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**Vortex Flash Hider**
Vortex Flash Hider:
The Vortex Flash Hider or Vortex Flash Eliminator is a flash suppressor made by Smith Enterprise, Inc. for a variety of different rifles, carbines, machine guns and handguns.
History:
The Vortex Flash Hider was developed in 1984, and a patent was secured in 1995. Sonja Sommers and Ron Smith of SEI developed the Vortex Flash Hider that incorporates a 5-, 10- and 15-degree twisted helix design, which eliminates up to 99% of visible muzzle flash. The Vortex is somewhat reminiscent of the original "three-prong flash hider" found on the original Vietnam-era M16. However, the Vortex is more robust and makes use of four solid tines, which are four equally spaced and angled 6° from a centerline of the body. The Vortex is the only flash suppressor in the world with a helical flute design that breaks up the flash at multiple locations and angles. SEI makes the Vortex for M16s, AR-15s, M14s, Steyr AUGs and certain pistols such as the Heckler & Koch USP Tactical model.
AR-15 rifles:
The Vortex Flash Hider made for AR-15 type rifles weighs 3 ounces, is 2.25 inches in length and does not require a lock washer for attachment to the barrel of an AR-15. The use of a lock washer or crush washer was rejected as their use can increase visible flash from the shooter's perspective. The Vortex is tightened by hand and repeated firing of the rifle causes the Vortex to tighten to the barrel.The Vortex Flash Hider has been called the "most effective flash hider available short of a (sound) suppressor" by writer and gunsmith Patrick Sweeney, when used on an AR-15. In a 2005 article appearing in SWAT magazine it was deemed to be superior to the M16A2 "bird cage" flash suppressor and the Yankee Hill Machine Phantom Flash Suppressor. Peter G. Kokalis of Soldier of Fortune magazine and Shotgun News wrote that he installed over 300 Vortex Flash hiders while working as a military advisor with a Central American paramilitary unit in the 1980s.The Vortex Flash Hider is used by the US Military on M4 carbines and M16 rifles with the NATO Stock Number of NSN 1005-01-591-5825, PN 1001V.
M14 rifles:
The Vortex Flash Hider has been used on the US Army's SOCCOM M14 rifle as the SEI 2000V and was chosen because it reduces visible flash by 99%. Installation of the SEI 2000V requires removal of the factory front sight and shooters in need of a front sight for their rifle can replace the rifle's gas block with a unit from Smith that includes an attached front sight post. The Crazy Horse rifle and the Mk 14 Enhanced Battle Rifle (both made by SEI) utilize the M14 Vortex as well and the Wind Talker sound suppressor and its predecessor, the M14 Direct Connect, were designed to fit over the Vortex in a direct connect fashion.
50 caliber rifles and machine guns:
In 2011 Naval Surface Warfare Center Crane Division adopted the Vortex Flash Hider for use on 50 caliber machine guns and rifles after it was rated the number one suppressor in their test report. The testing performed by CRANE showed that the Vortex maintained a 95% flash reduction threshold through 10,000 rounds of machine gun fire and was proven to not adversely affect normal combat functions, weapon firing or cycling, or interfere with mechanical sights. The US Military's NATO Stock Number for this flash hider is NSN 1005-01-603-1401, PN 6021.
Other rifles and machineguns:
Smith Enterprise manufactures the Vortex for a variety of other rifles such as the AK-47, HK91, Steyr Aug, FN-FAL and Galil. Additionally, the company makes flash suppressors for installation on the M240 machine gun and M249 SAW with the NATO Stock Number 1005-01-600-857, PN 1041V. Vortex Flash Hiders can be installed on traditional bolt-action rifles and rifles such as the Ruger 10/22, Ruger Mini-14 and Ruger Mini-30, if the barrel is cut for the appropriate threads. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Linguistic racism**
Linguistic racism:
In the terminology of linguistic anthropology, linguistic racism is the use of language resources for discrimination. The most evident manifestation of this kind of racism are racial slurs, however there are covert forms of it.Overt linguistic racism may be expressed in the form of mocking, teasing, laughing, joking, ridiculing, and interrupting. Covert linguistic racism, on the other hand, is expressed through indirect and passive-aggressive acts of social exclusion. In the U.S., covert linguistic racism plays a role in a lack of diverse participation in large studies or political participation as sufficient access to translations is often excluded. Counties with higher than average minority population percentages and counties with lower percentages in English-speaking residents have lower participation rates in survey participation due to lack of accommodation or outreach.Andrea Moro in his essay "La Razza e la lingua" ("Race and Language") shows that there are two ideas which look innocuous if considered as separated but which are extremely dangerous if combined: first, that there are languages which are better than others; second, that reality is perceived and elaborated differently, according to the language one speaks. He highlights that this linguistic racism was at the origin of the myth of Aryan race and the devastating results it had on civilization.The works of Jane H. Hill on "mock Spanish", of Barbara A. Meek on "Hollywood Injun English", of Ronkin and Kan on parodies of Ebonics, of Elaine Chun "Ideologies of Legitimate Mockery" on "mock Asian", etc., demonstrate how parodying or re-appropriating non-English languages contributes to presenting certain cultures as inferior to European Americans by disparaging their languages. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Tabletop sports**
Tabletop sports:
Tabletop sports are sports that are played on a tabletop. Unlike tabletop games, tabletop sports require physical dexterity. Included are games like table football, sports table football, button football, table tennis, headis, cue sports, air hockey, and table hockey games. They are usually played indoors. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Tapering jig**
Tapering jig:
A tapering jig is a woodworking jig used to cut a progressively deeper cut along a workpiece usually parallel to the grain.
