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**Primary battery**
Primary battery:
A primary battery or primary cell is a battery (a galvanic cell) that is designed to be used once and discarded, and not recharged with electricity and reused like a secondary cell (rechargeable battery). In general, the electrochemical reaction occurring in the cell is not reversible, rendering the cell unrechargeable. As a primary cell is used, chemical reactions in the battery use up the chemicals that generate the power; when they are gone, the battery stops producing electricity. In contrast, in a secondary cell, the reaction can be reversed by running a current into the cell with a battery charger to recharge it, regenerating the chemical reactants. Primary cells are made in a range of standard sizes to power small household appliances such as flashlights and portable radios.
Primary battery:
Primary batteries make up about 90% of the $50 billion battery market, but secondary batteries have been gaining market share. About 15 billion primary batteries are thrown away worldwide every year, virtually all ending up in landfills. Due to the toxic heavy metals and strong acids and alkalis they contain, batteries are hazardous waste. Most municipalities classify them as such and require separate disposal. The energy needed to manufacture a battery is about 50 times greater than the energy it contains. Due to their high pollutant content compared to their small energy content, the primary battery is considered a wasteful, environmentally unfriendly technology. Due mainly to increasing sales of wireless devices and cordless tools which cannot be economically powered by primary batteries and come with integral rechargeable batteries, the secondary battery industry has high growth and has slowly been replacing the primary battery in high end products.
Usage trend:
In the early twenty-first century, primary cells began losing market share to secondary cells, as relative costs declined for the latter. Flashlight power demands were reduced by the switch from incandescent bulbs to light-emitting diodes.The remaining market experienced increased competition from private- or no-label versions. The market share of the two leading US manufacturers, Energizer and Duracell, declined to 37% in 2012. Along with Rayovac, these three are trying to move consumers from zinc–carbon to more expensive, longer-lasting alkaline batteries.Western battery manufacturers shifted production offshore and no longer make zinc-carbon batteries in the United States.China became the largest battery market, with demand projected to climb faster than anywhere else, and has also shifted to alkaline cells. In other developing countries disposable batteries must compete with cheap wind-up, wind-powered and rechargeable devices that have proliferated.
Comparison between primary and secondary cells:
Secondary cells (rechargeable batteries) are in general more economical to use than primary cells. Their initially higher cost and the purchase cost of a charging system can be spread out over many use cycles (between 100 and 1000 cycles); for example, in hand-held power tools, it would be very costly to replace a high-capacity primary battery pack every few hours of use.
Comparison between primary and secondary cells:
Primary cells are not designed for recharging between manufacturing and use, thus have battery chemistry that has to have a much lower self-discharge rate than older types of secondary cells; but they have lost that advantage with the development of rechargeable secondary cells with very low self-discharge rates like low self-discharge NiMH cells that hold enough charge for long enough to be sold as pre-charged.Common types of secondary cells (namely NiMH and Li-ion) due to their much lower internal resistance do not suffer the large loss of capacity that alkaline, zinc–carbon and zinc chloride ("heavy duty" or "super heavy duty") do with high current draw.Reserve batteries achieve very long storage time (on the order of 10 years or more) without loss of capacity, by physically separating the components of the battery and only assembling them at the time of use. Such constructions are expensive but are found in applications like munitions, which may be stored for years before use.
Polarization:
A major factor reducing the lifetime of primary cells is that they become polarized during use. This means that hydrogen accumulates at the cathode and reduces the effectiveness of the cell. To reduce the effects of polarization in commercial cells and to extend their lives, chemical depolarization is used; that is, an oxidizing agent is added to the cell, to oxidize the hydrogen to water. Manganese dioxide is used in the Leclanché cell and zinc–carbon cell, and nitric acid is used in the Bunsen cell and Grove cell.
Polarization:
Attempts have been made to make simple cells self-depolarizing by roughening the surface of the copper plate to facilitate the detachment of hydrogen bubbles with little success. Electrochemical depolarization exchanges the hydrogen for a metal, such as copper (e.g. Daniell cell), or silver (e.g. silver-oxide cell), so called.
Terminology:
Anode and cathode The battery terminal (electrode) that develops a positive voltage polarity (the carbon electrode in a dry cell) is called the cathode and the electrode with a negative polarity (zinc in a dry cell) is called the anode. This is the reverse of the terminology used in an electrolytic cell or thermionic vacuum tube. The reason is that the terms anode and cathode are defined by the direction of electric current, not by their voltage. The anode is the terminal through which conventional current (positive charge) enters the cell from the external circuit, while the cathode is the terminal through which conventional current leaves the cell and flows into the external circuit. Since a battery is a power source which provides the voltage which forces the current through the external circuit, the voltage on the cathode must be higher than the voltage on the anode, creating an electric field directed from cathode to anode, to force the positive charge out of the cathode through the resistance of the external circuit.
Terminology:
Inside the cell the anode is the electrode where chemical oxidation occurs, as it donates electrons which flow out of it into the external circuit. The cathode is the electrode where chemical reduction occurs, as it accepts electrons from the circuit.
Terminology:
Outside the cell, different terminology is used. As the anode donates positive charge to the electrolyte (thus remaining with an excess of electrons that it will donate to the circuit), it becomes negatively charged and is therefore connected to the terminal marked "−" on the outside of the cell. The cathode, meanwhile, donates negative charge to the electrolyte, so it becomes positively charged (which allows it to accept electrons from the circuit) and is therefore connected to the terminal marked "+" on the outside of the cell.Old textbooks sometimes contain different terminology that can cause confusion to modern readers. For example, a 1911 textbook by Ayrton and Mather describes the electrodes as the "positive plate" and "negative plate" . | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Law of trichotomy**
Law of trichotomy:
In mathematics, the law of trichotomy states that every real number is either positive, negative, or zero.More generally, a binary relation R on a set X is trichotomous if for all x and y in X, exactly one of xRy, yRx and x = y holds. Writing R as <, this is stated in formal logic as: ∀x∈X∀y∈X([x<y∧¬(y<x)∧¬(x=y)]∨[¬(x<y)∧y<x∧¬(x=y)]∨[¬(x<y)∧¬(y<x)∧x=y]).
Properties:
A relation is trichotomous if, and only if, it is asymmetric and connected.
If a trichotomous relation is also transitive, then it is a strict total order; this is a special case of a strict weak order.
Examples:
On the set X = {a,b,c}, the relation R = { (a,b), (a,c), (b,c) } is transitive and trichotomous, and hence a strict total order.
On the same set, the cyclic relation R = { (a,b), (b,c), (c,a) } is trichotomous, but not transitive; it is even antitransitive.
Trichotomy on numbers:
A law of trichotomy on some set X of numbers usually expresses that some tacitly given ordering relation on X is a trichotomous one. An example is the law "For arbitrary real numbers x and y, exactly one of x < y, y < x, or x = y applies"; some authors even fix y to be zero, relying on the real number's additive linearly ordered group structure. The latter is a group equipped with a trichotomous order.
Trichotomy on numbers:
In classical logic, this axiom of trichotomy holds for ordinary comparison between real numbers and therefore also for comparisons between integers and between rational numbers. The law does not hold in general in intuitionistic logic.In Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory and Bernays set theory, the law of trichotomy holds between the cardinal numbers of well-orderable sets even without the axiom of choice. If the axiom of choice holds, then trichotomy holds between arbitrary cardinal numbers (because they are all well-orderable in that case). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Polarite**
Polarite:
Polarite, is an opaque, yellow-white mineral with the chemical formula Pd,(Bi,Pb). Its crystals are orthorhombic pyramidal, but can only be seen through a microscope. It has a metallic luster and leaves a white streak. Polarite is rated 3.5 to 4 on the Mohs Scale.It was first described in 1969 for an occurrence in Talnakh, Norilsk in the Polar Ural Mountains in Russia. It has also been recorded from the Bushveld igneous complex of South Africa and from Fox Gulch, Goodnews Bay, Alaska. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Blastoma**
Blastoma:
A blastoma is a type of cancer, more common in children, that is caused by malignancies in precursor cells, often called blasts. Examples are nephroblastoma, medulloblastoma, and retinoblastoma. The suffix -blastoma is used to imply a tumor of primitive, incompletely differentiated (or precursor) cells, e.g., chondroblastoma is composed of cells resembling the precursor of chondrocytes.
Molecular biology and treatment:
Many types of blastoma have been linked to a mutation in tumor suppressor genes. For example, pleuropulmonary blastomas have been linked to a coding mutation for p53. However, the mutation which allows proliferation of incompletely differentiated cells can vary from patient to patient and can alter the prognosis.
Molecular biology and treatment:
In the case of retinoblastoma, patients carry a visibly abnormal karyotype, with a loss of function mutation on a specific band of chromosome 13. This recessive deletion on the rb gene is also associated with other cancer types and must be present on both alleles, for a normal cell to progress toward malignancy.Thus, in the case of common blastomas, such as retinoblastomas, a practitioner may go directly into treatment. However, in the case of rarer, more-genetically-linked blastomas, practitioners may karyotype the patient before proceeding with treatment. Some examples of blastomas are hepatoblastoma, medulloblastoma, nephroblastoma, neuroblastoma, pancreatoblastoma, pleuropulmonary blastoma, retinoblastoma, glioblastoma multiforme and gonadoblastoma.
Types of blastomas:
Hepatoblastoma Hepatoblastoma (HBL) is the first and most common malignancy in children, often diagnosed during the first 3 years of life. In most cases, HBL is a sporadic pathology, although it has been sometimes associated with specific genetic abnormalities such as the Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome and familial adenomatous polyposis.
Types of blastomas:
The incidence has increased over the last three decades, and the risk of developing HBL has been demonstrated to be higher for premature babies with a birth weight of less than 1 kilo. The fact that the survival rate for premature babies has increased might also account for the rise in HBL incidence. The most common signs for diagnosis are abdominal distention and discomfort, generalized fatigue, loss of appetite and secondary anemia.
Types of blastomas:
The most important clinical marker for HBL is serum alpha-fetoprotein (AFP), except in the case of some rare variants of HBL and hepatocellular carcinoma that exhibit lower AFP levels.
Types of blastomas:
Medulloblastoma Brain tumors are the most common type of solid tumors to affect the pediatric population.In particular, medulloblastoma is the most common of them, and constitutes about 20% of all the malignant pediatric brain tumors, classified as a primitive neuroectodermal tumor (PNET) of the cerebellum.Mortality during the first few years after diagnosis is around 15%, although current therapeutic approaches have reached cure rates of up to 60%. The most common forms of therapy are surgical resection, aided by radiation and chemotherapy (before or after surgery), and the survival rates that this yields are between 50% and 90%, a wide range that is influenced by the age at diagnosis, metastasis and histologic variants of the medulloblastoma of each patient. However, despite the long-term survival achieved with current treatments, the neurologic, endocrinologic and cognitive effects are still a great concern in the treatment of medulloblastoma.
Types of blastomas:
Nephroblastoma The most common type of renal cancer in children is nephroblastoma, also known as Wilms tumor.Nephroblastoma is also the fourth most common pediatric cancer form, and the most common pediatric abdominal cancer, typically diagnosed in children from zero to five years old.
Types of blastomas:
The name of this tumor type comes from the man who first described it in 1899, the German physician Dr. Max Wilms. Although the cause for the development of this tumor is still not fully understood, it is hypothesized that it is caused by genetic mutation that alter the embryological development of the genitourinary tract, and some of the genetic markers that have been associated with this process are WT1, CTNNB1, and WTX, which are found in around one third of reported Wilms tumors.
Types of blastomas:
There are other genetic markers that have been related to this disease, such as TP53 and MYNC, where TP53 correlates to an overall poorer prognosis.
Neuroblastoma The most common form of extra-cranial solid tumor in children is neuroblastoma, which represents 8% to 10% of all childhood tumors.
Types of blastomas:
About 15% of all cancer-related deaths in the pediatric age group are related to this disease, with incidence of around 10.2 cases per million children younger than 15 years old and 500 new cases reported every year. 90% of these cases are diagnosed before 5 years of age, but 30% of them are found within the first year of life. The median age for the diagnosis of neuroblastoma is 22 months, being rare in adolescence and adulthood but showing poor prognosis when it does present in those age groups.
Types of blastomas:
The degree of differentiation of neuroblastoma is correlated to the prognosis, with a wide variety of outcomes (from tumor regression to recurrence and mortality). The standard of care is the use of chemotherapy, surgical resection and radiation, although most aggressive neuroblastomas have demonstrated to be resistant to these therapies.
Types of blastomas:
Pancreatoblastoma Pancreatoblastoma is a rare form of neoplasia that develops mostly in pediatric patients. This type of malignant neoplasm mimics pancreatic development at 7 weeks of gestation and tends to affect, most commonly, young male children.The usual signs and symptoms for this disease are an abnormal abdominal mass, along with abdominal pain or obstructive jaundice, but these symptoms are not necessarily specific for pancreatoblastoma and make the diagnosis a more complicated process (no standardised guidelines).
Types of blastomas:
The aggressiveness of the tumors, biologically speaking, makes them often unresectable at the age of diagnosis, therefore requiring other forms of therapy to help shrink the tumor instead of completely resecting it. Surgical intervention is possible in more localized cases.
Pleuropulmonary blastoma About 0.5% to 1% of all primary malignant lung tumors are childhood tumors of the lung, making it a rare form of neoplasm.
Pleuropulmonary blastoma is one of the three sub-types of these tumors, which include pulmonary blastoma, fetal adenocarcinoma and pleuropulmonary blastoma. Pleuropulmonary blastomas are characterized by the proliferation of malignant immature mesenchymal cells, constituted by two main histological components (mesenchymal and epithelial) that resemble the lung at week 10 to 16 of gestation.
The symptoms for this disease are non-specific, and radiologic features are not enough to give a definitive diagnosis and instead require histological analysis.
Types of blastomas:
Retinoblastoma Retinoblastoma is a rare form of eye neoplasm (found in the retina) that is mostly found in children, being the most common intraocular malignancy of infancy and childhood. The incidence is of one case per every 15,000 to 20,000 live births, and some of the most common symptoms of this disease are leukocoria and strabismus, iris rubeosis, hypopyon, hyphema, buphthalmia, orbital cellulites and exophthalmia.
Types of blastomas:
About sixty percent of cases are unilateral and rarely hereditary, although the remaining 40% where cases are either bilateral or multifocal are always related to hereditary mutations. Hereditary retinoblastoma is related to mutations in the RB1 gene, which not only increase the probability of developing retinoblastoma to about 90%, but also increase the probabilities of developing other forms of cancer.
Types of blastomas:
Chemotherapy, cryotherapy and brachytherapy are common forms of treatment along with laser, and the prognosis is now excellent for most forms of retinoblastoma.
Types of blastomas:
Glioblastoma multiforme Glioblastoma multiforme is a form of malignant, grade IV tumor of the central nervous system. Most of diagnosed glioblastoma multiforme cases (around 90% are in fact primary gliomas) arise from normal glial cells by following a multistep oncogenesis process. The remainder are originated from lower grade tumors, and the expansion rate of these is distinctly slower than for primary gliomas.
Types of blastomas:
Glioblastoma has been linked to certain genetic alterations and deregulations, but it mostly occurs spontaneously and its progression is associated with deregulation of the G1/S checkpoints, as well as other genetic abnormalities commonly associated with tumor cells.
Types of blastomas:
Metastases of this cancer type is not usually reported, and the treatment for this disease often includes full tumor resection along with radiotherapy and chemotherapy. Immunotherapy, as well as integrin signaling pathways inhibitors are also useful for its treatment, and the prognosis depends on the localization of the tumor, the degree of malignancy, genetic profile, proliferation rate and patient's age. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Medical textiles**
Medical textiles:
Medical textiles are various fiber-based materials intended for medical purposes. Medical textile is a sector of technical textiles that focuses on fiber-based products used in health care applications such as prevention, care, and hygiene. The spectrum of applications of medical textiles ranges from simple cotton bandages to advanced tissue engineering. Common examples of products made from medical textiles include dressings, implants, surgical sutures, certain medical devices, healthcare textiles, diapers, menstrual pads, wipes, and barrier fabrics.Medical textiles include many fiber types, yarns, fabrics, non-woven materials, woven, braided, as well as knitted fabrics. Physical and chemical alterations of fiber architectures, the use of functional finishes, and the production of stimuli-sensitive materials are major approaches for developing innovative medical textiles.Advances in textile manufacturing and medical technologies have made medical healthcare an important industry in textiles. Textiles are used in the production of a variety of medical devices, including replacements for damaged, injured, or non-functioning organs. The manufacture of medical textiles is a growing sector. There are many reasons for its growth, such as new technology in both textiles and medicine; ageing populations; growing populations; changes in lifestyles; and longer life expectancies.: 136 Additionally, the COVID-19 pandemic generated higher demand for certain medical textile applications [such as PPE, medical gowns and face masks], and there were shortages worldwide. Even China, the world's largest manufacturer of such applications, has struggled to keep up with demand.
History:
Natural fibers have been used in medical applications since ancient times.: 1, 2 The use of splints, bandages, and gauges is very old. An ancient Sanskrit text on medicine and surgery, the Sushruta Samhita, categorises Kausheya under the "articles of bandaging." The concept of personal protective equipment (PPE) for medical practitioners dates all the way back to the 17th century. Plague doctor costumes were intended to protect plague doctors from the disease during outbreaks of the Bubonic Plague in Europe. According to descriptions, the costumes were typically composed of heavy fabric or leather and was waxed.
Significance:
Medical textiles have a critical role in preserving human life. So, e.g., medical textile applications (PPE cover all, N95 masks), were in high demand and scarce supply during the COVID-19 pandemic, resulting in severe shortages. Considering the shortage, in February 2020, the World Health Organization restricted the use of medical essentials such as PPE and masks, etc. to front-line workers only (PPE includes gowns, aprons, masks, gloves, medical masks, goggles, face shields, and respirators, i.e., N95 or FFP2). PPE protects medical professionals from illness, infections [from virus or bacteria]. The PPE cloth acts as a barrier with the capacity to prevent contaminants from entering the body through respiratory secretions, blood, and bodily fluids.Masks can protect healthy people from illness by limiting the spread of respiratory droplets and aerosols.
Types:
Categories of fibers, fabrics and materials There are four different groups of fibers, fabrics and materials used in medical textile products.
Different types of fibers and manufacturing systems are utilized for the production of the various medical textile products.
Extracorporeal devices category Extracorporeal devices are the artificial organs that remain outside the body while treating a patient. Extracorporeal devices are useful in hemodialysis and cardiac surgery.
Types:
Implantable materials category Implants are medical devices used to replace a missing biological structure, to sustain a damaged biological structure, or to improve an existing biological structure. In contrast to a transplant, which is biomedical tissue that has been transplanted, medical implants are man-made devices such as artificial ligaments and vascular grafts, etc.: 148 Non-implantable materials category Non-implantable materials are used externally and may or may not contact skin. For example, bandages, plaster, orthopedic belts, pressure garments, etc.: 147, 148 Hygiene and healthcare products category The term "hygiene and healthcare products" refers to a variety of materials used to maintain the hygiene, safety, and care of medical professionals and patients.: 157 Surgical drapes, gowns, uniforms, clothing, caps, wipes, masks, and hospital bed linens are all included in this category
Properties:
Products made from medical textiles are specially engineered textile-based products used in medical applications. These products are used for prevention, care, and hygiene purposes. A combination of properties are considered while selecting the materials, which largely depends upon the particular use. The materials used in medical textile products must have the following properties: strength, softness, biocompatibility, elasticity, flexibility, nontoxicity, noncarcinogenic, non-allergenic, and air and water permeability.: 136, 137 Biotextiles are constructions made of textile fibers that are employed in both implantable and non-implant applications. Their performance is assessed according to their biofunctionality, biocompatibility, and biostability. For example, biostability in the presence of body fluids and cells.
Material and technologies:
Fibers Overview Medical devices are commonly made in whole or part from fibers. A medical device is defined as any device intended for medical purposes. It could be a machine, a reagent for use in the lab, software, an appliance, an instrument, or an implant. For medical use, fiber selection is based on certain criteria of intended use. Primarily, fibers are chosen on the basis of their biodegradability or non-biodegradability. Other than biodegradability, strength, elasticity, and absorbency are also considered.
Material and technologies:
Natural fibers Natural fibers such as cotton, silk, and viscose (a regenerated cellulosic fiber) are used in hygiene and healthcare products, as well as non-implantable materials. Polyester, nylon, polypropylene, glass, and carbon are all examples of synthetic fibers used in Medical textiles.: 136 Fibers absorbed within three months by our biological system are considered biodegradable, and fibers that require more than six months to absorb are called non-biodegradable. These fibers are categorized as below:: 136, 137 PLA and PGA fibers Polylactic acid, also called PLA, is a biodegradable, biosorbable or bioabsorbable polymer used in producing many type of implants such as naturally dissolving stents.: 140 Polyglycolide or polyglycolic acid, also called PGA, is a biodegradable and thermoplastic polymer. PGA suture is categorized as an absorbable synthetic braided multifilament.
Material and technologies:
Other polymers Recent developments The term "medical textile" refers to various products made of textile materials (fiber, yarn, or fabric) that are used in the medical environment. Although both natural and synthetic fibers are used in medical textiles, properties such as modulus of elasticity, tensile strength, and hardness are mostly fixed factors in natural fibers, and have proven to be more manageable in synthetic fibers.: 2 Recent fiber developments have a significant impact on four primary areas of medical textiles: hygiene products, implants, non-implantable medical textiles, and extracorporeal medical textiles.Medical textiles serve as a bridge between biological sciences and engineering.: xxxiii The advancement of materials science and related research has resulted in the introduction of new fiber materials and manufacturing processes for the medical sector. As a result of new technologies such as 3D printing, electrospinning and melt blowing technology in textiles, medical professions now have access to a diverse choice of textile materials with varying designs and qualities.Melt blowing is a well-established technology for fabricating micro- and nanofibers, in which a polymer melt is extruded via small nozzles surrounded by a high-speed blowing gas. Melt-blown microfibers typically have a fiber diameter of 2–4 μm, but can be as small as 0.3–0.6 μm or as large as 15–20 μm. Melt blowing technology helps in producing filtering products such as N95 masks, and female hygiene products.Medical textiles use tubular fabrics with carefully chosen materials that are biocompatible, nonallergic, and nontoxic. For example, Dyneema, PTFE, Polyester, and Teflon are used for implants. The material type varies depending on the implant area; for example, Polytetrafluoroethylene is preferred for stent implants due to its non-stick properties, while polyolefin is used for mesh implants.Vectran, a manufactured fiber from liquid-crystal polymer, is used in producing medical devices, for example, implants and certain surgical devices.Intelligent textiles can be used for disease management as well as remote monitoring.: 373 Intelligent textiles can monitor heart rate and blood pressure, which are critical components of medical diagnosis, and controlling them considerably reduces the incidence of serious health disorders. Movement patterns and electroencephalograms are used to diagnose neurological illnesses and to guide treatment decisions.: 375 Phase-change materials are helpful in medical textiles because they can be utilized to reheat hypothermia patients softly and precisely. Additionally, the PCM can be incorporated therapeutically into elastic wraps or orthopedic joint supports. It makes it easy to provide heat or cold therapy to joints or muscles while wearing a bandage.: 54, 55 Materials with shape-memory polymers that have the capabilities of temperature adaptive moisture management can improve the thermo-physiological comfort of patients.Nonwoven fabrics with two or more fibers layers are widely used in a variety of applications, including tissue engineering scaffolds, wipes, wound dressings, and barrier materials.Microfluidic spinning technology is used for fabricating many type of fibers. Due to its ease of manipulation, high efficiency, controllability, and environmentally friendly chemical process, microfluidic systems have been identified as an appropriate microreactor platform for the production of anisotropic fibers.
Applications:
Medical textiles cover a vast area of application that includes wound care, disease management, preventive clothing, bandages, hygiene (hospital linen), etc. Medical textiles are useful in first aid, treating a wound or keeping a wound or illness in the right condition during medical treatment, they also helps in protecting the healthcare workers from Infection and infectious diseases.
Applications:
Wound care Knitting, weaving, braiding, crocheting, composite materials, and non-woven technologies are all different fabric manufacturing systems used in contemporary wound care. Research subjects in medical textiles include materials and products with significantly superior attributes produced using advanced technology and novel methodologies. New medical textiles are an emerging field with significant growth in wound treatment products. These are all important characteristics of wound care fibers and dressings. They are non-toxic, non-allergic, absorbent, hemostatic, biocompatible, breathable, and non-toxic. They also have good mechanical properties. Chitosan, Alginate, Collagen, branan ferulate, and carbon fiber-based goods offer numerous advantages over conventional materials. Materials used in wound care also include foams, hydrogels, films, hydrocolloids, and matrix (tissue engineering).
Applications:
Tissue engineering Textile technologies are now being considered for biofabrication. The physical and chemical properties of fibers, the size of the pores, and the strength of the fabric all play a role in how textile technologies can be used in tissue engineering. Fibrous structures can be made and shaped with textile technology to meet the needs of a wide range of tissue engineering applications. Tissue engineering is the process of putting together scaffolds, cells, and biologically active molecules to make functional tissues.
Applications:
It is possible to make meter-long core-shell hydrogel microfibers that contain ECM proteins and mature cells or somatic stem cells in a microfluidic device. and these microfibers have the morphologies and functions of live tissues. The fibers also have the potential to be reeled and spin or weave Electrospinning can produce nanofibers with a range of desired fine microns that is usable to make nano- and submicron-sized fibrous scaffolds from polymer solutions that could be used as cell and tissue substrates.
Applications:
Biomedical scaffolds Hydrogel fibers are used to construct scaffolds for the development of cells and the release of drugs.
Applications:
Antimicrobial dressing Chitosan may function as an inhibitor of bacterial and fungal development. In 2003, the United States Food and Drug Administration approved chitosan-based wound dressings for medical use. Combat medics use Hemcon dressings, which is a dressing with Chitosan, to treat wounds because it stops the blood flow with its hemostasis properties. Chitosan hemostatic agents are salts formed when chitosan is combined with an organic acid (lactic acid, or Succinic acid). The hemostatic agent operates by interacting with the erythrocytes' (negatively charged) cell membrane and the protonated chitosan (positively charged), resulting in platelet involvement and fast thrombus formation. When the bandage comes into contact with blood, it becomes sticky, creating an adhesive-like effect that seals the cut.
Applications:
Surgical suture thread Materials in surgical sutures are textile based products. Suture material is frequently subdivided into absorbable thread and non-absorbable thread, and then into synthetic fibers and natural fibers. Whether a suture material is monofilament or polyfilament is an additional critical distinction.
Applications:
Bandages A bandage is a piece of fabric used to cover, dress, and bind wounds. Bandages are typically manufactured from various textile materials. The dressing or splint is held in place using a bandage. Bandages are also used for medical purposes (strengthening and compressing) to support and restrict specific body parts.: 142 Compression bandages Compression bandages are used to apply pressure while directed pressure is used to treat lymphatic disease or venous disease,: 111, 241 such as in the treatment of deep vein thrombosis.: 142 The most common classifications for compression bandages are inelastic and elastic.
Applications:
Antimicrobial textiles Antimicrobial textiles are the textile materials (fibers, yarns and fabrics) treated with antimicrobial agents, they are used in hygiene care. Antimicrobial treated textiles either kill the bacteria or inhibit the growth of microorganisms. The exemplary products are wipes, gowns, Odorless clothes, etc. Antimicrobial scrubs are hospital garments treated with anti bacterial chemicals. Their primary objective is to prevent the spread of hazardous microorganisms between healthcare staff and between patients. The applied chemicals work differently, for example, chemical binds to the microbe's DNA, effectively rendering reproduction impossible. Some antimicrobial chemicals dissolve the protein necessary for their growth, there are antimicrobials which attack specific bacteria such as Staphylococcus, Salmonella, and Escherichia coli.
Applications:
Antiviral textiles Antiviral textiles are an extension of antimicrobial surfaces. These surfaces, which have antiviral capabilities, may be able to inactivate lipid-coated viruses. Polyhexamethylene biguanide (PHMB) treated CVC fabric (fabric with chief value cotton) kills 94% of the coronavirus in two hours. Henceforth, it is suitable for PPE for health workers. Chitosan, a natural polymer that is biocompatible, non-allergenic, biodegradable, and non-toxic, was also looked at for its antiviral properties. The chitosan-based compound also shows efficacy against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 and cotton fabrics treated with copper along with chitosan and citric acid. The treated material sustains the antiviral properties five to ten home laundry washes.
Applications:
Medical gowns Medical gowns are a kind of PPE for medical professionals. Gowns are a component of a comprehensive infection-control approach. They protect the wearer from getting sick or getting infected if they come into contact with liquids or solids that could be contagious or harmful. Operating room gowns, surgical gowns, isolation gowns, nonsurgical gowns, and procedural gowns are all terms used to describe different gowns used in health care settings. The names of products are not standardized. The specifications of the products are important. ANSI/AAMI PB70 specifies a classification system for protective gear [including isolation gowns and surgical gowns] used in healthcare facilities in the United States based on its liquid barrier performance. Quality requirements for various gowns include seam strength, lint generation, tear resistance, evaporative resistance, and breathability. ASTM International [ASTM F2407] guidelines include a list of them which are approved by FDA.These gowns are either impermeable or made of a densely woven, water-resistant fabric. 510(K) is a premarket submission made to the Food and Drug Administration in order to demonstrate that the device to be sold is safe and effective. Surgical and surgical isolation gowns are regulated by the FDA as Class II medical devices that require a 510(k). Non-surgical gowns are class I medical devices that do not need a 510(k) clearance.The different levels are categorized as follows: Some more examples of medical textile applications in the medical environment include the following: Surgical mask is a mouth and nose cover against bacterial aerosols, these are often used for a particular purpose.
Applications:
N95 respirators masks were one of the most effective means of protection against the coronavirus.
Personal protective equipment or PPE protects the wearer from health hazards. For example, Viral barrier gowns can protect against viruses of nanometer size.
Implants, textile based implants, surgical meshes, hernia repair, and regenerative medicines.: 135–139 Odor control materials for medical purposes.: 163 Drug loaded and drug releasing materials.: 177, 182 Bandages: 113 Compression garments.: 119 | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**V&A Digital Futures**
V&A Digital Futures:
V&A Digital Futures is a series of events organized by the Victoria and Albert Museum (V&A) in the area of digital art.
V&A Digital Futures:
Digital Futures events are organized by Irini Papadimitriou of the V&A, who started the events in 2012, some at the V&A museum itself and some elsewhere around London especially but also elsewhere in the United Kingdom. Some Digital Futures events have been held in conjunction with the annual EVA London conference. There are some associated publications.The V&A museum has a significant collection of computer art. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Snub trioctagonal tiling**
Snub trioctagonal tiling:
In geometry, the order-3 snub octagonal tiling is a semiregular tiling of the hyperbolic plane. There are four triangles, one octagon on each vertex. It has Schläfli symbol of sr{8,3}.
Images:
Drawn in chiral pairs, with edges missing between black triangles:
Related polyhedra and tilings:
This semiregular tiling is a member of a sequence of snubbed polyhedra and tilings with vertex figure (3.3.3.3.n) and Coxeter–Dynkin diagram . These figures and their duals have (n32) rotational symmetry, being in the Euclidean plane for n=6, and hyperbolic plane for any higher n. The series can be considered to begin with n=2, with one set of faces degenerated into digons.
Related polyhedra and tilings:
From a Wythoff construction there are ten hyperbolic uniform tilings that can be based from the regular octagonal tiling. Drawing the tiles colored as red on the original faces, yellow at the original vertices, and blue along the original edges, there are 10 forms. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Harvest**
Harvest:
Harvesting is the process of collecting plants, animals, or fish as food. Reaping is the cutting of grain or pulse for harvest, typically using a scythe, sickle, or reaper. On smaller farms with minimal mechanization, harvesting is the most labor-intensive activity of the growing season. On large mechanized farms, harvesting uses the most expensive and sophisticated farm machinery, such as the combine harvester. Process automation has increased the efficiency of both the seeding and harvesting processes. Specialized harvesting equipment utilizing conveyor belts to mimic gentle gripping and mass-transport replaces the manual task of removing each seedling by hand. The term "harvesting" in general usage may include immediate postharvest handling, including cleaning, sorting, packing, and cooling.
Harvest:
The completion of harvesting marks the end of the growing season, or the growing cycle for a particular crop, and the social importance of this event makes it the focus of seasonal celebrations such as harvest festivals, found in many religions.
Etymology:
"Harvest", a noun, came from the Old English word hærf-est (coined before the Angles moved from Angeln to Britain) meaning "autumn" (the season), "harvest-time", or "August". (It continues to mean "autumn" in British dialect, and "season of gathering crops" generally.) "The harvest" came to also mean the activity of reaping, gathering, and storing grain and other grown products during the autumn, and also the grain and other grown products themselves. "Harvest" was also verbified: "To harvest" means to reap, gather, and store the harvest (or the crop). People who harvest and equipment that harvests are harvesters; while they do it, they are harvesting.
Crop failure:
Crop failure (also known as harvest failure) is an absent or greatly diminished crop yield relative to expectation, caused by the plants being damaged, killed, or destroyed, or affected in some way that they fail to form edible fruit, seeds, or leaves in their expected abundance.
Crop failures can be caused by catastrophic events such as plant disease outbreaks (such as the Great Famine in Ireland), heavy rainfall, volcanic eruptions, storms, floods, or drought, or by slow, cumulative effects of soil degradation, too-high soil salinity, erosion, desertification, usually as results of drainage, overdrafting (for irrigation), overfertilization, or overexploitation.
In history, crop failures and subsequent famines have triggered human migration, rural exodus, etc.
Crop failure:
The proliferation of industrial monocultures, with their reduction in crop diversity and dependence on heavy use of artificial fertilizers and pesticides, has led to overexploited soils that are nearly incapable of regeneration. Over years, unsustainable farming of land degrades soil fertility and diminishes crop yield. With a steadily-increasing world population and local overpopulation, even slightly diminishing yields are already the equivalent to a partial harvest failure. Fertilizers obviate the need for soil regeneration in the first place, and international trade prevents local crop failures from developing into famines.
Other uses:
Harvesting commonly refers to grain and produce, but also has other uses: fishing and logging are also referred to as harvesting. The term harvest is also used in reference to harvesting grapes for wine. Within the context of irrigation, water harvesting refers to the collection and run-off of rainwater for agricultural or domestic uses. Instead of harvest, the term exploit is also used, as in exploiting fisheries or water resources. Energy harvesting is the process of capturing and storing energy (such as solar power, thermal energy, wind energy, salinity gradients, and kinetic energy) that would otherwise go unexploited. Body harvesting, or cadaver harvesting, is the process of collecting and preparing cadavers for anatomical study. In a similar sense, organ harvesting is the removal of tissues or organs from a donor for purposes of transplanting.
Other uses:
In a non-agricultural sense, the word "harvesting" is an economic principle which is known as an exit event or liquidity event. For example, if a person or business was to cash out of an ownership position in a company or eliminate their investment in a product, it is known as a harvest strategy.
Other uses:
Canada Harvesting or Domestic Harvesting in Canada refers to hunting, fishing, and plant gathering by First Nations, Métis, and Inuit in discussions of aboriginal or treaty rights. For example, in the Gwich'in Comprehensive Land Claim Agreement, "Harvesting means gathering, hunting, trapping or fishing ...". Similarly, in the Tlicho Land Claim and Self Government Agreement, "'Harvesting' means, in relation to wildlife, hunting, trapping or fishing and, in relation to plants or trees, gathering or cutting." | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**MAP2K7**
MAP2K7:
Dual specificity mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 7, also known as MAP kinase kinase 7 or MKK7, is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the MAP2K7 gene. This protein is a member of the mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase family. The MKK7 protein exists as six different isoforms with three possible N-termini (α, β, and γ isoforms) and two possible C-termini (1 and 2 isoforms).MKK7 is involved in signal transduction mediating the cell responses to proinflammatory cytokines, and environmental stresses. This kinase specifically activates MAPK8/JNK1 and MAPK9/JNK2, and this kinase itself is phosphorylated and activated by MAP kinase kinase kinases including MAP3K1/MEKK1, MAP3K2/MEKK2, MAP3K3/MEKK5, and MAP4K2/GCK.MKK7 is ubiquitously expressed in all tissue. However, it displays a higher level of expression in skeletal muscle. Multiple alternatively spliced transcript variants encoding distinct isoforms have been found.
Nomenclature:
MAP2K7 is also known as: MKK7 JNK-activated kinase 2 MAPK/ERK kinase 7 (MEK7) Stress-activated protein kinase kinase 4 (SAPK kinase 4, SAPKK4) c-Jun N-terminal kinase kinase 2 (JNK kinase 2, JNKK2) Stress-activated / extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase kinase 2 (SEK2)
Isoforms:
The murine MKK7 protein is encoded by 14 exons which can be alternatively spliced to yield a group of protein kinases. This results in six isoforms with three possible N-termini (α, β, and γ isoforms) and two possible C-termini (1 and 2 isoforms). The molecular mass of the isoforms spans from 38 to 52 kDa, with between 345 and 467 amino acids.The physiological relevance of the different MKK7 isoforms is still unclear. Evidence shows that the MKK7α, which lacks an NH2-terminal extension, shows a lower basal activity in binding JNK compared to the MKKβ and γ isoforms. The increased basal activity in the β and γ isoforms can be due to the three D-motifs present in the N-terminus of these isoforms.
Structure and function:
D-motifs MKK7 has three conserved D-motifs (MAPK-recruiting short linear motifs) on its intrinsically disordered N-terminus. D-motifs typically consist of a cluster of positively charged amino acids followed by alternating hydrophobic amino acids. D-motifs are strictly required for the recruitment of MAPKK substrates, such as JNK. The kinase domains of MAPKs contain certain surface features, such as the so-called common docking (CD) region, alongside the docking (D) groove, that specifically recognize their cognate D-motifs. The D-motifs found in MKK7 are highly specific for JNKs, but have a relatively low binding affinity. It was suggested that the motifs of MKK7 can synergize with each other to provide an efficient substrate phosphorylation It has been shown that all three D-motifs are necessary for correct JNK1:MKK7 complex formations, and for the phosphorylation and activation of JNK1 by MKK7.
Structure and function:
DVD region A special extension to the C-terminal kinase domain core, the so-called "Domain for Versatile Docking" (DVD) is a region found in MKK7 as in most known MAP2Ks,. The DVD region is a stable, mostly helical fold of roughly 20 amino acids, that adds onto the back side of the catalytic core of the MAP2K kinase domains. This domain extension is both required for the specific binding to, and activation of MKK7 by respective upstream MAPKKKs. Other mitogen activated protein kinase kinases also require the DVD region (in addition to various other non-canonical elements of their kinase domains, like the "MKK1/2-loop") to be able to discriminate against the various MAPKKK upstream. These special MAPKK:MAPKKK kinase-domain/kinase-domain interactions facilitate the phosphorylation of MKK7. In addition to the activation of MKK7, binding to the DVD region may also affect the MKK7 activation loop in such a way that the Ser and Thr of the S-K-A-K-T motif become accessible for phosphorylation.
Structure and function:
Kinase domain The MKK7 contains one kinase domain. The direct MKK7:MAPKKK interaction (using the DVD region), facilitates the phosphorylation of MKK7 by MAPKKKs on serine and threonine in a S-K-A-K-T motif in the catalytic domain (kinase domain).
Signaling and regulation:
MKK7 play an important part in the stress-activated protein kinase/c-Jun N-terminal kinase (SAP/JNK) signaling pathway. In collaboration with another mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase MKK4, MKK7 work as crucial transducers upstream of JNK signaling. Through joint efforts the two MKKs phosphorylate different JNK isoforms. As a result, MKK7 has a great impact on numerous physiological processes such as proliferation and differentiation, as well as pathological processes such as apoptosis and tumorigenesis. MKK7 are activated as a result of cellular stresses. They are activated by a number of MKKKs through phosphorylation at a S-K-A-K-T motif located in the MKK7s kinase domain. The MKKKs relate to MKK7 through its DVD site at the C-terminus and phosphorylate MKK7 at serine and threonine residues. Once activated, MKK4 and MKK7 directly phosphorylate specific tyrosine and threonine residues located in the conserved T-P-Y motif of the activation loop of the JNK protein. Although MKK7 act through dual specificity it tends to phosphorylate threonine on JNK protein, leaving MKK4 to phosphorylate tyrosine. Phosphorylated and activated JNKs activate substrates like transcription factors or pro-apoptotic protein. MKK7 and MKK4 seem to be regulating the expression of each other, thereby affecting the JNK signaling. The mono-phosphorylation of JNK on a threonine residue is adequate for the increase in JNK activity, which argues that MKK7 is an important constituent for JNK activity, while the additional phosphorylation of the tyrosine residue by MKK4 provide for a more favorable activation. Overall, MAP2K7 contains multiple amino acid sites that are phosphorylated and ubiquitinated.
Signaling and regulation:
Scaffold proteins In addition to the direct interactions between JNK, MKK7 and other upstream protein kinases, various scaffold proteins function to ensure specificity between the components of the MAPK signaling cascade. Different JNK isoforms, MAPK, and MAPKKs (e.g., MKK7 or MKK4) bind specifically to the scaffold proteins. Several mammalian scaffold proteins have been identified. These include the JNK-interacting protein (JIP) 1 and its closerly-related homolog, JIP2 or the (completely unrelated) JIP3 and JIP4 proteins. Nevertheless, JIP1/2 and JIP3/4 were shown to be capable of direct interaction with each other. Plenty of Src-homology-3 (POSH) has also been shown to be a partner of JIP1/2.All these JNK pathway regulators assemble transport complexes, tied to kinesin-dependent vesicular transport. In this context, JIP1/2 act as cargo adaptors, binding to a motor protein and a cargo protein simultaneously. In addition to their "normal" cargoes (C-termini of transmembrane proteins), they also transport MAP2K and MAP3K enzymes, namely MKK7, DLK and MLK3. Kinases bound to the JIP1/2 scaffold are generally sequestrated and thought to be inactive. Since the cargo-linkage mechanism of this complex is believed to be phosphporylation-dependent, phosphorylation by JNK kinase can release its own upstream activators from the scaffold, thus driving a strong local positive feedback loop.
Interactions:
MAP2K7 has been shown to interact with:
Biological relevance:
MKK7 is involved in the development of epithelial tissues such as skin and lungs, and also the developing teeth, during early embryogenesis in mice. Experiments also indicate that MKK7 in addition to MKK4 are required for mammalian body plan organization during embryogenesis. MKK7 has also been suggested to function as a putative Metastase Suppressor Gene (MSG) by possibly promoting tumor dormancy at the metastatic site. In small mammals, stress like pressure overload can cause cardiac hypertrophy and failure if MKK7 is knocked out. Conditional deletion of Map2k7 in neural stem cells and postmitotic neurons identified a role for MKK7 in axonal elongation. Neuron-specific deletion of Map2k7 showed a role for MKK7 in age-dependent motor dysfunction. Genetic variations in MAP2K7 have been associated with schizophrenia in humans. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Microsoft Silverlight**
Microsoft Silverlight:
Microsoft Silverlight is a discontinued application framework designed for writing and running rich internet applications, similar to Adobe's runtime, Adobe Flash. A plugin for Silverlight is still available for a very small number of browsers. While early versions of Silverlight focused on streaming media, later versions supported multimedia, graphics, and animation, and gave support to developers for CLI languages and development tools. Silverlight was one of the two application development platforms for Windows Phone, but web pages using Silverlight did not run on the Windows Phone or Windows Mobile versions of Internet Explorer, as there was no Silverlight plugin for Internet Explorer on those platforms.Microsoft terminated support for Silverlight on Internet Explorer 11 (the last remaining web browser still supporting Silverlight) on October 12, 2021. It is supported on Windows 8.1 and later and Windows Server 2012 and later, and e.g. Windows Embedded POSReady 7 and Windows Thin PC, while e.g. Windows 7 and earlier do not get security updates.
History:
Introduction From the initial launch in 2007, reviewers compared the product to (since discontinued) Adobe's Flash.
Adoption According to statowl.com, Microsoft Silverlight had a penetration of 64.2% in May 2011. Usage on July 2010 was 53.6%, whereas as of May 2011 market leader Adobe Flash was installed on 95.3% of browsers, and Java was supported on 76.5% of browsers. Support of these plugins is not mutually exclusive; one system can support all three.
History:
Silverlight was used to provide video streaming for the NBC coverage of the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, and the 2008 conventions for both major United States political parties. Silverlight was also used by Amazon Video and Netflix for their instant video streaming services, but Netflix said in its Tech Blog in 2013 that, since Microsoft had announced Silverlight's end-of-life, they would be moving to HTML5 video.
History:
Demise Industry observers announced the death of Silverlight as early as 2011. Internally, even proponents of the technology thought Extensible Application Markup Language as a concept was a bad idea from the start.In 2012, Microsoft deprecated Silverlight for HTML5 in Windows 8, but as of the beginning of 2015, it was not clear what Microsoft's official position was on Silverlight's future. In July 2015, a Microsoft blog post clarified that, "… we encourage companies that are using Silverlight for media to begin the transition to DASH/MSE/CENC/EME based designs". Microsoft planned to terminate Silverlight support on October 12, 2021. Support for IE7–8 was removed between 2014 and 2016, depending on the OS. Support for IE9 and IE10 has also ended "or though [sic] the support lifecycle of the underlying browsers, whichever is shorter." There is no Silverlight plugin available for Microsoft Edge. It has not been supported by Google Chrome since September 2015 or by Firefox since March 2017.As of February 2022, about 0.02% of sites used Silverlight, less than 1.5% used the also discontinued Adobe Flash Player, and less than 0.013% use Java client-side (while 3.7% use Java server-side).
Overview:
Silverlight provides a retained mode graphics system similar to Windows Presentation Foundation (WPF), and integrates multimedia, graphics, animations, and interactivity into a single run-time environment. In Silverlight applications, user interfaces are declared in Extensible Application Markup Language (XAML) and programmed using a subset of the .NET Framework. XAML can be used for marking up the vector graphics and animations. Silverlight can also be used to create Windows Sidebar gadgets for Windows Vista.Silverlight supports H.264 video, Advanced Audio Coding, Windows Media Video (WMV), Windows Media Audio (WMA), and MPEG Layer III (MP3) media content across all supported browsers without requiring Windows Media Player, the Windows Media Player ActiveX control, or Windows Media browser plug-ins. Because Windows Media Video 9 is an implementation of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers (SMPTE) VC-1 standard, Silverlight also supports VC-1 video. According to the end user license agreement VC-1 and H.264 are only licensed for the "personal and non-commercial use of a consumer". Silverlight makes it possible to dynamically load Extensible Markup Language (XML) content that can be manipulated through a Document Object Model (DOM) interface, a technique that is consistent with conventional Ajax techniques. Silverlight exposes a Downloader object which can be used to download content, like scripts, media assets, or other data, as may be required by the application. With version 2, the programming logic can be written in any .NET language, including some nuclear evolution of common dynamic programming languages like IronRuby and IronPython.A free software implementation (now abandoned) named Moonlight, developed by Novell in cooperation with Microsoft, was released to bring Silverlight version 1 and 2 functionality to Linux, FreeBSD, and other open source platforms, although some Linux distributions did not include it, citing redistribution and patent concerns. However, in May 2012, Moonlight was abandoned because of its lack of popularity.
Supported platforms:
Over the course of about five years, Microsoft had released five versions with varying platform support: the first version was released in 2007, and the fifth (and final) major version on May 8, 2012. It is compatible with later versions of Internet Explorer web browser on Microsoft Windows (except Windows RT) operating systems, with Safari on Apple macOS, and with mobile devices using the Windows Mobile and Symbian (Series 60) platforms.
Supported platforms:
Cross-platform Mozilla Firefox support for Silverlight was removed in Firefox 52 released in March 2017 when Mozilla removed support for NPAPI plugins, bringing it in-line with the removal of NPAPI plugin support in Google Chrome.
Desktop computers Silverlight requires an x86 processor with Streaming SIMD Extensions (SSE) support. Supported processors include the Intel Pentium III and up, the AMD Athlon XP and up, and newer AMD Durons.
The following table presents an availability and compatibility matrix of Silverlight versions for various operating systems and web browsers.
Support for Opera had been promised since May 3, 2007, when David Storey, the Chief Web Opener at Opera, revealed a Microsoft poster for MIX conference that had shown Opera integration as a part of Silverlight 1.1. However, Opera was never officially supported by Silverlight.
Supported platforms:
On Linux and FreeBSD, the functionality was available via Moonlight and Pipelight, though both projects have since been discontinued. Moonlight is available for the major Linux distributions, with support for Firefox, Konqueror, and Opera browsers, provided it was obtained through Novell. Miguel de Icaza has expressed an interest in working with developers from other operating systems (BSD, Solaris) and other browsers (Konqueror, WebKit and Opera) to ensure that Moonlight works fine on their systems. Availability of Moonlight version 1.0 for FreeBSD was announced in March 2009, but has since been reported not to actually work.
Supported platforms:
As of 2011, the current version of Moonlight (4 Preview 1) does not officially work on new versions of Firefox (newer than 3.x) on Linux-based operating systems. However, it can be installed in an unofficial way (for example using the Add-on Compatibility Reporter Archived May 1, 2012, at the Wayback Machine add-on) and with Firefox 11 it works correctly when installed. As noted above, the Moonlight project was abandoned in May 2012.
Supported platforms:
A browser plugin named Pipelight used to provide Silverlight access. Pipelight requires browser support for NPAPI plugins, which newer versions of Firefox, Chrome, and Opera have dropped. As of 2018, the Pipelight project has been discontinued.
Mobile devices Silverlight was not available on Android or iOS, the most prevalent operating systems on the mobile market.
