The Wujing Zongyao (武經總要, "Collection of the Most Important Military Techniques") stated: "When troops encountered gloomy weather or dark nights, and the directions of space could not be distinguished...they made use of the [mechanical] south-pointing carriage, or the south-pointing fish." This was achieved by heating of metal (especially if steel), known today as thermoremanence, and would have been capable of producing a weak state of magnetization. While the Chinese achieved magnetic remanence and induction by this time, in both Europe and Asia the phenomenon was attributed to the supernatural and occult, until about 1600 when William Gilbert published his De Magnete.
Early navigational compass:
The first incontestable reference to a "magnetized needle" in Chinese literature appears in 1088. The Dream Pool Essays, written by the Song dynasty polymath scientist Shen Kuo, contained a detailed description of how geomancers magnetized a needle by rubbing its tip with lodestone and hung the magnetic needle with one single strain of silk with a bit of wax attached to the center of the needle. Shen Kuo pointed out that a needle prepared this way sometimes pointed south, sometimes north.
Early navigational compass:
The earliest explicit recorded use of a magnetic compass for maritime navigation is found in Zhu Yu's book Pingchow Table Talks (萍洲可談; Pingzhou Ketan) and dates from 1111 to 1117: The ship's pilots are acquainted with the configuration of the coasts; at night they steer by the stars, and in the daytime by the sun. In dark weather they look at the south-pointing needle.Thus, the use of a magnetic compass by the military for land navigation occurred sometime before 1044, but incontestable evidence for the use of the compass as a maritime navigational device did not appear until 1117.
Early navigational compass:
The typical Chinese navigational compass was in the form of a magnetic needle floating in a bowl of water. According to Needham, the Chinese in the Song dynasty and continuing Yuan dynasty did make use of a dry compass, although this type never became as widely used in China as the wet compass. Evidence of this is found in the Shilin Guang Ji ("Guide Through the Forest of Affairs"), published in 1325 by Chen Yuanjing, although its compilation had taken place between 1100 and 1250. The dry compass in China was a dry suspension compass, a wooden frame crafted in the shape of a turtle hung upside down by a board, with the lodestone sealed in by wax, and if rotated, the needle at the tail would always point in the northern cardinal direction. Although the European compass-card in a box frame and dry pivot needle was adopted in China after its use was taken by Japanese pirates in the 16th century (who had, in turn, learned of it from Europeans), the Chinese design of the suspended dry compass persisted in use well into the 18th century. However, according to Kreutz there is only a single Chinese reference to a dry-mounted needle (built into a pivoted wooden tortoise) which is dated to between 1150 and 1250 and claims that there is no clear indication that Chinese mariners ever used anything but the floating needle in a bowl until the 16th century.The first recorded use of a 48 position mariner's compass on sea navigation was noted in The Customs of Cambodia by Yuan dynasty diplomat Zhou Daguan, he described his 1296 voyage from Wenzhou to Angkor Thom in detail; when his ship set sail from Wenzhou, the mariner took a needle direction of “ding Wei” position, which is equivalent to 22.5 degree SW. After they arrived at Baria, the mariner took "Kun Shen needle", or 52.5 degree SW. Zheng He's Navigation Map, also known as the "Mao Kun Map", contains a large amount of detail "needle records" of Zheng He's expeditions.
Early navigational compass:
Medieval Europe Alexander Neckam reported the use of a magnetic compass for the region of the English Channel in the texts De utensilibus and De naturis rerum, written between 1187 and 1202, after he returned to England from France and prior to entering the Augustinian abbey at Cirencester. In his 1863 edition of Neckam's De naturis rerum, Thomas Wright provides a translation of the passage in which Neckam mentions sailors being guided by a compass' needle: The sailors, moreover, as they sail over the sea, when in cloudy whether they can no longer profit by the light of the sun, or when the world is wrapped up in the darkness of the shades of night, and they are ignorant to what point of the compass their ship's course is directed, they touch the magnet with a needle, which (the needle) is whirled round in a circle until, when its motion ceases, its point looks direct to the north. In 1269 Petrus Peregrinus of Maricourt described a floating compass for astronomical purposes as well as a dry compass for seafaring, in his well-known Epistola de magnete.In the Mediterranean, the introduction of the compass, at first only known as a magnetized pointer floating in a bowl of water, went hand in hand with improvements in dead reckoning methods, and the development of Portolan charts, leading to more navigation during winter months in the second half of the 13th century. While the practice from ancient times had been to curtail sea travel between October and April, due in part to the lack of dependable clear skies during the Mediterranean winter, the prolongation of the sailing season resulted in a gradual, but sustained increase in shipping movement; by around 1290 the sailing season could start in late January or February, and end in December. The additional few months were of considerable economic importance. For instance, it enabled Venetian convoys to make two round trips a year to the Levant, instead of one.At the same time, traffic between the Mediterranean and northern Europe also increased, with the first evidence of direct commercial voyages from the Mediterranean into the English Channel coming in the closing decades of the 13th century, and one factor may be that the compass made traversal of the Bay of Biscay safer and easier. However, critics like Kreutz have suggested that it was later in 1410 that anyone really started steering by compass.
Early navigational compass:
Muslim world The earliest reference to a compass in the Muslim world occurs in a Persian talebook from 1232, Jawami ul-Hikayat, where a compass is used for navigation during a trip in the Red Sea or the Persian Gulf. This fish shape was from a typical early Chinese design. The fish-shaped iron leaf described indicates that this early Chinese design has spread outside of China. The earliest Arabic reference to a compass, in the form of magnetic needle in a bowl of water, comes from a work by Baylak al-Qibjāqī, written in 1282 while in Cairo. Al-Qibjāqī described a needle-and-bowl compass used for navigation on a voyage he took from Syria to Alexandria in 1242. Since the author describes having witnessed the use of a compass on a ship trip some forty years earlier, some scholars are inclined to antedate its first appearance in the Arab world accordingly. Al-Qibjāqī also reports that sailors in the Indian Ocean used iron fish instead of needles.Late in the 13th century, the Yemeni Sultan and astronomer al-Malik al-Ashraf described the use of the compass as a "Qibla indicator" to find the direction to Mecca. In a treatise about astrolabes and sundials, al-Ashraf includes several paragraphs on the construction of a compass bowl (ṭāsa). He then uses the compass to determine the north point, the meridian (khaṭṭ niṣf al-nahār), and the Qibla. This is the first mention of a compass in a medieval Islamic scientific text and its earliest known use as a Qibla indicator, although al-Ashraf did not claim to be the first to use it for this purpose.In 1300, an Arabic treatise written by the Egyptian astronomer and muezzin Ibn Simʿūn describes a dry compass used for determining qibla. Like Peregrinus' compass, however, Ibn Simʿūn's compass did not feature a compass card. In the 14th century, the Syrian astronomer and timekeeper Ibn al-Shatir (1304–1375) invented a timekeeping device incorporating both a universal sundial and a magnetic compass. He invented it for the purpose of finding the times of prayers. Arab navigators also introduced the 32-point compass rose during this time. In 1399, an Egyptian reports two different kinds of magnetic compass. One instrument is a “fish” made of willow wood or pumpkin, into which a magnetic needle is inserted and sealed with tar or wax to prevent the penetration of water. The other instrument is a dry compass.
Early navigational compass:
In the 15th century, the description given by Ibn Majid while aligning the compass with the pole star indicates that he was aware of magnetic declination. An explicit value for the declination is given by ʿIzz al-Dīn al-Wafāʾī (fl. the 1450s in Cairo).Pre modern Arabic sources refer to the compass using the term ṭāsa (lit. "bowl") for the floating compass, or ālat al-qiblah ("qibla instrument") for a device used for orienting towards Mecca.Friedrich Hirth suggested that Arab and Persian traders, who learned about the polarity of the magnetic needle from the Chinese, applied the compass for navigation before the Chinese did. However, Needham described this theory as "erroneous" and "it originates because of a mistranslation" of the term chia-ling found in Zhu Yu's book Pingchow Table Talks.
Early navigational compass:
India The development of the magnetic compass is highly uncertain. The compass is mentioned in fourth-century AD Tamil nautical books; moreover, its early name of macchayantra (fish machine) suggest a Chinese origin. In its Indian form, the wet compass often consisted of a fish-shaped magnet, float in a bowl filled with oil.
Early navigational compass:
Medieval Africa There is evidence that the distribution of the compass from China likely also reached eastern Africa by way of trade through the end of the Silk Road that ended in East African centre of trade in Somalia and the Swahili city-state kingdoms. There is evidence that Swahili maritime merchants and sailors acquired the compass at some point and used it for navigation.
Dry compass:
The dry mariner's compass consists of three elements: A freely pivoting needle on a pin enclosed in a little box with a glass cover and a wind rose, whereby "the wind rose or compass card is attached to a magnetized needle in such a manner that when placed on a pivot in a box fastened in line with the keel of the ship the card would turn as the ship changed direction, indicating always what course the ship was on". Later, compasses were often fitted into a gimbal mounting to reduce grounding of the needle or card when used on the pitching and the rolling deck of a ship.
Dry compass:
While pivoting needles in glass boxes had already been described by the French scholar Peter Peregrinus in 1269, and by the Egyptian scholar Ibn Simʿūn in 1300, traditionally Flavio Gioja (fl. 1302), an Italian pilot from Amalfi, has been credited with perfecting the sailor's compass by suspending its needle over a compass card, thus giving the compass its familiar appearance. Such a compass with the needle attached to a rotating card is also described in a commentary on Dante's Divine Comedy from 1380, while an earlier source refers to a portable compass in a box (1318), supporting the notion that the dry compass was known in Europe by then.
