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**Bird nest**
Bird nest:
A bird nest is the spot in which a bird lays and incubates its eggs and raises its young. Although the term popularly refers to a specific structure made by the bird itself—such as the grassy cup nest of the American robin or Eurasian blackbird, or the elaborately woven hanging nest of the Montezuma oropendola or the village weaver—that is too restrictive a definition. For some species, a nest is simply a shallow depression made in sand; for others, it is the knot-hole left by a broken branch, a burrow dug into the ground, a chamber drilled into a tree, an enormous rotting pile of vegetation and earth, a shelf made of dried saliva or a mud dome with an entrance tunnel. The smallest bird nests are those of some hummingbirds, tiny cups which can be a mere 2 cm (0.8 in) across and 2–3 cm (0.8–1.2 in) high. At the other extreme, some nest mounds built by the dusky scrubfowl measure more than 11 m (36 ft) in diameter and stand nearly 5 m (16 ft) tall. The study of birds' nests is known as caliology.
Bird nest:
Not all bird species build nests. Some species lay their eggs directly on the ground or rocky ledges, while brood parasites lay theirs in the nests of other birds, letting unwitting "foster parents" do the work of rearing the young. Although nests are primarily used for breeding, they may also be reused in the non-breeding season for roosting and some species build special dormitory nests or roost nests (or winter-nest) that are used only for roosting. Most birds build a new nest each year, though some refurbish their old nests. The large eyries (or aeries) of some eagles are platform nests that have been used and refurbished for several years.
Bird nest:
In the majority of nest-building species the female does most or all of the nest construction, in others both partners contribute; sometimes the male builds the nest and the hen lines it. In some polygynous species, however, the male does most or all of the nest building. The nest may also form a part of the courtship display such as in weaver birds. The ability to choose and maintain good nest sites and build high quality nests may be selected for by females in these species. In some species the young from previous broods may also act as helpers for the adults.
Types:
Not every bird species builds or uses a nest. Some auks, for instance—including common murre, thick-billed murre and razorbill—lay their eggs directly onto the narrow rocky ledges they use as breeding sites. The eggs of these species are dramatically pointed at one end, so that they roll in a circle when disturbed. This is critical for the survival of the developing eggs, as there are no nests to keep them from rolling off the side of the cliff. Presumably because of the vulnerability of their unprotected eggs, parent birds of these auk species rarely leave them unattended. Nest location and architecture is strongly influenced by local topography and other abiotic factors.King penguins and emperor penguins also do not build nests; instead, they tuck their eggs and chicks between their feet and folds of skin on their lower bellies. They are thus able to move about while incubating, though in practice only the emperor penguin regularly does so. Emperor penguins breed during the harshest months of the Antarctic winter, and their mobility allows them to form huge huddled masses which help them to withstand the extremely high winds and low temperatures of the season. Without the ability to share body heat (temperatures in the centre of tight groups can be as much as 10C above the ambient air temperature), the penguins would expend far more energy trying to stay warm, and breeding attempts would probably fail.Some crevice-nesting species, including ashy storm-petrel, pigeon guillemot, Eurasian eagle-owl and Hume's tawny owl, lay their eggs in the relative shelter of a crevice in the rocks or a gap between boulders, but provide no additional nest material. Potoos lay their single egg directly atop a broken stump, or into a shallow depression on a branch—typically where an upward-pointing branch died and fell off, leaving a small scar or knot-hole. Brood parasites, such as the New World cowbirds, the honeyguides, and many of the Old World and Australasian cuckoos, lay their eggs in the active nests of other species.
Types:
Scrape The simplest nest construction is the scrape, which is merely a shallow depression in soil or vegetation. This nest type, which typically has a rim deep enough to keep the eggs from rolling away, is sometimes lined with bits of vegetation, small stones, shell fragments or feathers. These materials may help to camouflage the eggs or may provide some level of insulation; they may also help to keep the eggs in place, and prevent them from sinking into muddy or sandy soil if the nest is accidentally flooded. Ostriches, most tinamous, many ducks, most shorebirds, most terns, some falcons, pheasants, quail, partridges, bustards and sandgrouse are among the species that build scrape nests.
Types:
Eggs and young in scrape nests, and the adults that brood them, are more exposed to predators and the elements than those in more sheltered nests; they are on the ground and typically in the open, with little to hide them. The eggs of most ground-nesting birds (including those that use scrape nests) are cryptically coloured to help camouflage them when the adult is not covering them; the actual colour generally corresponds to the substrate on which they are laid. Brooding adults also tend to be well camouflaged, and may be difficult to flush from the nest. Most ground-nesting species have well-developed distraction displays, which are used to draw (or drive) potential predators from the area around the nest. Most species with this type of nest have precocial young, which quickly leave the nest upon hatching.
Types:
In cool climates (such as in the high Arctic or at high elevations), the depth of a scrape nest can be critical to both the survival of developing eggs and the fitness of the parent bird incubating them. The scrape must be deep enough that eggs are protected from the convective cooling caused by cold winds, but shallow enough that they and the parent bird are not too exposed to the cooling influences of ground temperatures, particularly where the permafrost layer rises to mere centimeters below the nest. Studies have shown that an egg within a scrape nest loses heat 9% more slowly than an egg placed on the ground beside the nest; in such a nest lined with natural vegetation, heat loss is reduced by an additional 25%. The insulating factor of nest lining is apparently so critical to egg survival that some species, including Kentish plovers, will restore experimentally altered levels of insulation to their pre-adjustment levels (adding or subtracting material as necessary) within 24 hours.
Types:
In warm climates, such as deserts and salt flats, heat rather than cold can kill the developing embryos. In such places, scrapes are shallower and tend to be lined with non-vegetative material (including shells, feathers, sticks and soil), which allows convective cooling to occur as air moves over the eggs. Some species, such as the lesser nighthawk and the red-tailed tropicbird, help reduce the nest's temperature by placing it in partial or full shade. Others, including some shorebirds, cast shade with their bodies as they stand over their eggs. Some shorebirds also soak their breast feathers with water and then sit on the eggs, providing moisture to enable evaporative cooling. Parent birds keep from overheating themselves by gular panting while they are incubating, frequently exchanging incubation duties, and standing in water when they are not incubating.The technique used to construct a scrape nest varies slightly depending on the species. Beach-nesting terns, for instance, fashion their nests by rocking their bodies on the sand in the place they have chosen to site their nest, while skimmers build their scrapes with their feet, kicking sand backwards while resting on their bellies and turning slowly in circles. The ostrich also scratches out its scrape with its feet, though it stands while doing so. Many tinamous lay their eggs on a shallow mat of dead leaves they have collected and placed under bushes or between the root buttresses of trees, and kagus lay theirs on a pile of dead leaves against a log, tree trunk or vegetation. Marbled godwits stomp a grassy area flat with their feet, then lay their eggs, while other grass-nesting waders bend vegetation over their nests so as to avoid detection from above. Many female ducks, particularly in the northern latitudes, line their shallow scrape nests with down feathers plucked from their own breasts, as well as with small amounts of vegetation. Among scrape-nesting birds, the three-banded courser and Egyptian plover are unique in their habit of partially burying their eggs in the sand of their scrapes.
Types:
Mound Burying eggs as a form of incubation reaches its zenith with the Australasian megapodes. Several megapode species construct enormous mound nests made of soil, branches, sticks, twigs and leaves, and lay their eggs within the rotting mass. The heat generated by these mounds, which are in effect giant compost heaps, warms and incubates the eggs. The nest heat results from the respiration of thermophilic fungi and other microorganisms. The size of some of these mounds can be truly staggering; several of the largest—which contain more than 100 cubic metres (130 cu yd) of material, and probably weigh more than 50 tons (45,000 kg)—were initially thought to be Aboriginal middens.In most mound-building species, males do most or all of the nest construction and maintenance. Using his strong legs and feet, the male scrapes together material from the area around his chosen nest site, gradually building a conical or bell-shaped pile. This process can take five to seven hours a day for more than a month. While mounds are typically reused for multiple breeding seasons, new material must be added each year to generate the appropriate amount of heat. A female will begin to lay eggs in the nest only when the mound's temperature has reached an optimal level.
Types:
Both the temperature and the moisture content of the mound are critical to the survival and development of the eggs, so both are carefully regulated for the entire length of the breeding season (which may last for as long as eight months), principally by the male. Ornithologists believe that megapodes may use sensitive areas in their mouths to assess mound temperatures; each day during the breeding season, the male digs a pit into his mound and sticks his head in. If the mound's core temperature is a bit low, he adds fresh moist material to the mound, and stirs it in; if it is too high, he opens the top of the mound to allow some of the excess heat to escape. This regular monitoring also keeps the mound's material from becoming compacted, which would inhibit oxygen diffusion to the eggs and make it more difficult for the chicks to emerge after hatching. The malleefowl, which lives in more open forest than do other megapodes, uses the sun to help warm its nest as well—opening the mound at midday during the cool spring and autumn months to expose the plentiful sand incorporated into the nest to the sun's warming rays, then using that warm sand to insulate the eggs during the cold nights. During hot summer months, the malleefowl opens its nest mound only in the cool early morning hours, allowing excess heat to escape before recovering the mound completely. One recent study showed that the sex ratio of Australian brushturkey hatchlings correlated strongly with mound temperatures; females hatched from eggs incubated at higher mean temperatures.Flamingos make a different type of mound nest. Using their beaks to pull material towards them, they fashion a cone-shaped pile of mud between 15–46 cm (6–18 in) tall, with a small depression in the top to house their single egg. The height of the nest varies with the substrate upon which it is built; those on clay sites are taller on average than those on dry or sandy sites. The height of the nest and the circular, often water-filled trench which surrounds it (the result of the removal of material for the nest) help to protect the egg from fluctuating water levels and excessive heat at ground level. In East Africa, for example, temperatures at the top of the nest mound average some 20 °C (68 °F) cooler than those of the surrounding ground.The base of the horned coot's enormous nest is a mound built of stones, gathered one at a time by the pair, using their beaks. These stones, which may weigh as much as 450 g (about a pound) each, are dropped into the shallow water of a lake, making a cone-shaped pile which can measure as much as 4 m2 (43 sq ft) at the bottom and 1 m2 (11 sq ft) at the top, and 0.6 m (2.0 ft) in height. The total combined weight of the mound's stones may approach 1.5 tons (1,400 kg). Once the mound has been completed, a sizable platform of aquatic vegetation is constructed on top. The entire structure is typically reused for many years.
Types:
Burrow Soil plays a different role in the burrow nest; here, the eggs and young—and in most cases the incubating parent bird—are sheltered under the earth. Most burrow-nesting birds excavate their own burrows, but some use those excavated by other species and are known as secondary nesters; burrowing owls, for example, sometimes use the burrows of prairie dogs, ground squirrels, badgers or tortoises, China's endemic white-browed tits use the holes of ground-nesting rodents and common kingfishers occasionally nest in rabbit burrows. Burrow nests are particularly common among seabirds at high latitudes, as they provide protection against both cold temperatures and predators. Puffins, shearwaters, some megapodes, motmots, todies, most kingfishers, the crab plover, miners and leaftossers are among the species which use burrow nests.
Types:
Most burrow nesting species dig a horizontal tunnel into a vertical (or nearly vertical) dirt cliff, with a chamber at the tunnel's end to house the eggs. The length of the tunnel varies depending on the substrate and the species; sand martins make relatively short tunnels ranging from 50–90 cm (20–35 in), for example, while those of the burrowing parakeet can extend for more than three meters (nearly 10 ft). Some species, including the ground-nesting puffbirds, prefer flat or gently sloping land, digging their entrance tunnels into the ground at an angle. In a more extreme example, the D'Arnaud's barbet digs a vertical tunnel shaft more than a meter (39 in) deep, with its nest chamber excavated off to the side at some height above the shaft's bottom; this arrangement helps to keep the nest from being flooded during heavy rain. Buff-breasted paradise-kingfishers dig their nests into the compacted mud of active termite mounds, either on the ground or in trees. Specific soil types may favour certain species and it is speculated that several species of bee-eater favor loess soils which are easy to penetrate.
Types:
Birds use a combination of their beaks and feet to excavate burrow nests. The tunnel is started with the beak; the bird either probes at the ground to create a depression, or flies toward its chosen nest site on a cliff wall and hits it with its bill. The latter method is not without its dangers; there are reports of kingfishers being fatally injured in such attempts. Some birds remove tunnel material with their bills, while others use their bodies or shovel the dirt out with one or both feet. Female paradise-kingfishers are known to use their long tails to clear the loose soil.Some crepuscular petrels and prions are able to identify their own burrows within dense colonies by smell. Sand martins learn the location of their nest within a colony, and will accept any chick put into that nest until right before the young fledge.Not all burrow-nesting species incubate their young directly. Some megapode species bury their eggs in sandy pits dug where sunlight, subterranean volcanic activity, or decaying tree roots will warm the eggs. The crab plover also uses a burrow nest, the warmth of which allows it to leave the eggs unattended for as long as 58 hours.Predation levels on some burrow-nesting species can be quite high; on Alaska's Wooded Islands, for example, river otters munched their way through some 23 percent of the island's fork-tailed storm-petrel population during a single breeding season in 1977. There is some evidence that increased vulnerability may lead some burrow-nesting species to form colonies, or to nest closer to rival pairs in areas of high predation than they might otherwise do.
Types:
Cavity The cavity nest is a chamber, typically in living or dead wood, but sometimes in the trunks of tree ferns or large cacti, including saguaro. In tropical areas, cavities are sometimes excavated in arboreal insect nests. A relatively small number of species, including woodpeckers, trogons, some nuthatches and many barbets, can excavate their own cavities. Far more species—including parrots, tits, bluebirds, most hornbills, some kingfishers, some owls, some ducks and some flycatchers—use natural cavities, or those abandoned by species able to excavate them; they also sometimes usurp cavity nests from their excavating owners. Those species that excavate their own cavities are known as "primary cavity nesters", while those that use natural cavities or those excavated by other species are called "secondary cavity nesters". Both primary and secondary cavity nesters can be enticed to use nest boxes (also known as bird houses); these mimic natural cavities, and can be critical to the survival of species in areas where natural cavities are lacking.Woodpeckers use their chisel-like bills to excavate their cavity nests, a process which takes, on average, about two weeks. Cavities are normally excavated on the downward-facing side of a branch, presumably to make it more difficult for predators to access the nest, and to reduce the chance that rain floods the nest. There is also some evidence that fungal rot may make the wood on the underside of leaning trunks and branches easier to excavate. Most woodpeckers use a cavity for only a single year. The endangered red-cockaded woodpecker is an exception; it takes far longer—up to two years—to excavate its nest cavity, and may reuse it for more than two decades. The typical woodpecker nest has a short horizontal tunnel which leads to a vertical chamber within the trunk. The size and shape of the chamber depends on species, and the entrance hole is typically only as large as is needed to allow access for the adult birds. While wood chips are removed during the excavation process, most species line the floor of the cavity with a fresh bed of them before laying their eggs.
Types:
Trogons excavate their nests by chewing cavities into very soft dead wood; some species make completely enclosed chambers (accessed by upward-slanting entrance tunnels), while others—like the extravagantly plumed resplendent quetzal—construct more open niches. In most trogon species, both sexes help with nest construction. The process may take several months, and a single pair may start several excavations before finding a tree or stump with wood of the right consistency.
Types:
Species which use natural cavities or old woodpecker nests sometimes line the cavity with soft material such as grass, moss, lichen, feathers or fur. Though a number of studies have attempted to determine whether secondary cavity nesters preferentially choose cavities with entrance holes facing certain directions, the results remain inconclusive. While some species appear to preferentially choose holes with certain orientations, studies (to date) have not shown consistent differences in fledging rates between nests oriented in different directions.Cavity-dwelling species have to contend with the danger of predators accessing their nest, catching them and their young inside and unable to get out. They have a variety of methods for decreasing the likelihood of this happening. Red-cockaded woodpeckers peel bark around the entrance, and drill wells above and below the hole; since they nest in live trees, the resulting flow of resin forms a barrier that prevents snakes from reaching the nests. Red-breasted nuthatches smear sap around the entrance holes to their nests, while white-breasted nuthatches rub foul-smelling insects around theirs. Eurasian nuthatches wall up part of their entrance holes with mud, decreasing the size and sometimes extending the tunnel part of the chamber. Most female hornbills seal themselves into their cavity nests, using a combination of mud (in some species brought by their mates), food remains and their own droppings to reduce the entrance hole to a narrow slit.A few birds are known to use the nests of insects within which they create a cavity in which they lay their eggs. These include the rufous woodpecker which nests in the arboreal nests of Crematogaster ants and the collared kingfisher which uses termite nests.
Types:
Cup The cup nest is smoothly hemispherical inside, with a deep depression to house the eggs. Most are made of pliable materials—including grasses—though a small number are made of mud or saliva. Many passerines and a few non-passerines, including some hummingbirds and some swifts, build this type of nest.
Types:
Small bird species in more than 20 passerine families, and a few non-passerines—including most hummingbirds, kinglets and crests in the genus Regulus, some tyrant flycatchers and several New World warblers—use considerable amounts of spider silk in the construction of their nests. The lightweight material is strong and extremely flexible, allowing the nest to mold to the adult during incubation (reducing heat loss), then to stretch to accommodate the growing nestlings; as it is sticky, it also helps to bind the nest to the branch or leaf to which it is attached.
Types:
Many swifts and some hummingbirds use thick, quick-drying saliva to anchor their nests. The chimney swift starts by dabbing two globs of saliva onto the wall of a chimney or tree trunk. In flight, it breaks a small twig from a tree and presses it into the saliva, angling the twig downwards so that the central part of the nest is the lowest. It continues adding globs of saliva and twigs until it has made a crescent-shaped cup.Cup-shaped nest insulation has been found to be related to nest mass, nest wall thickness, nest depth, nest weave density/porosity, surface area, height above ground and elevation above sea level.
Types:
More recently, nest insulation has been found to be related to the mass of the incubating parent. This is known as an allometric relationship. Nest walls are constructed with an adequate quantity of nesting material so that the nest will be capable of supporting the contents of the nest. Nest thickness, nest mass and nest dimensions therefore correlate with the mass of the adult bird. The flow-on consequence of this is that nest insulation is also related to parent mass.
Types:
Saucer or plate The saucer or plate nest, though superficially similar to a cup nest, has at most only a shallow depression to house the eggs.
Platform The platform nest is a large structure, often many times the size of the (typically large) bird which has built it. Depending on the species, these nests can be on the ground or elevated.
In the case of raptor nests, or eyries (also spelled aerie), these are often used for many years, with new material added each breeding season. In some cases, the nests grow large enough to cause structural damage to the tree itself, particularly during bad storms where the weight of the nest can cause additional stress on wind-tossed branches.
Types:
Pendent The pendent nest is an elongated sac woven of pliable materials such as grasses and plant fibers and suspended from a branch. Oropendolas, caciques, orioles, weavers and sunbirds are among the species that weave pendent nests. In weaver birds, this is pendant, suspended from a single point hanging from branch while many other birds incorporate more than one branch to support the nest.
Types:
Sphere The sphere nest is a roundish structure; it is completely enclosed, except for a small opening which allows access. Most spherical nests are woven out of plant material. Spider webs are also frequently used, upon which other material such as lichens may be stuck for camouflage. The cape penduline tit incorporates false entrances, the parent bird carefully making sure to close the actual entrance when leaving the nest. The entrances are lined with spider webs which help seal the openings.
Nest protection and sanitation:
Many species of bird conceal their nests to protect them from predators. Some species may choose nest sites that are inaccessible or build the nest so as to deter predators. Bird nests can also act as habitats for other inquiline species which may not affect the bird directly. Birds have also evolved nest sanitation measures to reduce the effects of parasites and pathogens on nestlings.
Nest protection and sanitation:
Some aquatic species such as grebes are very careful when approaching and leaving the nest so as not to reveal the location. Some species will use leaves to cover up the nest prior to leaving.
Nest protection and sanitation:
Ground birds such as plovers may use broken wing or rodent run displays to distract predators from nests.Many species attack predators or apparent predators near their nests. Kingbirds attack other birds that come too close. In North America, northern mockingbirds, blue jays, and Arctic terns can peck hard enough to draw blood. In Australia, a bird attacking a person near its nest is said to swoop the person. The Australian magpie is particularly well known for this behavior.Nests can become home to many other organisms including parasites and pathogens. The excreta of the fledglings also pose a problem. In most passerines, the adults actively dispose the fecal sacs of young at a distance or consume them. This is believed to help prevent ground predators from detecting nests. Young birds of prey however usually void their excreta beyond the rims of their nests. Blowflies of the genus Protocalliphora have specialized to become obligate nest parasites with the maggots feeding on the blood of nestlings.Some birds have been shown to choose aromatic green plant material for constructing nests that may have insecticidal properties, while others may use materials such as carnivore scat to repel smaller predators. Some urban birds, house sparrows and house finches in Mexico, have been adopted the use of cellulose from cigarette butts which may be adaptive since these fibres contain nicotine and other toxic substances that repel ectoparasites.Some birds use pieces of snake slough in their nests. It has been suggested that these may deter some nest predators such as squirrels.
Colonial nesting:
Though most birds nest individually, some species—including seabirds, penguins, flamingos, many herons, gulls, terns, weaver, some corvids and some sparrows—gather together in sizeable colonies. Birds that nest colonially may benefit from increased protection against predation. They may also be able to better use food supplies, by following more successful foragers to their foraging sites.
Ecological importance:
In constructing nests, birds act as ecosystem engineers by providing a sheltered microclimate and concentrated food sources for invertebrates. A global checklist lists eighteen invertebrate orders that occur in bird nests.
In human culture:
Many birds may nest close to human habitations. In addition to nest boxes which are often used to encourage cavity nesting birds (see below), other species have been specially encouraged : for example nesting white storks have been protected and held in reverence in many cultures, and the nesting of peregrine falcons on tall modern or historical buildings has captured popular interest.Colonial breeders produce guano in and around their nesting sites, which is a valuable fertilizer from the Andean Pacific coast and other areas.
In human culture:
The saliva nest of the edible-nest swiftlet is used to make bird's nest soup, long considered a delicacy in China. Collection of the swiftlet nests is big business: in one year, more than 3.5 million nests were exported from Borneo to China, and the industry was estimated at $1 billion US per year (and increasing) in 2008. While the collection is regulated in some areas (at the Gomantong Caves, for example, where nests can be collected only from February to April or July to September), it is not in others, and the swiftlets are declining in areas where the harvest reaches unsustainable levels.Some species of birds are considered nuisances when they nest in the proximity of human habitations. Feral pigeons are often unwelcome and sometimes also considered as a health risk.The Beijing National Stadium, principal venue of the 2008 Summer Olympics, has been nicknamed "The Bird Nest" because of its architectural design, which its designers likened to a bird's woven nest.In the 19th and early 20th centuries, naturalists often collected bird's eggs and their nests. The practice of egg-collecting or oology is now illegal in many jurisdictions worldwide; the study of bird nests is called caliology.
Artificial bird nests:
Bird nests are also built by humans to help in the conservation of certain birds (such as swallows). Swallow nests are generally built with plaster, wood, terracotta or stucco.Artificial nests, such as nest boxes, are an important conservation tool for many species, however nest box programs rarely compare their effectiveness with individuals not using nest boxes. Red-footed falcons using nest boxes in heavily managed landscapes produced fewer fledglings than those nesting in natural nests, but also than pairs nesting in nest boxes in more natural habitats. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**String harmonic**
String harmonic:
Playing a string harmonic (a flageolet) is a string instrument technique that uses the nodes of natural harmonics of a musical string to isolate overtones. Playing string harmonics produces high pitched tones, often compared in timbre to a whistle or flute. Overtones can be isolated "by lightly touching the string with the finger instead of pressing it down" against the fingerboard (without stopping). For some instruments this is a fundamental technique, such as the Chinese guqin, where it is known as fan yin (泛音, lit. "floating sound"), and the Vietnamese đàn bầu.
Overtones:
When a string is plucked or bowed normally, the ear hears the fundamental frequency most prominently, but the overall sound is also colored by the presence of various overtones (frequencies greater than the fundamental frequency). The fundamental frequency and its overtones are perceived by the listener as a single note; however, different combinations of overtones give rise to noticeably different overall tones (see timbre). A harmonic overtone has evenly spaced nodes along the string, where the string does not move from its resting position.
Nodes:
The nodes of natural harmonics are located at the following points along the string: Above, the length fraction is the point, with respect to the length of the whole string, the string is lightly touched. It is expressed as a fraction n/m, where m is the mode (2 through 16 are given above), and n the node number. The node number for a given mode can be any integer from 1 to m − 1. However, certain nodes of higher harmonics are coincident with nodes of lower harmonics, and the lower sounds overpower the higher ones. For example, mode number 4 can be fingered at nodes 1 and 3; it will occur at node 2 but will not be heard over the stronger first harmonic. Ineffective nodes to finger are not listed above.
Nodes:
The fret number, which shows the position of the node in terms of half tones (or frets on a fretted instrument) then is given by: log smm−n With s equal to the twelfth root of two, notated s because it's the first letter of the word "semitone".
Artificial harmonics:
When a string is only lightly pressed by one finger (that is, isolating overtones of the open string), the resulting harmonics are called natural harmonics. However, when a string is held down on the neck in addition to being lightly pressed on a node, the resulting harmonics are called artificial harmonics. In this case, as the total length of the string is shortened, the fundamental frequency is raised, and the positions of the nodes shift accordingly (that is, by the same number of frets), thereby raising the frequency of the overtone by the same interval as the fundamental frequency.
Artificial harmonics:
Artificial harmonics are produced by stopping the string with the first or second finger, and thus making an artificial 'nut,' and then slightly pressing the node with the fourth finger. By this means harmonics in perfect intonation can be produced in all scales.
Artificial harmonics:
Artificial harmonics are more difficult to play than natural harmonics, but they are not limited to the overtone series of the open strings, meaning they have much greater flexibility to play chromatic passages. Unlike natural harmonics, they can be played with vibrato.This technique, like natural harmonics, works by canceling out the fundamental tone and one or more partial tones by deadening their modes of vibration. It is traditionally notated using two or three simultaneous noteheads in one staff: a normal notehead for the position of the firmly held finger, a square notehead for the position of the lightly pressed finger, and sometimes, a small notehead for the resulting pitch.The most commonly used artificial harmonic, due to its relatively easy and natural fingering, is that in which, "the fourth finger lightly touches the nodal point a perfect fourth above the first finger. (Resulting harmonic sound: two octaves above the first finger or new fundamental.)," followed by the artificial harmonic produced when, "the fourth finger lightly touches the nodal point a perfect fifth above the first finger (Resulting harmonic sound: a twelfth above the first finger or new fundamental.)," and, "the third finger lightly touches the nodal point a major third above the first finger. (Resulting harmonic sound: two octaves and a major third above the first finger or new fundamental.)"
Guitar:
There are a few harmonic techniques unique to guitar.
Guitar:
Pinch harmonics A pinch harmonic (also known as squelch picking, pick harmonic or squealy) is a guitar technique to achieve artificial harmonics in which the player's thumb or index finger on the picking hand slightly catches the string after it is picked, canceling (silencing) the fundamental frequency of the string, and letting one of the overtones dominate. This results in a high-pitched sound which is particularly discernible on an electrically amplified guitar as a "squeal".
Guitar:
Tapped harmonics Tapped harmonics were popularized by Eddie Van Halen. This technique is an extension of the tapping technique. The note is fretted as usual, but instead of striking the string the excitation energy required to sound the note is achieved by tapping at a harmonic nodal point. The tapping finger bounces lightly on and off the fret. The open string technique can be extended to artificial harmonics. For instance, for an octave harmonic (12-fret nodal point) press at the third fret, and tap the fifteenth fret, as 12 + 3 = 15.
Guitar:
String harmonics driven by a magnetic field This technique is used by effect devices producing a magnetic field that can agitate fundamentals and harmonics of steel strings. There are harmonic mode switches as provided by newer versions of the EBow and by guitars built in sustainers like the Fernandes Sustainer and the Moog Guitar. Harmonics control by harmonic mode switching and by the playing technique is applied by the Guitar Resonator where harmonics can be alternated by changing the string driver position at the fretboard while playing. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**LPD433**
LPD433:
LPD433 (low power device 433 MHz) is a UHF band in which license free communication devices are allowed to operate in some regions. The frequencies correspond with the ITU region 1 ISM band of 433.050 MHz to 434.790 MHz. The frequencies used are within the 70-centimeter band, which is currently reserved for government and amateur radio operations in the United States and most nations worldwide.
LPD433:
LPD hand-held radios are authorized for licence-free voice communications use in most of Europe using analog frequency modulation (FM) as part of short range device regulations, with 25 kHz channel spacing, for a total of 69 channels. In some countries, LPD devices may only be used with an integral and non-removable antenna with a maximum legal power output of 10 mW.
LPD433:
Voice communication in the LPD band was introduced to reduce the burden on the eight (now sixteen) PMR446 channels over shorter ranges (less than 1 km).LPD is also used in vehicle key-less entry device, garage or gate openers and some outdoor home weather station products.
Usage by country:
ITU Region 1 (Europe) United Kingdom In the UK, LPD433 equipment that meets the respective Ofcom Interface Requirement can be used for model control, analogue/digitised voice and remote keyless entry systems. There is significant scope for interference however, both on frequency and on adjacent frequencies, as the band is far from free. The frequencies from 430 to 440 MHz are allocated on a secondary basis to licensed radio amateurs who are allowed to use up to 40 W (16 dBW) between 430 and 432 MHz and 400 W (26 dBW) between 432 and 440 MHz. Channels 1 to 14 are UK amateur repeater outputs and channels 62 to 69 are UK amateur repeater inputs. This band is shared on a secondary basis for both licensed and licence exempt users, with the primary user being the Ministry of Defence.Ofcom, together with the RSGB Emerging Technology Co-ordination Committee have produced guidelines to help mitigate the side effects of interference to an extent.Switzerland Switzerland permits the use of all 69 LPD433 channels with a maximum power output of 10 mW.Spain According to a recently published (June 2021) resolution of the Spanish government, where it defines 'interface IR-266', non-specific mobile short-range devices may be used without authorization for voice applications with 'advanced mitigation techniques' (such as listening before talking) from 434.040 to 434.790 MHz, with channels narrower than 25 kHz and with a maximum 'apparent radiated power' of 10 mW. This would make the use of LPD433 channels 40 to 69 possible in Spain.
Usage by country:
Other European countries European remote keyless entry systems often use the 433 MHz band, although, as in all of Europe, these frequencies are within the 70-centimeter band allocated to amateur radio, and interference results. In Germany, before the end of 2008, radio control enthusiasts were able to use frequencies from channel 03 through 67 for radio control of any form of model (air or ground-based), all with odd channel numbers (03, 05, etc. up to ch. 67), with each sanctioned frequency having 50 kHz of bandwidth separation between each adjacent channel.
Usage by country:
ITU Region 2 (America) In ITU region 2 (the Americas), the frequencies that LPD433 uses are also within the 70-centimeter band allocated to amateur radio. In the United States LPD433 radios can only be used under FCC amateur regulations by properly licensed amateur radio operators.
Usage by country:
ITU Region 3 Malaysia In Malaysia, this band is also within the 70-centimeter band (430.000 – 440.000 MHz) allocated to amateur radio. Class B amateur radio holders are permitted to transmit up to 50 watts PEP power level. There is no licence requirement for LPD as long as it complies with requirement regulated by Malaysian Communications And Multimedia Commission (MCMC). As regulated by MCMC in Technical Code for Short Range Devices, remote control and security device are allowed up to 50 mW ERP and up to 100 mW ERP for Short Range Communication (SRC) devices. RFID are allowed up to 100 mW EIRP. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**PWCT**
PWCT:
PWCT is a free open source visual programming language for software development.
Goal:
Programming Without Coding Technology (PWCT) is designed to be a general-purpose visual programming language that can be used for applications and systems development. PWCT can also be used for introducing programming concepts. The project was founded in December 2005 as a free-open source project that supports designing applications through visual programming then generating the source code. The software supports code generation in many textual programming languages.The environment support the time dimension where the programmer can play programs as a movie to learn how to create them step-by-step and get better understanding of the program logic. Changing time is done using a timeline slider which allow the programmer to select a specific point in time to view.
History:
PWCT was registered on SourceForge in December 2005 PWCT 1.0 was released on 18 October 2008 PWCT 1.1 was released on 20 February 2009 PWCT 1.2 was released on 4 May 2009 PWCT 1.3 was released on 30 May 2009 PWCT 1.4 was released on 28 August 2009 PWCT 1.5 was released on 27 March 2010 PWCT 1.6 was released on 16 May 2010 PWCT 1.7 was released on 15 September 2010 PWCT 1.8 was released on 18 October 2011 (Last update : 22 April 2013) PWCT 1.9 was released on 7 May 2013 (Latest update : 2 January 2021)
Concept:
The PWCT architecture contains three main layers: The VPL Layer that provide functionality to perform a specific task.
The Middle Layer that provide interface between the User view and the System Layer.
The System Layer that generate executable code in different languages.The visual source inside PWCT is designed using the Goal Designer where the programmer can generate the steps tree through the interaction with the visual language components.
Concept:
Inside PWCT, the visual source is a collection of goals, each goal contains tree of steps and each step/node inside the steps tree may contain one or more of data entry forms. Steps tree uses colors that tell the programmer about the step type. Some steps allow containing sub steps, other steps do not allow this, also some steps are not more than comments for the programmer. The steps tree gives the programmer two dimensions where the relationship between the node and another node could be "next to" or "contains" where the programmer can go depth-first or breadth-first when he/she interacts with the steps tree.
Concept:
The programmer can use the dimension "contains" to do an operation on a group of steps/nodes at the same time (move up / move down / cut/ copy / delete).
The programmer can use the form designer to design the user interface.
The programmer can use the time dimension where he/she can know when each step is created (Date & Time) and can move along the time dimension to see only the steps at any point during the development process.
Concept:
Inside the Goal Designer, the user can use the mouse or the keyboard to select the visual components and generate new steps in the steps tree. Using the mouse we can explore the environment to see the components that are ready for use. Using the Keyboard by typing the component name, the programmer can quickly get any component and start using it.
Features:
General-purpose.
Visual Programming (More than one dimension, No Syntax Errors, Time Dimension and Colors).
Visual Editor (Keyboard shortcuts, Customization, Cut, Copy, Paste, Search and Replace) Syntax Directed Editor (Avoid Errors).
Free Editor and VPL Compiler.
The programmer can see and edit the generated source code.
The programmer can change the step name and the steps colors.
Support code generation in C, Python, C#, Harbour and Supernova programming languages.
The programmer can play programs as movie to learn how to create the program step by step Don't force a programming paradigm.
Extension (Create new components).
Run programs at any point in the past during the development process.
Visual languages:
The PWCT visual programming language components are classified into the next categories CPWCT : Visual Components that generate source code in the C programming language.
PythonPWCT : Visual Components that generate source code in the Python programming language.
HarbourPWCT : Visual Components that generate source code in the Harbour programming language.
SupernovaPWCT : Visual Components that generate source code in the Supernova programming language.
C#PWCT : Visual Components that generate source code in the C# programming language.
Criticism:
The PWCT software still requires that the user have a familiarity of programming structures such as the While-Loop and the If-Then. Syntax errors are decreased but the logic and analysis of the program solution are still created, developed and judged by the user.
Criticism:
PWCT try to innovate and provide a new way of viewing software design, However, such innovation comes at a cost. PWCT focuses on the visualization of code blocks in a structure that they describe as a "Steps Tree", which mirrors the nested structure seen in regular textual programming languages. Also PWCT do not have strong inherent support for visualizing code as diagrams, no strong support for Abstraction Layered Architecture (ALA) applications. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Ease (sewing)**
Ease (sewing):
In sewing and patternmaking, ease is the amount of room a garment allows the wearer beyond the measurements of their body. For example, if a man has a 40-inch chest measurement, a jacket with a 40-inch chest would be very tight and would constrict movement. An ease of 3 or 4 inches might be added to the pattern (making a 43-44 inch chest), or more to enhance comfort or style. Ease is not generally included in sizing measurements. To use the example again, a man with a 40-inch chest will likely buy a jacket advertised as size 40, but the actual measurements of the garment will almost always be somewhat larger.
Ease (sewing):
Ease is most important for woven garments cut on the straight or crossgrain, because fabric in this orientation has little or no stretch. This is in contrast to woven garments cut on the bias and knit garments, both of which can stretch to accommodate movement.
A sloper pattern or block pattern is a simple pattern with very little or no ease made for the purpose of fitting the body accurately, from which more finished or stylized patterns may be developed.
Adding ease:
Several techniques can be used to add ease to a pattern. The simplest may be to add width to the pattern pieces, such as at the side seams. Pleats or gathers may also be used. Reducing the intake of darts will also add ease.
Contouring:
Contouring is the process of fitting a pattern to the body more nearly than the sloper, but it is not the same as removing ease. Contouring removes extra space within the measurements of the wearer. For example, a dress sloper will span the bust points, but a more fitted or 'contoured' bodice may dip toward the breastbone in between the breasts and fit each breast more closely, possibly even supporting each with boning. Contouring techniques can also be applied to other concave parts of the body which may be spanned by the sloper, such as the underside of the buttocks, or the knee area for pants. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Floor trader**
Floor trader:
A floor trader is a member of a stock or commodities exchange who trades on the floor of that exchange for his or her own account. The floor trader must abide by trading rules similar to those of the exchange specialists who trade on behalf of others. The term should not be confused with floor broker. Floor traders are occasionally referred to as registered competitive traders, individual liquidity providers or locals.
Floor trader:
These traders are subject to a screening process before they can trade on the exchange. The people who operate as floor traders are in an open outcry system that has slowly been replaced by automated trading systems and computers that work in the same fashion as humans, without the interaction of people buying and selling stocks.
Process of becoming a floor trader:
The process of becoming a floor trader, especially for those with insufficient capital, and lacking knowledge and experience, often begins by working as a clerk. The completion of a business degree at a university is not necessary, and very few floor traders used this to begin their careers. Those who have earned a higher degree rarely have an advantage over other floor traders, who have learned their craft by standing on the floor and actually trading.
Process of becoming a floor trader:
Much experience must be gained about the stock exchange as possible because it is an extremely fast-paced and competitive work environment. This is crucial to becoming a successful floor trader. Some may decide to work for a brokerage to get an idea of how the system functions or, as mentioned, to work as a clerk or trade-checker for another person. This is often necessary in order to save money for purchasing a membership which can be expensive, though memberships can be leased on a monthly basis, rather than purchased.
Process of becoming a floor trader:
Every floor trader (FT) is required to file a completed online Form 8-R and have a fingerprint card. They must also have proof from a contract market that they have been granted the trading privileges to work on the trading field. A non-refundable Floor Trader Application Fee, that comes at the cost of $85.00, is also required to become certified as a floor trader.Every non-natural person floor trader (FTF) is required to file a completed online Form 7-R. To be granted trading privileges, he must abide by the same process as the floor trader. The application fee comes at a higher cost than an FT with it, totaling $200.
Rise of machines:
The first major electronic alternative was the Instinet, a machine that could bypass the trading floor and handle one another on a personal basis. It did not however begin taking off until the 1980s, but has been a vital player beside those of its likes such as Bloomberg and Archipelago. The use of electronic mediums to conduct tasks done by floor traders has increased throughout the years, however there are many exchanges in the United States such as the NYSE that prefer to use the open outcry method that involves verbal communication. The benefits of using this system are that traders can read people and results with surprisingly lower error rates in comparison to computers that cannot pick up verbal signals. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Carbonated water**
Carbonated water:
Carbonated water (also known as soda water, sparkling water, fizzy water, club soda, water with gas, in many places as mineral water, or especially in the United States as seltzer or seltzer water) is water containing dissolved carbon dioxide gas, either artificially injected under pressure or occurring due to natural geological processes. Carbonation causes small bubbles to form, giving the water an effervescent quality. Common forms include sparkling natural mineral water, club soda, and commercially produced sparkling water.Club soda and sparkling mineral water and some other sparkling waters contain added or dissolved minerals such as potassium bicarbonate, sodium bicarbonate, sodium citrate, or potassium sulfate. These occur naturally in some mineral waters but are also commonly added artificially to manufactured waters to mimic a natural flavor profile and offset the acidity of introducing carbon dioxide gas giving one a fizzy sensation. Various carbonated waters are sold in bottles and cans, with some also produced on demand by commercial carbonation systems in bars and restaurants, or made at home using a carbon dioxide cartridge.It is thought that the first person to aerate water with carbon dioxide was William Brownrigg in 1740. Joseph Priestley invented carbonated water, independently and by accident, in 1767 when he discovered a method of infusing water with carbon dioxide after having suspended a bowl of water above a beer vat at a brewery in Leeds, England. He wrote of the "peculiar satisfaction" he found in drinking it, and in 1772 he published a paper entitled Impregnating Water with Fixed Air. Priestley's apparatus, almost identical to that used by Henry Cavendish five years earlier, which featured a bladder between the generator and the absorption tank to regulate the flow of carbon dioxide, was soon joined by a wide range of others. However, it was not until 1781 that carbonated water began being produced on a large scale with the establishment of companies specialized in producing artificial mineral water. The first factory was built by Thomas Henry of Manchester, England. Henry replaced the bladder in Priestley's system with large bellows.While Priestley's discovery ultimately led to the creation of the soft drink industry—which began in 1783 when Johann Jacob Schweppe founded Schweppes to sell bottled soda water—he did not benefit financially from his invention. Priestley received scientific recognition when the Council of the Royal Society "were moved to reward its discoverer with the Copley Medal" in 1772.
Composition:
Natural and manufactured carbonated waters may contain a small amount of sodium chloride, sodium citrate, sodium bicarbonate, potassium bicarbonate, potassium citrate, potassium sulfate, or disodium phosphate, depending on the product. These occur naturally in mineral waters but are added artificially to commercially produced waters to mimic a natural flavor profile and offset the acidity of introducing carbon dioxide gas (which creates low 5-6 pH carbonic acid solution when dissolved in water).Artesian wells in such places as Mihalkovo in the Bulgarian Rhodope Mountains, Medžitlija in North Macedonia, and most notably in Selters in the German Taunus mountains, produce naturally effervescent mineral waters.
Health effects:
By itself, carbonated water appears to have little impact on health.Carbonated water such as club soda or sparkling water is defined in US law as a food of minimal nutritional value, even if minerals, vitamins, or artificial sweeteners have been added to it.Carbonated water does not appear to have an effect on gastroesophageal reflux disease. There is tentative evidence that carbonated water may help with constipation among people who have had a stroke.
Health effects:
Acid erosion While carbonated water is somewhat acidic, this acidity can be partially neutralized by saliva. A study found that sparkling mineral water is slightly more erosive to teeth than non-carbonated water but is about 1% as corrosive as soft drinks are. A 2017 study by the American Dental Association showed that it would take over 100 years of daily sparkling water consumption to cause damage to human teeth - a claim that could not apply if there is added sugar or artificial flavorings, which often include citric acid and other fruit acids, predicted to have an impact on human teeth.
Chemistry:
Carbon dioxide gas dissolved in water at a low concentration (0.2–1.0%) creates carbonic acid (H2CO3) according to the following reaction: H2O (l) + CO2 (g) ⇌ H2CO3 (aq)The acid gives carbonated water a slightly tart flavor. Its pH level of between 5 and 6 is approximately in between apple juice and orange juice in acidity, but much less acidic than the acid in the stomach. A normal, healthy human body maintains pH equilibrium via acid–base homeostasis and will not be materially adversely affected by consumption of plain carbonated water. Alkaline salts, such as sodium bicarbonate, potassium bicarbonate, or potassium citrate, will increase pH.
Chemistry:
The amount of a gas that can be dissolved in water is described by Henry's Law. In the carbonization process, water is chilled, optimally to just above freezing, to maximize the amount of carbon dioxide that can be dissolved in it. Higher gas pressure and lower temperature cause more gas to dissolve in the liquid. When the temperature is raised or the pressure is reduced (as happens when a container of carbonated water is opened), carbon dioxide effervesces, thereby escaping from the solution.
History:
Many alcoholic drinks, such as beer, champagne, cider, and spritzer, were naturally carbonated through the fermentation process for centuries. In 1662 Christopher Merret created 'sparkling wine'. William Brownrigg was apparently the first to produce artificial carbonated water, in the early 1740s, by using carbon dioxide taken from mines. In 1750 the Frenchman Gabriel François Venel also produced artificial carbonated water, though he misunderstood the nature of the gas that caused the carbonation. In 1764, Irish chemist Dr. Macbride infused water with carbon dioxide as part of a series of experiments on fermentation and putrefaction. In 1766 Henry Cavendish devised an aerating apparatus that would inspire Joseph Priestley to carry out his own experiments with regard to carbonated waters. Cavendish was also aware of Brownrigg's observations at this time and published a paper on his own experiments on a nearby source of mineral water at the beginning of January in the next year.
History:
In 1767 Priestley discovered a method of infusing water with carbon dioxide by pouring water back and forth above a beer vat at a local brewery in Leeds, England. The air blanketing the fermenting beer—called 'fixed air'—was known to kill mice suspended in it. Priestley found water thus treated had a pleasant taste, and he offered it to friends as a cool, refreshing drink. In 1772, Priestley published a paper titled Impregnating Water with Fixed Air in which he describes dripping "oil of vitriol" (sulfuric acid) onto chalk to produce carbon dioxide gas, and encouraging the gas to dissolve into an agitated bowl of water. Priestley referred to his invention of this treated water as being his "happiest" discovery.
History:
Priestley's apparatus, which was very similar to that invented by Henry Cavendish five years earlier, featured a bladder between the generator and the absorption tank to regulate the flow of carbon dioxide, and was soon joined by a wide range of others, but it was not until 1781 that carbonated water began being produced on a large scale with the establishment of companies specialized in producing artificial mineral water. The first factory was built by Thomas Henry of Manchester, England. Henry replaced the bladder in Priestley's system with large bellows. J. J. Schweppe developed a process to manufacture bottled carbonated mineral water based on the discovery of Priestley, founding the Schweppes Company in Geneva in 1783. Schweppes regarded Priestley as "the father of our industry". In 1792 he moved to London to develop the business there. In 1799 Augustine Thwaites founded Thwaites' Soda Water in Dublin. A London Globe article claims that this company was the first to patent and sell "Soda Water" under that name. The article says that in the hot summer of 1777 in London "aerated waters" (that is, carbonated) were selling well but there was as yet no mention of "soda water", though the first effervescent drinks were probably made using "soda powders" containing bicarbonate of soda and tartaric acid. The name soda water arose from the fact that soda (sodium carbonate or bicarbonate) was often added to adjust the taste and pH.Modern carbonated water is made by injecting pressurized carbon dioxide into water. The pressure increases the solubility and allows more carbon dioxide to dissolve than would be possible under standard atmospheric pressure. When the bottle is opened, the pressure is released, allowing gas to exit the solution, forming the characteristic bubbles.
History:
Etymology In the United States, plain carbonated water was generally known either as soda water, due to the sodium salts it contained, or seltzer water, deriving from the German town Selters renowned for its mineral springs.Sodium salts were added to plain water both as flavoring (to mimic famed mineral waters, such as naturally effervescent Selters, Vichy water and Saratoga water) and acidity regulators (to offset the acidic 5-6 pH carbonic acid created when carbon dioxide is dissolved in water).In the 1950s the term club soda began to be popularized.In the 1970s marketing-driven terms such as sparkling water gained favor, with an explosion of consumption of the naturally carbonated Perrier water.
History:
Generally, seltzer water has no added sodium salts, while club soda still retains some sodium salts.
Products for carbonating water:
Home Soda siphons The soda siphon, or seltzer bottle—a glass or metal pressure vessel with a release valve and spout for dispensing pressurized soda water—was a common sight in bars and in early- to mid-20th-century homes where it became a symbol of middle-class affluence.
The gas pressure in a siphon drives soda water up through a tube inside the siphon when a valve lever at the top is depressed. Commercial soda siphons came pre-charged with water and gas and were returned to the retailer for exchange when empty. A deposit scheme ensured they were not otherwise thrown away.
Products for carbonating water:
Home soda siphons can carbonate flatwater through the use of a small disposable steel bulb containing carbon dioxide. The bulb is pressed into the valve assembly at the top of the siphon, the gas injected, then the bulb withdrawn. Soda water made in this way tends not to be as carbonated as commercial soda water because water from the refrigerator is not chilled as much as possible, and the pressure of carbon dioxide is limited to that available from the cartridge rather than the high-pressure pumps in a commercial carbonation plant.
Products for carbonating water:
Gasogene The gasogene (or gazogene, or seltzogene) is a late Victorian device for producing carbonated water. It consists of two linked glass globes: the lower contained water or other drink to be made sparkling, the upper a mixture of tartaric acid and sodium bicarbonate that reacts to produce carbon dioxide. The produced gas pushes the liquid in the lower container up a tube and out of the device. The globes are surrounded by a wicker or wire protective mesh, as they have a tendency to explode.
Products for carbonating water:
Codd-neck bottles In 1872, soft drink maker Hiram Codd of Camberwell, London, designed and patented the Codd-neck bottle, designed specifically for carbonated drinks. The Codd-neck bottle encloses a marble and a rubber washer/gasket in the neck. The bottles were filled upside down, and pressure of the gas in the bottle forced the marble against the washer, sealing in the carbonation. The bottle was pinched into a special shape to provide a chamber into which the marble was pushed to open the bottle. This prevented the marble from blocking the neck as the drink was poured.