Supported platforms:
Silverlight was the primary development environment for Windows Phone (that is by now discontinued) and is based on Silverlight 4. For previous versions of Windows Mobile, the first Community Technology Preview (CTP) for Windows Mobile 6 was expected in the second quarter of 2008, but it still has not been officially announced. Microsoft has stopped focusing on bringing Silverlight to Windows Mobile 6.x. Nokia announced plans to make Silverlight for Mobile available for S60 on Symbian OS, as well as for Series 40 devices and Nokia internet tablets (while it later sold the business to Microsoft and now sells Android tablets and will sell Alcatel-Lucent branded smartphones). Silverlight for Mobile supports Silverlight 2 content and .NET languages. Silverlight for Windows Phone 7.5 is based on Silverlight 4.
Development tools:
Silverlight applications could be written in any .NET programming language. As such, any development tools which can be used with .NET languages can work with Silverlight, provided they can target the Silverlight CoreCLR for hosting the application, instead of the .NET Framework CLR. Microsoft has positioned Microsoft Expression Blend as a companion tool to Visual Studio for the design of Silverlight User Interface applications. Visual Studio can be used to develop and debug Silverlight applications. To create Silverlight projects and let the compiler target CoreCLR, Visual Studio requires the Silverlight Tools for Visual Studio.A Silverlight control is a ZIP format file with extension .XAP containing a list of one or more .NET managed assemblies (.DLL files) along with the AppManifest.XAML file containing this list along with the entry point (class and assembly). It can be hosted in any HTML file using an object tag, for example: A Silverlight project contains the Silverlight.js and CreateSilverlight.js files which initializes the Silverlight plug-in for use in HTML pages, a XAML file for the UI, and code-behind files for the application code. Silverlight applications are debugged in a manner similar to ASP.NET applications. Visual Studio's CLR Remote Cross Platform Debugging feature can be used to debug Silverlight applications running on a different platform as well.In conjunction with the release of Silverlight 2, Eclipse was added as a development tool option.
Licensing:
An April 2007 PC World report, suggested that Microsoft intended to release certain parts of Silverlight source code as open source software, but a week later Sam Ramji, director of platform technology strategy at Microsoft, contradicted the rumors by confirming that the company had no plans to open Silverlight. Some controls that ship with Silverlight are available under the Microsoft Public License as a part of a separate project known as the Silverlight Toolkit.Silverlight's proprietary nature is a concern to competition since it may harm the open nature of the World Wide Web. Advocates of free software are also concerned Silverlight could be another example of Microsoft's embrace, extend, and extinguish strategy. Both Microsoft Silverlight and Adobe Flash are proprietary. Flash's file formats are publicly documented standards, as are Silverlight's. Silverlight, like other web technologies, uses patent-encumbered audio and video codecs.
Mono Moonlight implementation:
The Mono Team abandoned development of Moonlight, a free and open-source implementation of both the Silverlight 1 and 2 runtimes. Development was discontinued in 2012 due to the poor acceptance of Silverlight and the restrictions imposed by Microsoft.The project had been officially supported by Microsoft which, under an agreement with Novell, made not-publicly-available additional specifications, access to the Silverlight Base Class Library APIs, binary codecs and test cases available to the Mono team.The "covenant" under which Novell was granted this exclusive access also specified conditions incompatible with the licensing that covers most free and open source software. As examples, it specifically required that the software must have been "obtained directly from Novell or through an Intermediate Recipient" and that it must be "not licensed under GPLv3 or a Similar License". Some free software proponents criticized the covenant.Silverlight was criticized for not living up to its cross-platform operating system compatibility promises, especially on Linux systems, compared to its extensive support on Apple and Microsoft desktops for Internet Explorer, Firefox, and Chrome. Although Microsoft was officially collaborating on the Moonlight project, Bruce Chizen, CEO of Adobe Systems, which sells the competing proprietary Flash platform, questioned "the commitment of Microsoft to keep the Silverlight platform compatible with other OS besides Windows". His concerns are based on "examples from history" where he said that Microsoft had launched products with promises of ongoing cross-platform compatibility that no longer apply, for example Internet Explorer for UNIX and Windows Media Player for Mac.
Relationship to existing web standards:
In 2007, California and several other U.S. states asked a district judge to extend most of Microsoft's antitrust case settlement for another five years, citing "a number of concerns, including the fear that Microsoft could use the next version of Windows to 'tilt the playing field' toward Silverlight, its new Adobe Flash competitor," says a Seattle Post-Intelligencer article. The final judgment on the motion extended the settlement two years, to November 2009, but for reasons unrelated to Silverlight.
Version history:
Silverlight 1 – Silverlight 1, developed under the codename Windows Presentation Foundation/Everywhere (WPF/E) was released in 2007. It consisted of the core presentation framework, which is responsible for the user interface (UI), interactivity and user input, basic UI controls, graphics and animation, media playback, Digital rights management (DRM), and DOM integration.
Silverlight 2 – Included a version of the .NET Framework and implemented the same full Common Language Runtime (CLR) version as .NET Framework 3.0, so it can execute programs written in any .NET language.
Version history:
Silverlight 3 – Silverlight 3 was announced on September 12, 2008, and unveiled at MIX09 in Las Vegas on March 18, 2009. A beta version was made available for download the same day. The final version was released July 9, 2009. Silverlight 3 included more controls—including DataGrid, TreeView, various layout panels, DataForm for forms-driven applications and DataPager for viewing paginated data.
Version history:
Silverlight 4 – On November 18, 2009, at the Professional Developers Conference in Los Angeles, Microsoft Corporation unveiled a Beta version of Silverlight 4. The final version was released on April 15, 2010 (along with Silverlight 4 tools for developers). New features in Silverlight 4 include: support for Google's Chrome browser, webcam and microphone, printing, more mouse support, new notification support to send messages to users, new and enhanced controls (e.g., RichTextBox, DataGrid), theming of controls, rendering HTML, better localization, etc.
Version history:
Silverlight 5 – The final version was made available to download on December 9, 2011. New features included GPU-accelerated video decoding, 3D graphics, playback speed controls, remote control, and 64-bit support. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Blinkbot**
Blinkbot:
BlinkBot is a wearable glasses system that detects the wearer's gaze and blink and use it to command a robot. The system was developed by Pranav Mistry of MIT Media Lab (and vice-president of Samsung Electronics since 2014) and Kentaro Ishii of JST and first published in 2010. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**L(a**
L(a:
"l(a" is a poem by E. E. Cummings. It is the first poem in his 1958 collection 95 Poems."l(a" is arranged vertically in groups of one to five letters. When the text is laid out horizontally, it either reads as l(a leaf falls)oneliness —in other words, a leaf falls inserted between the first two letters of loneliness- or l(a le af fa ll s) one l iness, with a le af fa ll s between a l and one.Cummings biographer Richard S. Kennedy calls the poem "the most delicately beautiful literary construct that Cummings ever created".
Analysis:
In analyzing the poem, Robert DiYanni notes that the image of a single falling leaf is a common symbol for loneliness, and that this sense of loneliness is enhanced by the structure of the poem. He writes that the fragmentation of the words "illustrates visually the separation that is the primary cause of loneliness". The fragmentation of the word loneliness is especially significant, since it highlights the fact that that word contains the word one. In addition, the isolated letter l can initially appear to be the numeral one. It creates the effect that the leaf is still one, or "oneliness" whole within itself, even after it is isolated from the tree. Robert Scott Root-Bernstein observes that the overall shape of the poem resembles a 1.
Adaptations:
Composers who have set this poem to music include: Peter Schickele in "Dim/l(a" (1967), for SATB chorus a cappella.
Maurice Wright in "l(a" (1978), for SSA chorus, trumpet, violoncello and piano.
Matthew DeFamio in "l(a (music)", for Horn in F and Piano. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Tracking system**
Tracking system:
A tracking system, also known as a locating system, is used for the observing of persons or objects on the move and supplying a timely ordered sequence of location data for further processing.
Applications:
A myriad of tracking systems exists. Some are 'lag time' indicators, that is, the data is collected after an item has passed a point for example a bar code or choke point or gate. Others are 'real-time' or 'near real-time' like Global Positioning Systems (GPS) depending on how often the data is refreshed. There are bar-code systems which require items to be scanned and automatic identification (RFID auto-id). For the most part, the tracking worlds are composed of discrete hardware and software systems for different applications. That is, bar-code systems are separate from Electronic Product Code (EPC) systems, GPS systems are separate from active real time locating systems or RTLS for example, a passive RFID system would be used in a warehouse to scan the boxes as they are loaded on a truck - then the truck itself is tracked on a different system using GPS with its own features and software. The major technology “silos” in the supply chain are: Distribution/warehousing/manufacturing Indoors assets are tracked repetitively reading e.g. a barcode, any passive and active RFID and feeding read data into Work in Progress models (WIP) or Warehouse Management Systems (WMS) or ERP software. The readers required per choke point are meshed auto-ID or hand-held ID applications.
Applications:
However tracking could also be capable of providing monitoring data without binding to a fixed location by using a cooperative tracking capability, e.g. an RTLS.
Applications:
Yard management Outdoors mobile assets of high value are tracked by choke point, 802.11, Received Signal Strength Indication (RSSI), Time Delay on Arrival (TDOA), active RFID or GPS Yard Management; feeding into either third party yard management software from the provider or to an existing system. Yard Management Systems (YMS) couple location data collected by RFID and GPS systems to help supply chain managers to optimize utilization of yard assets such as trailers and dock doors. YMS systems can use either active or passive RFID tags.
Applications:
Fleet management Fleet management is applied as a tracking application using GPS and composing tracks from subsequent vehicle's positions. Each vehicle to be tracked is equipped with a GPS receiver and relays the obtained coordinates via cellular or satellite networks to a home station. Fleet management is required by: Large fleet operators, (vehicle/railcars/trucking/shipping) Forwarding operators (containers, machines, heavy cargo, valuable shippings) Operators who have high equipment and/or cargo/product costs Operators who have a dynamic workload Person tracking Person tracking relies on unique identifiers that are temporarily (RFID tags) or permanently assigned to persons like personal identifiers (including biometric identifiers), or national identification numbers and a way to sample their positions, either on short temporal scales as through GPS or for public administration to keep track of a state's citizens or temporary residents. The purposes for doing so are numerous, for example from welfare and public security to mass surveillance.
Applications:
Attendance management Mobile phone services Location-based services (LBS) utilise a combination of A-GPS, newer GPS and cellular locating technology that is derived from the telematics and telecom world. Line of sight is not necessarily required for a location fix. This is a significant advantage in certain applications since a GPS signal can still be lost indoors. As such, A-GPS enabled cell phones and PDAs can be located indoors and the handset may be tracked more precisely. This enables non-vehicle centric applications and can bridge the indoor location gap, typically the domain of RFID and Real-time locating system (RTLS) systems, with an off the shelf cellular device.
Applications:
Currently, A-GPS enabled handsets are still highly dependent on the LBS carrier system, so handset device choice and application requirements are still not apparent. Enterprise system integrators need the skills and knowledge to correctly choose the pieces that will fit the application and geography.
Operational requirements:
Regardless of the tracking technology, for the most part the end-users just want to locate themselves or wish to find points of interest. The reality is that there is no "one size fits all" solution with locating technology for all conditions and applications.
Application of tracking is a substantial basis for vehicle tracking in fleet management, asset management, individual navigation, social networking, or mobile resource management and more. Company, group or individual interests can benefit from more than one of the offered technologies depending on the context.
Operational requirements:
GPS tracking GPS has global coverage but can be hindered by line-of-sight issues caused by buildings and urban canyons. RFID is excellent and reliable indoors or in situations where close proximity to tag readers is feasible, but has limited range and still requires costly readers. RFID stands for Radio Frequency Identification. This technology uses electromagnetic waves to receive the signal from the targeting object to then save the location on a reader that can be looked at through specialized software.
Operational requirements:
Real-time locating systems (RTLS) RTLS are enabled by Wireless LAN systems (according to IEEE 802.11) or other wireless systems (according to IEEE 802.15) with multilateration. Such equipment is suitable for certain confined areas, such as campuses and office buildings. RTLS requires system-level deployments and server functions to be effective.
In virtual space:
In virtual space technology, a tracking system is generally a system capable of rendering virtual space to a human observer while tracking the observer's coordinates. For instance, in dynamic virtual auditory space simulations, a head tracker provides information to a central processor in real time and this enables the processor to select what functions are necessary to give feedback to the user in relation to where they are positioned.Additionally, there is vision-based trajectory tracking, that uses a color and depth camera known as a KINECT sensor to track 3D position and movement. This technology can be used in traffic control, human-computer interface, video compression and robotics. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Phosphofructokinase deficiency**
Phosphofructokinase deficiency:
Phosphofructokinase deficiency is a rare muscular metabolic disorder, with an autosomal recessive inheritance pattern.
It may affect humans as well as other mammals (especially dogs). It was named after the Japanese physician Seiichiro Tarui (b. 1927), who first observed the condition in 1965.
Presentation:
In humans Human PFK deficiency is categorized into four types: classic, late-onset, infantile and hemolytic. These types are differentiated by age at which symptoms are observed and which symptoms present.
Presentation:
Classic form Classic phosphofructokinase deficiency is the most common type of this disorder. This type presents with exercise-induced muscle cramps and weakness (sometimes rhabdomyolysis), myoglobinuria, as well as with haemolytic anaemia causing dark urine a few hours later.Hyperuricemia is common, due to the kidneys' inability to process uric acid following damage resulting from processing myoglobin. Nausea and vomiting following strenuous exercise is another common indicator of classic PFK deficiency. Many patients will also display high levels of bilirubin, which can lead to a jaundiced appearance. Symptoms for this type of PFK deficiency usually appear in early childhood.
Presentation:
Late-onset form Late-onset PFK deficiency, as the name suggests, is a form of the disease that presents later in life. Common symptoms associated with late-onset phosphofructokinase deficiency are myopathy, weakness and fatigue. Many of the more severe symptoms found in the classic type of this disease are absent in the late-onset form.
Presentation:
Infantile form Phosphofructokinase deficiency also presents in a rare infantile form. Infants with this deficiency often display floppy infant syndrome (hypotonia), arthrogryposis, encephalopathy and cardiomyopathy. The disorder can also manifest itself in the central nervous system, usually in the form of seizures. PFK deficient infants also often have some type of respiratory issue. Survival rate for the infantile form of PFK deficiency is low, and the cause of death is often due to respiratory failure.
Presentation:
Hemolytic form The defining characteristic of this form of the disorder is hemolytic anemia, in which red blood cells break down prematurely. Muscle weakness and pain are not as common in patients with hemolytic PFK deficiency.
Presentation:
In dogs Presentation of the canine form of the disease is similar to that of the human form. Most notably, PFK deficient dogs have mild, but persistent, anemia with hemolytic episodes, exercise intolerance, hemoglobinuria, and pale or jaundiced mucous membranes. Muscle weakness and cramping are not uncommon symptoms, but they are not as common as they are in human PFKM deficiency.
Risk factors:
In humans In order to get Tarui's disease, both parents must be carriers of the genetic defect so that the child is born with the full form of the recessive trait. The best indicator of risk is a family member with PFK deficiency.
In dogs Canine phosphofructokinase deficiency is found mostly in English Springer Spaniels and American Cocker Spaniels, but has also been reported in Whippets and Wachtelhunds. Mixed-breed dogs descended from any of these breeds are also at risk to inherit PFK deficiency.
Pathophysiology:
Phosphofructokinase is a tetrameric enzyme that consists of three types of subunits: PFKL (liver), PFKM (muscle), and PFKP (platelet). The combination of these subunits varies depending on the tissue in question. In this condition, a deficiency of the M subunit (PFKM) of the phosphofructokinase enzyme impairs the ability of cells such as erythrocytes and rhabdomyocytes (skeletal muscle cells) to use carbohydrates (such as glucose) for energy. Unlike most other glycogen storage diseases, it directly affects glycolysis.
Pathophysiology:
The mutation impairs the ability of phosphofructokinase to phosphorylate fructose-6-phosphate prior to its cleavage into glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate which is the rate limiting step in the glycolysis pathway. Inhibition of this step prevents the formation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from adenosine diphosphate (ADP), which results in a lack of available energy for muscles during heavy exercise. This results in the muscle cramping and pain that are common symptoms of the disease.
Pathophysiology:
In humans Genetic mutation is the cause of phosphofructokinase deficiency. Several different mutations in the gene that encodes for PFKM have been reported in humans, but the result is production of PFKM subunits with little to no function. As a result, affected individuals display only about 50–65% of total normal phosphofructokinase enzyme function.
Pathophysiology:
In dogs PFK deficiency is believed to be the result of a nonsense mutation in the gene that encodes for PFKM. This results in an unstable, truncated protein that lacks normal function. This results in a near complete loss of PFKM activity in the skeletal muscle. Dogs with the mutation display 10–20% of normal PFK activity in their erythrocytes, due to a higher proportion of PFKM in those cells.
Diagnosis:
Symptoms of phosphofructokinase deficiency can closely resemble those of other metabolic diseases, include deficiencies of phosphoglycerate kinase, phosphoglycerate mutase, lactate dehydrogenase, beta-enolase and aldolase A. Thus, proper diagnosis is important to determine a treatment plan.
Diagnosis:
A diagnosis can be made through a muscle biopsy that shows excess glycogen accumulation. Glycogen deposits in the muscle are a result of the interruption of normal glucose breakdown that regulates the breakdown of glycogen. Blood tests are conducted to measure the activity of phosphofructokinase, which would be lower in a patient with this condition. Patients also commonly display elevated levels of creatine kinase.
Management:
Treatment usually entails that the patient refrain from strenuous exercise to prevent muscle pain and cramping. Avoiding carbohydrates is also recommended.A ketogenic diet also improved the symptoms of an infant with PFK deficiency. The logic behind this treatment is that the low-carb high fat diet forces the body to use fatty acids as a primary energy source instead of glucose. This bypasses the enzymatic defect in glycolysis, lessening the impact of the mutated PFKM enzymes. This has not been widely studied enough to prove if it is a viable treatment, but testing is continuing to explore this option.Genetic testing to determine whether or not a person is a carrier of the mutated gene is also available.
In dogs:
Diagnosis of canine phosphofructokinase deficiency is similar to the blood tests used in diagnosis of humans. Blood tests measuring the total erythrocyte PFK activity are used for definitive diagnosis in most cases. DNA testing for presence of the condition is also available.Treatment mostly takes the form of supportive care. Owners are advised to keep their dogs out of stressful or exciting situations, avoid high temperature environments and strenuous exercise. It is also important for the owner to be alert for any signs of a hemolytic episode. Dogs carrying the mutated form of the gene should be removed from the breeding population, in order to reduce incidence of the condition. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Leaf painting**
Leaf painting:
Leaf painting is the process of painting with dyed leaves. Deriving from Japan, China or India, it became popular in Vietnam. Its two main forms are: Cutting and pasting dry leaf to make leaf paintings or using paint to draw onto the surface of dry leaf to make leaf paintings.
Every product is unique, quite different from the others because of the leaves' veins, the forms, and the colors before or after dying. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**European Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging**
European Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging:
The European Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging (EJNMMI) is a peer-reviewed medical journal published by Springer. It is the official journal of the European Association of Nuclear Medicine. Since 1976, the EJNMMI has published material related to the field of nuclear medicine, including dosimetry, radiation biology, radiochemistry, radiopharmacology, molecular imaging probes, reporter gene assays, cell trafficking, targeting of endogenous gene expression, and antisense methodologies. As of 2021, the EJNMMI has an impact factor of 10.057.
Spin off:
In summer of 2011, Springer launched EJNMMI Research, a peer-reviewed open access journal, as a companion to the EJNMMI. It accommodates articles that could not be published in EJNMMI. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Isocupressic acid**
Isocupressic acid:
Isocupressic acid is a diterpene acid present in a variety of conifer needles. It induces abortion in cattle.
It is found in all parts of the ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), especially the needles. This gives its toxic and abortifacient effects. It is also present in the lodgepole pine (P. contorta), the jeffrey pine (P. jeffreyi) and possibly in the monterey pine (P. radiata). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**TIM (psychedelics)**
TIM (psychedelics):
TIM, or thioisomescaline, is a series of lesser-known psychedelic drugs similar in structure to mescaline. They were first synthesized by Alexander Shulgin. In his book PiHKAL (Phenethylamines i Have Known And Loved), none of their durations are known. Very little is known about their dangers or toxicity.
TIM compounds:
2-TIM Dosage: 240 mg or greater Duration: unknown Effects: Few to none, possible boosting of alcohol 3-TIM Dosage: 240 mg or greater Duration: unknown Effects: Few to none 4-TIM Dosage: 160 mg or greater Duration: unknown Effects: Few to none | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Hand sanitizer**
Hand sanitizer:
Hand sanitizer (also known as hand antiseptic, hand disinfectant, hand rub, or handrub) is a liquid, gel or foam generally used to kill many viruses/bacteria/microorganisms on the hands. In most settings, hand washing with soap and water is generally preferred. Hand sanitizer is less effective at killing certain kinds of germs, such as norovirus and Clostridium difficile, and unlike hand washing, it cannot physically remove harmful chemicals. People may incorrectly wipe off hand sanitizer before it has dried, and some are less effective because their alcohol concentrations are too low.Alcohol-based hand sanitizer that is at least 60% (v/v) alcohol in water (specifically, ethanol or isopropyl alcohol/isopropanol (rubbing alcohol)) is recommended by the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), but only if soap and water are not available. The CDC recommends the following steps when using an alcohol-based hand sanitizer: Apply product to the palm of one hand.
Hand sanitizer:
Rub hands together.
Rub the product over all surfaces of hands and fingers until hands are dry.
Hand sanitizer:
Do not go near flame or gas burner or any burning object during application of hand sanitizer.In most healthcare settings, alcohol-based hand sanitizers are preferable to hand washing with soap and water, because it may be better tolerated and is more effective at reducing bacteria. Hand washing with soap and water, however, should be carried out if contamination can be seen, or following the use of the toilet. The general use of non-alcohol-based hand sanitizers is not recommended.Alcohol-based versions typically contain some combination of isopropyl alcohol, ethanol (ethyl alcohol), or n-propanol, with versions containing 60% to 95% alcohol the most effective. Care should be taken as they are flammable. Alcohol-based hand sanitizer works against a wide variety of microorganisms but not spores. Compounds such as glycerol may be added to prevent drying of the skin. Some versions contain fragrances; however, these are discouraged due to the risk of allergic reactions. Non-alcohol based versions typically contain benzalkonium chloride or triclosan; but are less effective than alcohol-based ones.Alcohol has been used as an antiseptic at least as early as 1363 with evidence to support its use becoming available in the late 1800s. Alcohol-based hand sanitizer has been commonly used in Europe since at least the 1980s. The alcohol-based version is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.
Uses:
General public Alcohol-based hand sanitizers may not be effective if the hands are greasy or visibly soiled. In hospitals, the hands of healthcare workers are often contaminated with pathogens, but rarely soiled or greasy. In community settings, on the other hand, grease and soiling is common from activities such as handling food, playing sports, gardening, and being active outdoors. Similarly, contaminants like heavy metals and pesticides (generally found outdoors) cannot be removed by hand sanitizers. Hand sanitizers might also be swallowed by children, especially if brightly colored.Some commercially available hand sanitizers (and online recipes for homemade rubs) have alcohol concentrations that are too low. This makes them less effective at killing germs. Poorer people in developed countries and people in developing countries may find it harder to get a hand sanitizer with an effective alcohol concentration. Fraudulent labelling of alcohol concentrations has been a problem in Guyana.
Uses:
Schools The current evidence for the effectiveness of school hand hygiene interventions is of poor quality.In a 2020 Cochrane review comparing rinse-free hand washing to conventional soap and water techniques and the subsequent impact on school absenteeism found a small but beneficial effect on rinse-free hand washing on illness related absenteeism.
Uses:
Health care Hand sanitizers were first introduced in 1966 in medical settings such as hospitals and healthcare facilities. The product was popularized in the early 1990s.Alcohol-based hand sanitizer is more convenient compared to hand washing with soap and water in most situations in the healthcare setting. Among healthcare workers, it is generally more effective for hand antisepsis, and better tolerated than soap and water. Hand washing should still be carried out if contamination can be seen or following the use of the toilet.Hand sanitizer that contains at least 60% alcohol or contains a "persistent antiseptic" should be used. Alcohol rubs kill many different kinds of bacteria, including antibiotic resistant bacteria and TB bacteria. They also kill many kinds of viruses, including the flu virus, the common cold virus, coronaviruses, and HIV.90% alcohol rubs are more effective against viruses than most other forms of hand washing. Isopropyl alcohol will kill 99.99% or more of all non-spore forming bacteria in less than 30 seconds, both in the laboratory and on human skin.In too low quantities (0.3 ml) or concentrations (below 60%), the alcohol in hand sanitizers may not have the 10–15 seconds exposure time required to denature proteins and lyse cells. In environments with high lipids or protein waste (such as food processing), the use of alcohol hand rubs alone may not be sufficient to ensure proper hand hygiene.For health care settings, like hospitals and clinics, optimum alcohol concentration to kill bacteria is 70% to 95%. Products with alcohol concentrations as low as 40% are available in American stores, according to researchers at East Tennessee State University.Alcohol rub sanitizers kill most bacteria, and fungi, and stop some viruses. Alcohol rub sanitizers containing at least 70% alcohol (mainly ethyl alcohol) kill 99.9% of the bacteria on hands 30 seconds after application and 99.99% to 99.999% in one minute.For health care, optimal disinfection requires attention to all exposed surfaces such as around the fingernails, between the fingers, on the back of the thumb, and around the wrist. Hand alcohol should be thoroughly rubbed into the hands and on the lower forearm for a duration of at least 30 seconds and then allowed to air dry.Use of alcohol-based hand gels dries skin less, leaving more moisture in the epidermis, than hand washing with antiseptic/antimicrobial soap and water.Hand sanitizers containing a minimum of 60 to 95% alcohol are efficient germ killers. Alcohol rub sanitizers kill bacteria, multi-drug resistant bacteria (MRSA and VRE), tuberculosis, and some viruses (including HIV, herpes, RSV, rhinovirus, vaccinia, influenza, and hepatitis) and fungi. Alcohol rub sanitizers containing 70% alcohol kill 99.97% (3.5 log reduction, similar to 35 decibel reduction) of the bacteria on hands 30 seconds after application and 99.99% to 99.999% (4 to 5 log reduction) of the bacteria on hands 1 minute after application.
Uses:
Drawbacks There are certain situations during which hand washing with soap and water are preferred over hand sanitizer, these include: eliminating bacterial spores of Clostridioides difficile, parasites such as Cryptosporidium, and certain viruses like norovirus depending on the concentration of alcohol in the sanitizer (95% alcohol was seen to be most effective in eliminating most viruses). In addition, if hands are contaminated with fluids or other visible contaminates, hand washing is preferred as well as after using the toilet and if discomfort develops from the residue of alcohol sanitizer use. Furthermore, CDC states hand sanitizers are not effective in removing chemicals such as pesticides.
Safety:
Fire Alcohol gel can catch fire, producing a translucent blue flame. This is due to the flammable alcohol in the gel. Some hand sanitizer gels may not produce this effect due to a high concentration of water or moisturizing agents. There have been some rare instances where alcohol has been implicated in starting fires in the operating room, including a case where alcohol used as an antiseptic pooled under the surgical drapes in an operating room and caused a fire when a cautery instrument was used. Alcohol gel was not implicated.To minimize the risk of fire, alcohol rub users are instructed to rub their hands until dry, which indicates that the flammable alcohol has evaporated. Igniting alcohol hand rub while using it is rare, but the need for this is underlined by one case of a health care worker using hand rub, removing a polyester isolation gown, and then touching a metal door while her hands were still wet; static electricity produced an audible spark and ignited the hand gel.: 13 Fire departments suggest refills for the alcohol-based hand sanitizers can be stored with cleaning supplies away from heat sources or open flames.
Safety:
Skin Research shows that alcohol hand sanitizers don't pose any risk by eliminating beneficial microorganisms that are naturally present on the skin. The body quickly replenishes the beneficial microbes on the hands, often moving them in from just up the arms where there are fewer harmful microorganisms.However, alcohol may strip the skin of the outer layer of oil, which may have negative effects on barrier function of the skin. A study also shows that disinfecting hands with an antimicrobial detergent results in a greater barrier disruption of skin compared to alcohol solutions, suggesting an increased loss of skin lipids.Frequent use of alcohol-based hand sanitizers can cause dry skin unless emollients and/or skin moisturizers are added to the formula. The drying effect of alcohol can be reduced or eliminated by adding glycerin and/or other emollients to the formula. In clinical trials, alcohol-based hand sanitizers containing emollients caused substantially less skin irritation and dryness than soaps or antimicrobial detergents. Allergic contact dermatitis, contact urticaria syndrome or hypersensitivity to alcohol or additives present in alcohol hand rubs rarely occur. The lower tendency to induce irritant contact dermatitis became an attraction as compared to soap and water hand washing.
Safety:
Ingestion In the United States, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) controls antimicrobial handsoaps and sanitizers as over-the-counter drugs (OTC) because they are intended for topical anti-microbial use to prevent disease in humans.The FDA requires strict labeling which informs consumers on proper use of this OTC drug and dangers to avoid, including warning adults not to ingest, not to use in the eyes, to keep out of the reach of children, and to allow use by children only under adult supervision. According to the American Association of Poison Control Centers, there were nearly 12,000 cases of hand sanitizer ingestion in 2006. If ingested, alcohol-based hand sanitizers can cause alcohol poisoning in small children. However, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control recommends using hand sanitizer with children to promote good hygiene, under supervision, and furthermore recommends parents pack hand sanitizer for their children when traveling, to avoid their contracting disease from dirty hands.People with alcoholism may attempt to consume hand sanitizer in desperation when traditional alcoholic beverages are unavailable, or personal access to them is restricted by force or law. There have been reported incidents of people drinking the gel in prisons and hospitals to become intoxicated. As a result, access to sanitizing liquids and gels is controlled and restricted in some facilities. For example, over a period of several weeks during the COVID-19 pandemic in New Mexico, seven people in that U.S. state who were alcoholic were severely injured by drinking sanitizer: three died, three were in critical condition, and one was left permanently blind.In 2021, a dozen children were hospitalized in the state of Maharashtra, India, after they were mistakenly orally administered hand sanitizer instead of a polio vaccine.
Safety:
Absorption On 30 April 2015, the FDA announced that they were requesting more scientific data based on the safety of hand sanitizer. Emerging science suggests that for at least some health care antiseptic active ingredients, systemic exposure (full body exposure as shown by detection of antiseptic ingredients in the blood or urine) is higher than previously thought, and existing data raise potential concerns about the effects of repeated daily human exposure to some antiseptic active ingredients. This would include hand antiseptic products containing alcohol and triclosan.
Safety:
Surgical hand disinfection Hands must be disinfected before any surgical procedure by hand washing with mild soap and then hand-rubbing with a sanitizer. Surgical disinfection requires a larger dose of the hand-rub and a longer rubbing time than is ordinarily used. It is usually done in two applications according to specific hand-rubbing techniques, EN1499 (hygienic handwash), and EN 1500 (hygienic hand disinfection) to ensure that antiseptic is applied everywhere on the surface of the hand.
Safety:
Alcohol-free Some hand sanitizer products use agents other than alcohol to kill microorganisms, such as povidone-iodine, benzalkonium chloride or triclosan. The World Health Organization (WHO) and the CDC recommends "persistent" antiseptics for hand sanitizers. Persistent activity is defined as the prolonged or extended antimicrobial activity that prevents or inhibits the proliferation or survival of microorganisms after application of the product. This activity may be demonstrated by sampling a site several minutes or hours after application and demonstrating bacterial antimicrobial effectiveness when compared with a baseline level. This property also has been referred to as "residual activity." Both substantive and nonsubstantive active ingredients can show a persistent effect if they substantially lower the number of bacteria during the wash period.
Safety:
Laboratory studies have shown lingering benzalkonium chloride may be associated with antibiotic resistance in MRSA. Tolerance to alcohol sanitizers may develop in fecal bacteria. Where alcohol sanitizers utilize 62%, or higher, alcohol by weight, only 0.1 to 0.13% of benzalkonium chloride by weight provides equivalent antimicrobial effectiveness.
Safety:
Triclosan has been shown to accumulate in biosolids in the environment, one of the top seven organic contaminants in waste water according to the National Toxicology Program Triclosan leads to various problems with natural biological systems, and triclosan, when combined with chlorine e.g. from tap water, produces dioxins, a probable carcinogen in humans. However, 90–98% of triclosan in waste water biodegrades by both photolytic or natural biological processes or is removed due to sorption in waste water treatment plants. Numerous studies show that only very small traces are detectable in the effluent water that reaches rivers.A series of studies show that photodegradation of triclosan produced 2,4-dichlorophenol and 2,8-dichlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (2,8-DCDD). The 2,4-dichlorophenol itself is known to be biodegradable as well as photodegradable. For DCDD, one of the non-toxic compounds of the dioxin family, a conversion rate of 1% has been reported and estimated half-lives suggest that it is photolabile as well. The formation-decay kinetics of DCDD are also reported by Sanchez-Prado et al. (2006) who claim "transformation of triclosan to toxic dioxins has never been shown and is highly unlikely."Alcohol-free hand sanitizers may be effective immediately while on the skin, but the solutions themselves can become contaminated because alcohol is an in-solution preservative and without it, the alcohol-free solution itself is susceptible to contamination. However, even alcohol-containing hand sanitizers can become contaminated if the alcohol content is not properly controlled or the sanitizer is grossly contaminated with microorganisms during manufacture. In June 2009, alcohol-free Clarcon Antimicrobial Hand Sanitizer was pulled from the US market by the FDA, which found the product contained gross contamination of extremely high levels of various bacteria, including those which can "cause opportunistic infections of the skin and underlying tissues and could result in medical or surgical attention as well as permanent damage". Gross contamination of any hand sanitizer by bacteria during manufacture will result in the failure of the effectiveness of that sanitizer and possible infection of the treatment site with the contaminating organisms.
Types:
Alcohol-based hand rubs are extensively used in the hospital environment as an alternative to antiseptic soaps. Hand-rubs in the hospital environment have two applications: hygienic hand rubbing and surgical hand disinfection. Alcohol based hand rubs provide a better skin tolerance as compared to antiseptic soap.
Hand rubs also prove to have more effective microbiological properties as compared to antiseptic soaps.
Types:
The same ingredients used in over-the-counter hand-rubs are also used in hospital hand-rubs: alcohols such as ethanol and isopropanol, sometimes combined with quaternary ammonium cations (quats) such as benzalkonium chloride. Quats are added at levels up to 200 parts per million to increase antimicrobial effectiveness. Although allergy to alcohol-only rubs is rare, fragrances, preservatives and quats can cause contact allergies. These other ingredients do not evaporate like alcohol and accumulate leaving a "sticky" residue until they are removed with soap and water.
Types:
The most common brands of alcohol hand rubs include Aniosgel, Avant, Sterillium, Desderman and Allsept S. All hospital hand rubs must conform to certain regulations like EN 12054 for hygienic treatment and surgical disinfection by hand-rubbing. Products with a claim of "99.99% reduction" or 4-log reduction are ineffective in hospital environment, since the reduction must be more than "99.99%".The hand sanitizer dosing systems for hospitals are designed to deliver a measured amount of the product for staff. They are dosing pumps screwed onto a bottle or are specially designed dispensers with refill bottles. Dispensers for surgical hand disinfection are usually equipped with elbow controlled mechanism or infrared sensors to avoid any contact with the pump.
Composition:
Consumer alcohol-based hand sanitizers, and health care "hand alcohol" or "alcohol hand antiseptic agents" exist in liquid, foam, and easy-flowing gel formulations. Products with 60% to 95% alcohol by volume are effective antiseptics. Lower or higher concentrations are less effective; most products contain between 60% and 80% alcohol.In addition to alcohol (ethanol, isopropanol or n-Propanol), hand sanitizers also contain the following: additional antiseptics such as chlorhexidine and quaternary ammonium derivatives, sporicides such as hydrogen peroxides that eliminate bacterial spores that may be present in ingredients, emollients and gelling agents to reduce skin dryness and irritation, a small amount of sterile or distilled water, sometimes foaming agents, colorants or fragrances.
Composition:
WHO formulations The World Health Organization has published the following formulations to guide to the production of large quantities of hand sanitizer from chemicals available in developing countries, where commercial hand sanitizer may not be available: Formulation 1 Formulation 2
Production:
COVID-19 pandemic In 2010 the World Health Organization produced a guide for manufacturing hand sanitizer, which received renewed interest in 2020 because of shortages of hand sanitizer in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic. Dozens of liquor and perfume manufacturers switched their manufacturing facilities from their normal product to hand sanitizer. In order to keep up with the demand, local distilleries started using their alcohol to make hand sanitizer. Distilleries producing hand sanitizer originally existed in a legal grey area in the United States, until the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau declared that distilleries could produce their sanitizer without authorization.In the beginnings of the pandemic, because of hand sanitizer shortages due to panic buying, people resorted to using 60% to 99% concentrations of isopropyl or ethyl alcohol for hand sanitization, typically mixing them with glycerol or soothing moisturizers or liquid contain aloe vera to counteract irritations with options of adding drops of lemon or lime juice or essential oils for scents, and thus making DIY hand sanitizers. However, there are cautions against making them, such as a wrong measurement or ingredient may resulting in an insufficient amount of alcohol to kill the coronavirus, thus rendering the mixture ineffective or even poisonous.Additionally, some commercial products are dangerous, either due to poor oversight and process control, or fraudulent motive. In June 2020, the FDA issued an advisory against use of hand sanitizer products manufacture by Eskbiochem SA de CV in Mexico due to excessive levels of methanol – up to 81% in one product. Methanol can be absorbed through the skin, is toxic in modest amounts, and in substantial exposure can result in "nausea, vomiting, headache, blurred vision, permanent blindness, seizures, coma, permanent damage to the nervous system or death". Products suspected of manufacture by Eskbiochem SA with excessive methanol have been reported as far away as British Columbia, Canada.In August 2020, the FDA expanded the list of dangerous hand sanitizers. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Nirsevimab**
Nirsevimab:
Nirsevimab, sold under the brand name Beyfortus, is a human recombinant monoclonal antibody with activity against respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). It is a respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) F protein‑directed fusion inhibitor that is designed to bind to the fusion protein on the surface of the RSV virus.The most common side effects reported for nirsevimab are rash, pyrexia (fever) and injection site reactions (such as redness, swelling and pain where the injection is given).It is under development by AstraZeneca and Sanofi. Nirsevimab was approved for medical use in both the European Union and the United Kingdom in November 2022, in Canada in April 2023, and in the United States in July 2023.
Medical uses:
In the European Union, nirsevimab is indicated for the prevention of respiratory syncytial virus lower respiratory tract disease in neonates and infants during their first RSV season.In the United States, nirsevimab is indicated for the prevention of respiratory syncytial virus lower respiratory tract disease in neonates and infants born during or entering their first respiratory syncytial virus season and children up to 24 months of age who remain vulnerable to severe respiratory syncytial virus disease through their second respiratory syncytial virus season.
Adverse effects:
No major hypersensitivity reactions have been reported, and adverse events of grade 3 or higher were only reported in 8% (77 of 968) of participants in clinical trial NCT02878330.
Pharmacology:
Mechanism of action Nirsevimab binds to the prefusion conformation of the RSV fusion (F) protein, i.e. it binds to the site at which the virus would attach to a cell; effectively rendering it useless. It has a modified Fc region, extending the half-life of the drug in order for it to last the whole RSV season.
History:
The opinion by the Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use (CHMP) of the European Medicines Agency (EMA) is based on data from two randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled multicenter clinical trials that investigated the efficacy and safety of nirsevimab in healthy preterm (premature) and full-term infants entering their first respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) season. These studies demonstrated that nirsevimab prevents lower respiratory tract infection caused by RSV requiring medical attention (such as bronchiolitis and pneumonia) in term and preterm infants during their first RSV season.The safety of nirsevimab was also evaluated in a phase II/III, randomized, double‑blind, multicenter trial in infants who were born five or more weeks prematurely (less than 35 weeks gestation) at higher risk for severe RSV disease and infants with chronic lung disease of prematurity (i.e. long-term respiratory problems faced by babies born prematurely) or congenital heart disease. The results of this study showed that nirsevimab had a similar safety profile compared to palivizumab (Synagis).The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) evaluated the safety and efficacy of nirsevimab based on three clinical trials (Trials 03, 04 and 05). The key measure of efficacy was the incidence of medically attended RSV lower respiratory tract infection (MA RSV LRTI), evaluated during the 150 days after nirsevimab administration. MA RSV LRTI included all health care provider visits (physician office, urgent care, emergency room visits and hospitalization) for lower respiratory tract disease with worsening clinical severity and a positive RSV test. Trials 03 and 04 were randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter clinical trials.Trial 03 included 1,453 preterm infants (born at greater than or equal to 29 weeks of gestational age up to less than 35 weeks of gestation) who were born during or entering their first RSV season. Of the 1,453 preterm infants in the trial, 969 received a single dose of nirsevimab and 484 received placebo. Among infants who were treated with nirsevimab, 25 (2.6%) experienced MA RSV LRTI compared with 46 (9.5%) infants who received placebo. nirsevimab reduced the risk of MA RSV LRTI by approximately 70% relative to placebo.For Trial 04, the primary analysis group within the trial included 1,490 term and late preterm infants (born at greater than or equal to 35 weeks in gestational age), 994 of whom received a single dose of nirsevimab and 496 of whom received placebo. Among infants who were treated with nirsevimab, 12 (1.2%) experienced MA RSV LRTI compared with 25 (5.0%) infants who received placebo. Nirsevimab reduced the risk of MA RSV LRTI by approximately 75% relative to placebo.Trial 05, a randomized, double-blind, active (palivizumab)-controlled, multicenter trial, supported the use of nirsevimab in children up to 24 months of age who remain vulnerable to severe RSV disease through their second RSV season. The trial enrolled 925 preterm infants and infants with chronic lung disease of prematurity or congenital heart disease. The safety and pharmacokinetic data from Trial 05 provided evidence for the use of nirsevimab to prevent MA RSV LRTI in this population.The FDA granted the application for nirsevimab a fast track designation. and granted approval of Beyfortus to AstraZeneca.
Society and culture:
Legal status On 15 September 2022, the Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use (CHMP) of the European Medicines Agency (EMA) adopted a positive opinion, recommending the granting of a marketing authorization for the medicinal product Beyfortus, intended for the prevention of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) lower respiratory tract disease in newborns and infants. Beyfortus was reviewed under EMA's accelerated assessment program. The applicant for this medicinal product is AstraZeneca AB. In November 2022, nirsevimab was approved for medical use in the European Union, and the United Kingdom.
Research:
Nirsevimab is being investigated as an experimental vaccine against respiratory syncytial virus, RSV, in the general infant population. The MELODY study is an ongoing, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled to evaluate the safety and efficacy of nirsevimab in late preterm and term infants. Initial results have been promising, with nirsevimab reducing LRTI (lower respiratory tract infections) by 74.5% compared to placebo in infants born at term or late preterm.Ongoing trials for nirsevimab are: "A Phase 3, Randomized, Double-blind, Placebo-controlled Study to Evaluate the Safety and Efficacy of Nirsevimab, a Monoclonal Antibody With Extended Half-life Against Respiratory Syncytial Virus, in Healthy Preterm and Term Infants in China". ClinicalTrials.gov. 11 April 2023. Retrieved 11 April 2023.
Research:
"A Phase 3 Randomized, Double-blind, Placebo-controlled Study to Evaluate the Safety and Efficacy of MEDI8897, a Monoclonal Antibody With an Extended Half-life Against Respiratory Syncytial Virus, in Healthy Late Preterm and Term Infants (MELODY)". ClinicalTrials.gov. 1 September 2022. Retrieved 11 April 2023.
"A Phase 2, Open-label, Uncontrolled, Single-dose Study to Evaluate the Safety and Tolerability, Pharmacokinetics, and Occurrence of Antidrug Antibody for Nirsevimab in Immunocompromised Children ≤ 24 Months of Age". ClinicalTrials.gov. 16 March 2023. Retrieved 12 April 2023. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**PSMC4**
PSMC4:
26S protease regulatory subunit 6B, also known as 26S proteasome AAA-ATPase subunit Rpt3, is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the PSMC4 gene. This protein is one of the 19 essential subunits of a complete assembled 19S proteasome complex Six 26S proteasome AAA-ATPase subunits (Rpt1, Rpt2, Rpt3 (this protein), Rpt4, Rpt5, and Rpt6) together with four non-ATPase subunits (Rpn1, Rpn2, Rpn10, and Rpn13) form the base sub complex of 19S regulatory particle for proteasome complex.
Gene:
The gene PSMC4 encodes one of the ATPase subunits, a member of the triple-A family of ATPases which have a chaperone-like activity. This subunit has been shown to interact with an orphan member of the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily highly expressed in liver, and with gankyrin, a liver oncoprotein. Two transcript variants encoding different isoforms have been identified. The human PSMC3 gene has 11 exons and locates at chromosome band 19q13.11-q13.13.
Protein:
The human protein 26S protease regulatory subunit 6B is 47kDa in size and composed of 418 amino acids. The calculated theoretical pI of this protein is 5.09.
Complex assembly:
26S proteasome complex is usually consisted of a 20S core particle (CP, or 20S proteasome) and one or two 19S regulatory particles (RP, or 19S proteasome) on either one side or both side of the barrel-shaped 20S. The CP and RPs pertain distinct structural characteristics and biological functions. In brief, 20S sub complex presents three types proteolytic activities, including caspase-like, trypsin-like, and chymotrypsin-like activities. These proteolytic active sites located in the inner side of a chamber formed by 4 stacked rings of 20S subunits, preventing random protein-enzyme encounter and uncontrolled protein degradation. The 19S regulatory particles can recognize ubiquitin-labeled protein as degradation substrate, unfold the protein to linear, open the gate of 20S core particle, and guide the substate into the proteolytic chamber. To meet such functional complexity, 19S regulatory particle contains at least 18 constitutive subunits. These subunits can be categorized into two classes based on the ATP dependence of subunits, ATP-dependent subunits and ATP-independent subunits. According to the protein interaction and topological characteristics of this multisubunit complex, the 19S regulatory particle is composed of a base and a lid subcomplex. The base consists of a ring of six AAA ATPases (Subunit Rpt1-6, systematic nomenclature) and four non-ATPase subunits (Rpn1, Rpn2, Rpn10, and Rpn13). Thus, 26S protease regulatory subunit 4 (Rpt2) is an essential component of forming the base subcomplex of 19S regulatory particle. For the assembly of 19S base sub complex, four sets of pivotal assembly chaperons (Hsm3/S5b, Nas2/P27, Nas6/P28, and Rpn14/PAAF1, nomenclature in yeast/mammals) were identified by four groups independently. These 19S regulatory particle base-dedicated chaperons all binds to individual ATPase subunits through the C-terminal regions. For example, Hsm3/S5b binds to the subunit Rpt1 and Rpt2 (this protein), Nas2/p27 to Rpt5, Nas6/p28 to Rpt3 (this protein), and Rpn14/PAAAF1 to Rpt6, respectively. Subsequently, three intermediate assembly modules are formed as following, the Nas6/p28-Rpt3-Rpt6-Rpn14/PAAF1 module, the Nas2/p27-Rpt4-Rpt5 module, and the Hsm3/S5b-Rpt1-Rpt2-Rpn2 module. Eventually, these three modules assemble together to form the heterohexameric ring of 6 Atlases with Rpn1. The final addition of Rpn13 indicates the completion of 19S base sub complex assembly.
Complex assembly:
In addition, evidences indicated that the C-terminus of Rpt3 was required for cellular assembly of this subunit into 26 S proteasome.
Function:
As the degradation machinery that is responsible for ~70% of intracellular proteolysis, proteasome complex (26S proteasome) plays a critical roles in maintaining the homeostasis of cellular proteome. Accordingly, misfolded proteins and damaged protein need to be continuously removed to recycle amino acids for new synthesis; in parallel, some key regulatory proteins fulfill their biological functions via selective degradation; furthermore, proteins are digested into peptides for MHC class I antigen presentation. To meet such complicated demands in biological process via spatial and temporal proteolysis, protein substrates have to be recognized, recruited, and eventually hydrolyzed in a well controlled fashion. Thus, 19S regulatory particle pertains a series of important capabilities to address these functional challenges. To recognize protein as designated substrate, 19S complex has subunits that are capable to recognize proteins with a special degradative tag, the ubiquitinylation. It also have subunits that can bind with nucleotides (e.g., ATPs) in order to facilitate the association between 19S and 20S particles, as well as to cause confirmation changes of alpha subunit C-terminals that form the substate entrance of 20S complex.
Function:
The ATPases subunits assemble into a six-membered ring with a sequence of Rpt1–Rpt5–Rpt4–Rpt3–Rpt6–Rpt2, which interacts with the seven-membered alpha ring of 20S core particle and establishes an asymmetric interface between the 19S RP and the 20S CP. Three C-terminal tails with HbYX motifs of distinct Rpt ATPases insert into pockets between two defined alpha subunits of the CP and regulate the gate opening of the central channels in the CP alpha ring. Evidence showed that ATPase subunit Rpt5, along with other ubuiqintinated 19S proteasome subunits (Rpn13, Rpn10) and the deubiquitinating enzyme Uch37, can be ubiquitinated in situ by proteasome-associating ubiquitination enzymes. Ubiquitination of proteasome subunits can regulates proteasomal activity in response to the alteration of cellular ubiquitination levels.