Bearing compass:
A bearing compass is a magnetic compass mounted in such a way that it allows the taking of bearings of objects by aligning them with the lubber line of the bearing compass. A surveyor's compass is a specialized compass made to accurately measure heading of landmarks and measure horizontal angles to help with map making. These were already in common use by the early 18th century and are described in 1728 Cyclopaedia. The bearing compass was steadily reduced in size and weight to increase portability, resulting in a model that could be carried and operated in one hand. In 1885, a patent was granted for a hand compass fitted with a viewing prism and lens that enabled the user to accurately sight the heading of geographical landmarks, thus creating the prismatic compass. Another sighting method was employing a reflective mirror. First patented in 1902, the Bézard compass consisted of a field compass with a mirror mounted above it. This arrangement enabled the user to align the compass with an objective while simultaneously viewing its bearing in the mirror.In 1928, Gunnar Tillander, a Swedish unemployed instrument maker and an avid participant in the sport of orienteering, invented a new style of bearing the compass. Dissatisfied with existing field compasses, which required a separate protractor to take bearings from a map, Tillander decided to incorporate both instruments into a single instrument. It combined a compass with a protractor built into the base. His design featured a metal compass capsule containing a magnetic needle with orienting marks mounted into a transparent protractor baseplate with a lubber line (later called a direction of travel indicator). By rotating the capsule to align the needle with the orienting marks, the course bearing could be read at the lubber line. Moreover, by aligning the baseplate with a course drawn on a map – ignoring the needle – the compass could also function as a protractor. Tillander took his design to fellow orienteers Björn, Alvin, and Alvar Kjellström, who were selling basic compasses, and the four men modified Tillander's design. In December 1932, the Silva Company was formed with Tillander and the three Kjellström brothers, and the company began manufacturing and selling its Silva orienteering compass to Swedish orienteers, outdoorsmen, and army officers.
Liquid compass:
The liquid compass is a design in which the magnetized needle or card is damped by fluid to protect against excessive swing or wobble, improving readability while reducing wear. A rudimentary working model of a liquid compass was introduced by Sir Edmond Halley at a meeting of the Royal Society in 1690. However, as early liquid compasses were fairly cumbersome and heavy and subject to damage, their main advantage was aboard the ship. Protected in a binnacle and normally gimbal-mounted, the liquid inside the compass housing effectively damped shock and vibration, while eliminating excessive swing and grounding of the card caused by the pitch and roll of the vessel. The first liquid mariner's compass believed practicable for limited use was patented by the Englishman Francis Crow in 1813. Liquid-damped marine compasses for ships and small boats were occasionally used by the Royal Navy from the 1830s through 1860, but the standard Admiralty compass remained a dry-mount type. In the latter year, the American physicist and inventor Edward Samuel Ritchie patented a greatly improved liquid marine compass that was adopted in revised form for general use by the United States Navy, and later purchased by the Royal Navy as well.Despite these advances, the liquid compass was not introduced generally into the Royal Navy until 1908. An early version developed by RN Captain Creek proved to be operational under heavy gunfire and seas but was felt to lack navigational precision compared with the design by Lord Kelvin. However, with ship and gun sizes continuously increasing, the advantages of the liquid compass over the Kelvin compass became unavoidably apparent to the Admiralty, and after widespread adoption by other navies, the liquid compass was generally adopted by the Royal Navy.
Liquid compass:
Liquid compasses were next adapted for aircraft. In 1909, Captain F.O. Creagh-Osborne, Superintendent of Compasses at the Admiralty, introduced his Creagh-Osborne aircraft compass, which used a mixture of alcohol and distilled water to damp the compass card. After the success of this invention, Capt. Creagh-Osborne adapted his design to a much smaller pocket model for individual use by officers of artillery or infantry, receiving a patent in 1915.In December 1931, the newly founded Silva Company of Sweden introduced its first baseplate or bearing compass that used a liquid-filled capsule to damp the swing of the magnetized needle. The liquid-damped Silva took only four seconds for its needle to settle in comparison to thirty seconds for the original version.In 1933 Tuomas Vohlonen, a surveyor by profession, applied for a patent for a unique method of filling and sealing a lightweight celluloid compass housing or capsule with a petroleum distillate to dampen the needle and protect it from shock and wear caused by excessive motion. Introduced in a wrist-mount model in 1936 as the Suunto Oy Model M-311, the new capsule design led directly to the lightweight liquid-filled field compasses of today.
Gyrocompass:
The first gyroscope for scientific use was made by the French physicist Léon Foucault (1819–1868) in 1852, who also named the device while researching in the same line that led him to use the eponymous pendulum, for which he was awarded a Copley Medal by the Royal Society. The gyrocompass was patented in 1885 by Marinus Gerardus van den Bos in The Netherlands after continuous spinning was made possible by small electric motors, which were, in turn, a technological outcome of the discovery of magnetic induction. Yet only in 1906 was the German inventor Hermann Anschütz-Kaempfe (1872–1931) able to build the first practical gyrocompass. It had two major advantages over magnetic compasses: it indicated true north and was unaffected by ferromagnetic materials, such as the steel hull of ships. Thus, it was widely used in the warships of World War I and modern aircraft.
Non-navigational uses:
Astronomy Three compasses meant for establishing the meridian was described by Peter Peregrinus in 1269 (referring to experiments made before 1248) Late in the 13th century, al-Malik al-Ashraf of Yemen wrote a treatise on astrolabes, which included instructions and diagrams on using the compass to determine the meridian (khaṭṭ niṣf al-nahār) and Qibla. In 1300, a treatise written by the Egyptian astronomer and muezzin Ibn Simʿūn describes a dry compass for use as a "Qibla indicator" to find the direction to Mecca. Ibn Simʿūn's the compass, however, did not feature a compass card nor the familiar glass box. In the 14th century, the Syrian astronomer and timekeeper Ibn al-Shatir (1304–1375) invented a timekeeping device incorporating both a universal sundial and the magnetic compass. He invented it to find the times of salat prayers.
Non-navigational uses:
Building orientation Evidence for the orientation of buildings by the means of a magnetic compass can be found in 12th-century Denmark: one fourth of its 570 Romanesque churches are rotated by 5–15 degrees clockwise from true east–west, thus corresponding to the predominant magnetic declination of the time of their construction. Most of these churches were built in the 12th century, indicating a fairly common usage of magnetic compasses in Europe by then.
Non-navigational uses:
Mining The use of a compass as a direction finder underground was pioneered in the Tuscan mining town Massa where floating magnetic needles were employed for tunneling, and for defining the claims of the various mining companies, as early as the 13th century. In the second half of the 15th century, the compass became standard equipment for Tyrolian miners. Shortly afterward the first detailed treatise dealing with the underground use of compasses was published by a German miner Rülein von Calw (1463–1525).
Non-navigational uses:
Sun compass A sun compass uses the position of the Sun in the sky to determine the directions of the cardinal points, making allowance for the local latitude and longitude, time of day, equation of time, and so on. At fairly high latitudes, an analog-display watch can be used as a very approximate sun compass. A simple sundial can be used as a much better one. An automatic sun compass developed by Lt. Col. James Allason, a mechanized cavalry officer, was adopted by the British Army in India in 1938 for use in tanks and other armored vehicles where the magnetic field was subject to distortion, affecting the standard-issue prismatic compass. Cloudy skies prohibited its use in European theatres. A copy of the manual is preserved in the Imperial War Museum in London. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Sellmeier equation**
Sellmeier equation:
The Sellmeier equation is an empirical relationship between refractive index and wavelength for a particular transparent medium. The equation is used to determine the dispersion of light in the medium.
It was first proposed in 1872 by Wolfgang Sellmeier and was a development of the work of Augustin Cauchy on Cauchy's equation for modelling dispersion.
The equation:
In its original and the most general form, the Sellmeier equation is given as n2(λ)=1+∑iBiλ2λ2−Ci ,where n is the refractive index, λ is the wavelength, and Bi and Ci are experimentally determined Sellmeier coefficients. These coefficients are usually quoted for λ in micrometres. Note that this λ is the vacuum wavelength, not that in the material itself, which is λ/n. A different form of the equation is sometimes used for certain types of materials, e.g. crystals.
The equation:
Each term of the sum representing an absorption resonance of strength Bi at a wavelength √Ci. For example, the coefficients for BK7 below correspond to two absorption resonances in the ultraviolet, and one in the mid-infrared region. Close to each absorption peak, the equation gives non-physical values of n2 = ±∞, and in these wavelength regions a more precise model of dispersion such as Helmholtz's must be used.
The equation:
If all terms are specified for a material, at long wavelengths far from the absorption peaks the value of n tends to n≈1+∑iBi≈εr, where εr is the relative permittivity of the medium.
The equation:
For characterization of glasses the equation consisting of three terms is commonly used: n2(λ)=1+B1λ2λ2−C1+B2λ2λ2−C2+B3λ2λ2−C3, As an example, the coefficients for a common borosilicate crown glass known as BK7 are shown below: For common optical glasses, the refractive index calculated with the three-term Sellmeier equation deviates from the actual refractive index by less than 5×10−6 over the wavelengths' range of 365 nm to 2.3 μm, which is of the order of the homogeneity of a glass sample. Additional terms are sometimes added to make the calculation even more precise.
The equation:
Sometimes the Sellmeier equation is used in two-term form: n2(λ)=A+B1λ2λ2−C1+B2λ2λ2−C2.
Here the coefficient A is an approximation of the short-wavelength (e.g., ultraviolet) absorption contributions to the refractive index at longer wavelengths. Other variants of the Sellmeier equation exist that can account for a material's refractive index change due to temperature, pressure, and other parameters. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Rule of mutual exclusion**
Rule of mutual exclusion:
The rule of mutual exclusion in molecular spectroscopy relates the observation of molecular vibrations to molecular symmetry. It states that no normal modes can be both Infrared and Raman active in a molecule that possesses a centre of symmetry. This is a powerful application of group theory to vibrational spectroscopy, and allows one to easily detect the presence of this symmetry element by comparison of the IR and Raman spectra generated by the same molecule.The rule arises because in a centrosymmetric point group, IR active modes, which must transform according to the same irreducible representation generated by one of the components of the dipole moment vector (x, y or z), must be of ungerade (u) symmetry, i.e. their character under inversion is -1, while Raman active modes, which transform according to the symmetry of the polarizability tensor (product of two coordinates), must be of gerade (g) symmetry since their character under inversion is +1. Thus, in the character table there is no irreducible representation that spans both IR and Raman active modes, and so there is no overlap between the two spectra.This does not mean that a vibrational mode which is not Raman active must be IR active: in fact, it is still possible that a mode of a particular symmetry is neither Raman nor IR active. Such spectroscopically "silent" or "inactive" modes exist in molecules such as ethylene (C2H4), benzene (C6H6) and the tetrachloroplatinate ion (PtCl42−). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Suicide door**
Suicide door:
A suicide door is an automobile door hinged at its rear rather than the front. Such doors were originally used on horse-drawn carriages, but are rarely found on modern vehicles, primarily because they are perceived as being less safe than a front-hinged door. Being rear-hinged, if the vehicle was moving and the door opened, the driver/passenger would have to lean forward and out of the vehicle to close it. As seat belts were not in common use at that time, the risk of falling out of the car and into traffic was high, hence the name "suicide door".Initially standard on many models, later they became popularized in the custom car trade. Automobile manufacturers call the doors coach doors (Rolls-Royce and Lincoln), flexdoors (Opel), freestyle doors (Mazda), rear access doors (Saturn), or simply describe them as rear-hinged doors.