Products for carbonating water:
Soon after its introduction, the bottle became extremely popular with the soft drink and brewing industries mainly in the UK and the rest of Europe, Asia, and Australasia, though some alcohol drinkers disdained the use of the bottle. R. White's, the biggest soft drinks company in London and south-east England when the bottle was introduced, was among the companies that sold their drinks in Codd's glass bottles. One etymology of the term codswallop originates from beer sold in Codd bottles, though this is generally dismissed as a folk etymology.The bottles were produced for many decades, but gradually declined in usage. Since children smashed the bottles to retrieve the marbles, vintage bottles are relatively rare and have become collector items, particularly in the UK. Due to the risk of explosion and injuries from fragmented glass pieces, use of this type of bottle is discouraged in most countries, since other methods of sealing pressurized bottles can more easily incorporate release of unsafe pressures. The Codd-neck design is still used for the Japanese soft drink Ramune, and in the Indian drink called Banta.
Products for carbonating water:
Soda makers Soda makers or soda carbonators, known as countertop carborators, are appliances that carbonate water with multiple-use carbon dioxide canisters. Soda makers may reach a higher level of carbonation than home soda siphons. A variety of systems are produced by manufacturers and hobbyists. The commercial units may be sold with concentrated syrup for making flavored soft drinks.
One major producer of soda carbonators is SodaStream. Their products were popular during the 1970s and 1980s in the United Kingdom, and are associated with nostalgia for that period and have experienced a comeback in the 2000s.
Products for carbonating water:
Commercial The process of dissolving carbon dioxide in water is called carbonation. Commercial soda water in siphons is made by chilling filtered plain water to 8 °C (46 °F) or below, optionally adding a sodium or potassium based alkaline compound such as sodium bicarbonate to neutralize the acid created when pressurizing the water with carbon dioxide (which creates high 8-10 pH carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer solution when dissolved in water). The gas dissolves in the water, and a top-off fill of carbon dioxide is added to pressurize the siphon to approximately 120 pounds per square inch (830 kPa), some 30 to 40 psi (210–280 kPa) higher than is present in fermenting champagne bottles.In many modern restaurants and bars soda water is manufactured on-site using devices known as carbonators. Carbonators use mechanical pumps to pump water into a pressurized chamber where it is combined with carbon dioxide from pressurized tanks at approximately 100 psi (690 kPa). The pressurized carbonated water then flows either directly to taps or mixing heads where flavoring is added before dispensing.
Uses:
Carbonated beverages Carbonated water is a key ingredient in soft drinks, beverages that typically consist of carbonated water, a sweetener, and a flavoring such as cola, ginger, or citrus.
Uses:
Plain carbonated water or sparkling mineral water is often consumed as an alternative to soft drinks. Club soda is carbonated water to which compounds such as sodium bicarbonate or potassium sulfate have been added. Many manufacturers produce unsweetened sparkling water products that are lightly flavored by the addition of aromatic ingredients such as essential oils. Carbonated water is often mixed with fruit juice to make sparkling alcoholic and non-alcoholic punches.
Uses:
Alcoholic beverages Carbonated water is a diluent mixed with alcoholic beverages where it is used to top-off the drink and provides a degree of 'fizz'.
Uses:
Adding soda water to "short" drinks such as spirits dilutes them and makes them "long" (not to be confused with long drinks such as those made with vermouth). Carbonated water also works well in short drinks made with whiskey, brandy, and Campari. Soda water may be used to dilute drinks based on cordials such as orange squash. Soda water is a necessary ingredient in many cocktails, such as whiskey and soda or Campari and soda.
Uses:
Cooking Carbonated water is increasingly popular in Western cooking as a substitution for plain water in deep-frying batters to provide a lighter texture to doughs similar to tempura. Kevin Ryan, a food scientist at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, says the effervescent bubbles when mixed with dough provide a light tempura-like texture, which gives the illusion of being lower calorie than regular frying batters. The lightness is caused by pockets of carbon dioxide gas being introduced into the batter (a process which natural rising using yeast also creates) and further expanding when cooked.
Uses:
Stain remover Since the dissolved gas in carbonated water acts as a temporary surfactant, it has been recommended as a household remedy for removing stains, particularly those of red wine. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Hail fellow well met**
Hail fellow well met:
"Hail fellow well met" is an English idiom used when referring to a person whose behavior is hearty, friendly, and congenial, in the affirmative sense.
Etymology:
The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) gives a 1589 quotation for this phrase as a friendly greeting, and quotations for the related phrase "hail fellow", a greeting that apparently dates to medieval times. "Well met" appears to have been added to the phrase in the 16th century to intensify its friendliness, and derives from the concept of "good to meet you", and also from the meaning of "meet" as something literally the right size for a given situation.
Historic usage:
In 1609 Thomas Dekker used the term in The Gull’s Hornbook ‘when at a new play you take up the twelve-penny room next the stage, (because the Lords and you may seem to be haile fellow wel-met) there draw forth this booke, read alowd, laugh alowd, and play the Antickes, that all the garlicke mouthd stinkards may cry out, Away with the fool.' The expression appeared in Jonathan Swift's My Lady's Lamentation (1728).The phrase appears in a section entitled "Sad"—in the Aeolus episode—in James Joyce's novel, Ulysses (1918), at the end of a description of the behaviour of newspaper men: "Funny the way the newspaper men veer about when they get wind of a new opening. Weathercocks. Hot and cold in the same breath. Wouldn't know which to believe. One story good till you hear the next. Go for one another baldheaded in the papers and then all blows over. Hailfellow well met the next moment."The early twentieth-century English novelist W. Somerset Maugham frequently used the term in his novels and short stories, in particular when he describes male characters of a genial, sociable, and hard-drinking temperament (e.g., Of Human Bondage, The Trembling of a Leaf, and Then and Now).
Contemporary usage:
In contemporary language the phrase is used as shorthand for someone who is genial or hearty but with the implication of superficiality or ingratiation.
We can see a contemporary use of the phrase in the highly acclaimed and popular BBC series Downton Abbey. In Episode 7 of Season 4 Mrs. Patmore, the cook, uses the phrase hail fellow well met to refer to Americans.
Linguistic observations:
Kuiper uses the fact that this idiom is a phrase that is a part of the English lexicon (technically, a "phrasal lexical item"), and that there are different ways that the expression can be presented—for instance, as the common "hail-fellow-well-met," which appears as a modifier before the noun it modifies, versus the more original greeting form of "Hail fellow. Well met"; these variants are given as an example to explain how changes between the two (deformation), performed for the sake of artistry in writing (i.e., artistic deformation), can move alternative interpretations to the foreground (i.e., can create "syntactic ambiguity"); that is, ambiguity can be foregrounded by artistic deformation, including, Kuiper notes, toward the end of creating humorous interpretations.
Notes:
Phrase appears in Public Broadcasting Service program Frontline Episode: Gunned Down (aired January 6, 2015), at time 20:42, said by J. Warren Cassidy, former NRA Executive V.P.
Notes:
Phrase used by Alan Partridge when greeting co-host "Sidekick" Simon Denton in episode 1 of This Time with Alan Partridge broadcast on BBC 1 on 25 February 2019.Phrase used in Chess in the song “Difficult and Dangerous Times”, referring to a chess match as a “sweet hail-fellow-well-met affair”.In Stephen King's books, the question "are we well met?" or its affirmation are often used. It is a particularly common phrase in The Dark Tower, which has many other archaisms.In the first episode of the sixth season of Cheers, Frasier Crane refers to Norm Peterson and Cliff Claven as "hail fellows well met."Phrase used in the novel "Jubb," by Keith Waterhouse, referring to getting knocked over by a dog.Phrase used by Magnus Burnsides during the Balance arc of the McElroy family's "The Adventure Zone" podcast. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Slingshot argument**
Slingshot argument:
In philosophical logic, a slingshot argument is one of a group of arguments claiming to show that all true sentences stand for the same thing.
Slingshot argument:
This type of argument was dubbed the "slingshot" by philosophers Jon Barwise and John Perry (1981) due to its disarming simplicity. It is usually said that versions of the slingshot argument have been given by Gottlob Frege, Alonzo Church, W. V. Quine, and Donald Davidson. However, it has been disputed by Lorenz Krüger (1995) that there is much unity in this tradition. Moreover, Krüger rejects Davidson's claim that the argument can refute the correspondence theory of truth. Stephen Neale (1995) claims, controversially, that the most compelling version was suggested by Kurt Gödel (1944).
Slingshot argument:
These arguments are sometimes modified to support the alternative, and evidently stronger, conclusion that there is only one fact, or one true proposition, state of affairs, truth condition, truthmaker, and so on.
The argument:
One version of the argument (Perry 1996) proceeds as follows.
Assumptions: Substitution. If two terms designate the same thing, then substituting one for another in a sentence does not change the designation of that sentence.
Redistribution. Rearranging the parts of a sentence does not change the designation of that sentence, provided the truth conditions of the sentence do not change.
The argument:
Every sentence is equivalent to a sentence of the form F(a). In other words, every sentence has the same designation as some sentence that attributes a property to something. (For example, "All men are mortal" is equivalent to "The number 1 has the property of being such that all men are mortal".) For any two objects there is a relation that holds uniquely between them. (For example, if the objects in question are denoted by "a" and "b", the relation in question might be R(x, y), which is stipulated to hold just in case x = a and y = b.)Let S and T be arbitrary true sentences, designating Des(S) and Des(T), respectively. (No assumptions are made about what kinds of things Des(S) and Des(T) are.) It is now shown by a series of designation-preserving transformations that Des(S) = Des(T). Here, " ιx " can be read as "the x such that".
The argument:
Note that (1)-(9) is not a derivation of T from S. Rather, it is a series of (allegedly) designation-preserving transformation steps.
Responses to the argument:
As Gödel (1944) observed, the slingshot argument does not go through if Bertrand Russell's famous account of definite descriptions is assumed. Russell claimed that the proper logical interpretation of a sentence of the form "The F is G" is: Exactly one thing is F, and that thing is also G.Or, in the language of first-order logic: ∃x(∀y(F(y)↔y=x)∧G(x)) When the sentences above containing ι -expressions are expanded out to their proper form, the steps involving substitution are seen to be illegitimate. Consider, for example, the move from (3) to (4). On Russell's account, (3) and (4) are shorthand for: Clearly the substitution principle and assumption 4 do not license the move from (3') to (4'). Thus, one way to look at the slingshot is as simply another argument in favor of Russell's theory of definite descriptions.
Responses to the argument:
If one is not willing to accept Russell's theory, then it seems wise to challenge either substitution or redistribution, which seem to be the other weakest points in the argument. Perry (1996), for example, rejects both of these principles, proposing to replace them with certain weaker, qualified versions that do not allow the slingshot argument to go through.
Responses to the argument:
An Italian philosopher, Gaetano Licata, in 2011 rejected the slingshot argument, showing that the concept of identity (=) employed in Davidson and Gödel's demonstration is very problematic, because Gödel (following Russell) uses the G. W. Leibniz's principle of the identity of indiscernibles, which suffer from the criticism proposed by Ludwig Wittgenstein: to state that x=y when all properties of x are also properties of y is false because y and x are different signs, while to state that x=x when all properties of x are also properties of x is a nonsense. Licata's thesis is that the sign = (usually employed between numbers) needs a logical foundation before being employed between objects and properties. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**R. Iris Bahar**
R. Iris Bahar:
R. Iris Bahar is Department Head of Computer Science at the Colorado School of Mines. Previously, she was professor at the School of Engineering at Brown University. Her interests include computer architecture; computer-aided design for synthesis, verification and low-power applications; and design, test, and reliability issues for nanoscale systems.
Education and career:
She earned the B.S. (1986) and M.S. (1987) degrees in computer engineering from the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign. After that she worked at the Digital Equipment Corporation. After that she joined the Ph.D. program in and earned the Ph.D. degree in electrical and computer engineering from the University of Colorado (1995), with the dissertation "Methods for Timing Analysis and Logic Synthesis to Decrease Power Dissipation".Since 1996 she is with Brown University, becoming full professor in 2012. In 2022, she joined Colorado School of Mines as the Department Head of Computer Science.
Awards and recognition:
2022: IEEE Fellow "for contributions to modeling and design of power-aware and noise-tolerant nanoscale computing systems" 2019: Marie R. Pistilli Women in Engineering Achievement Award "for outstanding technical contributions in energy efficient and reliable electronic systems, nanoelectronics, and nanotechnology" National Science Foundation CAREER award Distinguished Scientist of the ACM | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**DHRS7**
DHRS7:
Dehydrogenase/reductase (SDR family) member 7 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the DHRS7 gene.
Function:
Short-chain dehydrogenases/reductases (SDRs), such as DHRS7, catalyze the oxidation/reduction of a wide range of substrates, including retinoids and steroids. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Internet in Poland**
Internet in Poland:
The Internet in Poland was used by 90.4% of households in the country and 98.6% business entities in 2020. In 2022, 99,9% households with children have internet access and 90,5% without it, also legal changes force broadband internet for business entities.
Facts and figures:
Top-level domain: .pl Internet users: 31.97 million users; 84.5% of the population (2021).
Fixed broadband: 6.4 million subscriptions, 17th in the world; 16.6% of the population, 54th in the world (2012).
Wireless broadband: 18.9 million subscriptions, 16th in the world; 49.3% of the population, 33rd in the world (2012).
Internet hosts: 13.3 million hosts, 12th in the world (2012).
Facts and figures:
IPv4: 19.4 million addresses allocated, 21st in the world, 0.5% of the world total, 505.9 addresses per 1000 people (2012).70.6% of households in Poland with no internet access indicated that they have no need to use it.In August 2020, the number of mobile device users exceeded the number of fixed-line internet users.The first analogue Internet connection was launched on September 26, 1990 and had a speed of approximately 9600 bits per second. The Institute of Nuclear Physics of the Polish Academy of Sciences received the first IP address in Poland (192.86.14.0) on 19 November 1990, assigned to it by the United States Department of Defense. This institute was also the recipient of the first e-mail sent to Poland, sent by CERN on 20 November 1990, and received on a MicroVax II computer.
Pricing:
According to an OECD report, the price of Internet access in Poland in September 2012 ranged from $0.45 to $128.12 PPP per megabit per second (Mbit/s) of advertised speed. This places Poland in the middle on the low end (18th lowest out of 34 countries) and at the top on the high end (second highest behind New Zealand at $130.20). This compares with ranges of $0.40 to $23.25 for Germany, $0.40 to $12.35 for the Czech Republic, and $0.53 to $41.70 for the U.S.According to Eurostat, the OECD and others, Internet access in Poland in the early 2010s was among the most expensive in Europe. This was mostly due to a lack of competition and lack of experience. New operators like Dialog and GTS Energis are designing their own provider lines and are offering more attractive and cheaper services. In February 2011, the Polish Office of Electronic Communication issued an order forcing TPSA to rent 51% of their ADSL lines to other ISPs at 60% discount of their market pricing. As the result, the prices are non-competitive. Other ISP charge as TPSA makes a guaranteed 40% profit, while TPSA has no incentive to lower its consumer prices, because that would result in a lowering of wholesale prices as well.
ADSL:
The most popular ADSL services for home users in Poland are Neostrada provided by TPSA and Net24 provided by Netia. Both provide download speeds in the range of 10 to 80 Mbit/s and upload speeds of 1 Mbit/s or more. Business users as well as some home users use Internet DSL TP also offered by TPSA.
Neostrada ADSL and VDSL service is offered by Neostrada.
Internet DSL TP There is another ADSL option available, targeted mainly at business clients, called Internet DSL TP. The link availability is guaranteed, offers static IP addresses, and a modem with Ethernet interface.
Net24 ADSL service called Net24, provided by TP's main competitor Netia. The service can be installed on ISDN lines.Netia also offers ADSL (BiznesNet24) and SDSL (SuperNet24) subscriptions for business customers, which offer static IP addresses and higher speeds.
Multimo ADSL service called Multimo, provided by GTS Energis for TP customers via Bit Stream Access.
DialNET DSL ADSL service called DialNET DSL, provided by Dialog now bought by Netia.
Cable:
Cable providers such as Multimedia, UPC, Vectra and ASTER offer triple play services.
VECTRA Vectra, after the purchase of Multimedia, is the largest cable network in Poland. (Reaches 4.4 million households).
INEA Cable provider offering HFC and FTTH internet access from Greater Poland. Initially offered up to 10 Gbit/s for selected locations with FTTH which was reduced later to 8,5 Gbit/s and up to 1 Gbit/s in most locations. HFC offerings are asymmetric and FTTH are symmetric.
UPC UPC has upgraded its "Fiber Power" internet service to higher speeds, offering internet with download speeds from 10 Mbit/s up to 1 Gbit/s. (Reaches 3.7 million households). play (p4) buys UPC.
ASTER ASTER used to provide triple play to many cities in Poland, especially Warsaw and Kraków with speeds ranging from 1 Mbit/s to 120 Mbit/s.On January 2, 2012, Aster merged with UPC. As a result, every service was bumped into the higher tier and the daytime half speed throttling was removed.
HETAN HETAN provides stationary Internet via Satellite to whole Poland for private and business customers with speeds ranging from 10 Mbit/s to 20 Mbit/s in download and from 2 Mbit/s to 6 Mbit/s in upload.
HETAN launched its services in August 2011, and is since then market leader in providing internet via KA-satellite services to private households and SME's in Poland. HETAN is the largest reseller of Tooway/Skylogic Services in Poland and also represents Hylass/Avanti.
Cable:
KORBANK KORBANK provides Triple Play, especially in FTTx or ETH technology. The firm allows subscribers to connect and use computer-based telecommunications networks using independent Internet connections boasting high quality and transmission capacity, digital telephony and new generation TV. Operations focus on Lower Silesia and Masovia regions, where telecommunications services are offered to both retail and business clients. KORBANK is also founder of the first in Europe IPTV Platform based on Unicast Protocol - AVIOS.
Cable:
During Civic Platform government In early 2011, Internet censorship legislation that included the creation of a registry of blocked websites was abandoned by the Polish government, following protests and petitions opposing the proposal.In 2011, the Office for Electronic Communications reported that law enforcement agencies requested access to telecommunications data (including call logs, telephone locations, and names registered to specific numbers) 1.8 million times, an increase of 500,000 over the number of requests in 2010.In January 2012, thousands protested Prime Minister Tusk's signing of the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement (ACTA), establishing international standards for enforcing intellectual property rights, accusing it of facilitating Internet censorship. Additionally, in February, Tusk suspended ratification of ACTA because his government had made insufficient consultations before signing the agreement to ensure it was entirely safe for Polish citizens.In September 2012, the creator of the website Antykomor.pl that satirized President Komorowski was sentenced to 15 months of restricted liberty and 600 hours of community service for defaming the president. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Prout's hypothesis**
Prout's hypothesis:
Prout's hypothesis was an early 19th-century attempt to explain the existence of the various chemical elements through a hypothesis regarding the internal structure of the atom. In 1815 and 1816, the English chemist William Prout published two papers in which he observed that the atomic weights that had been measured for the elements known at that time appeared to be whole multiples of the atomic weight of hydrogen. He then hypothesized that the hydrogen atom was the only truly fundamental object, which he called protyle, and that the atoms of other elements were actually groupings of various numbers of hydrogen atoms.Prout's hypothesis was an influence on Ernest Rutherford when he succeeded in "knocking" hydrogen nuclei out of nitrogen atoms with alpha particles in 1917, and thus concluded that perhaps the nuclei of all elements were made of such particles (the hydrogen nucleus), which in 1920 he suggested be named protons, from the suffix "-on" for particles, added to the stem of Prout's word "protyle". The assumption as discussed by Rutherford was of a nucleus consisting of Z + N = A protons plus N electrons somehow trapped within thereby reducing the positive charge to +Z as observed and vaguely explaining beta decay radioactivity. Such a nuclear constitution was known to be inconsistent with dynamics either classical or early quantum but seemed inevitable until the neutron hypothesis by Rutherford and discovery by English physicist James Chadwick.
Prout's hypothesis:
The discrepancy between Prout's hypothesis and the known variation of some atomic weights to values far from integral multiples of hydrogen, was explained between 1913 and 1932 by the discovery of isotopes and the neutron. According to the whole number rule of Francis Aston, Prout's hypothesis is correct for atomic masses of individual isotopes, with an error of at most 1%.
Influence:
Prout's hypothesis remained influential in chemistry throughout the 1820s. However, more careful measurements of the atomic weights, such as those compiled by Jacob Berzelius in 1828 or Edward Turner in 1832, disproved the hypothesis.: 682–683 In particular, the atomic weight of chlorine, which is 35.45 times that of hydrogen, could not at the time be explained in terms of Prout's hypothesis. Some came up with the ad hoc claim that the basic unit was one-half of a hydrogen atom, but further discrepancies surfaced. This resulted in the hypothesis that one-quarter of a hydrogen atom was the common unit. Although they turned out to be wrong, these conjectures catalyzed further measurement of atomic weights.
Influence:
The discrepancy in the atomic weights was by 1919 suspected to be the result of the natural occurrence of multiple isotopes of the same element. F. W. Aston discovered multiple stable isotopes for numerous elements using a mass spectrograph. In 1919, Aston studied neon with sufficient resolution to show that the two isotopic masses are very close to the integers 20 and 22, and that neither is equal to the known molar mass (20.2) of neon gas.By 1925, the problematic chlorine was found to be composed of the isotopes 35Cl and 37Cl, in proportions such that the average weight of natural chlorine was about 35.45 times that of hydrogen. For all elements, each individual isotope of mass number A was eventually found to have a mass very close to A times the mass of a hydrogen atom, with an error always less than 1%. This is a near miss to Prout's law being correct. Nevertheless, the rule was not found to predict isotope masses better than this for all isotopes, due mostly to mass defects resulting from release of binding energy in atomic nuclei when they are formed.
Influence:
Although all elements are the product of nuclear fusion of hydrogen into higher elements, it is now understood that atoms consist of both protons (hydrogen nuclei) and neutrons. The modern version of Prout's rule is that the atomic mass of an isotope of proton number (atomic number) Z and neutron number N is equal to sum of the masses of its constituent protons and neutrons, minus the mass of the nuclear binding energy, the mass defect. According to the whole number rule proposed by Francis Aston, the mass of an isotope is roughly, but not exactly, its mass number A (Z + N) times an atomic mass unit (u), plus or minus binding energy discrepancy – atomic mass unit being the modern approximation for "mass of a proton, neutron, or hydrogen atom". For example iron-56 atoms (which have among the highest binding-energies) weigh only about 99.1% as much as 56 hydrogen atoms. The missing 0.9% of mass represents the energy lost when the nucleus of iron was made from hydrogen inside a star (see stellar nucleosynthesis).
Literary allusions:
In his 1891 novel The Doings of Raffles Haw, Arthur Conan Doyle talks about turning elements into other elements of decreasing atomic number, until a gray matter is reached.
In his 1959 novel Life and Fate, Vasily Grossman's principal character, the physicist Viktor Shtrum, reflects on Prout's hypothesis about hydrogen being the origin of other elements (and the felicitous fact that Prout's incorrect data led to an essentially correct conclusion), as he worries about his inability to formulate his own thesis. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Four on the floor (music)**
Four on the floor (music):
Four-on-the-floor (or four-to-the-floor) is a rhythm pattern used primarily in dance genres such as disco and electronic dance music. It is a steady, uniformly accented beat in 44 time in which the bass drum is hit on every beat (1, 2, 3, 4).
Four on the floor (music):
This was popularized in the disco music of the 1970s and the term four-on-the-floor was widely used in that era, since the beat was played with the pedal-operated, drum-kit bass drum.Four on the floor was common in jazz drumming until bebop styles expanded rhythmic roles beyond the basics in the 1940s. Garage rock bands of the 1960s such as the Troggs and the Seeds used four-on-the-floor on some of their hits.Earl Young is seen as the inventor of the disco style of rock drumming (in Harold Melvin & the Blue Notes's "The Love I Lost" from 1973), as he was the first to make extensive and distinctive use of the hi-hat cymbal throughout the playing time of an R&B recording.Many styles of electronic dance music use this beat as an important part of the rhythmic structure. Sometimes the term is used to refer to a 4/4 uniform drumming pattern for any drum.A form of four-on-the-floor is also used in jazz drumming. Instead of hitting the bass drum in a pronounced and therefore easily audible fashion, it is usually struck very lightly (referred to as "feathering") so that the sound of the drum is felt instead of heard by the listener. Typically, this is combined with a ride cymbal and hi-hat in syncopation. When a string instrument makes the rhythm (rhythm guitar, banjo), all four beats of the measure are played by identical downstrokes.
Four on the floor (music):
In reggae drumming, the bass drum usually hits on the third beat but sometimes drummers play four on the floor. Sly Dunbar from Sly and Robbie was one of the reggae drummers who played mostly in this style. Also Carlton Barrett from Bob Marley and the Wailers played four on the floor on several hits by the Wailers like "Is This Love" and "Exodus". In reggae, four on the floor usually goes by the hand with a low end and powerful bassline. Four on the floor can be found in more modern reggae derivative styles such as dancehall, while it is less common to find it in roots reggae. In the roots context, it is generally referred to as a "steppers" rhythm. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Prunasin beta-glucosidase**
Prunasin beta-glucosidase:
In enzymology, a prunasin β-glucosidase (EC 3.2.1.118) is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction (R)-prunasin + H2O ⇌ D-glucose + mandelonitrileIt belongs to the family of hydrolases, specifically those glycosidases that hydrolyse O- and S-glycosyl compounds. The systematic name is prunasin β-D-glucohydrolase. It is also called prunasin hydrolase. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**2021 Davao Oriental earthquake**
2021 Davao Oriental earthquake:
On August 12, 2021, at 01:46:12 PST, a strong Mw 7.1 earthquake struck the island of Mindanao at a depth of 56.7 kilometers (35.2 mi). It perceived Intensity V on the PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale. No damage or injuries were reported but a young man was killed by the earthquake.
Tectonic setting:
The Philippines islands were formed in evolutionary processes involving Subductions, and collisions. Earthquakes are frequent there as a result of collision processes between the Philippine Sea Plate (PSP) and the Sunda Plate (SP). The slip convergence between PSP and the SP boundary is obliquely accommodated by the Philippine fault system, which is a major left-lateral strike-slip fault system. The Philippine fault has been slipping at a rate of 33 ± 11 mm/yr in the northern and central Leyte sections. The southern part of the Philippine fault is mainly located in eastern Mindanao and constitutes a complex fault system with discrete strands and splays. Mindanao island is located on the complex collision boundary between the SP and the PSP. Some parts of the convergence between these plates are consumed by the Philippine fault and subduction at the Cotabato trench.
Earthquake:
The earthquake struck near Davao Oriental early on Thursday morning, August 12. PHIVOLCS earlier listed the earthquake as magnitude 7.3 at a depth of 69 kilometers, then revised its advisory to a magnitude 7.2 earthquake, which occurred at a depth of 50 kilometers. It later reverted to its original report of a magnitude 7.3 earthquake. At 6:06 am, PHIVOLCS further revised its report to a magnitude 7.1 earthquake, at a depth of 39 km (kilometers). The United States Geological Survey also measured the quake at 7.1. The Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) reported in a bulletin that the earthquake, which was tectonic in origin, struck at 1:46 am off the coast of Davao Oriental. PHIVOLCS said that there was no tsunami threat but damage and aftershocks were expected.Local authorities have deployed personnel to assess structures for any damage and injuries following the earthquake. In Davao City, workers of different businesses went out of their offices due to the earthquake.
Earthquake:
Mindanao is regularly rocked by quakes due to its location on the Pacific "Ring of Fire".Aftershocks ranging in magnitude 4's and 5's followed after the mainshock early morning in Philippines. A moderately strong shallow aftershock was felt at midnight on August 12. The strongest aftershocks were reported magnitude 5.1 and 5.7 intensities of III. The earthquake was felt mostly all over Mindanao and lasted for more than a minute.
Earthquake:
Tsunami A tsunami was generated with recorded wave heights of 6.1 cm at Bitung, Indonesia and 3 cm at Davao City, Philippines.
Other events:
An earthquake measuring a magnitude of 7.0 struck the same location on January 21, 2021. Despite the location, there is no evidence of a casual relationship between these two events due to the long period of time between them.
Damage and casualties:
The Department of Transportation said there were only minor cracks on the runway of the airport in Mati, but no damage to the passenger terminal. There was no damage at Francisco Bangoy International Airport as well as port facilities and public terminals in the region, it added. Despite that there is no damage reported. A 20-year-old man in Tandag died after being hit in the head by falling coconuts following the earthquake. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Installer (programming language)**
Installer (programming language):
Installer is a scripting language developed by Sylvan Technical Arts and published by Commodore International for AmigaOS, first released for version 2.1 in 1992. Its grammar is based on the LISP programming language. A compatible re-implementation named InstallerLG is actively developed as of October 2018.Example from the developer guide: The InstallerGen tool can be used as an alternative for writing scripts by hand. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**D-space**
D-space:
In mathematics, a topological space X is a D-space if for any family {Ux:x∈X} of open sets such that x∈Ux for all points x∈X , there is a closed discrete subset D of the space X such that ⋃x∈DUx=X
History:
The notion of D-spaces was introduced by Eric Karel van Douwen and E.A. Michael. It first appeared in a 1979 paper by van Douwen and Washek Frantisek Pfeffer in the Pacific Journal of Mathematics. Whether every Lindelöf and regular topological space is a D-space is known as the D-space problem. This problem is among twenty of the most important problems of set theoretic topology.
Properties:
Every Menger space is a D-space.
A subspace of a topological linearly ordered space is a D-space iff it is a paracompact space. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**CD43**
CD43:
Leukosialin also known as sialophorin or CD43 (cluster of differentiation 43) is a transmembrane cell surface protein that in humans is encoded by the SPN (sialophorin) gene.
Function:
Sialophorin (leukosialin) is a major sialoglycoprotein on the surface of human T lymphocytes, monocytes, granulocytes, and some B lymphocytes, which appears to be important for immune function and may be part of a physiologic ligand-receptor complex involved in T-cell activation.
Clinical significance:
Defects in the CD43 molecule are associated with the development of Wiskott–Aldrich syndrome. It also appears in about 25% of intestinal MALTomas. Using immunohistochemistry, CD43 can be demonstrated in the paracortical T-cells of healthy lymph nodes and tonsils; it is also positive in a range of lymphoid and myeloid tumours. Although it is present in over 90% of T-cell lymphomas, it is generally less effective at demonstrating this condition than is CD3 antigen. However, it may be useful as part of a panel to demonstrate B-cell lymphoblastic lymphoma, since the malignant cells in this condition are often CD43 positive, and may be difficult to stain with other antibodies. Because it stains granulocytes and their precursors, it is also an effective marker for myeloid tumours.
Interactions:
CD43 has been shown to interact with EZR and Moesin. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**OpenGL++**
OpenGL++:
OpenGL++ was a graphics library written in C++ that supported object-oriented data structures on top of the OpenGL 3D graphics system. The project started as the result of a partnership between SGI, IBM and Intel, and later, Digital Equipment Corporation. It was intended to provide a higher level API than the "bare metal" support of OpenGL, as well as being an implementation for Java3D. Work on OpenGL++ ended when SGI decided to partner with Microsoft instead, leading to the Fahrenheit project, which also died.
Background:
The vast majority of applications using 3D systems describe the objects in their "world" in a data structure known as a scene graph. A scene graph is normally organized as some sort of a tree data structure, with the nodes representing objects, and the edges their relationship to other objects in the world. For instance, a table might be represented by a single "table" object with several edges connecting its parts together, the table top, legs, etc.
Background:
Key to high performance in 3D applications is deciding what objects in the world are actually visible given the current camera position and direction. For instance, objects behind the camera do not have to be drawn. Quick traversal of the scene graph is essential to making this "culling" operation occur quickly.
Background:
Scene graphs were generally left to the developer to implement, and it was all too common to see poor examples that led to poor performance. SGI had worked on a number of projects that were intended to help the developer produce a high-quality scene graph, but none of these had become widely used for a variety of reasons. Open Inventor was one such example, and was intended to simplify building the scene graph, but the results were not necessarily very high performance. OpenGL Performer was a similar project that was intended to produce high-speed scenes and support very large numbers of objects in the "world", but was not particularly easy to use.
Cosmo3D:
The Inventor and Performer teams had already realized that there was no particular reason the two systems could not be combined into one, offering both ease-of-development and high-performance. This led to the Cosmo3D system, basically, a standardized high-performance scene graph that sat on top of OpenGL. Cosmo3D introduced a new file format that could be used to store entire scenes and all the data needed to reconstruct them, the VRML format that is still in use.SGI produced a number of products that used Cosmo3D. Among these were a variety of VRML tools, and a large model visualization system for CAD purposes called OpenGL Optimizer. Oddly, Cosmo Code, a VRML authoring tool, was produced by a different division and did not use the Cosmo scene graph at all.
Cosmo3D:
Cosmo's scene graph was by no means a unique solution at the time, and a number of other graphics companies were working on similar ideas at about this time.
OpenGL++:
At the 20–21 August 1996 meeting of the OpenGL Architecture Review Board (ARB), SGI floated the idea of a new standardized scene graph similar to Cosmo3D but with the express intent of being based on "standard" OpenGL. There was some interest in the concept, so at the 9–10 December 1996 meeting the group presented the first draft of the OpenGL++ concept. A follow-up meeting during 17–19 February 1997 demonstrated that there was considerable interest from most parties, with the exception of Microsoft and Sun, although there were concerns as to whether or not the ARB was the right body to support such an effort without diluting their primary job of supporting OpenGL. Development continued throughout 1997 including several distributions of the API. However, the ARB notes "There's been lots of work, but relatively little communication."While the work on OpenGL++ continued, Sun and SGI had also been working on a 3D standard suitable for Java. These efforts eventually broke down, and Sun went on to release Java3D. SGI suggested their Cosmo work was a sample Java3D implementation, and as this work evolved into OpenGL++ these plans moved with it. During the definition of OpenGL++, Sun stated that they were not interested in working on the effort as they were focussed on their Java3D work. Comparatively, Java3D spans two layers of the 3D stack, the scene graph and the visual interface and its widgets.
OpenGL++:
By late 1997 SGI appeared to be fully committed to the OGL++ effort. They had stated that the existing Cosmo work would be abandoned and that Open Inventor, Performer and OpenGL Optimizer would be re-written to be hosted on top of OGL++. As OGL++ was intended to be a cleaned up and more flexible version of Cosmo3D, most of the Cosmo3D team started work on OGL++ and a lot of the effort was aimed at a specification and implementation that could deliver on the promise of a truly powerful yet generic scene graph.
At the end:
At the March 1998 ARB meeting, to everyone's surprise, SGI presented Fahrenheit, an entirely new project. The ARB notes from that meeting note "SGI felt it was critical to work together with Microsoft, which had not been moving in compatible directions, to be able to build value-added products in the Windows environment. Fahrenheit is a large step in that direction." OpenGL++ was abandoned.
At the end:
The project appears to have been a victim of SGI's shifting priorities through this period, changing directions in order to partner with larger companies. When these companies exited the 3D space to focus on other product niches, SGI was left as the only supporter of the project, exactly what they were trying to avoid. Eventually, the only other company with a 3D focus was Microsoft, and the Fahrenheit project started and ended shortly after the OpenGL++ efforts.
At the end:
Today, no such standardized scene graph exists, and SGI has all but exited the API world. SGI has released the earlier Open Inventor code into open source, but the source to OGL++ was never completed to any satisfactory degree. No finalized specification exists and, as with OpenGL, the spec and idea behind such an open platform would have been what lent it its lasting value, not a single implementation of a scene graph idea. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**HyperSCSI**
HyperSCSI:
HyperSCSI is an outdated computer network protocol for accessing storage by sending and receiving SCSI commands. It was developed by researchers at the Data Storage Institute in Singapore in 2000 to 2003.
HyperSCSI:
HyperSCSI is unlike iSCSI in that it bypassed the internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) and works directly over Ethernet to form its storage area network (SAN). It skipped the routing, retransmission, segmentation, reassembly, and all the other problems that the TCP/IP suite addresses. Compared to iSCSI, this was meant to give a performance benefit at the cost of IP's flexibility. An independent performance test showed that performance was unstable with network congestion.
HyperSCSI:
Since HyperSCSI was in direct competition with the older and well established Fibre Channel, and the standardized iSCSI, it was not adopted by commercial vendors. Some researchers at Huazhong University of Science and Technology noted the failure to provide any transport layer protocol, so implemented a reliability layer in 2007.
Another version called HS/IP was developed over the Internet Protocol (IP). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**RNA (journal)**
RNA (journal):
RNA is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal that covers research on all aspects of RNA molecules, including their structures, metabolism, functions, and evolution. The journal was established in 1995 and originally published by Cambridge University Press. Since 2003 it is published by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press on behalf of the RNA Society. The editor-in-chief is Timothy W. Nilsen (Case Western Reserve University).
Abstracting and indexing:
The journal is abstracted and indexed in Science Citation Index, Current Contents/Life Sciences, BIOSIS Previews, Scopus, and Index Medicus/MEDLINE/PubMed. According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2018 impact factor of 3.949. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Magic Mirror (Snow White)**
Magic Mirror (Snow White):
The Magic Mirror is a mystical object that is featured in the story of Snow White, depicted as either a hand mirror or a wall-mounted mirror.
Fairy tale:
The Magic Mirror belongs to the Evil Queen, who constantly asks it – usually in a rhyming phrase – who is the fairest in the land. When the mirror eventually identifies her young stepdaughter Snow White as the fairest, the Queen jealously tries to have her killed, first via her huntsman, then several personal attempts concluding with a poisoned apple. The mirror is key to her plots; it tells her Snow White's location, and after each attempt, she checks with the mirror and is again told that Snow White remains the fairest. At the very end, when Snow White is married, the mirror tells her that the young queen is the most beautiful. The Evil Queen is terrified but her jealousy drives her to attend the wedding, where she is caught and executed.
Analysis:
In other versions of the tale from around the world, a person, an animal, or the moon may play the same role as the magic mirror, informing the villain that the heroine is more beautiful. The mirror has been interpreted as the voice of Snow White's father judging between the beauty of his wife and daughter.
Modern adaptations:
Disney Disney's Snow White franchise The Magic Mirror appeared in Disney's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs voiced by Moroni Olsen. The Magic Mirror contained an imprisoned spirit who is referred to as the Slave in the Magic Mirror. In his first appearance in the film, the Evil Queen would consult with the Magic Mirror to ask who the fairest one of all was. The Magic Mirror always told the Evil Queen that she was the fairest one of all. When asked who the fairest of all is, the spirit replies that, while the Queen is beautiful, a fairer being exists. When the Queen angrily asks for the girl's name, the spirit describes her, making it obvious to the Queen that Snow White is the one being referred to. The Queen then orders her Huntsman to kill Snow White and bring her back her heart. When the Evil Queen asks the Magic Mirror who the fairest of them all was later that evening, the Magic Mirror told her that Snow White was still the fairest of them all. Though the Queen at first believes the spirit to be incorrect and showed it the heart in question, she is told that she holds the heart of a pig and that Snow White still lives in the Cottage of the Seven Dwarfs.
Modern adaptations:
When the attraction Snow White's Scary Adventures was redone in 1994, the Magic Mirror is featured and voiced by Tony Jay.
Modern adaptations:
The Magic Mirror appeared in the television series House of Mouse, voiced again by Tony Jay. It is seen in the lobby of the club. The Magic Mirror would always answer questions given to him by the guests or give advice to the staff members. In the episode "House of Magic," Daisy accidentally makes the guests disappear causing Mickey to turn to the Magic Mirror for information on how to undo the spell. When the Magic Mirror gives a cryptic answer, Mickey asks him to repeat it again in a way he can understand it. The Magic Mirror tells him to check the prop basement for anything that can help them. As Mickey leads the staff to the basement, the Magic Mirror quotes that nobody wants to hear his cryptic answers anymore.
Modern adaptations:
The Magic Mirror also appeared in Fantasmic! voiced again by Tony Jay.
Modern adaptations:
The Magic Mirror appears in Kingdom Hearts: Birth by Sleep voiced by Corey Burton. The Magic Mirror first appears in Terra's storyline. As per the movie, it told the Queen that Snow White was now much fairer than the vain ruler. However, it added on that her heart was a pure light than shone bright. It was then promised by the Evil Queen usage by Terra to find Master Xehanort if he brought her Snow White's heart. However, he did not do so and told the Evil Queen he never intended to. Terra then proceeds to tell her that unlike Snow White, she has much darkness in her heart. The Evil Queen, insulted and outraged, commanded the mirror to destroy Terra. The Magic Mirror refused saying it can only answer questions. The Evil Queen's increasing rage then caused the Magic Mirror to have a potion slammed on its face sucking Terra in and fighting him. However, the Spirit of the Magic Mirror is defeated and releases Terra. The Evil Queen reluctantly has the Magic Mirror tell Terra where he can find Master Xehanort. The Magic Mirror quotes "Beyond both light and dark he dwells, where war was waged upon the fells." Upon learning this information, Terra takes his leave from the Evil Queen and the Magic Mirror where the Magic Mirror's cryptic response would direct Terra to the Keyblade Graveyard. The Magic Mirror later appears in Aqua's storyline. When Aqua looks for a cure for Snow White in the castle, the still-possessed Magic Mirror drags her into the mirror for a fight, but she also manages to defeat the Spirit of the Magic Mirror and is released. The Magic Mirror states to Aqua "The Queen is gone, my service done. Adieu, oh victorious one." After that was quoted, the spirit inside disappears leaving its mirror prison to be just a normal mirror.
Modern adaptations:
In the Disney Channel original movie Descendants, the Evil Queen has retained the Mirror after her exile to the Isle of the Lost, reduced to a small hand-mirror that is passed on to her daughter Evie. Although it is still controlled by rhymes spoken by the user and doesn't have an inhabitant in it.
A different version of the Magic Mirror appeared in The 7D voiced by Whoopi Goldberg. This version is a female that serves Queen Delightful of Jollyland.
Modern adaptations:
Once Upon a Time In Once Upon a Time, the Magic Mirror started out as a Genie (portrayed by Giancarlo Esposito) where he and his lamp were discovered by King Leopold. King Leopold feels no need to wish for anything and uses the first and second wishes to free the Genie from the lamp and to give the third wish to the Genie. The Genie expresses the desire to find true love, so King Leopold takes the Genie to his castle as he believes the Genie can find true love there. He falls in love with the King's wife Queen Regina and gives her a hand mirror. The King reads in the Queen's diary that she has fallen in love with the man who gave her the hand mirror and asks the Genie to locate him. The Queen is then locked in her room to prevent her from leaving the King. To free her, her father has the Genie bring her a locked box, which turns out to be filled with poisonous vipers from Agrabah so the Queen can kill herself. Instead, the Genie uses the vipers to kill King Leopold and allow the Queen to be with him. She tells him that since the vipers were from his country, the guards will find out that he was the murderer and flee. Realizing the Queen never loved him, he uses his wish to be always with her and to never leave her sight. This traps him in the hand mirror. As a spirit in the Magic Mirror, he is able to move between and see through all other mirrors in the Enchanted Forest. He is used by Regina to spy on and locate others.
Modern adaptations:
In Storybrooke, he is Sidney Glass, a reporter for Storybrooke's local newspaper The Daily Mirror. On Regina's request, he researches Emma Swan's past to help Regina expel her from Storybrooke. After Graham's death, Regina attempts to appoint him sheriff, but the wording of the town charter calls for an election. He loses the position to Emma Swan. Regina has him removed from the newspaper staff, and Sidney goes to Emma, claiming that he wants to expose Regina as the corrupt person she is. However, the exposé reveals Regina's attempts to improve the community. Despite this, Sidney tells Emma that he will help her take down Regina, but it is revealed that he is secretly in league with Regina, who is using Emma's trust in Sidney to gain leverage over Emma. Emma later learns that he planted a bug in a vase glass after it is used to tip off Regina upon discovering a key piece of evidence that would have cleared Mary Margaret Blanchard of Kathryn Nolan's murder. Emma confronts Sidney and realizes that he is in love with Regina. Still, Emma presses him to help defeat Regina. However, after Kathryn is found alive, Sidney falsely confesses to kidnapping Kathryn and framing Mary Margaret so that he could "find" Kathryn and become famous. Later, a cell labeled "S. Glass" is seen in the hospital basement's psychiatric ward. The name "S. Glass" is visible on a door in the first season finale, suggesting that Regina had locked him in the Storybrooke Hospital's psychiatric ward after he confessed to the kidnapping. In "A Tale of Two Sisters," Regina frees Sidney Glass from the psychiatric ward to be her Mirror again to enlist him into helping get rid of the people that are in the middle of her happiness. Regina temporarily places Sidney in the mirror to find the exact moment in which Maid Marian was apprehended by Regina's men. Regina later consults with Sidney on how to change fate. Regina tells Sidney that the villains in the book don't get a happy ending and wants him to find the writer of the book so that she can make some changes like allowing the villains to get their happy endings. In "Breaking Glass," Regina has Sidney Glass look for the Snow Queen's hideout to force her into thawing Maid Marian from her freezing spell. When Emma arrives to know where Sidney Glass is, Regina states that she's too busy to tell her where Sidney Glass is. Sidney later reports to Regina about where the Snow Queen is hiding out after his failed attempt to get a leverage on Regina. Using a compact to remain in contact to Sidney Glass, Regina heads in the directions of the Snow Queen's hideout. Regina later admits that Sidney was in the mirror. Upon strong winds reaching Emma and Regina, Sidney states the Snow Queen had swayed him to her side as Elsa's ice bridge breaks. After Emma and Regina defeat a large Viking made of ice, the Snow Queen takes the compact that Sidney is and retreats. At her hideout, the Snow Queen frees Sidney from the mirror as she wanted the mirror that he was trapped in to go with her mirror that she is putting together. The Snow Queen states that she wants the mirror that Sidney Glass is in since it is filled with dark magic. Before declaring Sidney free, the Snow Queen advises Sidney to get a warm coat since it is "going to get cooler around here." Other appearances The 10th Kingdom In the TV miniseries The 10th Kingdom, a magic mirror is a key element of the plot, as protagonists Tony and Virginia Lewis travel from New York into the fairy-tale realm via a traveling mirror, which they subsequently lose and must spend the rest of the series searching for, while their enemy, the evil Queen and protégé of Snow White's deceased stepmother, spies on them with other magic mirrors. The travelling mirror that brought them to this world is destroyed in an accident, but an old mirror referred to as Gustav- which can only communicate and respond to queries made in rhyme- reveals that there were two other travelling mirrors made, with one sunk at the bottom of the ocean and the other in the possession of the Queen. With the Queen's defeat, Virginia returns to New York through the Queen's travelling mirror, although Tony decides to remain in the fairy-tale realm to enjoy his new status as a hero.
Modern adaptations:
Faerie Tale Theatre The mirror in Faerie Tale Theatre was portrayed by Vincent Price, whose face appeared as if mounted on the top of the mirror (in reality, Price stuck his face through a hole). This mirror, as did all of the Queen's other mirrors, turned black as she found out that Snow White was alive.
Modern adaptations:
Sesame Street The Magic Mirror appeared in Episode 685 of Sesame Street with the Magic Mirror's face being the face of Jerry Nelson. In the "Sesame Street News Flash" segment, Kermit the Frog interviews the Magic Mirror on which question the evil witch will ask him and tells Kermit that it is the same question where the Snow White answer "drives her up the wall." The witch asks the Magic Mirror who is the fairest in the land, has two beautiful eyes, is green, wearing a hat, wielding a microphone, and is in the same room as the Magic Mirror. The Magic Mirror states that Kermit the Frog is the fairest. The witch then notices Kermit the Frog hiding behind the curtain and states that he is good-looking.
Modern adaptations:
Grimm's Fairy Tale Classics The Magic Mirror appears in the "Snow White" episode of Grimm's Fairy Tale Classics voiced by Doug Lee in the English dub. It is kept in a cabinet in the Evil Queen's chambers. Like the story, the Magic Mirror told the Evil Queen that she was the fairest of them all until the day when Snow White came of age. In this version when the Magic Mirror told the Evil Queen that the Seven Dwarfs freed Snow White from the deadly laces and that she can't be killed when she is in their protection, the Evil Queen breaks the Magic Mirror vowing to prove it wrong.
Modern adaptations:
Happily Ever After The Magic Mirror appeared as the Looking Glass in Happily Ever After voiced by Dom DeLuise. When Lord Maliss asks him where his sister the Evil Queen is and threatens it for information, the Looking Glass tells him that she has died trying to kill Snow White. After Snow White evaded Lord Maliss' dragon form, Lord Maliss consults the Looking Glass again as the Looking Glass tells him that Snow White and the Dwarfelles are heading to Rainbow Falls. When Snow White ventures to Lord Maliss' castle, the Looking Glass tells him that it will be tough for Snow White to find his castle. When the Dwarfelles enter Lord Maliss' castle and wonder where Lord Maliss has taken Snow White, the Looking Glass states that "beneath the Queen lies a secret door." After searching the area, they find a panel to the hidden door underneath the Evil Queen's bust.
Modern adaptations:
Snow White (1990) The Magic Mirror appears in the 1990 Snow White film voiced by Cam Clarke. He is shown as an anthropomorphic hand mirror who would often try to get the Evil Queen not to ask who is the fairest one of all. At the end of the movie following the Evil Queen's defeat, the Magic Mirror attended the wedding of Snow White and the Prince.
Modern adaptations:
Snow White: A Tale of Terror In Snow White: A Tale of Terror, this version has the mirror a property of Lady Claudia (portrayed by Sigourney Weaver). It is a wooden closet with a statue as the door and hands acting as locks. It is regarded as a family heritage artifact by her. Snow White's nanny tries to see what's inside while cleaning it and immediately suffers a heart attack. The mirror displays a beautiful and younger version of Claudia who advises her what to do. The mirror also contains her life force and she ages rapidly when Snow White stabs the mirror and then engulfs in flame of the burning room.