Interactions:
PSMC4 has been shown to interact with: PSMC2, PSMC5, PSMD10, and PSMD13. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Targeted advertising**
Targeted advertising:
Targeted advertising is a form of advertising, including online advertising, that is directed towards an audience with certain traits, based on the product or person the advertiser is promoting. These traits can either be demographic with a focus on race, economic status, sex, age, generation, level of education, income level, and employment, or psychographic focused on the consumer values, personality, attitude, opinion, lifestyle and interest. This focus can also entail behavioral variables, such as browser history, purchase history, and other recent online activities. The process of algorithm targeting eliminates waste.Traditional forms of advertising, including billboards, newspapers, magazines, and radio channels, are progressively becoming replaced by online advertisements. The Information and communication technology (ICT) space has transformed recently, resulting in targeted advertising stretching across all ICT technologies, such as web, IPTV, and mobile environments. In the next generation's advertising, the importance of targeted advertisements will radically increase, as it spreads across numerous ICT channels cohesively.Through the emergence of new online channels, the usefulness of targeted advertising is increasing because companies aim to minimize wasted advertising by means of information technology. Most targeted new media advertising currently uses second-order proxies for targets, such as tracking online or mobile web activities of consumers, associating historical web page consumer demographics with new consumer web page access, using a search word as the basis of implied interest, or contextual advertising.
Types:
Web services are continually generating new business ventures and revenue opportunities for internet corporations. Companies have rapidly developed technological capabilities that allow them to gather information about web users. By tracking and monitoring what websites users visit, internet service providers can directly show ads that are relative to the consumer's preferences. Most of today's websites are using these targeting technologies to track users' internet behavior and there is much debate over the privacy issues present.
Types:
Search engine marketing Search engine marketing uses search engines to reach target audiences. For example, Google's Remarketing Campaigns are a type of targeted marketing where advertisers use the IP addresses of computers that have visited their websites to remarket their ad specifically to users who have previously been on their website whilst they browse websites that are a part of the Google display network, or when searching for keywords related to a product or service on the Google search engine. Dynamic remarketing can improve the targeted advertising as the ads are able to include the products or services that the consumers have previously viewed on the advertisers' website within the ads.Google Ads includes different platforms. The Search Network displays the ads on 'Google Search, other Google sites such as Maps and Shopping, and hundreds of non-Google search partner websites that show ads matched to search results'. 'The Display Network includes a collection of Google websites (like Google Finance, Gmail, Blogger, and YouTube), partner sites, and mobile sites and apps that show adverts from Google Ads matched to the content on a given page.' These two kinds of advertising networks can be beneficial for each specific goal of the company, or type of company. For example, the search network can benefit a company with the goal of reaching consumers actively searching for a particular product or service.
Types:
Other ways advertising campaigns are able to target the user is to use browser history and search history. For example, if the user types promotional pens into a search engine such as Google, ads for promotional pens will appear at the top of the page above the organic listings. These ads will be geo-targeted to the area of the user's IP address, showing the product or service in the local area or surrounding regions. The higher ad position is often rewarded to the ad having a higher quality score. The ad quality is affected by the 5 components of the quality score: The ad's expected click-through rate The quality of the landing page The ad/search relevance Geographic performance The targeted devicesWhen ranked based on these criteria, it will affect the advertiser by improving ad auction eligibility, the actual cost per click (CPC), ad position, and ad position bid estimates; to summarise, the better the quality score, the better ad position, and lower costs.
Types:
Google uses its display network to track what users are looking at and to gather information about them. When a user goes to a website that uses the Google display network, it will send a cookie to Google, showing information on the user, what they have searched, where they are from, found by the IP address, and then builds a profile around them, allowing Google to easily target ads to the user more specifically. For example, if a user went onto promotional companies' websites often, that sell promotional pens, Google will gather data from the user such as age, gender, location, and other demographic information as well as information on the websites visited, the user will then be put into a category of promotional products, allowing Google to easily display ads on websites the user visits relating to promotional products.
Types:
Social media targeting Social media targeting is a form of targeted advertising, that uses general targeting attributes such as geotargeting, behavioral targeting, socio-psychographic targeting, and gathers the information that consumers have provided on each social media platform. According to the media users' view history, customers who are interested in the criteria will be automatically targeted by the advertisements of certain products or service. For example, Facebook collects massive amounts of user data from surveillance infrastructure on its platforms. Information such as a user's likes, view history, and geographic location is leveraged to micro-target consumers with personalized products. Social media also creates profiles of the consumer and only needs to look at one place, the user's profile, to find all interests and 'likes'.
Types:
E.g. Facebook lets advertisers target using broad characteristics like gender, age, and location. Furthermore, they allow more narrow targeting based on demographics, behavior, and interests (see a comprehensive list of Facebook's different types of targeting options).
Types:
Television Advertisements can be targeted to specific consumers watching digital cable or over-the-top video. Targeting can be done according to age, gender, location, or personal interests in films, etc. Cable box addresses can be cross-referenced with information from data brokers like Acxiom, Equifax, and Experian, including information about marriage, education, criminal record, and credit history. Political campaigns may also match against public records such as party affiliation and which elections and party primaries the view has voted in.
Types:
Mobile devices Since the early 2000s, advertising has been pervasive online and more recently in the mobile setting. Targeted advertising based on mobile devices allows more information about the consumer to be transmitted, not just their interests, but their information about their location and time. This allows advertisers to produce advertisements that could cater to their schedule and a more specific changing environment.
Types:
Content and contextual targeting The most straightforward method of targeting is content/contextual targeting. This is when advertisers put ads in a specific place, based on the relative content present. Another name used is content-oriented advertising, as it is corresponding to the context being consumed. This targeting method can be used across different mediums, for example in an article online, purchasing homes would have an advert associated with this context, like an insurance ad. This is usually achieved through an ad matching system that analyses the contents on a page or finds keywords and presents a relevant advert, sometimes through pop-ups. Though sometimes the ad matching system can fail, as it can neglect to tell the difference between positive and negative correlations. This can result in placing contradictory adverts, which are not appropriate to the content.
Types:
Technical targeting Technical targeting is associated with the user's own software or hardware status. The advertisement is altered depending on the user's available network bandwidth, for example, if a user is on their mobile phone that has limited connection, the ad delivery system will display a version of the ad that is smaller for a faster data transfer rate.Addressable advertising systems serve ads directly based on demographic, psychographic, or behavioral attributes associated with the consumer(s) exposed to the ad. These systems are always digital and must be addressable in that the endpoint which serves the ad (set-top box, website, or digital sign) must be capable of rendering an ad independently of any other endpoints based on consumer attributes specific to that endpoint at the time the ad is served. Addressable advertising systems, therefore, must use consumer traits associated with the endpoints as the basis for selecting and serving ads.
Types:
Time targeting According to the Journal of Marketing, more than 1.8 billion clients spent a minimum of 118 minutes daily- via web-based networking media in 2016. Nearly 77% of these clients interact with the content through likes, commenting, and clicking on links related to content. With this astounding buyer trend, it is important for advertisers to choose the right time to schedule content, in order to maximize advertising efficiency.
Types:
To determine what time of day is most effective for scheduling content, it is essential to know when the brain is most effective at retaining memory. Research in chronopsychology has credited that time-of-day impacts diurnal variety in a person's working memory accessibility and has discovered the enactment of inhibitory procedures to build working memory effectiveness during times of low working memory accessibility. Working memory is known to be vital for language perception, learning, and reasoning providing us with the capacities of putting away, recovering, and preparing quick data.
Types:
For many people, working memory accessibility is good when they get up toward the beginning of the day, most reduced in mid-evening, and moderate at night.
Types:
Sociodemographic targeting Sociodemographic targeting focuses on the characteristics of consumers. This includes their age, generation, gender, salary, and nationality. The idea is to target users specifically and to use this collected data, for example, targeting a male in the age bracket of 18–24. Facebook and other social media platforms uses this form of targeting by showing advertisements relevant to the user's individual demographic on their account, this can show up in forms of banner ads, mobile ads, or commercial videos.
Types:
Geographical and location-based targeting This type of advertising involves targeting different users based on their geographic location. IP addresses can signal the location of a user and can usually transfer the location through ZIP codes. Locations are then stored for users in static profiles, thus advertisers can easily target these individuals based on their geographic location. A location-based service (LBS) is a mobile information service that allows spatial and temporal data transmission and can be used to an advertiser's advantage. This data can be harnessed from applications on the device (mobile apps like uber) that allow access to the location information. This type of targeted advertising focuses on localizing content, for example, a user could be prompted with options of activities in the area, for example, places to eat, nearby shops, etc. Although producing advertising off consumer's location-based services can improve the effectiveness of delivering ads, it can raise issues with the user's privacy.
Types:
Behavioral targeting Behavioral targeting is centered around the activity/actions of users, and is more easily achieved on web pages. Information from browsing websites can be collected from data mining, which finds patterns in users' search history. Advertisers using this method believe it produces ads that will be more relevant to users, thus leading consumers to be more likely influenced by them. If a consumer was frequently searching for plane ticket prices, the targeting system would recognize this and start showing related adverts across unrelated websites, such as airfare deals on Facebook. Its advantage is that it can target individual's interests, rather than target groups of people whose interests may vary.When a consumer visits a web site, the pages they visit, the amount of time they view each page, the links they click on, the searches they make, and the things that they interact with, allow sites to collect that data, and other factors, to create a 'profile' that links to that visitor's web browser. As a result, site publishers can use this data to create defined audience segments based upon visitors that have similar profiles.
Types:
When visitors return to a specific site or a network of sites using the same web browser, those profiles can be used to allow marketers and advertisers to position their online ads and messaging in front of those visitors who exhibit a greater level of interest and intent for the products and services being offered. Behavioral targeting has emerged as one of the main technologies used to increase the efficiency and profits of digital marketing and advertisements, as media providers are able to provide individual users with highly relevant advertisements. On the theory that properly targeted ads and messaging will fetch more consumer interest, publishers can charge a premium for behaviorally targeted ads and marketers can achieve.
Types:
Behavioral marketing can be used on its own or in conjunction with other forms of targeting. Many practitioners also refer to this process as "audience targeting".While behavioral targeting can enhance ad effectiveness, it also raises privacy concerns. Users may feel uncomfortable with the idea of their online behavior being tracked and used for advertising purposes. Striking a balance between personalization and privacy is crucial.
Types:
Onsite Behavioral targeting may also be applied to any online property on the premise that it either improves the visitor experience or benefits the online property, typically through increased conversion rates or increased spending levels. The early adopters of this technology/philosophy were editorial sites such as HotWired, online advertising with leading online ad servers, retail or another e-commerce website as a technique for increasing the relevance of product offers and promotions on a visitor by visitor basis. More recently, companies outside this traditional e-commerce marketplace have started to experiment with these emerging technologies.
Types:
The typical approach to this starts by using web analytics or behavioral analytics to break-down the range of all visitors into a number of discrete channels. Each channel is then analyzed and a virtual profile is created to deal with each channel. These profiles can be based around Personas that give the website operators a starting point in terms of deciding what content, navigation and layout to show to each of the different personas. When it comes to the practical problem of successfully delivering the profiles correctly this is usually achieved by either using a specialist content behavioral platform or by bespoke software development. Most platforms identify visitors by assigning a unique ID cookie to each and every visitor to the site thereby allowing them to be tracked throughout their web journey, the platform then makes a rules-based decision about what content to serve.
Types:
Self-learning onsite behavioral targeting systems will monitor visitor response to site content and learn what is most likely to generate a desired conversion event. Some good content for each behavioral trait or pattern is often established using numerous simultaneous multivariate tests. Onsite behavioral targeting requires a relatively high level of traffic before statistical confidence levels can be reached regarding the probability of a particular offer generating a conversion from a user with a set behavioral profile. Some providers have been able to do so by leveraging their large user base, such as Yahoo!. Some providers use a rules-based approach, allowing administrators to set the content and offers shown to those with particular traits.
Types:
According to research behavioral targeting provides little benefit at a huge privacy cost — when targeting for gender, the targeted guess is 42% accurate, which is less than a random guess. When targeting for gender and age the accuracy is 24%.
Network Advertising networks use behavioral targeting in a different way than individual sites. Since they serve many advertisements across many different sites, they are able to build up a picture of the likely demographic makeup of internet users.
Data from a visit to one website can be sent to many different companies, including Microsoft and Google subsidiaries, Facebook, Yahoo, many traffic-logging sites, and smaller ad firms.
Types:
This data can sometimes be sent to more than 100 websites, and shared with business partners, advertisers, and other third parties for business purposes. The data is collected using cookies, web beacons and similar technologies, and/or a third-party ad serving software, to automatically collect information about site users and site activity. Some servers even record the page that referred you to them, websites you visit after them, which ads you see and which ads you click on.Online advertising uses cookies, a tool used specifically to identify users, as a means of delivering targeted advertising by monitoring the actions of a user on the website. For this purpose, the cookies used are called tracking cookies. An ad network company such as Google uses cookies to deliver advertisements adjusted to the interests of the user, control the number of times that the user sees an ad and "measure" whether they are advertising the specific product to the customer's preferences.This data is collected without attaching the people's names, address, email address or telephone number, but it may include device identifying information such as the IP address, MAC address, cookie or other device-specific unique alphanumerical ID of your computer, but some stores may create guest IDs to go along with the data. Cookies are used to control displayed ads and to track browsing activity and usage patterns on sites. This data is used by companies to infer people's age, gender, and possible purchase interests so that they could make customized ads that you would be more likely to click on.An example would be a user seen on football sites, business sites, and male fashion sites. A reasonable guess would be to assume the user is male. Demographic analyses of individual sites provided either internally (user surveys) or externally (Comscore \ Netratings) allow the networks to sell audiences rather than sites.
Types:
Although advertising networks were used to sell this product, this was based on picking the sites where the audiences were. Behavioral targeting allows them to be slightly more specific about this.
Types:
Research In the work titled An Economic Analysis of Online Advertising Using Behavioral Targeting, Chen and Stallaert (2014) study the economic implications when an online publisher engages in behavioral targeting. They consider that the publisher auctions off an advertising slot and are paid on a cost-per-click basis. Chen and Stallaert (2014) identify the factors that affect the publisher's revenue, the advertisers' payoffs, and social welfare. They show that revenue for the online publisher in some circumstances can double when behavioral targeting is used.
Types:
Increased revenue for the publisher is not guaranteed: in some cases, the prices of advertising and hence the publisher's revenue can be lower, depending on the degree of competition and the advertisers' valuations. They identify two effects associated with behavioral targeting: a competitive effect and a propensity effect. The relative strength of the two effects determines whether the publisher's revenue is positively or negatively affected. Chen and Stallaert (2014) also demonstrate that, although social welfare is increased and small advertisers are better off under behavioral targeting, the dominant advertiser might be worse off and reluctant to switch from traditional advertising.
Types:
In 2006, BlueLithium (now Yahoo! Advertising) in a large online study, examined the effects of behavior targeted advertisements based on contextual content. The study used 400 million "impressions", or advertisements conveyed across behavioral and contextual borders. Specifically, nine behavioral categories (such as "shoppers" or "travelers")with over 10 million "impressions" were observed for patterns across the content.All measures for the study were taken in terms of click-through rates (CTR) and "action-through rates" (ATR), or conversions. So, for every impression that someone gets, the number of times they "click-through" to it will contribute to CTR data, and every time they go through with or convert on the advertisement the user adds "action-through" data. Results from the study show that advertisers looking for traffic on their advertisements should focus on behavioral targeting in context. Likewise, if they are looking for conversions on the advertisements, behavioral targeting out of context is the most effective process. The data was helpful in determining an "across-the-board rule of thumb"; however, results fluctuated widely by content categories. Overall results from the researchers indicate that the effectiveness of behavioral targeting is dependent on the goals of the advertiser and the primary target market the advertiser is trying to reach.
Types:
Privacy and security concerns Many online users and advocacy groups are concerned about privacy issues around this type of targeting since targeted advertising requires aggregation of large amounts of personal data, including highly sensitive one (such as sexual orientation or sexual preferences, health issues, location) which is then traded between hundreds of parties in the process of real-time bidding.Obscure to a great many people, individual data are exchanged without the consent of the proprietors. Essentially, it is an obtrusive rupture of protection to profit from the unregulated exchange of individual data. However simultaneously, individual data, particularly the ones that are identified with intrigue and propensity, are a basic segment for conveying web-based promoting, which is the help of numerous sites.
Types:
This is a controversy that the behavioral targeting industry is trying to contain through education, advocacy and product constraints in order to keep all information non-personally identifiable or to obtain permission from end-users. AOL created animated cartoons in 2008 to explain to its users that their past actions may determine the content of ads they see in the future. Canadian academics at the University of Ottawa Canadian Internet Policy and Public Interest Clinic have recently demanded the federal privacy commissioner to investigate online profiling of Internet users for targeted advertising.The European Commission (via commissioner Meglena Kuneva) has also raised a number of concerns related to online data collection (of personal data), profiling and behavioral targeting, and is looking for "enforcing existing regulation".In October 2009 it was reported that a recent survey carried out by University of Pennsylvania and the Berkeley Center for Law and Technology found that a large majority of US internet users rejected the use of behavioral advertising.
Types:
Several research efforts by academics and others have demonstrated that data that is supposedly anonymized can be used to identify real individuals.In December 2010, online tracking firm Quantcast agreed to pay $2.4M to settle a class-action lawsuit for their use of 'zombie' cookies to track consumers. These zombie cookies, which were on partner sites such as MTV, Hulu, and ESPN, would re-generate to continue tracking the user even if they were deleted. Other uses of such technology include Facebook, and their use of the Facebook Beacon to track users across the internet, to later use for more targeted advertising. Tracking mechanisms without consumer consent are generally frowned upon; however, tracking of consumer behavior online or on mobile devices are key to digital advertising, which is the financial backbone to most of the internet.
Types:
In March 2011, it was reported that the online ad industry would begin working with the Council of Better Business Bureaus to start policing itself as part of its program to monitor and regulate how marketers track consumers online, also known as behavioral advertising.
Types:
Retargeting Retargeting is where advertisers use behavioral targeting to produce ads that follow users after users have looked at or purchased a particular item. An example of this is store catalogs, where stores subscribe customers to their email system after a purchase hoping that they draw attention to more items for continuous purchases. The main example of retargeting that has earned a reputation from most people is ads that follow users across the web, showing them the same items that they have looked at in the hope that they will purchase them. Retargeting is a very effective process; by analysing consumers activities with the brand they can address their consumers' behavior appropriately.
Process:
Advertising provides advertisers with a direct line of communication to existing and prospective consumers. By using a combination of words and/or pictures the general aim of the advertisement is to act as a "medium of information" (David Ogilvy) making the means of delivery and to whom the information is delivered most important. Advertising should define how and when structural elements of advertisements influence receivers, knowing that all receivers are not the same and thus may not respond in a single, similar manner. Targeted advertising serves the purpose of placing particular advertisements before specific groups so as to reach consumers who would be interested in the information. Advertisers aim to reach consumers as efficiently as possible with the belief that it will result in a more effective campaign. By targeting, advertisers are able to identify when and where the ad should be positioned in order to achieve maximum profits. This requires an understanding of how customers' minds work (see also neuromarketing) so as to determine the best channel by which to communicate.
Process:
Types of targeting include, but are not limited to advertising based on demographics, psychographics, behavioral variables and contextual targeting.
Process:
Behavioral advertising is the most common form of targeting used online. Internet cookies are sent back and forth between an internet server and the browser, that allows a user to be identified or to track their progressions. Cookies provide detail on what pages a consumer visits, the amount of time spent viewing each page, the links clicked on; and searches and interactions made. From this information, the cookie issuer gathers an understanding of the user's browsing tendencies and interests generating a profile. Analyzing the profile, advertisers are able to create defined audience segments based upon users with similar returned similar information, hence profiles. Tailored advertising is then placed in front of the consumer based upon what organizations working on behalf of the advertisers assume are the interests of the consumer. These advertisements have been formatted so as to appear on pages and in front of users that it would most likely appeal to based on their profiles. For example, under behavioral targeting, if a user is known to have recently visited a number of automotive shopping and comparison sites based on the data recorded by cookies stored on the user's computer, the user can then be served automotive-related advertisements when visiting other sites. Behavioral advertising is reliant on data both wittingly and unwittingly provided by users and is made up of two different forms: one involving the delivery of advertising based on assessment of user's web movements; the second involving the examination of communication and information as it passes through the gateways of internet service providers.Demographic targeting was the first and most basic form of targeting used online. involves segmenting an audience into more specific groups using parameters such as gender, age, ethnicity, annual income, parental status etc. All members of the group share a common trait. So, when an advertiser wishes to run a campaign aimed at a specific group of people then that campaign is intended only for the group that contains those traits at which the campaign is targeted. Having finalized the advertiser's demographic target, a website or a website section is chosen as a medium because a large proportion of the targeted audience utilizes that form of media.Segmentation using psychographics Is based on an individual's personality, values, interests and lifestyles. A recent study concerning what forms of media people use- conducted by the Entertainment Technology Center at the University of Southern California, the Hallmark Channel, and E-Poll Market Research- concludes that a better predictor of media usage is the user's lifestyle. Researchers concluded that while cohorts of these groups may have similar demographic profiles, they may have different attitudes and media usage habits. Psychographics can provide further insight by distinguishing an audience into specific groups by using their personal traits. Once acknowledging this is the case, advertisers can begin to target customers having recognized that factors other than age for example provides greater insight into the customer.
Process:
Contextual advertising is a strategy to place advertisements on media vehicles, such as specific websites or print magazines, whose themes are relevant to the promoted products.: 2 Advertisers apply this strategy in order to narrow-target their audiences. Advertisements are selected and served by automated systems based on the identity of the user and the displayed content of the media. The advertisements will be displayed across the user's different platforms and are chosen based on searches for keywords; appearing as either a web page or pop up ads. It is a form of targeted advertising in which the content of an ad is in direct correlation to the content of the webpage the user is viewing.
Process:
The major psychographic segments Personality Every brand, service or product has itself a personality, how it is viewed by the public and the community and marketers will create these personalities to match the personality traits of their target market. Marketers and advertisers create these personalities because when a consumer can relate to the characteristics of a brand, service or product they are more likely to feel connected towards the product and purchase it.
Process:
Lifestyle Advertisers are aware that different people lead different lives, have different lifestyles and different wants and needs at different times in their consumer's lives, thus individual differences can be compensated for Advertisers who base their segmentation on psychographic characteristics promote their product as the solution to these wants and needs. Segmentation by lifestyle considers where the consumer is in their life cycle and which preferences are associated with that life stage.
Process:
Opinions, attitudes, interests and hobbies Psychographic segmentation also includes opinions on religion, gender and politics, sporting and recreational activities, views on the environment and arts and cultural issues. The views that the market segments hold and the activities they participate in will have an impact on the products and services they purchase and it will affect how they respond to the message.
Process:
Alternatives to behavioral advertising and psychographic targeting include geographic targeting and demographic targeting When advertisers want to efficiently reach as many consumers as possible, they use a six-step process.
identify the objectives the advertisers do this by setting benchmarks, identifying products or proposals, identifying the core values and strategic objectives. This step also includes listing and monitoring competitors content and creating objectives for the next 12-18months.
The second step understanding buyers, is all about identifying what types of buyers the advertiser wants to target and identifying the buying process for the consumers.
Identifying gaps is key as this illustrates all of the gaps in the content and finds what is important for the buying process and the stages of the content.
content is created and the stage where the key messages are identified and the quality bench line is discussed.
Organizing distribution is key for maximizing the potential of the content, these can be social media, blogs or google display networks.
The last step is vital for an advertiser as they need to measure the return on investment (ROI) there are multiple ways to measure performance, these can be tracking web traffic, sales lead quality, and/ or social media sharing.Alternatives to behavioral advertising include audience targeting, contextual targeting, and psychographic targeting.
Effectiveness:
Targeting aims to improve the effectiveness of advertising and reduce the wastage created by sending advertising to consumers who are unlikely to purchase that product. Targeted advertising or improved targeting may lead to lower advertising costs and expenditures.The effects of advertising on society and those targeted are all implicitly underpinned by consideration of whether advertising compromises autonomous choice.Those arguing for the ethical acceptability of advertising claim either that, because of the commercially competitive context of advertising, the consumer has a choice over what to accept and what to reject.
Effectiveness:
Humans have the cognitive competence and are equipped with the necessary faculties to decide whether to be affected by adverts. Those arguing against note, for example, that advertising can make us buy things we do not want or that, as advertising is enmeshed in a capitalist system, it only presents choices based on consumerist-centered reality thus limiting the exposure to non-materialist lifestyles.
Effectiveness:
Although the effects of target advertising are mainly focused on those targeted it also has an effect on those not targeted. Its unintended audiences often view an advertisement targeted at other groups and start forming judgments and decisions regarding the advertisement and even the brand and company behind the advertisement, these judgments may affect future consumer behavior.The Network Advertising Initiative conducted a study in 2009 measuring the pricing and effectiveness of targeted advertising. It revealed that targeted advertising: Secured an average of 2.7 times as much revenue per ad as non-targeted "run of network" advertising.
Effectiveness:
Twice as effective at converting users who click on the ads into buyersHowever, other studies show that targeted advertising, at least by gender, is not effective.
Effectiveness:
One of the major difficulties in measuring the economic efficiency of targeting, however, is being able to observe what would have happened in the absence of targeting since the users targeted by advertisers are more likely to convert than the general population. Farahat and Bailey exploit a large-scale natural experiment on Yahoo! allowing them to measure the true economic impact of targeted advertising on brand searches and clicks. They find, assuming the cost per 1000 ad impressions (CPM) is $1, that: The marginal cost of a brand-related search resulting from ads is $15.65 per search, but is only $1.69 per search from a targeted campaign.
Effectiveness:
The marginal cost of a click is 72 cents, but only 16 cents from a targeted campaign.
Effectiveness:
The variation in CTR lifts from targeted advertising campaigns is mostly determined by pre-existing brand interest.Research shows that Content marketing in 2015 generates 3 times as many leads as traditional outbound marketing, but costs 62% less showing how being able to advertise to targeted consumers is becoming the ideal way to advertise to the public. As other stats show how 86% of people skip television adverts and 44% of people ignore direct mail, which also displays how advertising to the wrong group of people can be a waste of resources.
Benefits and disadvantages:
Benefits Proponents of targeted advertising argue that there are advantages for both consumers and advertisers: Consumers Targeted advertising benefits consumers because advertisers are able to effectively attract consumers by using their purchasing and browsing habits this enables ads to be more apparent and useful for customers. Having ads that are related to the interests of the consumers allow the message to be received in a direct manner through effective touchpoints. An example of how targeted advertising is beneficial to consumers if that if someone sees an ad targeted to them for something similar to an item they have previously viewed online and were interested in, they are more likely to buy it.
Benefits and disadvantages:
Consumers can benefit from targeted advertising in the following ways: More effective delivery of desired product or service directly to the consumer: having assumed the traits or interests of the consumer from their targeting, advertisements that will appeal and engage the customer are used.
Benefits and disadvantages:
More direct delivery of a message that relates to the consumer's interest: advertisements are delivered to the customer in a manner that is comfortable, whether it be jargon or a certain medium, the delivery of the message is part of the consumer's 'lifestyle' Intelligence agencies Intelligence agencies worldwide can more easily, and without exposing their personnel to the risks of HUMINT, track targets at sensitive locations such as military bases or training camps by simply purchasing location data from commercial providers who collect it from mobile devices with geotargeting enabled used by the operatives present at these places.
Benefits and disadvantages:
Location data can be extremely valuable and must be protected. It can reveal details about the number of users in a location, user and supply movements, daily routines (user and organizational), and can expose otherwise unknown associations between users and locations.
Benefits and disadvantages:
Advertiser Advertisers benefit with target advertising are reduced resource costs and creation of more effective ads by attracting consumers with a strong appeal to these products. Targeted advertising allows advertisers in reduced cost of advertisement by minimizing "wasted" advertisements to non-interested consumers. Targeted advertising captivate the attention of consumers they were aimed at resulting in higher return on investment for the company.
Benefits and disadvantages:
Because behavioral advertising enables advertisers to more easily determine user preference and purchasing habit, the ads will be more pertinent and useful for consumers. By creating a more efficient and effective manner of advertising to the consumer, an advertiser benefits greatly and in the following ways: More efficient campaign development: by having information about the consumer an advertiser is able to make more concise decisions on how to best communicate with them.
Benefits and disadvantages:
Better use of advertising dollar: A greater understanding of the targeted audience will allow an advertiser to achieve better results with an advertising campaign Increased return on investment: Targeted advertisements will yield higher results for lower costs.Using information from consumers can benefit the advertiser by developing a more efficient campaign, targeted advertising is proven to work both effectively and efficiently. They don't want to waste time and money advertising to the "wrong people". Through technological advances, the internet has allowed advertisers to target consumers beyond the capabilities of traditional media, and target significantly larger amount. The main advantage of using targeted advertising is how it can help minimize wasted advertising by using detailed information about individuals who are intended for a product. If consumers are produced these ads that are targeted for them, it is more likely they will be interested and click on them. 'Know thy consumer', is a simple principle used by advertisers, when businesses know information about consumers, it can be easier to target them and get them to purchase their product. Some consumers do not mind if their information is used, and are more accepting to ads with easily accessible links. This is because they may appreciate adverts tailored to their preferences, rather than just generic ads. They are more likely to be directed to products they want, and possibly purchase them, in return generating more income for the business advertising.
Benefits and disadvantages:
Disadvantages Consumers Targeted advertising raises privacy concerns. Targeted advertising is performed by analyzing consumers' activities through online services such as HTTP cookies and data mining, both of which can be seen as detrimental to consumers' privacy. Marketers research consumers' online activity for targeted advertising campaigns like programmatic and SEO. Consumers' privacy concerns revolve around today's unprecedented tracking capabilities and whether to trust their trackers. Consumers may feel uncomfortable with sites knowing so much about their activity online. Targeted advertising aims to increase promotions' relevance to potential buyers, delivering ad campaign executions to specified consumers at critical stages in the buying decision process. This potentially limits a consumer's awareness of alternatives and reinforces selective exposure. Consumers may start avoiding certain sites and brands if they keep getting served the same advertisements as the consumer may feel like they are being watched too much or may start getting annoyed with certain brands. Due to the increased use of tracking cookies all over the web many sites now have cookie notices that pop up when a visitor lands on a site. The notice informs the visitor about the use of cookies, how they affect the visitor, and the visitor's options in regards to what information the cookies can obtain.
Benefits and disadvantages:
Advertiser Targeting advertising is not a process performed overnight, it takes time and effort to analyze the behavior of consumers. This results in more expenses than the traditional advertising processes. As targeted advertising is seen more effective this is not always a disadvantage but there are cases where advertisers have not received the profit expected. Targeted advertising has a limited reach to consumers, advertisers are not always aware that consumers change their minds and purchases which will no longer mean ads are apparent to them. Another disadvantage is that while using cookies to track activity advertisers are unable to depict whether 1 or more consumers are using the same computer. This is apparent in family homes where multiple people from a broad age range are using the same device.
Controversies:
Targeted advertising has raised controversies, most particularly towards the privacy rights and policies. With behavioral targeting focusing in on specific user actions such as site history, browsing history, and buying behavior, this has raised user concern that all activity is being tracked.
Controversies:
Privacy International, a UK based registered charity that defends and promotes the right to privacy across the world, suggests that from any ethical standpoint such interception of web traffic must be conditional on the basis of explicit and informed consent, and action must be taken where organizations can be shown to have acted unlawfully.A survey conducted in the United States by the Pew Internet & American Life Project between January 20 and February 19, 2012, revealed that most of Americans are not in favor of targeted advertising, seeing it as an invasion of privacy. Indeed, 68% of those surveyed said they are "not okay" with targeted advertising because they do not like having their online behavior tracked and analyzed.
Controversies:
Another issue with targeted advertising is the lack of 'new' advertisements of goods or services. Seeing as all ads are tailored to be based on user preferences, no different products will be introduced to the consumer. Hence, in this case the consumer will be at a loss as they are not exposed to anything new.
Controversies:
Advertisers concentrate their resources on the consumer, which can be very effective when done right. When advertising doesn't work, consumer can find this creepy and start wondering how the advertiser learnt the information about them. Consumers can have concerns over ads targeted at them, which are basically too personal for comfort, feeling a need for control over their own data.In targeted advertising privacy is a complicated issue due to the type of protected user information and the number of parties involved. The three main parties involved in online advertising are the advertiser, the publisher, and the network. People tend to want to keep their previously browsed websites private, although users 'clickstreams' are being transferred to advertisers who work with ad networks. The user's preferences and interests are visible through their clickstream and their behavioral profile is generated.Many find this form of advertising to be concerning and see these tactics as manipulative and a sense of discrimination. As a result of this, a number of methods have been introduced in order to avoid advertising. Internet users employing ad blockers are rapidly growing in numbers. The average global ad-blocking rate in early 2018 was estimated at 27 percent. Greece is at the top of the list with more than 40% of internet users admit to using ad-blocking software. Among technical population ad-blocking reaches 58%. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Rolling meth lab**
Rolling meth lab:
A rolling meth lab is a transportable laboratory that is used to illegally produce methamphetamine. Rolling meth labs are often moved to a secluded location where the strong, toxic fumes of methamphetamine manufacture cannot be detected and where the toxic manufacturing byproducts can be discarded. They are sometimes designed to manufacture the drug while the lab is traveling.
Transportation hazard:
The process of synthesizing methamphetamine (also known as "cooking") can be dangerous as it involves poisonous, flammable, and explosive chemicals. When the lab is mobile, it presents a risk to wherever it happens to be, as demonstrated in November 2001, when a rolling meth lab carrying anhydrous ammonia exploded on Interstate 24 in Kentucky, prompting law enforcement to shut down the highway. Such incidents have not only injured the meth producers, but have injured passing motorists and police officers, who are also exposed to dangerous fumes.The main dangers of transporting depend on the method used to produce the methamphetamine. One of the dangers includes anhydrous ammonia stolen from farm sites — where it is used as fertilizer — and placed into a household ice cooler or other container not designed to hold this volatile gas. Inhalation of the gas can cause severe lung damage or even death. In an accident, the vessels used to contain this gas generally fail.
Transportation hazard:
The use of anhydrous ammonia has dropped significantly since the introduction of the 'shake and bake' method of methamphetamine production. This method cuts out the need for anhydrous ammonia as well as red phosphorus. All the ingredients are simply placed into a bottle and shaken while the chemical reaction occurs. This reaction occurs under pressure and the bottle must be frequently unscrewed to release pressure. Methamphetamine producers often call this "burping" the bottle. The dangers of transporting a shake and bake lab are similar to those of transporting anhydrous ammonia. If the bottle turns on its side and certain ingredients combine with each other, an explosion can occur. This is because the organic solvent is exposed to lithium and water in the presence of oxygen when the bottle tips, and the lithium reaction causes the combustion.
Toxic effects and dangerous remnants:
As with a home lab, the remaining fumes from a crude moving methamphetamine lab can be extremely toxic. The surfaces of the vehicle's interior can be coated or impregnated with the poisonous residue, rendering the vehicle worthless. Vehicles stolen for the single purpose of manufacture of the drug are most often considered contaminated and unusable, as exposure to the by-products of the chemical reaction remaining in the vehicle is frequently too dangerous to attempt decontamination. A further complication is that the "cooking" methods for meth frequently change, so the proper remediation for a given lab site cannot be assumed from previous known lab methods.Law enforcement Hazmat teams assigned to dispose of the toxic materials must be cautious and receive training on a regular basis. As of October 23, 2014 the Environmental Protection Agency as put forth by the Guidelines for Methamphetamine Laboratory Cleanup provides technical guidance for state and local personnel responsible for methamphetamine (meth) lab cleanup. The Guidelines are based on an extensive review of the best available science and practices and addresses general cleanup activities, identifies best practices for specific items or materials, discusses sampling procedures, and provides additional technical resources. The Guidelines for Methamphetamine Laboratory Cleanup provides technical guidance for state and local personnel responsible for methamphetamine (meth) lab cleanup. To find a licensed and certified company, the National Crime Scene Clean Up Association has compiled the EPA approved vendor list. This is a revision on The Methamphetamine Remediation Research Act of 2007 EPA develop guidelines for remediating former methamphetamine labs. This document provides those guidelines for States and local agencies to improve "our national understanding of identifying the point at which former methamphetamine laboratories become clean enough to inhabit again." The legislation also required that EPA periodically update the guidelines, as appropriate, to reflect the best available knowledge and research.
Law enforcement and detection:
Rolling meth labs can be concealed on or in vehicles as large as 18 wheelers or as small as motorcycles. Rolling labs are more difficult to detect than stationary ones and can be often hidden amidst legal cargo on big trucks. Many rolling lab discoveries were the result of an officer just "stumbling" onto them. Improved officer training and checking suspicious vehicles with K-9 units may allow increased detection.
In popular culture:
A recurring location in several early episodes of the television series Breaking Bad is a mid-1980s Fleetwood Bounder motorhome used by Walter White and Jesse Pinkman as their mobile laboratory.
A mobile crack cocaine factory features as a lyrical motif in Full Metal Jackoff, a side-long track on Jello Biafra's collaboration with D.O.A, Last Scream of the Missing Neighbors. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Ramberg–Osgood relationship**
Ramberg–Osgood relationship:
The Ramberg–Osgood equation was created to describe the non linear relationship between stress and strain—that is, the stress–strain curve—in materials near their yield points. It is especially applicable to metals that harden with plastic deformation (see work hardening), showing a smooth elastic-plastic transition. As it is a phenomenological model, checking the fit of the model with actual experimental data for the particular material of interest is essential.
Ramberg–Osgood relationship:
In its original form, the equation for strain (deformation) is ε=σE+K(σE)n here ε is strain, σ is stress, E is Young's modulus, and K and n are constants that depend on the material being considered. In this form K and n are not the same as the constants commonly seen in the Hollomon equation.The equation is essentially assuming the elastic strain portion of the stress-strain curve, εe , can be modeled with a line, while the plastic portion, εp , can be modeling with a power law. The elastic and plastic components are summed to find the total strain.
Ramberg–Osgood relationship:
ε=εe+εp The first term on the right side, σ/E , is equal to the elastic part of the strain, while the second term, K(σ/E)n , accounts for the plastic part, the parameters K and n describing the hardening behavior of the material. Introducing the yield strength of the material, σ0 , and defining a new parameter, α , related to K as α=K(σ0/E)n−1 , it is convenient to rewrite the term on the extreme right side as follows: K(σE)n=ασE(σσ0)n−1 Replacing in the first expression, the Ramberg–Osgood equation can be written as ε=σE+ασE(σσ0)n−1
Hardening behavior and yield offset:
In the last form of the Ramberg–Osgood model, the hardening behavior of the material depends on the material constants α and n . Due to the power-law relationship between stress and plastic strain, the Ramberg–Osgood model implies that plastic strain is present even for very low levels of stress. Nevertheless, for low applied stresses and for the commonly used values of the material constants α and n , the plastic strain remains negligible compared to the elastic strain. On the other hand, for stress levels higher than σ0 , plastic strain becomes progressively larger than elastic strain.
Hardening behavior and yield offset:
The value ασ0E can be seen as a yield offset, as shown in figure 1. This comes from the fact that ε=(1+α)σ0/E , when σ=σ0 Accordingly, (see Figure 1): elastic strain at yield = σ0/E plastic strain at yield = α(σ0/E) = yield offsetCommonly used values for n are ~5 or greater, although more precise values are usually obtained by fitting of tensile (or compressive) experimental data. Values for α can also be found by means of fitting to experimental data, although for some materials, it can be fixed in order to have the yield offset equal to the accepted value of strain of 0.2%, which means: 0.002
Alternative Formulations:
Several slightly different alternative formulations of the Ramberg-Osgood equation can be found. As the models are purely empirical, it is often useful to try different models and check which has the best fit with the chosen material.
The Ramberg-Osgood equation can also be expressed using the Hollomon parameters where K is the strength coefficient (Pa) and n is the strain hardening coefficient (no units).
ε=σE+(σK)1/n Alternatively, if the yield stress, σy , is assumed to be at the 0.2% offset strain, the following relationship can be derived. Note that n is again as defined in the original Ramberg-Osgood equation and is the inverse of the Hollomon's strain hardening coefficient.
0.002 (σσy)n | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Digital access carrier system**
Digital access carrier system:
Digital access carrier system (DACS) is the name used by British Telecom (BT Group plc) in the United Kingdom for a 0+2 pair gain system.
Usage:
For almost as long as telephones have been a common feature in homes and offices, telecommunication companies have regularly been faced with a situation where demand in a particular street or area exceeds the number of physical copper pairs available from the pole to the exchange.
Until the early 1980s, this situation was often dealt with by providing shared or 'party' lines, which were connected to multiple customers. This raised privacy problems since any subscriber connected to the line could listen to (or indeed, interrupt) another subscriber's call.
With advances in the size, price, and reliability of electronic equipment, it eventually became possible to provide two normal subscriber lines over one copper pair, eliminating the need for party lines. The more modern ISDN technology based digital systems that perform this task are known in Britain by the generic name 'DACS'.
DACS works by digitising the analogue signal and sending the combined digital information for both lines over the same copper pair between the exchange and the pole. The cost of the DACS equipment is significantly less than the cost of installing additional copper pairs.
Overview:
The DACS system consists of three main parts: The exchange unit (EU), which connects multiple pairs of analogue lines to their corresponding single digital lines. One Telspec EU rack connects as many as 80 analogue lines over 40 digital copper pairs.
The copper pair between the exchange and the remote unit, carrying the digital signal between the exchange unit and the remote unit.
The remote unit (RU), which connects two analogue customer lines to one digital copper pair. The RUs are usually to be found on poles within a few hundred metres of the subscribers' homes or businesses.
Advantages:
Because it uses a digital signal along most of the distance between subscriber and exchange, DACS is less prone to electrical interference than the more usual analogue line.
The DACS system has built-in monitoring from the exchange. An alert is generated if the connection is lost or errors occur. This contrasts with a conventional analogue line, where the fault will usually not be known until a customer complains.
DACS and modems:
The 56kbit/s speed of analogue modems can only be achieved if there is a single digital to analogue conversion in the route from the ISP to the end user. Since DACS involves an additional conversion to digital, and then back to analogue, this means that the maximum possible bitrate over a DACS line is 33.6 kbit/s. Furthermore, many 56 kbit/s modems are unable to successfully negotiate even this speed over a DACS line. DSL broadband internet connections cannot work on a DACS line as they rely on a copper pair running all the way to the telephone exchange.
DACS and modems:
Since BT's traditional telephone line service is contractually only required to support voice and fax communication, BT are not obliged to remove a DACS because of problems with 56kbit/s modems.
Technical:
This section contains more technical detail on the 3 main subsystems that make DACS.
Who makes it?:
BT sourced DACS from two different companies: Telspec and ECI. Each BT region installed either one or the other; e.g. in South Wales, ECI DACS is fitted, while in Kent, Telspec DACS is used.
Definitions:
WB900 – an analogue radio frequency based system that did not support even low speed data communications. Installed from the early 1980s. Now rarely encountered.
DACS1 – first generation digital system that did not support CLI but supported low-speed data communication devices such as fax machines. Installed from around 1990. DACS1 is no longer used in new installations.
DACS2 – released in the mid 1990s, DACS2 was an upgrade to DACS1 with support for CLI and higher data speeds (but see below). DACS2 is fundamentally similar to DACS1 in operation.
DACS – DACS1 and DACS2 are commonly known simply as 'DACS'. Most DACS installations in the UK are now DACS2.
How did WB900 work?:
Before DACS, WB900 (a 1 + 1 analogue carrier system) was used. The first subscriber's phone (called the 'audio customer') would be connected as normal. The second subscriber (called the 'carrier customer') would have his phone calls modulated on to an RF carrier or Carrier wave on the same physical phone line at around 40 kHz – high enough not to be noticeable to the audio customer. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Anfinsen cage**
Anfinsen cage:
In molecular biology, an Anfinsen cage is a model for protein folding used by some cells to improve the production speed and yield of accurate products. Space within a cell is generally limited, and a protein's folding process can be interrupted or modified if it wanders too close to outside forces while it is still in the process of forming. Even worse, the unformed molecules may begin to aggregate uncontrollably, potentially resulting in a disease such as Alzheimer's.To prevent this, some cells will enclose actively folding proteins within one or more chaperones, forming a "cage" around them to protect them during their transformation. These cages can also serve to isolate incorrectly formed proteins that may otherwise affect other processes if it were allowed to float freely. The model is named after Christian B. Anfinsen who first showed in vitro that pure denatured proteins will sometimes refold spontaneously without an energy source. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Work domain analysis**
Work domain analysis:
In organization development, the initial phase within the Cognitive work analysis (CWA) framework is Work Domain Analysis. It provides a description of the constraints that govern the purpose and the function of the systems under analysis.
Abstraction hierarchy:
The Abstraction Hierarchy (Rasmussen, 1985; Vicente, 1999) is used to provide a context-independent description of the domain. The analyses, and resultant diagrams, are not specific to any particular technology; rather they represent the entire domain.
The top-three levels of the diagrams consider the overall objectives of the domain, and what it can achieve.
Abstraction hierarchy:
The bottom-two levels concentrate on the physical components and their affordances.Through a series of ‘means-ends’ links, it is possible to model how individual components can affect the overall domain purpose. The abstraction hierarchy is constructed by considering the work system's objectives (top-down) and the work system's capabilities (bottom-up). The diagram is constructed based upon a range of data collection opportunities. The exact data collection procedure is dependent on the domain in question and the availability of data. In most cases, the procedure commences with some form of document analysis. Document analysis allows the analyst to gain a basic domain understanding, forming the basis for semi-structured interviews with domain experts. Wherever possible, observation of the work in context is highly recommended.
Abstraction hierarchy:
The abstraction hierarchy consists of five levels of abstraction, ranging from the most abstract level of purposes to the most concrete level of form (Vicente, 1999). The levels are normally called Functional Purpose (FP), Abstract Function (AF), Generalized Function (GF), Physical Function (PFn) and Physical Form (PFo).The labels used for each of the levels of the hierarchy tend to differ, dependent on the aims of the analysis. Below, the labels used by Xiao et al. are shown.
Domain levels:
The domain purpose, displayed at the very top of the diagram, represents the reason why the work system exists. This purpose is independent of any specific situation, it is also independent of time – the system purpose exists as long as the system does.
The domain values level of the hierarchy is used to capture the key values that can be used to assess how well the work system is performing its domain purpose(s). These values are likely to be conflicting.
The middle layer of hierarchy lists the functions that can be performed by the combined work system. These functions are expressed in terms of the domain in question.
The physical functions are listed which the objects can perform. These are listed generically and are independent of the domain purpose.
The key physical objects within the work system are listed at the base of the hierarchy. These objects represent the sum of the relevant objects from all of the component technologies. This level of the diagram is independent of purpose; however, analyst judgement is required to limit the object list to a manageable size.
Summary:
The structure of the abstraction hierarchy framework acts as a guide to acquiring the knowledge necessary to understand the domain. The framework helps to direct the search for deep knowledge, providing structure to the document analysis process, particularly for the domain novice. While the output may initially appear overbearing, its value to the analysis cannot be overstated. The abstraction hierarchy defines the systemic constraints at the highest level.
Summary:
One of the advantages of the abstraction hierarchy model is that it can be used to explore the effect of new technology on the system values and purposes. Additional technologies can be modelled at the base of the model and their effect assessed through the mean-ends links to the top of the diagram. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Avant-garde**
Avant-garde:
In the arts and in literature, the term avant-garde (advance guard and vanguard) identifies a genre of art, an experimental work of art, and the experimental artist who created the work of art, which usually is aesthetically innovative, whilst initially being ideologically unacceptable to the artistic establishment of the time. The military metaphor of an advance guard identifies the artists and writers whose innovations in style, form, and subject-matter challenge the artistic and aesthetic validity of the established forms of art and the literary traditions of their time; thus how the artists who created the anti-novel and Surrealism were ahead of their times.As a stratum of the intelligentsia of a society, avant-garde artists promote progressive and radical politics and advocate for societal reform with and through works of art. In the essay "The Artist, the Scientist, and the Industrialist" (1825) Benjamin Olinde Rodrigues's political usage of vanguard identified the moral obligation of artists to "serve as [the] avant-garde" of the people, because "the power of the arts is, indeed, the most immediate and fastest way" to realise social, political, and economic reforms.In the realm of culture, the artistic experiments of the avant-garde push the aesthetic boundaries of societal norms, such as the disruptions of modernism in poetry, fiction, and drama, painting, music, and architecture, that occurred in the late 19th and in the early 20th centuries. In art history the socio-cultural functions of avant-garde art trace from Dada (1915–1920s) through the Situationist International (1957–1972) to the postmodernism of the American Language poets (1960s–1970s).
History:
The French military term avant-garde (advanced guard) identified a reconnaissance unit who scouted the terrain ahead of the main force of the army. In 19th-century French politics, the term avant-garde (vanguard) identified Left-wing political reformists who agitated for radical political change in French society. In the mid-19th century, as a cultural term, avant-garde identified a genre of art that advocated art-as-politics, art as an aesthetic and political means for realising social change in a society. Since the 20th century, the art term avant-garde identifies a stratum of the Intelligentsia that comprises novelists and writers, artists and architects et al. whose creative perspectives, ideas, and experimental artworks challenge the cultural values of contemporary bourgeois society. In the U.S. of the 1960s, the post–WWII changes to American culture and society allowed avant-garde artists to produce works of art that addressed the matters of the day, usually in political and sociologic opposition to the cultural conformity inherent to popular culture and to consumerism as a way of life and as a worldview.
Theories:
In The Theory of the Avant-Garde (Teoria dell'arte d'avanguardia, 1962), the academic Renato Poggioli provides an early analysis of the avant-garde as art and as artistic movement. Surveying the historical and social, psychological and philosophical aspects of artistic vanguardism, Poggioli's examples of avant-garde art, poetry, and music, show that avant-garde artists share some values and ideals as contemporary bohemians.In Theory of the Avant-Garde (Theorie der Avantgarde, 1974), the literary critic Peter Bürger looks at The Establishment's embrace of socially critical works of art as capitalist co-optation of the artists and the genre of avant-garde art, because "art as an institution neutralizes the political content of the individual work [of art]".In Neo-avantgarde and Culture Industry: Essays on European and American Art from 1955 to 1975 (2000), Benjamin H. D. Buchloh argues for a dialectical approach to such political stances by avant-garde artists and the avant-garde genre of art.