History:
Rear-hinged doors were common on cars manufactured in the first half of the 20th century, including the iconic Citroën Traction Avant. In the era before seat belts, the accidental opening of such doors meant that there was a greater risk of falling out of the vehicle compared to front-hinged doors, where airflow pushed the doors closed rather than opening them further.Rear-hinged doors were especially popular with mobsters in the gangster era of the 1930s, supposedly owing to the ease of pushing passengers out of moving vehicles with the air around the moving car holding the door open, according to Dave Brownell, the former editor of Hemmings Motor News.After World War II, rear-hinged doors were mostly limited to rear doors of four-door sedans. The best-known use of rear-hinged doors on post-World War II American automobiles was the Lincoln Continental 4-door convertibles and sedans (1961–1969), Cadillac Eldorado Brougham 1956–1959 four-door sedans, and Ford Thunderbird 1967–1971 four-door sedans. The British Rover P4 used rear-hinged doors at the rear. German Goggomobil saloons and coupes had two-door bodies with rear-hinged doors until 1964. The French, hand-made Facel Vega Excellence offered a four-door hardtop with a Chrysler-sourced Hemi V8 beginning in 1954.
Modern use:
In 2003, the new Rolls-Royce Phantom car reintroduced independent rear-hinged doors in luxury vehicle applications. Other luxury models with rear-hinged doors include the Spyker D8 and the Rolls-Royce Phantom Drophead Coupe four-seat convertible. The most recent mass-produced model with such doors may be the Opel Meriva, followed by the Rolls-Royce Cullinan in 2018, and a few Chinese electric vehicles including the Singulato iS6 in 2018 and HiPhi X in 2020. Lincoln announced that 80 limited-edition 2019 Continentals would be made with "coach" doors, marking the Continental's 80th anniversary. The 2020 Citroen Ami electric vehicle is unusual in having a suicide door for the driver but a conventional door for the passenger, as the doors are identical units that are not differentiated by side.
Modern use:
In the early 2000s, rear-hinged rear doors that are held closed by the front doors, and cannot be opened until released by opening the front door on the same side (hinged at the front), have appeared on a number of vehicles. Such doors may be referred to as clamshell doors. Examples include extended-cab pickup trucks, the Saturn SC, Saturn Ion Quad Coupe, Honda Element, Toyota FJ Cruiser, BMW i3, Mini Cooper Clubman, Mazda RX-8, Mazda MX-30 and Fiat 500 3+1.Rear passenger rear-hinged doors had long been used on Austin FX4 London taxis, discontinued on their successors the TX1, TXII and TX4, but reintroduced in the 2018 LEVC TX.
Modern use:
Several concept cars have featured rear-hinged doors, such as the Lincoln C, a hatchback with no B-pillar and rear-hinged doors at the rear, or the Carbon Motors Corporation E7, a police car with rear rear-hinged doors designed to aid officers getting handcuffed passengers in and out of the back seat. The Kia Naimo, an electric concept car, also has rear suicide doors.Other car manufacturers which have produced models with suicide doors include Citroën, Lancia, Opel, Panhard, Rover, Saab, Saturn, Škoda, Studebaker, Ferrari, Mazda and Volkswagen.
Advantages:
Rear-hinged doors make entering and exiting a vehicle easier, allowing a passenger to enter by turning to sit and exit by stepping forward and out. This is important for passengers who need to make a dignified entrance; the UK State Bentley has rear-opening passenger doors that are broader than usual and open very wide, allowing the monarch to exit the car in a dignified way.In combination with traditional front doors, rear-hinged doors allow chauffeurs easier access to the rear door. In Austin FX4 taxis, drivers were able to reach the rear exterior door handle through the driver's window without getting out of the vehicle.Rear-hinged doors also allow a better position for a person installing a child seat into the back seat of a vehicle than conventional doors, while being simpler and cheaper to build than the sliding doors commonly used on minivans. The Opel Meriva B compact MPV introduced in 2010 had such doors.The combination of front-hinged front doors and rear-hinged rear doors allows for a design without the B-pillar, creating a large opening for entering and exiting the vehicle.
Disadvantages:
When front doors are directly adjacent to rear suicide doors, exiting and entering the vehicle can be awkward if people try to use the front and back doors at the same time.
There are also a number of safety hazards: Aerodynamic factors forcing rear-hinged doors open at speed in older cars. In 1969, Consumer Reports reported this problem on a Subaru 360.
If a person not wearing a seat belt falls out of a moving car with a coach door, the door can catch them and drag them along the road at speed, causing serious injuries.
If a person exits a vehicle while parallel parked and a car hits the door from the rear, the person would be crushed instead of the door being ripped off.Car manufacturers mitigate these hazards with such safety features as seat belts, and locks requiring front-hinged doors be open before permitting rear-hinged doors to open. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Stupidity**
Stupidity:
Stupidity is a lack of intelligence, understanding, reason, or wit, an inability to learn. It may be innate, assumed or reactive. The word stupid comes from the Latin word stupere. Stupid characters are often used for comedy in fictional stories. Walter B. Pitkin called stupidity "evil", but in a more Romantic spirit William Blake and Carl Jung believed stupidity can be the mother of wisdom.
Etymology:
The root word stupid, which can serve as an adjective or noun, comes from the Latin verb stupere, for being numb or astonished, and is related to stupor. In Roman culture, the stupidus was the professional fall guy in the theatrical mimes.According to the online Merriam-Webster dictionary, the words "stupid" and "stupidity" entered the English language in 1541. Since then, stupidity has taken place along with "fool," "idiot," "dumb," "moron," and related concepts as a pejorative for misdeeds, whether purposeful or accidental, due to absence of mental capacity.
Definition:
Stupidity is a quality or state of being stupid, or an act or idea that exhibits properties of being stupid. In a character study of "The Stupid Man" attributed to the Greek philosopher Theophrastus (c. 371 – c. 287 BC), stupidity was defined as "mental slowness in speech or action". The modern English word "stupid" has a broad range of application, from being slow of mind (indicating a lack of intelligence, care or reason), dullness of feeling or sensation (torpidity, senseless, insensitivity), or lacking interest or point (vexing, exasperating). It can either imply a congenital lack of capacity for reasoning, or a temporary state of daze, or slow-mindedness.
Definition:
In Understanding Stupidity, James F. Welles defines stupidity this way: "The term may be used to designate a mentality which is considered to be informed, deliberate and maladaptive." Welles distinguishes stupidity from ignorance; where stupidity means one must know they are acting in their own worst interest in that it must be a choice, not a forced act or accident. Lastly, it requires the activity to be maladaptive, in that it is in the worst interest of the actor, and specifically done to prevent adaption to new data or existing circumstances."
Measurement:
There are various tests to measure Intelligence quotient, as well tests that measure aptitude, such as the Marine Corps’ required General Classification Test (GCT), and the Army General Classification Test.
Measurement:
Researchers Michael Klein and Matthew Cancian have reported a declining aptitude among college educated applicants to the Marine Corps over the past 34 years, although this effect was not observed in the general enlisted population.Researchers Michael J. McFarland, Matt E. Hauer, and Aaron Reuben report those born between 1951 and 1980 may have lost an average of 2.6 IQ points from exposure to leaded gasoline.
Playing stupid:
Eric Berne described the game of "Stupid" as having "the thesis...'I laugh with you at my own clumsiness and stupidity.'" He points out that the player has the advantage of lowering other people's expectations, and so evading responsibility and work; but that he or she may still come through under pressure, like the proverbially stupid younger son.Wilfred Bion considered that psychological projection created a barrier against learning anything new, and thus its own form of pseudo-stupidity.
Intellectual stupidity:
Otto Fenichel maintained that "quite a percentage of so-called feeble-mindedness turns out to be pseudo-debility, conditioned by inhibition ... Every intellect begins to show weakness when affective motives are working against it". He suggests that "people become stupid ad hoc, that is, when they do not want to understand, where understanding would cause anxiety or guilt feeling, or would endanger an existing neurotic equilibrium."In rather different fashion, Doris Lessing argued that "there is no fool like an intellectual ... a kind of clever stupidity, bred out of a line of logic in the head, nothing to do with experience."
Persisting in folly:
In the Romantic reaction to Enlightenment wisdom, a valorisation of the irrational, the foolish, and the stupid emerged, as in William Blake's dictum that "if the fool would persist in his folly he would become wise"; or Jung's belief that "it requires no art to become stupid; the whole art lies in extracting wisdom from stupidity. Stupidity is the mother of the wise, but cleverness never."Similarly, Michel Foucault argued for the necessity of stupidity to re-connect with what our articulate categories exclude, to recapture the alterity of difference.
Impact:
In his book A Short Introduction to the History of Stupidity (1932), Walter B. Pitkin warns about the impact of stupid people: Stupidity can easily be proved the supreme Social Evil. Three factors combine to establish it as such. First and foremost, the number of stupid people is legion. Secondly, most of the power in business, finance, diplomacy and politics is in the hands of more or less stupid individuals. Finally, high abilities are often linked with serious stupidity.
Impact:
Dietrich Bonhoeffer indicated stupidity to be "a more dangerous enemy of the good than evil" because there is no defense: "Neither protest nor force can touch it. Reasoning is of no use. Facts that contradict personal prejudices can simply be disbelieved." The great danger of stupidity manifests itself when it affects larger groups. In a larger group, "the stupid person will also be capable of any evil and at the same time incapable of seeing that it is evil".According to Carlo Cipolla the efforts of stupid people are counterproductive to their own and other's interest. He maintains that reasonable people cannot imagine or understand unreasonable behavior making stupid people dangerous and damaging, even potentially more dangerous than a "bandit" whose action at least has a rational goal, namely his benefit.