Modern adaptations:
Happily Ever After: Fairy Tales for Every Child In the Happily Ever After: Fairy Tales for Every Child rendition of Snow White set to a Native American-theme, the Magic Mirror (voiced by Buffy Sainte-Marie) is a shiny flat rock. It told Sly Fox that it was the fairest in the land until White Snow came of age. When White Snow was discovered to be alive and the first disguise attempt to do away with White Snow failed, the Magic Mirror used its powers to enable Sly Fox to enter the spirit world so that she can change her shape. Sly Fox uses the Magic Mirror's abilities to assume the form of White Snow's nanny Sage Flower to give her a poison apple. For the latest time, the Magic Mirror informed Sly Fox that White Snow still lives and Sly Fox is still number two. When Sly Fox is later confronted the Chief Brown Bear's tribe and the Seven Mystical Little Men for her treachery, Sly Fox enters the Magic Mirror and turns into a bear only for the Seven Mystical Little Men to throw the Magic Mirror off a cliff trapping Sly Fox in the spirit world.
Modern adaptations:
Shrek The Magic Mirror appears in the Shrek franchise voiced by Chris Miller. It is depicted as a mirror with a live spirit communicating through it, and with magical displaying abilities.
Modern adaptations:
In Shrek, the Magic Mirror is first brought to Lord Farquaad who asks it if Duloc is not the most perfect kingdom, exactly the same way the Evil Queen used to ask it if she was not the fairest of all. The Magic Mirror then presents Lord Farquaad with three princesses that he can marry (from which he chooses Fiona). This is done in a parody of Blind Date.
Modern adaptations:
It is later seen to be with Shrek's posse who in Shrek 2 use it as a television set such as announcing that the show will be back after commercials.
In Shrek Forever After, Rumpelstiltskin has it and uses it for television broadcasting purposes.
The Suite Life A parody version of the Magic Mirror appears as a recurring character throughout The Suite Life of Zack & Cody voiced by Brian Peck. It is a high tech mirror that often compliments London Tipton's attire.
A direct representation of the Magic Mirror in The Suite Life on Deck episode "Once Upon A Suite Life" voiced by Michael Airington. It is seen when all the characters are dreaming of themselves in the classic fairytales such as Snow White, Jack and the Beanstalk, and Hansel and Gretel.
Modern adaptations:
The Hunters In the 2013 SyFy film The Hunters, it is revealed that the Magic Mirror was inspired by a fabled mirror that is said to grant the wish of whoever looks into it; supposedly, the mirror triggered the Dark Ages. The mirror was sought by an ancient army known as the Krugen before the hunters – a group of scientist knights dedicated to protecting fairy-tale artefacts – acquired the mirror, breaking off four shards from the mirror and hiding them and the mirror away when destroying it completely proved impossible. The film focuses on a family of hunters, the Flynns, with the parents being experienced hunters seeking the shards to keep them away from the Krugen and their sons being forced to take up the hunt when their parents go missing. The mirror is eventually reassembled by the film's antagonist, but he is tricked into making a wish that caused the mirror to destroy him, with the protagonists subsequently wishing for the mirror to destroy itself.
Modern adaptations:
The Huntsman film series In Snow White and the Huntsman, the Magic Mirror appears as a golden gong-like mirror that oozes out a hooded robed being (voiced by Christopher Obi) whenever Queen Ravenna called upon it for information, although apparently, the being is only visible to Ravenna, as her henchmen observe her talking to thin air. The Magic Mirror first appeared where he told Queen Ravenna that Snow White was coming to the age where she will be more fair than Queen Ravenna. The Mirror is last seen when Snow White defeats Ravenna, ending the Evil Queen's rule.
Modern adaptations:
In prequel/sequel, The Huntsman: Winter's War, the Magic Mirror (voiced by Fred Tatasciore) is revealed to hold darker forms of magic. He is seen in flashbacks of Queen Ravenna's tyrannical reign, where it tells Ravenna that her sister Freya will give birth to a child who will exceed Ravenna's beauty as the fairest of them all. The Mirror also predicts that if the child was to be harmed, Freya will unleash powers, prompting Ravenna to orchestrate the murder of her own niece, both to preserve her own beauty and, in her own twisted way, help her sister. Freya, in horror at her discovery, releases icy powers that kill her lover and turns her hair white. Years later, after Ravenna's death, the Magic Mirror has gone missing while travelling to a Sanctuary where Snow White believes its evil can be contained. It is revealed to be in the hands of a troll in a forest, but Freya, seeking the mirror for herself, orders Sara- the Huntsman's presumed-dead wife- to retrieve it. Although Sara obeys this order, she tricks Freya by sparing Eric's life. Freya's subsequent attempt to use the Mirror herself reveals that Ravenna had hidden a part of herself in the mirror, restoring her to a form of life apparently formed of the Mirror's gold while still appearing human. In the final confrontation, Freya learns the truth about her sister's role in the death of her daughter (Ravenna was now the mirror spirit and was thus bound to answer Freya's questions truthfully), prompting her to aid Eric in destroying the Mirror at the cost of her own life. However, the final scene shows a golden raven flying away, suggesting that a part of the mirror – and thus Ravenna – may have survived.
Modern adaptations:
Mirror Mirror In the film Mirror Mirror, elements of the Magic Mirror are featured as a large mirror that serves as a portal to the Mirror House where Queen Clementianna consults with the Mirror Queen (portrayed by Lisa Roberts Gillian and voiced by Julia Roberts whose image was used for the character). To access the portal to the Mirror House, Queen Clementianna quotes "Mirror Mirror on the Wall." The Mirror Queen always advises Queen Clementianna not to use dark magic for her own gain. Queen Clementianna keeps asking her what is this price that she is talking about. The Mirror Queen once provided a love potion to Queen Clementianna to make the King fall in love with her and then briefly turned Brighton into a cockroach. When Snow White destroys the necklace around the Beast which turns it back into the King, Queen Clementianna starts to age as the Mirror Queen asks if she is ready to learn the price of magic. After the aged Queen Clementianna takes the slice of an apple she was to give to Snow White from her, the Mirror Queen declares that it was Snow White's story all along as the Mirror House shatters alongside the large mirror leading to it.
Modern adaptations:
Princesses In Jim C. Hines' Princesses series – chronicling the adventures of Snow White with Princess Danielle Whiteshore (Cinderella) and former Princess Talia Malak-el-Dahshat (Sleeping Beauty) after their tales concluded with Snow and Talia being banished from their kingdoms and taken in by Danielle's mother-in-law – Snow White is a sorceress who uses her mother's mirror as a key focus of her spells, relying on various smaller mirrors to maintain a link to it when away from the palace; her power is commonly focused by using various rhymes as spells, although she can create other spells without speaking. The fourth novel, The Snow Queen's Revenge, reveals that the magic mirror was created by Snow White's mother imprisoning a demon and binding it to her service. The plot suggests that the mirror's role in the original story was motivated by the demon attempting to create a set of circumstances that would allow it to escape, inspiring Snow's mother to attack her daughter so that Snow would inherit the mirror and some day make a mistake that would let the demon out. In the novel The Snow Queen's Revenge, the mirror shatters after Snow tries to perform a particularly complex spell, allowing the demon within it to possess Snow while shards of the mirror corrupt others, forcing Danielle and Talia to return to Snow's kingdom in the hopes of rediscovering the secrets used by Snow White's mother to bind the demon in the first place so that they can try and exorcise it from Snow. After this plan proves impossible due to the demon's interference, the demon attempts to recreate a larger ice-mirror to summon further demons into this world, using the part-fairy blood of Danielle's son Jakub – Danielle having some fairy blood in her from her mother's side of the family – but a reflection of Snow's untainted self helps protect her friends long enough for them to destroy the demon, at the cost of Snow's life.
Modern adaptations:
Simon the Sorcerer Near the end of the video game Simon the Sorcerer, the player can use the Magic Mirror in Sordid's tower as a surveillance monitor, using any reflecting surface like a camera.
Modern adaptations:
Sinister Squad Although the magic mirror does not appear directly in the Asylum film Sinister Squad, it is referenced as a key part of the film's backstory; when Rumpelstiltskin destroyed the mirror to prevent the forces of Death claiming it, it transferred several fairy-tale characters into our world, with Rumpelstiltskin relying on fragments of the mirror to sustain his own magical manipulation abilities until the final confrontation with Death.
Modern adaptations:
Sisters Grimm In the Sisters Grimm series by Michael Buckley, the Magic Mirror appears as a minor protagonist in the first six books, but is revealed to be the main antagonist in book seven and remains evil until near the end of book nine.
Modern adaptations:
Snow White: The Fairest of Them All Here, the wicked queen Elspeth possesses a hall of magic mirrors, and a hand mirror that displays several attributes not seen before. The Queen may command the hand mirror to terminate enemies (as she did to the Huntsman), use it as a means of transport or step through it to change appearances, even turning others into animals.
Modern adaptations:
The Wolf Among Us Appearing as a magical object in the Business Office, the Magic Mirror is a minor protagonist in The Wolf Among Us voiced by Gavin Hammon. Usually demanding its request be given to it in rhyme form, the Magic Mirror is capable of showing a brief vision of its requested subject. The Magic Mirror's shattering and the search for its missing shard play key aspects following the end of the second episode.
Modern adaptations:
Ever After High In the Ever After High series of books, webisodes, and made-for-TV movies the magic mirror is a very important part of the series' story. In the series, the Evil Queen is banished to live from within the mirror as punishment for her Curses against the lands of Ever After and Wonderland.
Red Shoes and the Seven Dwarfs The Magic Mirror appears in the Snow White parody Red Shoes and the Seven Dwarfs voiced by Patrick Warburton.
Magic Mirror-inspired tourism:
German pharmacist and fairy-tale parodist Karlheinz Bartels suggests, in a tongue-in-cheek manner, that the German folk tale "Snow White" is influenced by Maria Sophia Margaretha Catherina von und zu Erthal, who was born in Lohr am Main in 1725. After the death of Maria Sophia's birth mother in 1738, her father Philipp Christoph von und zu Erthal took a second wife.Lohr Castle, which was once owned by Philipp Christoph, featured a large mirror which has been connected to the Evil Queen's iconic mirror and which can still be viewed there today. It was a product of the Lohr Mirror Manufacture (Kurmainzische Spiegelmanufaktur) and may have been in the castle as early as 1719, when Philipp Christoph took office. The mirror "talked" via inscribed aphorisms. The upper right corner is labeled "Amour Propre" or "self-love," and the left corner reads "Pour la recompense et pour la peine" ("for reward and for punishment"). Mirrors from Lohr were so elaborately worked that they were accorded the reputation of "always speaking the truth". They became a favorite gift at European crown and aristocratic courts.Bartels's theory, which is "admittedly a joke of its inventor," is not taken seriously by scholarly experts.
Magic Mirror-inspired technology:
In 2017, Amazon announced Echo Look, a "style assistant" camera that helps catalog your outfits and rates your look based on "machine learning algorithms with advice from fashion specialists". | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Scorpion sting**
Scorpion sting:
A scorpion sting is an injury caused by the stinger of a scorpion resulting in the medical condition known as scorpionism, which may vary in severity. The anatomical part of the scorpion that delivers the sting is called a "telson". In typical cases, scorpion stings usually result in pain, paresthesia, and variable swelling. In serious cases, scorpion stings may involve the envenomation of humans by toxic scorpions, which may result in extreme pain, serious illness, or even death depending on the toxicity of the venom.Most scorpion stings range in severity from minor swelling to medically significant lesions, with only a few able to cause severe allergic, neurotic or necrotic reactions. However, scorpion stings account for approximately 3,000 deaths a year worldwide. The Brazilian yellow scorpion (Tityus serrulatus) is one species known for being especially dangerous, being responsible for most scorpion sting fatalities in South America.Scorpion stings are seen all over the world but are predominantly seen in the tropical and subtropical areas. In the Western hemisphere, these areas include Mexico, northern South America and southeast Brazil. In the Eastern hemisphere, these regions include Sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East, and the Indian subcontinent.
Characteristics and side effects:
The byproducts of some arthropods may be used as an aphrodisiac. Some of these arthropods whose byproduct may be used as medicines can be found in North America. Across North America, the Arizona bark scorpion (Centruroides sculpturatus) has proven to be the most venomous scorpion. While stings from this species will rarely result in death, side effects can include numbness, tingling, convulsions, difficult breathing, and occasionally, paralysis. These side effects may last up to 72 hours after injection of the venom. It is also observed that penile erection may occur after being stung. The pain of a sting from the Arizona Bark Scorpion has been compared to being struck by a bolt of lightning or electrical current. These symptoms may become visible 4 to 7 minutes after envenomation.
Characteristics and side effects:
Envenomation of a human by a scorpion may affect the sympathetic or parasympathetic systems depending on the species of scorpion. Some of the more severe side effects include respiratory distress syndrome, pulmonary edema, cardiac dysfunction, impaired hemostasis, pancreatitis, and multiple organ failure. Additionally, treatment of the sting depends on the severity of the incident, which is classified as mild, moderate, or severe. This treatment is composed of three different aspects of the sting: symptomatic measures, vital functions support, and injection antivenom. Not all envenomations result in systemic complications; only a small proportion of stings have this effect on the victim.
Mechanism:
The composition of scorpion venom consists of different compounds of varying concentrations. The compounds consist of neurotoxins, cardiotoxin, nephrotoxin, hemolytic toxic, phosphodiesterases, phospholipase, histamine, serotonin, etc. Of these different toxins, the most important and most potent one is the neurotoxin concentration. This compound has neuromuscular and neuroautonomic effects, as well as damages the surrounding local tissue. Neurotoxins work to change voltage-dependent sodium channels, resulting in prolonged neuronal and neuromuscular activity. This prolonged activity of sodium channels results in an erection. There may be nerve damage due to the stabilization of voltage-dependent sodium channels in the open conformation. This position leads to the prolonged and continuous firing of neurons in the somatic, sympathetic, and parasympathetic nervous systems. Continuous firing of neurons causes over excitation and prevents the transmission of normal nerve impulses down the axon.The venom composition of the deathstalker scorpion contains neurotoxins which are almost completely responsible for this symptom. The poison from this scorpion contain 4 components: chlorotoxin, charybdotoxin, scyllatoxin, and agitoxins. Upon injection with the venom, sacral parasympathetic nerve are stimulated causing a change in the neuronal transmission in vascular and nonvascular smooth muscles. The compound known as the vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) is the main transmitter. This polypeptide is realized from nerves found long the erectile tissue of the corpus calosum. VIP is the strongest relaxant of penile smooth muscle structure, resulting in an erection upon envenomation. This is the proposed mechanics for all scorpion of the family Buthidae, whose venom composition contains these compounds.
Epidemiology:
Overview Scorpions are nocturnal animals that typically live in deserts, mountains, caves, and under rocks. It is when they are disturbed that they attack. Scorpions that possess the ability to inject toxic venom with their sting belong to the family Buthidae. The Middle East and North Africa are home to the deadliest scorpions, belonging to the genus Buthus, Leiurus, Androctonus, and Hottentotta. In South America, the deadliest scorpion belongs to genus Tityus. In India and Mexico, the deadliest scorpions involved in scorpionism are Mesobuthus and Centruroides, respectively.
Epidemiology:
Weather, seasons, and climate Scorpions are nocturnal arachnids that have shown a seasonal pattern that is also related to climate. Specifically in Central America, scorpion attacks are mostly seen during the hot months of the year, noting that in Argentina this occurs in the months of October to April. Additionally, a rainy climate may also change the frequency of scorpion incidents. Lower levels of rainfall, specifically precipitation below 30 mm/month, can be associated with fewer scorpion stings, whereas rainfall greater than 30 mm/month shows no relationship to incident rate. This could be due to potentially disruptive effects of rainfall on scorpion habitat.
Epidemiology:
Central America In Central America, most scorpion stings are mildly toxic to humans. However, Panama has reported an incidence of 52 cases per 100,000 people in 2007. Between 1998 and 2006, 28 people have died as result of scorpion stings. In Panama, the taxa of scorpions responsible for these deaths belong to the genus Tityus. This scorpion species is also found in parts of northern South America. Historically, the presence of these scorpions in Panama could be due to the closure of the Panamanian isthmus, thus allowing for the migration of the scorpions from Panama into the northern part of South America. Tityus pachyurus is among the most important scorpionist species. Envenomation by this scorpion is characterized by intense local pain, that usually does not result in tissue injury. Scorpions possess venom glands located at the distal extremity of their abdomen. There are currently 1,400 known species of scorpions and each possesses venom glands. However, of these 1,400 species, only 25 are known to be dangerous enough to humans to potentially cause death upon envenomation. Other countries in Central America are habitat to the scorpion genus Centruroides. Species in this genus are only mildly toxic to humans even though they have ion channel-active toxins in their venom. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Sovereign ring**
Sovereign ring:
A sovereign ring is a ring which typically has a gold sovereign as a primary decorative feature, with the obverse face as the visible detail. The coin may be either genuine or replica tender, and may be either a sovereign or half sovereign. Sovereign rings are associated with chav culture in the UK, or more broadly with emulating the look of a mafioso.In the United Kingdom it is also common to use custom coinage bearing such motifs as the 'Three Lions' or other similar imagery such as Saint George, or a Welsh Dragon.Celebrities who have been observed wearing a sovereign ring include Brad Pitt, Ghislaine Maxwell and the English rapper Louise Amanda Harman, hence her stage name of "Lady Sovereign". | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Amplitude distortion**
Amplitude distortion:
Amplitude distortion is distortion occurring in a system, subsystem, or device when the output amplitude is not a linear function of the input amplitude under specified conditions. Generally, output is a linear function of input only for a fixed portion of the transfer characteristics. In this region, Ic=βIb where Ic is collector current and Ib is base current, following linear relation y=mx.
Amplitude distortion:
When output is not in this portion, two forms of amplitude distortion might arise Harmonic distortion : The creation of harmonics of the fundamental frequency of a sine wave input to a system.
Amplitude distortion:
Intermodulation distortion : This form of distortion occurs when two sine waves of frequencies X and Y are present at the input, resulting in the creation of several other frequency components, whose frequencies include (X+Y), (X-Y), (2X-Y), (2Y-X), and generally (mX ± nY) for integer m and n. Generally the size of the unwanted output falls rapidly as m and n increase.Due to the additional outputs, this form of distortion is definitely unwanted in audio, radio and telecommunication amplifiers, and it occurs for more than two waves as well.
Amplitude distortion:
In a narrowband system such as a radio communication system, unwanted outputs such as X-Y and 2X+Y will be remote from the wanted band and so be ignored by the system. In contrast, 2X-Y and 2Y-X will be close to the wanted signals. These so-called third order distortion products (third order as m+n = 3) tend to dominate the non-linear distortion of narrowband systems.
Amplitude distortion:
Amplitude distortion is measured with the system operating under steady-state conditions with a sinusoidal input signal. When other frequencies are present, the term "amplitude" refers to that of the fundamental only. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**OrientDB**
OrientDB:
OrientDB is an open source NoSQL database management system written in Java. It is a Multi-model database, supporting graph, document, key/value, and object models, but the relationships are managed as in graph databases with direct connections between records. It supports schema-less, schema-full and schema-mixed modes. It has a strong security profiling system based on users and roles and supports querying with Gremlin along with SQL extended for graph traversal. OrientDB uses several indexing mechanisms based on B-tree and Extendible hashing, the last one is known as "hash index", there are plans to implement LSM-tree and Fractal tree index based indexes. Each record has Surrogate key which indicates position of record inside of Array list , links between records are stored either as single value of record's position stored inside of referrer or as B-tree of record positions (so-called record IDs or RIDs) which allows fast traversal (with O(1) complexity) of one-to-many relationships and fast addition/removal of new links. OrientDB is the fifth most popular graph database according to the DB-Engines graph database ranking, as of December 2021. The development of OrientDB still relies on an open source community led by OrientDB LTD company created by its original author Luca Garulli. The project uses GitHub to manage the sources, contributors and versioning, Google Group and Stack Overflow to provide free support to the worldwide users. OrientDB also offers a free Udemy course for those hoping to learn the basics and get started with OrientDB.
Engine:
OrientDB is built with a multi-model graph/document engine. OrientDB feels like a graph database first, but there's no reason the key-value store can't be used on its own. While OrientDB includes a SQL layer, the support for edges effectively means that these may be used to traverse relationships rather than employing a JOIN statement. OrientDB handles every record / document as an object and the linking between objects / documents is not through references, it's direct linking (saving a pointer to the object). This leads to quick retrieval of related data as compared to joins in an RDBMS.
Editions & licenses:
OrientDB Community Edition is free for any use (Apache 2 license). The open source software is built upon by a community of developers. Features such as horizontal scaling, fault tolerance, clustering, sharding, and replication aren’t disabled in the OrientDB Community Edition.
OrientDB Enterprise Edition is the commercial extension of OrientDB Community Edition created to handle more robust and demanding use cases. OrientDB Enterprise Edition includes additional features such as a query profiler, distributed clustering configuration, metrics recording, a live monitor, Teleporter (a migration tool), and configurable alerts.
Applications:
Banking Big Data Fraud prevention Loan management software (Floify) Master data management Non-coding RNA human interaction database Recommendation engines Social networking Traffic management systems
History:
OrientDB was originally authored by Luca Garulli in 2010. Luca wrote it as a Java rewrite of the fast persistent layer of Orient ODBMS database (originally developed by Luca Garulli in 1999 in C++). During 2012–2014 years storage engine was redeveloped by Andrey Lomakin. It has got a new name "plocal" which stands for "paginated local". This name implies that the new storage engine is based on the concept of the splitting of data files by pages and page is treated as a single atomic unit of change. Since 2012, the project is being sponsored by OrientDB LTD (former Orient Technologies LTD), a for-profit company with Luca as its CEO and founder. In 2013 Andrey Lomakin has joined the company as R&D lead engineer and company's co-owner.The first time the word "multi-model" has been associated to the databases was on May 30, 2012 in Cologne, Germany, during Luca Garulli's keynote "NoSQL Adoption – What’s the Next Step?". Luca Garulli envisioned the evolution of the 1st generation NoSQL products into new products with more features able to be used by multiple use cases. OrientDB was the first product to embrace documents, graphs, key-value, geospatial and reactive models in the same product, at the core level. This means that the multiple models were integrated into the core without using layers. For this reason, OrientDB is a "Native" Multi-model database.
History:
OrientDB has been covered by media outlets and is the winner of the 2015 InfoWorld Bossie award.On September 15, 2017, OrientDB LTD company has been acquired by CallidusCloud a public company traded on NASDAQ.On January 30, 2018, it was announced SAP (company) acquired CallidusCloud for $2.4 billion. and therefore OrientDB is now supported by SAP (company).
On September 1st, 2021, the original founder Luca Garulli left SAP (company) and forked the project into ArcadeDB after SAP decided to stop providing commercial support for OrientDB. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Oatmeal ball**
Oatmeal ball:
The oatmeal ball (Danish: havregrynskugle) or the chocolate ball (Swedish: chokladboll) is a type of unbaked pastry that is a popular Danish and Swedish confectionery.
Oatmeal ball:
Oatmeal balls consist of oatmeal, sugar, cocoa, vanilla sugar, butter, and sometimes a small amount of coffee mixed until they become a compact mass. To make them creamier and softer, some people also like to mix in a splash of cream. From the dough, balls are hand-formed to a size usually slightly smaller than golf balls, then rolled in shredded coconut or sprinkles. The balls can be eaten immediately, but usually they are first chilled in a refrigerator.
Oatmeal ball:
Because of the simple, non-bake recipe, oatmeal balls can be quickly made by anyone, which makes them one of the most popular homemade sweets and a common sight at children's parties.
Oatmeal ball:
Variations on the oatmeal ball are popular in other countries too. In Israel, Petit Beurre crumbs take the place of the oatmeal, and the candy is called in Hebrew: כדור שוקולד, romanized: Kadur Shokolad, lit. 'chocolate ball'. Popular in Austria, especially around Christmastime, is the Rumkugel (plural Rumkugeln), which contains the same ingredients as oatmeal balls but adds a small amount of rum to the mix.
History:
The oatmeal ball was most likely invented during World War II, when, because of rationing, there was a limited supply of wheat flour, which caused a search for substitutes. In 1943, the Danish Nationaltidende published a small booklet for housewives called Ingenuity in a time of crisis (Danish: Opfindsomhed i en krisetid) containing the recipe for havregrynskugle. There is also a classified ad for a konditorei product with the name negerbollar from 1918 in the Swedish newspaper Svenska Dagbladet. Although the content is unknown, they are described as "chocolate-coco" and are sold in boxes of 300 at 1.5 kilograms (3.3 lb).
Names in Swedish:
One traditional name for the pastry in Swedish is negerboll ("negro ball"). Due to possible racist connotations, this name has fallen out of favor in recent decades, with chokladboll (chocolate ball) now being the most commonly used name. When made with shredded coconut, it is also known as kokosboll (coconut ball).
Names in Swedish:
The appropriateness of negerboll as the name of the pastry has been the subject of media debate, intensified by neger now generally being considered an ethnic slur, having undergone a similar change in tone to English Negro. Chokladboll was first added to the Swedish Academy's spelling dictionary Svenska Akademiens ordlista in 2006, with only negerboll being listed prior. In the 13th (2006) edition, the pastry can be found under both names, with a comment that chokladboll is the recommended term. In the 14th edition (2015) negerboll was removed.In mid-2003, a bakery owner from Sjöbo was reported to the Swedish Ombudsman against Ethnic Discrimination for using the word negerboll on a sign in her bakery shop. However, the case was dismissed since the person reporting it did not consider herself personally insulted.
Names in Swedish:
Note that the Danish word negerbolle is a similarly dated term for a similar but different confection, namely the flødebolle. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Control key**
Control key:
In computing, a Control key Ctrl is a modifier key which, when pressed in conjunction with another key, performs a special operation (for example, Ctrl+C). Similarly to the Shift key, the Control key rarely performs any function when pressed by itself. The Control key is located on or near the bottom left side of most keyboards (in accordance with the international standard ISO/IEC 9995-2), with many featuring an additional one at the bottom right.
Control key:
On keyboards that use English abbreviations for key labeling, it is usually labeled Ctrl (Control or Ctl are sometimes used, but it is uncommon). Abbreviations in the language of the keyboard layout also are in use, e.g., the German keyboard layout uses Strg as required by the German standard DIN 2137:2012-06. Also, there is a standardized keyboard symbol (to be used when Latin lettering is not preferred), given in ISO/IEC 9995-7 as symbol 26, and in ISO 7000 "Graphical symbols for use on equipment" as symbol ISO-7000-2028. This symbol is encoded in Unicode as U+2388 helm symbol (⎈).
History:
On teletypewriters and computer terminals, holding down the Control key while pressing another key would send an ASCII C0 control character, instead of directly reporting a key press to the system. The control characters were used as non-printing characters that signal the terminal or teletypewriter to perform a special action, such as ringing a bell, ejecting a page or erasing the screen, or controlling where the next character will display.
History:
The first 32 ASCII characters are the control characters, representable by a 5-bit binary number. Because ASCII characters were represented as 7 bits, if a key is pressed while the Control key was held down, teletypewriters and terminals would simply set the first 2 bits of a character to 0, converting the character into a control character. For example, the character "a" has a binary ASCII code of 110 0001. This code would be converted to 000 0001, corresponding to the ASCII character with id 1 (the SOH Character). The table at C0 and C1 control codes § Basic ASCII control codes shows the ASCII control characters, with the "Caret notation" column showing a caret (^), followed by the character to press while the Control key is held down to generate the character.
History:
If a teletypewriter or terminal is connected to a computer, the software on the computer can interpret control characters it receives however it is written to do so; a given control character can be interpreted differently from how it would be interpreted by a teletypewriter or terminal that receives it. For example, Control-C, received from a teletypewriter or terminal, is interpreted as "interrupt the current program" in some command-line interfaces, and Control-E is interpreted by the Emacs text editor as "move the editor cursor to the end of the line".
History:
Computer keyboards directly attached to a computer, as is the case for a personal computer or workstation, distinguish each physical key from every other and report all keypresses and releases to the controlling software. This allows the software to interpret Control key combinations as it chooses, including being able to interpret a combination of the Control key, another modifier key, and a letter, number, or symbol key differently from the way it interprets a combination of the Control key and the letter, number, or symbol key without that other modifier key.
Location:
The keyboards of many early computer terminals, including the Teletype Model 33 ASR and Lear-Siegler ADM-3A, and early models of the IBM PC, positioned the Control key on the left of the keyboard, whereas caps lock resides in the same position on most modern keyboards. The traditional layout was preserved for later workstation systems and is often associated with Unix workstations. Keyboards from Sun Microsystems came in two layouts; "Unix" and "PC-style", with the Unix layout having the traditional placing of the Control key and other keys. The keyboards produced for One Laptop Per Child computers also have the Control key in this location. Other vendors produce keyboards for different computer systems with this placement of the Control key, such as the Happy Hacking Keyboard.
Location:
Some users of keyboards with caps lock on the left remap the keys to exchange Control and caps lock, finding the traditional location more ergonomic for using programs benefiting from use of the Control key. Keyboard layout preferences specifically to address this need are available in some operating systems.
Others leave the control key in the lower-left corner of the keyboard, and press it using the side of their palm. The choice of location for the control key often comes down to the typist's hand shape and posture.
Notation:
There are several common notations for pressing the Control key in conjunction with another key. Each notation below means press and hold Ctrl while pressing the X key:
Table of examples:
Different application programs, user interfaces, and operating systems use the various control key combinations for different purposes.
In early first-person shooters, the left Ctrl key is often used to fire a weapon. In newer games, the key is often used for crouching instead.
Similar concepts:
Generally, the Command key, labeled with the ⌘ symbol on Apple Macintosh computers, performs the equivalent functions in classic Mac OS and macOS applications (for example, ⌘C copies, while ⌘P prints; the same holds for saving, cutting, and pasting).
Similar concepts:
Macintoshes also have a Control key, but it has different functionality. The original Apple mouse design reduced complexity by only offering one button. As the interface developed, contextual menus were offered to access extra options. Another button was needed to access these. On Unix and Windows, the user had other mouse buttons to use. On Classic Mac OS and macOS, the Control key is used to invoke a "right-click". Apple calls this a "secondary click" as left-handers can choose which side this button is on.
Similar concepts:
It is mostly used as a modifier key for key-combinations.
Pressing Control and clicking the mouse button will invoke a contextual menu. This is a compatibility feature for users with one-button mice; users with two-button mice just use the right mouse-button, with no modifiers.
It is used in the command line interface with programs made for that interface.
In Quickbooks, the Control Key is used to validate login credentials during OLSU 1016 and OLSU 1013 errors. Keeping it depressed while sending information to the Quickbooks servers fixes the errors.
Under macOS, the Control key allows the use of Emacs-style key combinations in most text entry fields. For example, Ctrl-A moves the caret to the start of the paragraph, Ctrl-L vertically centers the current line in the editing field, Ctrl-K cuts text to the end of the line to a kill ring separate from the normal clipboard, etc. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Transfer-messenger RNA**
Transfer-messenger RNA:
Transfer-messenger RNA (abbreviated tmRNA, also known as 10Sa RNA and by its genetic name SsrA) is a bacterial RNA molecule with dual tRNA-like and messenger RNA-like properties. The tmRNA forms a ribonucleoprotein complex (tmRNP) together with Small Protein B (SmpB), Elongation Factor Tu (EF-Tu), and ribosomal protein S1. In trans-translation, tmRNA and its associated proteins bind to bacterial ribosomes which have stalled in the middle of protein biosynthesis, for example when reaching the end of a messenger RNA which has lost its stop codon. The tmRNA is remarkably versatile: it recycles the stalled ribosome, adds a proteolysis-inducing tag to the unfinished polypeptide, and facilitates the degradation of the aberrant messenger RNA. In the majority of bacteria these functions are carried out by standard one-piece tmRNAs. In other bacterial species, a permuted ssrA gene produces a two-piece tmRNA in which two separate RNA chains are joined by base-pairing.
Discovery and early work:
tmRNA was first designated 10Sa RNA in 1979, after a mixed "10S" electrophoretic fraction of Escherichia coli RNA was further resolved into tmRNA and the similarly sized RNase P RNA (10Sb). The presence of pseudouridine in the mixed 10S RNA hinted that tmRNA has modified bases found also in tRNA. The similarity at the 3' end of tmRNA to the T stem-loop of tRNA was first recognized upon sequencing ssrA from Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Subsequent sequence comparison revealed the full tRNA-like domain (TLD) formed by the 5' and 3' ends of tmRNA, including the acceptor stem with elements like those in alanine tRNA that promote its aminoacylation by alanine-tRNA ligase. It also revealed differences from tRNA: the anticodon arm is missing in tmRNA, and the D arm region is a loop without base pairs.
Structure:
Secondary structure of the standard one-piece tmRNAs The complete E. coli tmRNA secondary structure was elucidated by comparative sequence analysis and structural probing. Watson-Crick and G-U base pairs were identified by comparing the bacterial tmRNA sequences using automated computational methods in combination with manual alignment procedures. The accompanying figure shows the base pairing pattern of this prototypical tmRNA, which is organized into 12 phylogenetically supported helices (also called pairings P1 to P12), some divided into helical segments.
Structure:
A prominent feature of every tmRNA is the conserved tRNA-like domain (TLD), composed of helices 1, 12, and 2a (analogs of the tRNA acceptor stem, T-stem and variable stem, respectively), and containing the 5' monophosphate and alanylatable 3' CCA ends. The mRNA-like region (MLR) is in standard tmRNA a large loop containing pseudoknots and a coding sequence (CDS) for the tag peptide, marked by the resume codon and the stop codon. The encoded tag peptide (ANDENYALAA in E. coli) varies among bacteria, perhaps depending on the set of proteases and adaptors available.tmRNAs typically contain four pseudoknots, one (pk1) upstream of the tag peptide CDS, and the other three pseudoknots (pk2 to pk4) downstream of the CDS. The pseudoknot regions, although generally conserved, are evolutionarily plastic. For example, in the (one-piece) tmRNAs of cyanobacteria, pk4 is substituted with two tandemly arranged smaller pseudoknots. This suggests that tmRNA folding outside the TLD can be important, yet the pseudoknot region lacks conserved residues and pseudoknots are among the first structures to be lost as ssrA sequences diverge in plastid and endosymbiont lineages. Base pairing in the three-pseudoknot region of E. coli tmRNA is disrupted during trans-translation.
Structure:
Two-piece tmRNAs Circularly permuted ssrA has been reported in three major lineages: i) all alphaproteobacteria and the primitive mitochondria of jakobid protists, ii) two disjoint groups of cyanobacteria (Gloeobacter and a clade containing Prochlorococcus and many Synechococcus), and iii) some members of the betaproteobacteria (Cupriavidus and some Rhodocyclales). All produce the same overall two-piece (acceptor and coding pieces) form, equivalent to the standard form nicked downstream of the reading frame. None retain more than two pseudoknots compared to the four (or more) of standard tmRNA.
Structure:
Alphaproteobacteria have two signature sequences: replacement of the typical T-loop sequence TΨCRANY with GGCRGUA, and the sequence AACAGAA in the large loop of the 3´-terminal pseudoknot. In mitochondria, the MLR has been lost, and a remarkable re-permutation of mitochondrial ssrA results in a small one-piece product in Jakoba libera.The cyanobacteria provide the most plausible case for evolution of a permuted gene from a standard gene, due to remarkable sequence similarities between the two gene types as they occur in different Synechococcus strains.
Structure:
tmRNA processing Most tmRNAs are transcribed as larger precursors which are processed much like tRNA. Cleavage at the 5´ end is by ribonuclease P. Multiple exonucleases can participate in the processing of the 3´ end of tmRNA, although RNase T and RNase PH are most effective. Depending on the bacterial species, the 3'-CCA is either encoded or added by tRNA nucleotidyltransferase.
Structure:
Similar processing at internal sites of permuted precursor tmRNA explains its physical splitting into two pieces. The two-piece tmRNAs have two additional ends whose processing must be considered. For alphaproteobacteria, one 5´ end is the unprocessed start site of transcription. The far 3´ end may in some cases be the result of rho-independent termination.
Structure:
Three-dimensional structures High-resolution structures of the complete tmRNA molecules are currently unavailable and may be difficult to obtain due to the inherent flexibility of the MLR. In 2007, the crystal structure of the Thermus thermophilus TLD bound to the SmpB protein was obtained at 3 Å resolution. This structure shows that SmpB mimics the D stem and the anticodon of a canonical tRNA whereas helical section 2a of tmRNA corresponds to the variable arm of tRNA.
Structure:
A cryo-electron microscopy study of tmRNA at an early stage of trans-translation shows the spatial relationship between the ribosome and the tmRNP (tmRNA bound to the EF-Tu protein). The TLD is located near the GTPase-associated center in the 50S ribosomal subunit; helix 5 and pseudoknots pk2 to pk4 form an arc around the beak of the 30S ribosomal subunit.
Trans-translation:
Coding by tmRNA was discovered in 1995 when Simpson and coworkers overexpressed the mouse cytokine IL-6 in E. coli and found multiple truncated cytokine-derived peptides each tagged at the carboxyl termini with the same 11-amino acid residue extension (A)ANDENYALAA. With the exception of the N-terminal alanine, which comes from the 3' end of tmRNA itself, this tag sequence was traced to a short open reading frame in E. coli tmRNA. Recognizing that the tag peptide confers proteolysis, the trans-translation model for tmRNA action was proposed.While details of the trans-translation mechanism are under investigation it is generally agreed that tmRNA first occupies the empty A site of the stalled ribosome. Subsequently, the ribosome moves from the 3' end of the truncated messenger RNA onto the resume codon of the MLR, followed by a slippage-prone stage from where translation continues normally until the in-frame tmRNA stop codon is encountered. Trans-translation is essential in some bacterial species, whereas other bacteria require tmRNA to survive when subjected to stressful growth conditions. It is believed that tmRNA can help the cell with antibiotic resistance by rescuing the ribosomes stalled by antibiotics. Depending on the organism, the tag peptide may be recognized by a variety of proteases or protease adapters.
Mobile genetic elements and the tmRNA gene:
ssrA is both a target for some mobile DNAs and a passenger on others. It has been found interrupted by three types of mobile elements. By different strategies none of these disrupt gene function: group I introns remove themselves by self-splicing, rickettsial palindromic elements (RPEs) insert in innocuous sites, and integrase-encoding genomic islands split their target ssrA yet restore the split-off portion.Non-chromosomal ssrA was first detected in a genomic survey of mycobacteriophages (in 10% of the phages). Other mobile elements including plasmids and genomic islands have been found bearing ssrA. One interesting case is Rhodobacter sphaeroides ATCC 17025, whose native tmRNA gene is disrupted by a genomic island; unlike all other genomic islands in tmRNA (or tRNA) genes this island has inactivated the native target gene without restoration, yet compensates by carrying its own tmRNA gene. A very unusual relative of ssrA is found in the lytic mycobacteriophage DS6A, that encodes little more than the TLD.
Mitochondrial tmRNAs (ssrA gene):
A mitochondrion-encoded, structurally reduced form of tmRNA (mt-tmRNA) was first postulated for the jakobid flagellate Reclinomonas americana. Subsequently, the presence of a mitochondrial gene (ssrA) coding for tmRNA, as well as transcription and RNA processing sites were confirmed for all but one member of jakobids. Functional evidence, i.e., mt-tmRNA Aminoacylation with alanine, is available for Jakoba libera. More recently, ssrA was also identified in mitochondrial genomes of oomycetes. Like in α-Proteobacteria (the ancestors of mitochondria), mt-tmRNAs are circularly permuted, two-piece RNA molecules, except in Jakoba libera where the gene has reverted to encoding a one-piece tmRNA conformation.
Mitochondrial tmRNAs (ssrA gene):
Identification of ssrA in mitochondrial genomes Mitochondrial tmRNA genes were initially recognized as short sequences that are conserved among jakobids and that have the potential to fold into a distinct tRNA-like secondary structure. With the availability of nine complete jakobid mtDNA sequences, and a significantly improved covariance search tool (Infernal;), a covariance model has been developed based on jakobid mitochondrial tmRNAs, which identified mitochondrial ssrA genes also in oomycete. At present, a total of 34 oomycete mt-tmRNAs have been detected across six genera: Albugo, Bremia, Phytophthora, Pseudoperonospora, Pythium and Saprolegnia. A covariance model built with both jakobid and oomycete sequences is now available at Rfam under the name ‘mt-tmRNA’.
Mitochondrial tmRNAs (ssrA gene):
mt-tmRNA Structure The standard bacterial tmRNA consists of a tRNA(Ala)-like domain (allowing addition of a non-encoded alanine to mRNAs that happen to lack a stop coding), and an mRNA-like domain coding for a protein tag that destines the polypeptide for proteolysis. The mRNA-like domain was lost in mt-tmRNAs. Comparative sequence analysis indicates features typical for mt-tmRNAs. Most conserved is the primary sequence of the amino acyl acceptor stem. This portion of the molecule has an invariable A residue in the discriminator position and a G-U pair at position 3 (except in Seculamonas ecuadoriensis, which has a G-C pair); this position is the recognition site for alanyl tRNA synthase. P2 is a helix of variable length (3 to 10 base pairs) and corresponds to the anticodon stem of tRNAs, yet without an anticodon loop (as not required for tmRNA function). P2 stabilizes the tRNA-like structure, but four nucleotides invariant across oomycetes and jakobids suggest an additional, currently unidentified function. P3 has five base pairs and corresponds to the T-arm of tRNAs, yet with different consensus nucleotides both in the paired region and the loop. The T-loop sequence is conserved across oomycetes and jakobid, with only few deviations (e.g., Saprolegnia ferax). Finally, instead of the tRNA-like D-stem with a shortened three-nucleotide D-loop characteristic for bacterial tmRNAs, mitochondrial counterparts have a highly variable 5 to 14-nt long loop. The intervening sequence (Int.) of two-piece mt-tmRNAs is A+U rich and of irregular length (4-34 nt). ). For secondary structure models of one- and two-piece mt-tmRNAs see Figure 1.
Mitochondrial tmRNAs (ssrA gene):
mt-tmRNA processing and expression RNA-Seq data of Phytophthora sojae show an expression level similar to that of neighboring mitochondrial tRNAs, and four major processing sites confirm the predicted termini of mature mt-tmRNA. The tmRNA precursor molecule is likely processed by RNase P and a tRNA 3’ processing endonuclease (see Figure 2); the latter activity is assumed to lead to the removal of the intervening sequence. Following the addition of CCA at the 3’ discriminator nucleotide, the tmRNA can be charged by alanyl-tRNA synthetase with alanine. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**DYNIX**
DYNIX:
DYNIX (DYNamic UnIX) was a Unix-like operating system developed by Sequent Computer Systems, based on 4.2BSD and modified to run on Intel-based symmetric multiprocessor hardware. The third major (Dynix 3.0) version was released May, 1987; by 1992 DYNIX was succeeded by DYNIX/ptx, which was based on UNIX System V.IBM obtained rights to DYNIX/ptx in 1999, when it acquired Sequent for $810 million.IBM's subsequent Project Monterey was an attempt, circa 1999, "to unify AIX with Sequent's Dynix/ptx operating system and UnixWare." By 2001, however, "the explosion in popularity of Linux ... prompted IBM to quietly ditch" this.A version was named Dynix 4.1.4. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Google Pay (payment method)**
Google Pay (payment method):
Google Pay (formerly Android Pay) is a mobile payment service developed by Google to power in-app, online, and in-person contactless purchases on mobile devices, enabling users to make payments with Android phones, tablets, or watches. Users can authenticate via a PIN, passcode, or biometrics such as 3D face scanning or fingerprint recognition.As of 2023, it is currently available in 67 countries.
Service:
Google Pay uses near-field communication (NFC) to transmit card information facilitating funds transfer to the retailer. It replaces the credit or debit card chip and PIN or magnetic stripe transaction at point-of-sale terminals by allowing the user to upload these in Google Wallet. It is similar to contactless payments already used in many countries, with the addition of two-factor authentication. The service lets Android devices wirelessly communicate with point of sale systems using a near field communication (NFC) antenna and host-based card emulation (HCE).
Service:
When the user makes a payment to a merchant, Google Pay does not send the actual payment card number. Instead, it generates a virtual account number representing the user's account information.Google Pay requires that a screen lock be set on the phone or watch. It has no card limit.Users can add payment cards to the service by taking a photo of the card, or by entering the card information manually. To pay at points of sale, users hold their authenticated device to the point of sale system. The service has smart-authentication, allowing the system to detect when the device is considered secure (for instance if unlocked in the last five minutes) and challenge if necessary for unlock information.
Service:
Technology Google Pay uses the EMV Payment Tokenization Specification.The service keeps customer payment information private from the retailer by replacing the customer's credit or debit card Funding Primary Account Number (FPAN) with a tokenized Device Primary Account Number (DPAN) and creates a "dynamic security code [...] generated for each transaction". The "dynamic security code" is the cryptogram in an EMV-mode transaction, and the Dynamic Card Verification Value (dCVV) in a magnetic-stripe-data emulation-mode transaction. Users can also remotely halt the service on a lost phone via Google's Find My Device service.
Service:
To pay at points of sale, users hold their authenticated Android device to the point-of-sale system's NFC reader. Android users authenticate unlocking their phone by using biometrics, a pattern, or a passcode, whereas Wear OS users authenticate by opening the Google Wallet app prior to payment.
Service:
Consumer Device Cardholder Verification Method (CDCVM) In EMV-mode transactions, Google Pay supports the use of the Consumer Device Cardholder Verification Method (CDCVM) using biometrics, pattern, or the device's passcode. The use of CDCVM allows the device itself to provide verification for the transaction and may not require the cardholder to sign a receipt or enter their PIN. Additionally, in certain markets which have a "no verification contactless limit" using contactless cards, the use of CDCVM can enable merchants to accept transactions higher than these amounts using Google Pay, provided that their terminal software is updated to support the latest network contactless specifications.
Service:
Security In most regions, Google Pay on Android permits the issuing bank to determine whether to allow its payment cards to be able to transmit when the mobile device is locked under a certain monetary amount. Issuers in Argentina, Brazil, Ecuador, Mexico, and the United States of America cannot allow locked-device payments except for select transit transactions.On Wear OS, this option is not available. All transactions for all amounts on wearable devices must be authenticated by opening the Wallet app prior to tapping.
Availability:
For the most part, Google Pay is available in all the same regions that Google Wallet is, with one exception.
In India, tap-to-pay through Google Pay is available through the GPay app.
Availability:
Supported networks Visa / Visa Debit / Visa electron (Android & Wear OS) Mastercard / Debit Mastercard (Android & Wear OS) American Express (Android & Wear OS) Discover (Android & Wear OS) Diners Club (Android & Wear OS) JCB (Android only) Maestro (Android & Wear OS) Elo in Brazil (Android & Wear OS) PayPal in the US, Germany (Android only) EFTPOS in Australia (Android & Wear OS) Interac in Canada (Android & Wear OS) QUICPay (Android & Wear OS) iD (Android & Wear OS) WAON (Android only) Edy (Android only) nanaco (Android only) | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Optical and Quantum Electronics**
Optical and Quantum Electronics:
Optical and Quantum Electronics is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published monthly by Springer Science+Business Media. It covers original research and tutorials in optical physics, optoelectronics, photonics, and quantum electronics. Its editors-in-chief are Daoxin Dai, Trevor M. Benson, and Marian Marciniak.
Abstracting and indexing:
The journal is abstracted and indexed in different databases, including: Current Contents/Engineering, Computing & Technology Inspec Science Citation Index Expanded ScopusAccording to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2022 impact factor of 3.0 . | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**ICalendar**
ICalendar:
The Internet Calendaring and Scheduling Core Object Specification (iCalendar) is a media type which allows users to store and exchange calendaring and scheduling information such as events, to-dos, journal entries, and free/busy information, and together with its associated standards has been a cornerstone of the standardization and interoperability of digital calendars across different vendors. Files formatted according to the specification usually have an extension of .ics. With supporting software, such as an email reader or calendar application, recipients of an iCalendar data file can respond to the sender easily or counter-propose another meeting date/time. The file format is specified in a proposed Internet standard (RFC 5545) for calendar data exchange. The standard and file type are sometimes referred to as "iCal", which was the name of the Apple Inc. calendar program until 2012 (see iCal), which provides one of the implementations of the standard.
ICalendar:
iCalendar is used and supported by many products, including Google Calendar, Apple Calendar (formerly iCal), HCL Domino (formerly IBM Notes and Lotus Notes), Yahoo! Calendar, GNU Emacs, GNOME Evolution, eM Client, Lightning extension for Mozilla Thunderbird and SeaMonkey, and partially by Microsoft Outlook and Novell GroupWise.
ICalendar:
iCalendar is designed to be independent of the transport protocol. For example, certain events can be sent by traditional email or whole calendar files can be shared and edited by using a WebDav server, or SyncML. Simple web servers (using just the HTTP protocol) are often used to distribute iCalendar data about an event and to publish busy times of an individual. Publishers can embed iCalendar data in web pages using hCalendar, a 1:1 microformat representation of iCalendar in semantic (X)HTML.
History:
iCalendar was first created in 1998 by the Calendaring and Scheduling Working Group of the Internet Engineering Task Force, chaired by Anik Ganguly of Open Text Corporation, and was authored by Frank Dawson of Lotus Development Corporation and Derik Stenerson of Microsoft Corporation. iCalendar data files are plain text files with the extension .ics or .ifb (for files containing availability information only). RFC 5545 replaced RFC 2445 in September 2009 and now defines the standard.
History:
iCalendar is heavily based on the earlier vCalendar by the Internet Mail Consortium (IMC). It has the .vcs file extension. After iCalendar was released, the Internet Mail Consortium stated that it "hopes that all vCalendar developers take advantage of these new open standards and make their software compatible with both vCalendar 1.0 and iCalendar."The memo "Calendar Access Protocol" (RFC 4324) was an initial attempt at a universal system to create real-time calendars, but was eventually abandoned. Instead, iCalendar saw some adoption for such purposes with ad hoc extensions such as GroupDAV and CalDAV emerging as informal standards and seeing some adoption in both client and server software packages.