Society and the avant-garde:
Sociologically, as a stratum of the intelligentsia of a society, avant-garde artists, writers, architects, et al. produce artefacts — works of art, books, buildings — that intellectually and ideologically oppose the conformist value system of mainstream society. In the essay "Avant-Garde and Kitsch" (1939), Clement Greenberg said that the artistic vanguard oppose high culture and reject the artifice of mass culture, because the avant-garde functionally oppose the dumbing down of society — be it with low culture or with high culture. That in a capitalist society each medium of mass communication is a factory producing artworks, and is not a legitimate artistic medium; therefore, the products of mass culture are kitsch, simulations and simulacra of Art.Walter Benjamin in the essay "The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction" (1939) and Theodor Adorno and Max Horkheimer in the Dialectic of Enlightenment (1947) said that the artifice of mass culture voids the artistic value (the aura) of a work of art. That the capitalist culture industry (publishing and music, radio and cinema, etc.) continually produces artificial culture for mass consumption, which is facilitated by mechanically produced art-products of mediocre quality displacing art of quality workmanship; thus, the profitability of art-as-commodity determines its artistic value.In The Society of the Spectacle (1967), Guy Debord said that the financial, commercial, and economic co-optation of the avant-garde into a commodity produced by neoliberal capitalism makes doubtful that avant-garde artists will remain culturally and intellectually relevant to their societies for preferring profit to cultural change and political progress. In The Theory-Death of the Avant-Garde (1991), Paul Mann said that the avant-garde are economically integral to the contemporary institutions of the Establishment, specifically as part of the culture industry. Noting the conceptual shift, theoreticians, such as Matei Calinescu, in Five Faces of Modernity: Modernism, Avant-garde, Decadence, Kitsch, Postmodernism (1987), and Hans Bertens in The Idea of the Postmodern: A History (1995), said that Western culture entered a post-modern time when the modernist ways of thought and action and the production of art have become redundant in a capitalist economy.Parting from the claims of Greenberg in the late 1930s and the insights of Poggioli in the early 1960s, in The De-Definition of Art: Action Art to Pop to Earthworks (1983), the critic Harold Rosenberg said that since the middle of the 1960s the politically progressive avant-garde ceased being adversaries to artistic commercialism and the mediocrity of mass culture, which political disconnection transformed being an artist into "a profession, one of whose aspects is the pretense of overthrowing [the profession of being an artist]."Avant-garde is frequently defined in contrast to arrière-garde, which in its original military sense refers to a rearguard force that protects the advance-guard. The term was less frequently used than "avant-garde" in 20th-century art criticism. The art historians Natalie Adamson and Toby Norris argue that arrière-garde is not reducible to a kitsch style or reactionary orientation, but can instead be used to refer to artists who engage with the legacy of the avant-garde while maintaining an awareness that doing so is in some sense anachronistic. The critic Charles Altieri argues that avant-garde and arrière-garde are interdependent: "where there is an avant-garde, there must be an arrière-garde."
Examples:
Music Avant-garde in music can refer to any form of music working within traditional structures while seeking to breach boundaries in some manner. The term is used loosely to describe the work of any musicians who radically depart from tradition altogether. By this definition, some avant-garde composers of the 20th century include Arnold Schoenberg, Richard Strauss (in his earliest work), Charles Ives, Igor Stravinsky, Anton Webern, Edgard Varèse, Alban Berg, George Antheil (in his earliest works only), Henry Cowell (in his earliest works), Harry Partch, John Cage, Iannis Xenakis, Morton Feldman, Karlheinz Stockhausen, Pauline Oliveros, Philip Glass, Meredith Monk, Laurie Anderson, and Diamanda Galás.There is another definition of "Avant-gardism" that distinguishes it from "modernism": Peter Bürger, for example, says avant-gardism rejects the "institution of art" and challenges social and artistic values, and so necessarily involves political, social, and cultural factors. According to the composer and musicologist Larry Sitsky, modernist composers from the early 20th century who do not qualify as avant-gardists include Arnold Schoenberg, Anton Webern, and Igor Stravinsky; later modernist composers who do not fall into the category of avant-gardists include Elliott Carter, Milton Babbitt, György Ligeti, Witold Lutosławski, and Luciano Berio, since "their modernism was not conceived for the purpose of goading an audience."The 1960s saw a wave of free and avant-garde music in jazz genre, embodied by artists such as Ornette Coleman, Sun Ra, Albert Ayler, Archie Shepp, John Coltrane and Miles Davis. In the rock music of the 1970s, the "art" descriptor was generally understood to mean "aggressively avant-garde" or "pretentiously progressive". Post-punk artists from the late 1970s rejected traditional rock sensibilities in favor of an avant-garde aesthetic.
Examples:
Theatre Whereas the avant-garde has a significant history in 20th-century music, it is more pronounced in theatre and performance art, and often in conjunction with music and sound design innovations, as well as developments in visual media design. There are movements in theatre history that are characterized by their contributions to the avant-garde traditions in both the United States and Europe. Among these are Fluxus, Happenings, and Neo-Dada. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Droplet nucleus**
Droplet nucleus:
Droplet nuclei are aerosols formed from the evaporation of respiratory droplets. They are generally smaller than 5 μm in diameter. Droplet nuclei are formed by the "dried residua of larger respiratory droplets". These particles are "the vehicle for airborne respiratory disease transmission, which are the dried-out residual of droplets possibly containing infectious pathogens". Diseases such as tuberculous and COVID-19 can be transmitted via droplet nuclei. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**HULC (gene)**
HULC (gene):
In molecular biology, Highly Up-regulated in Liver Cancer (non-protein coding), also known as HULC, is a long non-coding RNA. It was first identified in hepatocellular carcinoma, and is also expressed in colorectal carcinomas that metastasise to the liver. It may have a role in the post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression. It downregulates the expression of several microRNAs, including miR-372. Expression of HULC is upregulated by CREB, there is a CREB-binding site in the promoter of HULC. miR-372 represses translation of the kinase PRKACB, so downregulation of miR-372 leads to increased levels of PRKACB. PRKACB activates CREB by phosphorylation, therefore leading to increased expression of HULC. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Huntite**
Huntite:
Huntite is a carbonate mineral with the chemical formula Mg3Ca(CO3)4. Huntite crystallizes in the trigonal system and typically occurs as platy crystals and powdery masses. For most of recorded history its main use was as a white pigment. Today the most common industrial use of huntite is as a natural mixture with hydromagnesite as a flame retardant or fire retardant additive for polymers.
Discovery:
In 1953 a paper by George Faust announced the discovery of a new carbonate mineral found in Currant Creek, Nevada (US). Faust acknowledged that the mineral probably had been discovered previously, but it had been misidentified as impure magnesite by W. E. Ford in 1917. Faust named the new mineral "huntite" in honour of his former teacher, Walter Frederick Hunt (1882–1975), Professor of Petrology at the University of Michigan. Faust carried out analyses of the mineral, and found amongst others that in differential thermal analysis huntite showed two endothermic peaks, which could be attributed to the dissociation of MgCO3 and CaCO3 respectively. Chemical analyses showed huntite to consist of Mg3Ca(CO3)4.
Properties:
Huntite often occurs in combination with other Mg/Ca carbonates such as dolomite, magnesite, and hydromagnesite. Large deposits of huntite occur in Turkey and Greece and these are commercially exploited because of its fire retardant properties. Huntite thermally decomposes over a temperature range of about 450–800 °C, releasing carbon dioxide and leaving a residue of magnesium and calcium oxides.
Occurrences:
Huntite has been found in a variety of environments. For example, it occurs in the modern carbonate sediments of the tidal flats bordering the Persian Gulf, in seasonal salt lakes of Turkey, in various playa lakes of British Columbia (Canada), in lacustrine deposits of Greece and in modern sabkha sediments in Tunisia.Caves seem to be well suited for the low-temperature formation of huntite. For example, it has been reported from the caves of the Carlsbad Caverns National Park, New Mexico (USA); in the Castleguard Cave (Alberta, Canada); in the Grotte de Clamouse, France; in various caves of the Transvaal Province of South Africa; in the Jenolan Caves, Australia; and in the Castañar Cave near Cáceres, Spain.
Syntheses:
In 1962, huntite was first synthesized by Biedl and Preisinger in experiments conducted at 100 °C and 3.2 bar CO2 pressure.In 1983 Oomori et al. claimed laboratory synthesis of huntite at 33 °C when adding a sodium carbonate solution to concentrated sea water saturated with calcium bicarbonate. In 2006, Zaitseva et al. noted the precipitation of huntite at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. In laboratory experiments originally intended to synthesize magnesium calcite, they had added cultures of Microcoleus chtonoplastes (cyanobacteria) to sea water brine. After 10 months of continuously shaking the samples they found huntite, magnesite, and aragonite. In 2012, Hopkinson et al. synthesized the mineral at 52 °C by reacting magnesium calcite with nesquehonite (MgCO3·3H2O).
Genesis:
Huntite, dolomite and magnesite appear to be so very closely related, that a genetic relationship seems to be implied. In a number of instances all three carbonates are found in close association; for example Faust (1953) described huntite occurring together with dolomite and magnesite (amongst other minerals); Carpenter (1961) found huntite associated with aragonite, magnesium calcite and dolomite; Larrabee (1969) reported on huntite together with (amongst many others) aragonite, calcite, dolomite and magnesite in serpentinite on a weathered dunite rock. A weathered basalt in Australia was found to contain huntite in association with magnesite (Cole & Lancucki, 1975). Huntite together with magnesite was found by Calvo et al. (1995) in lake sediments of Northern Greece. Huntite in combination with magnesite occurs in a weathered serpentinite near Hrubšice, Czech Republic according to Němec (1981) According to the mineral and locations database of "mindat.org" huntite, together with aragonite, calcite, dolomite and magnesite can be found in the "U Pustého Mlýna" quarry near Hrubšice, Czech Republic.
Industrial use:
The most common industrial use of huntite is as a natural mixture with hydromagnesite as a flame retardant or fire retardant additive for polymers. The heat of a fire will cause huntite to decompose releasing carbon dioxide into the flames. This helps to slow the spread of the fire. The release of carbon dioxide is endothermic, meaning that it takes in heat, this action helps to cool the burning material, again slowing the spread of the fire. These types of mixtures are used as alternatives to the more commonly used aluminium hydroxide.
Conite:
A mineral with exactly the same composition as that of huntite has been known for more than 200 years; in 1812 for example, John and Stromeyer described it as having a chemical composition of CaCO3 : MgCO3 = 1 : 3 . In those days the mineral was known as conite (in German: Konit); a name given to it by Retzius (1798). However, a serious problem concerns the exact location where the mineral conite can be found. Originally Retzius had found the new carbonate in a mineral collection, and had recognized it as a new species because it was harder than any of the known carbonates (even so hard, that it would spark when struck with steel) but no indication was given as to the site where this conite had been found. A number of papers describing conite are known, without the exact location where it can be found. In 1804, Ludwig stated that the sample of conite studied by him, came "from Iceland". In 1805 Leonhard wrote that the conite he had analyzed, came "from Scandinavia". Somewhat more exact was Stromeyer in 1812, who claimed that his sample of conite had been found near the village of Frankenhayn, on the eastern slope of the Hoher Meissner near Kassel, Germany. However, this conite had been found there as a loose boulder, and no outcrop of the new mineral was mentioned. In 1833 Blum summed up how conite could be found in mines near Freiberg (Germany), as boulders on the slopes of Mount Meissner (Germany) and on Iceland. In 1849, Hirzel repeated that conite could be found on the eastern slope of Mount Meissner, and in 1882 Schrauf reported the mineral from the magnesite deposits on the borders of the Schöninger Bach at Křemže near Budweis, Czech Republic.
Conite:
Because of the absence of a type locality for the mineral conite, a historical priority of its description over that of huntite cannot be claimed. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Tumor necrosis factor**
Tumor necrosis factor:
Tumor necrosis factor (TNF, cachexin, or cachectin; formerly known as tumor necrosis factor alpha or TNF-α) is an adipokine and a cytokine. TNF is a member of the TNF superfamily, which consists of various transmembrane proteins with a homologous TNF domain.
Tumor necrosis factor:
As an adipokine, TNF promotes insulin resistance, and is associated with obesity-induced type 2 diabetes. As a cytokine, TNF is used by the immune system for cell signaling. If macrophages (certain white blood cells) detect an infection, they release TNF to alert other immune system cells as part of an inflammatory response.TNF signaling occurs through two receptors: TNFR1 and TNFR2. TNFR1 is constituitively expressed on most cell types, whereas TNFR2 is restricted primarily to endothelial, epithelial, and subsets of immune cells. TNFR1 signaling tends to be pro-inflammatory and apoptotic, whereas TNFR2 signaling is anti-inflammatory and promotes cell proliferation. Suppression of TNFR1 signaling has been important for treatment of autoimmune disease, whereas TNFR2 signaling promotes wound healing.TNF-α exists as a transmembrane form (mTNF-α) and as a soluble form (sTNF-α). sTNF-α results from enzymatic cleavage of mTNF-α, by a process called substrate presentation. mTNF-α is mainly found on monocytes/macrophages where it interacts with tissue receptors by cell-to-cell contact. sTNF-α selectively binds to TNFR1, whereas mTNF-α binds to both TNFR1 and TNFR2. TNF-α binding to TNFR1 is irreversible, whereas binding to TNFR2 is reversible.The primary role of TNF is in the regulation of immune cells. TNF, as an endogenous pyrogen, is able to induce fever, apoptotic cell death, cachexia, and inflammation, inhibit tumorigenesis and viral replication, and respond to sepsis via IL-1 and IL-6-producing cells. Dysregulation of TNF production has been implicated in a variety of human diseases including Alzheimer's disease, cancer, major depression, psoriasis and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Though controversial, some studies have linked depression and IBD to increased levels of TNF.Under the name tasonermin, TNF is used as an immunostimulant drug in the treatment of certain cancers. Drugs that counter the action of TNF are used in the treatment of various inflammatory diseases, for instance rheumatoid arthritis.
Tumor necrosis factor:
Certain cancers can cause overproduction of TNF. TNF parallels parathyroid hormone both in causing secondary hypercalcemia and in the cancers with which excessive production is associated.
Discovery:
The theory of an anti-tumoral response of the immune system in vivo was recognized by the physician William B. Coley. In 1968, Gale A Granger from the University of California, Irvine, reported a cytotoxic factor produced by lymphocytes and named it lymphotoxin (LT). Credit for this discovery is shared by Nancy H. Ruddle from Yale University, who reported the same activity in a series of back-to-back articles published in the same month. Subsequently, in 1975 Lloyd J. Old from Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, reported another cytotoxic factor produced by macrophages and named it tumor necrosis factor (TNF). Both factors were described based on their ability to kill mouse fibrosarcoma L-929 cells. These concepts were extended to systemic disease in 1981, when Ian A. Clark, from the Australian National University, in collaboration with Elizabeth Carswell in Old's group, working with pre-sequencing era data, reasoned that excessive production of TNF causes malaria disease and endotoxin poisoning.The cDNAs encoding LT and TNF were cloned in 1984 and were revealed to be similar. The binding of TNF to its receptor and its displacement by LT confirmed the functional homology between the two factors. The sequential and functional homology of TNF and LT led to the renaming of TNF as TNFα and LT as TNFβ. In 1985, Bruce A. Beutler and Anthony Cerami discovered that cachectin (a hormone which induces cachexia) was actually TNF. They then identified TNF as a mediator of lethal endotoxin poisoning. Kevin J. Tracey and Cerami discovered the key mediator role of TNF in lethal septic shock, and identified the therapeutic effects of monoclonal anti-TNF antibodies.Research in the Laboratory of Mark Mattson has shown that TNF can prevent the death/apoptosis of neurons by a mechanism involving activation of the transcription factor NF-κB which induces the expression of antioxidant enzymes and Bcl-2.
Gene:
The human TNF gene was cloned in 1985. It maps to chromosome 6p21.3, spans about 3 kilobases and contains 4 exons. The last exon shares similarity with lymphotoxin alpha (LTA, once named as TNF-β). The three prime untranslated region (3'-UTR) of TNF contains an AU-rich element (ARE).
Structure:
TNF is primarily produced as a 233-amino acid-long type II transmembrane protein arranged in stable homotrimers. From this membrane-integrated form the soluble homotrimeric cytokine (sTNF) is released via proteolytic cleavage by the metalloprotease TNF alpha converting enzyme (TACE, also called ADAM17). The soluble 51 kDa trimeric sTNF tends to dissociate at concentrations below the nanomolar range, thereby losing its bioactivity. The secreted form of human TNF takes on a triangular pyramid shape, and weighs around 17-kDa. Both the secreted and the membrane bound forms are biologically active, although the specific functions of each is controversial. But, both forms do have overlapping and distinct biological activities.The common house mouse TNF and human TNF are structurally different. The 17-kilodalton (kDa) TNF protomers (185-amino acid-long) are composed of two antiparallel β-pleated sheets with antiparallel β-strands, forming a 'jelly roll' β-structure, typical for the TNF family, but also found in viral capsid proteins.
Cell signaling:
TNF can bind two receptors, TNFR1 (TNF receptor type 1; CD120a; p55/60) and TNFR2 (TNF receptor type 2; CD120b; p75/80). TNFR1 is 55-kDa and TNFR2 is 75-kDa. TNFR1 is expressed in most tissues, and can be fully activated by both the membrane-bound and soluble trimeric forms of TNF, whereas TNFR2 is found typically in cells of the immune system, and responds to the membrane-bound form of the TNF homotrimer. As most information regarding TNF signaling is derived from TNFR1, the role of TNFR2 is likely underestimated. At least partly because TNFR2 has no intracellular death domain, it shows neuroprotective properties.
Cell signaling:
Upon contact with their ligand, TNF receptors also form trimers, their tips fitting into the grooves formed between TNF monomers. This binding causes a conformational change to occur in the receptor, leading to the dissociation of the inhibitory protein SODD from the intracellular death domain. This dissociation enables the adaptor protein TRADD to bind to the death domain, serving as a platform for subsequent protein binding. Following TRADD binding, three pathways can be initiated.
Cell signaling:
Activation of NF-κB: TRADD recruits TRAF2 and RIP. TRAF2 in turn recruits the multicomponent protein kinase IKK, enabling the serine-threonine kinase RIP to activate it. An inhibitory protein, IκBα, that normally binds to NF-κB and inhibits its translocation, is phosphorylated by IKK and subsequently degraded, releasing NF-κB. NF-κB is a heterodimeric transcription factor that translocates to the nucleus and mediates the transcription of a vast array of proteins involved in cell survival and proliferation, inflammatory response, and anti-apoptotic factors.
Cell signaling:
Activation of the MAPK pathways: Of the three major MAPK cascades, TNF induces a strong activation of the stress-related JNK group, evokes moderate response of the p38-MAPK, and is responsible for minimal activation of the classical ERKs. TRAF2/Rac activates the JNK-inducing upstream kinases of MLK2/MLK3, TAK1, MEKK1 and ASK1 (either directly or through GCKs and Trx, respectively). SRC- Vav- Rac axis activates MLK2/MLK3 and these kinases phosphorylate MKK7, which then activates JNK. JNK translocates to the nucleus and activates transcription factors such as c-Jun and ATF2. The JNK pathway is involved in cell differentiation, proliferation, and is generally pro-apoptotic.
Cell signaling:
Induction of death signaling: Like all death-domain-containing members of the TNFR superfamily, TNFR1 is involved in death signaling. However, TNF-induced cell death plays only a minor role compared to its overwhelming functions in the inflammatory process. Its death-inducing capability is weak compared to other family members (such as Fas), and often masked by the anti-apoptotic effects of NF-κB. Nevertheless, TRADD binds FADD, which then recruits the cysteine protease caspase-8. A high concentration of caspase-8 induces its autoproteolytic activation and subsequent cleaving of effector caspases, leading to cell apoptosis.The myriad and often-conflicting effects mediated by the above pathways indicate the existence of extensive cross-talk. For instance, NF-κB enhances the transcription of C-FLIP, Bcl-2, and cIAP1 / cIAP2, inhibitory proteins that interfere with death signaling. On the other hand, activated caspases cleave several components of the NF-κB pathway, including RIP, IKK, and the subunits of NF-κB itself. Other factors, such as cell type, concurrent stimulation of other cytokines, or the amount of reactive oxygen species (ROS) can shift the balance in favor of one pathway or another. Such complicated signaling ensures that, whenever TNF is released, various cells with vastly diverse functions and conditions can all respond appropriately to inflammation. Both protein molecules tumor necrosis factor alpha and keratin 17 appear to be related in case of oral submucous fibrosisIn animal models TNF selectively kills autoreactive T cells.There is also evidence that TNF-α signaling triggers downstream epigenetic modifications that result in lasting enhancement of pro-inflammatory responses in cells.
Enzyme regulation:
This protein may use the morpheein model of allosteric regulation.
Clinical significance:
TNF was thought to be produced primarily by macrophages, but it is produced also by a broad variety of cell types including lymphoid cells, mast cells, endothelial cells, cardiac myocytes, adipose tissue, fibroblasts, and neurons. Large amounts of TNF are released in response to lipopolysaccharide, other bacterial products, and interleukin-1 (IL-1). In the skin, mast cells appear to be the predominant source of pre-formed TNF, which can be released upon inflammatory stimulus (e.g., LPS).It has a number of actions on various organ systems, generally together with IL-1 and interleukin-6 (IL-6): On the hypothalamus: Stimulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis by stimulating the release of corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) Suppressing appetite Fever On the liver: stimulating the acute phase response, leading to an increase in C-reactive protein and a number of other mediators. It also induces insulin resistance by promoting serine-phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate-1 (IRS-1), which impairs insulin signaling It is a potent chemoattractant for neutrophils, and promotes the expression of adhesion molecules on endothelial cells, helping neutrophils migrate.
Clinical significance:
On macrophages: stimulates phagocytosis, and production of IL-1 oxidants and the inflammatory lipid prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) On other tissues: increasing insulin resistance. TNF phosphorylates insulin receptor serine residues, blocking signal transduction.
On metabolism and food intake: regulates bitter taste perception.A local increase in concentration of TNF will cause the cardinal signs of Inflammation to occur: heat, swelling, redness, pain and loss of function.
Whereas high concentrations of TNF induce shock-like symptoms, the prolonged exposure to low concentrations of TNF can result in cachexia, a wasting syndrome. This can be found, for example, in cancer patients.
Clinical significance:
Said et al. showed that TNF causes an IL-10-dependent inhibition of CD4 T-cell expansion and function by up-regulating PD-1 levels on monocytes which leads to IL-10 production by monocytes after binding of PD-1 by PD-L.The research of Pedersen et al. indicates that TNF increase in response to sepsis is inhibited by the exercise-induced production of myokines. To study whether acute exercise induces a true anti-inflammatory response, a model of 'low grade inflammation' was established in which a low dose of E. coli endotoxin was administered to healthy volunteers, who had been randomised to either rest or exercise prior to endotoxin administration. In resting subjects, endotoxin induced a 2- to 3-fold increase in circulating levels of TNF. In contrast, when the subjects performed 3 hours of ergometer cycling and received the endotoxin bolus at 2.5 h, the TNF response was totally blunted. This study provides some evidence that acute exercise may inhibit TNF production.In the brain TNF can protect against excitotoxicity. TNF strengthens synapses. TNF in neurons promotes their survival, whereas TNF in macrophages and microglia results in neurotoxins that induce apoptosis.TNF-α and IL-6 concentrations are elevated in obesity. Monoclonal antibody against TNF-α is associated with increases rather than decreases in obesity, indicating that inflammation is the result, rather than the cause, of obesity. TNF and IL-6 are the most prominent cytokines predicting COVID-19 severity and death.
Pharmacology:
TNF promotes the inflammatory response, which, in turn, causes many of the clinical problems associated with autoimmune disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, inflammatory bowel disease, psoriasis, hidradenitis suppurativa and refractory asthma. These disorders are sometimes treated by using a TNF inhibitor. This inhibition can be achieved with a monoclonal antibody such as infliximab (Remicade) binding directly to TNF, adalimumab (Humira), certolizumab pegol (Cimzia) or with a decoy circulating receptor fusion protein such as etanercept (Enbrel) which binds to TNF with greater affinity than the TNFR.On the other hand, some patients treated with TNF inhibitors develop an aggravation of their disease or new onset of autoimmunity. TNF seems to have an immunosuppressive facet as well. One explanation for a possible mechanism is this observation that TNF has a positive effect on regulatory T cells (Tregs), due to its binding to the tumor necrosis factor receptor 2 (TNFR2).Anti-TNF therapy has shown only modest effects in cancer therapy. Treatment of renal cell carcinoma with infliximab resulted in prolonged disease stabilization in certain patients. Etanercept was tested for treating patients with breast cancer and ovarian cancer showing prolonged disease stabilization in certain patients via downregulation of IL-6 and CCL2. On the other hand, adding infliximab or etanercept to gemcitabine for treating patients with advanced pancreatic cancer was not associated with differences in efficacy when compared with placebo.
Interactions:
TNF has been shown to interact with TNFRSF1A.
Nomenclature:
Because LTα is no longer referred to as TNFβ, TNFα, as the previous gene symbol, is now simply called TNF, as shown in HGNC (HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee) database. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Hypochloremia**
Hypochloremia:
Hypochloremia (or Hypochloraemia) is an electrolyte disturbance in which there is an abnormally low level of the chloride ion in the blood. The normal serum range for chloride is 97 to 107 mEq/L.
It rarely occurs in the absence of other abnormalities. It is sometimes associated with hypoventilation. It can be associated with chronic respiratory acidosis. If it occurs together with metabolic alkalosis (decreased blood acidity) it is often due to vomiting. It is usually the result of hyponatremia or elevated bicarbonate concentration. It occurs in cystic fibrosis. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Megaesophagus**
Megaesophagus:
Megaesophagus, also known as esophageal dilatation, is a disorder of the esophagus in humans and other mammals, whereby the esophagus becomes abnormally enlarged. Megaesophagus may be caused by any disease which causes the muscles of the esophagus to fail to properly propel food and liquid from the mouth into the stomach (that is, a failure of peristalsis). Food can become lodged in the flaccid esophagus, where it may decay, be regurgitated, or maybe inhaled into the lungs (leading to aspiration pneumonia).
Humans:
Megaesophagus may occur secondary to diseases such as achalasia or Chagas disease. Achalasia is caused by a loss of ganglion cells in the myenteric plexus. There is a marked lack of contraction within the muscles involved in peristalsis with a constant contraction of the lower esophageal sphincter. Dilation of the esophagus results in difficulty swallowing. Retention of food bolus is also noted.
Other animals:
Dogs Megaesophagus can also be a symptom of the disease myasthenia gravis. Myasthenia gravis is a neuromuscular disease where the primary symptom is weakness in various body parts of the dog. However, when myasthenia gravis occurs in older dogs it is thought of as an immune-mediated disease. Often when myasthenia gravis is diagnosed in older dogs the first symptom the dog may manifest is megaesophagus. Myasthenia gravis occurs when acetylcholine receptors (nicotinic acetylcholine receptors) fail to function properly, so that the muscle is not stimulated to contract. There is an invention known as the "bailey chair" that uses the force of gravity to push down liquids and food into the dog's stomach. Usually dogs are known to understand when it's time to eat in their bailey chair, and this helps prevent issues. Bailey chairs can be made and are sold. Also, a simple chair turned upside down can be successfully used for this purpose.
Other animals:
In two unrelated incidents in Latvia and Australia megaesophagus developed in dogs that had eaten certain brands of dog food; however, no agent that could have caused the disorder has been found in lab tests of the food.
Other animals:
Diagnosis An important distinction in recognizing megaesophagus is the difference between when a dog regurgitates or vomits. When a dog regurgitates there is usually not as much effort involved as when a dog vomits. Often when regurgitating, the dog will tip its head down and the liquid and/or food will almost appear to "spill out" of its throat.One of the primary dangers to a dog with megaesophagus is aspiration pneumonia. Because the food stays lodged in the throat, it can often be inhaled into the lungs causing aspiration pneumonia. One way to avoid this is to make sure that every time the dog eats or drinks anything, that the dog sits for at least 10 minutes afterward or is held in a sitting up or begging position. This disorder has a guarded prognosis, however, a successful management technique is vertical feeding in a Bailey Chair.
Other animals:
Affected breeds Cats Affected breeds: American Shorthair Persian (cat) Siamese (cat) Horses Megaesophagus is rare in horses. It is more frequently reported in Friesian horses than in other breeds. Congenital megaesophagus is usually identified when a foal begins to eat solid food from the ground; prior to this, as the foal nurses milk from its mother, the milk passes easily down into the stomach. The most common signs are difficulty swallowing (dysphagia) and inhalational pneumonia. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Clathrin-independent carrier**
Clathrin-independent carrier:
Clathrin-independent carriers (CLICs) are prevalent tubulovesicular membranes responsible for non-clathrin mediated endocytic events. They appear to endocytose material into GPI-anchored protein-enriched early endosomal compartment (GEECs). Collectively, CLICs and GEECs comprise the Cdc42-mediated CLIC/GEEC endocytic pathway, which is regulated by GRAF1. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Commercial director**
Commercial director:
A commercial director is a film director who specializes in the creation of commercials, often for television, but sometimes also on film and of music videos (given that music videos are recognized as a form of advertising for the song featured in the video).
The term is also used for the more general business role of chief commercial officer.
Noted commercial directors:
Noted directors of commercials include: Ridley Scott, Adrian Lyne, Hugh Hudson, Jean-Paul Goude, Jonathan Glazer, Michel Gondry, Spike Jonze, Joe Pytka, Tarsem Singh, Dougal Wilson and Tony Kaye, Norman Hafezi, Barry Myers. Music video directors who have gone on to feature film production include Michael Mann and Julien Temple. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Dulcitone**
Dulcitone:
A dulcitone is a keyboard instrument in which sound is produced by a range of tuning forks, which vibrate when struck by felt-covered hammers activated by the keyboard.
The instrument was designed by Thomas Machell of Glasgow in the 1860s, at the same time as Victor Mustel's organologically synonymous typophone, and manufactured by the firm of Thomas Machell & Sons during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
Most of the early models are tuned to sharp pitch, or the diapason normal of a 435. Some of the late models use an action suspended on a system of leaf springs, which is considerably quieter than that illustrated.
Description:
The dulcitone is a transposing instrument of the idiophone class; it sounds an octave higher than the standard (eight foot pitch) written pitch. It has a five octave written range from AA to a3 (sounding range from A to a4).
Description:
A significant feature of the dulcitone was its portability, a product of its lightweight and compact construction and the fact that the tuning forks (unlike, for instance, the strings of a piano) were not prone to going out of tune. However, the volume produced is extremely limited, and the dulcitone's part is frequently substituted by a glockenspiel.Two pieces scored for the dulcitone is Vincent d'Indy's Song of the Bells (1888) and Percy Grainger's "The Power of Rome and the Christian Heart" (1943).
Description:
In 1911 there were 3 versions listed: Style B, with 3½ octaves in solid mahogany (polished Chippendale) or in solid oak (fumed) complete with folding stand, for £12; Style R - in mahogany or oak with 4 octaves for £15; Style F - in mahogany or oak with 5 octaves, for £18.
Surviving examples exist as far afield as New Zealand, where one is preserved in the Whittaker's Musical Museum. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Business interoperability interface**
Business interoperability interface:
A business interoperability interface (BII) is an interface that enables business interoperability between organizational systems. The term was coined by the European Commission in the European Interoperability Framework where such interfaces are recommended to improve the interoperability of public administrations that internally use different standards.
Business interoperability interface:
Though the BII description of the European Commission remains vague, the following requirements are described: The BII should describe entry and exit points to the internal business processes of an organization and it should describe the contribution and commitments the collaboration partners require from each other in a formal way. Furthermore, the BII should enable the enactment of collaborative business processes and interconnect the business processes of different organizations. This description implies that the main objective of the BII is to describe to collaboration partners how they can interact with an organization.
Interface:
An interface represents the point of interconnection between two systems or subsystems. Since collaborative business always comprises interactions between organizational systems (e. g. enterprises or departments), interfaces are an essential element in the development of collaborative business processes. In the context of organizations working together, interface descriptions should describe those characteristics of a system that are relevant for adjacent systems. While interfaces in information systems formerly concentrated on technical aspects, e.g. by describing Application Programming Interfaces, recent developments like Service-oriented Architecture shifted the attention to conceptual interfaces aiming at a business-level description of services and organizational boundaries.
Business interoperability:
In a similar vein it was argued, that previous interoperability definitions focused too much on technical aspects. In consequence, the term Business Interoperability was proposed, for example defined as "the organizational and operational ability of an enterprise to cooperate with its business partners and to efficiently establish, conduct and develop IT-supported business relationships with the objective to create value". Interoperability is usually understood as the capability of autonomous systems "to exchange information and be able to use it", or simply put: the capability of autonomous system to work together or to collaborate. Since "working together" of autonomous organizations means that they execute a collaborative business process, Business Interoperability can also be defined as ... the capability of autonomous organizations to execute a collaborative business process among them.
Definition:
Based on the definitions of business interoperability and interface the term BII can be defined as follows: The Business Interoperability Interface of an organization comprises all information that is relevant for partner organizations in order to enact a collaborative business process with the organization. The interface comprises those elements of a collaborative business process, which are provided by the organization itself as well as the elements, the organization expects from partner organizations.The BII contents are not restricted to process descriptions: in order to enact a collaborative business process, the collaboration partners do not only need to know the sequence in which activities are executed but also require complementary information like organizational roles, specifics of individual activities or document types. Likewise, the description of the BII should cover different levels of technical granularity since the systematic enactment of collaborative business processes requires models on both the business and the technical level.
Implementations:
An EU-research project, aiming at improving interoperability between European public administrations, delivered a proposal for designing and implementing a Business Interoperability Interface, which was later refined in scientific publications.The illustration summarizes the idea of this BII implementation: Organization A and B each has an internal/private view on its information system. From this internal model, they derive a view for their collaboration partner. For example, in the public process of Organization A, only those activities of the private process from Organization A are comprised which are relevant for the collaboration partner (i.e. Organization B). All these public elements are then bundled in the BII where a collaboration partner can read them. If the elements of adjacent BII-elements fit together and all collaboration partners agreed on how to interpret them, they are also called global elements.
Implementations:
The BII described there tackles four enterprise dimensions: In the organization dimension, roles, units and other organization elements relevant for the collaboration are described and related to internal elements. This ensures for example, that the collaboration partners have a common understanding of the interacting roles. In the data dimension, document types used in the collaboration are defined and related to internally used document types. In the function dimension, business functions and services offered in the collaboration are described. In the process dimension, the processes that each organization offers are described as well as how these public processes are related to adjacent processes of partner organizations. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Odorizer**
Odorizer:
An odorizer is a device that adds an odorant to a gas. The most common type is one that adds a mercaptan liquid into natural gas distribution systems so that leaks can be readily detected. Other types have been used for carbon dioxide fire extinguishers.
Natural gas odorizers:
Natural gas odorizers can vary from a simple wick in a container to computerized equipment, which controls the amount of odorant based on flow rate, tracks the amount of odorant in inventory, and alarms when odorant is not being injected into the gas stream.
Natural gas odorizers:
Odorants used for natural gas vary from country to country, depending on gas distribution regulations. Some odorants contain sulfur, which is oxidized to sulfur dioxide when the gas is burned. Sulfur-containing odorants include: tert-Butylthiol (TBM) the main ingredient in many gas odorant blends Tetrahydrothiophene (THT), used as an odorant for natural gas, usually in mixtures containing tert-butylthiol 2-Propanethiol, commonly known as isopropyl mercaptan (IPM) is used as an odorant for natural gas usually in mixtures containing tert-butylthiol Ethanethiol (EM), commonly known as ethyl mercaptan is used in Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), and resembles odor of leeks, onions, durian, or cooked cabbage Methanethiol, commonly known as methyl mercaptan, is added to natural gas as an odorant, usually in mixtures containing methane. Its smell is reminiscent of rotten eggs or cabbage.
Natural gas odorizers:
Dimethyl sulfide (DMS), a component of the smell produced from cooking of certain vegetables, notably maize, cabbage, beetroot, and seafoodsNon-sulfur-containing odorants include: Methyl acrylate (MA) Ethyl acrylate (EA) Methylethyl pyrazine, odor of various foods including coffee and wines
Wick type odorizers:
Wick type odorizers can be very small, odorizing the gas for as few as one gas customer to much larger ones that can odorize the gas for a small town (10,000 MCF). They use a wick which is very similar to those used in a kerosene lantern. The odorant is drawn up the wick from the container and into the gas stream.
Absorption bypass odorizers:
Absorption bypass odorizers take a portion of the gas stream, the amount being dependent on the flow of gas in the line, and run it through a tank containing liquid odorant. The gas is passed over the top of the liquid. Variations exist where wicks are utilized to increase odorant vaporization.
Liquid injection type odorizers:
For very high volume systems (and for some smaller volume systems), liquid injection odorizers are being manufactured. These odorizers work by the addition of small amounts of liquid odorant to the moving gas. A pump that can be controlled to give the range of addition rates necessary is a very important aspect of this type of odorizer. Computer control to monitor flow rates and vary injection rate is a significant part of the more modern versions of this. Previous versions worked off a variety of schemes to control the odorization level.
Liquid injection type odorizers:
The Peerless odorizer was the first example of this type of odorizer. The Peerless natural-gas odorizer was recognized as a Mechanical Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers in 1992. This odorizer was said to have been developed in response to the New London School explosion that occurred in March 1937. It was first shipped in July 1937, the Peerless odorizer overcame two of the major problems of previous devices: they avoided problems with leaky shaft seals by encapsulating the entire unit within a pressure vessel and added odorant in proportion to the gas flow by using a gas meter to drive the odorant pump.
Other odorizers:
Carbon dioxide fire extinguishers Odorizers are used in carbon dioxide fire extinguisher systems, the odorizer assembly injects wintergreen oil into the carbon dioxide stream when the agent is discharged. Approximately 50 cc of wintergreen oil contained within a frangible glass cartridge is mounted within a protective housing attached to the discharge piping in such a manner as to rupture the glass container when the carbon dioxide manifold is pressurized during discharge, atomizing the oil and dispersing it. The strong wintergreen scent effectively notifies the occupants of the presence of carbon dioxide gas after carbon dioxide has been discharged into the hazard.
Other odorizers:
Mine gas warning systems Similar systems are used in mines, where, in the case of an emergency such as a gas leak in the mine, ampoules of ethanethiol are broken in front of ventilation fans to warn the miners of the emergency. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Doublet**
Doublet:
Doublet is a word derived from the Latin duplus, "twofold, twice as much", and is used to indicate a pair of identical, similar, or related things.
Doublet may refer to:
Apparel:
Doublet (clothing), a man's snug-fitting buttoned jacket that was worn from the late 14th century to the mid 17th century Doublet (Highland dress), a formal jacket worn with Scottish highland dress
Games:
Doublet (dominoes), a domino tile in which both ends have the same value Doublets (game), old English tables game in the same family as Backgammon Word ladder or "doublets", a word game invented by Lewis Carroll
Science and technology:
Doublet (computing), a group of 16 bits in computing Doublet (lens), a type of lens, made up of two stacked layers with different refractive indices Doublet (linguistics), two or more words of the same language that come from the same root Doublet (potential flow), fluid flow due to a source–sink combination Doublet, or dimeresia howellii, a tiny flowering plant Doublet earthquake, two earthquakes associated by space and time Doublet state, a state in quantum physics of a system with a spin of 1⁄2 Unit doublet, in mathematics, the derivative of the Dirac delta function
Other uses:
Doublet (horse), (b. 1963 - †.1974), a thoroughbred gelding Doublet (lapidary), an assembled gem composed in two sections, such as a garnet overlaying green glass Doublet, in textual criticism, two different narrative accounts of the same actual event Pierre Jean Louis Ovide Doublet (1749–1824), French politician and writer affiliated with the Order of Malta Michel Doublet (1939–2022), French politician. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Organolead chemistry**
Organolead chemistry:
Organolead chemistry is the scientific study of the synthesis and properties of organolead compounds, which are organometallic compounds containing a chemical bond between carbon and lead. The first organolead compound was hexaethyldilead (Pb2(C2H5)6), first synthesized in 1858. Sharing the same group with carbon, lead is tetravalent.
Organolead chemistry:
Going down the carbon group the C–X (X = C, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb) bond becomes weaker and the bond length larger. The C–Pb bond in tetramethyllead is 222 pm long with a dissociation energy of 49 kcal/mol (204 kJ/mol). For comparison the C–Sn bond in tetramethyltin is 214 pm long with dissociation energy 71 kcal/mol (297 kJ/mol). The dominance of Pb(IV) in organolead chemistry is remarkable because inorganic lead compounds tend to have Pb(II) centers. The reason is that with inorganic lead compounds elements such as nitrogen, oxygen and the halides have a much higher electronegativity than lead itself and the partial positive charge on lead then leads to a stronger contraction of the 6s orbital than the 6p orbital making the 6s orbital inert; this is called the inert-pair effect.By far the organolead compound that has had the greatest impact is tetraethyllead, formerly used as an antiknock agent in gasoline intended for internal combustion engines. The most important lead reagents for introducing lead are lead tetraacetate and lead(II) chloride.
Organolead chemistry:
The use of organoleads is limited partly due to their toxicity.
Synthesis:
Organolead compounds can be derived from Grignard reagents and lead chloride. For example, methylmagnesium chloride reacts with lead chloride to tetramethyllead, a water-clear liquid with boiling point 110 °C and density 1.995 g/cm3. Reaction of a lead(II) source with sodium cyclopentadienide gives the lead metallocene, plumbocene.
Certain arene compounds react directly with lead tetraacetate to aryl lead compounds in an electrophilic aromatic substitution. For instance anisole with lead tetraacetate forms p-methoxyphenyllead triacetate: CH3OC6H5 + Pb(OAc)4 → CH3OC6H4Pb(OAc)3 + HOAcThe reaction is accelerated in the presence of dichloroacetic acid, which forms the lead(IV) dichloroacetate as an intermediate.
Synthesis:
Other organolead compounds are the halides of the type RnPbX(4-n), sulfinates (RnPb(OSOR)(4−n)) and hydroxides (RnPb(OH)(4−n)). Typical reactions are: R4Pb + HCl → R3PbCl + RH R4Pb + SO2 → R3PbO(SO)R R3PbCl + 1/2Ag2O (aq) → R3PbOH + AgCl R2PbCl2 + 2 OH− → R2Pb(OH)2 + 2 Cl−R2Pb(OH)2 compounds are amphoteric. At pH lower than 8 they form R2Pb2+ ions and with pH higher than 10, R2Pb(OH)3− ions.
Synthesis:
Derived from the hydroxides are the plumboxanes: 2 R3PbOH + Na → (R3Pb)2O + NaOH + 1/2 H2which give access to polymeric alkoxides: (R3Pb)2O + R'OH → 1/n (R3PbOR')n - n H2O
Reactions:
The C–Pb bond is weak and for this reason homolytic cleavage of organolead compounds to free radicals is easy. In its anti-knocking capacity, its purpose is that of a radical initiator. General reaction types of aryl and vinyl organoleads are transmetalation for instance with boronic acids and acid-catalyzed heterocyclic cleavage. Organoleads find use in coupling reactions between arene compounds. They are more reactive than the likewise organotins and can therefore be used to synthesise sterically crowded biaryls.
Reactions:
In oxyplumbation, organolead alkoxides are added to polar alkenes: H2C=CH-CN + (Et3PbOMe)n → MeO-CH2-HC(PbEt3)-CN → MeO-CH2-CH2-CNThe alkoxide is regenerated in the subsequent methanolysis and, therefore, acts as a catalyst.
Reactions:
Aryllead triacetates The lead substituent in p-methoxyphenyllead triacetate is displaced by carbon nucleophiles, such as the phenol mesitol, exclusively at the aromatic ortho position: The reaction requires the presence of a large excess of a coordinating amine such as pyridine which presumably binds to lead in the course of the reaction. The reaction is insensitive to radical scavengers and therefore a free radical mechanism can be ruled out. The reaction mechanism is likely to involve nucleophilic displacement of an acetate group by the phenolic group to a diorganolead intermediate which in some related reactions can be isolated. The second step is then akin to a Claisen rearrangement except that the reaction depends on the electrophilicity (hence the ortho preference) of the phenol.
Reactions:
The nucleophile can also be the carbanion of a β-dicarbonyl compound: The carbanion forms by proton abstraction of the acidic α-proton by pyridine (now serving a double role) akin to the Knoevenagel condensation. This intermediate displaces an acetate ligand to a diorganolead compound and again these intermediates can be isolated with suitable reactants as unstable intermediates. The second step is reductive elimination with formation of a new C–C bond and lead(II) acetate.
Reactive intermediates:
Organolead compounds form a variety of reactive intermediates such as lead free radicals: Me3PbCl + Na (77 K) → Me3Pb.and plumbylenes, the lead carbene counterparts: Me3Pb-Pb-Me3 → [Me2Pb] [Me2Pb] + (Me3Pb)2 → Me3Pb-Pb(Me)2-PbMe3 Me3Pb-Pb(Me)2-PbMe3 → Pb(0) + 2 Me4PbThese intermediates break up by disproportionation.
Plumbylidines of the type RPb (formally Pb(I)) are ligands to other metals in LnMPbR compounds (compare to carbon metal carbynes). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**E. Premkumar Reddy**
E. Premkumar Reddy:
E. Premkumar Reddy is a molecular biologist specialising in molecular oncology. He is the Director of Experimental Cancer Therapeutics program and Professor in the Departments of Oncological Sciences and Structural and Chemical Biology at the Mount Sinai School of Medicine.
Education:
Reddy obtained his PhD in molecular biology in 1971 from the Regional Research Laboratory and Osmania University, Hyderabad, India. He completed post-doctoral training in the United States of America at the UCLA School of Medicine and the National Cancer Institute (NCI).
Professional career:
He joined the National Cancer Institute after his post-graduation, with which he was associated till 1984 as the chief of the molecular genetics section. In 1984, he moved to Hoffman LaRoche Roche Institute of Molecular Biology as a full member and in 1986, he joined the Wistar Institute as their deputy director. In 1992, he was appointed as the Director of the Fels Institute for Cancer Research and Molecular Biology, which is affiliated with Temple University. He moved to the Mount Sinai School of Medicine in 2010. Reddy served as a member of the board of directors of NIEHS from 1990-1995. In 1993, he was awarded the Scientific Achievement Award by the American Cancer Society.He has published over 250 papers. The most notable of his findings are the molecular cloning and sequence determination of a number of viral oncogenes and their cellular homologues. According to data published in 2000 by the Institute for Scientific Information, which compiled the list of most highly cited authors, Reddy was amongst the top 0.5% of the most highly cited authors in the world.Reddy co-founded the international cancer journal Oncogene in 1986, for which he served as an Editor from 1986 to 2009. In 2010, he founded a new cancer journal named Genes & Cancer for which he serves as the Editor-in-Chief. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Blue space**
Blue space:
Blue space (also referred to as blue infrastructure) in urban planning and design comprises all the areas dominated by surface waterbodies or watercourses. In conjunction with greenspace (parks, gardens, etc. specifically: urban open space), it may help in reducing the risks of heat-related illness from high urban temperatures (urban heat island).
Blue space:
Substantial urban waterbodies naturally exist as integral features of the geography of many cities because of their historical development, for example the River Thames in London.Accessible blue spaces can help revitalizing neighborhoods and promote increased social connectedness as seen on waterfront renovation projects like the Chattanooga Waterfront (Chattanooga, Tennessee), the CityDeck in Green Bay, Wisconsin, or the Brooklyn Bridge Park in New York City, further enhanced by waterfront festivals such as the Christmas lights in Medellin, in Colombia. Design guidelines promoting healthy buildings -such as, WELL -managed by The International WELL Building Institute™ (IWBI™), or Fitwel -developed and managed by The Center for Active Design (CfAD), recommend incorporating including and water features as a strategy to improve the health and wellness of the building occupants, and "the 9 foundations of a Healthy Building" -developed at Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health-, also recommends indoor access to nature views or nature-inspired elements.
Blue space:
Because neighborhoods with access to attractive natural features are susceptible of gentrification, the social benefits associated with waterbodies can be unequally distributed, with Environmental Justice areas lacking access to good quality blue spaces.
Health benefits of blue spaces:
Proximity to water bodies may bring some risks to humans, like water-borne diseases in drinking water, flooding risks, or drowning. But scientific evidence shows that exposure to blue spaces is also associated with a variety of health benefits to those near water bodies.
Health benefits of blue spaces:
This is described by marine biologist Wallace J. Nichols in his book Blue Mind. Another of the mechanisms by which this phenomenon can be explained is by the Biophilia hypothesis developed by Edward O. Wilson. This theory states that humans have developed a strong connection with nature throughout their evolution that leads to subconscious seeking for natural environments, including green and blue spaces.
Health benefits of blue spaces:
Recent research has identified three main pathways that can further explain why proximity to green and blue spaces can be beneficial to health.
Mitigation addresses these health benefits in relationship to the physical improvements that natural environments bring to the built environment, such as reduction of urban heat island, traffic air pollution or traffic noise.
Instoration focuses on the promotion of physical activity and other positive outcomes associated with increased physical activity and social connectivity promoted by natural spaces.
Restoration explains how the non-threatening characteristics of the natural environments may reduce negative feelings and increase cognitive restoration.
Effects of blue spaces on physical health:
Increased physical activity A variety of studies have found that people living near coastal areas, are less sedentary more likely to engage in moderate and vigorous physical activity adequate for health, which could be explained due to the encouraging presence of walk paths along the coast. Another possible explanation is found in the aesthetical attributes of blue spaces that may motivate individuals to engage in physical activities on blue spaces. But proximity to water bodies alone is not enough to promote increased levels of physical activity, as those bodies need to be accessible to people. A study focusing on teenagers found that those living near beaches that had a major road between their homes and the water body had lower levels of physical activity than those with a direct access to the beach.