In culture:
In comedy The fool or buffoon has been a central character in much comedy. Alford and Alford found that humor based on stupidity was prevalent in "more complex" societies as compared to some other forms of humor. Some analysis of Shakespeare's comedy has found that his characters tend to hold mutually contradictory positions; because this implies a lack of careful analysis it indicates stupidity on their part.Today there is a wide array of television shows that showcase stupidity such as The Simpsons. Goofball comedy is a class of naive, zany humour typified by actor Leslie Nielsen.
In film:
Stupidity was a 2003 movie directed by Albert Nerenberg. It depicted examples and analyses of stupidity in modern society and media, and sought "to explore the prospect that willful ignorance has increasingly become a strategy for success in the realms of politics and entertainment."Idiocracy, a Mike Judge film from 2006, explored a dystopian future America where a person of average IQ is cryogenically frozen and wakes up 500 years later to find that mankind, increasingly dependent on technology built by previous generations that it does not properly maintain or understand, has regressed in intelligence to the standards of current-era mental retardation, and that he has become the de facto smartest person on Earth. Americans have become so stupid that society faces famine and collapse, and according to Pete Vonder Haar of Film Threat, "...each laugh is tempered with the unsettling realization that [Judge's] vision of mankind's future might not be too far off the mark." | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Fresnel–Arago laws**
Fresnel–Arago laws:
The Fresnel–Arago laws are three laws which summarise some of the more important properties of interference between light of different states of polarization. Augustin-Jean Fresnel and François Arago, both discovered the laws, which bear their name.
The laws are as follows: Two orthogonal, coherent linearly polarized waves cannot interfere.
Two parallel coherent linearly polarized waves will interfere in the same way as natural light.
Fresnel–Arago laws:
The two constituent orthogonal linearly polarized states of natural light cannot interfere to form a readily observable interference pattern, even if rotated into alignment (because they are incoherent).One may understand this more clearly when considering two waves, given by the form 01 cos (k1⋅r−ωt+ϵ1) and 02 cos (k2⋅r−ωt+ϵ2) , where the boldface indicates that the relevant quantity is a vector, interfering. We know that the intensity of light goes as the electric field squared (in fact, I=ϵv⟨E2⟩T , where the angled brackets denote a time average), and so we just add the fields before squaring them. Extensive algebra yields an interference term in the intensity of the resultant wave, namely: 12 01 02 cos δ , where δ=(k1⋅r−k2⋅r+ϵ1−ϵ2) represents the phase difference arising from a combined path length and initial phase-angle difference.
Fresnel–Arago laws:
Now it can be seen that if 01 is perpendicular to 02 (as in the case of the first Fresnel–Arago law), 12 =0 and there is no interference. On the other hand, if 01 is parallel to 02 (as in the case of the second Fresnel–Arago law), the interference term produces a variation in the light intensity corresponding to cos δ . Finally, if natural light is decomposed into orthogonal linear polarizations (as in the third Fresnel–Arago law), these states are incoherent, meaning that the phase difference δ will be fluctuating so quickly and randomly that after time-averaging we have cos δ⟩T=0 , so again 12 =0 and there is no interference (even if 01 is rotated so that it is parallel to 02 ). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Stanley A. Klein**
Stanley A. Klein:
Stanley A. Klein is an American psychophysicist. He is Professor of Vision Science and Optometry at the University of California, Berkeley and a member of the Berkeley Visual Processing Laboratory. He was a consulting editor for Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, a publication of the Psychonomic Society which promotes the communication of scientific research in psychology and allied sciences. His major area of research has been neurotechnology, a field of science that studies the body and mind through the nervous system by electronics and mechanisms. He was the co-chair for the SPIE (an international society on the science and application of light) meetings on human vision. Klein has authored and co-authored numerous papers on visual perception in the human brain. He is currently interested in the intersection of religion and science.
Professional experience:
Klein's major area of research has been neurometrics and neurotechnology. Neuroscience with the development of non-invasive human brain imaging now uses human subject volunteers, The questions being researched get at some fundamental questions of what it means to be human and to have a mind. The revolution in technologies that has made this maturation possible extends from gene to hospital bed-side and is now referred to as neurotechnology. Some examples of neurotechnology include the CAT scanner, fMRI, Magnetoencephalography (MEG), Positron emission tomography, high-throughput genetic sequencing, brain proteomics and psychopharmaceuticals. These technologies also include neural modeling simulations, biological computers, and human-brain interfaces (prosthetics).
Professional experience:
1967-1981: Assistant Prof. - Full Prof., Joint Science Dept., Claremont Colleges, Claremont, CA.
1972-1973: Visiting Faculty, Psychology Dept., Stanford University, Stanford, CA.
1974-1981: Visiting Associate, Division of Biology, Caltech, Pasadena, CA.
1978-1979: Sabbatical at Harvard and Smith-Kettlewell Institute of Visual Science, San Francisco, CA.
1981-1987: Professor, College of Optometry, University of Houston, Houston, Texas.
Professional experience:
1987: Professor, University of California at Berkeley, School of OptometryHe currently (2011) is a thesis advisor for graduate students in the Berkeley Vision Processing Laboratory. He has over 190 published articles in the area of vision perception.Klein has worked to developed new methods for obtaining and analyzing evoked EEG/MEG (electro- and magneto-encephalography) and related fMRI data that will provide needed spatio-temporal resolution. In order for M/EEG to become a widely used tool for analyzing brain function it is necessary to go from the sensor information (magnetic fields for MEG and electric potentials for EEG) to the identification (locations, orientations and time functions) of the multiple brain sources. He has helped to develop a novel set of stimuli that allows the collection of a much larger set of data than ever previously collected without increasing the data collection time. New algorithms overcome the "rotation problem" and to minimize the "mis-specification" problem so that the location, orientation and time functions of multiple cortical sources are identified.
Grants and awards:
NIH/NEI, 5/1/00-4/30/03. $170,000 per year. "High Spatial Frequency Feature Acuity in Spatial Vision." CULAR, Collaborative UC-Los Alamos grant. 9/00 - 8/03. $45,000 per year. "Locating sources of brain activity in space and time" NIH/NEI, 5/1/04-4/30/09. $200,000 per year. "High Spatial Frequency Feature Acuity in Spatial Vision." NIH/NEI, 7/1/04-6/30/07. $275,000. "Where and when of cortical activity measured with EEG and fMRI." DARPA subcontract, 10/1/05-9/30/06. $155,110. "Neurotechnology for Image Analysts."
Publications:
Complete listings: Publications from 2000 to 2002, with commentaries Publications from 1996 to 1999, with commentaries Publications from 1993 to 1996, with commentaries Commentaries on Stanley Klein's Research Articles
National committees and editorships:
Optical Society of America, Vision Advisory Committee (1984–1989) Ad Hoc Study Sections for NIH (1986, 1987, 2000, 2001) Chaired meetings at annual meetings of Optical Society, ARVO, Consulting editor for Perception and Psychophysics (1991–present).
Co-chair for the SPIE meeting on Human Vision (1992–present).
Co-chair for the SID meeting on Human Factors (1992–1993).
Topical editor of Journal of Optical Society for Vision (1990, 1992–1999).
Executive committee of Association for the Scientific Study of Consciousness (1994–1997)Klein has for many years been a member of the Institute on Religion in an Age of Science (IRAS), where he has been active in the discussions on Religious Naturalism and how it relates to Reconstructionist Judaism. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**ERS 3500 and ERS 2500 series**
ERS 3500 and ERS 2500 series:
Ethernet Routing Switch 3500 series and Ethernet Routing Switch 2500 series or ERS 3500 and ERS 2500 in data computer networking terms are stackable routing switches designed and manufactured by Avaya.
ERS 3500 and ERS 2500 series:
The Switches can be stacked up to eight units high through a 'stacking' configuration; Avaya markets this capability under the term 'Avaya Virtual Enterprise Network Architecture (VENA) Stackable Chassis'. This series of Switches consists of six ERS 3500 models, the ERS 3526T, ERS 3526T-PWR+, ERS 3510GT, ERS 3510GT-PWR+, ERS3524GT, ERS3524GT-PWR+ and four different ERS 2500 models, the ERS 2526T, ERS 2526T-PWR, ERS 2550T and the ERS 2550T-PWR. The 'PWR' suffix designation identifies the Switch that can provide Power-over-Ethernet on the copper Ethernet ports, the '+' suffix designation indicates that the Switch can provide PoE plus on the copper ports. These Switches are all covered by Avaya's Lifetime warranty.
History:
ERS 3500 This series of Switches became available in April 2012 with software release 5.0 ERS 2500 This product line became available in 2007 with software release 4.0 and the device was demonstrated in March at the 'Spring VoiceCon 2007'. In March 2007 the product started to ship, and then in May 2007 a detailed evaluation between this switch and two competitor's switches identified that this switch had a better performance and better total cost of ownership. In 2008 Layer 3 routing support, secure web access with https and TACACS+ were added to the software in version 4.2. In January 2008 another detailed evaluation of this systems was performed by Tolly Enterprises, LLC. comparing the 2500 systems to Catalyst 2960-24T and HP ProCurve 2626 and 2650 systems. In May 2009 Cisco published an evaluation and comparison between this switch and its 2000 and 3000 series switches as competitor published fear, uncertainty and doubt about the product not having the ability to do routing, even after the product had released the new routing software almost a year earlier. Later in November 2010 IGMP multicast and IPv6 management was added in version 4.3. As of February 2012 the software version 4.4 is the latest software released for the product which was currently published in August 2011.
Scaling:
ERS 3500 Series The ERS 3500 Series consists or four gigabit Ethernet models the 3510GT, 3510GT-PWR+, 3524GT, and 3524GT-PWR+ along with 2 fast Ethernet models 35265T, and 3526T-PWR+. The Switch leverages 802.1AB link layer discovery protocol and LLDP media endpoint discover and auto discovery and auto configuration to allow the Switch to automatically configure or reconfigure itself for new phone installs or phone movement in 1 minute.