History:
A first effort to simplify iCalendar standards by the IETF "Calendaring and Scheduling Working Group" (ietf-calsify WG) ended in January 2011 without seeing adoption. The work was then picked up by the "Calendaring Extensions Working Group" (ietf-calext WG).
Design:
iCalendar data have the MIME content type text/calendar. The filename extension of ics is to be used for files containing calendaring and scheduling information, ifb for files with free or busy time information consistent with this MIME content type. The equivalent file type codes in Apple Macintosh operating system environments are iCal and iFBf.
Design:
By default, iCalendar uses the UTF-8 character set; a different character set can be specified using the "charset" MIME parameter (if the transport method used supports MIME, such as Email or HTTP). Each line is terminated by CR+LF (in hexadecimal: 0D0A). Lines should be limited to 75 octets (not characters) long. Where a data item is too long to fit on a single line it can be continued on following lines by starting the continuation lines with a space character (in hex: 20) or a tab character (in hex: 09). Actual line feeds in data items are encoded as a backslash followed by the letter n or N (the bytes 5C 6E or 5C 4E in UTF-8).
Design:
The iCalendar format is designed to transmit calendar-based data, such as events, and intentionally does not describe what to do with that data. Thus, other programming may be needed to negotiate what to do with this data. A companion standard, "iCalendar Transport-Independent Interoperability" (iTIP) (RFC 2446), defines a protocol for exchanging iCalendar objects for collaborative calendaring and scheduling between "Calendar Users" (CUs) facilitated by an "Organizer" initiating the exchange of data. This standard defines methods such as PUBLISH, REQUEST, REPLY, ADD, CANCEL, REFRESH, COUNTER (to negotiate a change in the entry), and DECLINE-COUNTER (to decline the counter-proposal). Another companion standard, "iCalendar Message-based Interoperability Protocol (iMIP)" (RFC 2447), defines a standard method for implementing iTIP on standard Internet email-based transports. The "Guide to Internet Calendaring" (RFC 3283) explains how iCalendar interacts with other calendar computer language (current and future).
Design:
The top-level element in iCalendar is the Calendaring and Scheduling Core Object, a collection of calendar and scheduling information. Typically, this information will consist of a single iCalendar object. However, multiple iCalendar objects can be grouped together. The first line must be BEGIN:VCALENDAR, and the last line must be END:VCALENDAR; the contents between these lines is called the "icalbody". The body must include the "PRODID" and "VERSION" calendar properties. In addition, it must include at least one calendar component.VERSION:1.0 is used to specify that data is in the old vCalendar format. VERSION is 2.0 for the current iCalendar format as of 2016.
Design:
The body of the iCalendar object (the icalbody) contains single-line Calendar Properties that apply to the entire calendar, as well as one or more blocks of multiple lines that each define a Calendar Component such as an event, journal entry, alarm, or one of several other types. Here is a simple example of an iCalendar object with a single calendar containing a single Calendar Component, a "Bastille Day Party" event starting at 5pm on July 14, 1997, and ending at 4am the following morning: The UID field distributes updates when a scheduled event changes. When the event is first generated a globally unique identifier is created. If a later event is distributed with the same UID, it replaces the original one. An example UID might be Y2007S2C131M5@example.edu, for the 5th meeting of class 131 in semester 2 at a hypothetical college. Email-style UIDs are now considered bad practice, with a UUID recommended instead.The most common representation of date and time is a tz timestamp such as 20010911T124640Z with the format <year (4 digits)><month (2)><day (2)>T<hour (2)><minute (2)><second (2)>Z for a total fixed length of 16 characters. Z indicates the use of UTC (referring to its Zulu time zone). When used in DTSTART and DTEND properties, start times are inclusive while end times are not. This allows an event's end time to be the same as a consecutive event's start without those events overlapping and potentially creating (false) scheduling conflicts.Components include: VEVENT describes an event, which has a scheduled amount of time on a calendar. Normally, when a user accepts the calendar event, this will cause that time to be considered busy, though an event can be set to be TRANSPARENT to change this interpretation. A VEVENT may include a VALARM which allows an alarm. Such events have a DTSTART which sets a starting time, and a DTEND which sets an ending time. If the calendar event is recurring, DTSTART sets up the start of the first event.
Design:
VTODO explains a to-do item, i.e., an action-item or assignment. Not all calendar applications recognize VTODO items. In particular, Outlook does not export Tasks as VTODO items, and ignores VTODO items in imported calendars.
Design:
VJOURNAL is a journal entry. They attach descriptive text to a particular calendar date, may be used to record a daily record of activities or accomplishments, or describe progress with a related to-do entry. A VJOURNAL calendar component does not take up time on a calendar, so it has no effect on free or busy time (just like TRANSPARENT entries). In practice, few programs support VJOURNAL entries.
Design:
VFREEBUSY is a request for free/busy time, is a response to a request, or is a published set of busy time.
Design:
Other component types include VAVAILABILITY, VTIMEZONE (time zones) and VALARM (alarms). Some components can include other components (VALARM is often included in other components). Some components are often defined to support other components defined after them (VTIMEZONE is often used this way).iCalendar is meant to "provide the definition of a common format for openly exchanging calendaring and scheduling information across the Internet". While the features most often used by users are widely supported by iCalendar, some more advanced capabilities have problems. For example, most vendors do not support Journals (VJOURNAL). VTODOs have had conversion problems as well.iCalendar's calendar is also not compatible with some non-Gregorian calendars such as the lunar calendars used in Israel and Saudi Arabia. Although there exist one-to-one mappings between Gregorian and many other calendar scales, the lack of defined CALSCALE values for those calendars and limitations in various date fields can make native support impossible. For example the Hebrew calendar year may contain either 12 or 13 months, and the Japanese Emperor-based calendar scale contains many eras.
Extensions:
vCalendar and iCalendar support private software extensions, with a "X-" prefix, a number of which are in common usage.
Extensions:
Some of these include: X-RECURRENCE-ID: vCalendar 1.0 extension which mimics the iCalendar 2.0 RECURRENCE-ID (Nokia S60 3rd Edition) X-EPOCAGENDAENTRYTYPE: defines the client calendar type X-FUNAMBOL-AALARMOPTIONS X-FUNAMBOL-ALLDAY: All Day event flag X-MICROSOFT-CDO-ALLDAYEVENT: Microsoft Outlook all day event flag X-MICROSOFT-CDO-BUSYSTATUS: Microsoft Outlook status information X-MICROSOFT-CDO-INTENDEDSTATUS X-WR-CALNAME: The display name of the calendar X-WR-CALDESC: A description of the calendar X-WR-RELCALID: A globally unique identifier for the calendar X-WR-TIMEZONE X-PUBLISHED-TTL: Recommended update interval for subscription to the calendar X-ALT-DESC: Used to include HTML markup in an event's description. Standard DESCRIPTION tag should contain non-HTML version.
Other representations:
xCal is an XML representation of iCalendar data, as defined in RFC 6321.
jCal is a JSON representation of iCalendar data, as defined in RFC 7265.
hCalendar is an (x)HTML representation of a subset of iCalendar data using microformats.
hEvent is an HTML representation of a subset of iCalendar data using Microformats addressing some accessibility concerns with the hCalendar format. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Umbrella title**
Umbrella title:
An umbrella title is a formal or informal name connecting a number of individual items with a common theme. It is most often used in lieu of listing the separate components or providing a convenient "label" for a collection of disciplines.
Uses of umbrella titles:
Academia Nonspecific fields of study are identified by umbrella titles such as "physics", "physical education", and "medicine" to distinguish them from specialized fields of study such as exercise physiology.
Scientific conferences and discussions Many scientific and academic conferences use umbrella titles as unifying themes for the activities scheduled in the course of the conference.
Employment Umbrella titles in common use involve either general job descriptions of a group of workers with similar responsibilities (like "teacher") or rank (military or nonmilitary).
Politics and law Collections of organizations with a common legal or legislative interest are often "united" under an umbrella title for the purposes of lobbying or participating in a lawsuit.
Entertainment and literature Umbrella titles are widely used in music, literature, television, and theater. Uses of umbrella titles vary widely in the arts, to a much greater spectrum of use than in other fields of study.
Music and dance Umbrella titles are used to demarcate the music field into general trends or styles: classical music, jazz, rock music, hip hop, rhythm and blues and other labels which each cover more specialized musical styles. A similar "structure" can be found in the field of dance.
Uses of umbrella titles:
Prior to the sale of the long playing record in 1950, albums containing several 78 revolutions-per-minute records were often sold under umbrella titles (a collection of recordings from Oklahoma, for example). It can be argued that titles of all long-playing records and compact discs are "umbrella" titles—and several such recordings with a common theme often have an umbrella title (such as Chip Davis' "Day Parts" series) as well.
Uses of umbrella titles:
Television While it can be argued that every title of a televised series, especially those primarily used to designate a time period rather than actual programming (like NBC Monday Night at the Movies) is an umbrella, the term is more appropriately applied to names of anthology series, series that combine together to provide a common theme (such as the three components of 90 Bristol Court), wheel series, and other series under a common heading (such as Crimetime After Primetime and Four in One).
Uses of umbrella titles:
While it was common practice in the 1950s and early 1960s for series to alternate or otherwise share a time slot in American broadcast network television (for example, The Jack Benny Show shared a time slot with, first Private Secretary and then The George Gobel Show), umbrella titles were not used by United States' networks until 1964, when NBC presented three half-hour programs on Monday nights as a programming block centered at a southern California apartment complex, 90 Bristol Court.While the 1964 programming experiment did not succeed (two of the series were cancelled; the third lasted the broadcast season but was not renewed for the 1965-1966 season), NBC was not dissuaded from further programming experimentation. Within a decade, the network then experimented with wheel series, first with Four in One and The Bold Ones, then with NBC Mystery Movie. Afterwards additional wheel series were presented by American broadcast networks, to varying degrees of success. The experiment was revived in 1979 with Cliffhangers.
Uses of umbrella titles:
In the United Kingdom, umbrella titles were used in varying degrees in their programming as well. The long-running Doctor Who used umbrella titles on several levels, first with individual named episodes under the umbrella of the title of an overall story (the first four episodes were commonly called "An Unearthly Child" even though none of them actually showed it to be the title of the story); even after the naming of individual episodes ceased, umbrella titles were often used to collect stories with a common enemy or theme (Daleks stories, Cybermen stories, UNIT stories, and season-long "Key to Time" and "Trial of a Time Lord").
Uses of umbrella titles:
Motion pictures and literature The use of umbrella titles in motion pictures parallels their use in literature. Movie trilogies such as Lord of the Rings and the Three Colors trilogy (a.k.a. "Red, White, and Blue trilogy") commonly are called by umbrella titles, as was the case for their literary cousins (such as John Dos Passos' U.S.A.). Umbrella titles were often used to cover longer sequences of motion pictures or novels (such as the James Bond and Star Wars films and Marcel Proust's multi-volume Remembrance of Things Past). Often umbrella titles are used to collect motion pictures with common stars ("Marx Brothers movies") or common characters ("Dirty Harry movies"), as is the case for novels or comics ("Perry Mason novels", for example). In literature, sometimes an umbrella title is used for a collection of stories with a common locality, such as the Wessex novels of Thomas Hardy. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Carbon dioxide transmission rate**
Carbon dioxide transmission rate:
Carbon dioxide transmission rate (COTR) is the measurement of the amount of carbon dioxide gas that passes through a substance over a given period. It is mostly carried out on non-porous materials, where the mode of transport is diffusion, but there are a growing number of applications where the transmission rate also depends on flow through apertures of some description. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Ljubezen.si**
Ljubezen.si:
Ljubezen.si is a novel by Slovenian author Mojca Rudolf. It was first published in 2006.
Plot:
Anja and Andraž are thirteen-year-old teenagers who have the same problem; love. Both are wondering how to deal with this new emotion, what to do, how to approach the other person and reveal their feelings to him/her.
Plot:
Soon at the beginning, we learn that Anja's first love is Andraž, but she doesn't tell anyone, not even her best friend Lili. She decides to reveal her love to Andraž at the school dance, as she is sure that he feels the same way about her. However, at the end of the dance, he experiences a shock; Andraž does not like her, but her friend Lili, who reciprocates this feeling. Anja is first furious, feels betrayed and never wants to see Lili again. However, the very next day she finds out that her friend is sincerely in love, that Lili did not betray her, as she did not know about her crush on Andraž. She decides not to confess her love to Andraž and tries to forget him. Tilen helps her with this. Unfortunately, things get complicated again; Rok, who also knows Anja's secret, only accidentally reveals it.
Plot:
Because the children behave smartly, talk and resolve the problem, they remain friends. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Payen Pa.101**
Payen Pa.101:
The Payen Pa.101 was an experimental aircraft designed by Nicolas Roland Payen in the 1930s.
Design:
The Pa.101 was quite unorthodox for employing a combination of a delta wing and canard surfaces, given that the delta wing was in its developmental infancy.
Specifications:
Data from General characteristics Crew: 1 Length: 5.75 m (18 ft 10 in) Wingspan: 4.20 m (13 ft 9 in) Height: 2.60 m (8 ft 6 in) Gross weight: 750 kg (1,653 lb) Powerplant: 1 × Gnome & Rhône 7Kd 7-cyl. air-cooled radial piston engine, 280 kW (380 hp)Performance Maximum speed: 360 km/h (220 mph, 190 kn) Cruise speed: 330 km/h (205 mph, 178 kn) landing speed 47 mph Range: 1,200 km (750 mi, 650 nmi) Service ceiling: 5,600 m (18,500 ft) | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Dried turnip**
Dried turnip:
Dried turnip (dried radish) (simplified Chinese: 萝卜干; traditional Chinese: 蘿蔔乾; pinyin: luó bō gān; alternative simplified: 菜頭乾) is one kind of pickles in China, also a kind of vegetables with unique flavor. It is rich in both Vitamin B and iron.
Procedure:
Dried turnip is usually made around the winter solstice. Turnips are cleaned before solarization. Then the turnips are mixed with salt and put into a jar with a big rock upon them. One week later, turnips are taken out and dried in the sun again. Then the turnips are squeezed until no water can be squeezed. Next, turnips should are soaked in boiling brine. The turnips are again squeezed and dried in the sun until they become golden yellow. The last procedure is to put turnips into a clean jar. Half a year later, they can be tasted.
Use:
In China, people eat dried turnips when they are having porridge or noodles. It is regarded as an appetizer. The quality guarantee period of the dried turnip is months or even years. People are advised to pay attention to the amount of the dried turnip they eat because too much pickle is not good for health. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**National drug code**
National drug code:
The national drug code (NDC) is a unique product identifier used in the United States for drugs intended for human use. The Drug Listing Act of 1972 requires registered drug establishments to provide the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) with a current list of all drugs manufactured, prepared, propagated, compounded, or processed by it for commercial distribution. Drug products are identified and reported using the NDC.
National drug code:
There are several alternative drug classification systems in addition to NDC that are also commonly used when analyzing drug data, such as Generic Product Identifier (GPI).
Format:
The national drug code is a unique 10 or 11 digit, 3-segment numeric identifier assigned to each medication listed under Section 510 of the US Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act. The segments identify the labeler or vendor, product (within the scope of the labeler), and trade package (of this product).
The first segment, the labeler code, is 4, 5 or 6 digits long and assigned by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) upon submission of a Labeler Code Request. A labeler is any firm that manufactures, repacks or distributes a drug product.
The second segment, the product code, is 3 or 4 digits long and identifies a specific strength, dosage form, and formulation for a particular firm.
Format:
The third segment, the package code, is 1 or 2 digits long and identifies package forms and sizes. In very exceptional cases, product and package segments may have contained characters other than digits.While the labeler code is assigned by the FDA, both the product and package segments are assigned by the labeler. While in the past labelers may have had the opportunity to reassign old product codes no longer used to new products, according to the new FDA validation procedures, once an NDC code is assigned to one product (defined by key properties including active ingredients, strength, and dosage form) it may not be later reassigned to a different product.
Format:
NDC codes exist in one of the following groupings of digits into segments: 4-4-2, 5-3-2, 5-4-1, 6-3-2, or 6-4-1.The following NDC structure rules apply depending on the length of certain segments. These rules include the 11 digit format. Unless stated otherwise, search for drug codes using the 10 digit format.
Format:
If a labeler code is either 5 or 6 digits in length, it may be combined with: A product code consisting of 4 digits and a package code consisting of 1 digit for a total NDC length of 10 or 11 digits (5-4-1 or 6-4-1), or A product code consisting of 3 digits and a package code consisting of 2 digits for a total NDC length of 10 or 11 digits (5-3-2 or 6-3-2).
Format:
If a labeler code is 4 digits in length, it may be combined only with a product code consisting of 4 digits and a package code consisting of 2 digits for a total NDC length of 10 digits (4-4-2).
Format:
A registrant or private label distributor with a given labeler code must use only one Product-Package Code configuration (e.g., a 3-digit product code combined with a 2-digit package code or a 4-digit product code combined with a 1-digit package code).The official FDA format for NDCs separates the 3 segments with dashes. This is the format in which the NDC must be submitted by labelers since mandatory electronic listing was established in June 2009.While the NDC is a 10-digit identifier, confusion exists because of a proliferation of different notations and variants.
Format:
The previous NDC directory, populated by a paper-based listing system, sometimes inserted an asterisk in either a product code or a package code in addition to the dashes. This format is easily transformed to the official format in effect today by deleting the asterisk (if any).
Format:
Each NDC-coded product package in the US bears a barcode with a Universal Product Code that begins with a 3 (UPC-A) or 03 (EAN-13). The remainder of the numbers can be the 10 NDC digits, plus the check digit, but this is not required. If the NDC is used in the UPC it is the most minimal form of the NDC code with 10 digits only. Because the NDC code has been linked with product barcodes in this way, the NDC code could contain ambiguities in this form. For example, 1234-5678-90, 12345-678-90, and 12345-6789-0 could all be entirely different products with the same barcode 1234567890. To prevent any actual ambiguity from impacting the marketplace, ambiguity checks are part of the new electronic listing process.
Format:
The pure 10-digit NDC format cannot be transformed back into the standard format with dashes without the help of the product listing database.
Format:
The Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) had created an 11-digit NDC derivative, which pads the labeler, product, or package code segments of the NDC with leading zeroes wherever they are needed to result in a fixed length 5-4-2 configuration (but always written without dashes). This format was adopted by data standards selected pursuant to HIPAA regulation, thus other government agencies' lists and databases (such as the UMLS) may contain the 11-digit derivative of the original NDC.
Format:
The 11-digit NDC format cannot be transformed back into the 10-digit standard format without the help of a product listing database.
Format:
In some applications, the fully expanded 5+4 digit labeler+product code is used as a 9-digit number to identify a product regardless of packaging. Thus an 11-digit NDC can be transformed into a 9-digit NDC product code by removing the last two digits. This does not work reliably for 10-digit NDCs where the packaging code might be one digit and not two.
Format:
In 2022, the FDA proposed revising the NDC regulations to require use of a uniform 12-digit NDC with the same three functional segments but with uniform segment lengths of 6, 4, and 2 digits. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**COVID-19 pandemic in Argentina**
COVID-19 pandemic in Argentina:
The COVID-19 pandemic in Argentina was a part of the worldwide pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). As of 18 August 2023, a total of 10,044,957 people were confirmed to have been infected, and 130,472 people were known to have died because of the virus.On 3 March 2020, the virus was confirmed to have spread to Argentina. On 7 March 2020, the Ministry of Health confirmed the country's first documented death, a 64-year-old man who had travelled to Paris, France, who also had other health conditions; the case was only confirmed as positive after the patient's demise.On 19 March 2020, a nationwide lockdown was established in Argentina. The lockdown was lifted throughout all the country, excepting the Greater Buenos Aires urban area (where 31.9% of the country's population live), on 10 May, with Greater Buenos Aires locked down until 17 July, where the lockdown was due to be gradually loosened in several stages to lead to the return to normality. However, restrictions were extended several times until 8 November 2020. During the second wave, another nationwide lockdown took place from 22 to 31 May 2021.Responses to the outbreak have included restrictions on commerce and movement, closure of borders, and the closure of schools and educational institutions. Clusters of infections and deaths have occurred in nursing homes, prisons and other detention centers, and urban areas. The number of tests increased over time, although there were some concerns as there was less testing than in other countries of the region such as Chile and Peru. Even so, the government's responses to the pandemic were among the best received by the population in the region during the early stages of the pandemic.
Background:
On 12 January, the World Health Organization (WHO) confirmed that a novel coronavirus was the cause of a respiratory illness in a cluster of people in Wuhan City, Hubei Province, China, who was reported to the WHO on 31 December 2019. The case fatality rate for COVID-19 has been much lower than the 2002–2004 SARS outbreak, but transmission has been significantly greater, with a significant total death toll. Model-based simulations for Argentina indicate that the 95% confidence interval for the time-varying reproduction number Rt exceeded 1.0 from April to July 2020, after which it diminished to below 1.0 in October and November 2020.
Timeline:
February 2020 After the cruise ship Diamond Princess was quarantined in the Port of Yokohama in Japan after 10 passengers were diagnosed with COVID-19 during the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic, among the passengers diagnosed positive was the first Argentine infected, a 61-year-old man traveling with his wife, who had no symptoms. The patient was later transferred to a hospital in Japan. The other seven Argentines on board, including his wife, remained on the ship in quarantine until 21 February. The man was finally released on 17 February. He left Japan on 24 February and arrived in Argentina on 26 February.
Timeline:
March 2020 A first case of COVID-19 was confirmed in Buenos Aires on 3 March, in a 43-year-old man who had arrived two days earlier from Milan, Italy. Two days later, the second case was confirmed in a 23-year-old man living in Buenos Aires, who had recently returned from Northern Italy. Rapidly, on the next day the total cases increased to eight.The Ministry of Health confirmed the country's first death from coronavirus in the country on 7 March, a 64-year-old man who had traveled to Paris who also had other health conditions. The person was not among the eight already diagnosed with the disease and was diagnosed post-mortem.On 11 March, the government also announced a mandatory 14-day-quarantine to every person that returned to Argentina from highly affected countries including China, South Korea, Japan, Iran, the United States and all of Europe. The first cases from local transmission were confirmed on the next day in Buenos Aires and the provinces of Buenos Aires, Chaco, and Córdoba. In Chaco, the first native transmission was also confirmed. The first patient with the virus in the country was discharged and left hospital in Buenos Aires the next day.Tierra del Fuego was put on lockdown on 16 March, becoming the first province to do so. The provinces of Chaco, Misiones, Salta, Jujuy, Mendoza and Tierra del Fuego closed their borders on 18 March. On the next day, in the night of 19 March, President Alberto Fernández announced a mandatory lockdown, in effect from midnight on 20 March until 31 March, but on 29 March Fernández announced that the mandatory lockdown would be extended until 12 April.On 23 March, Ministry of Health officials reported the virus was spreading via "community transmission" in the City of Buenos Aires, its surroundings and some cities in Chaco, Tierra del Fuego and Córdoba provinces. March concluded with 1,054 confirmed cases and 27 fatal victims.
Timeline:
April 2020 On 8 April, President Fernández announced that the mandatory lockdown would be extended beyond 12 April, with "flexibilization" of few activities only. In the night of 10 April, Fernández confirmed that the lockdown would be extended until 26 April in major cities, and that the flexibilization of restrictions in zones with lesser risk would be analysed. A third phase of the lockdown was later announced by the president on 25 March, extending it to major cities until 10 May.After appearance of three asymptomatic cases, Buenos Aires authorities introduced compulsory masking starting on 14 April. Wearing a face mask was made obligatory for everyone on public transit and everyone who contacts the public in their position. Violators would face a fine. Authorities also prohibited the sale of N95 respirators to non-medical workers, suggesting the general public to use home-made masks instead.April finally concluded with 4,415 confirmed cases, 218 deaths and 1,245 recoveries.
Timeline:
May–July 2020 On 8 May, Fernández announced that the national lockdown would be "relaxed" throughout the country with the exception of Greater Buenos Aires, where the lockdown was extended first until 24 May, and later until 7 June (on 23 May), due to a significant increase in the number of new cases in the previous days of the announcement. May ended with 16,838 confirmed cases, 539 deaths and 5,323 recoveries.On 9 June, the government of the Formosa Province reported the first case of COVID-19 in its province, leaving the Catamarca Province as the only province that did not report any cases at the time.Martín Insaurralde, the mayor of Lomas de Zamora was diagnosed with COVID-19 and isolated on 12 June. After having meetings with the mayor, the Ministry of Social Development was also tested. This led to the suspension of the previously planned president's visit to Catamarca, the only province that had not reported any cases to this date.The first official data from ICU bed occupation became available on 24 June, with an occupation of 45 per cent throughout the country. A few days later, it was informed that June concluded with 64,517 confirmed cases, 1,307 deaths and 22,015 recoveries from the virus.On 3 July, The Governor of the Catamarca Province confirmed its first case within the province. Catamarca was the last province to report its first case since the virus reached the country on 3 March.At a press conference given by President Fernández, Governors Axel Kicillof (Province of Buenos Aires), Jorge Capitanich (Chaco), Gerardo Morales (Jujuy) and Arabela Carreras (Río Negro), and the Mayor of the City of Buenos Aires, Horacio Rodríguez Larreta on 17 July, it was announced that the lockdown would be loosened in the coming weeks, in an attempt to return to normality. Two weeks later, on 31 July, in another press conference, Fernández announced that the lockdown restrictions at that moment would continue until 16 August as there were a record of cases and deaths in the past days due to the virus. July concluded with 191,289 confirmed cases, 3,543 deaths and 83,767 recoveries.
Timeline:
August–September 2020 On 9 August, the Ministry of Health confirmed a total of 61,867 new recoveries on that day. This big jump was due to a revision on the definition of a recovery, which now included (among the discharged from the hospitals) mild cases in which the system would automatically discharge 10 days after the symptom onset date. This led to a recovery rate of 70% of confirmed COVID-19 cases through the date. President Fernández announced on 28 August that meetings of up to ten people in the open air, maintaining two meters of distance and using a face mask were authorised throughout the country. That same day, it was announced that the eased lockdown would be extended again until 20 September. August finally concluded with 417,722 confirmed cases, 8,660 deaths and 301,182 recoveries.During this month, schools and sports began the return to their activities. Over 10,000 students in San Juan became the first to return to face-to-face classes through social distancing on 10 August. The Argentine Football Association (AFA) announced that after health protocols being approved by the government, practices of the Men's First Division and Women's First Division would definitely return on 10 August.
Timeline:
On 14 August, it was confirmed that the governor of Jujuy (Gerardo Morales) and the Security Minister from the Province of Buenos Aires (Sergio Berni) tested positive for COVID-19. They both described that were "asymptomatic" and also "complying with isolation and all medical recommendations".The lockdown was extended for three more weeks on 18 September, expecting it to last until 11 October. The contagion rate on the Greater Buenos Aires area dropped from 93 to 50.8 per cent from May though September, indicating that the virus increased its spreading through all the country. In the first 15 days of September, the provinces of Córdoba, Jujuy, La Rioja, Mendoza, Neuquén, Río Negro, Salta, Santa Cruz, Santa Fe, Tierra del Fuego and Tucumán registered exponential increases in their number of cases, with most of them showing high strain on their healthcare systems. On 25 September, the Health Access Secretary informed that during the previous week there was a "stabilization trend" in the Greater Buenos Aires area with a "high peak of positive cases". On the same day, it was confirmed that the Minister of Social Development, Daniel Arroyo, tested positive, while the Minister of Health of Santa Fe was hospitalised in a hospital in Rosario due to a worsening of her symptoms after testing positive for COVID-19. September concluded with 750,988 cumulative confirmed cases, 16,937 cumulative deaths and 594,632 recoveries.
Timeline:
October–December 2020 On 2 October, the governor of the province of Buenos Aires, Axel Kicillof, isolated with his family after having contact with a government worker who tested positive for COVID-19. One week later, Fernández announced that due to the epidemiological situation in the previous weeks, the lockdown would continue for another two weeks until 25 October. Contagion rate from greater Buenos Aires diminished versus the rest of the country. As of this date, 65 per cent of the total daily confirmed cases came from all the country except the Greater Buenos Aires area, which was the main contagion focus in the past months. The provinces of Río Negro, Mendoza, Tucumán, Santa Fe, Salta, Santiago del Estero, Neuquén and Córdoba saw an increase in the number of occupied ICU beds, with Río Negro reaching to an 88 per cent of occupation.On 20 October, Argentina confirmed over 1,000,000 positive cases, becoming the fifth country to do so and the second country in South America to pass the landmark. Three days later, it was announced that the lockdown would continue for another two weeks in provinces with a high number of daily new confirmed cases. October finally ended with a total of 1,166,911 cases, 31,002 deaths and 973,926 recoveries from the virus.During the first days of November, the government announced that will acquire during December 2020 and January 2021, 25 million of doses from the Russian vaccine Sputnik V after it would enter phase III. Other vaccines such as the developed by University of Oxford and AstraZeneca, Pfizer, and China were also announced to be acquired eventually.The president also said on 3 November, that "the horizon was starting to come into sight", after the 7-day average of new cases dipped significantly after hitting a high on 21 October. This led to an end on the lockdown established in the Greater Buenos Aires area after more than seven months, set to conclude on 8 November and moving into the social distancing phase. November concluded with 1,424,518 confirmed cases, 38,730 deaths and 1,257,214 recoveries.
Timeline:
On 22 December the flight that would bring the first doses of the Sputnik V vaccine to the country left for Moscow, after negotiations began in early December. 300,000 doses arrived on 24 December, with the vaccination campaign beginning on 29 December. The governor of the province of Buenos Aires, Axel Kicillof, was among the first to receive the vaccine. One day later, the AZD1222 vaccine developed by University of Oxford and AstraZeneca was also approved in the country. The last report of December informed that there were 1,613,911 confirmed cases, 43,163 deaths and 1,426,659 recoveries from the virus at the end of 2020.
Timeline:
January–March 2021 Towards the end of the Christmas and holiday season, there was a rise on the number of daily confirmed cases. This concerned President Fernández, whom appealed to call for "individual responsibility". On 6 January, the Chief of Government of the City of Buenos Aires, Horacio Rodríguez Larreta, tested positive for COVID-19.On 8 January, the government announced an immediate national night-time curfew after a big rise in the number of infections in the previous weeks. It ran daily from 1–6 a.m., and was intended to reduce the viral circulation.The first case from the lineage B.1.1.7 of the virus was confirmed on 16 January, one month after being reported in the United Kingdom in mid-December. This variant is known for showing evidence of increased transmissibility.On 21 January, President Fernández became the first Latin American leader to be inoculated against the disease via the recently approved Sputnik V. He was later followed by Vice-President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, who received the vaccine on 24 January.On 19 February, the president asked the Minister of Health Ginés González García to resign, after media reported that people were able to use connections to get access to the COVID-19 vaccines. This came to light after journalist Horacio Verbitsky said he received a shot after being offered by the minister. On the next day, former Health Access Secretary Carla Vizzotti was sworn as the new Minister of Health, pledging fair vaccine access after the scandal.On 29 March, the government confirmed community contact cases from various SARS-CoV-2 variants. Cases from the lineage B.1.1.7 (from the United Kingdom) showed an increase in the frequency of detection of the variant in Greater Buenos Aires during the previous epidemiological weeks. Other cases from the P.1 (from Brazil/Japan), P.2 (Brazil) and CAL.20C variants (United States), and L452R mutations were also found among the population.
Timeline:
April–August 2021 President Fernández tested positive for COVID-19 on 3 April, showing mild symptoms. Fernández had been previously received the full vaccination against the virus earlier on the same year. During the first week of April, there was also an increase in the number of daily confirmed cases, leading to the begin of the second wave of the pandemic in the country. On 8 April, during a visit by United States Southern Command chief Craig S. Faller to the country, the United States announced the donation of three mobile hospitals, oxygen generators, among other supplies for other areas. The United States also donated equipment for training on response to situations of disasters or a pandemic.New restrictions were applied since 16 April in Greater Buenos Aires after a rise in the number of new confirmed cases and ICU bed occupation, including a curfew from 8 p.m. to 6 a.m. and the closing of schools for two weeks. Even with those restrictions, cases continued to rise, leading to the government's decision to implement another nationwide lockdown from 22 to 31 May 2021.After a delay in the delivery of second doses of the Sputnik V vaccine, the government announced on 5 August that they would begin applying Moderna and AstraZeneca vaccines as replacements of the second doses of the Russian vaccine. Later, it was reported that Argentina's Richmond laboratories delivered nearly a million doses of the first component of the Sputnik V vaccine produced in the country to the Ministry of Health.During August, Buenos Aires City's Health Minister Fernán Quirós announced that the COVID-19 Delta variant was very close to enter into community transmission. It was later confirmed on 24 August that the first case of contagion via community circulation of the Delta variant was found in Lanús, in Buenos Aires Province.
Timeline:
September 2021–January 2022 On 6 December, the health ministry announced the detection of the first positive case of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant in a fully vaccinated Argentine traveler, who entered country by airplane on 30 November from South Africa via the United States.On 7 January, Argentina surpassed over 110,000 positive tests in a single day, marking a record number of cases for a fourth consecutive day due to the surge of Omicron cases.On 11 January, Carla Vizzotti confirmed changes for isolation protocols and explained that "the testing strategy is focused on people with symptoms". She said "the virus is behaving in an endemic way" and stated that "most infections are very mild and moderate". She discouraged attending social gatherings and mass events, and went on to mention the value of immunity from vaccination and natural infection.
Responses:
Medical response Initial response The Ministry of Health summoned health professionals to provide health services in the context of the pandemic, in search of reinforcing the teams made up by the national and provincial governments. This call included nurses, biochemists, physiotherapists and physicians, in particular in the fields of medical clinic, cardiology, pneumonology, adult and paediatric intensive care, emergentology, paediatrics and general and/or family medicine. Proposals from professionals from other specialties were also received. Around 4,000 people joined a call from the University of Buenos Aires (UBA) to summon volunteers to help on the influenza vaccination campaign, advanced medical students to be in triage in tents near hospitals where the patients will be first checked, volunteers to do a follow-up of isolated patients at home with a confirmed or suspected diagnosis of COVID-19, and volunteers to work on logistics.
Responses:
Testing The ANLIS-Malbrán (National Administration of Laboratories and Health Institutes "Dr. Carlos G. Malbrán") began carrying out 300 daily COVID-19 tests. Later, after 820 confirmed cases were reached, the Ministry of Health started the delivery of 35,000 reactives to expand the number of laboratories for diagnosis to all 24 jurisdictions to decentralise the testings, making the number of testings increase over time. Private medical clinics would be able to do up to 7,500 daily tests to decompress the public health system. Previously, the delivery of the diagnostic result was taking four to five days on average for patients in private clinics.
Responses:
Contact tracing As an effort to fight and contain the virus, the Ministry of Health implemented a plan of contact tracing in defined areas where an increase in the number of cases is detected or estimated. The plan launched first in Buenos Aires and was later extended throughout the country. The program, called Detectar (Detect in English; Strategic Testing Device for Coronavirus in Argentina Terrain), launched on May after a big jump in the number of cases in low socioeconomic class and densely populated neighbourhoods in Greater Buenos Aires, known as villas.
Responses:
Drug therapy and vaccine development On 17 April 2020, a clinical trial based on plasma donation of recovered patients from COVID-19 was created to find out if the antibodies of a recovered patient could benefit those who are being infected. It began on hospitals and hemotherapy centers in Greater Buenos Aires and was later extended to the rest of the country.
Responses:
Argentine scientists developed a quick diagnosis test to detect the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), approved by the National Administration of Medicines, Food and Medical Technology (ANMAT in Spanish). The test, called NEOKIT-COVID-19, allows to obtain results in almost an hour and it offers a high degree of sensitivity (which reduces the possibility of false negatives) and specificity (which minimises the probability of false positives). This test allows testing RNA samples and does not require complex equipment (such as thermal cyclers). It was expected that 10,000 tests would be produced within the first 10 days. On 13 June 2020, a new announcement of another quick diagnosis test to detect the SARS-CoV-2 was made. Called ELA-chemstrip, it was developed by Argentine scientists from the National University of Quilmes and the National University of General San Martín. Another SARS-CoV-2 diagnostic kit with RT-qPCR technology was approved in September 2020 by ANMAT, while a new kit under development (as of that date), would allow the joint detection of SARS-CoV-2 and the viruses that cause influenza.On 31 May 2020, it was announced that Argentine scientists were also working to develop a COVID-19 vaccine, a project subsidised by the Ministry of Science, Technology and Productive Innovation. On 10 July 2020, pharmaceutical corporations Pfizer and BioNTech announced that the clinical trial for the COVID-19 vaccine BNT162 that was on phase I–II as of the day of the announcement, would begin on early-August in Argentina, soon after the trial began on Germany and the United States. After it would be approved by the ANMAT, the trial would take place at the Central Militar Hospital. The trial is made by mRNA constructs and consists of four vaccines, randomised, placebo-controlled, dose-finding and vaccine candidate-selection, and would begin its phase IIb-III after preliminary data from the previous phase were positive. One month later, Fernández announced that the vaccine produced by the University of Oxford and AstraZeneca (AZD1222) would begin production alongside Mexico after an agreement with the British pharmaceutical company and the biotechnology company mAbxience. Initially 150 million doses of the vaccine would be produced to supply all of Latin America (with the exception of Brazil). As of the day of the announcement, the vaccine, consisting of modified chimp adenovirus vector, was entering phase III.A COVID-19 hyperimmune serum based on equine polyclonal antibodies was developed by Argentine biotech company Inmunova. The antibodies were obtained by injecting a recombinant protein of SARS-CoV-2 in these animals, with in vitro testings demonstrating the ability to neutralise the virus. On 24 July 2020, the trial entered its phase II–III after being approved by ANMAT.
Responses:
On 3 November 2020, President Fernández announced in an interview with Russian news agency that government would receive an initial of more than 10 million doses of the Sputnik V vaccine by as early as December 2020, after it would enter phase III. Other previously announced vaccines in development would also be acquired to a lesser extent by the government, such as those produced by the University of Oxford and AstraZeneca, Pfizer and China. Government officials also said that the deployment of any coronavirus vaccine in Argentina would not be mandatory. 300,000 doses of the Sputnik V vaccine arrived at the country in late December 2020. The Sputnik V and the BNT162b2 vaccines were the first to receive emergency approvals from ANMAT, On 30 December 2020, the University of Oxford and AstraZeneca's vaccine AZD1222 was also approved for use by ANMAT.On 2 February 2021, it was announced that 1 million doses of the Sinopharm BIBP vaccine would arrive during February in Argentina.
Responses:
Vaccination campaign Vaccination against COVID-19 began in Argentina on 29 December 2020 aiming at health professionals. During the first week, 39,599 doses were applied to health professionals.On 18 February 2021, vaccination on citizens aged over 70 began in the Province of Buenos Aires. Schools, among other sites, were used as temporary vaccination centres.On 18 November 2021, health minister Vizzotti said that there was "sufficient stock" to vaccinate all the population with a booster dose. The campaign of the booster dose began in late October 2021, with people over the age of 70 and health personnel; and those above the age of 50 who completed their two doses with Sinopharm.
Responses:
Public response During the first weeks of the pandemic, people across the country used to applaud from balconies, terraces and windows of their houses and buildings at 9 pm, in order recognise the effort and work of health professionals, a demonstration similar to the ones that occurred during the pandemic in Spain and Italy.Since late-May 2020, a few protestors began to rally in Buenos Aires to demand end of the lockdown, ignoring social distancing rules, and with the call to prioritise the re-opening of Argentina's economy and some conspiratorial overtones, due to the small and medium-size businesses and self-employed workers' economic struggle during this time. Despite the protests, a vast majority of Argentines were supportive of the lockdown, according to polls. Other protests were realised against the government policies to combat the pandemic, corruption and insecurity, and against the bill to reform some elements of the judiciary, but the conspiracy theories about the virus were still present in the protests.
Government responses:
The government's responses to the pandemic was very well seen, including the mandatory lockdown and strict social distancing measures, resulting in a general better look in the number of cases and deaths than other countries in the region. The measures also brought some concerns with the economic impact that it could cause to the country. Even so, the way that president Fernández and its government handled the country's response to the spread of COVID-19 resulted in the best numbers of public approval since the president's assumption in December 2019. Argentina was among the Latin American countries that earned the best grades for their response to the pandemic, according to a poll conducted in the region, only behind Uruguay and Paraguay.
Government responses:
First measures On 11 March 2020, the government announced a mandatory 14-day-quarantine to every person that returned to Argentina from highly affected countries such as China, South Korea, Japan, Iran, the United States and all of Europe.On 15 March 2020, it was announced that the government would close its borders for a total of 15 days to non-residents and national parks, and the suspension of public and private school classes in all levels and flights from highly affected countries for 30 days.On 16 March 2020, the province of Tierra del Fuego was put on lockdown, becoming the first province to do so. The provinces of Chaco, Misiones, Salta, Jujuy, Mendoza and Tierra del Fuego also decided to close their borders on 18 March 2020.
Government responses:
Nationwide measures Mandatory lockdown On 19 March 2020, President Alberto Fernández announced a mandatory lockdown to curb the spread of coronavirus. It would take effect from 20 March 2020 until 31 March 2020. It was among the strictest measures in the region.The "preventive and mandatory social isolation" included the following measures: Mandatory lockdown for all residents, The move of Malvinas Day from 2 April to 31 March 2020, Allowance of purchases of foods, medicines and first need products, Transit control on the streets by Naval Prefecture, National Gendarmerie and Federal Police, Penalties to those that cannot justify their transit on the streets according to the Penal Code, Exception of the lockdown to state, health, food production, drugs production and oil industry workers and security forces, Creation of a government department that works on the pandemic and economic issues, and Guidelines to relieve the situation for non-formal sector.On 29 March 2020, Fernández announced that the mandatory lockdown would be extended until 12 April 2020.The announcement of the lockdown was generally well received, although there were concerns with its economic impact in the already delicate state of Argentina's economy, with analysts predicting at least 3% GDP decrease in 2020. Image of Fernández increased during the first weeks of the lockdown according to some surveys, but later suffered a slightly decrease in April 2020 due to the prolongation of the lockdown. The University of Buenos Aires also made a survey, in which most people agreed to the measures taken by the president.Fernández announced a one-time emergency payment of 10,000 pesos (US$154) to lower-income individuals whose income was affected by the lockdown, including retirees. Because banks were excluded in the list of businesses that were considered essential in Fernandez's lockdown decree, they remained closed until the Central Bank announced banks would open during a weekend starting on 3 April 2020.
Government responses:
Administrated lockdown On 10 April 2020, Fernández confirmed that the lockdown would be extended until 26 April 2020 under a "new phase" with new authorisations available for workers of some services such as banks, among others.
Government responses:
Geographical segmentation The third phase of the lockdown was announced on 25 April 2020 by president Fernández. The lockdown would resume to workers of private construction, medical and dental care, industry production and online commerce, lawyers, and accountants, among others, in some provinces such as Entre Ríos, Jujuy, La Pampa, Mendoza, Misiones, Neuquén, Salta, San Juan, Santa Cruz and Tucumán, with the respective health protocols. Cities with population over 500,000 inhabitants are still under mandatory lockdown due to the community transmission of the virus.
Government responses:
Progressive reopening On 8 May 2020, President Fernández announced alongside the City of Buenos Aires' Chief of Government Horacio Rodríguez Larreta and Buenos Aires Province Governor Axel Kicillof, that the national lockdown would enter its fourth phase throughout all the country (with the exception of the Greater Buenos Aires urban area), allowing the reopening of factories and business. The Greater Buenos Aires zone will maintain the geographical segmentation phase due to the number of cases that are still being registered in the area, but will allow children to go outside accompanied by an adult. The lockdown in the Greater Buenos Aires was later extended until 7 June 2020 after the number of cases in this area in the previous days showed a big increase. Later, on 4 June 2020, the lockdown was extended again until 28 June 2020 in the Greater Buenos Aires area after the country just surpassed 20,000 cases. New activities allowed in the area included opening of shops in "low concentration" areas, outdoor walks with children on the weekends, outdoor physical activities from 8 p.m. to 8 am, and religious services by streaming, among other measures taken by each municipality.A survey realised during the first days of May 2020, expresses that the main concern of the surveyed people was the fear of virus contagion (50.9%) instead of the worries of a worsening in the economic situation (49.1%). Also, another survey expressed that 3 out of 10 Argentines believe the World Health Organization reports about the COVID-19 origins.
Government responses:
Lockdown tightening President Fernández announced on 26 June 2020 that the restrictions on movement in Buenos Aires that were previously eased, would be tightened again since 1 July 2020 due to a spike in COVID-19 cases on Greater Buenos Aires. This phase of the lockdown would be extended until 17 July 2020. According to Fernández, this urban area saw an increase of 147% of COVID-19 cases, and an increase of 95% on deaths due to the disease during the previous 20 days of the announcement. Fernández also confirmed that 97% of detected cases across the country occur in the Greater Buenos Aires. New restrictions include: public transportation allowed only for essential workers, prohibition of outdoor activities and stronger transit control on the streets. Allowance of purchases of foods, medicines and first need products would be the only activity allowed without any permission.
Government responses:
Lockdown loosening After the end of the previous phase of the lockdown in Greater Buenos Aires, President Fernández finally announced on 17 July 2020 that the lockdown would be gradually loosened in several stages to lead to the return to normality. New activities allowed include individual outdoor recreation activities, opening of local shops, car washers, clothing and footwear stores, hairdressing, waxing, manicure and pedicure shops in all neighbourhoods, return of administrative staff to schools, individual prayers in temples (with no more than 10 people on the site), return of dog walkers, opening of libraries (without staying in the place), and return of professional activities, such as lawyers and accountants, at least once a week. Public transportation would still be only allowed for workers in essential areas such as healthcare, security, gastronomy and others.As the lockdown was due to expire on 2 August 2020, Fernández announced in a press conference on 31 July that the restrictions would continue until 16 August at least, after the country recorded a record daily tally of new cases and deaths on the previous day of the announcement. A few days later, the government decided to ban social gatherings across the country for 15 days amid surge of infections and fatalities. The lockdown was again extended after 147 days (on 14 August 2020), for two more weeks until 30 August. Several cities that experienced a big growth in the number of confirmed cases in the previous weeks were put back into a tighter lockdown. The cities of Tartagal, La Rioja, Chamical, Santiago del Estero and La Banda were expected to join the places that were already with a strict lockdown such as Greater Buenos Aires, Jujuy (Libertador Gral. San Martín, Manuel Belgrano, El Carmen and San Pedro), Santa Cruz (Río Gallegos) and Tierra del Fuego (Río Grande).On 28 August 2020 it was announced that the eased lockdown would be extended again until 20 September 2020. Also, meetings of up to ten people in the open air, maintaining two meters of distance and using a face mask were authorised throughout the country. As the lockdown was due to expire on 20 September 2020, two days earlier President Fernández confirmed another extension of the lockdown for three weeks until 11 October 2020. Local authorities are still in charge of applying new restrictions in each territory.After three weeks, Fernández announced that due to the epidemiological situation in the weeks prior to 9 October 2020, the lockdown would continue until 25 October with new measures to decrease circulation in 18 provinces. In Buenos Aires new activities such as the gradual return to face-to-face classes, habilitation of domestic service, cultural events, construction and other social and commercial authorisations were announced by Mayor Rodríguez Larreta on the same day.As the country surpassed the million cases on 19 October 2020, President Fernández announced four days later that the lockdown would be extended again for two weeks in the provinces of Chubut, Córdoba, Mendoza, Neuquén, Río Negro, San Luis, Santa Fe and Tucumán, and in Greater Buenos Aires, as these provinces have been accounting for 55 per cent of the country's total cases in the previous weeks. In Greater Buenos Aires the gradual opening of activities would continue in cities with a decrease in the number of daily cases. Openings in internal areas in bars and restaurants, gyms, artisan fairs, public pools, museums and schools were confirmed to apply in Buenos Aires.
Government responses:
Social distancing On 6 November 2020, Fernández announced that the lockdown would come to an end in Greater Buenos Aires to move to the social distancing phase, although it could continue in other provinces until 29 November 2020. This was due to a decrease in the number of cases after eight weeks. Gradual openings would begin to be implemented to all educational levels, restaurants and bars with indoor services and private construction, and outdoor social gatherings would be allowed.A restriction to nighttime activities was applied on 11 January 2021 after a rise of the number of COVID-19 cases in the previous weeks. The curfew would run daily from 1 to 6 a.m., being intended to reduce the circulation of the virus. The shutting down of clandestine parties attended by young people are also encouraged, which experts believe is a key factor behind the recent surge in cases. Not every province applied the curfew, like Córdoba and Jujuy. The City of Buenos Aires closed all commercial business between 1 and 6 a.m. beginning 10 January 2021, but without restrictions on circulation unlike the rest of the provinces.On 30 January 2021, social distancing was extended until 1 March 2021, with the decree altered to allow for return of face-to-face classes at schools nationwide since February.
Government responses:
Second wave restrictions The government announced on 14 April 2021 that from the following day new restrictions would apply to Greater Buenos Aires for two weeks after a rise in the number of daily cases and ICU bed occupation. Measures included the close of schools, curfew between 8 p.m. and 6 a.m. and the suspension of indoor sports, recreational, religious and cultural activities.A month later, a nine-day nationwide lockdown was announced after the number of daily cases continued to rise. It took place from 22 to 31 May 2021, with only essential businesses opened, classes suspended and restaurants only open for home delivery and pick-up services. Also, citizens were only allowed to circulate between 6 a.m. and 6 p.m., with social, economic, religious and sporting activities banned.