Effects of blue spaces on physical health:
Reduced obesity Blue spaces may reduce obesity as it promotes increased physical activity, and a study suggest that living far from green or waterfront in urban areas may increase the risk of obesity.
Improved respiratory health Living near blue spaces can improve the quality of life of people with respiratory diseases, such as asthma, which could be explained by the mists and sprays generated by the water movement as shown on a study measuring the impact in health of green and blue spaces for those with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).
Effects of blue spaces on mental health:
Improved overall health Researchers found that individuals across 15 countries in Europe and Australia report better general health when they live closer to the coast or visit it more often. Researchers also found a reduction of psychiatric cases on people living near green or coastal areas. Some of the studies found that ocean exposure or running along river helped war veterans suffering from PTSD. Others found that engaging in water-related activities such as surfing can help coping with mental health issues and help developing self-confidence and self-reliance skills. A large study looking at links between childhood exposure to blue spaces and adult well-being found that exposure to blue spaces in childhood was associated with better adult well-being.
Effects of blue spaces on mental health:
Improved mood and happiness Exposure to blue spaces is also linked to increased happiness. A group of researchers studying the effect of green and blue spaces on happiness used a mobile app to track mood feelings of people when they were near water landscapes. The researchers found increased levels of happiness in people near water bodies. Consistently with the findings focusing on physical health, the positive effects on mood associated to blue spaces seem to diminish as the distance between the residence and the water increases.
Effects of blue spaces on mental health:
Improved recovery from drug and alcohol addiction Educational interventions in blue spaces - such as sailing - have been shown to have positive perceived effects on people undergoing drug and alcohol rehabilitation.
Blue spaces quality assessment tools:
In order to understand how blue spaces may influence health-promoting behaviours, a group of researchers that focuses on blue spaces has developed a set of novel tools specifically designed to quantify the quality and potential health benefits of these spaces, risks associated with their use, and environmental quality. The BlueHealth Environmental Assessment Tool (BEAT) - enables comparable assessment of environmental aspects and attributes that influence access to, use of and health-promoting activities in blue spaces. The tool has been developed to be used by communities and urban/landscape designers.
Blue spaces health effects assessment methods:
Assessing the environmental benefits of a blue space intervention can be done by conducting a Health impact assessment (HIA). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Ocular hypotony**
Ocular hypotony:
Ocular hypotony, or ocular hypotension, or shortly hypotony, is the medical condition in which intraocular pressure (IOP) of the eye is very low.
Description:
Normal IOP ranges between 10–20 mm Hg. The eye is considered hypotonous if the IOP is ≤5 mm Hg (some sources say IOP less than 6.5 mmHg).
Types:
Ocular hypotony is divided into statistical and clinical types. If intraocular pressure is low (less than 6.5 mm Hg) it is called statistical hypotony, and if the reduced IOP causes a decrease in vision, it is called clinical.
Causes:
Hypotony may occur either due to decreased production of aqueous humor or due to increased outflow. Hypotony has many causes including post-surgical wound leak from the eye, chronic inflammation within the eye including iridocyclitis, hypoperfusion, tractional ciliary body detachment or retinal detachment. Eye inflammation, medications including anti glaucoma drugs, or proliferative vitreoretinopathy causes decreased production. Increased outflow or aqueous loss may occur following a glaucoma surgery, trauma, cyclodialysis cleft or retinal detachment.
Complications:
Decreased IOP may lead to phthisis bulbi. Hypotony maculopathy is another complication caused by very low IOP.
Treatment:
Treatment of hypotony is depending on the cause of the condition. Chronic ocular hypotony may be treated with intraocular injection of sodium hyaluronate. If the cause of hypotony is an over filtering bleb, cycloplegia using atropine may be used. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Renée Miller**
Renée Miller:
Renée J. Miller is University Distinguished Professor at Northeastern University, a former professor of Computer Science at University of Toronto, Canada, and a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada.
Background:
She received BS degrees in Mathematics and in Cognitive Science from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. She received her MS and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Wisconsin in Madison, United States. She received the Presidential Early Career Award for Scientists and Engineers (PECASE), the highest honor bestowed by the United States government on outstanding scientists and engineers beginning their careers. She received the National Science Foundation Early Career Award (formerly, the Presidential Young Investigator Award) for her work on Data Integration. She was elected as a Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) in 2010, and a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada in 2011. She is the President of the VLDB Endowment, and the Program Chair for ACM SIGMOD 2011 in Athens, Greece. Her research interests are in the efficient, effective use of large volumes of complex, heterogeneous data. This interest spans data integration, data exchange, knowledge curation and data sharing. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Cantor's diagonal argument**
Cantor's diagonal argument:
In set theory, Cantor's diagonal argument, also called the diagonalisation argument, the diagonal slash argument, the anti-diagonal argument, the diagonal method, and Cantor's diagonalization proof, was published in 1891 by Georg Cantor as a mathematical proof that there are infinite sets which cannot be put into one-to-one correspondence with the infinite set of natural numbers.: 20– Such sets are now known as uncountable sets, and the size of infinite sets is now treated by the theory of cardinal numbers which Cantor began.
Cantor's diagonal argument:
The diagonal argument was not Cantor's first proof of the uncountability of the real numbers, which appeared in 1874.
However, it demonstrates a general technique that has since been used in a wide range of proofs, including the first of Gödel's incompleteness theorems and Turing's answer to the Entscheidungsproblem. Diagonalization arguments are often also the source of contradictions like Russell's paradox and Richard's paradox.: 27
Uncountable set:
Cantor considered the set T of all infinite sequences of binary digits (i.e. each digit is zero or one).
Uncountable set:
He begins with a constructive proof of the following lemma: If s1, s2, ... , sn, ... is any enumeration of elements from T, then an element s of T can be constructed that doesn't correspond to any sn in the enumeration.The proof starts with an enumeration of elements from T, for example Next, a sequence s is constructed by choosing the 1st digit as complementary to the 1st digit of s1 (swapping 0s for 1s and vice versa), the 2nd digit as complementary to the 2nd digit of s2, the 3rd digit as complementary to the 3rd digit of s3, and generally for every n, the nth digit as complementary to the nth digit of sn. For the example above, this yields By construction, s is a member of T that differs from each sn, since their nth digits differ (highlighted in the example).
Uncountable set:
Hence, s cannot occur in the enumeration.
Based on this lemma, Cantor then uses a proof by contradiction to show that: The set T is uncountable.The proof starts by assuming that T is countable.
Then all its elements can be written in an enumeration s1, s2, ... , sn, ... .
Applying the previous lemma to this enumeration produces a sequence s that is a member of T, but is not in the enumeration. However, if T is enumerated, then every member of T, including this s, is in the enumeration. This contradiction implies that the original assumption is false. Therefore, T is uncountable.
Uncountable set:
Real numbers The uncountability of the real numbers was already established by Cantor's first uncountability proof, but it also follows from the above result. To prove this, an injection will be constructed from the set T of infinite binary strings to the set R of real numbers. Since T is uncountable, the image of this function, which is a subset of R, is uncountable. Therefore, R is uncountable. Also, by using a method of construction devised by Cantor, a bijection will be constructed between T and R. Therefore, T and R have the same cardinality, which is called the "cardinality of the continuum" and is usually denoted by c or 2ℵ0 An injection from T to R is given by mapping binary strings in T to decimal fractions, such as mapping t = 0111... to the decimal 0.0111.... This function, defined by f (t) = 0.t, is an injection because it maps different strings to different numbers.Constructing a bijection between T and R is slightly more complicated.
Uncountable set:
Instead of mapping 0111... to the decimal 0.0111..., it can be mapped to the base b number: 0.0111...b. This leads to the family of functions: fb (t) = 0.tb. The functions f b(t) are injections, except for f 2(t). This function will be modified to produce a bijection between T and R.
Uncountable set:
General sets A generalized form of the diagonal argument was used by Cantor to prove Cantor's theorem: for every set S, the power set of S—that is, the set of all subsets of S (here written as P(S))—cannot be in bijection with S itself. This proof proceeds as follows: Let f be any function from S to P(S). It suffices to prove f cannot be surjective. That means that some member T of P(S), i.e. some subset of S, is not in the image of f. As a candidate consider the set: T = { s ∈ S: s ∉ f(s) }.For every s in S, either s is in T or not. If s is in T, then by definition of T, s is not in f(s), so T is not equal to f(s). On the other hand, if s is not in T, then by definition of T, s is in f(s), so again T is not equal to f(s); cf. picture.
Uncountable set:
For a more complete account of this proof, see Cantor's theorem.
Consequences:
Ordering of cardinals With equality defined as the existence of a bijection between their underlying sets, Cantor also defines binary predicate of cardinalities |S| and |T| in terms of the existence of injections between S and T . It has the properties of a preorder and is here written " ≤ ". One can embed the naturals into the binary sequences, thus proving various injection existence statements explicitly, so that in this sense |N|≤|2N| , where 2N denotes the function space N→{0,1} . But following from the argument in the previous sections, there is no surjection and so also no bijection, i.e. the set is uncountable. For this one may write |N|<|2N| , where " < " is understood to mean the existence of an injection together with the proven absence of a bijection (as opposed to alternatives such as the negation of Cantor's preorder, or a definition in terms of assigned ordinals). Also |S|<|P(S)| in this sense, as has been shown, and at the same time it is the case that ¬(|P(S)|≤|S|) , for all sets S Assuming the law of excluded middle, characteristic functions surject onto powersets, and then |2S|=|P(S)| . So the uncountable 2N is also not enumerable and it can also be mapped onto N . Classically, the Schröder–Bernstein theorem is valid and says that any two sets which are in the injective image of one another are in bijection as well. Here, every unbounded subset of N is then in bijection with N itself, and every subcountable set (a property in terms of surjections) is then already countable, i.e. in the surjective image of N . In this context the possibilities are then exhausted, making " ≤ " a non-strict partial order, or even a total order when assuming choice. The diagonal argument thus establishes that, although both sets under consideration are infinite, there are actually more infinite sequences of ones and zeros than there are natural numbers.
Consequences:
Cantor's result then also implies that the notion of the set of all sets is inconsistent: If S were the set of all sets, then P(S) would at the same time be bigger than S and a subset of S In the absence of excluded middle Also in constructive mathematics, there is no surjection from the full domain N onto the space of functions NN or onto the collection of subsets P(N) , which is to say these two collections are uncountable. Again using " < " for proven injection existence in conjunction with bijection absence, one has N<2N and S<P(S) . Further, ¬(P(S)≤S) , as previously noted. Likewise, 2N≤NN , 2S≤P(S) and of course S≤S , also in constructive set theory.
Consequences:
It is however harder or impossible to order ordinals and also cardinals, constructively. For example, the Schröder–Bernstein theorem requires the law of excluded middle. In fact, the standard ordering on the reals, extending the ordering of the rational numbers, is not necessarily decidable either. Neither are most properties of interesting classes of functions decidable, by Rice's theorem, i.e. the set of counting numbers for the subcountable sets may not be recursive and can thus fail to be countable. The elaborate collection of subsets of a set is constructively not exchangeable with the collection of its characteristic functions. In an otherwise constructive context (in which the law of excluded middle is not taken as axiom), it is consistent to adopt non-classical axioms that contradict consequences of the law of excluded middle. Uncountable sets such as 2N or NN may be asserted to be subcountable.
Consequences:
This is a notion of size that is redundant in the classical context, but otherwise need not imply countability. The existence of injections from the uncountable 2N or NN into N is here possible as well. So the cardinal relation fails to be antisymmetric. Consequently, also in the presence of function space sets that are even classically uncountable, intuitionists do not accept this relation to constitute a hierarchy of transfinite sizes.
Consequences:
When the axiom of powerset is not adopted, in a constructive framework even the subcountability of all sets is then consistent. That all said, in common set theories, the non-existence of a set of all sets also already follows from Predicative Separation.
Consequences:
In a set theory, theories of mathematics are modeled. Weaker logical axioms mean less constraints and so allow for a richer class of models. A set may be identified as a model of the field of real numbers when it fulfills some axioms of real numbers or a constructive rephrasing thereof. Various models have been studied, such as the Cauchy reals or the Dedekind reals, among others. The former relate to quotients of sequences while the later are good behaved cuts taken from a powerset, if they exist. In the presence of excluded middle, those are all isomorphic and uncountable. Otherwise, variants of the Dedekind reals can be countable or inject into the naturals, but not jointly. When assuming countable choice, constructive Cauchy reals even without an explicit modulus of convergence are then Cauchy-complete and Dedekind reals simplify so as to become isomorphic to them. Indeed, here choice also aids diagonal constructions and when assuming it, Cauchy-complete models of the reals are uncountable.
Consequences:
Open questions Motivated by the insight that the set of real numbers is "bigger" than the set of natural numbers, one is led to ask if there is a set whose cardinality is "between" that of the integers and that of the reals. This question leads to the famous continuum hypothesis. Similarly, the question of whether there exists a set whose cardinality is between |S| and |P(S)| for some infinite S leads to the generalized continuum hypothesis.
Consequences:
Diagonalization in broader context Russell's paradox has shown that naive set theory, based on an unrestricted comprehension scheme, is contradictory. Note that there is a similarity between the construction of T and the set in Russell's paradox. Therefore, depending on how we modify the axiom scheme of comprehension in order to avoid Russell's paradox, arguments such as the non-existence of a set of all sets may or may not remain valid.
Consequences:
Analogues of the diagonal argument are widely used in mathematics to prove the existence or nonexistence of certain objects. For example, the conventional proof of the unsolvability of the halting problem is essentially a diagonal argument. Also, diagonalization was originally used to show the existence of arbitrarily hard complexity classes and played a key role in early attempts to prove P does not equal NP.
Version for Quine's New Foundations:
The above proof fails for W. V. Quine's "New Foundations" set theory (NF). In NF, the naive axiom scheme of comprehension is modified to avoid the paradoxes by introducing a kind of "local" type theory. In this axiom scheme, { s ∈ S: s ∉ f(s) }is not a set — i.e., does not satisfy the axiom scheme. On the other hand, we might try to create a modified diagonal argument by noticing that { s ∈ S: s ∉ f({s}) }is a set in NF. In which case, if P1(S) is the set of one-element subsets of S and f is a proposed bijection from P1(S) to P(S), one is able to use proof by contradiction to prove that |P1(S)| < |P(S)|.
Version for Quine's New Foundations:
The proof follows by the fact that if f were indeed a map onto P(S), then we could find r in S, such that f({r}) coincides with the modified diagonal set, above. We would conclude that if r is not in f({r}), then r is in f({r}) and vice versa.
It is not possible to put P1(S) in a one-to-one relation with S, as the two have different types, and so any function so defined would violate the typing rules for the comprehension scheme. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Polished concrete**
Polished concrete:
Polished concrete is a multi-step process where a concrete floor is mechanically ground, honed and polished with bonded abrasives in order to cut a concrete floor's surface. It is then refined with each cut in order to achieve a specified level of appearance.
Polished concrete:
This process also includes the use of a penetrant chemical known as a hardener. The concrete densifier/hardener penetrates into the concrete and creates a chemical reaction to help harden and dust-proof the surface. During concrete polishing, the surface is processed through a series of steps (in general a minimum of four grinding steps of processing is considered polished concrete) utilizing progressively finer grinding tools. The grinding tools are progressive grits of industrial diamonds in a bonded material such as metal/hybrid/resin often referred to as diamond polishing pads. Polished concrete is a "green" flooring system and LEED approved. Concrete is not considered polished before 1600 grit, and it is normally finished to either the 1600 or 3000+ grit level. Dyes designed for concrete polishing are often applied to add color to polished concrete as well as other options such as scoring, creating radial lines, grids, bands, borders, and other designs. Any grinding under 1600 grit is considered a honed floor.
History:
The oldest known form of polished concrete was discovered in the city of Jericho, in the valley of the River Jordan. According to the Bible, Jericho fell in 1200 BC. Researchers have since discovered several layers of concrete from earlier settlements. Among the layers was a polished concrete floor.The polished concrete floor was discovered while bulldozing for a new motor speedway.
History:
In 1886 and 1887, the Israeli archaeologist Garfinkle and retired professor Malinowski from Gothenburg in Sweden, who specialized in concrete, took the concrete samples and analyzed them in a laboratory. They determined the concrete originated in 7000 BC.
Malinowski stated that the lower part of the floor consisted of lime concrete with a thickness between 6-8 cm. He also stated the concrete was beige brown and had a very fine polished surface.
1990s While polishing marble and granite has been ongoing for several decades, polished concrete in its current form was discovered by accident in the 1990s.
History:
A natural stone polishing contractor, who was starting work on a palace in Tunisia, instructed his new crew to polish a concrete floor. Believing they knew it was to be polished wet as was customary with marble, granite and natural stone, he left them alone. When he arrived several hours later to check on their progress, he realized they were dry polishing and ordered them to stop. Upon further inspection, he had his crew continue polishing dry after he discovered how beautiful the floor was looking.
New or retrofit:
In simple terms, the process of polishing concrete is similar to sanding wood. Heavy-duty polishing machines, for example concrete grinder, are used to gradually grind down surfaces to the desired degree of shine and smoothness. The closest equivalent example would be polished granite or marble.
Polished concrete floor installation is categorized into two types: new floors, and retrofit floors.
New or retrofit:
New floors New floors require less work resulting in lower costs, but there are a few things to be aware of before a new concrete floor can be polished. Firstly, the mix design of the concrete should be 3500 psi or higher. The concrete should always be poured full depth to take advantage of the concrete's full structural strength, and also help to prevent cracks. The concrete should always be professionally finished with power trowels and properly cured with water for seven days. Polishing should not begin until the concrete is fully cured (generally 28 days). The concrete slab can contain decorative aggregates to create many different aesthetic appearances. The aggregates are mostly sized 20mm, but almost anything can be used. The finished surface of the concrete will need to be finished to a high standard to facilitate the polishing process. According to the Global Concrete Polishing Institute, a FF (floor flatness) level of 50 or greater is desired. During the finishing phase, any decorative aggregates such as seashells, glass chips or even metal car parts can be dropped into the surface of the concrete. Builders must be aware as early as possible if the concrete is to be polished so that the final finish is of the best quality.
New or retrofit:
Retrofit floors Retrofit floors can be done in different ways depending on the conditions of the concrete. If the existing concrete is in good condition the surface can be polished to just about any standard. If the existing floor slab is in poor condition, it can be cut, or ground and the natural aggregate can be featured as the "exposure level". If the existing surface is in very poor condition a topping slab with a minimum thickness of 50 mm (2 inches) can be added on top of the existing slab.
Diamond-polished concrete process:
A diamond polished concrete floor is very time-consuming if done correctly, due to the fact that there are at least six to twelve steps of actual grinding involved. The general rule is to start the initial grinding with a coarse 30/60-grit diamond and finish with a 1600- or 3000+ grit diamond, depending on the exposure level of aggregate and gloss level required. These diamonds are impregnated inside a metal or resin-bonded segment. Typically, the diamonds' grit size will double once the first grind has been carried out. The polishing process begins with a 50-grit diamond resin pad instead of a metal segment. When using the resin pads the steps may be 100, then 200, 400, 800, 1600 and finally 3000+ grit. Throughout the process, a densifier is used to harden the concrete surface, which allows the concrete to be polished. A number of densifiers can be used; these consist of lithium, potassium or sodium silicates. In some cases, a grouting chemical is also used to fill in any holes, cracks or imperfections that were exposed from the initial coarse grinding step. The concrete can be also finished with a natural-look impregnating polish guard, which penetrates 2–5mm inside the pores of the concrete to prevent any deep staining from oils and spills. It is also breathable and not a sealer (as a sealer actually totally seals the concrete and does not allow vapor transmission).
"Hybrid" Concrete Polish:
This system is not considered to be real polished concrete, as there is little physical refinement of the concrete slab. However, it does provide a similar look to polished concrete, so may be appropriate in some areas. Typically, this system is referred to as a "half polish" as generally the surface is only processed through three steps of grinding (half the processing steps of a true polished concrete floor). The surface is densified, so the advantages of the densifier are inherited, then a concrete sealer or a high buildup of a concrete guard is used to create a shine. The "shine" is topical and generally wears easily, requiring high maintenance and reapplication of the material. While there is some level of refinement to the surface, the topical (chemical spray or rolled on) solution will wear off and need to be replaced depending upon the level of floor traffic. Grouting and patching may be required to fill any voids, holes, cracks or imperfections.
Grind-and-seal polished concrete process:
This system is not considered to be polished concrete as there is very little physical refinement of the concrete slab. However, it does provide a similar look to polished concrete and may be appropriate in small spaces with little expected foot traffic or wear on the slab. While there may be some level of surface preparation this is a topical (chemical spray or rolled on) solution and will wear off and need to be replaced depending on floor traffic. Grouting and patching may be required to fill any voids, holes, cracks or imperfections. The surface is then cleaned and prepared for the application of either a gloss or matte surface coating or an impregnating enhancing sealer.
Process:
Process involved in polishing concrete: The concrete floor is cut with a variety of diamond abrasives of the concrete slab. Polishing can be done wet or dry. However, in the United States, new OSHA regulations on crystalline silica and protecting skilled trades in the concrete, masonry, and brick industries are encouraging the development of wet refinement systems or the use of industrial vacuums.
Process:
A densifier can be applied once the concrete is opened up and, in a condition, to readily accept the chemical. The step at which the densifier is applied is determined by hydration of the slab. There are many types of densifiers including, sodium, potassium, lithium, magnesium fluorosilicate and colloidal.
The densifier is allowed to dry and cure until proper hardness has been achieved, followed by one or more abrasive cuts, which will refine the floor to the desired level of reflectivity.
Advantages:
Polished concrete is a form of sustainable design flooring, as it utilizes a material that has already been placed.Polished concrete floors have the following advantages: low-maintenance – polished concrete is easily maintained with the use of clean water or a neutral pH cleaner. There are also many cleaners designed for the proper maintenance of polished concrete available. There is never a need for wax to be added as it will only dull the finish non slippery – due to high coefficient of friction dust-proof – minimizing risks dust mite and allergen problems; excludes support of mold growth ambient light – highly reflective polished concrete reduces lighting needs and can improve natural lightingLEED 2009 standards contain guidelines for using polished concrete flooring to qualify for LEED credits.
Disadvantages:
Previously, polished concrete floors were considered to have an extremely long life, but actually, their life depends on the usage. If the usage is heavy, the polished concrete floor begins to degrade in quality.
Damage and Degradation:
Even though polished concrete doesn't peel off like Epoxy and PU floors, its damage happens in the following phases: Development of rough patches on the floor Development of very fine hairline cracks on the floor Slowly, the rough patches start developing into potholes - which keep getting bigger and deeper with usage The hairline cracks form a network on the floor and then ultimately join to result in a damaged floor | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenyl hydrazone**
Carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenyl hydrazone:
Carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenyl hydrazone (CCCP; also known as [(3-chlorophenyl)hydrazono]malononitrile) is a chemical inhibitor of oxidative phosphorylation. It is a nitrile, hydrazone and protonophore. In general, CCCP causes the gradual destruction of living cells and death of the organism, although mild doses inducing partial decoupling have been shown to increase median and maximum lifespan in C. elegans models, suggesting a degree of hormesis. CCCP causes an uncoupling of the proton gradient that is established during the normal activity of electron carriers in the electron transport chain. The chemical acts essentially as an ionophore and reduces the ability of ATP synthase to function optimally. It is routinely used as an experimental uncoupling agent in cell and molecular biology, particularly in the study of mitophagy, where it was integral in discovering the role of the Parkinson's disease-associated ubiquitin ligase Parkin. Outside of its effects on mitochondria, CCCP may also disrupt lysosomal degradation during autophagy. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Tagsistant**
Tagsistant:
Tagsistant is a semantic file system for the Linux kernel, written in C and based on FUSE. Unlike traditional file systems that use hierarchies of directories to locate objects, Tagsistant introduces the concept of tags.
Design and differences with hierarchical file systems:
In computing, a file system is a type of data store which could be used to store, retrieve and update files. Each file can be uniquely located by its path. The user must know the path in advance to access a file and the path does not necessarily include any information about the content of the file.
Design and differences with hierarchical file systems:
Tagsistant uses a complementary approach based on tags. The user can create a set of tags and apply those tags to files, directories and other objects (devices, pipes, ...). The user can then search all the objects that match a subset of tags, called a query. This kind of approach is well suited for managing user contents like pictures, audio recordings, movies and text documents but is incompatible with system files (like libraries, commands and configurations) where the univocity of the path is a security requirement to prevent the access to a wrong content.
The tags/ directory:
A Tagsistant file system features four main directories: archive/ relations/ stats/ tags/Tags are created as sub directories of the tags/ directory and can be used in queries complying to this syntax: tags/subquery/[+/subquery/[+/subquery/]]/@/where a subquery is an unlimited list of tags, concatenated as directories: tag1/tag2/tag3/.../tagN/The portion of a path delimited by tags/ and @/ is the actual query. The +/ operator joins the results of different sub-queries in one single list. The @/ operator ends the query.
The tags/ directory:
To be returned as a result of the following query: tags/t1/t2/+/t1/t4/@/an object must be tagged as both t1/ and t2/ or as both t1/ and t4/. Any object tagged as t2/ or t4/, but not as t1/ will not be retrieved.
The tags/ directory:
The query syntax deliberately violates the POSIX file system semantics by allowing a path token to be a descendant of itself, like in tags/t1/t2/+/t1/t4/@ where t1/ appears twice. As a consequence a recursive scan of a Tagsistant file system will exit with an error or endlessly loop, as done by UNIX find: This drawback is balanced by the possibility to list the tags inside a query in any order. The query tags/t1/t2/@/ is completely equivalent to tags/t2/t1/@/ and tags/t1/+/t2/t3/@/ is equivalent to tags/t2/t3/+/t1/@/.
The tags/ directory:
The @/ element has the precise purpose of restoring the POSIX semantics: the path tags/t1/@/directory/ refers to a traditional directory and a recursive scan of this path will properly perform.
The reasoner and the relations/ directory:
Tagsistant features a simple reasoner which expands the results of a query by including objects tagged with related tags. A relation between two tags can be established inside the relations/ directory following a three level pattern: relations/tag1/rel/tag2/The rel element can be includes or is_equivalent. To include the rock tag in the music tag, the UNIX command mkdir can be used: mkdir -p relations/music/includes/rockThe reasoner can recursively resolve relations, allowing the creation of complex structures: mkdir -p relations/music/includes/rock mkdir -p relations/rock/includes/hard_rock mkdir -p relations/rock/includes/grunge mkdir -p relations/rock/includes/heavy_metal mkdir -p relations/heavy_metal/includes/speed_metalThe web of relations created inside the relations/ directory constitutes a basic form of ontology.
Autotagging plugins:
Tagsistant features an autotagging plugin stack which gets called when a file or a symlink is written. Each plugin is called if its declared MIME type matches The list of working plugins released with Tagsistant 0.6 is limited to: text/html: tags the file with each word in <title> and <keywords> elements and with document, webpage and html too image/jpeg: tags the file with each Exif tag
The repository:
Each Tagsistant file system has a corresponding repository containing an archive/ directory where the objects are actually saved and a tags.sql file holding tagging information as an SQLite database. If the MySQL database engine was specified with the --db argument, the tags.sql file will be empty. Another file named repository.ini is a GLib ini store with the repository configuration.Tagsistant 0.6 is compatible with the MySQL and Sqlite dialects of SQL for tag reasoning and tagging resolution. While porting its logic to other SQL dialects is possible, differences in basic constructs (especially the INTERSECT SQL keyword) must be considered.
The archive/ and stats/ directories:
The archive/ directory has been introduced to provide a quick way to access objects without using tags. Objects are listed with their inode number prefixed.The stats/ directory features some read-only files containing usage statistics. A file configuration holds both compile time information and current repository configuration.
Main criticisms:
It has been highlighted that relying on an external database to store tags and tagging information could cause the complete loss of metadata if the database gets corrupted.It has been highlighted that using a flat namespace tends to overcrowd the tags/ directory. This could be mitigated introducing triple tags. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Blufr**
Blufr:
Blufr was an online trivia game launched on July 2, 2006. It was later made defunct.
Gameplay:
Players had to decide if statements – called blufs – are true ('way') or false ('no way'). After they chose their answer the correct answer was then displayed, along with links to relevant topics in Answers.com, the creator of the game. Players can keep score and see how they fare against other top contenders in the game. Players were able to challenge their friends by sending blufs by email or adding them as content to their own personal websites and blogs.
Development:
Answers.com launched blufr as an alternative way to learn about the millions of topics it covers, using an entertaining style, as opposed to traditional reference look-up techniques. It was shut down by Answers.com in September 2007. In July 2010, the blufr homepage featured a teaser for what is likely to be the reincarnation of the game. The homepage features a new logo with the text, "Coming soon... whether you like it or not." In mid-August 2010, blufr was silently released as a beta version. There are plans by Answers.com to release an iPhone version and Facebook app in September 2010. On October 5, 2010, Answers.com issues a press release announcing the official launch of the blufr website and iPhone app. It was also stated that a Facebook version is following shortly. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Amentoflavone**
Amentoflavone:
Amentoflavone is a biflavonoid (bis-apigenin coupled at 8 and 3′ positions, or 3′,8″-biapigenin) constituent of a number of plants including Ginkgo biloba, Chamaecyparis obtusa (hinoki), Biophytum sensitivum, Selaginella tamariscina, Hypericum perforatum (St. John's Wort) and Xerophyta plicata.Amentoflavone can interact with many medications by being a potent inhibitor of CYP3A4 and CYP2C9, which are enzymes responsible for the metabolism of some drugs in the body. It is also an inhibitor of human cathepsin B.Amentoflavone has a variety of in vitro activities including antimalarial activity, anticancer activity (which may, at least in part, be mediated by its inhibition of fatty acid synthase), and antagonist activity at the κ-opioid receptor (Ke = 490 nmol L−1) as well as activity at the allosteric benzodiazepine site of the GABAA receptor as a negative allosteric modulator. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Coronary vasospasm**
Coronary vasospasm:
Coronary vasospasm refers to when a coronary artery suddenly undergoes either complete or sub-total temporary occlusion.In 1959, Prinzmetal et al. described a type of chest pain resulting from coronary vasospasm, referring to it as a variant form of classical angina pectoris. Consequently, this angina has come to be reported and referred to in the literature as Prinzmetal angina. A subsequent study distinguished this type of angina from classical angina pectoris further by showing normal coronary arteries on cardiac catheterization. This finding is unlike the typical findings in classical angina pectoris, which usually shows atherosclerotic plaques on cardiac catheterization.When coronary vasospasm occurs, the occlusion temporarily produces ischemia. A wide array of symptoms or presentations can follow: ranging from asymptomatic myocardial ischemia, sometimes referred to as silent ischemia, to myocardial infarction and even sudden cardiac death.
Signs and symptoms:
Coronary vasospasm classically produces chest pain at rest, also known as vasospastic angina. Chest pain is more common at certain times of the day, usually from late night to early morning. These episodes can be accompanied by nausea, vomiting, cold sweating, and even syncope. Coronary vasospasm is also associated with symptoms of fatigue and tiredness, dyspnea, and palpitations. These can sometimes be the primary presenting symptoms, but they can also occur in conjunction with chest pain.There are cases of coronary vasospasm that occur without any symptoms at all, leading to episodes of silent or asymptomatic myocardial ischemia.
Signs and symptoms:
Complications Depending on how long the occlusion lasts, a spectrum of different myocardial ischemic syndromes can occur. Shorter episodes of occlusion can lead to what is referred to as silent myocardial ischemia due to its asymptomatic nature. These episodes can also be accompanied by arrhythmias. Longer episodes of occlusion can lead to stable or unstable angina, myocardial infarction, and sudden cardiac death.
Risk factors:
Unlike classical angina pectoris, traditional cardiovascular risk factors are not thought to be significantly associated with coronary vasospasm. The exception to this is with smoking, which is known to be a modifiable risk factor for vasospastic angina.There are several risk factors that are thought to precipitate, or trigger, episodes of coronary vasospasm. Many of these factors work by exerting effects on the autonomic nervous system. One of the mechanisms through which this occurs is via increasing sympathetic nervous system activity. The resulting increased sympathetic outflow leads to vasoconstrictive effects on blood vessels. For example, cocaine use can trigger vasospasm in coronary arteries through its actions on adrenergic receptors causing vasoconstriction. Exercise, cold weather, physical activity or exertion, mental stress, hyperventilation are additional precipitating factors.
Pathophysiology:
The exact pathophysiology behind coronary vasospasm has not been elucidated. Instead, a combination of different factors has been proposed to contribute to coronary vasospasm. In general, it is thought that an abnormality within a coronary artery causes it to become hyperreactive to vasoconstrictor stimuli. This abnormality can be located in one segment of the coronary artery, or it may be diffuse and present throughout the entire artery. If and when vasoconstrictor stimuli act upon the hyperreactive segment of the artery, then vasospasm can result. Ultimately, when large coronary arteries undergo vasospasm, this can lead to either complete or transient occlusion of blood flow within the artery. As a result, ischemia to the tissues served by the artery can occur. Symptoms due to ischemia can follow.Some of the factors that have been proposed to contribute to coronary vasospasm include the following: Endothelial dysfunction Certain vasodilatory agents exert their effects by working via the endothelium, the cells that make up the lining of blood vessels. Specifically, these agents work by enhancing the production of nitric oxide from endothelial nitric oxide synthase. Normally, nitric oxide then works to promote vasodilation in a blood vessel through its own mechanisms such as inhibiting the release of agents that cause vasoconstriction.
Pathophysiology:
Endothelial dysfunction wherein there is a deficiency in the production of nitric oxide has been found to be associated with coronary vasospasm in some but not all cases. Vasodilatory agents with mechanisms dependent on a functional endothelial nitric oxide synthase can cause vasoconstriction instead in the setting of endothelial dysfunction, leading to coronary vasospasm.
Chronic inflammation Various markers of low-grade chronic inflammation have been found in cases of coronary vasospasm.
In addition to this, one of the risk factors for coronary vasospasm is smoking. Chronic inflammation due to smoking has been shown to be damaging to endothelial cell function.
Oxidative Stress Oxygen free radicals contribute to the pathogenesis of coronary vasospasm through their damaging effects on vascular endothelial cells and degrading nitric oxide, an important vasodilatory agent.
Smooth Muscle Hypercontractility At a cellular level, pathways that lead to enhanced myosin light chain phosphorylation promote vasoconstriction. Increased activity of Rho-kinase leading to enhanced myosin light chain phosphorylation has been implicated in the pathogenesis of coronary vasospasm.
Diagnosis:
There are no set criteria to diagnose coronary vasospasm. Thorough history taking by a clinician can assist in the diagnosis of coronary vasospasm. In cases where symptoms of chest pain are present, identifying features that distinguish episodes of vasospastic angina from traditional angina can aid in the diagnosis. Features such as chest pain at rest, a diurnal variation in tolerance for exercise with a reduction in tolerance for exercise in the morning, and responsiveness of chest pain to calcium channel blockers as opposed to beta blockers can be important clues.EKG can occasionally be used to diagnose episodes of coronary vasospasm. However, relying on EKG is not always possible due to the transient nature of coronary vasospasm episodes. Due to the challenge of capturing episodes of coronary vasospasm spontaneously, provocative testing to induce coronary vasospasm during coronary catheterization can be used to make the diagnosis. Provocative testing relies upon the use of pharmacological agents that promote or trigger episodes of vasospasm. Agents commonly administered include ergonovine and acetylcholine. Both pharmacological agents have vasoconstrictive effects on coronary arteries. However, in the clinical setting, provocative testing is not routinely performed. The reason for this is due to the adverse effects of these pharmacological agents.
Diagnosis:
EKG findings When coronary vasospasm causes an artery to undergo complete occlusion, an EKG might show evidence of ST-segment elevation in the leads indicative of that artery's territory. Transient ST-segment depression can also occur, usually in the setting of sub-total occlusion of an artery.Additional EKG findings in coronary vasospasm include evidence of arrhythmias that might be induced by ischemia: ventricular premature contractions, ventricular tachycardia, ventricular fibrillation, and more.
History:
Chest pain due to coronary vasospasm was described in the medical literature by Prinzmetal et al. in 1959. This discovery led to this type of angina being referred to in the literature as Prinzmetal angina. A following study further distinguished this angina from classical angina pectoris due to the fact that the results showed that the patients with chest pain due to coronary vasospasm lacked evidence of atherosclerosis on cardiac catheterization. Angina due to coronary vasospasm is also known as variant angina.During the 70’s and 80’s, intense research headed by Dr. Robert A. Chahine resulted in the delineation of Spasm's role in Prinzmetal's angina, allowing for easy identification and effective treatment. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Truly neutral particle**
Truly neutral particle:
In particle physics, a truly neutral particle is a subatomic particle that is its own antiparticle. In other words, it remains itself under the charge conjugation, which replaces particles with their corresponding antiparticles. All charges of a truly neutral particle must be equal to zero. This requires particles to not only be electrically neutral, but also requires that all of their other charges (such as the colour charge) be neutral.
Examples:
Known examples of such elementary particles include photons, Z bosons, and Higgs bosons, along with the hypothetical neutralinos, sterile neutrinos, and gravitons. For a spin-½ particle such as the neutralino, being truly neutral implies being a Majorana fermion.
Examples:
Composite particles can also be truly neutral. A system composed of a particle forming a bound state with its antiparticle, such as the neutral pion (π0), is truly neutral. Such a state is called an "onium", another example of which is positronium, the bound state of an electron and a positron (e− e+).By way of contrast, neutrinos are not truly neutral since they have a weak isospin of ±+1/2, or equivalently, a non-zero weak hypercharge, both of which are charge-like quantum numbers. (The example presumes on evidence to date, which gives no indication that neutrinos are Majorana particles.) | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Environmental noise**
Environmental noise:
Environmental noise is an accumulation of noise pollution that occurs outside. This noise can be caused by transport, industrial, and recreational activities.Noise is frequently described as 'unwanted sound'. Within this context, environmental noise is generally present in some form in all areas of human, animal, or environmental activity. The effects in humans of exposure to environmental noise may vary from emotional to physiological and psychological. Noise at low levels is not necessarily harmful. Environmental noise can also convey a sense of liveliness in an area, which can be desirable. The adverse effects of noise exposure (i.e. noise pollution) could include: interference with speech or other 'desired' sounds, annoyance, sleep disturbance, anxiety, hearing damage and stress-related cardiovascular health problems.As a result, environmental noise is studied, regulated, and monitored by many governments and institutions around the world. This creates a number of different occupations. The basis of all decisions is supported by the objective and accurate measurement of noise. Noise is measured in decibels (dB) using a pattern-approved sound level meter. The measurements are typically taken over a period of weeks, in all weather conditions.
Emission:
Noise from transportation is typically emitted by machinery (e.g. the engine or exhaust) and aerodynamic noise (see aerodynamics and aircraft noise) caused by the compression and friction in the air around the vessel during motion. Environmental noise from the railway specifically is variable depending on the speed and quality of the tracks used for transportation.Industrial and recreational noise could be generated by a multitude of different sources and processes. Industrial noise can be generated by factories and plants (i.e., product fabrication or assembly), power generation (hydroelectricity or wind turbines), construction activities, or agricultural and meat processing facilities. Sources of recreational noise vary widely but they can include music festivals, shooting ranges, sporting events, car racing, woodworking, pubs, people's activities on the street, etc.
Emission:
Sound propagation outdoors is subject to meteorological effects (e.g. wind, temperature) that affect the distance, speed, and direction with which environmental noise travels from a source to a listener.
Children:
Children and adolescents are just as susceptible to environmental noise exposure as adults. Similar to adults, with the exposure to noise there can be damaging outcomes on mental health. The environmental noises that children can be exposed to are traffic noise, aircraft, trains, and more. There are some pieces of evidence that show a small correlation between environmental noise and reading and oral comprehension.Environmental noise in children is most commonly by people around them whether that be siblings crying or friends screaming. Then children are mostly exposed to animal noises and traffic noise. When researchers asked children how they felt when it came to environmental noises around them, more felt negative emotions as compared to positive emotions. The negative emotions were tied to environmental sound, for example, traffic noise, industrial noises, sirens, and alarms. The positive emotions were tied to winds, fans, and everyday household noises.
Health effects:
Noise and quality of life are correlated. The increase of environmental noise, especially for those living near railways and airports, has created conflict. Getting adequate and quality sleep is difficult for those who live in areas of high noise exposure. When the body is at rest, noise stimuli is continually being presented in the environment. The body responds to these sounds which can negatively affect sleep.High exposure to environmental noise can play a role in cardiovascular disease. Noise can raise blood pressure, change heart rate, and release stress hormones. Consistent changes in these health statistics can lead to risks for hypertension, arteriosclerosis, and even more serious events such as a stroke or myocardial infarction.Sleep deprivation is another aspect of health that is affected by environmental noise. In order for our bodies to function properly, we need sleep and for some people having excessive environmental noise around them can cause difficulties sleeping. For many, even ambient noise can affect their sleep state which can then affect their quality of life and outlook.
Policy and regulation:
United States The Noise Control Act of 1972 established a U.S. national policy to promote an environment for all Americans to be free from noise that jeopardizes their health and welfare. In the past, Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) coordinated all federal noise control activities through its Office of Noise Abatement and Control. The EPA phased out the office's funding in 1982 as part of a shift in federal noise control policy to transfer the primary responsibility of regulating noise to state and local governments. The Noise Control Act of 1972 and the Quiet Communities Act of 1978 were never rescinded by Congress and remain in effect today, although essentially unfunded.Today, in the absence of a national guidance and enforcement by the EPA, states, cities, and municipalities have had little or no guidance on writing competent and effective noise regulations. Since the EPA last published its Model Community Noise Ordinance in 1974, communities have struggled to develop their ordinances, often relying on copying guidance from other communities, and sometimes copying their mistakes. Noise laws and ordinances vary widely among municipalities though most specify some general prohibition against making noise that is a nuisance and the allowable sound levels that can cross a property line. Some ordinances set out specific guidelines for the level of noise allowable at certain times of the day and for certain activities.The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) regulates aircraft noise by specifying the maximum noise level that individual civil aircraft can emit through requiring aircraft to meet certain noise certification standards. These standards designate changes in maximum noise level requirements by "stage" designation. The U.S. noise standards are defined in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Title 14 Part 36 – Noise Standards: Aircraft Type and Airworthiness Certification (14 CFR Part 36). The FAA also pursues a program of aircraft noise control in cooperation with the aviation community. The FAA has set up a process to report aviation-related noise complaints for anyone who may be impacted by Aircraft noise.
Policy and regulation:
The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) developed noise regulations to control highway noise as required by the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1970. The regulations requires promulgation of traffic noise-level criteria for various land use activities, and describe procedures for the abatement of highway traffic noise and construction noise.The U.S. Department of Transportation's Bureau of Transportation Statistics has created a National Transportation Noise Map to provide access to comprehensive aircraft and road noise data on national and county-level. The map aims to assist city planners, elected officials, scholars, and residents to gain access to up-to-date aviation and Interstate highway noise information.
Policy and regulation:
European Union The European Union has a special definition based on the European directive 2002/49/EC article 10.1. This directive gives a definition for environmental noise. The main goal is to create an integrated noise management system. The Environmental Noise Directive (END) was created in the European Union to provide guidelines, laws, and standards in the management of environmental noise. The END has created noise mapping, noise action plans, and quiet areas to control environmental noise and the negative effects it can have on individuals.The implementation is divided into phases: In the first phase, the member states shall inform about major roads with more than six million vehicles a year, major railways with more than 60,000 trains per year, major airports with more than 50,000 movements per year and metropolitan areas with more than 250,000 inhabitants. In the second phase, these numbers are halved; only the criteria for airports remains unchanged. In the third and the following phases, the methods for calculation of the noise levels will change while the criteria remains unchanged. Each phase consists of three steps: the collection of the data from the main sources of noise, strategic noise maps and action plans. The countries listed below follow the guidelines of the European Union.
Policy and regulation:
There are many groups of people affected by environmental noise within the European Union. Shift workers, older adults, and those without proper insulation in their homes are just some of those affected. Within the European Union 40% of people are exposed to environmental noise in their daily commutes on the road which exceeds 55 dB(A). During the daytime, approximately 20% of people are exposed to environmental noise levels above 65 dB(A) and during the nighttime, 30% of people are exposed to environmental noise above 55 dB(A).
Policy and regulation:
Austria In Austria the institution which is responsible for the noise sources is also responsible for the noise maps concerning these sources. This means that the Federation is responsible for the federal roads and each state is responsible for the country's roads.
France France reported 24 metropolitan areas. Paris was the biggest with 9.6 million inhabitants and 272 square kilometres.
Policy and regulation:
Many of France's residents are exposed to high levels of noise. Previously it was estimated that 10% of the population, approximately 2 million people, were exposed to above 70 dB Leq. That number is estimated higher today.Aircraft plays a major role in environmental noise. A study conducted in 2018 found that while aircraft noise in decibel level cannot cause any psychological-illness, there is a link to how aircraft noise causes an annoyance to residents which then leads to psychological illness. The sensitivity of noise among people has an association with environmental noise and those affects.
Policy and regulation:
Germany Germany implemented national regulations in 2005 and 2006 and reported 27 metropolitan areas in the first phase. Berlin was the most populated with 3.39 million inhabitants and 889 square kilometres, Hamburg was considered the largest with 1,045 square kilometres and 2 million inhabitants. The smallest was Gelsenkirchen with 270,000 inhabitants and 105 square kilometres. In the national legislation, noise resulting from recreational activities like sports and leisure is not considered as environmental noise.
Policy and regulation:
United Kingdom The United Kingdom has 28 metropolitan areas, and London is the largest with 8.3 million inhabitants. Most are in England. Three are in Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales.
Policy and regulation:
Within the United Kingdom, researchers revealed that approximately 55% of the population lived where the sound level exceeded the recommended level of 55 dB Leq in the daytime and 67% lived where the sound level exceeded the recommended level of 45 dB Leq at night. About 20% of London residents were exposed to environmental noise near their home that was above 60 dBA Leq. All of these environmental noise exposures have led to higher increases in blood pressure within the UK population.
Notes:
Report from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council concerning Directive 2002/49/EC Directive 2002/49/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 June 2002 relating to the assessment and management of environmental noise | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Open Relay Behavior-modification System**
Open Relay Behavior-modification System:
Open Relay Behavior-modification System (ORBS), created and run by Alan Brown in New Zealand, was one of the first DNS-based Blackhole Lists (DNSBL), a means by which an internet domain may publish a list of IP addresses, in a database which can be easily queried automatically by other computer programs on the Internet.
The ORBS list was used to blacklist IP addresses that were open mail relays, third-party mail servers through which spammers can relay their messages and thus attempt to obfuscate the source of the spam.
Controversy:
The ORBS list was controversial for a number of reasons. Many people felt that the methods ORBS employed to scan the Internet for open mail servers could be abusive. ORBS used probes to test for open relays without permission, sometimes over and over again. Some claimed that testing of their networks continued even after they asked ORBS to stop, others claimed that relayed spam didn't stop either. In some cases the tests interfered with mail servers, causing delays, especially when those servers were assigned hundreds of IP addresses. Related to the testing regime, which was excessive in the eyes of a number of email administrators, Brown's policy of adding servers he was unable to test to the list, whether or not they were actually open relays, was also a matter of dispute. Another complaint was that open relays that had never sent spam were listed without notice. False listings on ORBS were also alleged, particularly when Brown was engaged in legal or other dispute against the listed party A website was created in 2001 by Brad Baker called stoporbs.org, to offer assistance to other mail administrators who had been listed on the ORBS blacklist for reasons other than open relays. Many administrators felt that by listing servers for other than the reasons advertised (open relays), the list was not reliable for the supposed purpose.
Lawsuits:
ORBS was created and run by Alan Brown in New Zealand. It was shut down in 2001 due to Brown's health and money issues and two lawsuits brought by companies listed on ORBS, Xtra and Actrix, which he had refused to remove. The companies were listed by ORBS because they blocked its probes and they kept relaying spam. Brown was forced to sell his Internet service provider, Manawatu Internet Services, to cover expenses, and to state that the companies had been listed inappropriately.Brown also had a defamation lawsuit brought against him, O'Brien v Brown. The court ruled that Brown made defamatory comments about Patrick O'Brien, CEO of Domainz, which is the .nz domain registrar. The comments were made in the Domainz discussion group. When Brown was offered a chance to apologize, he made additional defamatory comments. Following O'Brien's victory and the awarding of $42,000 to him, Brown claimed that his net worth was only $500, which he said is why he did not have a lawyer
Aftermath:
Several groups had cached the lists, retested the open relays, and replaced ORBS. Running an open relay became even a bigger problem than before. DNSBLs listing open relays got so effective that spammers shifted to insecure proxy servers.
The Internet Society of New Zealand council seats (and subsequently the Domainz board) were filled by "rebel" members in elections in July 2000. O'Brien departed to run Singapore's Internet registry. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Frank McSherry**
Frank McSherry:
Frank McSherry is a computer scientist. McSherry's areas of research include distributed computing and information privacy.
Frank McSherry:
McSherry is known, along with Cynthia Dwork, Adam D. Smith, and Kobbi Nissim, as one of the co-inventors of differential privacy, for which he won the 2017 Gödel Prize. Along with Kunal Talwar, he is the co-creator of the exponential mechanism for differential privacy, for which they won the 2009 PET Award for Outstanding Research in Privacy Enhancing Technologies.McSherry has also made notable contributions to stream processing systems. In 2019, he founded a startup company for streaming databases called Materialize, where he is currently chief scientist. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Makoto Murata**
Makoto Murata:
Makoto Murata (村田 真, Murata Makoto, born 1960) is a Japanese computer scientist, Ph.D. in engineering, and Project Professor at Keio University.
He participated in the W3C (World Wide Web Consortium) XML Working Group.