Scaling:
ERS 2500 Series The switch can be installed initially as standalone and then field-upgraded via a license to support resilient 'Stackable Chassis' configuration of up to eight Switches. The stack-enabled version of the ERS 2500 Switches will not require a license kit or license file.
Scaling:
ERS 2550T and 2550T-PWR Models The ERS 2550T supports 48 ports of 10/100 plus two Gigabit uplink ports that are a combo configuration of 1000BASE-T/SFP. The ERS 2550T-PWR supports PoE capabilities on half of the user ports. System scaling is accomplished by stacking eight ERS 2550T-PWR systems together to provide up to 384 ports of copper 10/100BASE-T and with the ERS 2550T-PWR models, 192 of the ports will support Power-over-Ethernet (all the ports with the red border around them will support PoE - see the adjacent picture) and up to 16 ports of 1000BASE-X Small form-factor pluggable transceivers.
Scaling:
ERS 2526T and ERS 2526T-PWR Models The ERS 2526T and ERS 2526T-PWR models offer 24 ports of 10/100 plus two Gigabit uplink ports that are a combo configuration of 1000BASE-T/SFP. The ERS 2526T-PWR model offers PoE support on half of the user ports. When staking eight ERS 2526T models it will provide 192 ports of copper 10/100BASE-T, and with the ERS 2526T-PWR models 96 of the ports will support PoE and up to 16 ports of 1000BASE-X Small form-factor pluggable transceivers. The system also has the ability to stack any combination of these Switches (up to 8 switches) in a system.
Scaling:
Stacking The ERS 2500 Series of Switches can be stacked with Flexible Advanced Stacking Technology (FAST) to allows eight switches to operate as single logical system with a 32 Gbit/s virtual backplane. The stack operates on a bi-directional and shortest path forwarding star topology that allows traffic to flow either 'upstream' or downstream' simultaneously from every switch allowing packets to take the optimal forwarding path (shortest path). The bi-directional paths allow the traffic to automatically redirect around any switch in the stack that is not operating properly. This stacking technology allows stackable switches to operate with the same performance and resiliency as chassis solution. The entire stack can be managed from the base switch by several methods: Console into the base switch and use command line or a menu; telnet/SSH into the IP address of the base switch IP address and use command line; SNMP into the IP Address of the base switch to use the GUI configuration tools to management all switches on the stack at once.
Scaling:
Link aggregation across the stack This switch allows for link aggregation from ports on different stacked switches either to other switches not in the stack (for example a core network) or to allow servers and other devices to have multiple connections to the stack for improved redundancy and throughput.
Models | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Risk factor**
Risk factor:
In epidemiology, a risk factor or determinant is a variable associated with an increased risk of disease or infection.: 38 Due to a lack of harmonization across disciplines, determinant, in its more widely accepted scientific meaning, is often used as a synonym. The main difference lies in the realm of practice: medicine (clinical practice) versus public health. As an example from clinical practice, low ingestion of dietary sources of vitamin C is a known risk factor for developing scurvy. Specific to public health policy, a determinant is a health risk that is general, abstract, related to inequalities, and difficult for an individual to control. For example, poverty is known to be a determinant of an individual's standard of health.
Correlation vs causation:
Risk factors or determinants are correlational and not necessarily causal, because correlation does not prove causation. For example, being young cannot be said to cause measles, but young people have a higher rate of measles because they are less likely to have developed immunity during a previous epidemic. Statistical methods are frequently used to assess the strength of an association and to provide causal evidence, for example in the study of the link between smoking and lung cancer. Statistical analysis along with the biological sciences can establish that risk factors are causal. Some prefer the term risk factor to mean causal determinants of increased rates of disease, and for unproven links to be called possible risks, associations, etc.When done thoughtfully and based on research, identification of risk factors can be a strategy for medical screening.
Terms of description:
Mainly taken from risk factors for breast cancer, risk factors can be described in terms of, for example: Relative risk, such as "A woman is more than 100 times more likely to develop breast cancer in her 60s than in her 20s." Fraction of incidences occurring in the group having the property of or being exposed to the risk factor, such as "99% of breast cancer cases are diagnosed in women." Increase in incidence in the exposed group, such as "each daily alcoholic beverage increases the incidence of breast cancer by 11 cases per 1000 women." Hazard ratio, such as "an increase in both total and invasive breast cancers in women randomized to receive estrogen and progestin for an average of 5 years, with a hazard ratio of 1.24 compared to controls."
Example:
At a wedding, 74 people ate the chicken and 22 of them were ill, while of the 35 people who had the fish or vegetarian meal only 2 were ill. Did the chicken make the people ill? number of persons experiencing event (food poisoning) number of persons exposed to risk factor (food) So the chicken eaters' risk = 22/74 = 0.297 And non-chicken eaters' risk = 2/35 = 0.057.
Example:
Those who ate the chicken had a risk over five times as high as those who did not, that is, a relative risk of more than five. This suggests that eating chicken was the cause of the illness, but this is not proof.
This example of a risk factor is described in terms of the relative risk it confers, which is evaluated by comparing the risk of those exposed to the potential risk factor to those not exposed.
General determinants:
The probability of an outcome usually depends on an interplay between multiple associated variables. When performing epidemiological studies to evaluate one or more determinants for a specific outcome, the other determinants may act as confounding factors, and need to be controlled for, e.g. by stratification. The potentially confounding determinants varies with what outcome is studied, but the following general confounders are common to most epidemiological associations, and are the determinants most commonly controlled for in epidemiological studies: Age (0 to 1.5 years for infants, 1.5 to 6 years for young children, etc.) Sex or gender (Male or female): 20 Ethnicity (Based on race): 21 Other less commonly adjusted for possible confounders include: Social status/income : 39 Geographic location Genetic predisposition Gender identity Occupation Overwork Sexual orientation Level of chronic stress Diet Level of physical exercise Alcohol consumption and tobacco smoking Other social determinants of health
Risk marker:
A risk marker is a variable that is quantitatively associated with a disease or other outcome, but direct alteration of the risk marker does not necessarily alter the risk of the outcome. For example, driving-while-intoxicated (DWI) history is a risk marker for pilots as epidemiologic studies indicate that pilots with a DWI history are significantly more likely than their counterparts without a DWI history to be involved in aviation crashes.
History:
The term "risk factor" was coined by former Framingham Heart Study director, William B. Kannel in a 1961 article in Annals of Internal Medicine. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Remifentanil**
Remifentanil:
Remifentanil , marketed under the brand name Ultiva is a potent, short-acting synthetic opioid analgesic drug. It is given to patients during surgery to relieve pain and as an adjunct to an anaesthetic. Remifentanil is used for sedation as well as combined with other medications for use in general anesthesia. The use of remifentanil has made possible the use of high-dose opioid and low-dose hypnotic anesthesia, due to synergism between remifentanil and various hypnotic drugs and volatile anesthetics.
Clinical use:
Remifentanil is used as an opioid analgesic that has a rapid onset and rapid recovery time. It has been used effectively during craniotomies, spinal surgery, cardiac surgery, and gastric bypass surgery. While opiates function similarly, with respect to analgesia, the pharmacokinetics of remifentanil allows for quicker post-operative recovery.
Administration:
It is administered in the form remifentanil hydrochloride and in adults is given as an intravenous infusion in doses ranging from 0.1 microgram per kilogram per minute to 0.5 (µg/kg)/min. Children may require higher infusion rates (up to 1.0 (µg/kg)/min). The clinically useful infusion rates are 0.025–0.1 (µg/kg)/min for sedation (rates adjusted to age of patient, severity of their illness and invasiveness of surgical procedure). Small amounts of other sedative medications are usually co-administered with remifentanil to produce sedation. Clinically useful infusion rates in general anesthesia vary but are usually 0.1–1 (µg/kg)/min.Remifentanil can be administered as part of an anesthesia technique called TIVA (total intravenous anesthesia) using computer controlled infusion pumps in a process called target controlled infusion (TCI). A target plasma concentration is entered as ng/ml into the pump, which calculates its infusion rate according to patient factors like age and weight. Induction levels of 40 ng/ml are commonly used, but it generally varies between 3–8 ng/ml. For certain surgical procedures that produce particularly strong stimuli a level of up to 15 ng/ml might be needed. The relatively short context-sensitive half-life of remifentanil allows the desired blood plasma level to be achieved quickly, and also for the same reason, recovery occurs quickly. This allows remifentanil to be used in unique circumstances such as cesarean section.Remifentanil's short context-sensitive half-life makes it ideal for intense pain of short duration. As such, it has been used for analgesia in labor successfully; however, it is not as effective as epidural analgesia.In combination with propofol, remifentanil is used for anesthesia of patients undergoing electroconvulsive therapy.
Metabolism:
Remifentanil is considered a metabolic soft drug, one that is rapidly metabolized to an inactive form. Unlike other synthetic opioids which are hepatically metabolized, remifentanil has an ester linkage which undergoes rapid hydrolysis by non-specific tissue and plasma esterases. This means that accumulation does not occur with remifentanil and its context-sensitive half-life remains at 4 minutes after a 4-hour infusion.
Metabolism:
Remifentanil is metabolized to a compound (remifentanil acid) which has 1/4600th the potency of the parent compound.Due to its quick metabolism and short effects, remifentanil has opened up new possibilities in anesthesia. When remifentanil is used together with a hypnotic (i.e. one that produces sleep) it can be used in relative high doses. This is because remifentanil will be rapidly eliminated from the blood plasma on termination of the remifentanil infusion, hence the effects of the drug will quickly dissipate even after very long infusions. Owing to synergism between remifentanil and hypnotic drugs (such as propofol) the dose of the hypnotic can be substantially reduced. This leads often to more hemodynamic stability during surgery and a quicker post-operative recovery time.
Side-effects:
Remifentanil is a specific μ-receptor agonist. Hence, it causes a reduction in sympathetic nervous system tone, respiratory depression and analgesia. The drug's effects include a dose-dependent decrease in heart rate and arterial pressure and respiratory rate and tidal volume. Muscle rigidity is sometimes noted.