Government responses:
Second loosening of restrictions In October 2021, after the number of infections considerably decreased and having reached the mark of more than 70% of the population vaccinated, some regions, especially Buenos Aires lifted the face mask mandate when outdoors. The order was signed by the Mayor of Buenos Aires Horacio Rodríguez Larreta. Many other provinces and cities followed suit, with only being the face mask mandate being obligatory when indoors.
Impact:
Healthcare On 23 March 2020, Argentina's President Fernández asked the president of China, Xi Jinping, for 1,500 ventilators as Argentina had only 8,890 available. Previously, President Fernández announced the construction of eight emergency hospitals to deal with the pandemic on mid-March 2020. 2,452 non-hospital beds were made available to patients in the final stage of recovering from the disease from hospitals in the province of Buenos Aires.During the pandemic, more than 400 health professionals were infected, making the 15 per cent of the total confirmed cases as of 19 April 2020. According to the Argentinian Intensive Care Society, there are only 1,350 physicians trained for that speciality. Later the Ministry of Health summoned different health professionals, making that number rise over 3,122. The province of Chaco had the worst rate of health professionals infected, with the 52 per cent of the total cases of that jurisdiction in April 2020.Argentina's health system was also dealing with a Dengue fever outbreak, with more than 14,000 cases since 29 July 2019, and the worse measles outbreak since the end of its endemic circulation, after 174 cases and a death were confirmed since 2019.Until 18 July 2020, there were 181,043 confirmed cases of influenza (down 64.4% versus the same period in 2019), 26,323 cases of pneumonia, 24,643 cases of bronchiolitis in children under 2 years (down 84% versus the same period in 2019), and 9,495 cases of severe acute respiratory infections. Regarding the circulation of respiratory viruses, adenovirus, parainfluenza, influenza B and influenza A predominated as of that date. Also, eight deaths from influenza were registered through that date, from which three of them also tested positive for SARS-CoV-2.
Impact:
Economy Due to the national lockdown, the economical activity suffered a collapse of nearly 10% in March 2020 according to a consultant firm. The highest drop was of the construction sector (32%) versus March 2019. Every economical sector suffered a collapse, with finance, commerce, manufacturing industry and mining being the most affected. The agriculture sector was the least affected, but overall the economic activity for the first trimester of 2020 accumulates a 5% contraction. It was expected that the extension of the lockdown beyond April 2020 would increase the collapse of the Argentinian economy. In March 2020, the primary fiscal deficit jumped to US$1,394 million, an 857% increase year-to-year. This was due to the public spending to combat the pandemic and the drop in tax collection due to low activity in a context of social isolation. In June 2020, industrial production fell 6.6% versus June 2019. This was better than the forecast announced by analysts and a smaller drop than in the previous months since the beginning of the pandemic.President Fernández announced a 700 billion pesos (US$11.1 billion) stimulus package due to the pandemic, worth 2% of the country's GDP, and have focused on providing increased health spending, including for improvements in virus diagnostics, purchases of hospital equipment and construction of clinics and hospitals; support for workers and vulnerable groups, including through increased transfers to poor families, social security benefits (especially to low-income beneficiaries), unemployment insurance benefits, and payments to minimum-wage workers; support for hard-hit sectors, including an exemption from social security contributions, grants to cover payroll costs; and subsidised loans for construction-related activities; forbearance, including continued provision of utility services for households in arrears; and credit guarantees for bank lending to micro, small and medium enterprises (SMEs) for the production of foods and basic supplies. The country would also have to face its ninth sovereign default in history due to the recession.Measures also have been aimed at encouraging bank lending through lower reserve requirements on bank lending to households and SMEs, regulations that limit banks' holdings of central bank paper to provide space for SME lending, temporary easing of bank provisioning needs and of bank loan classification rules, and a stay on both bank account closures due to bounced checks and credit denial to companies with payroll tax arrears.According to a survey, approximately 143,000 SMEs were not be able to pay salaries and fixed costs, even with government assistance, so they might had to borrow or increase their own capital contribution. 35,000 of these companies were considering to close their business.The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that the COVID-19 crisis would plunge Argentina's GDP by 9.9 per cent, after the country's economy contracted by 5.4 per cent in first quarter of 2020, with unemployment rising over 10.4 per cent in the first three months of the year, before the lockdown started. Other reports also indicate that the economy might shrink between 10% and 12% during 2020.Argentina's economy contracted a record 19.1% in the second quarter of 2020 versus the same period of 2019 as the pandemic reduced production and demand, though was slightly better than analyst forecasts. The previous record was held during the 1998–2002 Argentine great depression, with a 16.3% drop in 2002. The unemployment rate during the second quarter of 2020 jumped to 13.1%, up from the 10.6% rate that was held in the same period in 2019, reaching up to 26% in Mar del Plata, a tourism-centered city. It was the highest unemployment rate since 2004.After the reopening of June 2021, the economy in Argentina expanded more than expected, growing 10.8 percent in June compared versus 2020 after activity declined during April–May 2021.
Impact:
Travel After announced a mandatory quarantine to every person that returned to Argentina from highly affected countries, the government closed its borders, ports, and suspended flights. The Argentina 2000 airports signed an agreement with the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation to reimburse 100% of the charges originated by the air cargo that enters the country that are directly or indirectly related to the COVID-19.
Impact:
Since 1 April 2020, the government allowed the return of Argentine residents stranded abroad, with a maximum of 700 passengers per day. Seven border crossings opened temporarily to allow the repatriation of Argentina's inhabitants. Hotels for local tourism closed too, being only open to people staying in a situation of lockdown though the time it lasts. Several tourism-related cities also saw a massive migration from Argentine residents after the announcement of the national lockdown. It was severely criticised by the government.According to the International Air Transport Association (IATA), Argentina was expected to loosen its travel ban earlier than the date that was previously announced by the government (1 September 2020). Later, it was announced that the government was planning to authorise foreign flights with a maximum passenger capacity of 70%, as soon as mid-August 2020. By September 2020, government announced regular flights could return on the next month. Following this travel ban, one of the most strict in the world, airline LATAM Argentina closed definitely on 17 June 2020, due to "the conditions of the local industry, aggravated by the pandemic".During the last week of July 2020, flag carrier airline Aerolíneas Argentinas sold over 188 thousand tickets, with the company reporting that 54 per cent of passengers bought their tickets to travel from December 2020 to March 2021, while another 27 per cent did so to travel between September and November 2020.On 22 September 2020, low-cost carriers such as Flybondi, JetSmart Argentina, and legacy airline Aerolíneas Argentinas confirmed that they had moved the dates of their flights with 12 October as the expected restart date, while the Ministry of Transport assured that regular domestic flights would resume in November 2020. Two days later, it was announced that American Airlines would resume its daily flights to Miami since 7 October 2020, on a special flights schedule including two weekly flights to Madrid and Santiago de Chile, three flights a month to New York City, four weekly flights to São Paulo, and flights to Lima (three per month) and Asunción (two per month).The country resumed regular domestic flights on 22 October 2020 after an interruption of seven months, with protocols requiring passengers to wear face-masks and have travel certificates. Some provinces also required COVID-19 tests with negative result before boarding aircraft or arriving.On 26 December 2020, the country limited the entry to the country again due to the new COVID-19 strains across the globe, and the rising of infections. The measures were expected to last until 28 January 2021. This was expected to last until September 2021.
Impact:
Social impact Argentina was reported to be among the countries in the region whose population adhered to the lockdown the most. Apple reported a decrease of 83 per cent on vehicular mobility through 26 April 2020, although 4,900 people were arrested across the country for violating the lockdown. According to Google, since the lockdown, people movement in restaurants, shopping centers, cinemas and museums dropped by 86 per cent, the presence of mobile phones on public transportation dropped 80 per cent, and in offices a 57 per cent. The presence in residential zones increased by 27 per cent.
Impact:
Education Schools and universities closed indefinitely after the president's announcement of the lockdown. In response to the pandemic, classes moved to online distance learning. 14 million students have been affected by the school closures. Later, the government announced that was evaluating how they would open the schools in the future, and that they were working on the distribution of netbooks to students that do not have access to computers, with the criteria for distributing them based on socioeconomic indicators.On 9 June 2020, the Ministry of Education expressed that 85 per cent of students would be able to return to classes in August, though with special hygiene measures in place, but schools in the Greater Buenos Aires area would have to wait until infections in the region begin to drop off. Three months later, on 3 August 2020, the Ministry of Education confirmed that the provinces of Catamarca, San Juan and Santiago del Estero would begin a process of returning to class under a system that would involve dividing students into groups that could attend classrooms in weekly shifts. On that day, schools of Catamarca and Santiago del Estero opened with directive, administrative and teaching personnel from the last years of primary and secondary levels, that were expected to prepare protocols to restart classes on 18 August 2020. Over 10,000 students in San Juan became the first to return to face-to-face classes through social distancing on 10 August 2020. The Minister of Education, Nicolás Trotta, also announced that classes would end throughout the country in December 2020 as expected.
Impact:
During October 2020, the opening of educational institutions was confirmed by the Government of the City of Buenos Aires. Students of the last years of primary and secondary public schools would be able to assist voluntarily to the institutions, with protocols indicating that there will not be more than 10 people together, with an assistance of between two and four days per week, from one to four hours, in outdoor spaces. Private schools in the City of Buenos Aires were also allowed to return to face-to-face activities since 16 October 2020. One week later, the first case of a COVID-19 positive school worker was confirmed in a school in Barracas, Buenos Aires, where the school had to close due to the protocols. School activities in the Province of Buenos Aires were also confirmed by governor Kicillof to begin in October in 24 municipalities, and finally restarted for senior year students in 15 small districts, while in other 79 bigger districts only "rebonding" school activities were allowed. A private report estimated in November that 34% of Argentine students were allowed to attend these "rebonding" school activities, while 1% of them were in fact attending in-person classes at the time.In November 2020, the City of Buenos Aires allowed a progressive back to school for all students, and then announced that the 2021 school year would start earlier than usual, on 17 February 2020, with teachers unions protesting against the reopening of schools. The Province of Buenos Aires allowed school activities in 32 bigger districts during November 2020.Finally, on 17 February 2021, schools re-opened to students in five out of the 24 jurisdictions.
Impact:
Criminality During the pandemic, robberies and homicide went down during the lockdown in most of the country, and increased again as time passed and some restrictions were lifted. In the City of Buenos Aires, under the strictest lockdown, crime went down a 48 per cent during the first quarter of the year, and a 56 per cent during July 2020, but violence on those crimes increased. In the Province of Buenos Aires, also under strict lockdown, 5,980 armed thefts were reported during the first 97 days of the lockdown, against 13,878 on the same period of the previous year. Also, 201 murders (16 less than in 2019), and 120 attacks with injured victims (against 197 from the previous year) were reported.In Greater Buenos Aires, an increase in crimes committed by people with no previous record was seen. They were qualified as "survival crime[s]" by the Minister of Security of the province, Sergio Berni. To deal with this increase in crime, an "Immediate Response Taskforce" was created for the Federal Police, and gendarmes were deployed in the area. The national Minister of Security, Sabina Frederic, stated that, even though in the first days of lockdown crime had gone down a lot, as the health precautions relaxed, crime increased, especially the violence used.In the Buenos Aires' Atlantic coast, a popular summertime vacation place, there was a wave of thefts against summer houses. This was fuelled by the lockdown and how difficult it was for the house owners (most of them from Greater Buenos Aires) to access their properties and reinforce security.On 7 September 2020, Buenos Aires Provincial Police protests spiked through the province, fuelled by having to deal with COVID-19 in the front line, while not being provided any personal protective equipment and earning a monthly minimum wage of 40,000 pesos (about 430 U.S. dollars), with overtime being paid at 50 pesos (2,30 U.S. dollars) per hour. Police stopped patrolling, responding only to urgent 911 emergency calls.
Impact:
Slums Argentina has a long-standing housing access and slums problem, which was only worsened by the pandemic. Special testing and containment efforts had to be put in place in lower-income neighbourhoods, mostly after outbreaks in Buenos Aires (Villa 31 and Barrio Mujica) and Quilmes (Villa Azul and Villa Itatí) shantytowns. These areas, with scarce access to water and ventilation, as well as overcrowding, make complying to the mandatory lockdown difficult and facilitate the COVID-19 rapid spread. The DetectAr testing campaign in Buenos Aires' slums included research of housing conditions and the taking of samples in common areas (such as meal centers) for RT-qPCR tests, which showed high SARS-CoV-2 prevalence. The COVID-19 crisis also increased "land occupations" by social movements, in which they forcefully appropriated lands to establish slums. This was also favoured by laws suspending evictions as a relief measure for the crisis.It has been estimated that, by September 2020, 4,300 hectares (11,000 acres) of both private and public lands had been usurped in the Buenos Aires Province, the most notable one being located in Guernica, comprising about 100 hectares (250 acres). Housing projects, which had been unfinished for years, were also occupied in some areas. This sparkled political criticism both from the insides of the government, as well from the political opposition, with the Security Minister of the Province of Buenos Aires suggesting that occupations were organised by social movements from inside the governing coalition. Justice started investigations on this possible involvement. Some government members initially refused evictions of occupied land, but days later turned into a more critical view. Other sectors of society claimed occupations should not be evicted, and that unused lands should be distributed to the most needed.In the Patagonia region, occupations by people referencing themselves as Mapuches also surged amid the pandemic. One of a 480 hectares (1,200 acres) National Parks area in Villa Mascardi received the biggest national media attention. This caused demonstrations of people against the occupation, which ended in the National Minister of Security starting legal complaints against the demonstrators.
Impact:
Public transportation The government imposed a series of measurements for public transportation (taxis, buses and train services) focused on the hygiene of the units and recommendation of travel only if it's essential. Public transportation services offered a Saturday-schedule until the start of the "administrated lockdown" on 13 April 2020. Since this day, all public transportation services returned to the normal schedules, but still maintaining the hygiene measures to prevent the spread of the virus.On 4 May 2020, the government announced a new protocol that orders that public transportation will only occupy 60 per cent of its capacity. The combis and mini-buses services will also begin to work again since the begin of the mandatory lockdown.
Impact:
After the use of public transportation in Greater Buenos Aires grew by 60 per cent in early June 2020, the government announced new measures to allow only "essential workers" for the use of train, bus and underground services. Train passengers were forced to reserve seats to travel since 29 June 2020. Under the lockdown tightening that came into effect on 1 July 2020, public transportation use in Greater Buenos Aires dropped by 30 per cent (around 300,000 passengers) on the first days compared versus the previous week.On 4 August 2020, the Sarmiento Line of train interrupted its service after COVID-19 cases were detected among its employees. 36 workers tested positive for the virus and 130 people had to be isolated. Since the beginning of the pandemic, the line accumulated 56 confirmed cases of COVID-19 to that date.
Impact:
Human rights As for the human rights situation, claims were made on police brutality, an increase of domestic violence, human trafficking, and the right to freedom of movement. Particularly, two cases of police brutality received substantial attention on national media: the death of Luis Espinoza, who was killed by the Tucumán Provincial Police during a control of lockdown abidance, and the disappearance of Facundo Astudillo Castro, who was later found dead near Bahía Blanca, after being stopped several times by the Buenos Aires Provincial Police for not complying with the lockdown measures. Police involvement in the latter is suspected but has yet not been proven. The UN made claims to the Argentine government on these cases.
Impact:
Mobility was heavily restricted, with strict checkpoints in province's borders, which allowed entrance only on a limited number of cases with a permit. Dirt barricades were built in some cities' entrances. This led to cases of citizens not being able to greet a family member on their deathbed despite having the required permits, and patients dying due to ambulances not being allowed to enter another province. Some people had to camp in the provincial borders. It was estimated that around 8,000 people were stranded trying to access the Formosa Province, which led to a ruling of the Supreme Court of Argentina stating they should be granted access. Truck drivers also criticised the roadblocks and lockdown control measures in roads, stating they had to wait for up to 20 hours in police checkpoints, and considering the measures as inhumane, among other reasons, for being unable to make bathroom stops for hours.Commercial flights were restricted from April to the end of October 2020, following one of the longest lockdowns worldwide, and causing criticism from the International Air Transport Association.
Impact:
Media Since the start of the national lockdown, broadcast television saw a 30 per cent increase of viewership during the week between 17 and 22 March 2020. The networks increased the airtime of talk shows and news programming, while reality shows were still in production.
Impact:
A fundraising special show aimed to the Red Cross for supplying hospitals and health centers aired throughout all six broadcast networks (América TV, Televisión Pública, El Nueve, Telefe, El Trece and Net TV) on 5 April 2020. The show, called "United for Argentina", included celebrities and famous people from the Argentine media. Donations reached a total of 87,938,624 Argentine pesos (ARS).The only telenovela that was airing on broadcast television before the beginning of the pandemic, Separadas (from El Trece), was removed from the schedule after its 19 March 2020 airing and production was suspended temporarily. Two months later, producing company Pol-ka definitely cancelled the show due to "economic reasons", leaving Argentine television without any scripted programming.The first cases of COVID-19 reached Argentine television in June 2020. The first confirmed case was from El Nueve's sports journalist Guillermo Ferro. Later, three producers from Telefe's El Precio Justo were also diagnosed, making the show to enter on hiatus and schedule reruns to air instead. El Precio Justo's hostess Lizy Tagliani later reported that she was diagnosed positive for COVID-19. Telefe also announced that talk show Cortá por Lozano would be broadcast with the hostess and panellists from their homes as a preventive measure. An employee from América TV was also diagnosed with COVID-19 on 18 June 2020. On 27 June 2020, news channel C5N implemented a protocol to prevent new infections after one of their journalists, Fernanda Arena, tested positive for COVID-19.Through the beginning of September, several journalists, hosts, crew and famous personalities from television and radio tested positive for the virus. Santiago del Moro, Catherine Fulop, Guido Kaczka, Andy Kusnetzoff, Alejandro Fantino, Baby Etchecopar, Eduardo Feinmann, Nicole Neumann and Maju Lozano were among the people from the Argentine media that have been tested positive.
Impact:
Sports On 12 March 2020, FIFA announced that the first two rounds of the South American qualification for the 2022 World Cup due to take place during that month were postponed to later dates. The same day, CONMEBOL announced that the Copa Libertadores would be temporarily suspended. Later, on 17 March 2020, CONMEBOL announced that the 2020 edition of Copa América was postponed to 2021.On 13 March, the 2020 running of Rally Argentina was postponed. The MotoGP's Gran Premio Motul de la Republica Argentina was also scheduled to take place during the year but was later cancelled on 31 July.On 15 March 2020, President Fernández announced that, among other measures, he intended to keep football matches ongoing but without audience. The first match suspended by the Argentine Football Association (AFA) was between Club Atlético Independiente and Club Villa Mitre from the Copa Argentina. It was supposed to be played on 17 March, but was moved to 1 April 2020. On that same day, every football category was suspended indefinitely, being the match between Club Atlético Colón and Rosario Central (for the Superliga) the last played, on 16 March 2020.After months of uncertainty, a tentative date for the return of football was announced. It was expected that since 31 July 2020, the teams would be able to return to practice after the players, coaching staff and club employees are tested, following the steps that were taken in European football, making the tournament to return on mid-September. Later, on 4 August 2020, the Argentine Football Association announced that after health protocols were approved by the government, practices of the Men's First Division and Women's First Division would definitely return on 10 August, later being joined by the First National on 2 September and the rest of the categories on 7 September 2020. Before returning to practice, several clubs such as Boca Juniors, River Plate, Independiente, Racing, San Lorenzo and Vélez Sársfield, among others, tested its players with positive results for COVID-19.On 18 August 2021, the Minister of Tourism and Sports, Matías Lammens, announced that football with spectators would return between late September and early October, with sporting venues limited to reach 30 percent capacity. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**IA5STRING**
IA5STRING:
A IA5String is a restricted character string type in the ASN.1 notation.
It is used to represent ISO 646 (IA5) characters.
According to the ITU-T Rec. X.680 (ASN.1 Specification of basic notation) the entire character set contains precisely 128 characters.
Those characters are generally equivalent to the first 128 characters of the ASCII alphabet. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Contralto**
Contralto:
A contralto (Italian pronunciation: [konˈtralto]) is a type of classical female singing voice whose vocal range is the lowest female voice type.The contralto's vocal range is fairly rare; similar to the mezzo-soprano, and almost identical to that of a countertenor, typically between the F below middle C (F3 in scientific pitch notation) to the second F above middle C (F5), although, at the extremes, some voices can reach the D below middle C (D3) or the second B♭ above middle C (B♭5). The contralto voice type is generally divided into the coloratura, lyric, and dramatic contralto.
History:
"Contralto" is primarily meaningful only in reference to classical and operatic singing, as other traditions lack a comparable system of vocal categorization. The term "contralto" is only applied to female singers; men singing in a similar range are called "countertenors". The Italian terms "contralto" and "alto" are not synonymous, "alto" technically denoting a specific vocal range in choral singing without regard to factors like tessitura, vocal timbre, vocal facility, and vocal weight. However, there exists some French choral writing (including that of Ravel and Poulenc) with a part labelled "contralto", despite the tessitura and function being that of a classical alto part. The Saracen princess Clorinde in André Campra's 1702 opera Tancrède was written for Julie d'Aubigny and is considered the earliest major role for bas-dessus or contralto voice.
Vocal range:
The contralto has the lowest vocal range of the female voice types, with the lowest tessitura; it is between tenor and mezzo-soprano.
Vocal range:
Although tenors, baritones, and basses are male singers, some women can sing as low (albeit with a slightly different timbre and texture) as their male counterparts. Some of the rare female singers who specialized in the tenor and baritone registers include film actress Zarah Leander, the Persian āvāz singer Hayedeh, the child prodigy Ruby Helder (1890–1938), and Bavarian novelty singer Bally Prell.
Subtypes and roles in opera:
Within the contralto voice type category are three generally recognized subcategories: coloratura contralto, an agile voice specializing in florid passages; lyric contralto, a voice lighter in timbre; and dramatic contralto, the deepest, darkest, and most powerful contralto voice. The coloratura contralto was a favorite voice type of Rossini's. Many of his roles listed below were written with this type of voice in mind. Lyric contraltos are heavily utilized in both the French and English operatic repertoire. Many of the Gilbert and Sullivan contralto roles are best suited with a lyric contralto voice. Ma Moss in The Tender Land is a notable lyric contralto role. The dramatic contralto voice is heard in much of the German operatic repertoire. Erda in Der Ring des Nibelungen and Gaea in Daphne are both good examples of the dramatic contralto.
Subtypes and roles in opera:
True operatic contraltos are rare, and the operatic literature contains few roles written specifically for them. Contraltos sometimes are assigned feminine roles like Teodata in Flavio, Angelina in La Cenerentola, Rosina in The Barber of Seville, Isabella in L'italiana in Algeri, and Olga in Eugene Onegin, but more frequently they play female villains or trouser roles. Contraltos may also be cast in roles originally written for castrati. A common saying among contraltos is that they may play only "witches, bitches, or britches."Examples of contralto roles in the standard operatic repertoire include the following: * indicates a role that may also be sung by a mezzo-soprano. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Flux pumping**
Flux pumping:
Flux pumping is a method for magnetising superconductors to fields in excess of 15 teslas. The method can be applied to any type II superconductor and exploits a fundamental property of superconductors, namely their ability to support and maintain currents on the length scale of the superconductor. Conventional magnetic materials are magnetised on a molecular scale which means that superconductors can maintain a flux density orders of magnitude bigger than conventional materials. Flux pumping is especially significant when one bears in mind that all other methods of magnetising superconductors require application of a magnetic flux density at least as high as the final required field. This is not true of flux pumping.
Flux pumping:
An electric current flowing in a loop of superconducting wire can persist indefinitely with no power source. In a normal conductor, an electric current may be visualized as a fluid of electrons moving across a heavy ionic lattice. The electrons are constantly colliding with the ions in the lattice, and during each collision some of the energy carried by the current is absorbed by the lattice and converted into heat, which is essentially the vibrational kinetic energy of the lattice ions. As a result, the energy carried by the current is constantly being dissipated. This is the phenomenon of electrical resistance.
Flux pumping:
The situation is different in a superconductor. In a conventional superconductor, the electronic fluid cannot be resolved into individual electrons. Instead, it consists of bound pairs of electrons known as Cooper pairs. This pairing is caused by an attractive force between electrons from the exchange of phonons. Due to quantum mechanics, the energy spectrum of this Cooper pair fluid possesses an energy gap, meaning there is a minimum amount of energy ΔE that must be supplied in order to excite the fluid. Therefore, if ΔE is larger than the thermal energy of the lattice, given by kT, where k is the Boltzmann constant and T is the temperature, the fluid will not be scattered by the lattice. The Cooper pair fluid is thus a superfluid, meaning it can flow without energy dissipation.
Flux pumping:
In a class of superconductors known as type II superconductors, including all known high-temperature superconductors, an extremely small amount of resistivity appears at temperatures not too far below the nominal superconducting transition when an electric current is applied in conjunction with a strong magnetic field, which may be caused by the electric current. This is due to the motion of vortices in the electronic superfluid, which dissipates some of the energy carried by the current. If the current is sufficiently small, then the vortices are stationary, and the resistivity vanishes. The resistance due to this effect is tiny compared with that of non-superconducting materials, but must be taken into account in sensitive experiments.
Introduction:
In the method described here a magnetic field is swept across the superconductor in a magnetic wave. This field induces current according to Faraday's law of induction. As long as the direction of motion of the magnetic wave is constant then the current induced will always be in the same sense and successive waves will induce more and more current.
Introduction:
Traditionally the magnetic wave would be generated either by physically moving a magnet or by an arrangement of coils switched in sequence, such as occurs on the stator of a three-phase motor. Flux Pumping is a solid state method where a material which changes magnetic state at a suitable magnetic ordering temperature is heated at its edge and the resultant thermal wave produces a magnetic wave which then magnetizes the superconductor. A superconducting flux pump should not be confused with a classical flux pump as described in Van Klundert et al.’s review.
Introduction:
The method described here has two unique features: At no point is the superconductor driven normal; the procedure simply makes modifications to the critical state.
The critical state is not modified by a moving magnet or an array of solenoids, but by a thermal pulse which modifies the magnetization, thus sweeping vortices into the material.The system, as described, is actually a novel kind of heat engine in which thermal energy is being converted into magnetic energy.
Background:
Meissner effect When a superconductor is placed in a weak external magnetic field H, the field penetrates the superconductor only a small distance λ, called the London penetration depth, decaying exponentially to zero within the interior of the material. This is called the Meissner effect, and is a defining characteristic of superconductivity. For most superconductors, the London penetration depth is on the order of 100 nm.
Background:
The Meissner effect is sometimes confused with the kind of diamagnetism one would expect in a perfect electrical conductor: according to Lenz's law, when a changing magnetic field is applied to a conductor, it will induce an electric current in the conductor that creates an opposing magnetic field. In a perfect conductor, an arbitrarily large current can be induced, and the resulting magnetic field exactly cancels the applied field.
Background:
The Meissner effect is distinct from this because a superconductor expels all magnetic fields, not just those that are changing. Suppose we have a material in its normal state, containing a constant internal magnetic field. When the material is cooled below the critical temperature, we would observe the abrupt expulsion of the internal magnetic field, which we would not expect based on Lenz's law.
Background:
The Meissner effect was explained by the brothers Fritz and Heinz London, who showed that the electromagnetic free energy in a superconductor is minimized provided ∇2H=λ−2H where H is the magnetic field and λ is the London penetration depth.
This equation, which is known as the London equation, predicts that the magnetic field in a superconductor decays exponentially from whatever value it possesses at the surface.
Background:
In 1962, the first commercial superconducting wire, a niobium-titanium alloy, was developed by researchers at Westinghouse, allowing the construction of the first practical superconducting magnets. In the same year, Josephson made the important theoretical prediction that a supercurrent can flow between two pieces of superconductor separated by a thin layer of insulator. This phenomenon, now called the Josephson effect, is exploited by superconducting devices such as SQUIDs. It is used in the most accurate available measurements of the magnetic flux quantum Φ0=h2e , and thus (coupled with the quantum Hall resistivity) for the Planck constant h. Josephson was awarded the Nobel Prize for this work in 1973.
Background:
E–J power law The most popular model used to describe superconductivity include Bean's critical state model and variations such as the Kim–Anderson model. However, the Bean model assumes zero resistivity and that current is always induced at the critical current. A more useful model for engineering applications is the so-called E–J power law, in which the field and the current are linked by the following equations: ρ=EJ E=E0∗(JJc)n ρ(J)=E0∗(JJc)n−1Jc In these equations, if n = 1 then the conductor has linear resistivity such as is found in copper. The higher the n-value the closer we get to the critical state model. Also the higher the n-value then the "better" the superconductor as the lower the resistivity at a certain current. The E–J power law can be used to describe the phenomenon of flux-creep in which a superconductor gradually loses its magnetisation over time. This process is logarithmic and thus gets slower and slower and ultimately leads to very stable fields.
Theory:
The potential of superconducting coils and bulk melt-processed YBCO single domains to maintain significant magnetic fields at cryogenic temperatures makes them particularly attractive for a variety of engineering applications including superconducting magnets, magnetic bearings and motors. It has already been shown that large fields can be obtained in single domain bulk samples at 77 K. A range of possible applications exist in the design of high power density electric motors.
Theory:
Before such devices can be created a major problem needs to be overcome. Even though all of these devices use a superconductor in the role of a permanent magnet and even though the superconductor can trap potentially huge magnetic fields (greater than 10 T) the problem is the induction of the magnetic fields, this applies both to bulk and to coils operating in persistent mode. There are four possible known methods: Cooling in field; Zero field cooling, followed by slowly applied field; Pulse magnetization; Flux pumping;Any of these methods could be used to magnetise the superconductor and this may be done either in situ or ex situ. Ideally the superconductors are magnetised in situ.
Theory:
There are several reasons for this: first, if the superconductors should become demagnetised through (i) flux creep, (ii) repeatedly applied perpendicular fields or (iii) by loss of cooling then they may be re-magnetized without the need to disassemble the machine. Secondly, there are difficulties with handling very strongly magnetized material at cryogenic temperatures when assembling the machine. Thirdly, ex situ methods would require the machine to be assembled both cold and pre-magnetized and would offer significant design difficulties. Until room temperature superconductors can be prepared, the most efficient design of machine will therefore be one in which an in situ magnetizing fixture is included.
Theory:
The first three methods all require a solenoid which can be switched on and off. In the first method an applied magnetic field is required equal to the required magnetic field, whilst the second and third approaches require fields at least two times greater. The final method, however, offers significant advantages since it achieves the final required field by repeated applications of a small field and can utilise a permanent magnet.
Theory:
If we wish to pulse a field using, say, a 10 T magnet to magnetize a 30 mm × 10 mm sample then we can work out how big the solenoid needs to be. If it were possible to wind an appropriate coil using YBCO tape then, assuming an Ic of 70 A and a thickness of 100 μm, we would have 100 turns and 7 000 A turns. This would produce a B field of approximately 7 000/(20 × 10−3) × 4π × 10−7 = 0.4 T. To produce 10 T would require pulsing to 1 400 A! An alternative calculation would be to assume a Jc of say 5 × 108Am−1 and a coil 1 cm2 in cross section. The field would then be 5 × 108 × 10−2 × (2 × 4π × 10−7) = 10 T. Clearly if the magnetisation fixture is not to occupy more room than the puck itself then a very high activation current would be required and either constraint makes in situ magnetization a very difficult proposition. What is required for in situ magnetisation is a magnetisation method in which a relatively small field of the order of milliteslas repeatedly applied is used to magnetize the superconductor.
Applications:
Superconducting magnets are some of the most powerful electromagnets known. They are used in MRI and NMR machines, mass spectrometers, Magnetohydrodynamic Power Generation and beam-steering magnets used in particle accelerators. They can also be used for magnetic separation, where weakly magnetic particles are extracted from a background of less or non-magnetic particles, as in the pigment industries.
Other early markets are arising where the relative efficiency, size and weight advantages of devices based on HTS outweigh the additional costs involved.
Promising future applications include high-performance transformers, power storage devices, electric power transmission, electric motors (e.g. for vehicle propulsion, as in vactrains or maglev trains), magnetic levitation devices, and fault current limiters.
Sources:
Coombs, Timothy (2008). "Superconductors the next generation of permanent magnets" (PDF). {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Qiuliang Wang et al., "Study of Full-wave Superconducting Rectifier-type Flux-pumps", IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, vol. 32, No. 4, pp. 2699–2702, Jul. 1996.
Coombs, Timothy (2007). "A novel heat engine for magnetising superconductors" (PDF). {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Coombs, Timothy; Hong, Z; Zhu, X (2007). "A thermally actuated superconducting flux pump". Physica C: Superconductivity. 468 (3): 153. Bibcode:2008PhyC..468..153C. doi:10.1016/j.physc.2007.11.003.
L.J.M. van de Klundert et al., "On fully conducting rectifiers and fluxpumps. A review. Part 2: Commutation modes, characteristics and switches", Cryogenics, pp. 267–277, May 1981.
L.J.M. van de Klundert et al., "Fully superconducting rectifiers and fluxpumps Part 1: Realized methods for pumping flux", Cryogenics, pp. 195–206, Apr. 1981.
Sources:
Kleinert, Hagen, Gauge Fields in Condensed Matter, Vol. I, " SUPERFLOW AND VORTEX LINES"; Disorder Fields, Phase Transitions, pp. 1–742, World Scientific (Singapore, 1989); Paperback ISBN 9971-5-0210-0 (also readable online: Vol. I) Larkin, Anatoly; Varlamov, Andrei, Theory of Fluctuations in Superconductors, Oxford University Press, Oxford, United Kingdom, 2005 (ISBN 0-19-852815-9) A.G. Lebed, ed. (2008). The Physics of Organic Superconductors and Conductors (1st ed.). Springer Series in Materials Science , Vol. 110. ISBN 9783540766728.
Sources:
Tinkham, Michael (2004). Introduction to Superconductivity (2nd ed.). Dover Books on Physics. ISBN 0-486-43503-2.
Tipler, Paul; Llewellyn, Ralph (2002). Modern Physics (4th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-4345-0. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Resistojet rocket**
Resistojet rocket:
A resistojet is a method of spacecraft propulsion (electric propulsion) that provides thrust by heating a typically non-reactive fluid. Heating is usually achieved by sending electricity through a resistor consisting of a hot incandescent filament, with the expanded gas expelled through a conventional nozzle.Resistojets have been flown in space since 1965 on board military Vela satellites. However, they only became used in commercial applications in 1980 with the launch of the first satellites in the INTELSAT-V program. Many GEO spacecraft, and all 95 Iridium, used Aerojet MR-501/MR-502 series resistojet engines. Nowadays resistojet propulsion is used for orbit insertion, attitude control, and deorbit of LEO satellites, and do well in situations where energy is much more plentiful than mass, and where propulsion efficiency needs to be reasonably high but low thrust is acceptable.Resistojets have also been proposed as means of using biowaste as reaction mass, particularly in conjunction with hydrazine. Studies focus on the characteristics of steam and carbon dioxide as major constituents of a biowaste stream, and typically use cubic zirconia as a heating element.
Advantages:
Many satellite missions necessitate an ability for minor alterations in trajectory even after the craft has been inserted into orbit. Most satellites use monopropellant rocket motors or cold gas thrusters for such orbital adjustments. Both methods, however, suffer from some limiting drawbacks: Hydrazine, the most commonly used monopropellant, is highly expensive and due to its volatile nature unsuitable for smaller satellites that are sent to space as secondary cargo. Cold gas thrusters, while utilizing relatively cheap, inert and therefore "safe" gasses like nitrogen, suffer from low specific impulse in comparison to monopropellant motors. Resistojets are designed to bridge the gap between these two methods of propulsion, offering the safety of an inert propellant coupled with specific impulse nearing that of hydrazine.
Disadvantages:
The main disadvantage of a resistojet design in comparison to simpler cold gas thrusters is the need for a power supply, which takes up space and is therefore sometimes a prohibitive factor for Microsat missions. In addition, the increased technical complexity of a resistojet relative to simpler solutions results in a greater risk of technical failure.
Since they do not take advantage of chemical combustion, resistojets (and similar designs) have a lower thrust that is orders of magnitude lower than those of more conventional solid fuel and liquid-propellant rockets. As a result, they are unsuitable for orbital maneuvers that require high delta V over shorter periods.
Physical Principles:
Resistojets can be considered an evolution of traditional cold gas thrusters, which are the simplest form of rocket engine available. Their fuel tank holds the propellant, which is then led into the nozzle where it decompresses, propelling the craft forward. In a resistojet, a resistor is used to heat the fluid before it enters the nozzle, making it expand more forcefully, resulting in higher specific impulse.
Physical Principles:
A resistor is an electrical component which converts electrical energy into heat. Therefore, the thrust of a resistojet engine can be regulated by simply altering the wattage flowing through the resistor.
Heating a fluid by 300 °C in such a way results in a 41% increase in specific impulse. If heated by 900 °C, specific impulse could be doubled in comparison to a cold gas thruster using the same propellant. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Ascetical theology**
Ascetical theology:
Ascetical theology is the organized study or presentation of spiritual teachings found in Christian Scripture and the Church Fathers that help the faithful to more perfectly follow Christ and attain to Christian perfection. Christian asceticism is commonly thought to imply self-denial for a spiritual purpose. The term ascetical theology is used primarily in Roman Catholic theology; Eastern Orthodox theology carries its own distinct terms and definitions (see below), and other religious traditions conceive of following and conforming to God and Christ differently from either Orthodoxy or Catholicism.
Etymology:
The word ascetic is from the Greek word ἄσκησις askesis, meaning practice. The English term ascesis means "the practice of self-discipline".
Essential concepts:
Dogmatic theology addresses what the religion affirms as truth. It relates to ascetical theology by answering the question, what are we following? What do we know about God, our nature, and our redemption? Ascetical theology depends upon dogmatic theology for a foundation. For example, if the religion didn't teach that we have a fallen nature, ascetical theology would be premised on an erroneous assumption and may then be unproductive compared to other approaches to God.
Essential concepts:
Moral theology addresses how we must behave. It is the behavioral dimension, expounded. Here are developed the implications of the Decalogue, the Sermon on the Mount, and other precepts of the faith. These are especially important for guiding the faithful through the first phases of prayer life, and for being certain one is on the right path: if one believes oneself to be growing in holiness yet still violates the basic precepts of the faith, one is not understanding the process. Moral theology, then, guides the ascetic who strives to live these moral truths that are informed by the dogmas of the religion, and who also seeks also to go beyond moral requirements.
Essential concepts:
Mystical theologyIn the various theologies pertaining to following Christ, it is common to refer to the soul, which Christian theology affirms to be eternal. It is the soul that makes progress toward God, it is the soul that is called by God. Mystical theology addresses the aspects of the soul's union with God that are specifically not produced by human agency or effort. In the earlier stages of prayer life, aridities are experienced, which are moments during which the zeal for prayer seems lessened. In later stages, passive trials such as the dark night of the soul (St. John of the Cross) are experienced. In these phenomena, God is said to be purifying the soul, making her (the soul is feminine in Catholic theology) continue on the basis of sheer faith rather than any palpable feeling derived from prayer. These and other experiences are studied in mystical theology. Christian dogma does not teach that mystical phenomena are necessary to be granted a place in Heaven.
Essential concepts:
Perfection is a Christian dutyTo be granted a place in heaven, it is necessary to be "in a state of grace" at the moment of death. A state of grace means that a person is genuinely sorry for sins committed — preferably sorry because they offend God and not simply on account of a fear of Hell — and to have not committed grave sin since the last apology or confession. Given that one does not know the hour of one's death, and assuming one to have a loving disposition toward God, one is encouraged to actively live in such a manner as to reduce sin and increase sorrow for sin and love for God. It is plausible that without such an effort, one will encounter the moment of death without appropriate sorrow and love, simply by being out of the habit. It is in this sense that perfection is said to be a duty of Christians. The Scriptures encourage perfection, and the value of charity or love would militate against a minimalist understanding of the Christian life, as does the testimony of the Church Fathers.
Essential concepts:
Key spiritual enemies (world, flesh, devil)The world is not evil in itself, according to the religion, as nothing created by God is evil. The problem is that in our fallen nature, we do not perceive things correctly, and our desires are out of alignment with the truth. For example, the world can be a source of sanctification, but to desire to please the world, and to take one's cues from the world instead of from God, is to distract ourselves from God's love. One of the graces sought during the Rosary prayer is contempt of the world, which doesn't reflect a desire to harm the world but rather affirms the belief that this is a fallen world, and that to love God is to be prepared for a much better world to come. Our flesh likewise is not evil, but without being fully united with God — which, after the fall, we are not — we do not understand the gifts of the flesh and are distracted by them; the religion teaches that we tend to make idols out of our sensations and desires. The devil is evil, but was not created so; he is a creature as we are and cannot control our will but is very intelligent and crafty. He is said to hate physical creation and to desire its destruction. Christianity does not give a complete accounting of the devil, known as Satan, but recognizes that he attempts to lure us from our goal of union with God. When confirmed into the Church, catechumens are asked, 'Do you reject the pomps and works of Satan?' Throughout the spiritual journey, even after achieving the highest union possible to man, the world, the flesh, and the devil remain as sources of temptation and distraction, and a fall into sin is always possible.
Essential concepts:
Role of good worksCatholic theology has received criticism for its emphasis on good works, or the performing of deeds that genuinely help others in accordance with the revealed good, but in truth good works are simply an outgrowth of faith and love rather than being a means to "buy one's way to Heaven". Faith may be analogized to the roots of a plant, love to the stem, and the fruit is the good work that naturally flows therefrom. An act is good in this sense if it is (a) carried out while in the state of grace, i.e., not having gravely sinned without repentance, and (b) done with the love of God as primary end in view. The ordinary actions of daily life are sanctifying if done in this context.Role of sacramentsThe Sacraments (Catholic Church), according to dogmatic theology, both symbolize and confer grace. The two sacraments that are routinely encountered by the faithful are Eucharist and confession. Grace is a rather complicated subject; see References below. The Eucharist affords a real and transforming union with God; see for example Jn. It is spiritual as well as real, and transformative. For a discussion of the spiritual implications of Eucharist, see historical roots of Catholic Eucharistic theology. Confession is purifying if the penitent is well-disposed, i.e. sorry for having offended God. It is considered essential to undertake this purifying act before receiving the Eucharist. As one progresses toward union with God, more and more problems within the soul become apparent. Habits that didn't seem sinful at first blush suddenly stand out as harmful to charity. Once confessed, new problems emerge. In this way the penitent embarks on a program of purgation, developing greater sensitivity as to what is most conducive to Christian love.
Catholicism:
Ascetics, as a branch of theology, may be briefly defined as the scientific exposition of Christian asceticism. It has been defined as the theological "science of the spiritual life", "far behind either from the Dogma or the Moral", rested on the truths of faith and tensed up to the Christian perfection as "logical outcome of Dogma, especially of the fundamental dogma of the Incarnation", useful to Religious as to lay-apostolate. Asceticism (askesis, askein), taken in its literal signification, means a polishing, a smoothing or refining. The Greeks used the word to designate the exercises of the athletes, developing the powers dormant in the body and training it to its full natural beauty. The end for which these gymnastic exercises were undertaken was the laurel-wreath bestowed on the victor in the public games. The life of the Christian is, as Christ assures, a struggle for the kingdom of heaven (Matthew 11:12). To give his readers an object-lesson of this spiritual battle and moral endeavour, St. Paul, who had been trained in the Greek fashion, used the picture of the Greek pentathlon (1 Corinthians 9:24). The exercises to be assumed in this combat tend to develop and strengthen the moral stamina, while their aim is Christian perfection leading up to man's ultimate end, union with God (named the Mystical Body of Jesus Christ God). Human nature having been weakened by original sin and ever inclining toward what is evil, this end cannot be reached except at the price of overcoming, with God's grace, many and serious obstacles.
Catholicism:
The moral struggle then consists first of all in attacking and removing the obstacles, that is the evil concupiscences (concupiscence of the flesh, concupiscence of the eyes and pride of life), which effects of original sin serve to try and test man (Trid., Sess. V, De peccato originali). This first duty is called by the Apostle Paul the putting off of "the old man" (Ephesians 4:22). The second duty, in his words, is to "put on the new man" according to the image of God (Ephesians 4:24). The new man is Christ. A Christian's duty is to strive to become like unto Christ, who is "the way, and the truth, and the life" (John 14:6), but this endeavour is based on the supernatural order and, therefore, cannot be accomplished without Divine grace. Its foundation is laid in baptism, which adopts Christians as children of God through the imparting of sanctifying grace. Thenceforth, it must be perfected by the supernatural virtues, the gifts of the Holy Ghost and actual grace.
Catholicism:
Since, then, ascetics is the systematic treatise of the striving after Christian perfection, it may be defined as the scientific guide to the acquisition of Christian perfection, which consists in expressing within ourselves, with the help of Divine grace, the image of Christ, by practising the Christian virtues, and applying the means given for overcoming the obstacles. Let us subject the various elements of this definition to a closer examination.
Catholicism:
Nature of Christian perfection Catholics must reject the conception of the Protestants who fancy that Christian perfection, as understood by Catholics, is essentially negative asceticism (cfr. Seberg in Herzog-Hauck, "Realencyklopädie für prot. Theologie", III, 138), and that the correct notion of asceticism was discovered by the Reformers. There can be no doubt as to the Catholic position, clearly voiced by St. Thomas and St. Bonaventure who never tired of repeating that the ideal of asceticism upheld by them was the ideal of the Catholic past, of the Fathers, of Christ Himself, emphatically stating that bodily asceticism has not an absolute, but only a relative, value. St. Thomas calls it a "means to an end", to be used with discretion. St. Bonaventure says that bodily austerities "prepare, foster and preserve perfection" ("Apolog. pauperum", V, c. viii). As proof he shows that to put an absolute value on bodily asceticism would lead to Manichæism. He also points to Christ, the ideal of Christian perfection, who was less austere in fasting than John the Baptist, and to the founders of religious orders, who prescribed fewer ascetic exercises for their communities than they themselves practised (cf. J. Zahn, "Vollkommenheitsideal" in "Moralprobleme", Freiburg, 1911, p. 126 sqq.). On the other hand, Catholics do not deny the importance of ascetic practices for acquiring Christian perfection. Considering the actual condition of human nature, they declare these necessary for the removal of obstacles and for the liberation of man's moral forces, thus claiming for asceticism a positive character. A like value is put upon those exercises which restrain and guide the powers of the soul. Consequently, Catholics actually fulfil and always have fulfilled what Harnack sets down as a demand of the Gospel and what he pretends to have looked for in vain among Catholics; for they do "wage battle against mammon, care, and selfishness, and practise that charity which loves to serve and to sacrifice itself" (Harnack, "Essence of Christianity"). The Catholic ideal, then, is by no means confined to the negative element of asceticism, but is of a positive nature.
Catholicism:
The essence of Christian perfection is love. St. Thomas (Opusc. de perfectione christ., c. ii) calls that perfect which is conformable to its end (quod attingit ad finem ejus). As the end of man is God, what unites him, even on earth, most closely with God is love (1 Corinthians 6:17; 1 John 4:16). All the other virtues are subservient to love or its natural prerequisites, as faith and hope; Love seizes man's whole soul (intellect, will), sanctifies it and fuses new life into it. Love lives in all things and all things live in and through love. Love imparts to all things the right measure and directs them all to the last end. "Love is thus the principle of unity, no matter how diversified are the particular states, vocations and labours. There are many provinces, but they constitute one realm. The organs are many, but the organism is one" (Zahn, l. c., p. 146). Love is therefore rightly called "the bond of perfection" (Colossians 3:14) and the fulfilment of the law (Romans 13:8). That Christian perfection consists in love has ever been the teaching of Catholic ascetical writers. A few testimonies may suffice. Writing to the Corinthians, Clement of Rome says (1 Corinthians 49:1): "It was love that made all the elect perfect; without love nothing is acceptable to God" (en te agape ateleiothesan pantes oi eklektoi tou theou dicha agapes ouden euareston estin to theo; Funk, "Patr. apost.", p. 163). The Epistle of Barnabas insists that the way of light is "the love of him who created us" (agapeseis ton se poiesanta; Funk, l. c., p. 91), "a love of our neighbour that does not even spare our own life" (agapeseis ton plesion sou hyper ten psychen sou), and it affirms that perfection is nothing else than "love and joy over the good works which testify to justice" (agape euphrosyns kai agalliaseos ergon dikaiosynes martyria). St. Ignatius never wearies in his letters of proposing faith as the light and love as the way, love being the end and aim of faith ("Ad Ephes.", ix, xiv; "Ad Philad.", ix; "Ad Smyrn.", vi). According to the "Didache", love of God and of one's neighbour is the beginning of the "way of life" (c. i), and in the "Epistle to Diognetus" active love is called the fruit of belief in Christ. The "Pastor" of Hermas acknowledges the same ideal when he sets down "a life for God" (zoe to theo) as the sum-total of human existence. To these Apostolic Fathers may be added St. Ambrose (De fuga sæculi, c. iv, 17; c. vi, 35-36) and St. Augustine, who regards perfect justice as tantamount to perfect love. Both St. Thomas and St. Bonaventure speak the same language, and the ascetical writers of all subsequent centuries have faithfully followed in their authoritative footsteps (cf. Lutz, "Die kirchl. Lehre von den evang. Räten", Paderborn, 1907, pp. 26–99).