The Working Group designed XML1.0, a markup language specification.
Murata and James Clark designed RELAX NG, an XML schema language.
Murata is the convener of ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 34 WG 4, responsible for Office Open XML maintenance.
Work:
XML1.0 and XML Japanese Profile In 1997, Murata participated in W3C (World Wide Web Consortium) XML Working Group.
Jon Bosak, James Clark and Tim Bray were also members of the group.
The Working Group designed XML1.0 specification.
XML1.0 is a markup language and a subset of SGML.
XML1.0 became a W3C Recommendation in February 1998.
Murata and collaborators authored XML Japanese Profile, the issues of using Japanese characters in XML documents.
XML Japanese Profile became a JIS (Japanese Industrial Standard) Technical Report.
XML Japanese Profile was translated into English and published as a W3C Technical Report.
XML Media Types Murata is one of the authors of IETF RFC 2376 XML Media Types.
The RFC specifies XML media types for use in exchanging XML data via network (text/xml and application/xml).
RFC 2376 was revised as RFC 3023.
RELAX and RELAX NG Some people, including Murata and James Clark, had critical attitudes toward XML Schema.
XML Schema is a modern XML schema language designed by W3C XML Schema Working Group.
W3C intended XML Schema to supersede traditional DTD (Document Type Definition).
XML Schema supports so many features that its specification is large and complex.
Murata, James Clark and those who criticised XML Schema, pointed out the following: It is difficult to implement all features of XML Schema.
It is difficult for engineers to read and write XML Schema definitions.
It does not permit nondeterministic content models.Murata and collaborators designed another modern schema language, RELAX (Regular Language description for XML), more simple and mathematically consistent.
They published RELAX specification in 2000.
RELAX was approved as JIS and ISO/IEC standards.
At roughly the same time, James Clark also designed another schema language, TREX (Tree Regular Expressions for XML).
Murata and James Clark designed a new schema language RELAX NG based on TREX and RELAX Core.
RELAX NG syntax is the expansion of TREX.
RELAX NG was approved by OASIS in December 2001.
RELAX NG was also approved as Part 2 of ISO/IEC 19757: Document Schema Definition Languages (DSDL).
Work:
Enhancement of EPUB for Japanese Text Layout In April 2010, Murata made a presentation at JEPA on 14-itemized requirements as extended Japanese-language-related specifications to be incorporated into EPUB. When East Co., Ltd. started working on the project of EPUB enhancement for Japanese Text Layout, sponsored by the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications of the Japanese Government, Murata assumed the project's technical responsibilities, and by jointly working with Tatsuo Kobayashi, et al., he called for other browser developers/owners, to take in the enhanced EPUB, or support Japanese Text Layout, including vertical writing, line breaking rules and emphasis dots.
Work:
Murata is a coordinator of Enhanced Global Language Support (EGLS) for the US-based International Digital Publishing Forum (IDPF), developer and promoter of EPUB.
Career:
In 1982, Murata received his bachelor's degree from the Faculty of Science, Kyoto University.
In 1985, he joined Fuji Xerox.
From 1993 to 1995, he researched structured documents at Xerox Webster Research Center.
As of 1997, he worked at Fuji Xerox Information Systems on lease from Fuji Xerox.
In 2000, he left Fuji Xerox.
Since 2000, he has researched at International University of Japan.
From 2000 to May 2008, he also researched at IBM Tokyo Research Laboratory.
Since September 2008, he has been a Fellow of the Center for Global Communications (GLOCOM), the International University of Japan. July 2006, Murata obtained the doctor's degree in engineering from Graduate School of Systems and Information Engineering of the University of Tsukuba.
In November 2009, he assumed the position of Technical Lead at Japan Electronic Publishing Association (JEPA) and has since been leading the EPUB Research Team of JEPA.
Since 2010, Murata has been a Vice Chairman of IVS Technology Promotion Council.
Books:
村田真(編著), 門馬敦仁, 荒井恭一, 『XML入門 HTMLの限界を打ち破るインターネットの新技術』, 日本経済新聞社, January 1998, ISBN 4-532-14610-0 Hiroshi Maruyama, Kent Tamura, Naohiko Uramoto, Makoto Murata, Andy Clark, Yuichi Nakamura, Ryo Neyama, Kazuya Kosaka and Satoshi Hada, XML and Java: Developing Web Applications, Second Edition, Addison-Wesley Professional, May 2002, ISBN 0-201-77004-0丸山宏, 田村健人, 浦本直彦, 村田真, アンディ・クラーク, 中村祐一, 根山亮, 小坂一也, 羽田知史 (著・訳), 『XMLとJavaによるWebアプリケーション開発 第2版』, ピアソンエデュケーション, December 2002, ISBN 4-89471-662-3Additionally, Murata authored some papers on structured document. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Common Programming Interface for Communications**
Common Programming Interface for Communications:
Common Programming Interface for Communications (CPI-C) is an application programming interface (API) developed by IBM in 1987 to provide a platform-independent communications interface for the IBM Systems Application Architecture-based network, and to standardise programming access to SNA LU 6.2.
CPI-C was part of IBM Systems Application Architecture (SAA), an attempt to standardise APIs across all IBM platforms.
It was adopted in 1992 by X/Open as an open systems standard, identified as standard C210, and documented in X/Open Developers Specification: CPI-C. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Quark CopyDesk**
Quark CopyDesk:
Quark CopyDesk (often only CopyDesk) is a professional word processing software product made by Quark, Inc.
There are two versions of Quark CopyDesk available: One is sold with Quark's editorial system QPS and one is sold standalone. Both versions are tightly integrated with QuarkXPress.
Functions:
Quark CopyDesk is primarily used by newspapers and magazines to write, edit and style text (copy). The software includes standard word processing features such as spell check, track changes and word count. Its integration with QuarkXPress allows exact copy fitting information and previews, which ensures the editor to see whether the text fits correctly in the corresponding QuarkXPress layout and to control hyphenation.
Functions:
Since 1999, InCopy from Adobe is a direct competitor to Quark CopyDesk, which was launched in 1991.
Functions:
Quark CopyDesk offers three viewing modes: Story, Galley and WYSIWYG. The Story mode displays the story text across the screen's entire width without formatting. This provides an interface for users more comfortable with traditional word processors to read and edit copy and allows text to be seen larger and in a different font than it would appear in the layout.
Functions:
The Galley mode also displays the text without formatting, but shows style sheets that have been applied to the copy and also the correct hyphenation and line endings. Galley mode shows copy as one column wide and - via visual markers - also shows jumps and column breaks.
Functions:
However, the Galley mode lacks a true representation of the design and layout – these features are reserved for the WYSIWYG mode. This view shows a page representation and the text with all its formatting. However, the editor can only edit text or add pictures, which is also a substantial benefit as it prevents editors from deliberately or accidentally altering the layout itself.
History:
Quark CopyDesk 1.0 (1991): Support for QuarkXPress 3, Mac only version Quark CopyDesk 2.0 (1998): Support for QuarkXPress 4, adds Windows support Quark CopyDesk 2.2 (2003): Support for QuarkXPress 5 Quark CopyDesk 3.0 (2004): Support for QuarkXPress 6, supports Mac OS X Quark CopyDesk 3.5 (2006) Quark CopyDesk 3.6 (2007) Quark CopyDesk 7 (2007): Support for QuarkXPress 7, picture editing, redlining, Mac Intel version Quark CopyDesk 8 (2008): Support for QuarkXPress 8 Quark CopyDesk 9 (2011): Support for QuarkXPress 9 | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**MAX-3LIN-EQN**
MAX-3LIN-EQN:
MAX-3LIN-EQN is a problem in Computational complexity theory where the input is a system of linear equations (modulo 2). Each equation contains at most 3 variables. The problem is to find an assignment to the variables that satisfies the maximum number of equations.
This problem is closely related to the MAX-3SAT problem. It is NP-hard to approximate MAX-3LIN-EQN with ratio (1/2 - δ) for any δ > 0. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**J band (JRC)**
J band (JRC):
In the United Kingdom, the term J Band is used by the Joint Radio Company to refer to their VHF communications band at 139.5–140.5 and 148–149 MHz used by fuel and power industries. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Haemodialysis-associated amyloidosis**
Haemodialysis-associated amyloidosis:
Amyloidosis is the accumulation on misfolded protein fibers in the body. This is very common condition associated with many of the chronic illness. Haemodialysis-associated amyloidosis is a form of systemic amyloidosis associated with chronic kidney failure. Even if this is common in CKD patients with chronic regular dialysis, it can be also seen in patient with CKD but have never dialysed too.
Presentation:
Long-term haemodialysis results in a gradual accumulation of β2 microglobulin, a serum protein, in the blood. It accumulates because it is unable to cross the dialysis filter.
Affected individuals usually present after 5 years of dialysis rarely before that. The tendency of haemodialysis-associated amyloidosis is to be articular in general affecting the joints.
Prevention:
The mainstay of management of the dialysis related amyloidosis is the prevention than the other type of treatment methods. Because most of the medical and surgical managements for this condition may not prevent the symptoms completely. Therefore we have to take adequate precautions to prevent future dialysis disequilibrium syndrome in CKD patients. There are several steps in prevention of dialysis related amyloidosis.
Prevention:
Use of high flux dialyzers Use of Beta 2 globulin absorber Preserve the residual kidney functions Early kidney transplant In addition low copper dialysis is theorized to prevent or delay onset.
Management:
Management of haemodialysis associated amyloidosis is symptomatic. Although there are lot of methods to prevent and delay the complications, probably the steroids and analgesics may helpful in the management of the condition. However there are some surgical procedure to reduce the pain. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**OR10G4**
OR10G4:
Olfactory receptor 10G4 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the OR10G4 gene.Olfactory receptors interact with odorant molecules in the nose, to initiate a neuronal response that triggers the perception of a smell. The olfactory receptor proteins are members of a large family of G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCR) arising from single coding-exon genes. Olfactory receptors share a 7-transmembrane domain structure with many neurotransmitter and hormone receptors and are responsible for the recognition and G protein-mediated transduction of odorant signals. The olfactory receptor gene family is the largest in the genome. The nomenclature assigned to the olfactory receptor genes and proteins for this organism is independent of other organisms.
Genetic differences:
Nonsynonymous substitutions in the OR10G4 gene have a significant effect on the perception of the "smoky" odorant guaiacol. Individuals with mutations that reduce the affinity of the OR10G4 receptor for guaiacol have a reduced sensitivity to it, and the same people who report guaiacol as weaker tend to rate it as more pleasant. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**TeXstudio**
TeXstudio:
TeXstudio is a cross-platform open-source LaTeX editor. Its features include an interactive spelling checker, code folding, and syntax highlighting. It does not provide LaTeX itself – the user must choose a TeX distribution and install it first.
Originally called TexMakerX, TeXstudio was started as a fork of Texmaker that tried to extend it with additional features while keeping its look and feel.
History:
TeXstudio was forked from TeXMaker in 2008 as TeXMakerX. Changes in the fork were mainly in the editing area with code folding, syntax highlight, text selection by column, and multiple text selections. The project was initially named TeXmakerX, starting off as a small set of extensions to TeXmaker with a possibility that the additions could be merged back into the original project.
History:
The first release of TexMakerX was released in February 2009 on SourceForge. Collaborating on the SourceForge community web site reflected a preference different from the original TeXMaker development community, who maintain an independent hosting site.In August 2010, concerns were raised about potential confusion between the newer TeXMakerX project on SourceForge, and the older TeXMaker project at xm1math.net. In June 2011, the project was renamed as TeXstudio.The TeXstudio community acknowledges that "TeXstudio originates from Texmaker", but "significant changes in features and the code base have made it to a fully independent program". | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**RainbowCrack**
RainbowCrack:
RainbowCrack is a computer program which generates rainbow tables to be used in password cracking. RainbowCrack differs from "conventional" brute force crackers in that it uses large pre-computed tables called rainbow tables to reduce the length of time needed to crack a password drastically. RainbowCrack was developed by Zhu Shuanglei, and implements an improved time–memory tradeoff cryptanalysis attack which originated in Philippe Oechslin's Ophcrack.Some organizations have made RainbowCrack's rainbow tables available free over the internet. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Cholest-4-en-3-one 26-monooxygenase**
Cholest-4-en-3-one 26-monooxygenase:
Cholest-4-en-3-one 26-monooxygenase (EC 1.14.13.141, CYP125, CYP125A1, cholest-4-en-3-one 27-monooxygenase) is an enzyme with systematic name cholest-4-en-3-one,NADH:oxygen oxidoreductase (26-hydroxylating). This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction cholest-4-en-3-one + NADH + H+ + O2 ⇌ 26-hydroxycholest-4-en-3-one + NAD+ + H2OCholest-4-en-3-one 26-monooxygenase is a heme thiolate (P450) enzyme. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Chromosome 21**
Chromosome 21:
Chromosome 21 is one of the 23 pairs of chromosomes in humans. Chromosome 21 is both the smallest human autosome and chromosome, with 45 million base pairs (the building material of DNA) representing about 1.5 percent of the total DNA in cells. Most people have two copies of chromosome 21, while those with three copies of chromosome 21 have Down syndrome, also called "trisomy 21".
Chromosome 21:
Researchers working on the Human Genome Project announced in May 2000 that they had determined the sequence of base pairs that make up this chromosome. Chromosome 21 was the second human chromosome to be fully sequenced, after chromosome 22.
Genes:
Number of genes The following are some of the gene count estimates of human chromosome 21. Because researchers use different approaches to genome annotation, their predictions of the number of genes on each chromosome varies (for technical details, see gene prediction). Among various projects, the collaborative consensus coding sequence project (CCDS) takes an extremely conservative strategy. Thus CCDS's gene number prediction represents a lower bound on the total number of human protein-coding genes.
Genes:
Gene list The following is a partial list of genes on human chromosome 21. For complete list, see the link in the infobox on the right.
Diseases and disorders:
The following diseases and disorders are some of those related to genes on chromosome 21: Alzheimer's disease Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis Atrial fibrillation, familial Autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome Basal ganglia calcification Bethlem myopathy Closed angle glaucoma Cataract Down syndrome Erondu–Cymet syndrome Holocarboxylase synthetase deficiency Homocystinuria Hyperhomocysteinemia Hypotrichosis Immunodeficiency Inflammatory bowel disease Intellectual developmental disorder Jervell and Lange-Nielsen syndrome Keppen–Lubinsky syndrome Leukocyte adhesion deficiency-1 Majewski osteodysplastic primordial dwarfism type II (MOPD II, or MOPD2) Non-small cell lung carcinoma Nonsyndromic deafness Peripheral neuropathy Primary ciliary dyskinesia Romano–Ward syndrome Ullrich congenital muscular dystrophy Unverricht–Lundborg disease, a form of progressive myoclonus epilepsy
Chromosomal conditions:
The following conditions are caused by changes in the structure or number of copies of chromosome 21: Cancers: Rearrangements (translocations) of genetic material between chromosome 21 and other chromosomes have been associated with several types of cancer. For example, acute lymphoblastic leukemia (a type of blood cancer most often diagnosed in childhood) has been associated with a translocation between chromosomes 12 and 21. Another form of leukemia, acute myeloid leukemia, has been associated with a translocation between chromosomes 8 and 21.
Chromosomal conditions:
In a small percentage of cases, Down syndrome is caused by a rearrangement of chromosomal material between chromosome 21 and another chromosome. As a result, a person has the usual two copies of chromosome 21, plus extra material from chromosome 21 attached to another chromosome. These cases are called translocation Down syndrome. Researchers believe that extra copies of genes on chromosome 21 disrupt the course of normal development, causing the characteristic features of Down syndrome and the increased risk of medical problems associated with this disorder.
Chromosomal conditions:
Other changes in the number or structure of chromosome 21 can have a variety of effects, including intellectual disability, delayed development, and characteristic facial features. In some cases, the signs and symptoms are similar to those of Down syndrome. Changes to chromosome 21 include a missing segment of the chromosome in each cell (partial monosomy 21) and a circular structure called ring chromosome 21. A ring chromosome occurs when both ends of a broken chromosome are reunited.
Chromosomal conditions:
Duplication in Amyloid precursor protein (APP) locus (duplicated segment varies in length but includes APP) on Chromosome 21 was found to cause early onset familial Alzheimer's disease in a French family set (Rovelet-Lecrux et al.) and a Dutch family set. Compared to Alzheimer's caused by missense mutations in APP, the frequency of the Alzheimer's caused by APP duplications is significant. All patients that have an extra copy of APP gene due to the locus duplication show Alzheimer's with severe cerebral amyloid angiopathy. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Cognitive Science (journal)**
Cognitive Science (journal):
Cognitive Science is a multidisciplinary peer-reviewed academic journal published by John Wiley & Sons on behalf of the Cognitive Science Society. It was established in 1977 and covers all aspects of cognitive science. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Filter transition region**
Filter transition region:
In signal processing, a filter's frequency response comprises regions of frequency called passbands, stopbands, and transition regions. Typically there is one of each, but there may be multiples. A transition region (or transition band) is the interval between a passband and a stopband, where the curve of amplitude vs frequency continuously changes between a high level and a low level. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Halved joint**
Halved joint:
A halved joint is a woodworking joint in which the two members are joined by removing material from each at the point of intersection so that they overlap. The halved joint is differentiated from the lap joint in that the members are joined on edge, rather than on flat.
Halved joint:
The simple halved joint is created by cutting a slot in opposite edges of the members to be joined so that they slip together. Most commonly, the amount of material removed is equal to half the width of the members being joined, although this depends on the relative dimensions of the members. This joint is relatively weak and prone to splitting, due to the lack of shoulders which would otherwise prevent twisting. When extra strength is required, a strengthened version of the joint is called for. This involves a more elaborate cut out which incorporates shoulders to prevent twisting of the joint.
Applications:
Partitions in trays and drawers Construction of torsion boxes
Methods:
Halved joints can be cut by the following methods: Hand saw and chisel circular saw with multiple passes (depending on width and depth) dado set in a single pass electric router using a straight or rebate bit spindle moulder Laser cutter | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency**
Isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency:
Isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency (ILD), also called isolated 17,20-desmolase deficiency, is a rare endocrine and autosomal recessive genetic disorder which is characterized by a complete or partial loss of 17,20-lyase activity and, in turn, impaired production of the androgen and estrogen sex steroids. The condition manifests itself as pseudohermaphroditism (partially or fully underdeveloped genitalia) in males, in whom it is considered to be a form of intersex, and, in both sexes, as a reduced or absent puberty/lack of development of secondary sexual characteristics, resulting in a somewhat childlike appearance in adulthood (if left untreated).Unlike the case of combined 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase deficiency, isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency does not affect glucocorticoid production (or mineralocorticoid levels), and for that reason, does not result in adrenal hyperplasia or hypertension.
Symptoms and signs:
The symptoms of isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency, in males, include pseudohermaphroditism (i.e., feminized, ambiguous, or mildly underdeveloped (e.g., micropenis, perineal hypospadias, and/or cryptorchidism (undescended testes)) external genitalia), female gender identity, and, in non-complete cases of deficiency where partial virilization occurs, gynecomastia up to Tanner stage V (due to low androgen levels, which results in a lack of suppression of estrogen); in females, amenorrhoea or, in cases of only partial deficiency, merely irregular menses, and enlarged cystic ovaries (due to excessive stimulation by high levels of gonadotropins); and in both sexes, hypergonadotropic hypogonadism (hypogonadism despite high levels of gonadotropins), delayed, impaired, or fully absent adrenarche and puberty with an associated reduction in or complete lack of development of secondary sexual characteristics (sexual infantilism), impaired fertility or complete sterility, tall stature (due to delayed epiphyseal closure), eunuchoid skeletal proportions, delayed or absent bone maturation, and osteoporosis.
Cause:
Isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency is a rare disorder caused by genetic mutations in the gene CYP17A1, while not affecting 17α-hydroxylase. Isolated 17,20 lyase deficiency is a rare disease with only a small number of confirmed reports due to mutations in the CYP17A1 gene.Observed physiological abnormalities of the condition include markedly elevated serum levels of progestogens such as progesterone and 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (due to upregulation of precursor availability for androgen and estrogen synthesis), very low or fully absent peripheral concentrations of androgens such as dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), androstenedione, and testosterone and estrogens such as estradiol (due to the lack of 17,20-lyase activity, which is essential for their production), and high serum concentrations of the gonadotropins, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) (due to a lack of negative feedback on account of the lack of sex hormones).
Treatment:
Males and females may be treated with hormone replacement therapy (i.e., with androgens and estrogens, respectively), which will result in normal sexual development and resolve most symptoms. In the case of 46,XY (genetically male) individuals who are phenotypically female and/or identify as the female gender, they should be treated with estrogens instead. Removal of the undescended testes should be performed in 46,XY females to prevent their malignant degeneration, whereas in 46,XY males surgical correction of the genitals is generally required, and, if necessary, an orchidopexy (relocation of the undescended testes to the scrotum) may be performed as well. Namely in genetic females presenting with ovarian cysts, GnRH analogues may be used to control high FSH and LH levels if they are unresponsive to estrogens. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Circumstantial voice**
Circumstantial voice:
In grammar, a circumstantial voice, or circumstantial passive voice, is a voice that promotes an oblique argument of a verb to the role of subject; the underlying subject may then be expressed as an oblique argument. A given language may have several circumstantial voices, each promoting a different oblique argument. One very common circumstantial voice is the ordinary passive voice, which promotes a patient to the subject position.
Circumstantial voice:
Circumstantials are conceptually similar to applicatives, which promote obliques to direct objects. However, applicatives may increase the valency of an intransitive verb by adding a direct object, while circumstantials cannot.
Circumstantials are found in Malagasy. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Hyperdontia**
Hyperdontia:
Hyperdontia is the condition of having supernumerary teeth, or teeth that appear in addition to the regular number of teeth (32 in the average adult). They can appear in any area of the dental arch and can affect any dental organ. The opposite of hyperdontia is hypodontia, where there is a congenital lack of teeth, which is a condition seen more commonly than hyperdontia. The scientific definition of hyperdontia is "any tooth or odontogenic structure that is formed from tooth germ in excess of usual number for any given region of the dental arch." The additional teeth, which may be few or many, can occur on any place in the dental arch. Their arrangement may be symmetrical or non-symmetrical.
Signs and symptoms:
The presence of a supernumerary tooth, particularly when seen in young children, is associated with a disturbance of the maxillary incisor region. This commonly results in the impaction of the incisors during the mixed dentition stage. The study debating this also considered many other factors such as: the patient's age, number, morphology, growth orientation and position of the supernumerary tooth. Alongside this issue, the presence of an extra tooth can impede the eruption of adjacent additional or normal teeth. Therefore, the presence of a supernumerary tooth when found must be approached with the appropriate treatment plan, incorporating the likelihood of incisal crowding. In some individuals, the additional teeth can erupt far from the dental arch, within the maxillary sinus. The extra teeth may also migrate to a different location after development. In some cases, supernumerary teeth can lead to the formation of cysts. Crowding is also frequently seen in people with hyperdontia.
Causes:
There is evidence of hereditary factors along with some evidence of environmental factors leading to this condition. While a single excess tooth is relatively common, multiple hyperdontia is rare in people with no other associated diseases or syndromes. Many supernumerary teeth never erupt, but they may delay eruption of nearby teeth or cause other dental or orthodontic problems. Molar-type extra teeth are the most common type. Dental X-rays are often used to diagnose hyperdontia.
Causes:
It is suggested that supernumerary teeth develop from a third tooth bud arising from the dental lamina near the regular tooth bud or possibly from splitting the regular tooth bud itself. Supernumerary teeth in deciduous (baby) teeth are less common than in permanent teeth.
Related conditions Hyperdontia is seen in a number of disorders, including Gardner's syndrome and cleidocranial dysostosis, where multiple supernumerary teeth develop.Other associated conditions are: Cleidocranial dysplasia, Ehlers–Danlos syndrome Type III, Ellis–van Creveld syndrome, Gardner's syndrome, Goldenhar syndrome, Hallermann–Streiff syndrome, Orofaciodigital syndrome type I, Incontinentia pigmenti, Marfan syndrome, Nance–Horan syndrome, and Tricho-rhino-phalangeal syndrome Type 1.
Diagnosis:
Supernumerary teeth may be detected by taking two different dental X-rays at different angles. Examples of this may be an intra-oral X-ray (one that is taken inside the mouth) and a panoramic radiograph. However, these X-rays are 2D and therefore do not accurately portray the 3D view of the teeth.
Diagnosis:
Types Supernumerary teeth can be classified by shape and by position. The shapes include the following: Supplemental (where the tooth has a normal shape for the teeth in that series); Tuberculate (also called barrel shaped); Conical (also called peg shaped); Compound odontoma (multiple small tooth-like forms); Complex odontoma (a disorganized mass of dental tissue)When classified by position, a supernumerary tooth may be referred to as a mesiodens, a paramolar, or a distomolar. Occasionally, these teeth do not erupt into the oral cavity but manifest as a malocclusion.The most common supernumerary tooth is a mesiodens, which is a malformed, peg-like tooth that occurs between the maxillary central incisors.
Diagnosis:
Fourth and fifth molars that form behind the third molars are another kind of supernumerary teeth.
Treatment:
Although these teeth are usually asymptomatic and pose no threat to the individual, they are often extracted for aesthetic reasons, to allow the eruption of other teeth, orthodontic reasons and/or suspected pathology. This is done particularly if the mesiodens is positioned in the maxillary central incisor region. The traditional method of removal is done by using bone chisels, although a more advanced technique has been found to be more beneficial, especially if surgery is required. Through the use of piezoelectricity, piezoelectric ultrasonic bone surgery may be more time-consuming than the traditional method but it seems to reduce the post-operative bleeding and associated complications quite significantly.
Epidemiology:
It is evident that hyperdontia is more common in the permanent dentition than in the primary. There is a considerable difference between males and females in the prevalence of these teeth in permanent dentition; hyperdontia is twice as common in males as in females. However, this approximation varies in terms of location, other associating syndromes that may be present, and the ethnicity of the individual. In terms of ethnicity, it can be seen that hyperdontia is in fact less common in European than in Asian populations. There is evidence to show that an individual is more likely to have hyperdontia if other members of their family also have the condition. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Serum total protein**
Serum total protein:
Serum total protein, also known as total protein, is a clinical chemistry parameter representing the concentration of protein in serum.
Serum total protein:
Serum contains many proteins including serum albumin, a variety of globulins, and many others. While it is possible to analyze these proteins individually, total protein is a relatively quick and inexpensive analysis that does not discriminate by protein type. The traditional method for measuring total protein uses the biuret reagent, but other chemical methods such as dye-binding and refractometry are now available. The measurement is usually performed on automated analysers along with other laboratory tests.
Interpretation:
The reference range for total protein is typically 60-80g/L. (It is also sometimes reported as "6.0-8.0g/dl"), but this may vary depending on the method of analysis.
Concentrations below the reference range usually reflect low albumin concentration, for instance in liver disease or acute infection. Rarely, low total protein may be a sign of immunodeficiency.
Concentrations above the reference range are found in paraproteinaemia, Hodgkin's lymphoma, leukaemia or any condition causing an increase in immunoglobulins. Total protein is also commonly elevated in dehydration and C677T gene mutation. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**MDPHP**
MDPHP:
MDPHP (3',4'-Methylenedioxy-α-pyrrolidinohexiophenone) is a stimulant of the cathinone class originally developed in the 1960s, which has been reported as a novel designer drug. In the UK its slang name is monkey dust. It is closely related to the potent stimulant MDPV though with slightly milder effects, and has been used as an alternative in some countries following the banning of MDPV.
Legal status:
MDPHP is specifically listed as a controlled substance in Japan and Hungary, and is controlled under analogue provisions in a number of other jurisdictions.
Documented fatalities:
A case of a "fatal acute intoxication caused by MDPHP" in a 48 year old male was reported in February 2022 by physicians at an Italian hospital. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Alcohol detoxification**
Alcohol detoxification:
Alcohol detoxification (also known as detox) is the abrupt cessation of alcohol intake in individuals that have alcohol use disorder. This process is often coupled with substitution of drugs that have effects similar to the effects of alcohol in order to prevent alcohol withdrawal. When withdrawal does occur, it results in symptoms of varying severity.
Alcohol detoxification:
As such, the term "detoxification" may be somewhat of a misnomer since the process need not refer exclusively to the removal of toxic substances from the body. Detoxification may or may not be indicated depending upon an individual's age, medical status, and history of alcohol intake. For example, a young man who binge drinks and seeks treatment one week after his last use of alcohol may not require detoxification before beginning treatment for alcohol use disorder.
Alcohol detoxification:
Some addiction medicine practitioners use the term withdrawal management instead of detoxification.
Withdrawal symptoms:
The symptoms of alcohol withdrawal can range from mild to severe depending on the level of alcohol dependence a person has experienced. Symptoms can be behavioural (anxiety, agitation, irritability), neurological (tremor, hallucinations, increased risk of seizures), and physical (changes in heart rate, body temperature, blood pressure, nausea). Symptoms typically occur between 6 and 24 hours since cessation of drinking. In severe cases delirium tremens may occur, which is a medical emergency and could result in death.
Management:
Benzodiazepines are the most common family of drugs used for alcohol detoxification, followed by barbiturates.
Benzodiazepines Benzodiazepines such as chlordiazepoxide (Librium), diazepam (Valium), lorazepam (Ativan) or oxazepam (Serax) are the most commonly used drugs used to reduce alcohol withdrawal symptoms. There are several treatment patterns in which it is used.
The first option takes into consideration the varying degrees of tolerance. In it, a standard dose of the benzodiazepine is given every half-hour until light sedation is reached. Once a baseline dose is determined, the medication is tapered over the ensuing 3 to 10 days.
Management:
Another option is to give a standard dose of benzodiazepine based on history and adjust based on withdrawal phenomenon A third option is to defer treatment until symptoms occur. This method should not be used in patients with prior, alcohol-related seizures. This has been effective in randomized controlled trials. A non-randomized, before and after, observational study found that symptom-triggered therapy was advantageous.Dosing of the benzodiazepines can be guided by the CIWA scale. The scale is available online.Regarding the choice of benzodiazepine: Chlordiazepoxide (Librium) is the benzodiazepine of choice in uncomplicated alcohol withdrawal due to its long half-life.
Management:
Lorazepam or diazepam is available as an injection for patients who cannot safely take medications by mouth.
Lorazepam and oxazepam are indicated in patients with impaired liver function because they are metabolised outside of the liver.
Management:
Nitrous oxide Nitrous oxide has been shown to be an effective and safe treatment for alcohol withdrawal. Over 20,000 cases of the alcoholic withdrawal state have been successfully treated with psychotropic analgesic nitrous oxide (PAN) in South Africa and Finland. In 1992 it was officially approved for the treatment of addictive withdrawal states by the medical authorities in South Africa. Consequently, patients receiving it can claim a refund from their medical insurance. The gas therapy reduces the use of highly addictive sedative medications (like benzodiazepines and barbiturates) by over 90%. The technique thus reduces the danger of secondary addiction to benzodiazepines, which can be a real problem amongst alcoholics who have been treated with these agents.
Management:
Other Randomized controlled trials have found benefit from atenolol and clonidine. A randomized controlled trial has found benefit from carbamazepine.Some hospitals administer alcohol to prevent alcohol withdrawal although there are potential problems with this practice.Various vitamins, especially from the B group, are often used during alcohol withdrawal treatment.
Sodium oxybate is the sodium salt of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB). It is used for both acute alcohol withdrawal and medium-to-long-term detoxification. This drug enhances GABA neurotransmission and reduces glutamate levels. It is used in Italy in small amounts under the trade name Alcover.
Baclofen has been shown in animal studies and in small human studies to enhance detoxification. This drug acts as a GABA B receptor agonist and this may be beneficial.
Phenibut is used in Eastern Europe for alcohol detoxification as it has sedative and anxiolytic effects. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Cortical thymic epithelial cells**
Cortical thymic epithelial cells:
Cortical thymic epithelial cells (cTECs) form unique parenchyma cell population of the thymus which critically contribute to the development of T cells.
Cortical thymic epithelial cells:
Thymus tissue is compartmentalized into cortex and medulla and each of these two compartments comprises its specific thymic epithelial cell subset. cTECs reside in the outer part- cortex, which mostly serves as a developmental site for T cells. Precursors of T cells originate in the bone marrow from which they migrate via bloodstream into thymic cortex, where they encounter stromal cells including cTECs, which form the microenvironment crucial for proliferation and development of T cells by expression of DLL4 (delta-like notch ligand 4), cytokines IL-7, TGFβ or stem cell factor and chemokines CCL25, CXCL12 or CCRL1 etc. Essential part of T cell development forms process called VDJ recombination, mediated by RAG recombinases, that stochastically changes DNA sequences of T cell receptors (TCR) and endows them with diverse recognition specificity. Thanks to this process, T cells can recognize vast repertoire of pathogens, but also self-peptides or even their TCRs don't respond to any surrounding signals. Major role of thymic epithelial cells is to test, whether TCRs are "functional" and on the other hand "harmless" to our body. While cTECs control the functionality of TCRs during the process called positive selection, Medullary thymic epithelial cells (mTECs) that home in the inner part of the thymus- medulla, present on their MHC molecules self-peptides, generated mostly by protein Autoimmune regulator, to eliminate T cells with self-reactive TCRs via processes of central tolerance e.g. negative selection and protect the body against development of autoimmunity.
Positive selection of T cells:
Major function of cTECs is to positively select those T cells that are capable to recognize and interact with MHC molecules on their surface . Once T cell precursors enter the thymic cortex, they start their transformation from double negative stages (T cell without surface expression of CD4 and CD8 co-receptors) to a double positive stage (T cell with surface expression of both co-receptors) that expresses fully recombined TCR. This stage undergoes above mentioned selection process.
Positive selection of T cells:
Double positive–single positive transition Interaction between TCR of double positive T cell and MHC I molecule leads to loss of CD4 expression and double positive T cell becomes CD8 single positive T cell, conversely, engagement of MHC II molecule leads to the development into CD4 single positive T cell. It was also described that CD8/CD4 restriction is influenced by transcription factors Runx3, in the case of CD8 restriction, and Th-POK which directs the development into CD4 T cell lineage and represses the expression of Runx3. More than 90% of double positive T cells are unable to reach this interaction and they die by neglect.
Positive selection of T cells:
Cortex–medulla migration Besides double positive-single positive transition, TCR-MHC interaction also triggers the expression of CCR7, chemokine receptor which recognizes chemokines CCL19 and CCL21, that are largely produced by mTECs in the medulla, and positively selected T cells start to migrate to medulla via their gradient.
Unique proteolytic pathways:
It is incompletely understood whether presence of peptide ligands on MHC molecules of cTECs plays some role in positive selection. But it is likely that these peptide-MHC complexes are unique and different from self-peptides presented by mTECs, since cTECs developed unique proteolytic pathways. Indeed, there is slight evidence focused on unique cTEC peptide ligands, nevertheless, its more systematic characterization is still required.
Unique proteolytic pathways:
Thymoproteasome (β5t) Enzymatic machinery for MHC I antigen processing and presentation in cTECs involves thymoproteasome, which is defined by the presence of β5t subunit encoded by Psmb11 gene. Knockout of this gene revealed only slight reduction in positive selection of CD8 T cells, but TCR repertoire of these cells was shown to be limited and they revealed impaired immunological properties e.g. bad antigen responsiveness and failure to maintain naive population in the periphery. β5t subunit was shown to reduce chymotrypsin-like activity of thymoproteasomes, resulting in generation of low affinity peptides. Such finding was confirmed by study that was focused on properties of thymoproteasome- chopped peptides. Importantly, low affinity interactions are considered to result in positive selection, whereas high affinity interactions are typical for negative selection and interaction with mTECs.
Unique proteolytic pathways:
Cathepsin L MHC II processing and presentation in cTECs took advantage of several proteolytic pathways including cathepsin L, encoded by Ctsl gene. Cathepsin S which is produced by most of the antigen- presenting cells along with mTECs is absent in cTECs. Cathepsin L not only cleaves invariant chain as other cathepsins, nevertheless was shown to cleave peptides for MHC II presentation and enlarge the pool of cTEC unique peptide ligands. Ctsl knockout mouse revealed severe reduction in frequency and repertoire of CD4 T cells and impairment of invariant chain degradation. Another study revealed that reduction of T cell repertoire wasn't caused by absence of invariant chain degradation, rather due to alterations in repertoire of cathepsin L cleaved peptides.
Unique proteolytic pathways:
Thymus specific serine protease Thymus specific serine protease is another cTEC specific enzyme, encoded by Prss16 gene, which is also involved in MHC II peptide processing. Prss16 knockout mice revealed reduced repertoire of positively selected CD4 T cells.
Unique proteolytic pathways:
Macroautophagy Common feature of cTECs and mTECs is constitutive macroautophagy. This process involves engulfment of portion of cytoplasm that contains organelles and vesicles into autophagosome that fuses with late endosomes or lysosomes and its content is chopped to small peptides. cTECs and mTECs utilize this endogenous pathway for MHC II presentation during selection processes, instead of common loading of exogenous peptides. Mouse with deficient macroautophagy, specifically in the thymus, revealed reduced numbers and repertoire of CD4 T cells.
Development:
cTECs and mTECs originate from endoderm, more specifically from the third pharyngeal pouch and it has been shown that they share common progenitor cell. Importantly, mTECs during their development possess classical markers of cTECs including CD205 and β5t which are completely absent in mature mTECs, suggesting another possible cTEC function, namely they might serve as a progenitor cell reservoir for mTECs. Indeed, several lineage tracing studies confirmed that cTEC progenitors or even mature cTECs are capable to give rise to mTECs.
Development:
Nevertheless, there is available series of publications which suggests different mTEC progenitor pools or even argue that cTECs and mTECs reveal distinct unipotent progenitor cells. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**PFDN1**
PFDN1:
Prefoldin subunit 1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the PFDN1 gene.This gene encodes a member of the prefoldin beta subunit family. The encoded protein is one of six subunits of prefoldin, a molecular chaperone complex that binds and stabilizes newly synthesized polypeptides, thereby allowing them to fold correctly. The complex, consisting of two alpha and four beta subunits, forms a double beta barrel assembly with six protruding coiled-coils. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**P-Anisidine**
P-Anisidine:
p-Anisidine (or para-anisidine) is an organic compound with the formula CH3OC6H4NH2. A white solid, commercial samples can appear grey-brown owing to air oxidation. It is one of three isomers of anisidine, methoxy-containing anilines. It is prepared by reduction of 4-nitroanisole.
Anisidine value:
p-Anisidine condenses readily with aldehydes and ketones to form Schiff bases, which absorb at 350 nm. This colorimetric reaction is used to test for the presence of oxidation products in fats and oils, an official method for detecting them by the American Oil Chemists' Society. It is particularly good at detecting unsaturated aldehydes, which are the ones that are most likely to generate unacceptable flavors, making it particularly useful in food quality testing.
Safety:
p-Anisidine is a relatively toxic compound with a permissible exposure limit of 0.5 mg/m3. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Soliton**
Soliton:
In mathematics and physics, a soliton or solitary wave is a self-reinforcing wave packet that maintains its shape while it propagates at a constant velocity. Solitons are caused by a cancellation of nonlinear and dispersive effects in the medium. (Dispersive effects are a property of certain systems where the speed of a wave depends on its frequency.) Solitons are the solutions of a widespread class of weakly nonlinear dispersive partial differential equations describing physical systems.
Soliton:
The soliton phenomenon was first described in 1834 by John Scott Russell (1808–1882) who observed a solitary wave in the Union Canal in Scotland. He reproduced the phenomenon in a wave tank and named it the "Wave of Translation". The name was coined by Zabusky and Kruskal to describe solutions to the Korteweg–de Vries equation which models waves of the type seen by Russell, with the name meant to refer to the solitary nature of the waves and the 'on' suffix mirroring the usage for particles such as electrons, baryons or hadrons, due to the observed 'particle-like' behaviour of the waves in which they collide, then emerge from the interaction seemingly unchanged.
Definition:
A single, consensus definition of a soliton is difficult to find. Drazin & Johnson (1989, p. 15) ascribe three properties to solitons: They are of permanent form; They are localized within a region; They can interact with other solitons, and emerge from the collision unchanged, except for a phase shift.More formal definitions exist, but they require substantial mathematics. Moreover, some scientists use the term soliton for phenomena that do not quite have these three properties (for instance, the 'light bullets' of nonlinear optics are often called solitons despite losing energy during interaction).
Explanation:
Dispersion and nonlinearity can interact to produce permanent and localized wave forms. Consider a pulse of light traveling in glass. This pulse can be thought of as consisting of light of several different frequencies. Since glass shows dispersion, these different frequencies travel at different speeds and the shape of the pulse therefore changes over time. However, also the nonlinear Kerr effect occurs; the refractive index of a material at a given frequency depends on the light's amplitude or strength. If the pulse has just the right shape, the Kerr effect exactly cancels the dispersion effect and the pulse's shape does not change over time. Thus, the pulse is a soliton. See soliton (optics) for a more detailed description.
Explanation:
Many exactly solvable models have soliton solutions, including the Korteweg–de Vries equation, the nonlinear Schrödinger equation, the coupled nonlinear Schrödinger equation, and the sine-Gordon equation. The soliton solutions are typically obtained by means of the inverse scattering transform, and owe their stability to the integrability of the field equations. The mathematical theory of these equations is a broad and very active field of mathematical research.
Explanation:
Some types of tidal bore, a wave phenomenon of a few rivers including the River Severn, are 'undular': a wavefront followed by a train of solitons. Other solitons occur as the undersea internal waves, initiated by seabed topography, that propagate on the oceanic pycnocline. Atmospheric solitons also exist, such as the morning glory cloud of the Gulf of Carpentaria, where pressure solitons traveling in a temperature inversion layer produce vast linear roll clouds. The recent and not widely accepted soliton model in neuroscience proposes to explain the signal conduction within neurons as pressure solitons.
Explanation:
A topological soliton, also called a topological defect, is any solution of a set of partial differential equations that is stable against decay to the "trivial solution". Soliton stability is due to topological constraints, rather than integrability of the field equations. The constraints arise almost always because the differential equations must obey a set of boundary conditions, and the boundary has a nontrivial homotopy group, preserved by the differential equations. Thus, the differential equation solutions can be classified into homotopy classes.
Explanation:
No continuous transformation maps a solution in one homotopy class to another. The solutions are truly distinct, and maintain their integrity, even in the face of extremely powerful forces. Examples of topological solitons include the screw dislocation in a crystalline lattice, the Dirac string and the magnetic monopole in electromagnetism, the Skyrmion and the Wess–Zumino–Witten model in quantum field theory, the magnetic skyrmion in condensed matter physics, and cosmic strings and domain walls in cosmology.
History:
In 1834, John Scott Russell describes his wave of translation. The discovery is described here in Scott Russell's own words: I was observing the motion of a boat which was rapidly drawn along a narrow channel by a pair of horses, when the boat suddenly stopped – not so the mass of water in the channel which it had put in motion; it accumulated round the prow of the vessel in a state of violent agitation, then suddenly leaving it behind, rolled forward with great velocity, assuming the form of a large solitary elevation, a rounded, smooth and well-defined heap of water, which continued its course along the channel apparently without change of form or diminution of speed. I followed it on horseback, and overtook it still rolling on at a rate of some eight or nine miles an hour, preserving its original figure some thirty feet long and a foot to a foot and a half in height. Its height gradually diminished, and after a chase of one or two miles I lost it in the windings of the channel. Such, in the month of August 1834, was my first chance interview with that singular and beautiful phenomenon which I have called the Wave of Translation.
History:
Scott Russell spent some time making practical and theoretical investigations of these waves. He built wave tanks at his home and noticed some key properties: The waves are stable, and can travel over very large distances (normal waves would tend to either flatten out, or steepen and topple over) The speed depends on the size of the wave, and its width on the depth of water.
History:
Unlike normal waves they will never merge – so a small wave is overtaken by a large one, rather than the two combining.
History:
If a wave is too big for the depth of water, it splits into two, one big and one small.Scott Russell's experimental work seemed at odds with Isaac Newton's and Daniel Bernoulli's theories of hydrodynamics. George Biddell Airy and George Gabriel Stokes had difficulty accepting Scott Russell's experimental observations because they could not be explained by the existing water wave theories. Additionnal observations were reported by Henry Bazin in 1862 after experiments carried out in the canal de Bourgogne in France. Their contemporaries spent some time attempting to extend the theory but it would take until the 1870s before Joseph Boussinesq and Lord Rayleigh published a theoretical treatment and solutions. In 1895 Diederik Korteweg and Gustav de Vries provided what is now known as the Korteweg–de Vries equation, including solitary wave and periodic cnoidal wave solutions.
History:
In 1965 Norman Zabusky of Bell Labs and Martin Kruskal of Princeton University first demonstrated soliton behavior in media subject to the Korteweg–de Vries equation (KdV equation) in a computational investigation using a finite difference approach. They also showed how this behavior explained the puzzling earlier work of Fermi, Pasta, Ulam, and Tsingou.In 1967, Gardner, Greene, Kruskal and Miura discovered an inverse scattering transform enabling analytical solution of the KdV equation. The work of Peter Lax on Lax pairs and the Lax equation has since extended this to solution of many related soliton-generating systems.
History:
Note that solitons are, by definition, unaltered in shape and speed by a collision with other solitons. So solitary waves on a water surface are near-solitons, but not exactly – after the interaction of two (colliding or overtaking) solitary waves, they have changed a bit in amplitude and an oscillatory residual is left behind.Solitons are also studied in quantum mechanics, thanks to the fact that they could provide a new foundation of it through de Broglie's unfinished program, known as "Double solution theory" or "Nonlinear wave mechanics". This theory, developed by de Broglie in 1927 and revived in the 1950s, is the natural continuation of his ideas developed between 1923 and 1926, which extended the wave-particle duality introduced by Albert Einstein for the light quanta, to all the particles of matter. The observation of accelerating surface gravity water wave soliton using an external hydrodynamic linear potential was demonstrated in 2019. This experiment also demonstrated the ability to excite and measure the phases of ballistic solitons.
In fiber optics:
Much experimentation has been done using solitons in fiber optics applications. Solitons in a fiber optic system are described by the Manakov equations.
Solitons' inherent stability make long-distance transmission possible without the use of repeaters, and could potentially double transmission capacity as well.
In biology:
Solitons may occur in proteins and DNA. Solitons are related to the low-frequency collective motion in proteins and DNA.A recently developed model in neuroscience proposes that signals, in the form of density waves, are conducted within neurons in the form of solitons. Solitons can be described as almost lossless energy transfer in biomolecular chains or lattices as wave-like propagations of coupled conformational and electronic disturbances.
In material physics:
Solitons can occur in materials, such as ferroelectrics, in the form of domain walls. Ferroelectric materials exhibit spontaneous polarization, or electric dipoles, which are coupled to configurations of the material structure. Domains of oppositely poled polarizations can be present within a single material as the structural configurations corresponding to opposing polarizations are equally favorable with no presence of external forces. The domain boundaries, or “walls”, that separate these local structural configurations are regions of lattice dislocations. The domain walls can propagate as the polarizations, and thus, the local structural configurations can switch within a domain with applied forces such as electric bias or mechanical stress. Consequently, the domain walls can be described as solitons, discrete regions of dislocations that are able to slip or propagate and maintain their shape in width and length. In recent literature, ferroelectricity has been observed in twisted bilayers of van der Waal materials such as MoS2 and graphene. The moiré superlattice that arises from the relative twist angle between the van der Waal monolayers generates regions of different stacking orders of the atoms within the layers. These regions exhibit inversion symmetry breaking structural configurations that enable ferroelectricity at the interface of these monolayers. The domain walls that separate these regions are composed of partial dislocations where different types of stresses, and thus, strains are experienced by the lattice. It has been observed that soliton or domain wall propagation across a moderate length of the sample (order of nanometers to micrometers) can be initiated with applied stress from an AFM tip on a fixed region. The soliton propagation carries the mechanical perturbation with little loss in energy across the material, which enables domain switching in a domino-like fashion.It has also been observed that the type of dislocations found at the walls can affect propagation parameters such as direction. For instance, STM measurements showed four types of strains of varying degrees of shear, compression, and tension at domain walls depending on the type of localized stacking order in twisted bilayer graphene. Different slip directions of the walls are achieved with different types of strains found at the domains, influencing the direction of the soliton network propagation.Nonidealities such as disruptions to the soliton network and surface impurities can influence soliton propagation as well. Domain walls can meet at nodes and get effectively pinned, forming triangular domains, which have been readily observed in various ferroelectric twisted bilayer systems. In addition, closed loops of domain walls enclosing multiple polarization domains can inhibit soliton propagation and thus, switching of polarizations across it. Also, domain walls can propagate and meet at wrinkles and surface inhomogeneities within the van der Waal layers, which can act as obstacles obstructing the propagation.
In magnets:
In magnets, there also exist different types of solitons and other nonlinear waves. These magnetic solitons are an exact solution of classical nonlinear differential equations — magnetic equations, e.g. the Landau–Lifshitz equation, continuum Heisenberg model, Ishimori equation, nonlinear Schrödinger equation and others.
In nuclear physics:
Atomic nuclei may exhibit solitonic behavior. Here the whole nuclear wave function is predicted to exist as a soliton under certain conditions of temperature and energy. Such conditions are suggested to exist in the cores of some stars in which the nuclei would not react but pass through each other unchanged, retaining their soliton waves through a collision between nuclei.
In nuclear physics:
The Skyrme Model is a model of nuclei in which each nucleus is considered to be a topologically stable soliton solution of a field theory with conserved baryon number.