Side-effects:
The most common side effects reported by patients receiving this medication are a sense of extreme "dizziness" (often short lived, a common side effect of other fast-acting synthetic phenylpiperidine narcotics such as fentanyl and alfentanil) and intense itching (pruritus), often around the face. These side effects are often controlled by either altering the administered dose (decreasing or in some cases, increasing the dose) or by administering other sedatives that allow the patient to tolerate or lose awareness of the side effect.
Side-effects:
Because pruritus is partially due to excessive serum histamine levels, antihistamines such as diphenhydramine (Benadryl) are often co-administered. This is done with care, however, as excessive sedation may occur.
Nausea can occur as a side effect of remifentanil, however, it is usually transient in nature due to the drug's short half-life which rapidly removes it from the patient's circulation once the infusion is terminated.
Potency:
Comparing its analgesia-sedation effect in ventilated patients, remifentanil may be superior to morphine but not to fentanyl.
Circumventing naltrexone:
Remifentanil has been used with some success to circumvent naltrexone in patients who are in need of pain management.
Abuse potential:
Remifentanil, being a μ-receptor agonist, functions like other μ-receptor agonists, such as morphine and codeine; it can cause euphoria and has the potential for abuse. However, due to its rapid metabolism and short-acting half-life the likelihood of abuse is quite low. Nevertheless, there have been some documentations of remifentanil abuse.
Development and marketing:
Prior to the development of remifentanil, most short-acting hypnotics and amnestics faced issues with prolonged use, where accumulation would result in unfavorable lingering effects during post-operative recovery. Remifentanil was designed to serve as a strong anesthetic with an ultra-short and predictable duration that would not have accumulation issues.Remifentanil was patented by Glaxo Wellcome Inc. and was FDA approved on July 12, 1996. Its patent ended on the 10th of September 2017.
Regulation:
In Hong Kong, remifentanil is regulated under Schedule 1 of Hong Kong's Chapter 134 Dangerous Drugs Ordinance. It can only be used legally by health professionals and for university research purposes. The substance can be given by pharmacists under a prescription. Anyone who supplies the substance without prescription can be fined HK$10,000 (US$1,550). The penalty for trafficking or manufacturing the substance is a HK$5,000,000 (US$775,000) fine and life imprisonment. Possession of the substance for consumption without license from the Department of Health is illegal with a HK$1,000,000 (US$155,000) fine and/or 7 years of jail time.
Regulation:
Remifentanil is a Schedule II narcotic controlled substance in the United States with a DEA ACSCN of 9739 and a 2013 annual aggregate manufacturing quota of 3,750 grams, unchanged from the prior year. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Superadditive set function**
Superadditive set function:
In mathematics, a superadditive set function is a set function whose value when applied to the union of two disjoint sets is greater than or equal to the sum of values of the function applied to each of the sets separately. This definition is analogous to the notion of superadditivity for real-valued functions. It is contrasted to subadditive set function.
Definition:
Let Ω be a set and f:2Ω→R be a set function, where 2Ω denotes the power set of Ω . The function f is superadditive if for any pair of disjoint subsets S,T of Ω , we have f(S)+f(T)≤f(S∪T) | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Bioinformatic Harvester**
Bioinformatic Harvester:
The Bioinformatic Harvester was a bioinformatic meta search engine created by the European Molecular Biology Laboratory and subsequently hosted and further developed by KIT Karlsruhe Institute of Technology for genes and protein-associated information. Harvester currently works for human, mouse, rat, zebrafish, drosophila and arabidopsis thaliana based information. Harvester cross-links >50 popular bioinformatic resources and allows cross searches. Harvester serves tens of thousands of pages every day to scientists and physicians. Since 2014 the service is down.
How Harvester works:
Harvester collects information from protein and gene databases along with information from so called "prediction servers." Prediction server e.g. provide online sequence analysis for a single protein. Harvesters search index is based on the IPI and UniProt protein information collection. The collections consists of: ~72.000 human, ~57.000 mouse, ~41.000 rat, ~51.000 zebrafish, ~35.000 arabidopsis protein pages, which cross-link ~50 major bioinformatic resources.
Harvester crosslinks several types of information:
Text based information From the following databases: UniProt, one of the largest protein databases SOURCE, convenient gene information overview Simple Modular Architecture Research Tool (SMART) SOSUI, predicts transmembrane domains PSORT, predicts protein localisation HomoloGene, compares proteins from different species gfp-cdna, protein localisation with fluorescence microscopy International Protein Index (IPI) Databases rich in graphical elements These databases are not collected, but are crosslinked, being displayed via iframes. An iframe is a window within an HTML page for an embedded view of and interactive access to the linked database. Several such iframes are combined on a single Harvester protein page. This allows simultaneous convenient comparison of information from several databases.
Harvester crosslinks several types of information:
NCBI-BLAST, an algorithm for comparing biological sequences from the NCBI Ensembl, automatic gene annotation by the EMBL-EBI and Sanger Institute FlyBase is a database of model organism Drosophila melanogaster GoPubMed is a knowledge-based search engine for biomedical texts iHOP, information hyperlinked over proteins via gene/protein synonyms Mendelian Inheritance in Man project catalogues all the known diseases RZPD, German resources Center for genome research in Berlin/Heidelberg STRING, Search Tool for the Retrieval of Interacting Genes/Proteins, developed by EMBL, SIB and UZH Zebrafish Information Network LOCATE subcellular localization database (mouse) Access from external application Genome browser, working draft assemblies for genomes UCSC Google Scholar Mitocheck PolyMeta, meta search engine for Google, Yahoo, MSN, Ask, Exalead, AllTheWeb, GigaBlast
What one can find:
Harvester allows a combination of different search terms and single words.
What one can find:
Search Examples: Gene-name: "golga3" Gene-alias: "ADAP-S ADAS ADHAPS ADPS" (one gene name is sufficient) Gene-Ontologies: "Enzyme linked receptor protein signaling pathway" Unigene-Cluster: "Hs.449360" Go-annotation: "intra-Golgi transport" Molecular function: "protein kinase binding" Protein: "Q9NPD3" Protein domain: "SH2 sar" Protein Localisation: "endoplasmic reticulum" Chromosome: "2q31" Disease relevant: use the word "diseaselink" Combinations: "golgi diseaselink" (finds all golgi proteins associated with a disease) mRNA: "AL136897" Word: "Cancer" Comment: "highly expressed in heart" Author: "Merkel, Schmidt" Publication or project: "cDNA sequencing project"
Literature:
Liebel U, Kindler B, Pepperkok R (August 2004). "'Harvester': a fast meta search engine of human protein resources". Bioinformatics. 20 (12): 1962–3. doi:10.1093/bioinformatics/bth146. PMID 14988114.
Liebel U, Kindler B, Pepperkok R (2005). "Bioinformatic "Harvester": a search engine for genome-wide human, mouse, and rat protein resources". Meth. Enzymol. Methods in Enzymology. 404: 19–26. doi:10.1016/S0076-6879(05)04003-6. ISBN 9780121828097. PMID 16413254. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Ed Greenwood Presents Elminster's Forgotten Realms**
Ed Greenwood Presents Elminster's Forgotten Realms:
Ed Greenwood Presents Elminster's Forgotten Realms is an edition-neutral sourcebook for the Forgotten Realms published during the 4th edition of the Dungeons & Dragons role-playing game.
Contents:
Ed Greenwood Presents Elminster's Forgotten Realms details the Forgotten Realms from the point of view of both Ed Greenwood and his creation, Elminster the Sage of Shadowdale. In the foreword, Elminster writes: To all who peruse this volume, these: Well met, as always, and welcome to the latest tome from the pen of Ed of the Greenwood that purports to lay bare secrets of the world I dwell in, the place best known to ye as “the Forgotten Realms.” A world so vast and rich that its secrets could fill libraries—to say nothing of the myriad passing details of everyday life, the strivings of folk mighty and simple. Beggars and humble crofters can change the Realms as much as kings do, and its heroes are not always those lauded. Like thy world, the Realms needs splendid deeds from us all for life to hold a goodly measure of pleasures and rewards. In short, it needs thee to make a difference.There are six chapters in this book:Life in the Realms Laws and Orders Hearth and Home Money Matters Gods and Followers The ArtShannon Appelcline commented that "even sections that seem like typical gaming fare aren't. Thus, the section on gods doesn't just talk about the deities that people worship, but also why the people of the Realms tolerate evil churches and how temples raise funds. The setting of Elminster's Forgotten Realms was somewhat surprising for fans. It's largely focused on life in the 1350s, before any of the changes brought on by the D&D game. Sentences here and there touch upon events as late as the 1400s, but they're mostly asides and additions, not the core of the content".
Publication history:
Ed Greenwood Presents Elminster's Forgotten Realms was written by Ed Greenwood and published as a hardcover book on October 16, 2012. The book was made available as a PDF or softcover book through online sources such as DriveThruRPG and DMs Guild.Matt Morgan, for MTV News, reported that "back in January [2012] at the Dungeons & Dragons new products seminar, lead developer Mike Mearls gave fans of a preview of the D&D supplement 'Elminster's Forgotten Realms.' Mearls told the crowd that Wizards of the Coast staff approached Greenwood to ask 'why don't you take all your campaign notes, all the information you've been putting together for your campaign and lets compile it into a book? Show us the realms as you've developed it in your campaign setting and lets get that to everybody.' It's not often that fans get such an inside look at the creation of one of their favorite settings, but 'Elminster's Forgotten Realms' completely pulls back the curtain on Greenwood's design. Hitting store shelves today at 192 pages, the hardcover 'Elminster's Forgotten Realms' will retail for $39.95, and manages to cram in an impressive amount of information".Appelcline wrote that "two months before the release of Elminster's Forgotten Realms, Menzoberranzan: City of Intrigue (2012), appeared as an edition-neutral sourcebook, marking the end of the D&D 4e era (2008-2012). This was a trend that Wizards had also following during the transition between D&D 3e and 4e (2007-2008); it was intended to keep supplements relevant even past the lifespan of a game edition. Now, Elminster's Forgotten Realms put the final nail in 4e's coffin: not only was it another edition-neutral book, but it was also the first book to do away with the D&D 4e trade dress. Its cover and interior instead mixed elegant blacks with constrained parchments — a big change from the brighter colors and plainer whites used during the D&D 4e era. [...] Elminster's Forgotten Realms was also the harbinger of another major change: a return to the Forgotten Realms".