Catholicism:
However, though perfection is essentially love, not any degree of love is sufficient to constitute moral perfection. The ethical perfection of the Christian consists in the perfection of love, which requires such a disposition "that we can act with speed and ease even though many obstacles obstruct our path" (Mutz, "Christl. Ascetik", 2nd ed., Paderborn, 1909). But this disposition of the soul supposes that the passions have been subdued; for it is the result of a laborious struggle, in which the moral virtues, steeled by love, force back and quell the evil inclinations and habits, supplanting them by good inclinations and habits. Only then has it really become "a man's second nature, as it were, to prove his love of God at certain times and under certain circumstances, to practise virtue and, as far as human nature may, to preserve his soul even from the slightest taints" (Mutz, l. c., p. 43). Owing to the weakness of human nature and the presence of the evil concupiscence (fomes peccati: Trid., Sess. VI, can. xxiii), a perfection that would exclude every defect cannot be attained in this life without a special privilege (cf. Proverbs 20:9; Ecclesiastes 7:21; James 3:2). Likewise, perfection on this side of the grave will never reach such a degree that further growth is impossible, as is clear from the mind of the Church and the nature of our present existence (status vioe); in other words, our perfection will always be relative. As St. Bernard says: "An unflagging zeal for advancing and a continual struggle for perfection is itself perfection" (Indefessus proficiendi studium et iugis conatus ad perfectionem, perfectio reputatur; "Ep. ccliv ad Abbatem Guarinum"). Since perfection consists in love, it is not the privilege of one particular state, but may be, and has as a fact been, attained in every state of life (cf. Christian and Religious Perfection). Consequently, it would be wrong to identify perfection with the so-called state of perfection and the observance of the evangelical counsels. As St. Thomas rightly observes, there are perfect men outside the religious orders and imperfect men within them (Summa theol., II-II, Q. clxxxiv, a. 4). True it is that the conditions for realizing the ideal of a Christian life are, generally speaking, more favourable in the religious state than in the secular avocations. But not all are called to the religious life, nor would all find in it their contentment. To sum up, the end is the same, the means are different. This sufficiently answers Harnack's objection (Essence of Christianity) that the Church considers the perfect imitation of Christ possible only for the monks, while she accounts the life of a Christian in the world as barely sufficient for the attainment of the last end.
Catholicism:
The ideal, to which the Christian should conform and towards which he should strive with all his powers both natural and supernatural, is Jesus Christ. His whole life should be so penetrated by Christ that he becomes Christian in the full sense of the word ("until Christ be formed in you"; Galatians 4:19). That Christ is the supreme model and pattern of the Christian life follows from Scripture, e. g. from John, xiii, 15, and I Peter, ii, 21, where imitation of Christ is directly recommended, and from John, viii, 12, where Christ is called "the light of the world". Cf. also Rom., viii, 29, Gal., ii, 20, Phil., iii, 8, and Heb., i, 3, where the Apostle extols the excellent knowledge of Jesus Christ, for whom he has suffered the loss of all things, counting them but as dung, that he may gain Christ. Of the numerous testimonies of the Fathers we only quote St. Augustine: "Finis ergo noster perfectio nostra esse debet; perfectio nostra Christus" (P. L., XXXVI, 628; cf. also "In Psalm.", 26, 2, in P. L., XXXVI, 662). In Christ there is no shadow, nothing one-sided. His Divinity guarantees the purity of the model; His humanity, by which He became similar to us, makes the model attractive. But this picture of Christ, unmarred by addition or omission, is to be found only in the Catholic Church and, owing to her indefectibility, will always continue there in its ideal state. For the same reason, the Church alone can give us the guarantee that the ideal of the Christian life will always remain pure and unadulterated, and will not be identified with one particular state or with a subordinate virtue (cf. Zahn, l. c., p. 124). An unprejudiced examination proves that the ideal of Catholic life has been preserved in all its purity through the centuries and that the Church has never failed to correct the false touches with which individuals might have sought to disfigure its unstained beauty. The individual features and the fresh colours for outlining the living picture of Christ are derived from the sources of Revelation and the doctrinal decisions of the Church. These tell us about the internal sanctity of Christ (John 1:14; Colossians 2:9; Hebrews 1:9; etc.). His life overflowing with grace, of whose fulness we have all received (John 1:16), His life of prayer (Mark 1:21, 35; 3:1; Luke 5:16; 6:12; 9:18; etc.), His devotion to His heavenly Father (Matthew 11:26; John 4:34; 5:30; 8:26, 29), His intercourse with men (Matthew 9:10; cf. 1 Corinthians 9:22), His spirit of unselfishness and sacrifice, His patience and meekness, and, finally, His asceticism as revealed in his fastings (Matthew 4:2; 6:18).
Catholicism:
Dangers The second task of ascetical theology is to point out the dangers which may frustrate the attainment of Christian perfection and to indicate the means by which they can be avoided successfully. The first danger to be noticed is evil concupiscence. A second danger lies in the allurements of the visible creation, which occupy man's heart to the exclusion of the highest good; to the same class belong the enticements of the sinful, corrupt world (1 John 5:19): those men who promulgate vicious and ungodly doctrines and thereby dim or deny man's sublime destiny, or who by perverting ethical concepts and by setting a bad example give a false tendency to man's sensuality. Thirdly, ascetics acquaints not only with the malice of the devil, lest one falls prey to his cunning wiles, but also with his weakness, lest one lose heart. Finally, not satisfied with indicating the general means to be used for waging a victorious combat, ascetics offers particular remedies for special temptations (cf. Mutz, "Ascetik", 2nd ed., p. 107 sqq.).
Catholicism:
Means for realizing the Christian ideal Prayer, above all, in its stricter meaning, is a means of attaining perfection; special devotions approved by the Church and the sacramental means of sanctification have a special reference to the striving after perfection (frequent confession and communion). Ascetics proves the necessity of prayer (2 Corinthians 3:5) and teaches the mode of praying with spiritual profit; it justifies vocal prayers and teaches the art of meditating according to the various methods of St. Peter of Alcantara, of St. Ignatius, and other saints, especially the "tres modi orandi" of St. Ignatius. An important place is assigned to the examination of conscience, because ascetical life wanes or waxes with its neglect or careful performance; without this regular practice, a thorough purification of the soul and progress in spiritual life are out of the question. It centres the searchlight of the interior vision on every single action: all sins, whether committed with full consciousness or only half voluntarily, even the negligences which, though not sinful, lessen the perfection of the act, all are carefully scrutinized (peccata, offensiones, negligentioe; cf. "Exercitia spiritualia" of St. Ignatius, ed. P. Roothaan, p. 3). Ascetics distinguishes a twofold examination of conscience: one general (examen generale), the other special (examen particulare), giving at the same time directions how both kinds may be made profitable by means of certain practical and psychological aids. The general examination recalls all the faults of one day; the particular, on the contrary, focusses on one single defect and marks its frequency, or on one virtue to augment the number of its acts.
Catholicism:
Ascetics encourages visits to the Blessed Sacrament (visitatio sanctissimi), a practice meant especially to nourish and strengthen the divine virtues of faith, hope and charity. It also inculcates the veneration of the saints, whose virtuous lives should spur us on to imitation. It is plain that imitation cannot mean an exact copying. What ascetics proposes as the most natural method of imitation is the removal or at least the lessening of the contrast existing between our own lives and the lives of the saints, the perfecting, as far as is possible, of human virtues, with due regard to personal disposition and the surrounding circumstances of time and place. On the other hand, the observation that some saints are more to be admired than imitated must not lead into the mistake of letting one's works be weighted with the ballast of human comfort and ease, at last looking with suspicion on every heroic act, as though it were something that transcended one's own energy and could not be reconciled with the present circumstances. Such a suspicion would be justified only if the heroic act could not at all be made to harmonize with the preceding development of interior life. The Blessed Mother of God is, after Christ, the most sublime ideal. No one has received grace in such fulness, no one has co-operated with grace so faithfully as she, so the Church praises her as the Mirror of Justice (speculum justitioe). The mere thought of her transcendent purity suffices to repel the alluring charms of sin and to inspire pleasure in the wonderful lustre of virtue.
Catholicism:
Self-denial is the second means which ascetics teaches us (cf. Matthew 16:24-25). Without it the combat between spirit and flesh, which are contrary to each other (Romans 7:23; 1 Corinthians 9:27; Galatians 5:17), will not lead to the victory of the spirit (Imitatio Christi, I, xxv). How far self-denial should extend is clear from the actual condition of human nature after the fall of Adam. The inclination to sin dominates both the will and the lower appetites; not only the intellect, but also the outer and the inner senses are made subservient to this evil propensity. Hence, self-denial and self-control must extend to all these faculties. Ascetics reduces self-denial to exterior and interior mortification: exterior mortification is the mortification of sensuality and the senses; interior mortification consists in the purification of the faculties of the soul (memory, imagination, intellect, will) and the mastering of the passions. However, the term "mortification" must not be taken to mean the stunting of the "strong, full, healthy" (Schell) life; what it aims at is that the sensual passions do not gain the upper hand over the will. It is precisely through taming the passions by means of mortification and self-denial that life and energy are strengthened and freed from cumbersome shackles. But while the masters of asceticism recognize the necessity of mortification and self-denial, far from deeming it "criminal to assume voluntary sufferings" (Seeberg), they are just as far from advocating the so-called "non-sensual" tendency which, looking upon the body and its life as a necessary evil, proposes to avert its noxious effects by wilful weakening or even mutilation (cf. Schneider, "Göttliche Weltordnung u. religionslose Sittlichkeit", Paderborn, 1900, p. 537). On the other hand, Catholics reject the gospel of "healthy sensuality", which is only a pretty-sounding title, invented to cloak unrestricted concupiscence.
Catholicism:
Special attention is devoted to the mastering of the passions, because with them above all else the moral combat must be waged most relentlessly. Scholastic philosophy enumerates as passions: love, hatred, desire, horror, joy, sadness, hope, despair, boldness, fear, anger. Starting from the Christian idea that the passions (passiones, as understood by St. Thomas) are inherent in human nature, ascetics affirms that they are neither sicknesses, as the Stoics, the Reformers and Kant maintain, nor yet harmless as was asserted by the Humanists and Rousseau who denied original sin. On the contrary, it insists that in themselves they are indifferent, may be employed for good and for evil and receive a moral character only by the use to which the will puts them. It is the purpose of ascetics to point out the ways and means by which these passions can be tamed and mastered, so that, instead of goading the will to sin, they are made welcome allies for the accomplishment of good. And since the passions are inordinate in as far as they turn to illicit things or exceed the necessary bounds in those things which are licit, ascetics teaches how to render them innocuous by averting or restraining them, or by turning them to loftier purposes.
Catholicism:
Labour also is subservient to the striving after perfection. Untiring labour runs counter to human corrupt nature, which loves ease and comfort. Hence well-ordered, persistent and purposeful labour implies self-denial. This is why the Catholic Church has always looked upon labour, both manual and mental, as an ascetic means of no small value (cfr. Cassian, "De instit. coenob.", X, 24; St. Benedicts Rule, xlviii, li; Basil, "Reg. fusius tract." c. xxxvii, 1–3; "Reg. brevius tract.", c. lxxii; Origen, Contra Celsum, I, 28). St. Basil even holds that piety and avoidance of labour are irreconcilable in the Christian ideal of life (cf. Mausbach, "Die Ethik des hl. Augustinus", 1909, p. 264).
Catholicism:
Suffering too is an integral constituent of the Christian ideal and pertains consequently to ascetics, but its real value appears only in the light of faith, which teaches us that suffering makes us like unto Christ, we being the members of the mystic body of which He is the head (1 Peter 2:21), that suffering is the channel of grace which heals (sanat), preserves (conservat) and tests (probat). Finally ascetics teaches us how to turn sufferings into channels of heavenly grace.
Catholicism:
The Virtues are subjected to a thorough discussion. As is proved in dogmatic theology, our soul receives in justification supernatural habits, not only the three Divine, but also the moral virtues (Trid., Sess. VI, De justit., c. vi; Cat. Rom., p. 2, c. 2, n. 51). These supernatural powers (virtutes infusoe) are joined to the natural faculties or the acquired virtues (virtutes acguisitoe), constituting with them one principle of action. It is the task of ascetics to show how the virtues, taking into account the obstacles and means mentioned, can be reduced to practice in the actual life of the Christian, so that love be perfected and the image of Christ receive perfect shape in us. Conformable to the Brief of Leo XIII, "Testem benevolentiæ" of 22 January 1899, ascetics insists that the so-called "passive" virtues (meekness, humility, obedience, patience) must never be set aside in favour of the "active" virtues (devotion to duty, scientific activity, social and civilizing labour) which would be tantamount to denying that Christ is the perpetual model. Rather, both kinds must be harmoniously joined in the life of the Christian. True imitation of Christ is never a brake, nor does it blunt the initiative in any field of human endeavour, but the practice of the passive virtues is a support and aid to true activity. Besides, it not rarely happens that the passive virtues reveal a higher degree of moral energy than the active. The Brief itself refers to Matt., xxi, 29; Rom., viii, 29; Gal., v, 24; Phil., ii, 8; Heb., xiii, 8 (cf. also Zahn, l. c., 166 sqq.).
Catholicism:
Application of the means in the three degrees of Christian perfection Imitation of Christ is the duty of all who strive after perfection. It lies in the very nature of this formation after the image of Christ that the process is gradual and must follow the laws of moral energy; for moral perfection is the terminus of a laborious journey, the crown of a hard-fought battle. Ascetics divides those who strive after perfection into three groups: the beginners, the advanced, the perfect; and correspondingly sets down three stages or ways of Christian perfection: the purgative way, the illuminative way, the unitive way. The means stated above are applied with more or less diversity according to the stage which the Christian has reached.
Catholicism:
In the purgative way, when the appetites and inordinate passions still possess considerable strength, mortification and self-denial are to be practised more extensively. For the seeds of the spiritual life will not sprout unless the tares and thistles have first been weeded out. In the illuminative way, when the mists of passion have been lifted to a great extent, meditation and the practice of virtues in imitation of Christ are to be insisted on. During the last stage, the unitive way, the soul must be confirmed and perfected in conformity with God's will ("And I live, now not I; but Christ liveth in me": Galatians 2:20).
Catholicism:
One may not to mistake the three stages for wholly separate portions of the striving after virtue and perfection. Even in the second and the third stages there occur at times violent struggles, while the joy of being united with God may sometimes be granted in the initial stage as an inducement for further advance (cf. Mutz, "Aszetik," 2nd ed., 94 sq.).
Catholicism:
Relation of ascetics to moral theology and mysticism All these disciplines are concerned with the Christian life and its last end in the next world; but they differ, though not totally, in their mode of treatment. Ascetical theology, separated from moral theology and mysticism, has for its subject-matter the striving after Christian perfection; it shows how Christian perfection may be attained by earnestly exercising and schooling the will, using the specified means both to avoid the dangers and allurements of sin and to practise virtue with greater intensity. Moral theology is the doctrine of the duties, and in discussing the virtues is satisfied with a scientific exposition.
Catholicism:
Mysticism treats essentially of "union with God" and of the extraordinary, so-called mystic prayer. Though also those phenomena which are accidental to mysticism, such as ecstasy, vision, revelation, fall within its scope, yet they are by no means essential to the mystic life (cf. Zahn, "Einführung in die christl. Mystik", Paderborn, 1908). While mysticism includes also matter of ascetics, such as the endeavour of purification, vocal prayer, etc. this is only done because these exercises are looked upon as preparatory to the mystical life and must not be discarded even in its highest stage. Nevertheless, the mystical life is not merely a higher degree of the ascetical life, but differs from it essentially, the mystical life being a special grace granted to the Christian without any immediate merit on his part.
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Historical development Bible Abounds in practical instructions for the life of Christian perfection. Christ himself has drawn its outlines both as to its negative and positive requirements. His imitation is the supreme law (John 8:12; 12:26), charity the first commandment (Matthew 22:36-38; John 15:17); the right intention imparts value to the exterior works (Matthew 5-7), while self-denial and the carrying of the cross are the conditions for His discipleship (Matthew 10:38; 16:24; Mark 8:34; Luke 9:23; 14:27).
Catholicism:
Both by His own example (Matthew 4:2) and His exhortations (Matthew 17:20; Mark 9:28) Christ recommended fasting. He inculcated sobriety, watchfulness and prayer (Matthew 24:42; 25:13; 26:41; Mark 13:37; 14:37). He pointed to poverty as a means of gaining the kingdom of heaven (Matthew 6:19; 13:22; Luke 6:20; 8:14; 12:33; etc.) and counselled the rich youth to relinquish everything and to follow Him (Matthew 19:21). That this was a counsel and not a strict command, given in view of the particular attachment of the youth to the things of this world, is shown by the very fact that the Master had twice said "keep the commandments", and that he recommended the renunciation of all earthly goods only on the renewed inquiry after the means that lead to perfection (cf. Lutz, l. c., against the Protestants Th. Zahn, Bern, Weiss, Lemme, and others). Celibacy for God's sake was praised by Christ as worthy of a special heavenly reward (Matthew 19:12). Yet marriage is not condemned, but the words, "All men take not this word, but they to whom it is given", imply that it is the ordinary state, celibacy for God's sake being merely a counsel. Indirectly, Christ also commended voluntary obedience as a means for attaining the most intimate union with God (Matthew 18:4; 20:22, 25).
Catholicism:
What Christ outlined in his teachings the Apostles continued to develop. Especially St. Paul of Tarsus brings the two elements of Christian asceticism out in well-defined terms: mortification of inordinate desires as the negative element (Romans 6:8, 13; 2 Corinthians 4:16; Galatians 5:24; Colossians 3:5), union with God in all thoughts, words and deeds (1 Corinthians 10:31; Galatians 6:14; Colossians 3:3-17), and active love of God and once neighbour (Romans 8:35; 1 Corinthians 13:3) as the positive element.
Catholicism:
Fathers and Doctors of the Church With the Bible as a basis, the Fathers and Doctors of the Church explained particular features of the Christian life in a more coherent and detailed manner. The Apostolic Fathers called the love of God and man the sun of Christian life which, animating all virtues with its vital rays, inspires contempt of the world, beneficence, immaculate purity and self-sacrifice. The "Didache", which was intended to serve as a manual for catechumens, thus describes the way of life: "First, thou shalt love God, who created thee; secondly, thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself; whatever thou wishest that it should not be done to thee, do not to others." Following probably the "Didache", the "Epistle of Barnabas", written at the end of the 2nd century, represents the Christian life under the figure of the two ways, that of light and that of darkness. Two Epistles, purporting to come from the pen of St. Clement, but probably written in the 3rd century, exalt the life of virginity, if grounded on the love of God and accompanied by the corresponding works, as heavenly, divine and angelic. St. Polycarp says that St. Ignatius of Antioch's letters contain "faith and patience and all edification in the Lord"; the "Pastor" of Hermas in the twelve commandments inculcates simplicity, truthfulness, chastity, meekness, patience, continence, confidence in God and perpetual struggle against concupiscence.
Catholicism:
With the 3rd century the works on Christian asceticism began to show a more scientific character. The writings of Clement of Alexandria and Gregory the Great ("Moral.", XXXIII, c. xxvii; cf. also Cassian, "Coll", IX, XV) show traces of the threefold degree which was afterwards systematically developed by Dionysius the Areopagite. In his "Stromata" Clement sets forth the full beauty and grandeur of "true philosophy". Remarkably this author delineates, even in its details, what is now known as ethical culture, and endeavours to harmonize it with the example given by Christ. The life of the Christian is to be ruled in all things by temperance. Following out this idea, he discusses in a casuistic form food and drink, dress and love of finery, bodily exercises and social conduct.
Catholicism:
From the 4th century, a twofold line of thought is discernible in the works on Christian life: one speculative, laying stress on the union of the soul with God, the Absolute Truth and Goodness; the other practical, aiming principally at instruction in the practice of the Christian virtues. The speculative element prevailed in the mystical school, which owes its systematic development to Pseudo-Dionysius and which reached its highest perfection in the 14th century. The practical element was emphasized in the ascetical school with St. Augustine as its chief representative, in whose footsteps followed Gregory the Great and Bernard of Clairvaux.
Catholicism:
It may suffice to detail the principal points on which the writers prior to the medieval-scholastic period dwelt in their instructions. On prayer we have the works of Macarius the Egyptian (d. 385) and of Tertullian (d. after 220), who supplemented his treatise on prayer in general by an explanation of the Lord's Prayer. Cyprian of Carthage (d. 258) wrote "De oratione dominica", and St. Chrysostom (d. 407). Penance and the spirit of penance were treated by Tertullian (De poenitentia), John Chrysostom ("De compunctione cordis", "De poenitentia") and Cyril of Jerusalem (d. 386) in his second catechetical instruction. That the life of the Christian is a warfare is amply illustrated in St. Augustine's (d. 430) "De agone christiano" and "Confessions".
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Chastity and virginity were treated by Methodius of Olympus (d. 311) in his "Convivium", in which ten virgins, discussing virginity, demonstrate the moral superiority of Christianity over the ethical tenets of pagan philosophy. The same subject is discussed by the following Fathers: Cyprian (d. 258); Gregory of Nyssa (d. 394) in his "De virginitate"; Ambrose (d. 397), the indefatigable eulogist and champion of the virginal life; Jerome in his "Adversus Helvidium de virginitate" and "Ad Eustachium"; Chrysostom (d. 407) in his "De virginitate", who, though extolling virginity as a heavenly life, yet recommends it only as a counsel; Augustine in his works "De continentia", "De virginitate", "De bono viduitatis".
Catholicism:
On patience we have the works of Cyprian, Augustine and Tertullian's "De patientia", in which he speaks of this virtue as an invalid might speak of health to console himself. Chrysostom's "De jejunio et eleemosyna" discusses fasting. Almsgiving and good works are encouraged in Cyprian's "De opere et eleemosynis" and in Augustine's "De fide et operibus". The value of labour is explained in "De opere monachorum" by St. Augustine.
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Nor are treatises on the different states of life wanting. Thus St. Augustine's "De bono conjugali" treats of the married state; his "De bono viduitatis" of widowhood. A frequent subject was the priesthood. Gregory of Nazianzus, in his "De fuga", treats of the dignity and responsibility of the priesthood; Chrysostom's "De sacerdotio" exalts the sublimity of this state with surpassing excellence; St. Ambrose in his "De officiis", while speaking of the four cardinal virtues, admonishes the clerics that their lives should be an illustrious example; St. Jerome's "Epistola ad Nepotianum" discusses the dangers to which priests are exposed; the "Regula pastoralis" of Gregory the Great inculcates the prudence indispensable to the pastor in his dealings with different classes of men. Of prime importance for the monastic life was the work "De institutis coenobiorum" of Cassian.
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But the standard work from the 8th to the 13th century was the Rule of St. Benedict, which found numerous commentators. Of the saint or rather his Rule St. Bernard says: "lpse dux noster, ipse magister et legifer noster est" (Serm. in Nat. S. Bened., n. 2). Illustrations of the practice of Christian virtues in general were the "Expositio in beatum Job" of pope Gregory the Great and the "Collationes Patrum" of Cassian, in which the various elements of Christian perfection were discussed in the form of dialogues.
Catholicism:
Medieval-Scholastic period The transition period up to the 12th century exhibits no specially noteworthy advance in ascetical literature. To the endeavour to gather and preserve the teachings of the Fathers we owe Alcuin's "De virtutibus et vitiis". But when in the 12th century speculative theology was celebrating its triumphs, mystical and ascetical theology too showed a healthy activity.
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The results of the former could not but benefit the latter by placing Christian morality on a scientific basis and throwing ascetical theology itself into a scientific form. The pioneers in this field were St. Bernard (d. 1156), Hugh of St. Victor and Richard of St. Victor. St. Bernard, the greatest mystical theologian of the 12th century, also holds a prominent place among ascetical writers, so that Harnack calls the "religious genius" of the 12th century. The basic idea of his works, especially prominent in his treatise "De gratia et libero arbitrio", is that the life of the Christian should be a copy of the life of Jesus. Like Clement of Alexandria, he lays down precepts for the regulation of the necessities of life as food and dress, and for the implanting of God's love in man's heart, which would sanctify all things ("Apologia", "De præcepto et dispensatione"). Many are the steps by which love ascends till it reaches its perfection in the love for God's sake. Among his ascetical writings are: "Liber de diligendo Deo", "Tractatus de gradibus humilitatis et superbiæ", "De moribus et officio episcoporum", "Sermo de conversione ad clericos", "Liber de consideratione".
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Frequent allusions to SS. Augustine and Gregory the Great are scattered through the pages of Hugh of St. Victor (d. 1141), so much so that he earned the distinction of being called a second Augustine by his contemporaries. He was undoubtedly the first to give to ascetical theology a more or less definite, scientific character. The ever-recurring theme of his works is love. But what he aimed at above all in his writings was to lay bare the psychological bearings of mystical and ascetical theology. Noteworthy are his works: "De vanitate mundi", "De laude caritatis", "De mode orandi", "De meditatione".
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His pupil, Richard of St. Victor (d. 1173), though more ingenious and systematic, is yet less intent upon practical utility, except in his work "De exterminatione mali et promotione boni".
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The great theologians of the 13th century, who were no less famous for their scholastic "Summæ" than for their ascetical and mystical writings, brought ascetical teaching to its perfection and gave it the definite shape it has retained as a standard for all future times. No other epoch furnishes such convincing proof that true science and true piety are rather a help than a hindrance to each other.
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Albertus Magnus, or Albert the Great, the illustrious teacher of Thomas Aquinas, who was the first to join Aristotelean philosophy with theology and to make philosophy the handmaid of theology, was at the same time the author of excellent works on ascetics and mysticism, e. g., "De adhærendo Deo", the ripest fruit of his mystic genius, and "Paradisus animæ", which was conceived along more practical lines. St. Thomas explains in the ascetic work "De perfectione vitæ spiritualis" the essence of Christian perfection so lucidly that his line of argumentation may even in our days serve as a model. His other works too contain ample material of value both for ascetics and for mysticism.
Catholicism:
The Seraphic Doctor, St. Bonaventure, in the words of Pope Leo XIII, "treats of mystic theology in a manner so perfect that the unanimous opinion of the most expert theologians regards him as the prince of mystic theologians". Of his authentic works the following deserve mention: "De perfectione evangelica", "Collationes de septem donis Spiritus sancti", "Incendium amoris", "Soliloquium", Lignum vitæ", "De præparatione ad Missam", "Apologia pauperum". From the pen of David of Augsburg, a contemporary of these great masters, is an ascetic instruction for novices in his book entitled "De exterioris et interioris hominis compositione". He leads the reader along the three well-known ways, purgative, illuminative and unitive, purposing to make the reader a spiritual man. By severely disciplining the faculties of the soul and subordinating the flesh to the spirit, man must restore the original order, so that he may not only do what is good, but likewise do it with ease. There remains to be mentioned the "Summa de vitiis et virtutibus" of Peraldus (d. c. 1270).
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The 14th century is characterized throughout by its mystical tendencies. Among the works which this period produced, Henry Suso's "Booklet of Eternal Wisdom deserves special mention on account of its highly practical value.
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Pre-eminent in the fifteenth century were Gerson, Dionysius the Carthusian and the author of the Imitation of Christ. Relinquishing the ideals of the mystic writers of the fourteenth century, Gerson attached himself again to the great scholastic writers, thus avoiding the vagaries which had become alarmingly frequent among the mystics. His "Considerationes de theologia mystica" shows that he belongs to the practical school of asceticism. Dionysius the Carthusian is esteemed as a highly gifted teacher of the spiritual life. Both mysticism properly so called and practical asceticism owe valuable works to his pen. To the latter category belong: "De remediis tentationum", "De via purgativa", "De oratione", "De gaudio spirituali et pace interna", "De quatuor novissimis".
Catholicism:
The "Imitatio Christi", which appeared in the middle of the 15th century, deserves special attention on account of its lasting influence. "It is a classic in its ascetical unction and perfect in its artistic style" (Hamm, "Die Schönheit der kath. Moral", Munich-Gladbach, 1911, p. 74). In four books it treats of the interior spiritual life in imitation of Jesus Christ. It pictures the struggle which man must wage against his inordinate passions and perverse inclinations, the indulgence of which sullies his conscience and robs him of God's grace: "Vanity of vanities and all is vanity, except to love God and serve Him alone" (Vanitas vanitatum et omnia vanitas præter amare Deum et illi soli servire: I, i). It advises mortification and self-denial as the most efficacious weapons in this struggle. It teaches man to establish God's kingdom in his soul by the practice of virtues according to the example of Jesus Christ. It finally leads him to union with Christ by exciting love for him as well as by pointing out the frailty of all creatures: "It is necessary to leave the beloved thing for the beloved, because Jesus wishes to be loved above all things" (Oportet dilectum propter dilectum relinquere, quia Jesus vult solus super omnia amari: II, xvii). The thoughts of the "Imitation" are thrown into epigrams so simple that they are within the mental grasp of all. Though the book betrays that the author was well versed not only in Scholastic philosophy and theology, but also in the secrets of the mystical life, yet this fact never obtrudes itself on the reader, nor does it obscure the meaning of the contents. A number of quotations from the great doctors Augustine, Bernard, Bonaventure and Thomas, from Aristotle, Ovid and Seneca do not mar the impression that the whole work is the spontaneous outburst of an intensely glowing soul. It has often been said that the teachings of the "Imitation" are "unworldly" and show little appreciation for science, but one must take into consideration the peculiar circumstances of the time: Scholasticism had entered on a period of decline and had lost itself in intricate subtleties; mysticism had gone astray; all classes had been more or less infected with the spirit of licentiousness; conditions like these are the key to interpret phrases such as the following: "I would rather feel compunction than know how to define it" (Opto magis sentire compunctionem quam scire ejus definitionem) or "This is the highest wisdom: through contempt of the world to strive for the kingdom of heaven" (Ista est summa sapientia: per contemptum mundi tendere ad regna coelestia).
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Modern times During the 16th century St. Teresa and St. Ignatius of Loyola stand out most prominently owing to the wide-felt influence which they exerted upon the religion of their contemporaries, an influence that is still at work through their writings. The writings of St. Teresa arouse our admiration by the simplicity, clearness and precision of her judgment. Her letters show her to be an enemy of everything that smacks of eccentricity or singularity, sham piety or indiscreet zeal. One of her principal works, the "Way to Perfection", though written primarily for nuns, also contains apposite instructions for those who live in the world. While teaching the way to contemplation, she yet insists that not all are called to it and that there is greater security in the practice of humility, mortification, and the other virtues. Her masterpiece is the "Castle of the Soul", in which she expounds her theory of mysticism under the metaphor of a "castle" with many chambers. The soul resplendent with the beauty of the diamond or crystal is the castle; the various chambers are the various degrees through which the soul must pass before she can dwell in perfect union with God. Scattered throughout the work are many hints of inestimable value for asceticism as applied in everyday life. This fact is undoubtedly due to the well-founded conviction of the saint that even in extraordinary states the ordinary means must not be set aside altogether, so that illusions may be guarded against (cf. J. Zahn, "Introduction to Mysticism" p. 213).
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In his "Exercitia spiritualia" St. Ignatius of Loyola has left to posterity a grand literary monument of the science of the soul, but also a method unparalleled in its practical efficacy of strengthening the willpower. The booklet has appeared in numberless editions and revisions and, "despite its modest guise, is in reality a complete system of asceticism" (Meschler). The four weeks of the Exercises acquaint the exercitant with the three degrees of the spiritual life. The first week is taken up with cleansing the soul from sin and from its inordinate attachment to creatures. The second and third weeks lead the exercitant along the illuminative way. The portrait of Christ, the most lovable of all men, is outlined before his eyes, so that he can contemplate in the humanity the reflex of Divine light and the supreme model of all virtues. The meditations of the fourth week, the subject of which are the resurrection etc., lead to union with God and teach the soul to rejoice in the glory of the Lord. It is true, there are many rules and regulations, the sequence is most logical, the arrangement of the meditations follows the laws of psychology; yet these exercises do no violence to the free will, but are meant to strengthen the faculties of the soul. They do not, as has often been asserted, make the exercitant a powerless instrument in the hands of the confessor, nor are they a mystic flight to heaven, accomplished by means of a compulsion which intends a rapid advance in perfection by a mechanical process (Zöckler, "Die Tugendlehre des Christentums", Gütersloh, 1904, p. 335). Their marked intellectualism, so frequently objected to, in no way constitutes a hindrance to mysticism (Meschler, "Jesuitenaszese u. deutsche Mystik" in "Stimmen aus Maria-Laach", 1912). On the contrary, they make man's moral will truly free by removing the hindrances, while, by cleansing the heart and by accustoming the mind to meditative prayer, they are an excellent preparation for the mystical life.
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Louis of Granada, O. P. (died 1588), also belongs to this period. His work "La guia de pecadores" may be styled a book full of consolation for the erring. His "El memorial de la vida cristiana" contains instructions which take the soul from the very beginning and lead her to the highest perfection. Louis of Blois (Blosius), O. S. B. (d. 1566), is of a mind kindred to St. Bernard. His "Monile spirituale" is the best known of his numerous works. Thomas of Jesus (died 1582) wrote the "Passion of Christ" and "De oratione dominica".
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A great number of ascetical writers sprang up during the 17th century. Among them St. Francis de Sales stands out most prominently. According to Linsemann, the publication of his "Philothea" was an event of historical importance. To make piety attractive and to adapt it to all classes whether living in Court circles, in the world or in a monastery, this was his aim and in this he succeeded. Of a mild and sweet temperament, he never lost sight of the habits and particular circumstances of the individual. Though unwavering in his ascetical principles, he yet possessed an admirable facility for adapting them without constraint or rigidity. In the practice of mortification he recommends moderation and adaptation to one's state of life and to personal circumstances. Love of God and of man: this he puts down as the motive power of all actions. The spirit of St. Francis pervades the whole of modern asceticism, and even today his "Philothea" is one of the most widely read books on asceticism. "Theotimus", another work of his, treats in the first six chapters of the love of God, the rest being devoted to mystical prayer. His letters, too, are very instructive. Attention may be called to the new edition of his works (Euvres, Annecy, 1891 sqq.). "Il combattimento spirituale" of Scupoli (d. 1610) was spread very widely and earnestly recommended by Francis de Sales.
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Further Catholic bibliography To the same period belong the following authors and works. Bellarmine, S. J. (d. 1621): "Gemitus columbæ"; "De ascensione mentis in Deum"; "De arte bene moriendi".
Alphonsus Rodriguez, S. J. (d. 1616): "Exercicio de perfección y virtudes cristianas" (3 vols., Seville, 1609), which has frequently been re-edited and translated into nearly all languages.
John of Jesus-Mary, O. C. D. (d. 1615): "Teologia Mistica" (Naples, 1607), highly esteemed by Bellarmine and Francis de Sales.
Alvarez de Paz, S. J. (d. 1620): "De vita spirituali ejusque perfectione" (1608); "De exterminatione mali et promotione boni" (1613); "De inquisitione pacis" (1617), which was frequently re-edited.
Antoine de Gaudier, S. J. (d. 1620): "De perfectione vitæ spiritualis" (1619; new ed., 3 vols., Turin, 1903-4).
Catholicism:
La Puente, S. J. (d. 1624): "Guia espiritual" (Valladolid, 1609), containing, according to his own statement, a brief epitome of the spiritual life both active and contemplative (prayer, meditation, trials, mortification, practice of virtue); "De la Perfección del Cristiano en todos sus estados" (1612). Both works have ever been highly esteemed by all ascetical men and have been translated into many languages.
Catholicism:
Lessius, S. J. (d. 1623): "De perfectionibus moribusque divinis", a work distinguished both for its scientific and ascetical spirit.
Catholicism:
Nicholas Lancicius, S. J. (d. 1638), past-master in the spiritual life, whose saintly personality is reflected in his writings (new ed., Cracow, 1889 sqq.): "De exteriore corporis compositione"; "De quatuor viis perveniendi ad perfectionem"; "De humanarum passionum dominio": "De mediis ad virtutem"; "De causis et remediis in oratione". Greatly valued is his book of meditations: "De piis erga Deum et coelites affectibus"; it has been translated into several languages.
Catholicism:
Schorrer, S. J.: "Synopsis theol. ascet." (Dillingen, 1662; rare edition).
Michael Wadding (priest) as Miguel Godinez, S. J.: "Práctica de la teologia mystica" (La Puebla de los Angeles, 1681), of which we have a Latin edition together with a commentary by de la Reguera, S. J. (Rome, 1740).
Catholicism:
Surin, S. J. (d. 1665), wrote his important "Catéchisme spirituel" at a time when he was subject to interior trials (cf. Zahn, "Mystik", p. 441). The book appeared in many editions and translations, but was placed on the Index. The edition of Fr. Fellon, S. J. (1730), and that of Marie Dominique Bouix (Paris, 1882), probably do not fall under this prohibition, because in them the errors have been corrected. After Surin's death appeared: "Les fondements de la vie spirituelle" (Paris, 1667); "Lettres spirituelles" (ib., 1695); "Dialogues spirituels" (ib., 1704).
Catholicism:
Gaspar Druzbicki, S. J. (d. 1662), is the author of a considerable number of ascetical works both in Polish and in Latin, many of which were translated into other languages. There are two complete editions of his works: one published at Ingolstadt (1732) in two folios, the other at Kalisz and Posen (1681–91). Among his numerous works are: "Lapis lydius boni spiritus"; "Considerationes de soliditate veræ virtutis"; "De sublimitate perfectionis"; "De brevissima ad perfectionem via"; "Vota religiosa".
Catholicism:
The "Mystica theologia Divi Thomæ" of Thomas a Vallgornera, O. P. (d. 1665), published at Barcelona, (1662 and 1672) and at Turin (1890), is almost exclusively made up of quotations from St. Thomas and is a rich storehouse of ascetical material.
Catholicism:
From the pen of Cardinal Bona, O. Cist. (d. 1674), we have: "Principia et documents vitæ christianæ" (Rome, 1673) and "Manuductio ad coelum" (Rome, 1672 and 1678), both of which works, remarkable for their simplicity and practical utility, were frequently re-edited; the still valuable "De sacrificio Missæ"; "De discretione spirituum"; "Horologium asceticum". Complete editions of his works appeared at Antwerp, Turin, Venice.
Catholicism:
Morotius, O. Cist., in his "Cursus vitæ spiritualis" (Rome, 1674; new ed., Ratisbon, 1891), follows closely the lead of St. Thomas.
The "Summa theologiæ mysticæ" (new ed., 3 vols., Freiburg, 1874) is the best and most widely read work of Philip of the Blessed Trinity (d. 1671), the philosopher among the mystic writers. He wrote in the spirit of St. Thomas, following definite scientific principles and showing their practical application in the spiritual life.
Catholicism:
Anthony of the Holy Ghost, O. C. D. (d. 1674), was a disciple of the author just named. His "Directorium mysticum" (new ed., Paris, 1904), dominated by the spirit of. his master, was written for the instruction of his pupils. He is also the author of the following works: "Seminarium virtutum" (3rd ed., Augsburg and Würzburg, 1750), "Irriguum virtutum" (Würzburg, 1723), "Tractatus de clericorum ac præcipue sacerdotum et pastorum dignitate", etc. (Würzburg, 1676).In the course of the 18th century a number of valuable works on asceticism and mysticism were published. To Neumeyer, S. J. (d. 1765), we owe the "Idea theol. ascet.", a complete, scientifically arranged epitome. Rogacci, S. J. (d. 1719), wrote "Del uno necessario", an instruction in the love of God, which ranks high in ascetical literature and was translated into several languages. Giovanni Battista Scaramelli's Direttorio ascetico treats asceticism apart from mysticism. A treatise on the virtues is contained in Dirkink, S. J., "Semita perfectionis" (new ed., Paderborn, 1890). Designed along broad lines is the "Trinum perfectum" (3rd ed., Augsburg, 1728) by Michael of St. Catherine. Katzenberger, O. F. M., wrote "Scientia salutis" (new ed., Paderborn, 1901). Schram's "Institutiones theol. mysticæ" (2 vols.) combines asceticism with mysticism, though the author is at his best in the ascetical parts. St. Alphonsus Liguori (d. 1787), rightly called the "Apostolic Man", published a large number of ascetic works, full of heavenly unction and tender-hearted piety. The best-known and most important of them are: "Pratica di amar Gesù Cristo" (1768), "Visita al SS. Sacramento", perhaps the most widely read of all his ascetical works: "La vera sposa di Gesù Cristo" (1760), a sure guide to perfection for countless souls.
Catholicism:
Complete treatises on asceticism, published during the 19th and 20th centuries, are the following: Grundkötter, "Anleitung zur christl. Vollkommenheit" (Ratisbon, 1896). Leick, C. SS. R., "Schule der christl. Vollkommenheit" (Ratisbon, 1886), inspired by the writings of St. Alphonsus Liguori. Weiss, O. P., "Philosophie der christl. Vollkommenheit" (vol. V of his "Apologie"; Freiburg 1898). The author is extraordinarily well read, and his conception of the spiritual life is unusually deep. Ribet, "L'ascétique chrétienne" (Paris, 1888). Tissot, "La vie intérieure". Saudreau, "Les degrés de la vie spirituelle" (Angers, 1896 and 1897), a work full of unction. His other works, "Les faits extraordinaires de la vie spirituelle" (1908) and "La vie d'union à Dieu" (1909), belong to mysticism properly so called. Poulain, S. J., "La grâce d'oraison", though of a mystic character, yet treats of the ordinary method of prayer. Saudreau and Poulain are reliable throughout and their works are among the best productions in this branch. Rousset, O. P., "Directorium asceticum" (Freiburg, 1893). Meynard, O. P., "Traité de la vie intérieure" (Paris, 1899), based on St. Thomas. Meyer, S. J., "First Lessons in the Science of the Saints" (2nd ed., St. Louis, 1903), translated into several languages. Francis X. Mutz, "Die christliche Aszetik" (2nd ed., Paderborn, 1909). Joseph Zahn, "Einführung in die christliche Mystik" (Paderborn, 1908), important also for asceticism. Berthier, "De la perfection chrétienne et de la perfection religieuse d'après S. Thomas et S. François de Sales" (2 vols., Paris, 1901). A. Devine, "Manual of Ascetical Theology" (London). Ryan, "Groundwork of Christian Perfection" (London). Buchanan, "Perfect Love of God" (London).
Catholicism:
An exhaustive list of Catholic ascetical writers is given in MigneNon-Catholic authors: Otto Zöckler, "Die Tugendlehre des Christentums, geschichtlich dargestellt" (Gütersloh, 1904). W. Hermann, "Der Verkehr des Christen mit Gott" (6th ed., Stuttgart, 1908), and "Die sittlichen Weisungen Jesu" (Göttingen, 1907). Kähler, "Verkehr mit Christo in seiner Bedeutung für das eigene Leben" (Leipzig, 1904). Peabody, "Jesus Christ and the Christian Character". A. Ritschl, "Christiiche Vollkommenheit" (Göttingen, 1902). Sheldon, "In his Steps -- What Would Jesus do?", widely read in England.
Protestant:
Many Protestants do not share the sacramental understanding that characterizes Catholic and Orthodox faith, but use the term ascetical theology in some contexts. Without the sacrament of Confession, the purgative way is more personal, and without belief that God is literally present in the Eucharist, the unitive way is also more personal and ethereal. Protestant theology of union with God tends to be personalist. As with the Eucharist, a wide variety of Protestant viewpoints exist regarding the way to follow Christ. This is partly because there is no one center of Protestant thought.
Protestant:
A helpful writer on the theme of askesis from a Protestant viewpoint is Eugene Peterson, especially in his work Under the Unpredictable Plant. He refers to many other Protestant writers, including Martin Thornton. Thornton's parochial theology of the remnant is an Anglican expression of the Roman Catholic rule of faith.
Islam:
There is not an extensive evidence trail of Islam embracing an ascetical theology, but Islamic teachings encourage adherents to imitate closely Muhammad in order to achieve spiritual perfection. Moreover, a certain kind of asceticism, known in Islamic terminology as zuhd, exists in manuals of Islamic ethics and mysticism. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Diadem (board game)**
Diadem (board game):
Diadem is a 1981 board game published by Fantasy Games Unlimited.
Gameplay:
Diadem is a game focused on galactic conquest, played on a mapboard divided into 12 hexagon-shaped sub-maps.
Reception:
David Ladyman reviewed Diadem in The Space Gamer No. 46. Ladyman commented that "In sum, I won't tell you not to buy Diadem, but I don't recommend it. There are better-reasoned space warfare games on the market." | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Sakura Pascarelli**
Sakura Pascarelli:
Sakura Pascarelli is an Italian physicist and the scientific director at the European XFEL. Her research focuses on the study on matter at extreme conditions of pressure, temperature and magnetic fields, in particular using X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) and X-ray Magnetic Linear and Circular Dichroism (XMCD).
Early life and education:
Pascarelli was born in Japan. She received a Laurea in Physics from La Sapienza (Rome, Italy) and a PhD degree in Physics at the Joseph Fourier University (Grenoble, France). She is an accomplished swimmer.
Research and career:
Pascarelli was the head of the Matter at Extremes Group within the Experiment Division of the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility in Grenoble, France, and in charge of the X-ray absorption spectroscopy beamlines. She joined the European XFEL in Hamburg, Germany, as scientific director.Pascarelli is a member of the scientific advisory committee of SLAC's Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Steatosis**
Steatosis:
Steatosis, also called fatty change, is abnormal retention of fat (lipids) within a cell or organ. Steatosis most often affects the liver – the primary organ of lipid metabolism – where the condition is commonly referred to as fatty liver disease. Steatosis can also occur in other organs, including the kidneys, heart, and muscle. When the term is not further specified (as, for example, in 'cardiac steatosis'), it is assumed to refer to the liver.Risk factors associated with steatosis are varied, and may include diabetes mellitus, protein malnutrition, hypertension, cell toxins, obesity, anoxia, and sleep apnea.Steatosis reflects an impairment of the normal processes of synthesis and elimination of triglyceride fat. Excess lipid accumulates in vesicles that displace the cytoplasm. When the vesicles are large enough to distort the nucleus, the condition is known as macrovesicular steatosis; otherwise, the condition is known as microvesicular steatosis. While not particularly detrimental to the cell in mild cases, large accumulations can disrupt cell constituents, and in severe cases the cell may even burst.
Pathogenesis:
No single mechanism leading to steatosis exists; rather, a varied multitude of pathologies disrupt normal lipid movement through the cell and cause accumulation. These mechanisms can be separated based on whether they ultimately cause an oversupply of lipid which can not be removed quickly enough (i.e., too much in), or whether they cause a failure in lipid breakdown (i.e., not enough used).Failure of lipid metabolism can also lead to the mechanisms which would normally utilise or remove lipids becoming impaired, resulting in the accumulation of unused lipids in the cell. Certain toxins, such as alcohols, carbon tetrachloride, aspirin, and diphtheria toxin, interfere with cellular machinery involved in lipid metabolism. In those with Gaucher's disease, the lysosomes fail to degrade lipids and steatosis arises from the accumulation of glycolipids. Protein malnutrition, such as that seen in kwashiorkor, results in a lack of precursor apoproteins within the cell, therefore unused lipids which would normally participate in lipoprotein synthesis begin to accumulate.
Pathogenesis:
Macrovesicular steatosis Macrovesicular steatosis is the more common form of fatty degeneration and may be caused by oversupply of lipids due to obesity, obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), insulin resistance, or alcoholism. Nutrient malnutrition may also cause the mobilisation of fat from adipocytes and create a local oversupply in the liver where lipid metabolism occurs. Excess alcohol over a long period of time can induce steatosis. The breakdown of large amounts of ethanol in alcoholic drinks produces large amounts of chemical energy in the form of NADH, signalling to the cell to inhibit the breakdown of fatty acids (which also produces energy) and simultaneously increase the synthesis of fatty acids. This "false sense of energy" results in more lipid being created than is needed.
Pathogenesis:
Microvesicular steatosis Microvesicular steatosis is characterized by small intracytoplasmic fat vacuoles (liposomes) which accumulate within hepatocytes. Common causes are tetracyclines, acute fatty liver of pregnancy, Reye's syndrome, and hepatitis C.
Histology:
Histologically, steatosis is physically apparent as lipid within membrane bound liposomes of parenchymal cells. When this tissue is fixed and stained to be better viewed under a microscope, the lipid is usually dissolved by the solvents used to prepare the sample. As such, samples prepared this way will appear to have empty holes (or vacuoles) within the cells where the lipid has been cleared. Special lipid stains, such as Sudan stains and osmium tetroxide are able to retain and show up lipid droplets, hence more conclusively indicating the presence of lipids. Other intracellular accumulations, such as water or glycogen, can also appear as clear vacuoles, therefore it becomes necessary to use stains to better determine what substance is accumulating.
Histology:
Grossly, steatosis causes organ enlargement and lightening in colour. This is due to the high lipid content increasing the organ's volume and becoming visible to the unaided eye. In severe cases, the organ may become vastly enlarged, greasy, and yellow in appearance.
Medical imaging:
On X-ray computed tomography (CT), the increased fat component will decrease the density of the liver tissue, making the image less bright. Typically the density of the spleen and liver are roughly equivalent. In steatosis, there is a difference between the density and brightness of the two organs, with the liver appearing darker.
Medical imaging:
On ultrasound, fat is more echogenic (capable of reflecting sound waves). The combination of liver steatosis being dark on CT and bright on ultrasound is sometimes known as the flip flop sign.On magnetic resonance imaging, multiecho gradient echo images can be used to determine the percent fat fraction of the liver. The different resonance frequencies between water and fat make this technique very sensitive and accurate. Acquisition of echoes in "in phase" and "out phase" conditions (pertaining to the relative phases of the fat and water proton contingents) enables to obtain a signal proportional to the water and fat contingent, or a signal proportional to the water minus the fat contingent. These signal intensities are then algebraically combined into a percent fat. More recent techniques take into account experimental noise, signal decay and spectroscopic properties of fat. Numerous validation studies have demonstrated excellent correlations between the steatosis level quantified at MRI and the steatosis levels semi-quantitavely and quantitatively determined on liver biopsies (reference methods). Several MRI vendors offer automated calculation of percent fat with acquisition sequences no longer than a single breath hold.