Bions:
The bound state of two solitons is known as a bion, or in systems where the bound state periodically oscillates, a breather. The interference-type forces between solitons could be used in making bions. However, these forces are very sensitive to their relative phases. Alternatively, the bound state of solitons could be formed by dressing atoms with highly excited Rydberg levels. The resulting self-generated potential profile features an inner attractive soft-core supporting the 3D self-trapped soliton, an intermediate repulsive shell (barrier) preventing solitons’ fusion, and an outer attractive layer (well) used for completing the bound state resulting in giant stable soliton molecules. In this scheme, the distance and size of the individual solitons in the molecule can be controlled dynamically with the laser adjustment. In field theory bion usually refers to the solution of the Born–Infeld model. The name appears to have been coined by G. W. Gibbons in order to distinguish this solution from the conventional soliton, understood as a regular, finite-energy (and usually stable) solution of a differential equation describing some physical system. The word regular means a smooth solution carrying no sources at all. However, the solution of the Born–Infeld model still carries a source in the form of a Dirac-delta function at the origin. As a consequence it displays a singularity in this point (although the electric field is everywhere regular). In some physical contexts (for instance string theory) this feature can be important, which motivated the introduction of a special name for this class of solitons.
Bions:
On the other hand, when gravity is added (i.e. when considering the coupling of the Born–Infeld model to general relativity) the corresponding solution is called EBIon, where "E" stands for Einstein.
Alcubierre drive:
Erik Lentz, a physicist at the University of Göttingen, has theorized that solitons could allow for the generation of Alcubierre warp bubbles in spacetime without the need for exotic matter, i.e., matter with negative mass. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Air knife**
Air knife:
An air knife is a tool used to blow off liquid or debris from products as they travel on conveyors. Air knives are normally used in manufacturing or as the first step in a recursive recycling process to separate lighter or smaller particles from other components for use in later or subsequent steps, post manufacturing parts drying and conveyor cleaning, part of component cleaning. The knife consists of a high-intensity, uniform sheet of laminar airflow sometimes known as streamline flow.
Air knife:
An industrial air knife is a pressurized air plenum containing a series of holes or continuous slots through which pressurized air exits in a laminar flow pattern. The exit air velocity then creates an impact air velocity onto the surface of whatever object the air is directed. This impact air velocity can range from a gentle breeze to greater than Mach 0.6 (40,000 ft/min) to alter the surface of a product without mechanical contact.
Air knife:
Air knives remove liquids, control the thickness of liquids, dry the liquid coatings, remove foreign particles, cool product surfaces or create a hold down force to assist in the mechanical bonding of materials to the surface. Electrical currents from anti-static bars can also be injected into the exit air knife stream to neutralize the static electricity charge on some surfaces.
Air knife:
In the majority of manufacturing applications for air knives, the air knives are stationary while the product passes through the air velocity air stream. In other circumstances, the product is stationary and the air knives move (reciprocate or rotate) over the surface of the stationary product. Although there are very few applications where an air knife can actually cut a product (break mechanical bonds between two points), air knives are often the most efficient method of removing or controlling unwanted or foreign substances on any surface.
Air knife:
In reference to the galvanizing industry, air knives are used to precisely control the amount of zinc coating by wiping away the coating while it is still in a liquid state on the steel surface. In most hot dip applications both top and bottom coated surfaces can be independently controlled by computer via feedback loop as accurately as plus or minus 5 grams/meter squared. Most air knife systems for this application use heated nitrogen gas as the wiping agent, not atmospheric air. Nitrogen is used to reduce oxidation of the base metal.
History:
In the 1950s and 60s, the term "air doctor" was first used to refer to the non-contact method of debris blow-off using compressed air. The printing and textile industries were some of the largest users of air doctors at that time, named by analogy with "doctor rolls" and "doctor blades". They often needed wide paths of air from a compressed air system to control the thickness of liquids on a surface, or to blow debris off the surface of materials prior to the next process. Other terms used were air bar, air squeegee, air curtain, air jet, air blast, air blow off, air nozzle, air comb, air blade and air doctor blade. Today the most commonly used term is simply "air knife".
History:
Although air knives powered by compressed plant air are used in a wide variety of industrial applications, industrial blower-powered air knives have proven to reduce the energy usage versus compressed air knives by 50–75% for most applications. Blower-powered air knife systems came of age with the advent of the 1987 Montreal Protocol, which started the clock on the worldwide phase-out of atmospheric ozone depleting CFC’s (chlorofluorocarbons) then used as cleaning agents in many industries.
History:
Most of these solvent-based cleaning agents simply evaporated which required no blow-off or other drying methods. Although the printed circuit board industry was still in its infancy, it was among the first to initiate the conversion to aqueous and semi-aqueous-based parts cleaning systems.
History:
With nearly every existing and all future circuit board factories using the new environmentally friendly cleaning technology, they also needed a new method of drying the p.c. boards following their water-based cleaning to remove solder fluxes and other contaminants. The trend away from other types of solvent-based parts cleaning to water-based cleaning for other industries began soon thereafter. Additionally, the conversion to water-based inks, paints, coatings, adhesives and other solutions used in various manufacturing sectors has resulted in the need for air knife dryers where none had previously existed. As a result of the Montreal Protocol and worldwide industry compliance with environmental stewardship mandates, the former niche business of air knives became an industry.
Description of operation:
Air knives on a production line commonly range from 0.25 to 200 inches (6.4 to 5,080.0 mm) in length with a discharge air slot or holes ranging from 0.001 to 0.25 in (0.025 to 6.350 mm). A stationary air knife configuration can require from one to a dozen air knives depending on the application criteria. Air is blasted through the air knife slots via an air generator, either an industrial blower or air compressor, to deliver the predetermined exit air volume and velocity needed.
Description of operation:
There are many application, environmental, efficiency and duty cycle aspects to consider when choosing between compressors and blowers. Compressed air, which is least efficient when used for air knives discharging into free air, allows for use of primary plant air. The piping sizes supplying the air knives can be as little as 1⁄4 in (6.4 mm) diameter, so they are ideal for confined spaces. Blower-powered air knives must be larger in size along with larger diameter supply piping, but the efficiency improvement over compressed air is easily justified with the electrical power cost savings.
Description of operation:
Air knife designs today have evolved to where some manufacturers produce a very efficient “teardrop” shape with a .95 coefficient of discharge. These blower-powered air knife designs typically have a profile of approximately 3.5 in (89 mm) wide x 5.5 in (140 mm) tall x any length, but the teardrop profile can range from 1.5 to 10 in (38 to 254 mm) tall depending on the criteria of the product for which the impact air velocity must be engineered. With construction ranging from 1⁄8 in (3.2 mm) thick aluminum extrusion to 11 gauge fabricated stainless steel, air knives can weigh 1 lb/ft to 25 lbs/ft. Depending on the width and speed of the product, the air knife can provide effective blow-off performance from 0.5 to 12 in (13 to 305 mm) or more away from the surface of the product. Round air nozzles of 1 to 4 in (25 to 102 mm) diameter can be effective against surfaces which are up to several feet (1 to 2 meters) from the product surface when engineered for such applications.
Types and applications:
The most common use of air knives is to contain or remove free-standing materials (liquids or solids) from the surface of material. The applications include drying bottles and cans after filling and rinsing, printed circuit boards following the conveyorized wash to remove solder paste and flux, metals castings after automatic machining and many more. They can also deliver heated or cooled air to a surface, or create an invisible air barrier to separate heated or cooled environments from one another in industrial applications such as continuous metal heat treating ovens, cold process or storage areas in food processing or dust containment for the entrance to clean rooms.
Types and applications:
There is a variety of uses for air knives in many different industries, applications and environments. The invisible-high velocity air streams can be discharged by air knife designs of numerous shapes and sizes. These range from “garage built” devices with a low level of precision to the most exotic metals of construction used in air knives for class 100 clean rooms.
Types and applications:
In instances where noise reduction and moisture containment around a conveyorized air knife installation becomes important, some manufacturing facilities have installed air knives within an enclosure. These enclosures keep water contained, reduce the amount of air knife noise and even eliminate any liquid that could create safety concerns.
Basic design features:
Compressed air-powered air knives There has always been a wide assortment of blow-off appliances. Air knives and nozzles for compressed air blow-off range from home made round pipes with holes to engineered high pressure air knives. In order to achieve the highest efficiency using compressed air, many manufacturers of compressed air knives utilize the Coandă effect to improve compressed air knife design over other types of knives and nozzles. Although the efficiency of compressed air for low-pressure blow-off air is much lower than blowers, the Coanda-inspired air knives entrain ambient air into the high-velocity stream to enhance the blow off effect.
Basic design features:
Blower-powered air knives The teardrop-shaped air knife has a bulbous plenum which tapers down to a precise air discharge slot as the standard of the blower driven air knife industry. Whereas a round pipe with holes drilled has an average coefficient of discharge of 0.6 (60% efficient), the teardrop-shaped air knife is commonly 0.95 (95% efficient), which provides much higher-impact air velocity to the surface at which the air is directed with the lowest blower motor power demand. These teardrop designs are available in extruded aluminum shapes as well as fabricated carbon and stainless steels.
Basic design features:
OSHA compliance Information is needed regarding the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and their standards and directives on Compressed Air, especially when used for cleaning. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Initiator element**
Initiator element:
The initiator element (Inr), sometimes referred to as initiator motif, is a core promoter that is similar in function to the Pribnow box (in prokaryotes) or the TATA box (in eukaryotes). The Inr is the simplest functional promoter that is able to direct transcription initiation without a functional TATA box. It has the consensus sequence YYANWYY in humans. Similarly to the TATA box, the Inr element facilitates the binding of transcription Factor II D (TFIID). The Inr works by enhancing binding affinity and strengthening the promoter.
Overview:
The initiator element (Inr) is the most common sequence found at the transcription start site of eukaryotic genes. It is a 17 bp element. Inr in humans was first explained and sequenced by two MIT biologists, Stephen T. Smale and David Baltimore in 1989. Their research showed that Inr promoter is able to initiate basal transcription in absence of the TATA box. In the presence of a TATA box or other promoters, the Inr increases the efficiency of transcription by working alongside the promoters to bind RNA polymerase II. A gene with both types of promoters will have higher promoter binding strength, easier activation and higher levels of transcription activity. The TFIID, which is a component of the RNA polymerase II preinitiation complex binds to both the TATA box and Inr. Two subunits, TAF1 and TAF2, of the TFIID recognize the Inr sequence and bring the complex together. The interaction between TFIID and Inr is believed to be most imperative in initiating transcription. This is likey due to the Inr sequence overlapping the start site. The Inr element is also believed to interact with activator Sp1, specificity protein 1 transcription factor. Sp1 is then able to regulate the activation and initiation of transcription
Location:
The Inr element sequence is located -6 bp upstream of the transcription start site and continues to around +45 bp downstream. This sequence encompasses where the RNA polymerase will begin transcribing. The Inr element is located about ~20 bp downstream from the TATA box. The Inr region overlaps the transcription start site but the exact start and end positions are still being debated.
Sequence:
The consensus sequence of Inr in humans was inferred to be YYANWYY. The consensus sequence in Drosophila is TCAKTY.
Evolutionary change:
Studies have shown that promoters with a functional Inr are more likely to lack a TATA box or to possess a degenerate TATA sequence. This is because a gene with an active Inr is less dependent on a functional TATA box or additional promoters. Although Inr element varies between promoters, the sequence is highly conserved between humans and yeast. An analysis of 7670 transcription start sites showed that roughly 40% had an exact match to the BBCA+1BW Inr sequence. While 16% contained only one mismatch TFIID and subunits are very sensitive to the Inr sequence and nucleotide changes have been shown to drastically change the binding affinity. The +1 and -3 positions have been identified as the most critical for transcription efficiency and Inr function. A replacement of the Adenosine nucleotide at the +1 to G or T changes transcription activity by 10% and a replacement of Thymine at the +3 position changes transcription activity levels by 22%.
Significance:
The Inr element for core promoters was found to be more prevalent than the TATA box in eukaryotic promoter domains. In a study of 1800+ distinct human promoter sequences it was found that 49% contain the Inr element while 21.8% contain the TATA box. Out of those sequences with the TATA box, 62% contained the Inr element as well. Though the Inr element is not fully understood it has been recognized as the most frequently occurring sequence at the start site of genes in multiple species. Further research can allow for more understanding of the elements that regulate gene production.
Notes:
In nucleic acid notation for DNA, K stands for G/T (Keto) | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Harridge Wood**
Harridge Wood:
Harridge Wood is an area of woodland in Somerset, England.
From about 1300 AD part of the wood was the scene of coal mining, which continued until around 1800.
The traces of mining have been well preserved, and are now a scheduled site.
The woodland is now part of the Harridge Woods Nature Reserve.
Large areas were planted for timber in the mid-20th century, and this continues to be harvested.
The nature reserve is steadily reintroducing the original flora.
Environment:
The Harridge Wood mainly lies on clay slopes dissected by streams.
It is thought to be very old, although large areas of the original broadleaf coverage was cleared in the mid-20th century and replaced by poplars and conifers.
Remnants of the early forest are found in isolated patches, on the edge of the woodland and in wet areas.
These include areas of old hazel coppice and low pollards (known as "stoggles") of ash, pedunculate oak and alder.
There are diverse woodland flora in the less disturbed areas, including ferns in the wetter parts and woodland herbs in the dryer areas. In some places there are cow pastures beside the woods, which attract foraging bats, while other bats forage along the woods and streams.
Mine workings:
In Harridge Wood and Edford Wood the coal seams outcrop at the surface and there are many remains of pre-18th century mining.
The medieval and post-medieval coal mining remains in Harridge Wood and Edford Wood South were made a 16 hectares (40 acres) scheduled site under the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act 1979 as of 17 May 2000.
The site includes Edford Wood South, all of Harridge Wood East and part of Harridge Wood West.
The site covers parts of the parishes of Ashwick, Stoke St Michael and Stratton-on-the-Fosse in the Mendip district of Somerset.
The coal mining workings are examples of medieval and post-medieval coal mining that have been very well preserved by being incorporated in the woodland.
Mine workings:
They show a variety of mining methods employed before the 19th century.In the early days miners excavated the coal using bell pits, where they dug a shaft down to the coal, then excavated as wide an area round the foot of the shaft as was safe, giving it a bell shape. They then moved to a nearby location and repeated the process, spacing the shafts close enough to minimise wastage.
Mine workings:
52 bell pits have been found in Harridge Wood East, the largest with a diameter of 25 metres (82 ft).
Adits have also been found, horizontal passages for accessing the mines or draining waters, and leats that carried water to power machinery or drained water.
There are mounds of excavated material and the remains of shafts.
The coal field was active from around 1300 to 1800, although some small working continued longer.
Nature reserve:
Location The 55 hectares (140 acres) Harridge Woods nature reserve is owned and operated by Somerset Wildlife Trust.
The nature reserve includes five sites: Home Wood, Limekiln Wood, Harridge Woods West, Harrdidge Woods East and Edford Woods South.
There are two nature trails with stops where points of interest are described.
The Mells River runs through the western part of the reserve.
The woods are a managed woodland, and lumber is extracted.
The Cerberus Spelæological Society controls all cave and archaeological related activity in the reserve.
Flora Trees include various species of alder, ash (Fraxinus excelsior), hazel (Corylus avellana), Norway Spruce (Picea abies), pedunculate oak (Quercus robur), silver birch (Betula pendula), spindle (Euonymus europaeus) and wych elm (Ulmus glabra).
Fungi include fly agaric (Amanita muscaria), King Alfred's cake (Daldinia concentrica) and scarlet elf cup (Sarcoscypha coccinea).
Other plant species include bluebell (Hyacinthoides non-scripta), enchanter's nightshade (Circaea lutetiana), hart's tongue fern (Asplenium scolopendrium), lesser celandine (Ficaria verna), meadow saffron (Colchicum autumnale), nettle-leaved bellflower (Campanula trachelium), Solomon's seal (Polygonatum multiflorum), toothwort (Lathraea squamaria), wild garlic (Allium ursinum), wood anemone (Anemone nemorosa) and yellow archangel (Lamium galeobdolon).
Fauna A dilapidated cottage has been restored as a bat house.
Bats include brown long-eared bat (Plecotus auritus), greater horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus ferrumequinum) and lesser horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus hipposideros).
Other animals include Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra), European badger (Meles meles), hazel dormouse (Muscardinus avellanarius), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and wood mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus).
Birds include common kingfisher (Alcedo atthis), Eurasian bullfinch (Pyrrhula pyrrhula), European green woodpecker (Picus viridis), silver-washed fritillary (Argynnis paphia), song thrush (Turdus philomelos) and white-throated dipper (Cinclus cinclus).
The comma (Polygonia c-album) and common brimstone (Gonepteryx rhamni) butterflies may be seen. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Remote control**
Remote control:
In electronics, a remote control (also known as a remote or clicker) is an electronic device used to operate another device from a distance, usually wirelessly. In consumer electronics, a remote control can be used to operate devices such as a television set, DVD player or other home appliance. A remote control can allow operation of devices that are out of convenient reach for direct operation of controls. They function best when used from a short distance. This is primarily a convenience feature for the user. In some cases, remote controls allow a person to operate a device that they otherwise would not be able to reach, as when a garage door opener is triggered from outside.
Remote control:
Early television remote controls (1956–1977) used ultrasonic tones. Present-day remote controls are commonly consumer infrared devices which send digitally-coded pulses of infrared radiation. They control functions such as power, volume, channels, playback, track change, heat, fan speed, and various other features. Remote controls for these devices are usually small wireless handheld objects with an array of buttons. They are used to adjust various settings such as television channel, track number, and volume. The remote control code, and thus the required remote control device, is usually specific to a product line. However, there are universal remotes, which emulate the remote control made for most major brand devices.
Remote control:
Remote controls in the 2000s include Bluetooth or Wi-Fi connectivity, motion sensor-enabled capabilities and voice control. Remote controls for 2010s onward Smart TVs may feature a standalone keyboard on the rear side to facilitate typing, and be usable as a pointing device.
History:
Wired and wireless remote control was developed in the latter half of the 19th century to meet the need to control unmanned vehicles (for the most part military torpedoes). These included a wired version by German engineer Werner von Siemens in 1870, and radio controlled ones by British engineer Ernest Wilson and C. J. Evans (1897) and a prototype that inventor Nikola Tesla demonstrated in New York in 1898. In 1903 Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres Quevedo introduced a radio based control system called the "Telekino" at the Paris Academy of Sciences, which he hoped to use to control a dirigible airship of his own design. Unlike previous “on/off” mechanisms, Torres developed a system for controlling any mechanical or electrical device with different states of operation. Specifically, he was able to do up to 19 different actions with his prototypes. From 1904 to 1906 Torres chose to conduct Telekino testings in the form of a three-wheeled land vehicle with an effective range of 20 to 30 meters, and using an electrically powered launch that demonstrated a standoff range of 2 kilometers. The first remote-controlled model airplane flew in 1932, and the use of remote control technology for military purposes was worked on intensively during the Second World War, one result of this being the German Wasserfall missile.
History:
By the late 1930s, several radio manufacturers offered remote controls for some of their higher-end models. Most of these were connected to the set being controlled by wires, but the Philco Mystery Control (1939) was a battery-operated low-frequency radio transmitter, thus making it the first wireless remote control for a consumer electronics device. Using pulse-count modulation, this also was the first digital wireless remote control.
History:
Television remote controls The first remote intended to control a television was developed by Zenith Radio Corporation in 1950. The remote, called Lazy Bones, was connected to the television by a wire. A wireless remote control, the Flashmatic, was developed in 1955 by Eugene Polley. It worked by shining a beam of light onto one of four photoelectric cells, but the cell did not distinguish between light from the remote and light from other sources. The Flashmatic also had to be pointed very precisely at one of the sensors in order to work.
History:
In 1956, Robert Adler developed Zenith Space Command, a wireless remote. It was mechanical and used ultrasound to change the channel and volume. When the user pushed a button on the remote control, it struck a bar and clicked, hence they were commonly called "clickers", and the mechanics were similar to a pluck. Each of the four bars emitted a different fundamental frequency with ultrasonic harmonics, and circuits in the television detected these sounds and interpreted them as channel-up, channel-down, sound-on/off, and power-on/off.Later, the rapid decrease in price of transistors made possible cheaper electronic remotes that contained a piezoelectric crystal that was fed by an oscillating electric current at a frequency near or above the upper threshold of human hearing, though still audible to dogs. The receiver contained a microphone attached to a circuit that was tuned to the same frequency. Some problems with this method were that the receiver could be triggered accidentally by naturally occurring noises or deliberately by metal against glass, for example, and some people could hear the lower ultrasonic harmonics.
History:
In 1970, RCA introduced an all-electronic remote control that uses digital signals and metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) memory. This was widely adopted for color television, replacing motor-driven tuning controls.The impetus for a more complex type of television remote control came in 1973, with the development of the Ceefax teletext service by the BBC. Most commercial remote controls at that time had a limited number of functions, sometimes as few as three: next channel, previous channel, and volume/off. This type of control did not meet the needs of Teletext sets, where pages were identified with three-digit numbers. A remote control that selects Teletext pages would need buttons for each numeral from zero to nine, as well as other control functions, such as switching from text to picture, and the normal television controls of volume, channel, brightness, color intensity, etc. Early Teletext sets used wired remote controls to select pages, but the continuous use of the remote control required for Teletext quickly indicated the need for a wireless device. So BBC engineers began talks with one or two television manufacturers, which led to early prototypes in around 1977–1978 that could control many more functions. ITT was one of the companies and later gave its name to the ITT protocol of infrared communication.
History:
In 1980, the most popular remote control was the Starcom Cable TV Converter (from Jerrold Electronics, a division of General Instrument) which used 40-kHz sound to change channels. Then, a Canadian company, Viewstar, Inc., was formed by engineer Paul Hrivnak and started producing a cable TV converter with an infrared remote control. The product was sold through Philips for approximately $190 CAD. The Viewstar converter was an immediate success, the millionth converter being sold on March 21, 1985, with 1.6 million sold by 1989.
History:
Other remote controls The Blab-off was a wired remote control created in 1952 that turned a TV's (television) sound on or off so that viewers could avoid hearing commercials. In the 1980s Steve Wozniak of Apple started a company named CL 9. The purpose of this company was to create a remote control that could operate multiple electronic devices. The CORE unit (Controller Of Remote Equipment) was introduced in the fall of 1987. The advantage to this remote controller was that it could "learn" remote signals from different devices. It had the ability to perform specific or multiple functions at various times with its built-in clock. It was the first remote control that could be linked to a computer and loaded with updated software code as needed. The CORE unit never made a huge impact on the market. It was much too cumbersome for the average user to program, but it received rave reviews from those who could. These obstacles eventually led to the demise of CL 9, but two of its employees continued the business under the name Celadon. This was one of the first computer-controlled learning remote controls on the market.In the 1990s, cars were increasingly sold with electronic remote control door locks. These remotes transmit a signal to the car which locks or unlocks the door locks or unlocks the trunk. An aftermarket device sold in some countries is the remote starter. This enables a car owner to remotely start their car. This feature is most associated with countries with winter climates, where users may wish to run the car for several minutes before they intend to use it, so that the car heater and defrost systems can remove ice and snow from the windows.
History:
Proliferation By the early 2000s, the number of consumer electronic devices in most homes greatly increased, along with the number of remotes to control those devices. According to the Consumer Electronics Association, an average US home has four remotes. To operate a home theater as many as five or six remotes may be required, including one for cable or satellite receiver, VCR or digital video recorder (DVR/PVR), DVD player, TV and audio amplifier. Several of these remotes may need to be used sequentially for some programs or services to work properly. However, as there are no accepted interface guidelines, the process is increasingly cumbersome. One solution used to reduce the number of remotes that have to be used is the universal remote, a remote control that is programmed with the operation codes for most major brands of TVs, DVD players, etc. In the early 2010s, many smartphone manufacturers began incorporating infrared emitters into their devices, thereby enabling their use as universal remotes via an included or downloadable app.
Technique:
The main technology used in home remote controls is infrared (IR) light. The signal between a remote control handset and the device it controls consists of pulses of infrared light, which is invisible to the human eye but can be seen through a digital camera, video camera or phone camera. The transmitter in the remote control handset sends out a stream of pulses of infrared light when the user presses a button on the handset. A transmitter is often a light emitting diode (LED) which is built into the pointing end of the remote control handset. The infrared light pulses form a pattern unique to that button. The receiver in the device recognizes the pattern and causes the device to respond accordingly.
Technique:
Opto components and circuits Most remote controls for electronic appliances use a near infrared diode to emit a beam of light that reaches the device. A 940 nm wavelength LED is typical. This infrared light is not visible to the human eye but picked up by sensors on the receiving device. Video cameras see the diode as if it produces visible purple light. With a single channel (single-function, one-button) remote control the presence of a carrier signal can be used to trigger a function. For multi-channel (normal multi-function) remote controls more sophisticated procedures are necessary: one consists of modulating the carrier with signals of different frequencies. After the receiver demodulates the received signal, it applies the appropriate frequency filters to separate the respective signals. One can often hear the signals being modulated on the infrared carrier by operating a remote control in very close proximity to an AM radio not tuned to a station. Today, IR remote controls almost always use a pulse width modulated code, encoded and decoded by a digital computer: a command from a remote control consists of a short train of pulses of carrier-present and carrier-not-present of varying widths.
Technique:
Consumer electronics infrared protocols Different manufacturers of infrared remote controls use different protocols to transmit the infrared commands. The RC-5 protocol that has its origins within Philips, uses, for instance, a total of 14 bits for each button press. The bit pattern is modulated onto a carrier frequency that, again, can be different for different manufacturers and standards, in the case of RC-5, the carrier is 36 kHz. Other consumer infrared protocols include the various versions of SIRCS used by Sony, the RC-6 from Philips, the Ruwido R-Step, and the NEC TC101 protocol.
Technique:
Infrared, line of sight and operating angle Since infrared (IR) remote controls use light, they require line of sight to operate the destination device. The signal can, however, be reflected by mirrors, just like any other light source. If operation is required where no line of sight is possible, for instance when controlling equipment in another room or installed in a cabinet, many brands of IR extenders are available for this on the market. Most of these have an IR receiver, picking up the IR signal and relaying it via radio waves to the remote part, which has an IR transmitter mimicking the original IR control. Infrared receivers also tend to have a more or less limited operating angle, which mainly depends on the optical characteristics of the phototransistor. However, it's easy to increase the operating angle using a matte transparent object in front of the receiver.
Technique:
Radio remote control systems Radio remote control (RF remote control) is used to control distant objects using a variety of radio signals transmitted by the remote control device. As a complementary method to infrared remote controls, the radio remote control is used with electric garage door or gate openers, automatic barrier systems, burglar alarms and industrial automation systems. Standards used for RF remotes are: Bluetooth AVRCP, Zigbee (RF4CE), Z-Wave. Most remote controls use their own coding, transmitting from 8 to 100 or more pulses, fixed or Rolling code, using OOK or FSK modulation. Also, transmitters or receivers can be universal, meaning they are able to work with many different codings. In this case, the transmitter is normally called a universal remote control duplicator because it is able to copy existing remote controls, while the receiver is called a universal receiver because it works with almost any remote control in the market.
Technique:
A radio remote control system commonly has two parts: transmit and receive. The transmitter part is divided into two parts, the RF remote control and the transmitter module. This allows the transmitter module to be used as a component in a larger application. The transmitter module is small, but users must have detailed knowledge to use it; combined with the RF remote control it is much simpler to use.
Technique:
The receiver is generally one of two types: a super-regenerative receiver or a superheterodyne. The super-regenerative receiver works like that of an intermittent oscillation detection circuit. The superheterodyne works like the one in a radio receiver. The superheterodyne receiver is used because of its stability, high sensitivity and it has relatively good anti-interference ability, a small package and lower price.
Usage:
Industry A remote control is used for controlling substations, pump storage power stations and HVDC-plants. For these systems often PLC-systems working in the longwave range are used.
Usage:
Garage and gate Garage and gate remote controls are very common, especially in some countries such as the US, Australia, and the UK, where garage doors, gates and barriers are widely used. Such a remote is very simple by design, usually only one button, and some with more buttons to control several gates from one control. Such remotes can be divided into two categories by the encoder type used: fixed code and rolling code. If you find dip-switches in the remote, it is likely to be fixed code, an older technology which was widely used. However, fixed codes have been criticized for their (lack of) security, thus rolling code has been more and more widely used in later installations.
Usage:
Military Remotely operated torpedoes were demonstrated in the late 19th century in the form of several types of remotely controlled torpedoes. The early 1870s saw remotely controlled torpedoes by John Ericsson (pneumatic), John Louis Lay (electric wire guided), and Victor von Scheliha (electric wire guided).The Brennan torpedo, invented by Louis Brennan in 1877 was powered by two contra-rotating propellers that were spun by rapidly pulling out wires from drums wound inside the torpedo. Differential speed on the wires connected to the shore station allowed the torpedo to be guided to its target, making it "the world's first practical guided missile". In 1898 Nikola Tesla publicly demonstrated a "wireless" radio-controlled torpedo that he hoped to sell to the U.S. Navy.Archibald Low was known as the "father of radio guidance systems" for his pioneering work on guided rockets and planes during the First World War. In 1917, he demonstrated a remote-controlled aircraft to the Royal Flying Corps and in the same year built the first wire-guided rocket. As head of the secret RFC experimental works at Feltham, A. M. Low was the first person to use radio control successfully on an aircraft, an "Aerial Target". It was "piloted" from the ground by future world aerial speed record holder Henry Segrave. Low's systems encoded the command transmissions as a countermeasure to prevent enemy intervention. By 1918 the secret D.C.B. Section of the Royal Navy's Signals School, Portsmouth under the command of Eric Robinson V.C. used a variant of the Aerial Target's radio control system to control from ‘mother’ aircraft different types of naval vessels including a submarine.The military also developed several early remote control vehicles. In World War I, the Imperial German Navy employed FL-boats (Fernlenkboote) against coastal shipping. These were driven by internal combustion engines and controlled remotely from a shore station through several miles of wire wound on a spool on the boat. An aircraft was used to signal directions to the shore station. EMBs carried a high explosive charge in the bow and traveled at speeds of thirty knots. The Soviet Red Army used remotely controlled teletanks during the 1930s in the Winter War against Finland and the early stages of World War II. A teletank is controlled by radio from a control tank at a distance of 500 to 1,500 meters, the two constituting a telemechanical group. The Red Army fielded at least two teletank battalions at the beginning of the Great Patriotic War. There were also remotely controlled cutters and experimental remotely controlled planes in the Red Army.
Usage:
Remote controls in military usage employ jamming and countermeasures against jamming. Jammers are used to disable or sabotage the enemy's use of remote controls. The distances for military remote controls also tend to be much longer, up to intercontinental distance satellite-linked remote controls used by the U.S. for their unmanned airplanes (drones) in Afghanistan, Iraq, and Pakistan. Remote controls are used by insurgents in Iraq and Afghanistan to attack coalition and government troops with roadside improvised explosive devices, and terrorists in Iraq are reported in the media to use modified TV remote controls to detonate bombs.
Usage:
Space In the winter of 1971, the Soviet Union explored the surface of the moon with the lunar vehicle Lunokhod 1, the first roving remote-controlled robot to land on another celestial body. Remote control technology is also used in space travel, for instance, the Soviet Lunokhod vehicles were remote-controlled from the ground. Many space exploration rovers can be remotely controlled, though vast distance to a vehicle results in a long time delay between transmission and receipt of a command.
Usage:
PC control Existing infrared remote controls can be used to control PC applications. Any application that supports shortcut keys can be controlled via infrared remote controls from other home devices (TV, VCR, AC). This is widely used with multimedia applications for PC based home theater systems. For this to work, one needs a device that decodes IR remote control data signals and a PC application that communicates to this device connected to PC. A connection can be made via serial port, USB port or motherboard IrDA connector. Such devices are commercially available but can be homemade using low-cost microcontrollers. LIRC (Linux IR Remote control) and WinLIRC (for Windows) are software packages developed for the purpose of controlling PC using TV remote and can be also used for homebrew remote with lesser modification.
Usage:
Photography Remote controls are used in photography, in particular to take long-exposure shots. Many action cameras such as the GoPros as well as standard DSLRs including Sony's Alpha series incorporate Wi-Fi based remote control systems. These can often be accessed and even controlled via cell-phones and other mobile devices.
Usage:
Video games Video game consoles had not used wireless controllers until recently, mainly because of the difficulty involved in playing the game while keeping the infrared transmitter pointed at the console. Early wireless controllers were cumbersome and when powered on alkaline batteries, lasted only a few hours before they needed replacement. Some wireless controllers were produced by third parties, in most cases using a radio link instead of infrared. Even these were very inconsistent, and in some cases, had transmission delays, making them virtually useless. Some examples include the Double Player for NES, the Master System Remote Control System and the Wireless Dual Shot for the PlayStation.
Usage:
The first official wireless game controller made by a first party manufacturer was the CX-42 for Atari 2600. The Philips CD-i 400 series also came with a remote control, the WaveBird was also produced for the GameCube. In the seventh generation of gaming consoles, wireless controllers became standard. Some wireless controllers, such as those of the PlayStation 3 and Wii, use Bluetooth. Others, like the Xbox 360, use proprietary wireless protocols.
Standby power:
To be turned on by a wireless remote, the controlled appliance must always be partly on, consuming standby power.
Alternatives:
Hand-gesture recognition has been researched as an alternative to remote controls for television sets. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Frasch process**
Frasch process:
The Frasch process is a method to extract sulfur from underground deposits by taking advantage of low melting point of sulfur. It is the only industrial method of recovering sulfur from elemental deposits. Most of the world's sulfur was obtained this way until the late 20th century, when sulfur recovered from petroleum and gas sources became more commonplace (see Claus process).
Frasch process:
In the Frasch process, superheated water is pumped into the sulfur deposit; the sulfur melts and is extracted. The Frasch process is able to produce high-purity sulfur.
History:
The Frasch sulfur process works best on either salt domes or bedded evaporite deposits, where sulfur is found in permeable rock layers trapped in between impermeable layers. Bacterial alteration of anhydrite or gypsum, in the presence of hydrocarbons, produces limestone and hydrogen sulfide in the sulfur cycle. The hydrogen sulfide then oxidizes into sulfur, from percolating water, or through the action of anaerobic, sulfur-reducing bacteria In 1867, miners discovered sulfur in the caprock of a salt dome in Calcasieu Parish, Louisiana, but it was beneath quicksand, which prevented mining. In 1894 the German-born American chemist, Herman Frasch (1852–1914), devised his Frasch method of sulfur removal using pipes to bypass the quicksand. This replaced the inefficient and polluting Sicilian method. The process proved successful, on December 24, 1894, when the first molten sulfur was brought to the surface. The Union Sulphur Company was incorporated in 1896 to utilize the process. However, the high cost of fuel needed to heat the water made the process uneconomic until the 1901 discovery of the Spindletop oil field in Texas provided cheap fuel oil to the region. The Frasch process began economic production at Sulphur Mines, Louisiana in 1903.When Frasch's patent expired, the process was widely applied to similar salt-dome sulfur deposits along the Gulf Coast of the United States. The second Frasch-process mine opened in 1912 in Brazoria County, Texas. The Gulf Coast came to dominate world sulfur production in the early and middle 20th century. However, starting in the 1970s, byproduct sulfur recovery from oil and natural gas lowered the price of sulfur and drove many Frasch-process mines out of business. The last United States Frasch sulfur mine closed in 2000. A Frasch mine in Iraq closed in 2003 due to the U.S. invasion of Iraq.
History:
The Frasch process is still used to work sulfur deposits in Mexico, Ukraine and Poland.
Process:
In the Frasch process, three concentric tubes are introduced into the sulfur deposit. Superheated water (165 °C, 2.5-3 MPa) is injected into the deposit via the outermost tube. Sulfur (m.p. 115 °C) melts and flows into the middle tube. Water pressure alone is unable to force the sulfur into the surface due to the molten sulfur's greater density, so hot air is introduced via the innermost tube to froth the sulfur, making it less dense, and pushing it to the surface.The sulfur obtained can be very pure (99.7 - 99.8%). In this form, it is light yellow in color. If contaminated by organic compounds, it can be dark-colored; further purification is not economic, and usually unnecessary. Using this method, the United States produced 3.89 million tons of sulfur in 1989, and Mexico produced 1.02 million tons of sulfur in 1991.
Process:
The Frasch process can be used for deposits 50–800 meters deep. 3-38 cubic meters of superheated water are required to produce every tonne of sulfur, and the associated energy cost is significant. A working demonstration model of the Frasch process suitable for the classroom has been described. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Java Secure Socket Extension**
Java Secure Socket Extension:
In computing, the Java Secure Socket Extension (JSSE) is a Java API and a provider implementation named SunJSSE that enable secure Internet communications in the Java Runtime Environment. It implements a Java technology version of the Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) and the Transport Layer Security (TLS) protocols. It includes functionality for data encryption, server authentication, message integrity, and optional client-authentication. JSSE was originally developed as an optional package for Java versions 1.2 and 1.3, but was added as a standard API and implementation into JDK 1.4. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Carte du Ciel**
Carte du Ciel:
The Carte du Ciel (literally, 'Map of the Sky') and the Astrographic Catalogue (or Astrographic Chart) were two distinct but connected components of a massive international astronomical project, initiated in the late 19th century, to catalogue and map the positions of millions of stars as faint as 11th or 12th magnitude. Twenty observatories from around the world participated in exposing and measuring more than 22,000 (glass) photographic plates in an enormous observing programme extending over several decades. Despite, or because of, its vast scale, the project was only ever partially successful – the Carte du Ciel component was never completed, and for almost half a century the Astrographic Catalogue part was largely ignored. However, the appearance of the Hipparcos Catalogue in 1997 has led to an important development in the use of this historical plate material.
Origins and goals:
A vast and unprecedented international star-mapping project was initiated in 1887 by Paris Observatory director Amédée Mouchez, who realized the potential of the new dry plate photographic process to revolutionize the process of making maps of the stars. As a result of the Astrographic Congress of more than 50 astronomers held in Paris in April 1887, 20 observatories from around the world agreed to participate in the project, and two goals were established: For the first, the Astrographic Catalogue, the entire sky was to be photographed to 11 mag to provide a reference catalogue of star positions that would fill the magnitude gap between those previously observed by transit and meridian circle instrument observations down to 8 mag – this would provide the positions of a reasonably dense network of star positions which could in turn be used as a reference system for the fainter survey component (the Carte du Ciel). Different observatories around the world were charged with surveying specific declination zones (see table). The Astrographic Catalogue plates, of typically 6 minutes exposure, were in due course photographed, measured, and published in their entirety. They yielded a catalogue of positions and magnitudes down to about 11.5 mag, and the programme was largely completed during the first quarter of the 20th century.
Origins and goals:
For the second goal, a second set of plates, with longer exposures but minimal overlap, was to photograph all stars to 14 mag. These plates were to be reproduced and distributed as a set of charts, the Carte du Ciel, in contrast to previous sky charts which had been constructed from the celestial coordinates of stars observed by transit instruments. Most of the Carte du Ciel plates used three exposures of 20 minutes duration, displaced to form an equilateral triangle with sides of 10 arcsec, making it easy to distinguish stars from plate flaws, and asteroids from stars.
Origins and goals:
A fascinating contemporary account of this vast international astronomical collaboration, published in 1912, is given by Herbert Hall Turner, then Savilian Professor of Astronomy at Oxford University. Other aspects are covered in various papers in the Proceedings of IAU Symposium Number 133 held in 1988.
The Astrographic Catalogue:
For the Astrographic Catalogue, 20 observatories from around the world participated in exposing and measuring more than 22,000 glass plates (see table). Around half of the observatories ordered telescopes from the Henry brothers (Paul and Prosper) in France, with others coming from the factory of Howard Grubb of Dublin. These telescopes were termed normal astrographs with an aperture of around 13 inches (33 cm) and a focal length of 11 feet (3.4 m) designed to create images with a uniform scale on the photographic plate of approximately 60 arcsecs/mm while covering a 2° × 2° field of view. Each observatory was assigned a specific declination zone to photograph. The first such plate was taken in August 1891 at the Vatican Observatory (where the exposures took more than 27 years to complete), and the last in December 1950 at the Royal Observatory of Belgium (Brussels), with most observations being made between 1895 and 1920. To compensate for plate defects, each area of the sky was photographed twice, using a two-fold, corner-to-centre overlap pattern, extended at the zone boundaries, such that each observatory's plates would overlap with those of the adjacent zones. The participating observatories agreed to use a standardized telescope so that all plates had a similar scale of approximately 60 arcsec/mm. The measurable areas of the plates were 2.1°×2.1° (13 cm×13 cm), so the overlap pattern consisted of plates that were centred on every degree band in declination, but offset in right ascension by two degrees. Many factors, such as reference catalogue, reduction technique and print formats were left up to the individual institutions. The positional accuracy goal was 0.5 arcsec per image.
The Astrographic Catalogue:
Plate measurement was a protracted affair, with measuring done by eye and recorded by hand. The plates were turned over to a large number of semi-skilled "computers" to determine the positions of the stars on each plate. (Before its modern meaning, the word "computer" meant a person who performs calculations). The "computers" would manually measure each star with respect to the dozen or so reference stars within that particular plate, and then perform calculations to determine the star's right ascension and declination. The original goal of 11 mag for the limiting magnitude was generally surpassed, however, with some observatories routinely measuring stars as faint as 13 mag. In total, some 4.6 million stars (8.6 million images) were observed. The brightest stars were over-exposed on the plates, not measured, and therefore missing in the resulting catalogues. The plate measurements (as rectangular coordinates), as well as the formulae to transform them to equatorial coordinates, were published in the original volumes of the Astrographic Catalogue, although the accompanying equatorial coordinates are now of only historical interest. Publication of the measurements proceeded from 1902 to 1964, and resulted in 254 printed volumes of raw data. For decades the Astrographic Catalogue was largely ignored. The data were difficult to work with because they were available neither in machine-readable form nor in equatorial coordinates. Decades of labour were expended internationally before the project was superseded by modern astronomical techniques. One problem was that the work took much longer than expected. As originally envisaged, the project was meant to have taken only 10 to 15 years. A more serious problem was that while many European astronomers were preoccupied with this project, which required steady, methodical labor rather than creativity, in other parts of the world notably the United States astrophysics was becoming far more important than astrometry. As a result, French astronomy in particular fell behind and lagged for decades.
The Carte du Ciel:
The still-more-ambitious Carte du Ciel component of the programme was undertaken by some of the participating observatories, but neither completed nor even started by others. The charts proved to be excessively expensive to photograph and reproduce, generally via engraved copper plates (photogravure), and many zones were either not completed or properly published. The plates which were taken generally still exist, but cover only half of the sky. They are typically archived at their original observatories. A very few plates have recently been re-measured and re-analysed with the availability of the Hipparcos Catalogue data (see below).
Combination of the Astrographic Catalogue with Hipparcos:
The vast amount of work invested in the Astrographic Catalogue, taking plates, measuring, and publishing, was looked at for a long time as giving only a marginal scientific profit. But today, astronomers are very much indebted to this great effort because of the possibility of combining these century-old star positions with the results from ESA's Hipparcos space astrometry satellite, allowing high accuracy proper motions to be derived for 2.5 million stars. Specifically, the Astrographic Catalogue positions were transferred from the decades-old printed catalogues into machine readable form (undertaken at the Sternberg Astronomical Institute in Moscow under the leadership of A. Kuzmin) between 1987 and 1994. The data were then reduced anew (at the US Naval Observatory in Washington under the leadership of Sean Urban), using the reference stars measured by the Hipparcos astrometry satellite. The stars from the Hipparcos Catalogue were used to establish a detailed reference framework at the various epochs of the Astrographic Catalogue plates, while the 2.5 million stars in the Tycho-2 Catalogue provided a dense reference framework to allow the plate distortions to be accurately calibrated and corrected. The proper motions of all the Tycho Catalogue stars could then be derived especially thanks to the Astrographic Catalogue, but additionally using star positions from more than 140 other ground-based catalogues. Aside from the 120,000 stars of the Hipparcos Catalogue itself, the resulting Tycho-2 Catalogue (compiled at the Copenhagen University Observatory under the leadership of Erik Høg) became the largest, most accurate and most complete, star catalogue of the brightest stars on the sky. It was the basis for deriving positions for all fainter stars on the sky, until the Gaia 2 Catalog became available in 2017. Sean Urban of the US Naval Observatory wrote in 1998: The history of the Astrographic Catalogue endeavour is one of dedicated individuals devoting tedious decades of their careers to a single goal. Some believe it is also the story of how the best European observatories of the 19th century lost their leadership in astronomical research by committing so many resources to this one undertaking. Long portrayed as an object lesson in overambition, the Astrographic Catalogue has more recently turned into a lesson in the way that old data can find new uses.
Other Links:
Henry Chamberlain Russell for further details of the Australian contribution [1] IAU Commission 8 Working Group, includes a photograph of nuns measuring the Vatican plate collection (1910–1921) [2] Histoire de l'Observatoire de Toulouse (with a section on the Carte du Ciel) [3] A compilation of historical material by the Palermo Observatory | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Division by zero**
Division by zero:
In mathematics, division by zero is division where the divisor (denominator) is zero. Such a division can be formally expressed as {\textstyle {\tfrac {a}{0}}} , where a is the dividend (numerator). In ordinary arithmetic, the expression has no meaning, as there is no number that, when multiplied by 0, gives a (assuming {\textstyle a\neq 0} ); thus, division by zero is undefined (a type of singularity). Since any number multiplied by zero is zero, the expression 00 is also undefined; when it is the form of a limit, it is an indeterminate form. Historically, one of the earliest recorded references to the mathematical impossibility of assigning a value to {\textstyle {\tfrac {a}{0}}} is contained in Anglo-Irish philosopher George Berkeley's criticism of infinitesimal calculus in 1734 in The Analyst ("ghosts of departed quantities").There are mathematical structures in which {\textstyle {\tfrac {a}{0}}} is defined for some a such as in the Riemann sphere (a model of the extended complex plane) and the projectively extended real line; however, such structures do not satisfy every ordinary rule of arithmetic (the field axioms).
Division by zero:
In computing, a program error may result from an attempt to divide by zero. Depending on the programming environment and the type of number (e.g., floating point, integer) being divided by zero, it may generate positive or negative infinity by the IEEE 754 floating-point standard, generate an exception, generate an error message, cause the program to terminate, result in a special not-a-number value, or crash.
Elementary arithmetic:
When division is explained at the elementary arithmetic level, it is often considered as splitting a set of objects into equal parts. As an example, consider having ten cookies, and these cookies are to be distributed equally to five people at a table. Each person would receive 10 5=2 cookies. Similarly, if there are ten cookies, and only one person at the table, that person would receive 10 10 cookies.
Elementary arithmetic:
So, for dividing by zero, what is the number of cookies that each person receives when 10 cookies are evenly distributed among 0 people at a table? Certain words can be pinpointed in the question to highlight the problem. The problem with this question is the "when". There is no way to distribute 10 cookies to nobody. Therefore, 10 0 —at least in elementary arithmetic—is said to be either meaningless or undefined.
Elementary arithmetic:
If there are 5 cookies and 2 people, the problem is in "evenly distribute". In any integer partition of 5 things into 2 parts, either one of the parts of the partition will have more elements than the other or there will be a remainder (written as 5/2 = 2 r1). Or, the problem with 5 cookies and 2 people can be solved by cutting one cookie in half, which introduces the idea of fractions (5/2 = 2+1/2) . The problem with 5 cookies and 0 people, on the other hand, cannot be solved in any way that preserves the meaning of "divides".
Elementary arithmetic:
In elementary algebra, another way of looking at division by zero is that division can always be checked using multiplication. Considering the 10/0 example above, setting x = 10/0, if x equals ten divided by zero, then x times zero equals ten, but there is no x that, when multiplied by zero, gives ten (or any number other than zero). If, instead of x = 10/0, x = 0/0, then every x satisfies the question "what number x, multiplied by zero, gives zero?"
Early attempts:
The Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta of Brahmagupta (c. 598–668) is the earliest text to treat zero as a number in its own right and to define operations involving zero. The author could not explain division by zero in his texts: his definition can be easily proven to lead to algebraic absurdities. According to Brahmagupta, A positive or negative number when divided by zero is a fraction with the zero as denominator. Zero divided by a negative or positive number is either zero or is expressed as a fraction with zero as numerator and the finite quantity as denominator. Zero divided by zero is zero.
Early attempts:
In 830, Mahāvīra unsuccessfully tried to correct the mistake Brahmagupta made in his book Ganita Sara Samgraha: "A number remains unchanged when divided by zero."
Algebra:
The four basic operations – addition, subtraction, multiplication and division – as applied to whole numbers (positive integers), with some restrictions, in elementary arithmetic are used as a framework to support the extension of the realm of numbers to which they apply. For instance, to make it possible to subtract any whole number from another, the realm of numbers must be expanded to the entire set of integers in order to incorporate the negative integers. Similarly, to support division of any integer by any other, the realm of numbers must expand to the rational numbers. During this gradual expansion of the number system, care is taken to ensure that the "extended operations", when applied to the older numbers, do not produce different results. Loosely speaking, since division by zero has no meaning (is undefined) in the whole number setting, this remains true as the setting expands to the real or even complex numbers.As the realm of numbers to which these operations can be applied expands there are also changes in how the operations are viewed. For instance, in the realm of integers, subtraction is no longer considered a basic operation since it can be replaced by addition of signed numbers. Similarly, when the realm of numbers expands to include the rational numbers, division is replaced by multiplication by certain rational numbers. In keeping with this change of viewpoint, the question, "Why can't we divide by zero?", becomes "Why can't a rational number have a zero denominator?". Answering this revised question precisely requires close examination of the definition of rational numbers.
Algebra:
In the modern approach to constructing the field of real numbers, the rational numbers appear as an intermediate step in the development that is founded on set theory. First, the natural numbers (including zero) are established on an axiomatic basis such as Peano's axiom system and then this is expanded to the ring of integers. The next step is to define the rational numbers keeping in mind that this must be done using only the sets and operations that have already been established, namely, addition, multiplication and the integers. Starting with the set of ordered pairs of integers, {(a, b)} with b ≠ 0, define a binary relation on this set by (a, b) ≃ (c, d) if and only if ad = bc. This relation is shown to be an equivalence relation and its equivalence classes are then defined to be the rational numbers. It is in the formal proof that this relation is an equivalence relation that the requirement that the second coordinate is not zero is needed (for verifying transitivity).The above explanation may be too abstract and technical for many purposes, but if one assumes the existence and properties of the rational numbers, as is commonly done in elementary mathematics, the "reason" that division by zero is not allowed is hidden from view. Nevertheless, a (non-rigorous) justification can be given in this setting.