Reception:
Ed Greenwood Presents Elminster's Forgotten Realms won the 2013 Silver ENnie Award for "Best Art, Interior".Matt Morgan, for MTV News, wrote "the gritty details begin with a look at everyday life in the Realms, covering everything from the local lingo and racial viewpoints to arts and medicine. Being able to talk the talk and adopt the local customs is important for a setting populated with so many races. [...] As the book progresses, Greenwood takes many detours to expound on topics when information pertinent to a specific section of the Realms presents itself. Readers will be treated to many a sidebar that explains how life, government, families, money, religion, and magic all differ from Waterdeep to Cormyr and beyond. A common criticism of Dungeons & Dragons is that it's built for hack and slash fighting, but when a quality DM is armed with such detail as 15 pages on what a setting's denizens eat, you're going to get a true story that tells more than just combat tales. 'Elminter's Forgotten Realms' is one of the best Dungeons & Dragons books released in recent memory. This transcends the traditional splatbook, and is useful book for players in the Forgotten Realms setting and also a good read for anyone with an appreciation for fantasy world-building. [...] I can't say for certain how much of the information I learned about the Realms is brand new. [...] What I do know, though, is that "Elminster's Forgotten Realms" did a fantastic job of compiling encyclopedic information into a compelling package".The Geeks of Doom review highlighted that "never in a hundred years did I think I would ever see such an in depth look as Ed Greenwood Presents Elminster’s Forgotten Realms. It really is a masterpiece of Ed Greenwood‘s imagination. Taken from Greenwood’s original notes from the late sixties, the Forgotten Realms were adapted in the seventies for game play with the original Dungeons & Dragons and finalized in the eighties for release with the Advanced Dungeons & Dragons game books. [...] And when I say it is full of information, I’m not kidding. This book includes everything from typical foods to economics to everyday entertainments. Covering specifics such as how to become a noble at court and individual alliances between kingdoms, it also speaks to the more mundane things like education, local judiciary systems, and clothing differences by area. There really is something here for everybody. Whether you are running a campaign in this setting or just want more reference material while reading the scores of novels set there, this is the most comprehensive compendium I have seen on the subject. [...] My favorite parts are the scribblings of Greenwood from his original notes, it’s amazing to see how far this world has come in the past four decades since he first imagined it."Appelcline commented that "prior to the publication of Elminster's Forgotten Realms, TSR and Wizards had published four major Forgotten Realms references: the 1e Forgotten Realms Campaign Set (1987), the 2e Forgotten Realms Campaign Setting (1993), the 3e Forgotten Realms Campaign Setting (2001), and the 4e Forgotten Realms Campaign Guide (2008). They were each major overviews of the Realms … and totally unlike this new reference. If Elminster's Forgotten Realms has any predecessor, it's Ed Greenwood's own series of Volo Guides (1992-1996, 2000). Like those books, this one is all about the details of the Forgotten Realms: the small-picture Realmslore rather than the big descriptions. It's about how people live their lives, not where political boundaries are drawn. It's entirely fluff, but richly detailed fluff". | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Coke bottle styling**
Coke bottle styling:
Coke bottle styling is an automotive body design with a narrow center surrounded by flaring fenders which bears a general resemblance to a Coca-Cola classic glass contour bottle design. It was introduced by industrial designer Raymond Loewy on the radical 1962 Studebaker Avanti gran turismo.
Coke bottle styling:
The design was pioneered in fighter jets as a way of greatly reducing the sharp drag rise that occurs at transonic speed and supersonic speeds. Using this design often results in a pinch-waisted fuselage shape that National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) labeled the design principle 'area rule,' and variously identified as coke bottle, wasp waist, or Marilyn Monroe shape. The area rule design technique is most effective between Mach 0.75 and 1.2, or at speeds in excess of 575 mph (925 km/h). The design technique on automobiles provides a visual attraction but negligible performance improvement.
Development:
The exotic shapes of early supersonic fighter jets had a dramatic influence on automobile stylists. First the tailfin fad, which appeared in the mid-1950s and was on the decline by the early 1960s, then the "Coke bottle" look of severely wasp-waisted high-performance jet fighters such as the Northrop F5. The initial result was luxury performance automobiles, such as the 1962 Studebaker Avanti and 1963 Buick Riviera, which vaguely resembled bottles of Coca-Cola laid on their sides.
Development:
United States Studebaker introduced the Raymond Loewy-designed Avanti gran turismo with pronounced Coke bottle look in 1962. The 1962 Pontiac full-size models also "had a subtle horizontal crease about halfway down [the bodyside] and a slight wasp-waist constriction at the doors which swelled out again in the rear quarters" One of the cleanest examples of the "Coke bottle" styling was the 1963 Buick Riviera, a pioneering personal luxury car. Chevrolet first applied the Coke bottle look on Bill Mitchell's 1963 Corvette Sting Ray.
Development:
By 1966, the General Motors A-body sedans received a mid-riff pinch and "hop up" fenders. Intermediates such as the Pontiac Tempest, Dodge Charger, and Ford Torino soon followed suit, as well as compacts such as the Ford Maverick and Plymouth Duster. General Motors also styled their "B" body full-size cars from 1965-68 with this style, which is most prominent on the "fastback" 2-door hardtop models. Chrysler's "interpretation of the Coke-bottle styling treatment to its struggling B-body cars ... [resulted in] ... smooth lines, subtly rounded curves, and near perfect proportions." Notable automobiles with this style include many of the muscle cars during this era, such as the Pontiac GTO, Chevrolet Camaro, and Dodge Charger.Design "themes" such the "hop up" fenders became so pervasive across the industry that American Motors' all-new 1967 Rebel was criticized because "viewed from any angle, anyone other than an out-and-out car buff would have trouble distinguishing the Rebel from its GM, Ford, and Chrysler Corp. competition." Moreover, AMC discovered that compared to slab styling with deeply sculpted ridges, "the rounded "Coke-bottle" panels would be easier to make and the dies would last longer — an important cost consideration."Author Clinton Walker described the archetypal product of Australian suburbia, the muscle car, with its "Coke bottle hip bump but the bare midriff of a go-go dancer?" According to automotive historian Darwin Holmstrom, Chevrolet "took it to its illogical extreme with the 1968 Corvette, though that car more closely resembled a prosthetic phallus than a Coke bottle".By the late-1970s and early-1980s, cars like the Ford Fairmont and Chrysler K-cars moved towards straight lines. The Audi 5000 and Ford Taurus led towards functional aerodynamic styling.
Development:
International markets This styling "was to be seen right across the marketplace and, before long, around the world". Japanese, European, and Australian automobiles also adopted this style during the 1970s. Japanese automaker Nissan offered this appearance on 1970s era Nissan Cedrics, Nissan Glorias, Nissan Laurels, Nissan Bluebirds, and Nissan Violets. Toyota also offered this appearance on the 1972-1976 Toyota Corona Mark II, the limited production sportscar called the Toyota 2000GT, and the Toyota Celica. Mitsubishi also adopted this appearance on the 1973-1980 Galant, and the 1973-1979 Lancer. The smallest car with this style is usually considered to be the 1967 Suzuki Fronte 360, which was less than 3 m (10 ft) long, while the Subaru 360 also used similar styling elements, notably the curvaceous "belt line". The appearance was even used in popular culture in the Japanese anime Speed Racer's Mach 5.
Development:
Not all cars displayed the full "plan-view" Coke bottle styling, with the waist narrowing. Some of them, like the British Ford Cortina Mark III achieved a similar look in their profile with the front wing curving up over the front wheel area and a much more pronounced curve over the rear wheel arch.
Automotive examples:
AMC Ambassador (1967-1969) AMC Javelin (1968-1974) AMC Marlin (1967) AMC Rebel (1967-1969) Chevrolet Corvair (1965–1969) Chevrolet Impala (fourth generation) (1965–1970) Studebaker Avanti (1963-1964) Hyundai Elantra (2007-2010) Gallery | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Microsoft account**
Microsoft account:
A Microsoft account or MSA (previously known as Microsoft Passport, .NET Passport, and Windows Live ID) is a single sign-on Microsoft user account for Microsoft customers to log in to Microsoft services (like Outlook.com), devices running on one of Microsoft's current operating systems (e.g. Microsoft Windows computers and tablets, Xbox consoles), and Microsoft application software (including Visual Studio).
History:
Microsoft Passport, the predecessor to Windows Live ID, was originally positioned as a single sign-on service for all web commerce. Microsoft Passport received much criticism. A prominent critic was Kim Cameron, the author of The Laws of Identity, who questioned Microsoft Passport in its violations of those laws. He then joined Microsoft in 1999 after his company was acquired and was its Chief Architect of Access and Identity until his 2019 retirement, helping to address those violations in the design of the Microsoft Account identity meta-system. As a consequence, Microsoft Accounts are not positioned as the single sign-on service for all web commerce, but as one choice of many among identity systems.
History:
In December 1999, Microsoft neglected to pay their annual $35 "passport.com" domain registration fee to Network Solutions. The oversight made Hotmail, which used the site for authentication, unavailable on December 24. A Linux consultant, Michael Chaney, paid it the next day (Christmas), hoping it would solve this issue with the downed site. The payment resulted in the site being available the next morning. In Autumn 2003, a similar good Samaritan helped Microsoft when they missed payment on the "hotmail.co.uk" address, although no downtime resulted.In 2001, the Electronic Frontier Foundation's staff attorney Deborah Pierce criticized Microsoft Passport as a potential threat to privacy after it was revealed that Microsoft would have full access to and usage of customer information. The privacy terms were quickly updated by Microsoft to allay customers' fears.
History:
In July and August 2001, the Electronic Privacy Information Center and a coalition of fourteen leading consumer groups filed complaints with the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) alleging that the Microsoft Passport system violated Section 5 of the Federal Trade Commission Act (FTCA), which prohibits unfair or deceptive practices in trade.Microsoft had pushed for non-Microsoft entities to create an Internet-wide unified-login system. Examples of sites that used Microsoft Passport were eBay and Monster.com, but in 2004 those agreements were canceled. In August 2009, Expedia sent notice out stating they no longer support Microsoft Passport / Windows Live ID.