Medical imaging:
On abdominal ultrasonography, steatosis is seen as a hyperechoic liver as compared to the normal kidney.
Incidence:
In Bristol University's study Children of the 90s, 2.5% of 4,000 people born in 1991 and 1992 were found by ultrasound scanning at the age of 18 to have non-alcoholic fatty liver disease; five years later transient elastography (fibroscan) found over 20% to have the fatty deposits on the liver of steatosis, indicating non-alcoholic fatty liver disease; half of those were classified as severe. The scans also found that 2.4% had the liver scarring of fibrosis, which can lead to cirrhosis. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Tiago P. Peixoto**
Tiago P. Peixoto:
Tiago de Paula Peixoto is a Brazilian physicist who works in the areas of network science, statistical physics, and complex systems. He is currently an associate professor of network and data science at the Central European University.
Career:
Peixoto is mostly known for his work in statistical inference in networks. He developed and maintains the graph manipulation library graph-tool, which contains readily available implementations of the methods he proposes in his publications.Peixoto graduated with a bachelor's degree in physics from the University of São Paulo in 2003. He earned a PhD in Physics from the same university in 2007, advised by Carmen Pimentel Cintra do Prado with a dissertation entitled "Dynamics of the epicenters of the Olami-Feder-Christensen model of earthquakes (OFC)". In 2017 he obtained his Habilitation in Theoretical Physics at the University of Bremen.
Career:
Peixoto worked as a post-doctoral fellow in Germany (2008 - 2016) at the Technische Universität Darmstadt and University of Bremen before becoming an assistant professor (lecturer), in 2016, at the Department of Mathematics of the University of Bath. In 2019, he joined the faculty of the Central European University as an associate professor.
Awards and honors:
In 2019, Peixoto was awarded the prestigious Erdős–Rényi Prize in Network Science for his contributions for the statistical inference of network modules (aka communities), statistical analysis and network visualization. He was also the sixth recipient of the Zachary Karate Club CLUB prize. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**SLC35F6**
SLC35F6:
SLC35F6 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC35F6 gene. The orthologue in mice is 4930471M23Rik.
Model organisms:
Model organisms have been used in the study of C2orf18 function. A conditional knockout mouse line, called 4930471M23Riktm1a(EUCOMM)Wtsi was generated as part of the International Knockout Mouse Consortium program — a high-throughput mutagenesis project to generate and distribute animal models of disease to interested scientists — at the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute.Male and female animals underwent a standardized phenotypic screen to determine the effects of deletion. Twenty two tests were carried out on mutant mice, but no significant abnormalities were observed. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**November 1994 lunar eclipse**
November 1994 lunar eclipse:
A penumbral lunar eclipse took place on Friday, November 18, 1994, the second of two lunar eclipses in 1994, the first was a partial lunar eclipse on Wednesday, May 25. This event followed the total solar eclipse of November 3, 1994.
Related eclipses:
Eclipses of 1994 An annular solar eclipse on May 10.
A partial lunar eclipse on May 25.
A total solar eclipse on November 3.
A penumbral lunar eclipse on November 18.
Lunar year series Half-Saros cycle A lunar eclipse will be preceded and followed by solar eclipses by 9 years and 5.5 days (a half saros). This lunar eclipse is related to two total solar eclipses of Solar Saros 152. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Streptococcus gordonii**
Streptococcus gordonii:
Streptococcus gordonii is a Gram-positive bacterium included among some of the initial colonizers of the periodontal environment. The organism, along with related oral streptococci, has a high affinity for molecules in the salivary pellicle (or coating) on tooth surfaces. S. gordonii therefore can rapidly colonize clean tooth surfaces, and S. gordonii along with related organisms comprise a high percentage, up to 70%, of the bacterial biofilm that forms on clean tooth surfaces. Generally harmless in the mouth, S. gordonii can cause acute bacterial endocarditis upon gaining access systemically. S. gordonii also forms an attachment substratum for later colonizers of tooth surface and can modulate the pathogenicity of these secondary colonizers through interspecies communication mechanisms.The whole genome sequence of S. gordonii CCUG 33482 type strain was deposited and published in DNA Data Bank of Japan, European Nucleotide Archive and GenBank in 2016 under the accession number LQWV00000000.
DNA repair:
Upon systemic infection, S. gordonii is subjected to conditions in human blood that damage its DNA. However, DNA damage can be tolerated by the use of DNA repair processes. The S. gordonii genome encodes a two protein complex, RexAB, that is employed in recombinational repair and can promote survival by repairing DNA double-strand breaks. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Verbal memory**
Verbal memory:
Verbal memory is a term used in cognitive psychology which refers to memory of words and other abstractions involving language.
Verbal encoding:
Verbal encoding refers to the interpretation of verbal stimuli. Verbal encoding appears to be strongly left-lateralized in the medial temporal lobe of the human brain; however, its functional neuroanatomy can vary between individuals.
Verbal recall:
Verbal recall refers to the recollection of verbal information. Although left-lateralization is typically associated with language, studies suggest that symmetrical bi-lateralization of language in the brain is advantageous to verbal recall. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Zirconia toughened alumina**
Zirconia toughened alumina:
Zirconia toughened alumina is a ceramic material comprising alumina and zirconia. It is a composite ceramic material with zirconia grains in the alumina matrix.
It is also known in industry as ZTA.
Zirconia toughened alumina:
Zirconia aluminia (or zirconia toughened alumina), a combination of zirconium oxide and aluminum oxide, is part of a class of composite ceramics called AZ composites. Noted for their mechanical properties, AZ composites are commonly used in structural applications, as cutting tools, and in many medical applications. Additionally, AZ composites feature high strength, fracture toughness, elasticity, hardness, and wear resistance. Zirconia toughened alumina (ZTA), in particular, offers several key properties.
Structure:
The mechanical robustness compared to alumina is attributed to the displacive phase transformation of the metastable tetragonal zirconia grains when the material is stressed. The stress concentration at a crack tip can cause a transformation from a tetragonal crystal structure to a monoclinic one, which has an associated volume expansion of zirconia. This volume expansion effectively pushes back the propagation of the crack and results in higher toughness and strength. A common specimen of Zirconia Toughened Alumina will have 10-20% zirconium oxides. The 20-30% increase in strength often meets the design criteria needed at a much lower cost. Depending on the percentage that is Zirconium, the properties of this ceramic can be manipulated for the applications required. Zirconia Toughened Alumina is generally referred as the intermediary between Alumina and Zirconium and as priced as such. This gives the ZTA a much lower price range than other similar materials. The increase in composite strength is done by a process called Stress Induced Transformation Toughening. This process causes internal strains, which causes crack in the structure of the Zirconium. Because of the crack, the Zirconium particles allowed to switch phases and move more freely amongst the Alumina particles. This causes an increase in Zirconia particles with the same amount of Alumina particles, creating the increase is strength.
Uses:
Recently, there have been many uses for Zirconia Toughened Alumina, including valve seals, bushing, pump components, joint implants, wire bonding capillaries, cutting tool inserts, and many more. ZTA has a diverse range of properties, giving its importance in an array of applications. In the medical industry, ZTA serves as a ceramic that can be used in joint replacement and rehabilitation. ZTA's high wear resistance helps create high performance implants. Because of ZTA's high strength and corrosion resistance, it enables the material to withstand heavy loads without succumbing to degradation; giving ZTA many uses in load bearing applications. ZTA's toughness also means that it has many uses in cutting tools. ZTA and other Alumina are often used in metal cutting applications. Certain engine components, labware, industrial crucibles, refractory tubes can be manufactured using ZTA. Also, certain abrasive applications, such as sandblasting, can also be manufactured using ZTA. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Argon fluorohydride**
Argon fluorohydride:
Argon fluorohydride (systematically named fluoridohydridoargon) or argon hydrofluoride is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula HArF (also written ArHF). It is a compound of the chemical element argon.
Discovery:
The discovery of this argon compound is credited to a group of Finnish scientists, led by Markku Räsänen. On 24 August 2000, in the journal Nature, they announced their discovery of argon fluorohydride. This discovery caused the recognition that argon could form weakly bound compounds, even though it was not the first.
Synthesis:
This chemical was synthesized by mixing argon and hydrogen fluoride on a caesium iodide surface at 8 K (−265 °C), and exposing the mixture to ultraviolet radiation. This caused the gases to combine.
Synthesis:
The infrared spectrum of the resulting gas mixture shows that it definitely contains chemical bonds, albeit very weak ones; thus, it is argon fluorohydride, and not a supermolecule or a mixture of argon and hydrogen fluoride. Its chemical bonds are stable only if the substance is kept at temperatures below 27 K (−246 °C); upon warming, it decomposes into argon and hydrogen fluoride. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**InterPlanetary File System**
InterPlanetary File System:
The InterPlanetary File System (IPFS) is a protocol, hypermedia and file sharing peer-to-peer network for storing and sharing data in a distributed file system. IPFS uses content-addressing to uniquely identify each file in a global namespace connecting IPFS hosts.IPFS can among others replace the location based hypermedia server protocols http and https to distribute the World Wide Web.
Design:
IPFS allows users to host and receive content in a manner similar to BitTorrent. As opposed to a centrally located server, IPFS is built around a decentralized system of user-operators who hold a portion of the overall data, creating a resilient system of file storage and sharing. Any user in the network can serve a file by its content address, and other peers in the network can find and request that content from any node who has it using a distributed hash table (DHT).
Design:
In contrast to BitTorrent, IPFS aims to create a single global network. This means that if two users publish a block of data with the same hash, the peers downloading the content from "user 1" will also exchange data with the ones downloading it from "user 2". IPFS aims to replace protocols used for static webpage delivery by using gateways which are accessible with HTTP. Users may choose not to install an IPFS client on their device and instead use a public gateway. A list of these gateways is maintained on the IPFS GitHub page.
History:
IPFS was created by Juan Benet, who later founded Protocol Labs in May 2014.IPFS was launched in an alpha version in February 2015, and by October of the same year was described by TechCrunch as "quickly spreading by word of mouth." Network service provider Cloudflare started using IPFS in 2018 and launched its own gateway in the system in 2022. In March 2020, the Opera browser provided access to the centralized resources of the Unstoppable Domains provider by hosting content in IPFS.
Applications:
Filecoin is an IPFS-based cooperative storage cloud, also authored by Protocol Labs.
Cloudflare runs a distributed web gateway to simplify, speed up, and secure access to IPFS without needing a local node.
Microsoft's self-sovereign identity system, Microsoft ION, builds on the Bitcoin blockchain and IPFS through a Sidetree-based DID network.
The shadow libraries Anna's Archive and Library Genesis also deliver books via IPFS, enabling the largest human library of books to be more resilient.
Brave uses Origin Protocol and IPFS to host its decentralized merchandise store and, in 2021, added support into their browser.
Opera for Android has default support for IPFS, allowing mobile users to browse ipfs:// links to access data on the IPFS network.
Superhighway84 is an IPFS-based Usenet-like discussion system Filebase is a geo-redundant IPFS Pinning Service that pins each file to the IPFS network with 3 redundant copies stored across diverse geographic locations.
Anti-censorship The Catalan independence referendum, taking place in September–October 2017, was deemed illegal by the Constitutional Court of Spain and many related websites were blocked. Subsequently, the Catalan Pirate Party mirrored the website on IPFS to bypass the High Court of Justice of Catalonia order of blocking.
Applications:
During the block of Wikipedia in Turkey, IPFS was used to create a mirror of Wikipedia, which allowed access to archived static Wikipedia content despite the ban. The mirror has now been expanded to more languages, such as English, Ukrainian, Russian, Arabic, and Chinese. A collection of the mirrors can be viewed by using its CID at an IPFS Gateway.
Applications:
Malware Phishing attacks have also been distributed through Cloudflare's IPFS gateway since July 2018. The phishing scam HTML is stored on IPFS, and displayed via Cloudflare's gateway. The connection shows as secure via a Cloudflare SSL certificate.The IPStorm botnet, first detected in June 2019, uses IPFS so it can hide its command-and-control amongst the flow of legitimate data on the IPFS network. Security researchers had worked out previously the theoretical possibility of using IPFS as a botnet command-and-control system. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Electrostatic coating**
Electrostatic coating:
Electrostatic coating is a manufacturing process that employs charged particles to more efficiently paint a workpiece. Paint, in the form of either powdered particles or atomized liquid, is initially projected towards a conductive workpiece using normal spraying methods, and is then accelerated toward the work piece by a powerful electrostatic charge.An addition to the electrostatic coating (or e-coating) process is dipping electrically conductive parts into a tank of paint that is then electrostatically charged. The ionic bond of the paint to the metal creates the paint coating, in which its thickness is directly proportional to the length of time the parts are left in the tank and the time the charge remains active. Once the parts are removed from the paint tank, they are rinsed off to remove any residual paint that is not ionically bonded, leaving a thin film of electrostatically bonded paint on the surface of the part.
Process characteristics:
Uses a high voltage electrostatic charge which is applied to both the workpiece and the sprayer mechanism Uses 95% of sprayed paint due to reduced over-spray and better wrap-around Paint materials can be either powdered or liquid Process can be either automatic or manual Workpieces must be conductive Workpieces are usually baked after coated The baked on paint adheres extremely well and is difficult to remove without aggressive means of removal.
Process:
The workpiece travels down a conveyor belt towards a paint booth, or paint tank, where it is sprayed with, or dipped into, electrostatically charged paint particles. Integrated into a powder paint booth is a powder recovery unit, which recovers between 95% and 100% of the paint over-spray coatings. After the workpiece is coated, it continues on the conveyor belt to an oven, where the paint is cured. The benefits to the process of electrostatic coating are the ability to recover the little over-spray and having the process automated which will cut costs. The reason for the little overspray is the paint particles that do not hit the piece will turn in the air and go back to the piece. There are also some drawbacks to the process: everything in the area of the coating must be grounded to prevent static buildup and can easily arc, damaging the hanging devices and/or the locations where the hanging devices rest on the conveyor. All hangers, conveyors, etc. must be cleaned often to ensure a good ground and prevent anyone in the area from getting a severe shock. In an airborne system, any recesses on the piece that is being coated can be missed because the electrostatic paint is more attracted to corners and sharp edges; this means that another process for coating can be a better option if the piece has recesses. In the dipping process, air entrapment can occur in blind holes and deep recesses, so the positioning of the part as it enters the paint tank is critical in removing any trapped air that will restrict paint coverage.
Workpiece geometry:
The geometry of the workpiece is limited only by the size of the paint booth or tank. Using electrostatic coating, it is possible to apply paint in various thicknesses being limited only by the paint's tendency to run and therefore ruin the coating if applied in too thick a manner. It is usually preferred to apply many thin coats as opposed to one thick coat.
Setup and equipment:
The job may be delivered to the coating booth or hangers in any fashion, most commonly using either hands or pliers. After passing through the booth, or tank, and getting coated, the workpiece then either goes into a baking oven or out into the open air to allow the paint to cure on the part. In spray coating, many different spray nozzles may be used depending on the desired paint consistency and the shape of the workpiece.
Typical tools and geometry produced:
There are a wide variety of spray nozzles available for use in electrostatic coating. The type of nozzle used will largely depend on the shape of workpiece to be painted and the consistency of the paint. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**POPLmark challenge**
POPLmark challenge:
In programming language theory, the POPLmark challenge (from "Principles of Programming Languages benchmark", formerly Mechanized Metatheory for the Masses!) (Aydemir, 2005) is a set of benchmarks designed to evaluate the state of automated reasoning (or mechanization) in the metatheory of programming languages, and to stimulate discussion and collaboration among a diverse cross section of the formal methods community. Very loosely speaking, the challenge is about measurement of how well programs may be proven to match a specification of how they are intended to behave (and the many complex issues that this involves). The challenge was initially proposed by the members of the PL club at the University of Pennsylvania, in association with collaborators around the world. The Workshop on Mechanized Metatheory is the main meeting of researchers participating in the challenge.
POPLmark challenge:
The design of the POPLmark benchmark is guided by features common to reasoning about programming languages. The challenge problems do not require the formalisation of large programming languages, but they do require sophistication in reasoning about: Binding Most programming languages have some form of binding, ranging in complexity from the simple binders of simply typed lambda calculus to complex, potentially infinite binders needed in the treatment of record patterns.
POPLmark challenge:
Induction Properties such as subject reduction and strong normalisation often require complex induction arguments.
Reuse Furthering collaboration being a key aim of the challenge, the solutions are expected to contain reusable components that would allow researchers to share language features and designs without requiring them to start from scratch every time.
The problems:
As of 2007, the POPLmark challenge is composed of three parts. Part 1 concerns solely the types of System F<: (System F with subtyping), and has problems such as: Checking that the type system admits transitivity of subtyping.
The problems:
Checking the transitivity of subtyping in the presence of recordsPart 2 concerns the syntax and semantics of System F<:. It concerns proofs of Type safety for the pure fragment Type safety in the presence of pattern matchingPart 3 concerns the usability of the formalisation of System F<:. In particular, the challenge asks for: Simulating and animating the operational semantics Extracting useful algorithms from the formalisationsSeveral solutions have been proposed for parts of the POPLmark challenge, using following tools: Isabelle/HOL, Twelf, Coq, αProlog, ATS, Abella and Matita. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Moodbar**
Moodbar:
Moodbar is a computer visualization used for navigating within a piece of music or any other recording on a digital audio track. This is done with a commonly horizontal bar that is divided into vertical stripes. Each stripe has a colour combination showing the "mood" within a short part of the audio track. The colour can depend on spectrum and/or rhythmic features of the part of the track. If the audio is a song then various parts of it (intro, choruses, solos, accents etc.) as well as changes (dynamics, rhythm, texture, playing instruments) are differently coloured on the bar. If the audio is a speech or an interview then the moodbar displays different speaking segments in unique colour combinations. Moodbar was originally presented by Gavin Wood and Simon O’Keefe in their paper On Techniques for Content-Based Visual Annotation to Aid Intra-Track Music Navigation.Moodbar has been implemented for Amarok, Clementine, Strawberry Music Player and Exaile music players and the GJay smart playlist creator for Linux.
Moodbar:
As of 2008, the default implementation of Amarok's moodbar only uses the spectral content of the current section of the track. It calculates the energy in the low, medium, and high frequency bands, and turns this into the amount of red, green, and blue in the corresponding stripe. Each moodbar file is 1000 samples long, which corresponds to roughly 4-5 samples every second for a typical 3-4 minute long song. This is not useful for telling anything about the rhythm of a song, but it is sometimes possible to guess where different instruments are playing. This can be useful for spotting verse, chorus, verse structure, and breaks in the music. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Transportation management system**
Transportation management system:
A Transportation Management System (TMS) is a subset of supply chain management concerning transportation operations, which may be part of an Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) system.
Transportation management system:
A TMS typically acts as an intermediary between an ERP or legacy order processing and warehouse/distribution module. In this setup, the TMS Planning Module evaluates both inbound (procurement) and outbound (shipping) orders, providing the user with suggested routing solutions. The user reviews these suggestions and selects the most reasonable option, which is then passed to the transportation provider analysis module. This module determines the best mode of transportation and the most cost-effective solution. Once the optimal option is chosen, an electronic load tendering and track/trace system is used to execute the shipment through the selected carrier. The TMS also supports freight audit and payment processes. Integration with ERP systems (once orders are transformed into shipments) and sometimes with Warehouse Management System (WMS) programs are also commonly linked to ERP.
Licensing:
These systems have been offered with different types of licensing arrangements. The four main offerings are: On-premises licensing (traditionally purchased license) Hosted licensing (remote, SaaS, Cloud) On-premises hosted licensing (a blend of 1 and 2) Hosted – TMS free of licensing (same as 2 but free with no license requirements)Additionally, some software providers were either acquired or merged with supply chain management consultancies and started offering shippers "blended" managed and software services as an outsourced process. Primary Tier 1 TMS providers are still independent, carrier and 3PL neutral, and ERP neutral. While ERP providers are moving to improve their on-premises transportation management offerings by adding TMS modules to their existing, implemented base, the advent of Software-as-a-Service or "SaaS" delivery resulted in a surge of emerging TMS providers.
Functionalities:
Transportation management systems manage four key processes of transportation management: Planning and decision making – TMS will define the most efficient transport schemes, according to the given parameters, which have a lower or higher importance of various factors according to the user policy: transport cost, shorter lead-time, fewer stops possible to ensure quality, flows regrouping coefficient, etc.
Transportation Execution – TMS will allow for the execution of the transportation plan, such as carrier rate acceptance, carrier dispatching, and EDI.
Transport follow-up – TMS will allow the following any physical or administrative operation regarding transportation: traceability of transport events by event (shipping from A, arrival at B, customs clearance, etc.), editing of reception, customs clearance, invoicing and booking documents, sending of transport alerts such as delay, accident, non-forecast stops.
Functionalities:
Measurement – TMS have or need to have a logistics key performance indicator (KPI) reporting function for transport.Various functions of a TMS include: Planning and optimizing terrestrial transport rounds Inbound and outbound transportation mode and transportation provider selection Management of motor carrier, rail, air, and maritime transport Real-time transportation tracking Service quality control in the form of KPIs (see below) Vehicle Load and Route optimization Transport costs and scheme simulation Shipment batching of orders Freight Negotiation Cost control, KPI (Key Performance Indicators) reporting and statistics Freight Audit Typical KPIs include, but are not limited to: % of On-Time Pick-Up or Delivery Performance relative to requested Cost Per Metric – mile; km; weight; cube; pallet Productivity in monetary terms, e.g., cost per unit weight or shipping unit Productivity in operational terms, e.g., shipping units/order or weight/loadHowever, all the above logistical functions need to be scrutinized as to how each parameter functions.
Market:
Gartner predicts the global transportation management system market to grow 60% from $1.3 billion in 2019 to $2.1 billion in 2024. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**RIBA Product Selector**
RIBA Product Selector:
RIBA Product Selector was a directory of construction product manufacturers and advisory organisations used by architects and other construction industry professionals to specify building products. The product was retired in July 2020, and how now been replaced by NBS Source.
Background:
RIBA Product Selector was a two-volume hardback directory of construction product manufacturers, service providers and advisory organisations for specifying building materials published by the commercial arm of the RIBA, RIBA Enterprises (now known as NBS Enterprises Ltd). It was published on an annual basis and distributed to construction professionals who register. It had an ABC audited circulation for the 2012 edition of 20,077 (Visit www.a.org.uk for further details) and was categorised according to the CI/SfB classification system. It contained approximately 700 structured technical pages of building product information organised according to BS 4940 structure for technical literature.
Background:
RIBA Product Selector had a corresponding website which was aimed building products library aimed at UK construction industry professionals looking to research and source products, product catalogues, technical documents and contact information from approximately 10,000 manufacturers, suppliers, distributors and trade associations. It also contained detailed product information linked to the National Building Specification (NBS), as well as case studies and images of key construction products, which it charges manufacturers to list.
Background:
In July 2020, RIBA Product Selector was replaced by NBS Source, which merged three of the NBS's flagship products; RIBA Product Selector, NBS Plus and NBS National BIM Library to create a single source for building product information with improved search functionality, structured data and synchronisation to NBS's flagship product for specification writing, NBS Chorus. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Cache Array Routing Protocol**
Cache Array Routing Protocol:
The Cache Array Routing Protocol (CARP) is used in load-balancing HTTP requests across multiple proxy cache servers. It works by generating a hash for each URL requested. A different hash is generated for each URL and by splitting the hash namespace into equal parts (or unequal parts if uneven load is intended) the overall number of requests can be distributed to multiple servers.
Cache Array Routing Protocol:
Implementations include Apache Traffic Server, Squid (software) and the Microsoft Internet Security and Acceleration Server as well as F5 Networks BIG-IP devices. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Eye vein verification**
Eye vein verification:
Eye vein verification is a method of biometric authentication that applies pattern-recognition techniques to video images of the veins in a user's eyes. The complex and random patterns are unique, and modern hardware and software can detect and differentiate those patterns at some distance from the eyes.
Introduction:
The veins in the sclera—the white part of the eyes—can be imaged when a person glances to either side, providing four regions of patterns: one on each side of each eye. Verification employs digital templates from these patterns, and the templates are then encoded with mathematical and statistical algorithms. These allow confirmation of the identity of the proper user and the rejection of anyone else.
Introduction:
Advocates of eye vein verification note that one of the technology's strengths is the stability of the pattern of eye blood vessels; the patterns do not change with age, alcohol consumption, allergies, or redness. Eye veins are clear enough that they can be reliably imaged by the cameras on most smartphones. The technology works through contacts and glasses, though not through sunglasses. At least one version of eye vein detection uses infrared illumination as part of the imaging, allowing imaging even in low-light conditions.
History:
Dr. Reza Derakhshani at University of Missouri, Kansas City, developed the concept of using the veins in the whites of the eyes for identification. He holds several patents on the technology, including a 2008 patent for the concept of using the blood vessels seen in the whites of the eye as a unique identifier.
More recent research has explored using vein patterns in both the iris and the sclera for recognition.
Uses:
Eye vein verification, like other methods of biometric authentication, can be used in a range of security situations, including mobile banking, government security, and in healthcare environments.EyeVerify, a Kansas City, Kansas, company, markets eye vein verification with a system called Eyeprint. In 2012, EyeVerify licensed the technology developed and patented by Derakhshani. And Derakhshani now serves as chief science officer of EyeVerify.
Advantages:
Eye vein patterns are unique to each person Patterns do not change over time and are still readable with redness Works with contacts and glasses Resistant to false matches
Disadvantages:
Phone must be held close to face Not supported on devices without cameras or on older smartphones | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**TTC7A**
TTC7A:
Tetratricopeptide repeat domain 7A (TTC7A) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the TTC7A gene.
Function:
TPR domain-containing proteins, such as TTC7A, have diverse functions in cell cycle control, protein transport, phosphate turnover, and protein trafficking or secretion, and they can act as chaperones or scaffolding proteins.
Clinical significance:
TTC7A deficiency disrupts epithelial cell differentiation and polarization in the intestinal tract, thymus, and lungs. TTC7A deficiency is very rare with less than 80 cases described in the literature to date. Mutations in this gene are known to cause intestinal atresia, severe infantile or very early onset inflammatory bowel disease, extensive enteropathy, combined immunodeficiencies, thyroid dysfunction, alopecia, and lung disease. There is a broad spectrum of severity and variety of symptoms, although quality of life is generally very poor for these children with few surviving beyond the first year or two of life.
Treatment:
There is no standard treatment for TTC7A Deficiency at this time. Management of TTC7A deficiency currently entails bowel resection for any atresias, hematopoietic stem cell transplantation to correct the immunodeficiencies and immunosuppression to help alleviate bowel disease and immune disregulation. However, Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation is ineffective for resolving the intestinal disease Small bowel transplant has proven successful in at least one case.
Treatment:
Rho Kinase Inhibitors Research indicates that TTC7A deficiency results in "increased Rho kinase activity which disrupts polarity, growth, and differentiation of intestinal epithelial cells, and which impairs immune cell homeostasis, thereby promoting MIA-CID development." Based on this research, it has been proposed that Rho kinase inhibitors may be a therapeutic option, although no specific rho kinase inhibitors are currently available for patient use with the exception of Fasudil which is only available in Japan. It has been shown that statins such as Lipitor are useful as Rho kinase inhibitors. Therefore, statins may be helpful for the treatment of TTC7A deficiency, although this has yet to be proven.
Treatment:
Recent research suggests that rho kinase inhibitors may be ineffective in treating TTC7A Deficiency.
Leflunomide As Potential Treatment Recent research shows that Leflunomide reduces intestinal tract narrowing, restores gut motility, and increases intestinal cell survival in Zebrafish with TTC7A Deficiency. The researchers concluded that Leflunomide "might be repurposed for treatment of TTC7A deficiency." | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Drafter**
Drafter:
A drafter (also draughtsman / draughtswoman in British and Commonwealth English, draftsman / draftswoman or drafting technician in American and Canadian English) is an engineering technician who makes detailed technical drawings or plans for machinery, buildings, electronics, infrastructure, sections, etc. Drafters use computer software and manual sketches to convert the designs, plans, and layouts of engineers and architects into a set of technical drawings. Drafters operate as the supporting developers and sketch engineering designs and drawings from preliminary design concepts.
Overview:
In the past, drafters sat at drawing boards and used pencils, pens, compasses, protractors, triangles, and other drafting devices to prepare a drawing by hand. From the 1980s through 1990s, board drawings were going out of style as the newly developed computer-aided design (CAD) system was released and was able to produce technical drawings at a faster pace.
Overview:
Many modern drafters now use computer software such as AutoCAD, Revit, and SolidWorks to flesh out the designs of engineers or architects into technical drawings and blueprints but board drafting still remains the base of the CAD system. Many of these drawings are utilized to create structures, tools or machines. In addition, the drawings also include design specifications like dimensions, materials and procedures. Consequently, drafters may also be casually referred to as CAD operators, engineering draftspersons, or engineering technicians.With CAD systems, drafters can create and store drawings electronically so that they can be viewed, printed, or programmed directly into automated manufacturing systems. CAD systems also permit drafters to quickly prepare variations of a design. Although drafters use CAD extensively, it is only a tool. Drafters still need knowledge of traditional drafting techniques, in addition to CAD skills. Despite the near global use of CAD systems, manual drafting and sketching are used in certain applications.Drafters' drawings provide visual guidelines and show how to construct a product or structure. Drawings include technical details and specify dimensions, materials, and procedures. Drafters fill in technical details using drawings, rough sketches, specifications, and calculations made by engineers, surveyors, architects, or scientists. For example, drafters use their knowledge of standardized building techniques to draw in the details of a structure. Some use their understanding of engineering and manufacturing theory and standards to draw the parts of a machine; they determine design elements, such as the numbers and kinds of fasteners needed to assemble the machine. Drafters use technical handbooks, tables, calculators, and computers to complete their work.
Specialities:
Drafting work has many specialities such as: Aeronautical drafters prepare engineering drawings detailing plans and specifications used in the manufacture of aircraft, missiles, and related parts.
Architectural drafters draw architectural and structural features of buildings and other structures. These designs are used in the construction or remodeling of homes, commercial buildings and power stations. These workers may specialize in a type of structure, such as residential or commercial, or in a kind of building material used, such as reinforced concrete, masonry, steel, or timber.
Civil drafters prepare drawings and topographical and relief maps used in major construction or civil engineering projects such as buildings, highways, bridges, pipelines, flood-control projects, and water and sewage systems.
Electrical drafters prepare wiring and layout diagrams used by workers who erect, install, and repair electrical equipment and wiring in communication centers, power plants, electrical distribution systems, and buildings.
Electronics drafters draw wiring diagrams, circuit board assembly diagrams, schematics, and layout drawings used in the manufacture, installation, and repair of electronic devices and components.
Mechanical drafters prepare drawings showing the detail and assembly of a wide variety of machinery and mechanical devices, indicating dimensions, fastening methods, manufacturing equipment, and mechanical installation infrastructure.
Process piping or pipeline drafters prepare drawings used in the layout, construction, and operation of oil and gas fields, refineries, chemical plants, and process piping systems.
Photovoltaic drafters prepare drawings showing inverter Pad location drawings and slab construction drawings, also prepare specific photovoltaic system assembly details and some wiring diagrams.
Employment and work environment:
Drafters work in architectural offices, manufacturing companies, engineering firms, CAD-specific work-groups, construction companies, engineering consultancy firms, the government, natural resource companies or are independently self-employed. Drafting technologists and technicians often work as part of a broader multidisciplinary engineering team in support of engineers, architects or industrial designers or they may work on their own. The position of a drafter is one of a skilled assistant to architects and engineers. Drafters usually work in offices, seated at adjustable drawing boards or drafting tables when doing manual drawings, although modern drafters work at computer terminals much of the time. They usually work in an office environment, but some may have to travel and spend time on manufacturing plants or construction sites. As drafters spend long periods in front of computers doing detailed technical work, they may be susceptible to eyestrain, back discomfort, and hand and wrist problems. Most drafters work standard 40-hour weeks; only a small number work part-time.
Education and training:
High school courses in English, mathematics, science, electronics, computer technology, drafting and design, visual arts, and computer graphics are useful for people considering a drafting career. Attributes required by drafters include technical writing skills, problem-solving skills, the ability to visualize three-dimensional objects from two-dimensional drawings as well as drawing the relationships between parts in machinery and various pieces of infrastructure. Other skills include an in-depth knowledge of the qualities of metals, plastics, wood and other materials used in the overall manufacturing processes and of construction methods and standards. Technical expertise, a strong understanding of construction and the manufacturing process, and a solid knowledge of drafting and design principles are also important assets in becoming a drafter. In the modern job marketplace, in addition to technical skills enabling CAD drafters to draw up plans, soft skills are also crucial as CADD drafters have to communicate with clients and articulate their drawing plans in an effective way with fellow team members in a real-world setting.Employers prefer applicants who have also completed training after high school at a trade or technical school. Prospective drafters will also need to have a strong background knowledge and experience with CADD software. Though licenses are not a prerequisite for becoming drafters, the American Design Drafting Association (ADDA) does offer certification and licensing. Licensing and certification highlights one's core competence and knowledge of a specific drafting specialty. Drafting and design certificates and diplomas are generally offered by career training schools, trade and technical schools and non-university higher education institutions like community colleges or industrial training institutes.Apprenticeships combine paid on-the-job training and experience with in-class instruction. People interested in becoming drafters can get qualified as either drafting technologists or drafting technicians. Drafting technologists usually have a 2 to 3-year diploma in engineering design or drafting technology from a community college or technical school. Drafters starting out tend to move from company to company to gain experience and to move up. A more senior drafter often moves up into a management position where they become able to supervise entire projects as they gain more experience or they can start their own business and become self-employed. It is also possible for experienced drafters to enter related fields such as engineering, architecture, industrial design, interior design, exhibit design, landscape design, set design, and animation. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Gridz**
Gridz:
Gridz is a video game developed and published by Green Dragon for the Macintosh.
Gameplay:
Gridz is a game that is part puzzle and part action game set in an artificial cyber environment.
Reception:
Next Generation reviewed the Macintosh version of the game, rating it three stars out of five, and stated that "Gridz is a fun, simple game, but after the sixth or seventh level, it gets a bit redundant. What elevates this game above mediocrity is an unusual clarity of purpose in graphics, control, and design."The editors of Macworld named Gridz the best arcade game of 1997. Steven Levy and Cameron Crotty of the magazine called the game "addictive" and "maddeningly compelling".
Reviews:
MacWorld MacWorld (1.2 update) MacHome Journal review MacAddicthttps://archive.org/details/MacAddict-016-199712/page/n69/mode/2up?q=gridz https://archive.org/details/Macworld9801January1998/page/n81/mode/2up?q=gridz https://archive.org/stream/macmagazin_german/Mac%20Magazin%201998-09#page/n63/mode/2up/search/gridz http://www.insidemacgames.com/news/story.php?ArticleID=6500 | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Fermat's and energy variation principles in field theory**
Fermat's and energy variation principles in field theory:
In general relativity, light is assumed to propagate in a vacuum along a null geodesic in a pseudo-Riemannian manifold. Besides the geodesics principle in a classical field theory there exists Fermat's principle for stationary gravity fields.
Fermat's principle:
In case of conformally stationary spacetime with coordinates (t,x1,x2,x3) a Fermat metric takes the form where the conformal factor f(t,x) depends on time t and space coordinates xα and does not affect the lightlike geodesics apart from their parametrization.
Fermat's principle for a pseudo-Riemannian manifold states that the light ray path between points xa=(xa1,xa2,xa3) and xb=(xb1,xb2,xb3) corresponds to stationary action.
where μ is any parameter ranging over an interval [μa,μb] and varying along curve with fixed endpoints xa=x(μa) and xb=x(μb)
Principle of stationary integral of energy:
In principle of stationary integral of energy for a light-like particle's motion, the pseudo-Riemannian metric with coefficients g~ij is defined by a transformation With time coordinate x0 and space coordinates with indexes k,q=1,2,3 the line element is written in form where ρ is some quantity, which is assumed equal 1. Solving light-like interval equation ds=0 for ρ under condition 00 ≠0 gives two solutions where vi=dxi/dμ are elements of the four-velocity. Even if one solution, in accordance with making definitions, is ρ=1 With 00 =0 and g0k≠0 even if for one k the energy takes form In both cases for the free moving particle the Lagrangian is Its partial derivatives give the canonical momenta and the forces Momenta satisfy energy condition for closed system which means that ρ is the energy of the system that combines the light-like particle and the gravitational field.
Principle of stationary integral of energy:
Standard variational procedure according to Hamilton's principle is applied to action which is integral of energy. Stationary action is conditional upon zero variational derivatives δS/δxλ and leads to Euler–Lagrange equations which is rewritten in form After substitution of canonical momentum and forces they give motion equations of lightlike particle in a free space and where Γkij are the Christoffel symbols of the first kind and indexes λ take values 1,2,3
Static spacetime:
For the isotropic paths a transformation to metric 00 is equivalent to replacement of parameter μ on 00 to which the four-velocities v¯i=dxi/dμ¯ correspond. The curve of motion of lightlike particle in four-dimensional spacetime and value of energy ρ are invariant under this reparametrization.
Static spacetime:
For the static spacetime the first equation of motion with appropriate parameter μ¯ gives v¯0=1 . Canonical momentum and forces take form Substitution of them in Euler–Lagrange equations gives After differentiation on the left side and multiplying by g¯lλ this expression, after the summation over the repeated index λ , becomes null geodesic equations where Γijl are the second kind Christoffel symbols with respect to the metric tensor g¯ij So in case of the static spacetime with 00 =1 the geodesic principle and the energy variational method as well as Fermat's principle give the same solution for the light propagation.
Generalized Fermat's principle:
In the generalized Fermat’s principle the time is used as a functional and together as a variable. It is applied Pontryagin’s minimum principle of the optimal control theory and obtained an effective Hamiltonian for the light-like particle motion in a curved spacetime. It is shown that obtained curves are null geodesics.
Generalized Fermat's principle:
The stationary energy integral for a light-like particle in gravity field and the generalized Fermat principles give identity velocities. The virtual displacements of coordinates retain path of the light-like particle to be null in the pseudo-Riemann space-time, i.e. not lead to the Lorentz-invariance violation in locality and corresponds to the variational principles of mechanics. The equivalence of the solutions produced by the generalized Fermat principle to the geodesics, means that the using the second also turns out geodesics. The stationary energy integral principle gives a system of equations that has one equation more. It makes possible to uniquely determine canonical momenta of the particle and forces acting on it in a given reference frame.
Euler–Lagrange equations in contravariant form:
The equations can be transformed into a contravariant form where the second term in the left part is the change in the energy and momentum transmitted to the gravitational field when the particle moves in it. The force vector ifor principle of stationary integral of energy is written in form In general relativity, the energy and momentum of a particle is ordinarily associated with a contravariant energy-momentum vector pk . The quantities Fk do not form a tensor. However, for the photon in Newtonian limit of Schwarzschild field described by metric in isotropic coordinates they correspond to its passive gravitational mass equal to twice rest mass of the massive particle of equivalent energy. This is consistent with Tolman, Ehrenfest and Podolsky result for the active gravitational mass of the photon in case of interaction between directed flow of radiation and a massive particle that was obtained by solving the Einstein-Maxwell equations. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Nested polymerase chain reaction**
Nested polymerase chain reaction:
Nested polymerase chain reaction (nested PCR) is a modification of polymerase chain reaction intended to reduce non-specific binding in products due to the amplification of unexpected primer binding sites.
Polymerase chain reaction:
Polymerase chain reaction itself is the process used to amplify DNA samples, via a temperature-mediated DNA polymerase. The products can be used for sequencing or analysis, and this process is a key part of many genetics research laboratories, along with uses in DNA fingerprinting for forensics and other human genetic cases. Conventional PCR requires primers complementary to the termini of the target DNA. The amount of product from the PCR increases with the number of temperature cycles that the reaction is subjected to. A commonly occurring problem is primers binding to incorrect regions of the DNA, giving unexpected products. This problem becomes more likely with an increased number of cycles of PCR.
Primers:
Nested polymerase chain reaction involves two sets of primers, used in two successive runs of polymerase chain reaction, the second set intended to amplify a secondary target within the first run product. This allows amplification for a low number of runs in the first round, limiting non-specific products. The second nested primer set should only amplify the intended product from the first round of amplification and not non-specific product. This allows running more total cycles while minimizing non-specific products. This is useful for rare templates or PCR with high background.
Processes:
The target DNA undergoes the first run of polymerase chain reaction with the first set of primers, shown in green. The selection of alternative and similar primer binding sites gives a selection of products, only one containing the intended sequence.
The product from the first reaction undergoes a second run with the second set of primers, shown in red. It is very unlikely that any of the unwanted PCR products contain binding sites for both the new primers, ensuring the product from the second PCR has little contamination from unwanted products. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**C. Wayne McIlwraith**
C. Wayne McIlwraith:
Cyril Wayne McIlwraith (born 12 December 1947) is the founding director of the Orthopaedic Research Center, a University Distinguished Professor in orthopaedics and holds the Barbara Cox Anthony University Chair in Orthopaedic Research at Colorado State University. He is a New Zealander who has had most of his career in the United States and is an equine orthopaedic surgeon and orthopaedic researcher. He pioneered many of the techniques in equine arthroscopic surgery including writing the textbook “Diagnostic and surgical arthroscopy in the horse” (four editions). He is noted for significant achievements in the fields of osteoarthritis cartilage injury, regenerative therapies and contributions on understanding of joint pathology and repair, the development and validation of equine models of joint diseases, surgical technologies, intra-articular therapies, cartilage resurfacing, tissue engineering and gene therapies for osteoarthritis many of which have been or are translatable to human joint disease. He received the Marshall R. Urist Award for Excellence in Tissue Regeneration Research from the Orthopaedic Research Society in 2014 for these contributions as well as raising many generations of basic and clinical researchers in the field of orthopaedics.
Early life and education:
McIlwraith was born and raised in Oamaru, New Zealand where he attended Waitaki Boys' High School. He then received undergraduate education at Otago University and then his veterinary degree at Massey University in New Zealand (BVSc/DVM). After three years in private practice in New Zealand and the United Kingdom he did a large animal surgery internship at University of Guelph, Canada followed by large animal surgical residency at Purdue University. He completed his PhD in equine arthritis from Purdue University in 1979. He was board certified as a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Surgeons in 1979 and board certified as a Diplomate of the American College of Sports Medicine and Rehabilitation in 2010. He is also a Diplomate of the European College of Veterinary Surgeons and is a fellow of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons (London).
Career and impact:
McIlwraith began work as an assistant professor of surgery in 1979 at Colorado State University with appointments as an equine surgeon in the Veterinary Teaching Hospital as well as researcher and teacher in the Department of Clinical Sciences. Having started doing diagnostic arthroscopy as a resident and graduate student at Purdue he developed techniques of arthroscopic surgery in the early years at Colorado State University including the first descriptions of arthroscopic surgery for osteochondral fragmentation in the carpus and metacarpophalangeal joints, for OCD of the metacarpophalangeal, tarsocrural, femorotibial articulations as well as shoulder. He wrote the first edition of the arthroscopic surgery book in 1984. He developed a referral surgical practice in Orange County, California as well as doing selected arthroscopic surgeries nationally and internationally.
Career and impact:
In 1994 he became Director of Equine Sciences at Colorado State University and founded the Orthopaedic Research Laboratory which later became the Orthopaedic Research Center and now is a large, multifaceted program addressing the critical problems both in joint disease in both the horse and more recently translational research to humans. He has focused on his position of Director of the Orthopaedic Research Center from 2000 until 2016. McIlwraith became a university distinguished professor in 2009 and has also been the director of the Musculoskeletal Research Program (which has been a program of research and scholarly excellence at Colorado State University) since 2003. To further the recent escalation of the program in research translatable to humans a 130,000-square-foot building is currently under construction and is to be named the C. Wayne McIlwraith Translational Medicine Institute.
Awards and honors:
McIlwraith has been awarded the Tierklinik Hochmoor Prize from Equitana, Germany in 1993 for international contributions to equine orthopaedics, the degree of Dr med vet (honoris causa) from the University of Vienna in 1995 for pioneering arthroscopic surgery in the horse, the Schering-Plough Award for Equine Applied Research from the World Equine Veterinary Association in 1995 for outstanding research work performed over the last five years with respect to equine locomotor disorders, the John Hickman Award for Equine Orthopaedics from the British Equine Veterinary Association and Equine Veterinary Journal for leading work in arthroscopic surgery and equine joint disease research, a Doctor of Science (honoris causa) from Purdue University in 2001, the Barbara Cox Anthony University Endowed Chair in Orthopaedic Research at Colorado State University in 2002, Doctor of Science (honoris causa) in 2003 from Massey University, New Zealand and Laurea Dr. (honoris causa) in 2004 from the University of Turin, Italy. He was inducted into the International Equine Research Hall of Fame, in 2005, was the Frank Milne Lecturer at the American Association of Equine Practitioners in 2005, the Wade O. Brinker Lecturer at Michigan State University in 2006, John Hickman Memorial Lecturer at the British Equine Veterinary Association in 2006 and received the Founders Award for Lifetime Achievement by the American College of Veterinary Surgeons in 2006 (the second person to receive the award). He was made a University Distinguished Professor at Colorado State University in 2009 and received a Dr. vet med (honoris causa) degree from the Royal Veterinary College, University of London, England in 2010 and was made a Distinguished Life Member of the American Association of Equine Practitioners in 2009 and a Life Member of the New Zealand Equine Veterinary Association in 2011.
Awards and honors:
He received the Markowitz Award from the Academy of Surgical Research for Outstanding Contributions to Medicine through the Arts, Science and Technology of Experimental Surgery in 2013 and the Marshall R. Urist, MD Award for Excellence in Tissue Regeneration Research from the Orthopaedic Research Society in 2014.
Other activities:
McIlwraith is a Past President of the American College of Veterinary Surgeons, the and the Veterinary Orthopaedic Society. In addition to his duties leading at Colorado State University he maintains an outside referral and consulting practice in equine orthopaedic surgery in California as well as elsewhere nationally and internationally. He has authored or co-authored five textbooks (all in multiple editions) as well as 470 scientific publications. He also holds honorary doctorates by the Massey University, University of Turin and Royal Veterinary College. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Pneumatic barrier**
Pneumatic barrier:
A pneumatic barrier is a method to contain oil spills. It is also called a bubble curtain. Air bubbling through a perforated pipe causes an upward water flow that slows the spread of oil. It can also be used to stop fish from entering polluted water. A further application of the pneumatic barrier is to decrease the salt-water exchange in navigation locks and prevent salt intrusion in rivers.
Pneumatic barrier:
. Pneumatic barriers are also known as air curtains.
The pneumatic barrier is a (non-patented) invention of the Dutch engineer Johan van Veen from around 1940 .A pneumatic barrier is an active (as opposed to passive) method of waterway oil spill control. (An example of a passive method would be a containment boom.)
Method of operation:
The pneumatic barrier consists of a perforated pipe and a compressed air source. Air escaping from the pipe provides a "hump" of rising water and air which contains the oil spill. Anchors to keep the pipe in a particular spot are helpful. In case of a density current due to salinity differences the barrier mixes the salt water, but also slows down the speed of the density current.
Unique considerations:
At water-current speeds exceeding one foot per second, the pneumatic barrier no longer functions effectively, limiting deployable sites.
Environmental issues:
The release of compressed air in the water adds oxygen to the local environment. This may be particularly useful in areas that have become a dead zone due to eutrophication. Air curtains may have another application. Dolphin and whale beaching has increased with the rise in ocean temperatures. On Thursday February 12th, 2017, a group of nearly 400 whales beached near Golden Bay on the tip of New Zealand’s South Island, following a similar incident earlier that week. The simplicity of an air curtain system, requiring only air compressors and perforated hoses, could allow for rapid deployment and create aerated zones of oxygenated seawater during a marine emergency.
Environmental issues:
Air curtains are also used to control the release of smoke particles into the environment. After a natural disaster, or during brush clearing activities, debris is disposed of by incineration in either a ceramic or earth pit containment. Similar to an air curtain to separate indoor air from outdoor air, for instance in restaurants and walk-in refrigerators, a powerful air curtain can defeat the chimney effect of the incineration process to eliminate any smoke from a brush incinerator. The air curtain acts as a lid on the process, and forces the smoke back into the fuel bed for a cleaner burn.
Disadvantages:
Like all active systems of any type, a mechanical failure can result in total failure of protection. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**KvLQT3**
KvLQT3:
Kv7.3 (KvLQT3) is a potassium channel protein coded for by the gene KCNQ3.It is associated with benign familial neonatal epilepsy.
KvLQT3:
The M channel is a slowly activating and deactivating potassium channel that plays a critical role in the regulation of neuronal excitability. The M channel is formed by the association of the protein encoded by this gene and one of two related proteins encoded by the KCNQ2 and KCNQ5 genes, both integral membrane proteins. M channel currents are inhibited by M1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptors and activated by retigabine, a novel anti-convulsant drug. Defects in this gene are a cause of benign familial neonatal convulsions type 2 (BFNC2), also known as epilepsy, benign neonatal type 2 (EBN2).
Interactions:
KvLQT3 has been shown to interact with KCNQ5. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**QUEL query languages**
QUEL query languages:
QUEL is a relational database query language, based on tuple relational calculus, with some similarities to SQL. It was created as a part of the Ingres DBMS effort at University of California, Berkeley, based on Codd's earlier suggested but not implemented Data Sub-Language ALPHA. QUEL was used for a short time in most products based on the freely available Ingres source code, most notably in an implementation called POSTQUEL supported by POSTGRES. As Oracle and DB2 gained market share in the early 1980s, most companies then supporting QUEL moved to SQL instead. QUEL continues to be available as a part of the Ingres DBMS, although no QUEL-specific language enhancements have been added for many years.