Algebra:
It follows from the properties of the number system we commonly use that if b ≠ 0, then the equation a/b = c is equivalent to a = b × c. If we allowed a zero denominator, we would arrive at either a contradiction, or an equation that was true no matter what value we assigned the "fraction". If a/0 were a number c, then it would follow that a = 0 × c = 0. However, the single number c would then have to be determined by the equation 0 = 0 × c, which is satisfied by every number. We cannot assign a numerical value to 0/0 and instead say that division by zero is not allowed.
Algebra:
Division as the inverse of multiplication The concept that explains division in algebra is that it is the inverse of multiplication. For example, since 2 is the value for which the unknown quantity in is true. But the expression requires a value to be found for the unknown quantity in But any number multiplied by 0 is 0 and so there is no number that solves the equation.
Algebra:
The expression requires a value to be found for the unknown quantity in Again, any number multiplied by 0 is 0 and so this time every number solves the equation instead of there being a single number that can be taken as the value of 0/0.
In general, a single value can't be assigned to a fraction where the denominator is 0 so the value remains undefined.
Fallacies A compelling reason for not allowing division by zero is that, if it were allowed, many absurd results (i.e., fallacies) would arise. When working with numerical quantities it is easy to determine when an illegal attempt to divide by zero is being made. For example, consider the following computation.
With the assumptions: the following is true: Dividing both sides by zero gives: Simplified, this yields: The fallacy here is the assumption that dividing 0 by 0 is a legitimate operation with the same properties as dividing by any other number.
However, it is possible to disguise a division by zero in an algebraic argument, leading to invalid proofs that, for instance, 1 = 2 such as the following: The disguised division by zero occurs since x − 1 = 0 when x = 1.
Analysis:
Extended real line At first glance it seems possible to define a/0 by considering the limit of a/b as b approaches 0.
For any positive a, the limit from the right is however, the limit from the left is and so the lim b→0ab is undefined (the limit is also undefined for negative a).
Analysis:
Furthermore, there is no obvious definition of 0/0 that can be derived from considering the limit of a ratio. The limit does not exist. Limits of the form in which both f(x) and g(x) approach 0 as x approaches 0, may equal any real or infinite value, or may not exist at all, depending on the particular functions f and g.
Analysis:
For example, consider: This initially appears to be indeterminate. However: and so the limit exists, and is equal to 2 These and other similar facts show that the expression 00 cannot be well-defined as a limit.
Analysis:
Formal operations A formal calculation is one carried out using rules of arithmetic, without consideration of whether the result of the calculation is well-defined. Thus, it is sometimes useful to think of a/0, where a ≠ 0, as being ∞ . This infinity can be either positive, negative, or unsigned, depending on context. For example, formally: As with any formal calculation, invalid results may be obtained. A logically rigorous (as opposed to formal) computation would assert only that Since the one-sided limits are different, the two-sided limit does not exist in the standard framework of the real numbers. Also, the fraction 1/0 is left undefined in the extended real line, therefore it and are meaningless expressions.
Analysis:
Projectively extended real line The set R∪{∞} is the projectively extended real line, which is a one-point compactification of the real line. Here ∞ means an unsigned infinity or point at infinity, an infinite quantity that is neither positive nor negative. This quantity satisfies −∞=∞ , which is necessary in this context. In this structure, a0=∞ can be defined for nonzero a, and a∞=0 when a is not ∞ . It is the natural way to view the range of the tangent function and cotangent functions of trigonometry: tan(x) approaches the single point at infinity as x approaches either +π/2 or −π/2 from either direction.
Analysis:
This definition leads to many interesting results. However, the resulting algebraic structure is not a field, and should not be expected to behave like one. For example, ∞+∞ is undefined in this extension of the real line.
Analysis:
Riemann sphere The set C∗=C∪{∞~} is the Riemann sphere, which is of major importance in complex analysis. Here ∞~ represents complex infinity, which is also a point at infinity. This set is analogous to the projectively extended real line, except that it is based on the field of complex numbers. In the Riemann sphere, 10=∞~ and 1∞~=0 , but 00 , ∞~∞~ , and 0×∞~ are undefined.
Higher mathematics:
Although division by zero cannot be sensibly defined with real numbers and integers, it is possible to consistently define it, or similar operations, in other mathematical structures.
Non-standard analysis In the hyperreal numbers and the surreal numbers, division by zero is still impossible, but division by non-zero infinitesimals is possible.
Distribution theory In distribution theory one can extend the function {\textstyle {\frac {1}{x}}} to a distribution on the whole space of real numbers (in effect by using Cauchy principal values). It does not, however, make sense to ask for a "value" of this distribution at x = 0; a sophisticated answer refers to the singular support of the distribution.
Linear algebra In matrix algebra (or linear algebra in general), one can define a pseudo-division, by setting a/b = ab+, in which b+ represents the pseudoinverse of b. It can be proven that if b−1 exists, then b+ = b−1. If b equals 0, then b+ = 0.
Higher mathematics:
Abstract algebra In abstract algebra, the integers, the rational numbers, the real numbers, and the complex numbers can be abstracted to more general algebraic structures, such as a commutative ring, which is a mathematical structure where addition, subtraction, and multiplication behave as they do in the more familiar number systems, but division may not be defined. Adjoining a multiplicative inverses to a commutative ring is called localization. However, the localization of every commutative ring at zero is the trivial ring, where 0=1 , so nontrivial commutative rings do not have inverses at zero, and thus division by zero is undefined for nontrivial commutative rings.
Higher mathematics:
Nevertheless, any number system that forms a commutative ring can be extended to a seldom used structure called a wheel in which division by zero is always possible. However, the resulting mathematical structure is no longer a commutative ring, as multiplication no longer distributes over addition. Furthermore, in a wheel, division of an element by itself no longer results in the multiplicative identity element 1 , and if the original system was an integral domain, the multiplication in the wheel no longer results in a cancellative semigroup.
Higher mathematics:
The concepts applied to standard arithmetic are similar to those in more general algebraic structures, such as rings and fields. In a field, every nonzero element is invertible under multiplication; as above, division poses problems only when attempting to divide by zero. This is likewise true in a skew field (which for this reason is called a division ring). However, in other rings, division by nonzero elements may also pose problems. For example, the ring Z/6Z of integers mod 6. The meaning of the expression {\textstyle {\frac {2}{2}}} should be the solution x of the equation 2x=2 . But in the ring Z/6Z, 2 is a zero divisor. This equation has two distinct solutions, x = 1 and x = 4, so the expression {\textstyle {\frac {2}{2}}} is undefined.
Higher mathematics:
In field theory, the expression {\textstyle {\frac {a}{b}}} is only shorthand for the formal expression ab−1, where b−1 is the multiplicative inverse of b. Since the field axioms only guarantee the existence of such inverses for nonzero elements, this expression has no meaning when b is zero. Modern texts, that define fields as a special type of ring, include the axiom 0 ≠ 1 for fields (or its equivalent) so that the zero ring is excluded from being a field. In the zero ring, division by zero is possible, which shows that the other field axioms are not sufficient to exclude division by zero in a field.
Computer arithmetic:
The IEEE floating-point standard, supported by almost all modern floating-point units, specifies that every floating-point arithmetic operation, including division by zero, has a well-defined result. The standard supports signed zero, as well as infinity and NaN (not a number). There are two zeroes: +0 (positive zero) and −0 (negative zero) and this removes any ambiguity when dividing. In IEEE 754 arithmetic, a ÷ +0 is positive infinity when a is positive, negative infinity when a is negative, and NaN when a = ±0. The infinity signs change when dividing by −0 instead.
Computer arithmetic:
The justification for this definition is to preserve the sign of the result in case of arithmetic underflow. For example, in the single-precision computation 1/(x/2), where x = ±2−149, the computation x/2 underflows and produces ±0 with sign matching x, and the result will be ±∞ with sign matching x. The sign will match that of the exact result ±2150, but the magnitude of the exact result is too large to represent, so infinity is used to indicate overflow.Integer division by zero is usually handled differently from floating point since there is no integer representation for the result. Some processors generate an exception when an attempt is made to divide an integer by zero, although others will simply continue and generate an incorrect result for the division. The result depends on how division is implemented, and can either be zero, or sometimes the largest possible integer.
Computer arithmetic:
Because of the improper algebraic results of assigning any value to division by zero, many computer programming languages (including those used by calculators) explicitly forbid the execution of the operation and may prematurely halt a program that attempts it, sometimes reporting a "Divide by zero" error. In these cases, if some special behavior is desired for division by zero, the condition must be explicitly tested (for example, using an if statement). Some programs (especially those that use fixed-point arithmetic where no dedicated floating-point hardware is available) will use behavior similar to the IEEE standard, using large positive and negative numbers to approximate infinities. In some programming languages, an attempt to divide by zero results in undefined behavior. The graphical programming language Scratch 2.0 and 3.0 used in many schools returns Infinity or −Infinity depending on the sign of the dividend.
Computer arithmetic:
In two's complement arithmetic, attempts to divide the smallest signed integer by −1 are attended by similar problems, and are handled with the same range of solutions, from explicit error conditions to undefined behavior.
Most calculators will either return an error or state that 1/0 is undefined; however, some TI and HP graphing calculators will evaluate (1/0)2 to ∞.
Microsoft Math Solver and Wolfram Mathematica return ComplexInfinity for 1/0. Maple and SageMath return an error message for 1/0, and infinity for 1/0.0 (0.0 tells these systems to use floating-point arithmetic instead of algebraic arithmetic).
Computer arithmetic:
Some modern calculators allow division by zero in special cases, where it will be useful to students and, presumably, understood in context by mathematicians. Some calculators, the online Desmos calculator is one example, allow arctangent(1/0). Students are often taught that the inverse cotangent function, arccotangent, should be calculated by taking the arctangent of the reciprocal, and so a calculator may allow arctangent(1/0), giving the output π2 , which is the correct value of arccotangent 0. The mathematical justification is that the limit as x goes to zero of arctangent 1/x is π2
Historical accidents:
On September 21, 1997, a division by zero error in the "Remote Data Base Manager" aboard USS Yorktown (CG-48) brought down all the machines on the network, causing the ship's propulsion system to fail. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Cleavage (embryo)**
Cleavage (embryo):
In embryology, cleavage is the division of cells in the early development of the embryo, following fertilization. The zygotes of many species undergo rapid cell cycles with no significant overall growth, producing a cluster of cells the same size as the original zygote. The different cells derived from cleavage are called blastomeres and form a compact mass called the morula. Cleavage ends with the formation of the blastula, or of the blastocyst in mammals.
Cleavage (embryo):
Depending mostly on the concentration of yolk in the egg, the cleavage can be holoblastic (total or entire cleavage) or meroblastic (partial cleavage). The pole of the egg with the highest concentration of yolk is referred to as the vegetal pole while the opposite is referred to as the animal pole.
Cleavage differs from other forms of cell division in that it increases the number of cells and nuclear mass without increasing the cytoplasmic mass. This means that with each successive subdivision, there is roughly half the cytoplasm in each daughter cell than before that division, and thus the ratio of nuclear to cytoplasmic material increases.
Mechanism:
The rapid cell cycles are facilitated by maintaining high levels of proteins that control cell cycle progression such as the cyclins and their associated cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs). The complex cyclin B/CDK1 also known as MPF (maturation promoting factor) promotes entry into mitosis.
Mechanism:
The processes of karyokinesis (mitosis) and cytokinesis work together to result in cleavage. The mitotic apparatus is made up of a central spindle and polar asters made up of polymers of tubulin protein called microtubules. The asters are nucleated by centrosomes and the centrosomes are organized by centrioles brought into the egg by the sperm as basal bodies. Cytokinesis is mediated by the contractile ring made up of polymers of actin protein called microfilaments. Karyokinesis and cytokinesis are independent but spatially and temporally coordinated processes. While mitosis can occur in the absence of cytokinesis, cytokinesis requires the mitotic apparatus.
Mechanism:
The end of cleavage coincides with the beginning of zygotic transcription. This point in non-mammals is referred to as the midblastula transition and appears to be controlled by the nuclear-cytoplasmic ratio (about 1:6).
Types of cleavage:
Determinate Determinate cleavage (also called mosaic cleavage) is in most protostomes. It results in the developmental fate of the cells being set early in the embryo development. Each blastomere produced by early embryonic cleavage does not have the capacity to develop into a complete embryo.
Indeterminate A cell can only be indeterminate (also called regulative) if it has a complete set of undisturbed animal/vegetal cytoarchitectural features. It is characteristic of deuterostomes—when the original cell in a deuterostome embryo divides, the two resulting cells can be separated, and each one can individually develop into a whole organism.
Types of cleavage:
Holoblastic In holoblastic cleavage, the zygote and blastomeres are completely divided during the cleavage, so the number of blastomeres doubles with each cleavage. In the absence of a large concentration of yolk, four major cleavage types can be observed in isolecithal cells (cells with a small, even distribution of yolk) or in mesolecithal cells or microlecithal cells (moderate concentration of yolk in a gradient)—bilateral holoblastic, radial holoblastic, rotational holoblastic, and spiral holoblastic, cleavage. These holoblastic cleavage planes pass all the way through isolecithal zygotes during the process of cytokinesis. Coeloblastula is the next stage of development for eggs that undergo these radial cleavages. In holoblastic eggs, the first cleavage always occurs along the vegetal-animal axis of the egg, the second cleavage is perpendicular to the first. From here, the spatial arrangement of blastomeres can follow various patterns, due to different planes of cleavage, in various organisms.
Types of cleavage:
Bilateral The first cleavage results in bisection of the zygote into left and right halves. The following cleavage planes are centered on this axis and result in the two halves being mirror images of one another. In bilateral holoblastic cleavage, the divisions of the blastomeres are complete and separate; compared with bilateral meroblastic cleavage, in which the blastomeres stay partially connected.
Types of cleavage:
Radial Radial cleavage is characteristic of the deuterostomes, which include some vertebrates and echinoderms, in which the spindle axes are parallel or at right angles to the polar axis of the oocyte.
Types of cleavage:
Rotational Rotational cleavage involves a normal first division along the meridional axis, giving rise to two daughter cells. The way in which this cleavage differs is that one of the daughter cells divides meridionally, whilst the other divides equatorially.Mammals display rotational cleavage, and an isolecithal distribution of yolk (sparsely and evenly distributed). Because the cells have only a small concentration of yolk, they require immediate implantation into the uterine wall in order to receive nutrients.The nematode C. elegans, a popular developmental model organism, undergoes holoblastic rotational cell cleavage.
Types of cleavage:
Spiral Spiral cleavage is conserved between many members of the lophotrochozoan taxa, referred to as Spiralia. Most spiralians undergo equal spiral cleavage, although some undergo unequal cleavage (see below). This group includes annelids, molluscs, and sipuncula. Spiral cleavage can vary between species, but generally the first two cell divisions result in four macromeres, also called blastomeres, (A, B, C, D) each representing one quadrant of the embryo. These first two cleavages are not oriented in planes that occur at right angles parallel to the animal-vegetal axis of the zygote. At the 4-cell stage, the A and C macromeres meet at the animal pole, creating the animal cross-furrow, while the B and D macromeres meet at the vegetal pole, creating the vegetal cross-furrow. With each successive cleavage cycle, the macromeres give rise to quartets of smaller micromeres at the animal pole. The divisions that produce these quartets occur at an oblique angle, an angle that is not a multiple of 90 degrees, to the animal-vegetal axis. Each quartet of micromeres is rotated relative to their parent macromere, and the chirality of this rotation differs between odd- and even-numbered quartets, meaning that there is alternating symmetry between the odd and even quartets. In other words, the orientation of divisions that produces each quartet alternates between being clockwise and counterclockwise with respect to the animal pole. The alternating cleavage pattern that occurs as the quartets are generated produces quartets of micromeres that reside in the cleavage furrows of the four macromeres. When viewed from the animal pole, this arrangement of cells displays a spiral pattern.Specification of the D macromere and is an important aspect of spiralian development. Although the primary axis, animal-vegetal, is determined during oogenesis, the secondary axis, dorsal-ventral, is determined by the specification of the D quadrant. The D macromere facilitates cell divisions that differ from those produced by the other three macromeres. Cells of the D quadrant give rise to dorsal and posterior structures of the spiralian. Two known mechanisms exist to specify the D quadrant. These mechanisms include equal cleavage and unequal cleavage.In equal cleavage, the first two cell divisions produce four macromeres that are indistinguishable from one another. Each macromere has the potential of becoming the D macromere. After the formation of the third quartet, one of the macromeres initiates maximum contact with the overlying micromeres in the animal pole of the embryo. This contact is required to distinguish one macromere as the official D quadrant blastomere. In equally cleaving spiral embryos, the D quadrant is not specified until after the formation of the third quartet, when contact with the micromeres dictates one cell to become the future D blastomere. Once specified, the D blastomere signals to surrounding micromeres to lay out their cell fates.In unequal cleavage, the first two cell divisions are unequal producing four cells in which one cell is bigger than the other three. This larger cell is specified as the D macromere. Unlike equally cleaving spiralians, the D macromere is specified at the four-cell stage during unequal cleavage. Unequal cleavage can occur in two ways. One method involves asymmetric positioning of the cleavage spindle. This occurs when the aster at one pole attaches to the cell membrane, causing it to be much smaller than the aster at the other pole. This results in an unequal cytokinesis, in which both macromeres inherit part of the animal region of the egg, but only the bigger macromere inherits the vegetal region. The second mechanism of unequal cleavage involves the production of an enucleate, membrane bound, cytoplasmic protrusion, called a polar lobe. This polar lobe forms at the vegetal pole during cleavage, and then gets shunted to the D blastomere. The polar lobe contains vegetal cytoplasm, which becomes inherited by the future D macromere.
Types of cleavage:
Meroblastic In the presence of a large concentration of yolk in the fertilized egg cell, the cell can undergo partial, or meroblastic, cleavage. Two major types of meroblastic cleavage are discoidal and superficial.
Types of cleavage:
DiscoidalIn discoidal cleavage, the cleavage furrows do not penetrate the yolk. The embryo forms a disc of cells, called a blastodisc, on top of the yolk. Discoidal cleavage is commonly found in monotremes, birds, reptiles, and fish that have telolecithal egg cells (egg cells with the yolk concentrated at one end). The layer of cells that have incompletely divided and are in contact with the yolk are called the "syncytial layer".SuperficialIn superficial cleavage, mitosis occurs but not cytokinesis, resulting in a polynuclear cell. With the yolk positioned in the center of the egg cell, the nuclei migrate to the periphery of the egg, and the plasma membrane grows inward, partitioning the nuclei into individual cells. Superficial cleavage occurs in arthropods that have centrolecithal egg cells (egg cells with the yolk located in the center of the cell). This type of cleavage can work to promote synchronicity in developmental timing, such as in Drosophila.
Mammals:
Mammals have a slow rate of division that is between 12 and 24 hours. These cellular divisions are asynchronous. Zygotic transcription starts at the two-, four-, or eight-cell stage. Cleavage is holoblastic and rotational.
Mammals:
In human embryonic development at the eight-cell stage, having undergone three cleavages the embryo goes through some changes as it develops into a blastocyst. At the eight-cell stage the blastomeres are round, and only loosely adhered. With further division in the process of compaction the cells become flattened, and develop an inside-out polarity that optimises the cell to cell contact between them. They begin to tightly adhere as gap junctions are formed, and tight junctions are developed with the other blastomeres. At the 16–32 cell stage the compacted embryo is called a morula. Once the embryo has divided into 16 cells, it begins to resemble a mulberry, hence the name morula (Latin, morus: mulberry). With further compaction the individual outer blastomeres, the trophoblasts, become indistinguishable as they become organised into a thin sheet of tightly adhered epithelial cells. They are still enclosed within the zona pellucida. This compaction serves to make the structure watertight, to contain the fluid that the cells will later secrete.
Mammals:
In the human the morula enters the uterus after three or four days, and begins to take in fluid, as sodium-potassium pumps on the trophoblasts pump sodium into the morula, drawing in water from the maternal environment to become blastocoelic fluid. Hydrostatic pressure of the fluid creates a large cavity in the morula called a blastocoel. Embryoblast cells also known as the inner cell mass form a compact mass of cells at the embryonic pole on one side of the cavity that will go on to produce the embryo proper. The embryo is now termed a blastocyst. The trophoblasts will eventually give rise to the embryonic contribution to the placenta called the chorion. A single cell can be removed from a pre-compaction eight-cell embryo and used for genetic screening, and the embryo will recover.Differences exist between cleavage in placental mammals and other mammals. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Duophonic**
Duophonic:
Duophonic sound was a trade name for a type of audio signal processing used by Capitol Records on certain releases and re-releases of mono recordings issued during the 1960s and 1970s. In this process monaural recordings were reprocessed into a type of artificial stereo. Generically, the sound is commonly known as fake stereo or mock stereo.
Duophonic:
This was done by splitting the mono signal into two channels, then delaying one channel's signal by means of delay lines and other circuits, i.e. desynchronizing the two channels by fractions of a second, and cutting the bass frequencies in one channel with a high-pass filter, then cutting the treble frequencies in the other channel with a low-pass filter. The result was an artificial stereo effect, without giving the listener the true directional sound characteristics of real stereo. In some cases, the effect was enhanced with reverberation and other technical tricks, sometimes adding stereo echo to mono tracks in an attempt to fool the listener.
Duophonic:
Capitol employed this technique in order to increase its inventory of stereo LPs, thus satisfying retailer demand for more stereo content (and helping promote the sale of stereo receivers and turntables). For nearly ten years Capitol used the banner "DUOPHONIC – For Stereo Phonographs Only" to differentiate the Duophonic LPs from its true stereo LPs.
Duophonic:
Capitol began using the process in June 1961 and continued its practice into the 1970s. It was used for some of the biggest Capitol releases, including albums by The Beach Boys and Frank Sinatra. Over the years, however, some Duophonic tapes were confused with true stereo recordings in Capitol Records' vaults, and were reissued on CD throughout the 1980s and 1990s. Capitol intentionally reissued some of the Beatles' Duophonic mixes on The Capitol Albums, Volume 1 and The Capitol Albums, Volume 2, in 2004 and 2006, respectively.
Duophonic:
On rare occasions some artists deliberately used fake stereo to achieve an intended artistic effect. In such situations artificial stereo was used when certain elements of a mono mix could not be reproduced for a stereo remix. An example is the Beatles' stereo mix of the song "I Am the Walrus", where the first portion of the piece is true stereo, but switches to artificial stereo at approximately the two-minute mark for the remainder of the song; this is because the live radio feeds from a BBC broadcast of King Lear were mixed directly into the mono mix of the song, and could not (with the pre-digital technology of that time) be extricated and discreetly superimposed onto the stereo mix. Later remixes of the song, such as that included in the Love soundtrack album, are in true stereo for the complete song. Similarly, the mono mix of the song "Only a Northern Song" featured sound effects that were made during the mixing process and could only with difficulty be remade for a stereo remix, so the song was released in fake stereo on the 1969 album Yellow Submarine. However, the 1999 album Yellow Submarine Songtrack features a full stereo remix of the song, and the 2009 remaster of the original 1969 album restores the song to its original mono mix because enhanced stereo had fallen out of favor.Other record companies used similar processing of monophonic material to create a stereo effect, but referred to it by other terms, such as RCA Records' "electronically reprocessed stereo" and Columbia Records' "Electronically Re-channeled for Stereo". As with Capitol, Columbia's artificial stereo issues included albums by major artists, such as Miles Davis ('Round About Midnight, CL 949 mono, reissued in stereo as PC 8649). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Spring-gun**
Spring-gun:
A spring-gun is a gun, often a shotgun, rigged to fire when a string or other triggering device is tripped by contact of sufficient force to "spring" the trigger so that anyone stumbling over or treading on it would discharge the gun. Setting or maintaining a spring-gun is illegal in many places.
Uses:
Spring-guns were formerly used as booby traps against poachers and trespassers. Since 1827, spring-guns and all man-traps have been illegal in England. Spring-guns are sometimes used to trap animals. Although there have been few reported cases of use, there have been several unconfirmed cases over the 20th century.
In the 18th century, spring-guns were often used to protect graveyards, offering an alarm system of sorts to protect newly buried bodies, which were often stolen by grave-robbers who supplied anatomists with cadavers.
Uses:
Spring-guns were often set to protect property. For this purpose, spring-guns are often placed in busy corridors such as near doors. A trespasser opening the door completely would then be shot. Residents who are aware of the trap use a different door or open the door halfway and disconnect the tripwire. To reduce fatalities by using this trap, non-lethal calibers are often used, or the spring-gun is fitted to fire less lethal ammunition.
Uses:
For example, in the United States, most spring-guns are loaded with non-lethal caliber or shot to avoid liability arising from the use of deadly force in the protection of a property interest. Posting clear and unmistakable warning signs as well as making entry to spring-gun guarded premises difficult for innocent persons, such as high walls, fences and natural obstacles, are significant ways to reduce potential tort liability arising from the spring gun's wounding of a careless or criminal intruder. Important US lawsuits regarding trespassers wounded by spring-guns include Katko v. Briney. Bird v. Holbrook is an 1825 English case also of great relevance, where a spring-gun set to protect a tulip garden injured a trespasser who was recovering a stray bird. The man who set the spring-gun was liable for the damage caused.
Documented examples:
An historic use of a spring-gun occurred during the night of June 3 or early morning of June 4, 1775, when a spring-gun set by the British to protect the military stores in the Magazine in Williamsburg, Virginia, wounded two young men who had broken in. The subsequent outrage by the local population proved to be the final act of the Gunpowder Incident, leading Governor Dunmore to flee the city to a British warship and declare the Commonwealth of Virginia in a state of rebellion.
Documented examples:
In 1981, Rene Seiptius and two friends attempted to flee from East Germany to West Germany. While they managed to avoid land mines, they did trip a spring-gun, killing one of Rene's friends.In 1990, one man in a group of four burglars was killed during a burglary by a spring-gun that was set up by a business owner in Colorado. The business had been burglarized eight times during the previous two years, including at least one previous burglary by the man who died. The man who set the trap pled guilty to manslaughter. To deter thefts, other businesses in the area put up signs claiming their premises were also booby trapped, with the unintended result that firefighters and other emergency personnel would refuse to enter these buildings during emergencies until they could be assured of their safety.
Alternatives:
Alternative traps are mines such as gas mines or the directional mine, such as the SM-70, which was used on the inner German border to prevent refugees from escaping East Germany. Crowd-control munitions and gas mines can be less lethal, while concussion mines are meant to kill. The latter are thus only used in military perimeter defenses. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Weighted silk**
Weighted silk:
Weighted silk is silk which has been treated to restore or increase the weight lost during the process of degumming. This processing started in the 19th century, with vegetable-based solutions such as tannins or sugar. Chemical solutions based upon salts of lead or tin were then used, as well as silicate, phosphate of soda, and astringent extracts. These increased the weight considerably, but led to accusations of adulteration as the properties of the silk were impaired.
Process and history:
Unlike most fabric/yard goods which are sold by the yard (or metre), silk is sold to the wholesaler by weight; however, as the first step in processing silk fibre is to "degum" it - removing the sericin from the fibre, a protein naturally produced by silkworms that coats silkworm cocoons - approximately one-fifth of the weight of silk fibre is lost, representing a significant drop in the saleable price of processed silk fibre. As such, silk fabric manufacturers would historically "replace" this lost weight with a 'filler', which would add weight to the fibre and thus make up the cost.
Process and history:
Silk has an affinity for several metallic salts, the most common of which being iron, lead, and tin. It was discovered to be an easy process to return this weight lost in the degumming process by soaking the fibre in a bath of these metallic salts. This process was called 'weighting', and by increasing the weight of the raw silk, the merchant increased their profits. Weighting with some metallic salts did improve the drapeability of silk fabrics; however, merchants soon began adding more weight than the lost one-fifth, with the final weight of the fabric sometimes increased tenfold.In 1938, the U.S. Federal Trade Commission ruled that silk that weighted more than 10%, and black silk that weighted more than 15%, must be labeled 'Weighted Silk'.While silk is a strong and durable fibre, the weighting process is highly damaging to the finished fabric and resulting garments. If the garment is worn, it wears out quickly and is highly susceptible to damage from perspiration, salt, and tears; if stored away, it becomes brittle and begins to shatter along lines of wear at an expedited rate. The method of storage does not ameliorate the process of damage introduced by the fabric's weighting, with storage in cold, dry and dark areas doing little, or nothing, to prevent further damage.
Process and history:
Examples of antique weighted silks displaying this damage are easily seen, such as in antique American "crazy quilts", where the silk fibres have disintegrated, whilst the cotton and wool fibres remain in good condition, even after 100 years. A later example displaying damage resulting from tin-weighting is the wedding dress of the future Elizabeth II, then Princess Elizabeth, of the United Kingdom; the fabric, a tin-weighted Chinese silk chosen especially by Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother, began to rot just 30 years after the dress had been created, with the weight of the dress' embroidery worsening the fabric's condition further.
Process and history:
The practice of weighting silk was widespread in the 19th century, and decreased somewhat in the 20th, but is still used to some extent. In the early 20th century, fashion trends had changed substantially and heavier silks fell out of popularity. A lighter silk was preferred and thus weighted silks were less used. An alternative to weighted silk is "organic silk", wherein the sericin is not removed from the fibre before processing, and is instead left in. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Tunnel broker**
Tunnel broker:
In the context of computer networking, a tunnel broker is a service which provides a network tunnel. These tunnels can provide encapsulated connectivity over existing infrastructure to another infrastructure.
There are a variety of tunnel brokers, including IPv4 tunnel brokers, though most commonly the term is used to refer to an IPv6 tunnel broker as defined in RFC 3053.
Tunnel broker:
IPv6 tunnel brokers typically provide IPv6 to sites or end users over IPv4. In general, IPv6 tunnel brokers offer so called 'protocol 41' or proto-41 tunnels. These are tunnels where IPv6 is tunneled directly inside IPv4 packets by having the protocol field set to '41' (IPv6) in the IPv4 packet. In the case of IPv4 tunnel brokers IPv4 tunnels are provided to users by encapsulating IPv4 inside IPv6 as defined in RFC 2473.
Automated configuration:
Configuration of IPv6 tunnels is usually done using the Tunnel Setup Protocol (TSP), or using Tunnel Information Control protocol (TIC). A client capable of this is AICCU (Automatic IPv6 Connectivity Client Utility). In addition to IPv6 tunnels TSP can also be used to set up IPv4 tunnels.
NAT issues:
Proto-41 tunnels (direct IPv6 in IPv4) may not operate well situated behind NATs. One way around this is to configure the actual endpoint of the tunnel to be the DMZ on the NAT-utilizing equipment. Another method is to either use AYIYA or TSP, both of which send IPv6 inside UDP packets, which is able to cross most NAT setups and even firewalls.
NAT issues:
A problem that still might occur is that of the timing-out of the state in the NAT machine. As a NAT remembers that a packet went outside to the Internet it allows another packet to come back in from the Internet that is related to the initial proto-41 packet. When this state expires, no other packets from the Internet will be accepted. This therefore breaks the connectivity of the tunnel until the user's host again sends out a packet to the tunnel broker.
Dynamic endpoints:
When the endpoint isn't a static IP address, the user, or a program, has to instruct the tunnel broker to update the endpoint address. This can be done using the tunnel broker's web site or using an automated protocol like TSP or Heartbeat, as used by AICCU. In the case of a tunnel broker using TSP, the client automatically restarting the tunnel will cause the endpoint address and port to be updated.
Implementations:
The first implementation of an IPv6 Tunnel Broker was at the Italian CSELT S.p.A. by Ivano Guardini, the author of RFC 3053There are a variety of tunnel brokers that provide their own custom implementations based on different goals. Listed here are the common implementations as used by the listed IPv6 tunnel brokers.
Implementations:
Gogo6 gogoSERVER gogoSERVER (formerly Gateway6) is used by the Freenet6 service, which is the second IPv6 tunnel broker service, going into production in 1999. It was started as a project of Viagenie and then Hexago was spun off as a commercial company selling Gateway6, which powered Freenet6, as their flagship product. In June 2009, Hexago became gogo6 through a management buyout and the Freenet6 service became part of gogoNET, a social network for IPv6 professionals. On 23 March 2016 all services of Freenet6/Gogo6 were halted.
Implementations:
SixXS sixxsd SixXS's sixxsd is what powers all the SixXS PoPs. It is custom built software for the purpose of tunneling at high performance with low latency. Development of sixxsd started in 2002 and has evolved into the current v4 version of the software. The software is made available for ISPs who provide and run SixXS PoPs.
Originally, in 2000, SixXS used shell bash scripts. Due to scalability issues and other problems sixxsd was designed and developed. After 17 years, the SixXS tunnel sunset on 2017-06-06.
CITC ddtb CITC Tunnel Broker, run by the Saudi Arabia IPv6 Task Force, uses their own implementation of the TSP RFC named 'ddtb'. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Sedation dentistry**
Sedation dentistry:
Sedation dentistry refers to the use of pharmacological agents to calm and relax a patient prior to and during a dental appointment. The pharmacological agents usually belong to a class of drugs called sedatives, which exert their action by depressing the central nervous system, specifically those areas concerned with conscious awareness.
Sedation dentistry:
There are different degrees of central nervous system depression, each corresponding to a level of relaxation which ranges from minimal, moderate, to deep sedation. In general, minimal sedation refers to a patient who has reduced anxiety but readily responds to verbal or physical stimulation. With moderate sedation the patient is even more relaxed, and will respond to purposeful stimulation. In deep sedation, the patient may not exhibit any signs of consciousness and therefore be unresponsive to stimulation.
Sedation dentistry:
Sedation by pharmacologic methods may be obtained by two general routes. The enteral route involves absorption of medication across enteric membranes which line the alimentary canal from the oral cavity, through the digestive tract, ending in the rectum. This route includes medications that are either swallowed, absorbed through the mucosa of the oral cavity, or inserted rectally. The parenteral route involves the administration of sedative drugs other than absorption across enteric membranes (outside of the alimentary canal). These methods include intravenous, inhalation, intramuscular, and submucosal administration, among others.
Sedation for children:
Although researchers are calling for further studies to be carried out, current research indicates that oral midazolam is a useful sedative drug for pediatric patients. Nitrous oxide inhalation has also proven to be useful method to treat anxious children. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Pickled pigs' feet**
Pickled pigs' feet:
Pickled pigs' feet is a type of pork associated with cuisine of the Southern United States, Mexican, Chinese, and Scandinavian cuisine.
Pickled pigs' feet:
The feet of domestic pigs are typically salted and smoked in the same manner as other pork cuts, such as hams and bacon. It is common to preserve them in a manner very similar to home canning and processes for pickled vegetables; typically a saturation of hot vinegar brine is used. Such methods allow them to be preserved without the need for refrigeration until the jar is opened. They were once popular in American bars. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Rhodium(III) iodide**
Rhodium(III) iodide:
Rhodium(III) iodide is an inorganic compound with the formula RhI3. It is a black solid.
Preparation:
Rhodium(III) iodide can be synthesised by the reaction of aqueous potassium iodide with rhodium(III) bromide.
RhBr3 + 3KI → RhI3 + 3KBr
Structure:
RhI3 adopts same crystal structure motif as AlCl3 and YCl3. The structure consists of cubic close-packed iodide ions and rhodium ions filling a third of the octahedral interstices, forming a layers.
Reactivity:
Rhodium(III) iodide is only known in the anhydrous form. Unlike the other rhodium(III) halides, it does not form hydrates. The related anion [RhI6]3− was previously thought not to form but has since been prepared by diffusion of RhCl3·3H2O through a layer of hydroiodic acid into piperazine. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Luminol**
Luminol:
Luminol (C8H7N3O2) is a chemical that exhibits chemiluminescence, with a blue glow, when mixed with an appropriate oxidizing agent. Luminol is a white-to-pale-yellow crystalline solid that is soluble in most polar organic solvents, but insoluble in water.
Luminol:
Forensic investigators use luminol to detect trace amounts of blood at crime scenes, as it reacts with the iron in hemoglobin. Biologists use it in cellular assays to detect copper, iron, cyanides, as well as specific proteins via western blotting.When luminol is sprayed evenly across an area, trace amounts of an activating oxidant make the luminol emit a blue glow that can be seen in a darkened room. The glow only lasts about 30 seconds, but can be documented photographically. The glow is stronger in areas receiving more spray; the intensity of the glow does not indicate the amount of blood or other activator present.
Synthesis:
Luminol is synthesized in a two-step process, beginning with 3-nitrophthalic acid. First, hydrazine (N2H4) is heated with the 3-nitrophthalic acid in a high-boiling solvent such as triethylene glycol and glycerol. An acyl substitution condensation reaction occurs, with loss of water, forming 3-nitrophthalhydrazide. Reduction of the nitro group to an amino group with sodium dithionite (Na2S2O4), via a transient hydroxylamine intermediate, produces luminol.
Synthesis:
The compound was first synthesized in Germany in 1902, but was not named "luminol" until 1934.
Chemiluminescence:
To exhibit its luminescence, the luminol must be activated with an oxidant. Usually, a solution containing hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and hydroxide ions in water is the activator. In the presence of a catalyst such as an iron or periodate compound, the hydrogen peroxide decomposes to form oxygen and water: 2 H2O2 → O2 + 2 H2O H2O2 + KIO4 → KIO3 + O2 + H2OLaboratory settings often use potassium ferricyanide or potassium periodate for the catalyst. In the forensic detection of blood, the catalyst is the iron present in hemoglobin. Enzymes in a variety of biological systems may also catalyse the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide.
Chemiluminescence:
The exact mechanism of luminol chemiluminescence is a complex multi-step reaction, especially in aqueous conditions. A recent theoretical investigation has been able to elucidate the reaction cascade as shown below. Luminol is first deprotonated in basic conditions, then oxidized to the anionic radical. Which in turn has two paths available to give the key intermediate α-hydroxy- peroxide. After cyclization to the endoperoxide, the mono-anion will undergo decomposition without luminescence, if the pH is too low (< 8.2) for a second deprotonation. The endoperoxide dianion, however can give the retro-Diels-Alder product: 1,2-dioxane-3,6-dione dianion. And after chemiexcitation by two single-electron-transfers (SET) gives 3-aminophthalate dianion in its first singlet excited-state (S1). This highly instable molecule relaxes to the ground state, thereby emitting light of around 425 nm wavelength (purple-blue), the so-called chemiluminescence.
Use in criminal investigation:
History In 1928, German chemist H. O. Albrecht found that blood, among other substances, enhanced the luminescence of luminol in an alkaline solution of hydrogen peroxide. In 1936, Karl Gleu and Karl Pfannstiel confirmed this enhancement in the presence of haematin, a component of blood. In 1937, German forensic scientist Walter Specht made extensive studies of luminol's application to the detection of blood at crime scenes. In 1939, San Francisco pathologists Frederick Proescher and A. M. Moody made three important observations about luminol: although the test is presumptive, large areas of suspected material can be examined rapidly; dried and decomposed blood gave a stronger and more lasting reaction than fresh blood; and if the luminescence disappears, it may be reproduced by the application of a fresh luminol-hydrogen peroxide solution; dried bloodstains may thus be made luminescent repeatedly.
Use in criminal investigation:
Theory Crime scene investigators use luminol to find traces of blood, even if someone has cleaned or removed it. The investigator sprays a solution of luminol and the oxidant. The iron in blood catalyses the luminescence. The amount of catalyst necessary to cause the reaction is very small relative to the amount of luminol, allowing detection of even trace amounts of blood. The blue glow lasts for about 30 seconds per application. Detecting the glow requires a fairly dark room. Any glow detected may be documented by a long-exposure photograph.
Use in criminal investigation:
Drawbacks Luminol's use in a crime scene investigation is somewhat hampered by the fact that it reacts to iron- and copper-containing compounds, bleaches, horseradish, fecal matter, or cigarette smoke residue.
Application of luminol to a piece of evidence may prevent other tests from being performed on it; however DNA has been successfully extracted from samples exposed to luminol.
Related molecules:
Luminol: 5-amino-2,3-dihydro-1,4-phthalazinedione ; 3-amino-phthalhydrazide ; 1,4-phthalazinedione, 5-amino-2,3-dihydro ; CAS: [521-31-3] C8H7N3O2 – MW: 177.16λabs (in 0.1 N NaOH) λmax 1 : 347 nm & λmax 2 : 300 nm; EC (at λmax 1): 7650 L/mol × cm λabs / λem (MeOH): 355/413 nm Luminol, sodium salt: sodium 3-amino-phthalhydrazide; CAS: [20666-12-0] C8H6N3O2Na – MW: 199.12 Luminol hemihydrate: a hydrate of sodium 3-amino-phthalhydrazide; CAS: [206658-90-4] C8H6N3O2Na · H2O – MW: 217.16 Luminol hydrochloride: 3-amino-phthalhydrazide hydrochloride; CAS: [74165-64-3] C8H7N3O2 · HCl MW: 213.62 Isoluminol: 4-aminophthalhydrazide; CAS: [3682-14-1]C8H7N3O2 – MW: 117.16 (Xi) Isoluminol monohydrate: 4-aminophthalhydrazide monohydrate C8H7N3O2 · H2O – MW: 195.15 Isoluminol ABEI: 4-aminophthalhydrazide monohydrate; CAS: [66612-29-1] | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**One-pot synthesis**
One-pot synthesis:
In chemistry a one-pot synthesis is a strategy to improve the efficiency of a chemical reaction in which a reactant is subjected to successive chemical reactions in just one reactor. This is much desired by chemists because avoiding a lengthy separation process and purification of the intermediate chemical compounds can save time and resources while increasing chemical yield.
An example of a one-pot synthesis is the total synthesis of tropinone or the Gassman indole synthesis. Sequential one-pot syntheses can be used to generate even complex targets with multiple stereocentres, such as oseltamivir, which may significantly shorten the number of steps required overall and have important commercial implications.
A sequential one-pot synthesis with reagents added to a reactor one at a time and without work-up is also called a telescoping synthesis.
One-pot synthesis:
In one such procedure the reaction of 3-N-tosylaminophenol I with acrolein II affords a hydroxyl substituted quinoline III through 4 sequential steps without workup of the intermediate products (see image). The addition of acrolein (blue) is a Michael reaction catalyzed by N,N-diisopropylamine, the presence of ethanol converts the aldehyde group to an acetal but this process is reversed when hydrochloric acid is introduced (red). The enolate reacts as an electrophile in a Friedel-Crafts reaction with ring-closure. The alcohol group is eliminated in presence of potassium hydroxide (green) and when in the final step the reaction medium is neutralized to pH 7 (magenta) the tosyl group is eliminated as well. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Seismic trace**
Seismic trace:
In seismology, a seismic trace refers to the recorded curve from a single seismograph when measuring ground movement. The name comes from the curve plotted by a seismograph as the paper roll rotated and the needle left a trace from which information about the subsurface could be extracted. Today's instruments record the data digitally and the word trace has come to mean the digital curve.
Complex seismic trace:
The recorded seismic trace is considered the real part of the complex trace. By phase shifting the recorded trace by 90 degrees, we can obtain the imaginary part of the complex trace. The complex seismic trace is a complex function whose real and imaginary part are the previously mentioned. From the complex trace, one can now define seismic attributes such as the complex amplitude, phase, instantaneous phase and instantaneous frequency. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Vibegron**
Vibegron:
Vibegron, sold under the brand name Gemtesa, is a medication for the treatment of overactive bladder. Vibegron is a selective beta-3 adrenergic receptor agonist.The most common side effects include headache, urinary tract infection, common cold, diarrhea, nausea, and upper respiratory tract infection.Vibegron was first discovered by scientists at Merck & Co. Inc. and was later developed in Japan by Kyorin Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd, Kissei Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd, and Urovant Sciences. It was approved for medical use in Japan in September 2018, and in the United States in December 2020.
Efficacy:
Vibegron, once daily 75 mg provided significant reduction in micturition, urgency episodes and urge incontinence, and increased the volume per micturition.
Medical uses:
Vibegron is indicated for the treatment of overactive bladder with symptoms of urge urinary incontinence, urgency, and urinary frequency in adults.
Safety:
Generally, the introduction of β3 adrenergic receptors agonists such as vibegron has improved overactive bladder (OAB) management by minimizing anticholinergic-related adverse effects. Monotherapy with a β3 adrenergic agonist may be preferred in older patients, those with high anticholinergic burden, and older adults with multiple comorbidities. An ambulatory blood pressure monitoring study showed that treatment with vibegron was not associated with clinically meaningful effects on blood pressure or heart rate. Treatment with vibegron was also associated with improvements in patient-reported measures of quality of life. Vibegron was generally effective, safe and well tolerated, thus represents a valuable treatment option for patients with OAB.
Adverse effects:
The most common side effects of vibegron are dry mouth, constipation, headache, nasopharyngitis, diarrhea, nausea, bronchitis, urinary tract infection and upper respiratory tract infection. In case of urinary retention, the patient should stop using the drug. Risk assessment for the drug in pregnant people has yet to be evaluated.
Interactions:
Vibegron is, in contrast to other OAB drugs, very selective and leads to a lesser degree of unwanted side effects. Vibegron is found to be a substrate for CYP3A4 in vivo, but does not actually induce or inhibit any of the cytochrome P450 enzymes and is thus less likely to take part in drug–drug interactions (DDI). Here vibegron differs from the previous overactive bladder drug mirabegron, which was known to be associated in various drug–drug interactions by inhibiting CYP2D6 or inducing CYP3A4, CYP2D6 and CYP2C9 in the liver.Using vibegron only (monotherapy) has positive effects on OAB and UUI, but a combination with other drugs can have additional effects. In a study with antimuscarinic drugs, more DDIs were investigated using a model of rhesus monkeys. Dose combinations of vibegron and tolterodine showed increased bladder capacity, the effects of both drugs at low doses strengthened each other, known as synergism. The addition of darifenacin to vibegron created greater bladder relaxation only when used at high doses. Additionally, co-administration with imidafenacin shows an increase in bladder capacity and voided volume in comparison to monotherapy. Possibly, a widely adapted treatment will be the combination of beta-3-adrenergic agonist with a nonselective M2/M3 antagonist as the most prevalent option.Clinical studies show no significant drug–drug interaction, aside from a serum concentration increase of digoxin when taken with vibegron. Maximal concentrations and systemic exposure (Cmax and area under the curve (AUC)) of digoxin are both increased as a result of DDI. Apart from the no to little DDIs, vibegron has an additional safety quality in that it does not cross the blood-brain barrier and therefore does not induce cognitive impairment. Furthermore, vibegron can be taken with or without food, this does not have an effect on vibegron plasma concentrations.
Pharmacology:
Mechanism of action Vibegron is a selective agonist for the beta-3 adrenergic receptor. The receptors are located in the kidneys, urinary tract and bladder tissue. Upon binding, the β3 receptor undergoes a conformational change. This induces the activation of adenylate cyclases via G proteins and thereby promotes the formation of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). The consequence of this cascade is an increased intracellular cAMP concentration, which triggers activation of cAMP-dependent protein kinase A and causes a reduction of Ca2+ concentration in the cytoplasm. The kinase then phosphorylates myosin chains and thereby inhibits muscle contraction.The final effect of vibegron is muscle relaxation in the bladder. Due to this muscle relaxation, bladder capacity increases and symptoms of overactive bladder are relieved.
Pharmacology:
Pharmacokinetics The two main metabolic pathways are the oxidation and glucuronidation of vibegron. Two oxidative metabolites and three glucuronide metabolites can be formed. The exact structure of these metabolites have not been studied yet. In vitro, CYP3A4 is the enzyme responsible for the metabolism of vibegron, facilitating oxidative metabolism. Eventually, still a large part of the unmodified drug is excreted through feces and urine.
History:
The beta-3 adrenergic receptor (beta3AR) was discovered in the late 1980s and initially, beta3AR agonists were investigated as treatment for obesity and diabetes. A number of compounds were tested in clinical trials but didn't show sufficient benefits in these areas.A phase IIb global trial completed in 2013 of 1395 patients, of which 89.7% were women and 63.3% had not been treated previously, demonstrated a significant decrease in daily micturitions and urgent urinary incontinence episodes upon administration of vibegron.An international phase III trial of 506 participants completed in 2019 found statistically significant efficacy of vibegron after two weeks of daily administration. The adverse effect rates in participants treated with vibegron were comparable to those in participants who received a placebo.Vibegron was evaluated in patients with OAB in several clinical studies. A large active-controlled study, called Empower, showed the beneficial effects of the drug to treat the condition and UUI. Primary outcomes of different clinical trials showed there was an overall increase in efficacy. These outcomes concluded that there was a reduction in urgency to urinate, a decrease in micturitions and a decrease in average volume voided per micturition. There is also an improvement observed of the symptoms when vibegron is administered over a longer period (52 weeks) concluding that it is effective and safe for longer use. In severe patients, increasing the dose was accompanied by similar beneficial effects when there was first a lack of these. Quality of life of the patients is improved, including a reduction of nocturia.
Society and culture:
Legal status Vibegron was developed in Japan by Kyorin Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd, Kissei Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd, and Urovant Sciences. It was approved for medical use in Japan in September 2018, and in the United States in December 2020.
Names Vibegron is the international nonproprietary name.
Veterinary uses:
Pregnant rats were given very high daily oral doses of vibegron during the period of organogenesis and showed no embryo-fetal developmental toxicity up to 300 mg/kg/day. Similar data was found in rabbits. Maternal toxicity was observed when doses exceeded 100 mg/kg/day in lactating rats. Clinical studies show that vibegron is not toxic, safe and well-tolerated in patients. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
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