History:
In 2012, Windows Live ID was renamed Microsoft account.
Overview:
Microsoft account allows users to sign into websites that support this service using a single set of credentials. Users' credentials are not checked by Microsoft account-enabled websites, but by a Microsoft account authentication server. A new user signing into a Microsoft account-enabled website is first redirected to the nearest authentication server, which asks for username and password over an SSL connection. The user may select to have their computer remember their login: a newly signed-in user has an encrypted time-limited cookie stored on their computer and receives a triple DES encrypted ID-tag that previously has been agreed upon between the authentication server and the Microsoft account-enabled website. This ID-tag is then sent to the website, upon which the website plants another encrypted HTTP cookie in the user's computer, also time-limited. As long as these cookies are valid, the user is not required to supply a username and password. If the user actively logs out of their Microsoft account, these cookies will be removed.
Overview:
Microsoft account offers a user two different methods for creating an account: Use an existing e-mail address: Users are able to use their own valid e-mail address to sign up for a Microsoft account. The service turns the requesting user's e-mail address into a Microsoft account. Users may also choose a password of their own choice.
Sign up for a Microsoft e-mail address: Users can also sign up for an e-mail account with Microsoft's webmail services designated domains (i.e. @hotmail.com or @outlook.com that can be used as a Microsoft account to sign into other Microsoft account-enabled websites.The e-mail domains @live.com, @msn.com and @passport.com are discontinued.
Microsoft websites, services, and apps such as Bing, MSN and Xbox Live use Microsoft account as a means of identifying users. There are also several other companies that use it, such as the Hoyts website which is hosted by NineMSN.
Windows XP and later has an option to link a Windows user account with a Microsoft account, thus automatically logging users in to their Microsoft account whenever a service is accessed. Starting with Windows Server 2012, Windows allows users to directly authenticate into their PCs using their Microsoft account rather than a local or domain user.
Overview:
Profile A feature of the Microsoft account service is the profile manager, named Profile, which was formerly part of Windows Live. It displays information about the particular user, their recent activities, and their relationship with other Windows Live users. It also provides the ability to connect with others through Skype, and via social networks such as Facebook, MySpace and LinkedIn.
Overview:
Users can share some of their personal information such as interests and hobbies, and social information such as their favorites quote, hometown, or places lived previously. Profile also allows users to modify their privacy settings to decide what is shared.
Web authentication On August 15, 2007, Microsoft released the Windows Live ID Web Authentication SDK, enabling web developers to integrate Windows Live ID into their websites running on a broad range of web server platforms - including ASP.NET (C#), Java, Perl, PHP, Python and Ruby.
Overview:
Support for OpenID On October 27, 2008, Microsoft announced that it was publicly committed to supporting the OpenID framework, with Windows Live ID becoming an OpenID provider. This would allow users to use their Windows Live ID to sign into any website that supports OpenID authentication. There had been no update on Microsoft's planned implementation of OpenID since August 2009, however since November 2013 Microsoft have publicly participated in OpenID Connect interoperability testing.
Overview:
Login methods In addition to using an account password, users can login to their Microsoft account by accepting a mobile notification sent to a mobile device with Microsoft Authenticator, a FIDO2 security token or by using Windows Hello. Users can also set up two-factor authentication by getting a time-based, single-use code by text, phone call or using an authenticator app.
Features:
Microsoft account is the website for users to manage their identity. Features of a Microsoft account include: updating user's information such as first and last names, address, etc. associated with the account; updating user settings, such as preferred language or preferences for email communications; changing or resetting user passwords; close the account; view billing details associated with the accounts.
Integrated with The following is a list of computer programs and web services that support using Microsoft Account as the credentials required for the authentication process.
Features:
Windows 8 and later Windows Server 2012 and later Windows components Calendar Cortana Groove Music Feedback Hub Mail Movies & TV Microsoft Store Outlook Express People Windows Messenger Windows Phone 7 and later Windows Phone Store Bing Exchange Online Exchange Online Protection Microsoft Office Microsoft 365 (formerly Office 365) Office Online OneDrive (formerly SkyDrive) Outlook.com (formerly Hotmail) Skype System Center Advisor Visual Studio Microsoft Azure (formerly Windows Azure) Windows Insider Program Windows Live Messenger Windows Movie Maker Windows Photo Gallery Xbox Network
Security vulnerabilities:
On June 17, 2007, Erik Duindam, a web developer in the Netherlands, reported a privacy and identity risk, saying a "critical error was made by Microsoft programmers that allows everyone to create an ID for virtually any e-mail address." A procedure was found to allow users to register invalid or currently used e-mail addresses. Upon registration with a valid e-mail address, an e-mail verification link was sent to the user. Before using it however, the user was allowed to change the e-mail address to one that did not exist, or to an e-mail address currently used by someone else. The verification link then caused the Windows Live ID system to confirm the account as having a verified email address. That flaw was fixed two days later, on June 19, 2007.On April 20, 2012, Microsoft fixed a flaw in Hotmail's password reset system that allowed anyone to reset the password of any Hotmail account. The company was notified of the flaw by researchers at Vulnerability Lab on the same day and responded with a fix within hours — but not before widespread attacks as the exploitation technique spread quickly across the Internet.On December 3, 2015, a security researcher discovered a vulnerability in the Adobe Experience Manager (AEM) software used on signout.live.com and reported it to the Microsoft Security Response Center (MSRC). This vulnerability enabled full-administrative access to the AEM Publish nodes' OSGi console and made it possible to execute code inside of the JVM through the upload of a custom OSGi bundle. The vulnerability was confirmed to have been resolved on May 3, 2016. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Methoxide**
Methoxide:
In chemistry, an alkoxide is the conjugate base of an alcohol and therefore consists of an organic group bonded to a negatively charged oxygen atom. They are written as RO−, where R is the organyl substituent. They include methoxides and ethoxides. Alkoxides are strong bases and, when R is not bulky, good nucleophiles and good ligands. Alkoxides, although generally not stable in protic solvents such as water, occur widely as intermediates in various reactions, including the Williamson ether synthesis. Transition metal alkoxides are widely used for coatings and as catalysts.Enolates are unsaturated alkoxides derived by deprotonation of a C−H bond adjacent to a ketone or aldehyde. The nucleophilic center for simple alkoxides is located on the oxygen, whereas the nucleophilic site on enolates is delocalized onto both carbon and oxygen sites. Ynolates are also unsaturated alkoxides derived from acetylenic alcohols.
Methoxide:
Phenoxides are close relatives of the alkoxides, in which the alkyl group is replaced by a derivative of benzene. Phenol is more acidic than a typical alcohol; thus, phenoxides are correspondingly less basic and less nucleophilic than alkoxides. They are, however, often easier to handle, and yield derivatives that are more crystalline than those of the alkoxides.
Structure:
Alkali metal alkoxides are often oligomeric or polymeric compounds, especially when the R group is small (Me, Et). The alkoxide anion is a good bridging ligand, thus many alkoxides feature M2O or M3O linkages. In solution, the alkali metal derivatives exhibit strong ion-pairing, as expected for the alkali metal derivative of a strongly basic anion.
Preparation:
From reducing metals Alkoxides can be produced by several routes starting from an alcohol. Highly reducing metals react directly with alcohols to give the corresponding metal alkoxide. The alcohol serves as an acid, and hydrogen is produced as a by-product. A classic case is sodium methoxide produced by the addition of sodium metal to methanol: CH OH Na CH ONa +H2 Other alkali metals can be used in place of sodium, and most alcohols can be used in place of methanol. Another similar reaction occurs when an alcohol is reacted with a metal hydride such as NaH. The metal hydride removes the hydrogen atom from the hydroxyl group and forms a negatively charged alkoxide ion.
Properties:
Reactions with alkyl halides The alkoxide ion and its salts react with primary alkyl halides in an SN2 reaction to form an ether via the Williamson Ether Synthesis.
Properties:
Hydrolysis and transesterification Aliphatic metal alkoxides decompose in water as summarized in this idealized equation: Al(OR)3 + 3 H2O → Al(OH)3 + 3 ROHIn the transesterification process, metal alkoxides react with esters to bring about an exchange of alkyl groups between metal alkoxide and ester. With the metal alkoxide complex in focus, the result is the same as for alcoholysis, namely the replacement of alkoxide ligands, but at the same time the alkyl groups of the ester are changed, which can also be the primary goal of the reaction. Sodium methoxide, for example, is commonly used for this purpose, a reaction that is used in the production of biodiesel.
Properties:
Formation of oxo-alkoxides Many metal alkoxide compounds also feature oxo-ligands. Oxo-ligands typically arise via the hydrolysis, often accidentally, and via ether elimination: RCO2R' + CH3O− → RCO2CH3 + R'OH Thermal stability Many metal alkoxides thermally decompose in the range ≈100–300 °C. Depending on process conditions, this thermolysis can afford nanosized powders of oxide or metallic phases. This approach is a basis of processes of fabrication of functional materials intended for aircraft, space, electronic fields, and chemical industry: individual oxides, their solid solutions, complex oxides, powders of metals and alloys active towards sintering. Decomposition of mixtures of mono- and heterometallic alkoxide derivatives has also been examined. This method represents a prospective approach possessing an advantage of capability of obtaining functional materials with increased phase and chemical homogeneity and controllable grain size (including the preparation of nanosized materials) at relatively low temperature (less than 500−900 °C) as compared with the conventional techniques.
Illustrative alkoxides:
Sodium methoxide Sodium methoxide, also called sodium methylate and sodium methanolate, is a white powder when pure. It is used as an initiator of an anionic addition polymerization with ethylene oxide, forming a polyether with high molecular weight. Both sodium methoxide and its counterpart prepared with potassium are frequently used as catalysts for commercial-scale production of biodiesel. In this process, vegetable oils or animal fats, which chemically are fatty acid triglycerides, are transesterified with methanol to give fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs).
Illustrative alkoxides:
Sodium methoxide is produced on an industrial scale and available from a number of chemical companies.
Potassium methoxide Potassium methoxide is commonly used as a catalyst for transesterification in the production of biodiesel. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
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