Usage:
QUEL statements are always defined by tuple variables, which can be used to limit queries or return result sets. Consider this example, taken from one of the first original Ingres papers: Here E is a tuple variable that ranges over the EMPLOYEE relation, and all tuples in that relation are found which satisfy the qualification `E.Name = "Jones"`. The result of the query is a new relation W, which has a single domain COMP that has been calculated for each qualifying tuple. Additional queries can then be made against the relation W.
Usage:
An equivalent SQL statement is: In this example, the relation is being stored in a new table W. This is not a direct analog of the QUEL version; relations in QUEL are more similar to temporary tables seen in most modern SQL implementations.
Here is a sample of a simple session that creates a table, inserts a row into it, and then retrieves and modifies the data inside it and finally deletes the row that was added (assuming that name is a unique field).
Usage:
Another feature of QUEL was a built-in system for moving records en-masse into and out of the system. Consider this command: which creates a comma-delimited file of all the records in the student table. The d1 indicates a delimiter, as opposed to a data type. Changing the into to a from reverses the process. Similar commands are available in many SQL systems, but usually as external tools, as opposed to being internal to the SQL language. This makes them unavailable to stored procedures.
Usage:
QUEL has an extremely powerful aggregation capability. Aggregates can be nested, and different aggregates can have independent by-lists and/or restriction clauses. For example: This example illustrates one of the arguably less desirable quirks of QUEL, namely that all string comparisons are potentially pattern matches. y.str = "ii*" matches all y.str values starting with ii. In contrast, SQL uses = only for exact matches, while like is used when pattern matching is required. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Advanced Graphics Riser**
Advanced Graphics Riser:
The Advanced Graphics Riser is a variation of the Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) used in some PCIe motherboards made by MSI to offer a limited backwards compatibility with AGP. It is, effectively, a modified PCIe slot allowing for performance comparable to an AGP 4x/8x slot, but with limited support of AGP cards. The manufacturer has published a non-exhaustive compatibility list of cards and chipsets that work with the modified slot. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Time-scale calculus**
Time-scale calculus:
In mathematics, time-scale calculus is a unification of the theory of difference equations with that of differential equations, unifying integral and differential calculus with the calculus of finite differences, offering a formalism for studying hybrid systems. It has applications in any field that requires simultaneous modelling of discrete and continuous data. It gives a new definition of a derivative such that if one differentiates a function defined on the real numbers then the definition is equivalent to standard differentiation, but if one uses a function defined on the integers then it is equivalent to the forward difference operator.
History:
Time-scale calculus was introduced in 1988 by the German mathematician Stefan Hilger. However, similar ideas have been used before and go back at least to the introduction of the Riemann–Stieltjes integral, which unifies sums and integrals.
Dynamic equations:
Many results concerning differential equations carry over quite easily to corresponding results for difference equations, while other results seem to be completely different from their continuous counterparts. The study of dynamic equations on time scales reveals such discrepancies, and helps avoid proving results twice—once for differential equations and once again for difference equations. The general idea is to prove a result for a dynamic equation where the domain of the unknown function is a so-called time scale (also known as a time-set), which may be an arbitrary closed subset of the reals. In this way, results apply not only to the set of real numbers or set of integers but to more general time scales such as a Cantor set.
Dynamic equations:
The three most popular examples of calculus on time scales are differential calculus, difference calculus, and quantum calculus. Dynamic equations on a time scale have a potential for applications such as in population dynamics. For example, they can model insect populations that evolve continuously while in season, die out in winter while their eggs are incubating or dormant, and then hatch in a new season, giving rise to a non-overlapping population.
Formal definitions:
A time scale (or measure chain) is a closed subset of the real line R . The common notation for a general time scale is T The two most commonly encountered examples of time scales are the real numbers R and the discrete time scale hZ A single point in a time scale is defined as: t:t∈T Operations on time scales The forward jump and backward jump operators represent the closest point in the time scale on the right and left of a given point t , respectively. Formally: inf {s∈T:s>t} (forward shift/jump operator) sup {s∈T:s<t} (backward shift/jump operator)The graininess μ is the distance from a point to the closest point on the right and is given by: μ(t)=σ(t)−t.
Formal definitions:
For a right-dense t , σ(t)=t and μ(t)=0 For a left-dense t , ρ(t)=t.
Formal definitions:
Classification of points For any t∈T , t is: left dense if ρ(t)=t right dense if σ(t)=t left scattered if ρ(t)<t right scattered if σ(t)>t dense if both left dense and right dense isolated if both left scattered and right scatteredAs illustrated by the figure at right: Point t1 is dense Point t2 is left dense and right scattered Point t3 is isolated Point t4 is left scattered and right dense Continuity Continuity of a time scale is redefined as equivalent to density. A time scale is said to be right-continuous at point t if it is right dense at point t . Similarly, a time scale is said to be left-continuous at point t if it is left dense at point t
Derivative:
Take a function: f:T→R, (where R could be any Banach space, but is set to the real line for simplicity).
Definition: The delta derivative (also Hilger derivative) fΔ(t) exists if and only if: For every ε>0 there exists a neighborhood U of t such that: |f(σ(t))−f(s)−fΔ(t)(σ(t)−s)|≤ε|σ(t)−s| for all s in U Take T=R.
Then σ(t)=t , μ(t)=0 , fΔ=f′ ; is the derivative used in standard calculus. If T=Z (the integers), σ(t)=t+1 , μ(t)=1 , fΔ=Δf is the forward difference operator used in difference equations.
Integration:
The delta integral is defined as the antiderivative with respect to the delta derivative. If F(t) has a continuous derivative f(t)=FΔ(t) one sets ∫rsf(t)Δ(t)=F(s)−F(r).
Laplace transform and z-transform:
A Laplace transform can be defined for functions on time scales, which uses the same table of transforms for any arbitrary time scale. This transform can be used to solve dynamic equations on time scales. If the time scale is the non-negative integers then the transform is equal to a modified Z-transform:
Partial differentiation:
Partial differential equations and partial difference equations are unified as partial dynamic equations on time scales.
Multiple integration:
Multiple integration on time scales is treated in Bohner (2005).
Stochastic dynamic equations on time scales:
Stochastic differential equations and stochastic difference equations can be generalized to stochastic dynamic equations on time scales.
Measure theory on time scales:
Associated with every time scale is a natural measure defined via μΔ(A)=λ(ρ−1(A)), where λ denotes Lebesgue measure and ρ is the backward shift operator defined on R . The delta integral turns out to be the usual Lebesgue–Stieltjes integral with respect to this measure ∫rsf(t)Δt=∫[r,s)f(t)dμΔ(t) and the delta derivative turns out to be the Radon–Nikodym derivative with respect to this measure fΔ(t)=dfdμΔ(t).
Distributions on time scales:
The Dirac delta and Kronecker delta are unified on time scales as the Hilger delta: δaH(t)={1μ(a),t=a0,t≠a
Integral equations on time scales:
Integral equations and summation equations are unified as integral equations on time scales.
Fractional calculus on time scales:
Fractional calculus on time scales is treated in Bastos, Mozyrska, and Torres. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Briquetage**
Briquetage:
Briquetage or very coarse pottery (VCP) is a coarse ceramic material used to make evaporation vessels and supporting pillars used in extracting salt from brine or seawater. Thick-walled saltpans were filled with saltwater and heated from below until the water had boiled away and salt was left behind. Often, the bulk of the water would be allowed to evaporate in salterns before the concentrated brine was transferred to a smaller briquetage vessel for final reduction. Once only salt was left, the briquetage vessels would have to be broken to remove the valuable commodity for trade.Broken briquetage material is found at multiple sites from the later Bronze Age in Europe into the medieval period and archaeologists have been able to identify different forms and fabrics of the pottery, allowing trade networks to be identified. Saltworking sites contain large quantities of the orange/red material and in Essex the mounds of briquetage are known as Red Hills. A recent discovery at the Poiana Slatinei archaeological site next to a salt spring in Lunca, Neamt County, Romania, indicates that Neolithic people of the Precucuteni Culture were boiling the salt-laden spring water through the process of Briquetage to extract the salt as far back as 6050 BC, making it perhaps the oldest saltworks in history. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Eurofruit**
Eurofruit:
Eurofruit (full title Eurofruit Magazine) is a monthly global trade marketing magazine for the European fresh fruit and vegetable sector.
History and profile:
Eurofruit was founded in 1992. The publication is aimed at buyers, exporters, importers, distributors and producers of fresh produce, be it sold in Europe or exported from it. The magazine is published from London. It also has two sister titles, Asiafruit Magazine (based in Melbourne) and Americafruit Magazine (London), which are aimed at the Asian import-export market and the North American import market respectively. The publisher of these magazines is Market Intelligence Ltd. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Foreskin piercing**
Foreskin piercing:
Foreskin piercing is a piercing that passes through the foreskin of the penis. It is the male equivalent of a clitoral hood piercing in females.
It is a generally fast-healing piercing and involves a relatively simple procedure. The only true requirement is the male must have not been circumcised (or at least have sufficient foreskin left from his circumcision).
Foreskin piercings have been used for male infibulation.
History:
Reference to foreskin piercing has been found in ancient writings dating as far back as the first century.
Kuno piercing:
A specific type of foreskin piercing that is done under the foreskin end under the glans is referred to as a kuno piercing. Its name is supposedly derived from kynodesme. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Game drive system**
Game drive system:
The game drive system is a hunting strategy in which game are herded into confined or dangerous places where they can be more easily killed. It can also be used for animal capture as well as for hunting, such as for capturing mustangs. The use of the strategy dates back into prehistory. Once a site is identified or manipulated to be used as a game drive site, it may be repeatedly used over many years. Examples include buffalo jumps and desert kites.
Game drives:
In the Rocky Mountain National Park, for instance, there are archeological remains from about 3,850 and 3,400 B.C. of 42 low-walled stone structures or cairns, up to hundreds of feet in length, built for game drive systems. These slight walls served as devices that permitted hunters to direct or herd game animals—like bison, sheep, deer, or elk—toward men waiting with weapons. Up to twenty-five people may have been needed to execute the game drive. Hunters may have killed the animals using darts, atlatl, spear throwers, or spears tipped with stone projectile points.The Jones-Miller Bison Kill Site is an example of how the terrain was used about 8,000 B.C. as a game drive site. Remains of 300 bison were found in an arroyo, or draw, above the Arikaree River basin. It was believed that the bison were strategically driven into an area difficult for the bison to traverse and easier to kill on three occasions. Because many of the animals were nursing calves, it is estimated that the kills occurred in late fall or winter. Waldo Rudolph Wendel said in 1986 that it was the "most carefully studied bison kill" site.
Buffalo jump:
A buffalo jump is an example of a game drive system. Hunters herded the bison and drove them over the cliff, breaking their legs and rendering them immobile. Tribe members waiting below closed in with spears and bows to finish the kills. The Blackfoot Indians called the buffalo jumps "pishkun", which loosely translates as "deep blood kettle". This type of hunting was a communal event which occurred as early as 12,000 years ago and lasted until at least 1500 AD, around the time of the introduction of horses. The broader term game jumps includes buffalo jumps and cliffs used for similarly hunting other herding animals, such as reindeer. The Indians believed that if any buffalo escaped these killings then the rest of the buffalos would learn to avoid humans, which would make hunting even harder. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Compound of two tetrahedra**
Compound of two tetrahedra:
In geometry, a compound of two tetrahedra is constructed by two overlapping tetrahedra, usually implied as regular tetrahedra.
Stellated octahedron:
There is only one uniform polyhedral compound, the stellated octahedron, which has octahedral symmetry, order 48. It has a regular octahedron core, and shares the same 8 vertices with the cube.
If the edge crossings were treated as their own vertices, the compound would have identical surface topology to the rhombic dodecahedron; were face crossings also considered edges of their own the shape would effectively become a nonconvex triakis octahedron.
Lower symmetry constructions:
There are lower symmetry variations on this compound, based on lower symmetry forms of the tetrahedron. A facetting of a rectangular cuboid, creating compounds of two tetragonal or two rhombic disphenoids, with a bipyramid or rhombic fusil cores. This is first in a set of uniform compound of two antiprisms.
A facetting of a trigonal trapezohedron creates a compound of two right triangular pyramids with a triangular antiprism core. This is first in a set of compounds of two pyramids positioned as point reflections of each other.
Other compounds:
If two regular tetrahedra are given the same orientation on the 3-fold axis, a different compound is made, with D3h, [3,2] symmetry, order 12.
Other orientations can be chosen as 2 tetrahedra within the compound of five tetrahedra and compound of ten tetrahedra the latter of which can be seen as a hexagrammic pyramid: | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**JFace**
JFace:
JFace is defined by the Eclipse project as "a UI toolkit that provides helper classes for developing UI features that can be tedious to implement." The Standard Widget Toolkit (SWT) is an open source widget toolkit for Java designed to provide efficient, portable access to the user-interface facilities of the operating systems on which it is implemented.
Structure:
It is a layer that sits on top of the raw widget system, and provides classes for handling common UI programming tasks. It brings model view controller programming to the Standard Widget Toolkit.
Provides Viewer classes that handle the tedious tasks of populating, sorting, filtering, and updating widgets Provides Actions to allow users to define their own behavior and to assign that behavior to specific components, e.g. menu items, tool items, push buttons, etc.
Structure:
Provides registries that hold Images and Fonts Defines standard dialogs and wizards, and defines a framework for building complex interactions with the user Its primary goal is to free the developer up, letting the developer focus on the implementation of his or her specific application without having to be concerned with the underlying widget system or solving problems that are common in almost all UI applications.
Structure:
A primary concern of the Eclipse group when developing JFace was that under no circumstances did they want to hide the SWT component implementation from the programmer. JFace is completely dependent on SWT, but SWT is not dependent on JFace. Furthermore, the Eclipse Workbench is built on both JFace and SWT; in some instances, it bypasses JFace and accesses SWT directly.
Example:
The following is a basic Hello World program using JFace. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Smooth curve hull**
Smooth curve hull:
Smooth curve hulls are hulls that are rounded and do not usually have any chines or corners. They can be moulded, round-bilged or soft-chined. Examples are the round bilge, semi-round bilge and s-bottom hull.
Characteristics:
The round bilge hull is the most commonly used hull form as the shape promotes planing and has other good properties as well.
The S-bottom hull allows relative comfort on the boat, as the shape reduces the rolling movement on the boat.
== Gallery == | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Serotonin antagonist and reuptake inhibitor**
Serotonin antagonist and reuptake inhibitor:
Serotonin antagonist and reuptake inhibitors (SARIs) are a class of drugs used mainly as antidepressants, but also as anxiolytics and hypnotics. They act by antagonizing serotonin receptors such as 5-HT2A and inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin, norepinephrine, and/or dopamine. Additionally, most also antagonize α1-adrenergic receptors. The majority of the currently marketed SARIs belong to the phenylpiperazine class of compounds.
List of SARIs:
Marketed Etoperidone (Axiomin, Etonin) Lorpiprazole (Normarex) Mepiprazole (Psigodal) Nefazodone (Serzone, Nefadar) Trazodone (Desyrel) Miscellaneous Vilazodone (Viibryd) – a related drug but does not fit into this class as it does not function as a serotonin antagonist, acting solely as a 5-HT1A receptor partial agonist instead.
Vortioxetine (Trintellix) – another closely related drug, could technically be considered to be a member of this group, but both vilazodone and vortioxetine are instead generally labeled as serotonin modulators and stimulators.
Niaprazine (Nopron) – a drug related to this group but does not inhibit the reuptake of serotonin or the other monoamines.
Medifoxamine (Clédial, Gerdaxyl) – could perhaps technically be said to belong to this group, as it is a serotonin–dopamine reuptake inhibitor and 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptor antagonist, but not grouped as such.
Never marketed Lubazodone (YM-992, YM-35995) – a SARI that was never marketed.
Pharmacology:
Binding profiles The binding profiles of SARIs and some metabolites in terms of their affinities (Ki, nM) for various receptors and transporters are as follows: These drugs act as antagonists or inverse agonists of the 5-HT2A, α1-adrenergic, and H1 receptors, as partial agonists of the 5-HT1A receptor, and as inhibitors of the transporters. mCPP is an antagonist of the 5-HT2B receptor, an agonist of the 5-HT1A, 5-HT2C, and 5-HT3 receptors, and acts as a partial agonist of the human 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptors. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**(3,5-dihydroxyphenyl)acetyl-CoA 1,2-dioxygenase**
(3,5-dihydroxyphenyl)acetyl-CoA 1,2-dioxygenase:
(3,5-dihydroxyphenyl)acetyl-CoA 1,2-dioxygenase (EC 1.13.11.80, DpgC) is an enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction (3,5-dihydroxyphenyl)acetyl-CoA + O2 ⇌ 2-(3,5-dihydroxyphenyl)-2-oxoacetate + CoA.This enzyme is involved in the biosynthesis of the nonproteinogenic amino acid (S)-3,5-dihydroxyphenylglycine (Dpg) responsible of the production of vancomycin and teicoplanin antibiotics. It catalyzes the unusual conversion 3,5-dihydroxyphenylacetyl-CoA (DPA-CoA) to 3,5-dihydroxyphenylglyoxylate. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Current collector**
Current collector:
A current collector (often called a "pickup") is a device used in trolleybuses, trams, electric locomotives and EMUs to carry electric power (current) from overhead lines, electric third rails, or ground-level power supplies to the electrical equipment of the vehicles. Those for overhead wires are roof-mounted devices, those for rails are mounted on the bogies.
Typically, electric current connectors have one or more spring-loaded arms that press a collector or contact shoe against the rail or overhead wire. As the vehicle moves, the contact shoe slides along the wire or rail to draw the electricity needed to run the vehicle's motor.
The current collector arms are electrically conductive but mounted insulated on the vehicle's roof, side or base. An insulated cable connects the collector with the switch, transformer or motor. The steel rails of the tracks act as the electrical return.
Pantographs and poles:
Electric vehicles that collect their current from an overhead line system use different forms of one- or two-arm pantograph collectors, bow collectors or trolley poles. The current collection device presses against the underside of the lowest wire of an overhead line system, which is called a contact wire.
Most overhead supply systems are either DC or single phase AC, using a single wire with return through the grounded running rails. Three phase AC systems use a pair of overhead wires, and paired trolley poles.
Pantographs and poles:
Electric overhead cranes and gantry cranes may use a current collector system to provide power over the full length of their operating area. The current collector assembly use sliding shoes that run on rails. Depending on the size of crane, contact rails may be copper wires, copper bars, or steel channels. mounted on insulating supports. Two rails are used for DC supply, and three for three-phase AC, with grounding of the crane through contact with the runway rails. The contact rails are mounted out of the reach of people working in the area to prevent an electric shock hazard. Overhead current collectors Trolley pole wheel The trolley pole wheel is a grooved contact wheel mounted on top of the trolley pole instead of a trolley shoe. The trolley pole wheel somewhat resembles a pulley. Trolley pole wheels are now rarely used.
Pantographs and poles:
Collector pole A collector pole is the pole at the end of a bumper car. It has a contact shoe on top.
Contact shoe:
Electric railways with third rails or fourth rails carry collector or contact shoes projecting laterally (sideways), or vertically, from their bogies. The contact shoe may slide on top of the third rail (top running), on the bottom (bottom running) or on the side (side running). The side running contact shoe is used against the guide bars on rubber-tired metros. A vertical contact shoe is used on fourth rail systems. A pair of contact shoes was used on underground current collection systems. Contact shoes may also be used on overhead conductor rails, on guide bars or on trolley wires in the case of trams or trolleybuses. Most railways use three rails, while the London Underground uses four rails. Trams or trolleybuses use a grooved trolley shoe at the end of a trolley pole. A contact shoe is used as a ground on the running rail of a rubber-tired metro.
Contact shoe:
Contact ski A long and narrow contact shoe shaped like a ski, or "skid" or "ski collector" or "contact ski", was historically used on stud contact systems so it maintains contact with small studs in the road placed at large intervals. A single ski was as long as 12 feet (3.7 m) in some systems.: 107–116 Stud contact systems were short-lived due to safety issues with the studs. They were supposed to be electrified only when compatible vehicles passed over them, but the studs often malfunctioned and remained electrified continuously, posing an electrocution hazard. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Boron tribromide**
Boron tribromide:
Boron tribromide, BBr3, is a colorless, fuming liquid compound containing boron and bromine. Commercial samples usually are amber to red/brown, due to weak bromine contamination. It is decomposed by water and alcohols.
Chemical properties:
Boron tribromide is commercially available and is a strong Lewis acid.
It is an excellent demethylating or dealkylating agent for the cleavage of ethers, also with subsequent cyclization, often in the production of pharmaceuticals.The mechanism of dealkylation of tertiary alkyl ethers proceeds via the formation of a complex between the boron center and the ether oxygen followed by the elimination of an alkyl bromide to yield a dibromo(organo)borane.
ROR + BBr3 → RO+(−BBr3)R → ROBBr2 + RBrAryl methyl ethers (as well as activated primary alkyl ethers), on the other hand are dealkylated through a bimolecular mechanism involving two BBr3-ether adducts.
RO+(−BBr3)CH3 + RO+(−BBr3)CH3→ RO(−BBr3) + CH3Br + RO+(BBr2)CH3The dibromo(organo)borane can then undergo hydrolysis to give a hydroxyl group, boric acid, and hydrogen bromide as products.
ROBBr2 + 3H2O → ROH + B(OH)3 + 2HBrIt also finds applications in olefin polymerization and in Friedel-Crafts chemistry as a Lewis acid catalyst.
The electronics industry uses boron tribromide as a boron source in pre-deposition processes for doping in the manufacture of semiconductors.
Boron tribromide also mediates the dealkylation of aryl alkyl ethers, for example demethylation of 3,4-dimethoxystyrene into 3,4-dihydroxystyrene.
Synthesis:
The reaction of boron carbide with bromine at temperatures above 300 °C leads to the formation of boron tribromide. The product can be purified by vacuum distillation.
History:
The first synthesis was done by Poggiale in 1846 by reacting boron trioxide with carbon and bromine at high temperatures: B2O3 + 3 C + 3 Br2 → 2 BBr3 + 3 COAn improvement of this method was developed by F. Wöhler and Deville in 1857. By starting from amorphous boron the reaction temperatures are lower and no carbon monoxide is produced: 2 B + 3 Br2 → 2 BBr3
Applications:
Boron tribromide is used in organic synthesis, pharmaceutical manufacturing, image processing, semiconductor doping, semiconductor plasma etching, and photovoltaic manufacturing. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Midgut**
Midgut:
The midgut is the portion of the human embryo from which most of the intestines develop. After it bends around the superior mesenteric artery, it is called the "midgut loop". It comprises the portion of the alimentary canal from the end of the foregut at the opening of the bile duct to the hindgut, about two-thirds of the way through the transverse colon.
In the embryo:
During development, the human midgut undergoes a rapid phase of growth in which the loop of midgut herniates outside of the abdominal cavity of the fetus and protrudes into the umbilical cord. This herniation is physiological (occurs normally).
In the embryo:
Later in development, the fetus's body catches up in size relative to the midgut and creates adequate room in the abdominal cavity for the entirety of the midgut to reside. The midgut loops slip back out of the umbilical cord and the physiological hernia ceases to exist. This change coincides with the termination of the yolk sac and the counterclockwise rotation of the two limbs of the midgut loop around their combined central axis.
In the adult:
Organs in the adult midgut Duodenum (distal half of 2nd part, 3rd and 4th parts) Jejunum Ileum Cecum Appendix Ascending colon Hepatic flexure of colon Transverse colon (proximal two-thirds) Vascular, lymphatics and innervation Arterial supply to the midgut is from the superior mesenteric artery, an unpaired branch of the aorta. Venous drainage is to the portal venous system. Lymph from the midgut drains to prevertebral superior mesenteric nodes located at the origin of the superior mesenteric artery from the aorta. Portal drainage carries all non-lipid nutrients from digestion to the liver for processing and detoxification, while lymphatic drainage carries fatty chyle to the cisterna chyli. Parasympathetic innervation of the midgut is from the superior mesenteric plexus, while sympathetic innervation is from the lesser splanchnic nerve.
Clinical significance:
Malrotation of the midgut during development can lead to volvulus.
Pain in the midgut is referred to the region around the belly buttonAs stated, in development a loop of midgut herniates outside of the abdominal cavity into the umbilical cord. If this persists after birth it is called an omphalocele. In omphalocele, there is a defect in the development of the anterior abdominal wall. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Grigore Roșu**
Grigore Roșu:
Grigore Roșu is a computer science professor at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and a researcher in the Information Trust Institute. He is known for his contributions in runtime verification, the K framework, matching logic, and automated coinduction.
Biography:
Roșu received a B.A. in Mathematics in 1995 and an M.S. in Fundamentals of Computing in 1996, both from the University of Bucharest, Romania, and a Ph.D. in Computer Science in 2000 from the University of California at San Diego. Between 2000 and 2002 he was a research scientist at NASA Ames Research Center. In 2002, he joined the department of computer science at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign as an assistant professor. He became an associate professor in 2008 and a full professor in 2014.
Awards:
IEEE/ACM most influential paper of the International Conference on Automated Software Engineering (ASE) award in 2016 (for an ASE 2001 paper) Runtime Verification (RV) test of time award (for an RV 2001 paper) ACM distinguished paper awards at ASE 2008, ASE 2016, and OOPSLA 2016 Best software science paper award at ETAPS 2002 NSF CAREER award in 2005Ad AStra award in 2016
Contributions:
Roșu coined the term "runtime verification" together with Havelund as the name of a workshop started in 2001, aiming at addressing problems at the boundary between formal verification and testing. Roșu and his collaborators introduced algorithms and techniques for parametric property monitoring, efficient monitor synthesis,runtime predictive analysis, and monitoring-oriented programming.
Contributions:
Roșu also founded Runtime Verification, Inc., a company aimed at commercializing runtime verification technology.Roșu created and led the design and development of the K framework, which is an executable semantic framework where programming languages, type systems, and formal analysis tools are defined using configurations, computations, and rewrite rules. Language tools such as interpreters, virtual machines, compilers, symbolic execution and formal verification tools, are automatically or semi-automatically generated by the K framework. Formal semantics of several known programming languages, such as C,Java,JavaScript,Python, and Ethereum Virtual Machine are defined using the K framework.
Contributions:
Roșu introduced matching logic as a foundation for the K framework and for programming languages, specification, and verification. It is as expressive as first-order logic plus mathematical induction, and uses a compact notation to capture, as syntactic sugar, several formal systems of critical importance, such as algebraic specification and initial algebra semantics, first-order logic with least fixed points,typed or untyped lambda-calculi, dependent type systems, separation logic with recursive predicates, rewriting logic,Hoare logic, temporal logics, dynamic logic, and the modal μ-calculus.
Contributions:
Roșu's Ph.D. thesis proposed circular coinduction as an automation of coinduction in the context of hidden logic. This was further generalized into a principle that unifies and automates proofs by both induction and coinduction, and has been implemented in Coq,Isabelle/HOL,Dafny, and as part of the CIRC theorem prover. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Isoborneol**
Isoborneol:
Isoborneol is a bicyclic organic compound and a terpene derivative. The hydroxyl group in this compound is placed in an exo position. The endo diastereomer is called borneol. Being chiral, isoborneol exists as enantiomers.
Preparation:
Isoborneol is synthesized commercially by hydrolysis of isobornyl acetate. The latter is obtained from treatment of camphene with acetic acid in the presence of a strong acid catalyst.It can also be produced by reduction of camphor: Isoborneol derivatives as chiral ligands Derivatives of isoborneol are used as ligands in asymmetric synthesis.
(2S)-(−)-3-exo-(morpholino)isoborneol or MIB with a morpholine substituent in the α-hydroxyl position.
(2S)-(−)-3-exo-(dimethylamino)isoborneol or DAIB with a dimethylamino substituent in the α-hydroxyl position | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Stratified sampling**
Stratified sampling:
In statistics, stratified sampling is a method of sampling from a population which can be partitioned into subpopulations.
Stratified sampling:
In statistical surveys, when subpopulations within an overall population vary, it could be advantageous to sample each subpopulation (stratum) independently. Stratification is the process of dividing members of the population into homogeneous subgroups before sampling. The strata should define a partition of the population. That is, it should be collectively exhaustive and mutually exclusive: every element in the population must be assigned to one and only one stratum. Then simple random sampling is applied within each stratum. The objective is to improve the precision of the sample by reducing sampling error. It can produce a weighted mean that has less variability than the arithmetic mean of a simple random sample of the population.
Stratified sampling:
In computational statistics, stratified sampling is a method of variance reduction when Monte Carlo methods are used to estimate population statistics from a known population.
Example:
Assume that we need to estimate the average number of votes for each candidate in an election. Assume that a country has 3 towns: Town A has 1 million factory workers, Town B has 2 million office workers and Town C has 3 million retirees. We can choose to get a random sample of size 60 over the entire population but there is some chance that the resulting random sample is poorly balanced across these towns and hence is biased, causing a significant error in estimation (when the outcome of interest has a different distribution, in terms of the parameter of interest, between the towns). Instead, if we choose to take a random sample of 10, 20 and 30 from Town A, B and C respectively, then we can produce a smaller error in estimation for the same total sample size. This method is generally used when a population is not a homogeneous group.
Stratified sampling strategies:
Proportionate allocation uses a sampling fraction in each of the strata that are proportional to that of the total population. For instance, if the population consists of n total individuals, m of which are male and f female (and where m + f = n), then the relative size of the two samples (x1 = m/n males, x2 = f/n females) should reflect this proportion.
Stratified sampling strategies:
Optimum allocation (or disproportionate allocation) - The sampling fraction of each stratum is proportionate to both the proportion (as above) and the standard deviation of the distribution of the variable. Larger samples are taken in the strata with the greatest variability to generate the least possible overall sampling variance.A real-world example of using stratified sampling would be for a political survey. If the respondents needed to reflect the diversity of the population, the researcher would specifically seek to include participants of various minority groups such as race or religion, based on their proportionality to the total population as mentioned above. A stratified survey could thus claim to be more representative of the population than a survey of simple random sampling or systematic sampling.
Advantages:
The reasons to use stratified sampling rather than simple random sampling include If measurements within strata have a lower standard deviation (as compared to the overall standard deviation in the population), stratification gives a smaller error in estimation.
For many applications, measurements become more manageable and/or cheaper when the population is grouped into strata.
Advantages:
When it is desirable to have estimates of the population parameters for groups within the population - stratified sampling verifies we have enough samples from the strata of interest.If the population density varies greatly within a region, stratified sampling will ensure that estimates can be made with equal accuracy in different parts of the region, and that comparisons of sub-regions can be made with equal statistical power. For example, in Ontario a survey taken throughout the province might use a larger sampling fraction in the less populated north, since the disparity in population between north and south is so great that a sampling fraction based on the provincial sample as a whole might result in the collection of only a handful of data from the north.
Disadvantages:
Stratified sampling is not useful when the population cannot be exhaustively partitioned into disjoint subgroups.
Disadvantages:
It would be a misapplication of the technique to make subgroups' sample sizes proportional to the amount of data available from the subgroups, rather than scaling sample sizes to subgroup sizes (or to their variances, if known to vary significantly—e.g. using an F Test). Data representing each subgroup are taken to be of equal importance if suspected variation among them warrants stratified sampling. If subgroup variances differ significantly and the data needs to be stratified by variance, it is not possible to simultaneously make each subgroup sample size proportional to subgroup size within the total population. For an efficient way to partition sampling resources among groups that vary in their means, variance and costs, see "optimum allocation".
Disadvantages:
The problem of stratified sampling in the case of unknown class priors (ratio of subpopulations in the entire population) can have a deleterious effect on the performance of any analysis on the dataset, e.g. classification. In that regard, minimax sampling ratio can be used to make the dataset robust with respect to uncertainty in the underlying data generating process.Combining sub-strata to ensure adequate numbers can lead to Simpson's paradox, where trends that exist in different groups of data disappear or even reverse when the groups are combined.
Mean and standard error:
The mean and variance of stratified random sampling are given by: sx¯2=∑h=1L(NhN)2(Nh−nhNh−1)sh2nh where, L= number of strata N= the sum of all stratum sizes Nh= size of stratum h x¯h= sample mean of stratum h nh= number of observations in stratum h sh= sample standard deviation of stratum h Note that the term ( Nh − nh ) / ( Nh − 1 ), which equals 1 − nh−1Nh−1 , is a finite population correction and Nh must be expressed in "sample units". Foregoing the finite population correction gives: sx¯2=∑h=1L(NhN)2sh2nh where the wh = Nh /N is the population weight of stratum h
Sample size allocation:
For the proportional allocation strategy, the size of the sample in each stratum is taken in proportion to the size of the stratum. Suppose that in a company there are the following staff: male, full-time: 90 male, part-time: 18 female, full-time: 9 female, part-time: 63 total: 180and we are asked to take a sample of 40 staff, stratified according to the above categories.
Sample size allocation:
The first step is to calculate the percentage of each group of the total.
% male, full-time = 90 ÷ 180 = 50% % male, part-time = 18 ÷ 180 = 10% % female, full-time = 9 ÷ 180 = 5% % female, part-time = 63 ÷ 180 = 35%This tells us that of our sample of 40, 50% (20 individuals) should be male, full-time.
10% (4 individuals) should be male, part-time.
5% (2 individuals) should be female, full-time.
Sample size allocation:
35% (14 individuals) should be female, part-time.Another easy way without having to calculate the percentage is to multiply each group size by the sample size and divide by the total population size (size of entire staff): male, full-time = 90 × (40 ÷ 180) = 20 male, part-time = 18 × (40 ÷ 180) = 4 female, full-time = 9 × (40 ÷ 180) = 2 female, part-time = 63 × (40 ÷ 180) = 14 | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Hadacidin**
Hadacidin:
Hadacidin, and hadacidin analogues, have anticancer activity and activity against adenylosuccinate synthetase.Hadacidin is the simplest known naturally occurring hydroxamic acid. The hydroxylamino group is frequently donated by a hydroxylamino acid such as 8-N-hydroxyornithine of the siderochromes. This compound, first isolated and characterized by Kaczka et al. in 1962, seemed well suited for a study of the route of hydroxamic acid biosynthesis. The hydroxamate bond may be considered to be a peptide bond with an oxygen atom on the amide nitrogen, but there is no a priori reason to decide whether the oxygen atom is introduced before or after the formation of the amide bond. In the latter case, formylglycine would be an intermediate in hadacidin biosynthesis. N-Hydroxylation of an amide bond was reported by Cramer et al. (1960), who found that N-hydroxy-2-acetylaminofluorene was formed in the intact rat upon administration of 2-acetylaminofluorene. Nevertheless, this finding cannot be considered direct proof of N-hydroxylation of an amide bond because, as the authors point out, the acetyl group is labile in their experiments, and hydroxylation of the amino group might have occurred.
Hadacidin:
Glycine, formate, and the 2-carbon of serine were all found to be very quickly incorporated into hadacidin during its synthesis by Penicillium aurantioviolaceum. The experiment showed that C-1 of glycine was found almost exclusively in the glycyl portion of hadacidin while formate, the 3-carbon of serine, and the 2-carbon of glycine were incorporated into both the glycyl and formyl portions of the hydroxamate. N-Hydroxyglycine was incorporated into hadacidin at a rate equal to that for glycine in 3-hr periods and to a much greater extent in longer time periods. N-Hydroxyglycine, but not glycine, brought about a net stimulation of hydroxamate production. Nitroacetic acid, glyoxylic acid oxime, and formylglycine were not rapidly incorporated into hadacidin. Experiments showed that the hydroxylamino oxygen atom of hadacidin is derived from oxygen gas rather than water. The experimental results are consistent with the hypothesis that the biosynthesis of hadacidin occurs by N-oxygenation of glycine to yield N-hydroxyglycine followed by N-formylation to yield the hydroxamate. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Soybean meal**
Soybean meal:
Soybean meal is used in food and animal feeds, principally as a protein supplement, but also as a source of metabolizable energy. Typically 1 bushel (i.e. 60 lbs. or 27.2 kg) of soybeans yields 48 lbs. (21.8 kg) of soybean meal. Soybean meal is produced as a co-product of soybean oil extraction. Some, but not all, soybean meal contains ground soybean hulls. Soybean meal is heat-treated during production, to denature the trypsin inhibitors of soybeans, which would otherwise interfere with protein digestion.
Major kinds of soybean meal:
Three main kinds of soybean meal are produced: • Full-fat soybean meal, made from whole soybeans. It has a high metabolizable energy concentration. (For example, metabolizable energy for swine in this product is about 3.69 megacalories (i.e. 15.4 MJ) per kg dry matter.) Crude protein concentration is about 38 percent (as fed). This kind of product is sometimes fed to various classes of livestock.• Defatted soybean meal, containing no hulls. This product has an intermediate energy concentration. (For example, metabolizable energy for swine in this product is about 3.38 megacalories (i.e. 14.1 MJ) per kg dry matter.) Crude protein concentration is about 48 percent. This percentage [which is commonly used in describing the product] is calculated at the typical as-fed moisture content of 88 percent. Thus, crude protein concentration expressed on a dry matter basis is 54 percent. This product is commonly fed to swine, broilers and layers.• Defatted soybean meal, containing soybean hulls. The hulls are readily digestible by ruminant livestock. This product is often fed as a protein supplement for domestic ruminants. Ruminant-metabolizable energy concentration is about 3.0 megacalories (i.e. about 12.5 MJ) per kg dry matter, and crude protein concentration is about 44 percent. The latter percentage [which is commonly used in describing the product] is calculated at the typical as-fed moisture content of 90 percent. Thus, crude protein concentration on a dry matter basis is 49 percent.
Use in animal feed:
Globally, about 98 percent of soybean meal is used as animal feed. Of the US soybean production magnitude from 2010 through 2012, about 44 percent was exported as soybeans, and 53 percent was crushed in the US. Of the crushed tonnage, 19 percent was recovered as soybean oil and the remainder was recovered as soybean meal. Of the total US soybean tonnage produced, about 35 percent was fed to US livestock and poultry as soybean meal. Most of the remaining soybean meal produced in the US was exported. It has been estimated that, of soy meal fed to animals in the US, 48 percent is fed to poultry, 26 percent to swine, 12 percent to beef cattle, 9 percent to dairy cattle, 3 percent is used in fish feed and about 2 percent in pet food. Although this implies that the tonnage of soybean meal fed to other species is relatively minor, such use is not unimportant. For example, for rapidly growing lambs on low-protein feeds, soybean meal can be an important supplement to ensure adequate protein intake, and partly because of its palatability, soybean meal is often recommended for use in starter rations when creep feeding lambs.
Uses as human food:
Globally, about 2 percent of soybean meal is used for soy flour and other products for human consumption. Soy flour is used to make some soy milks and textured vegetable protein products, and is marketed as full-fat, low-fat, defatted, and lecithinated types.
Phytoestrogens:
Most studies of phytoestrogens in soy have identified the isoflavones genistein and daidzein as its principal phytoestrogenic substances. For several soy flour samples analyzed by various persons using high-performance liquid chromatography, daidzein content ranged from 226 to 2100 micrograms per gram, and genistein content ranged from 478 to 1123 micrograms per gram. For four analyses of defatted soy meal, the concentrations were 616 and 753 micrograms per gram, respectively; for one analysis of soybean meal (whole), concentrations were 706 and 1000 micrograms per gram, respectively. Although reproductive physiology of sheep is particularly sensitive to phytoestrogens, soybean meal supplementation of ewe lambs or ewes on pasture in some studies has been found to have no detrimental effect on reproductive performance. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**2-2-2-2**
2-2-2-2:
Under the Whyte notation for the classification of steam locomotives, 2-2-2-2 could represent either the wheel arrangement of two leading wheels, four powered but uncoupled driving wheels, and two trailing wheels; or of two independent leading axles (not in a bogie truck), two driving wheels, and two trailing wheels.
Usage:
The (2-2)-2-0 wheel arrangement, or (2-2) -2-0, was first used on five locomotives introduced on the Eastern Counties Railway by John Chester Craven in 1846/7.The 2-(2-2)-0 version was used by Francis Webb of the London and North Western Railway between 1885 and 1887 on two unique divided drive compound tank locomotives, No. 687 (1885) and No. 600 (1887). He then produced two tender engine classes each of ten locomotives: the LNWR Greater Britain Class (1892-1894) and the LNWR John Hick Class (1894-1898). The locomotives were never reliable and Webb's successor George Whale withdrew them all within three years of taking up office in 1903. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Texel (graphics)**
Texel (graphics):
In computer graphics, a texel, texture element, or texture pixel is the fundamental unit of a texture map. Textures are represented by arrays of texels representing the texture space, just as other images are represented by arrays of pixels.
Texel (graphics):
Texels can also be described by image regions that are obtained through simple procedures such as thresholding. Voronoi tesselation can be used to define their spatial relationships—divisions are made at the midpoints between the centroids of each texel and the centroids of every surrounding texel for the entire texture. This results in each texel centroid having a Voronoi polygon surrounding it, which consists of all points that are closer to its own texel centroid than any other centroid.
Rendering:
When texturing a 3D surface or surfaces (a process known as texture mapping), the renderer maps texels to appropriate pixels in the geometric fragment (typically a triangle) in the output picture. On modern computers, this operation is accomplished on the graphics processing unit.
Rendering:
The texturing process starts with a location in space. The location can be in world space, but typically it is local to a model space so that the texture moves with the model. A projector function is applied to the location to change the location from a three-element vector ( (u,v,z) ) to a two-element ( (x,y) ) vector with values ranging from zero to one (uv). These values are multiplied by the resolution of the texture to obtain the location of the texel. When a texel is requested that is not on an integer position, texture filtering is applied.
Rendering:
When a texel is requested that is outside of the texture, one of two techniques is used: clamping or wrapping. Clamping limits the texel to the texture size, moving it to the nearest edge if it is more than the texture size. Wrapping moves the texel in increments of the texture's size to bring it back into the texture. Wrapping causes a texture to be repeated; clamping causes it to be in one spot only. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**MCM6**
MCM6:
DNA replication licensing factor MCM6 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the MCM6 gene. MCM6 is one of the highly conserved mini-chromosome maintenance proteins (MCM) that are essential for the initiation of eukaryotic genome replication.
Function:
The MCM complex consisting of MCM6 (this protein) and MCM2, 4 and 7 possesses DNA helicase activity, and may act as a DNA unwinding enzyme. The hexameric protein complex formed by the MCM proteins is a key component of the pre-replication complex (pre-RC) and may be involved in the formation of replication forks and in the recruitment of other DNA replication related proteins. The phosphorylation of the complex by CDC2 kinase reduces the helicase activity, suggesting a role in the regulation of DNA replication. Mcm 6 has recently been shown to interact strongly Cdt1 at defined residues, by mutating these target residues Wei et al. observed lack of Cdt1 recruitment of Mcm2-7 to the pre-RC.
Gene:
The MCM6 gene, MCM6, is expressed at very high level. MCM6 contains 18 introns. There are 2 non overlapping alternative last exons. The transcripts appear to differ by truncation of the 3' end, presence or absence of 2 cassette exons, common exons with different boundaries.
MCM6 produces, by alternative splicing, 3 different transcripts, all with introns, putatively encoding 3 different protein isoforms.
Gene:
MCM6 contains two of the regulatory regions for LCT, the gene encoding the protein lactase, located in two of the MCM6 introns, approximately 14 kb and 22 kb upstream of LCT. A substitution of thymine for cytosine in the first region (at -13910), in particular, has been shown to function in vitro as an enhancer element capable of differentially activating transcription of LCT promoter.Mutations in these regions are associated with lactose tolerance into adult life.
Interactions:
MCM6 has been shown to interact with: | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Dvips**
Dvips:
dvips is a computer program that converts the Device Independent file format (DVI) output of TeX typography into a printable or otherwise presentable form. dvips was written by Tomas Rokicki to produce printable PostScript files from DVI input, and is now commonly used for general DVI conversion.
Dvips:
The TeX typesetting system outputs DVI files which are intended to be independent of the output device. In particular, they are not understood by printers and lack information such as font shapes. Thus, a converter (i.e., a backend) is needed to translate from a DVI file to a printer language. Although other DVI backends such as dvilj exist, dvips is one of the most common ways of printing DVI files. Another, more recent solution is the use of pdfTeX to directly generate PDF files, which have readers for most platforms. Given its importance, dvips is a standard part of most TeX distributions, such as teTeX, and TeX Live.
Dvips:
By using TeX \special commands, it is possible to directly insert "literal PostScript" into the DVI file and have such snippets of PostScript appear in the final file generated by dvips. This flexibility allows the user to include, say, watermarks on his document (especially via the use of proper packages) or further postprocess the PostScript file.
When producing postscript files, dvips embeds fonts inside the file. Most recent distributions will normally embed scalable fonts, also known as Type 1 fonts. Files generated with older distributions, however, may embed raster fonts. To substitute raster for scalable fonts in a postscript file in a situation where the original dvi file is unavailable use a utility called pkfix. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Neck corset**
Neck corset:
A neck corset (sometimes called corset collar or neck lacer) is a type of BDSM collar. Unlike a normal corset which compresses the waist, a neck corset is usually not used to compress the neck, except in breathplay. It may act as a posture collar that incorporates stays.
Neck corsets may be worn in BDSM and goth subcultures, and may be worn in a decorative fashion or as a form of fetish clothing.
Construction:
Stays incorporated in a neck corset are specially made shorter, used to support the weight of the head on the shoulders, while its corset structure helps in maintaining posture by keeping the chin high and the neck extended. It is often combined with a traditional corset in order to achieve better posture.
It can be thin or as thick as the height of the neck. There are many varieties. They can be made of many different fabrics, such as leather, rubber, etc. but some more common fabrics are also used.
Neck corsets usually have back lacing: others have front lacing or are secured by ribbon or zipper.
BDSM uses:
Neck corsets are worn by both men and women, mainly in BDSM and goth subcultures. They may be decorated, and may include other bondage elements such as locking closures and D-rings for attaching a leash, rope or other restraints.When a neck corset is worn to restrict head movement, it is known as a posture collar. Although neck corset restricts head movement it is usually not used for medical purposes like the cervical collar.
BDSM uses:
A mouth corset is special type of neck corset, designed to also cover the wearer's mouth. They are primarily used in BDSM, because they can be used as gags. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Slice preparation**
Slice preparation:
The slice preparation or brain slice is a laboratory technique in electrophysiology that allows the study of neurons from various brain regions in isolation from the rest of the brain, in an ex-vivo condition. Brain tissue is initially sliced via a tissue slicer then immersed in artificial cerebrospinal fluid (aCSF) for stimulation and/or recording. The technique allows for greater experimental control, through elimination of the effects of the rest of the brain on the circuit of interest, careful control of the physiological conditions through perfusion of substrates through the incubation fluid, to precise manipulation of neurotransmitter activity through perfusion of agonists and antagonists. However, the increase in control comes with a decrease in the ease with which the results can be applied to the whole neural system.
Benefits and limitations:
When investigating mammalian CNS activity, slice preparation has several advantages and disadvantages when compared to in vivo study.
Benefits and limitations:
Slice preparation is both faster and cheaper than in vivo preparation, and does not require anaesthesia beyond the initial sacrifice. The removal of the brain tissue from the body removes the mechanical effects of heartbeat and respiration, which allows for extended intracellular recording. The physiological conditions of the sample, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide levels, or pH of the extracellular fluid can be carefully adjusted and maintained. Slice work under a microscope also allows for careful placement of the recording electrode, which would not be possible in the closed in vivo system. Removing the brain tissue means that there is no blood–brain barrier, which allows drugs, neurotransmitters or their modulators, or ions to be perfused throughout the neural tissue. Finally, whilst the circuit isolated in a brain slice represents a simplified model of the circuit in situ, it maintains structural connections that are lost in cell cultures, or homogenised tissue.
Benefits and limitations:
However, slice preparation also has some drawbacks. Most obviously, an isolated slice lacks the usual input and output connections present in the whole brain. Further, the slicing process may itself compromise the tissue. To minimize complications in the slicing process, a more sophisticated tissue slicer may be used such as the Compresstome, a type of vibrating microtome used to maximizes the amount of viable tissue cells. Additionally, slicing of the brain can damage the top and bottom of the section, but beyond that, the process of decapitation and extraction of the brain before the slice is placed in solution may have effects on the tissue which are not yet understood. During recording, the tissue also "ages", degrading at a faster rate than in the intact animal. Finally, the artificial composition of the bathing solution means that the presence and relative concentrations of the necessary compounds may not be present. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Biotheology**
Biotheology:
Biotheology is the synthetic application of understanding of biology to the understanding of God, synthesizing modern biology and traditional religious doctrines.Scripturally, Biotheology is motivated by, amongst other things, Saint Paul's exposition of the Church as the Body of Christ, likening its form and functions to the form and functions of the human body (1 Cor. 12:12-17), his remarks in Romans (Ro. 1:20), and Jesus' many parables concerning nature.
Biotheology:
A key concept is the thought that the Kingdom of God may be understood as an integral part of evolution. Areas of research include questions of the establishment and maintenance of order, of the relationship between spirit and emergence, and of the relationship between sin and natural selection. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Peixinhos da horta**
Peixinhos da horta:
Peixinhos da horta ([pɐjˈʃĩɲuʒ ðɐ ˈɔɾtɐ]) is a traditional dish in Portuguese cuisine. The name of the dish is literally translated as "Little fishes from the garden", as it resembles small pieces of colorful fish. It was introduced to Japan by Portuguese sailors Antonio da Mota, Francisco Zeimoto and Antonio Peixoto in the sixteenth century, where it was eventually developed into tempura. In 1543, or later, by the Portuguese missionaries that came to them during the 16th century. The peixinhos da horta (green beans) gave rise to tempura, a typical Japanese dish.
Preparation:
Peixinhos da horta is usually prepared with green beans in a wheat flour based batter that are then deep-fried. Other vegetables such as bell peppers and squash are also used. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
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