Tapering jig:
Tapering jigs are often used to create table legs, with the taper usually cut into the two sides of the leg facing the inside of the table. There are various commercial varieties of tapering jigs, ranging for simple two hinged pieces of aluminum square tubing with a device to maintain angle settings, to more complex varieties that utilize clamps to affix the workpiece to a bed using toggle clamps or other clamping devices.
Tapering jig:
Many woodworkers prefer to make the jig in the shop in order to customize it to the particular project at hand.
See Also:
Jig (tool) Staircase jig Sharpening jig | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Radmind**
Radmind:
Radmind is a suite of Unix command-line tools and an application server designed to remotely administer the file systems of multiple client machines.For Mac OS X, there is a graphical user interface called Radmind Assistant, as well as a GUI for the Radmind server called Radmind Server Manager.Radmind was the 2003 Apple Design Awards runner-up for Best Mac OS X Server Solution.Radmind is developed by the Research Systems Unix Group at the University of Michigan.
How Radmind Works:
Radmind operates as a tripwire, detecting changes in a client's filesystem (and, in the case of Microsoft Windows, the registry) and reversing the changes. Radmind stores filesystem specifications in text files called transcripts, signified with a .T extension. Transcripts are referenced from command files, signified with a .K extension, which specify which transcripts (and with what precedence) should be applied to a client machine's filesystem.
Suite of tools:
The radmind suite of tools comprises ktcheck, which updates the locally stored command files and transcripts to match those on the server.
fsdiff, which checks the client filesystem against the transcripts on the local system without using network bandwidth.
lapply, which updates the client filesystem to match the transcripts, downloading files as needed.
lcreate, which uploads new transcripts to the server.
lcksum, which verifies uploaded transcripts.
lfdiff, which compares local files with copies on Radmind server.
lmerge, which combines transcripts on the server.
ra.sh , which automates the update process using ktcheck, fsdiff, and lapply.
twhich, which returns which transcript(s) a file is referenced in.
applefile, which allows Radmind to work with AppleSingle files. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Equianharmonic**
Equianharmonic:
In mathematics, and in particular the study of Weierstrass elliptic functions, the equianharmonic case occurs when the Weierstrass invariants satisfy g2 = 0 and g3 = 1.
This page follows the terminology of Abramowitz and Stegun; see also the lemniscatic case. (These are special examples of complex multiplication.) In the equianharmonic case, the minimal half period ω2 is real and equal to Γ3(1/3)4π where Γ is the Gamma function. The half period is ω1=12(−1+3i)ω2.
Here the period lattice is a real multiple of the Eisenstein integers.
The constants e1, e2 and e3 are given by e1=4−1/3e(2/3)πi,e2=4−1/3,e3=4−1/3e−(2/3)πi.
The case g2 = 0, g3 = a may be handled by a scaling transformation. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Carbon–hydrogen bond activation**
Carbon–hydrogen bond activation:
In organic chemistry, carbon–hydrogen bond functionalization (C−H functionalization) is a type of organic reaction in which a carbon–hydrogen bond is cleaved and replaced with a C−X bond (where X is usually carbon, oxygen, or nitrogen). The term usually implies that a transition metal is involved in the C−H cleavage process. Reactions classified by the term typically involve the hydrocarbon first to react with a metal catalyst to create an organometallic complex in which the hydrocarbon is coordinated to the inner-sphere of a metal, either via an intermediate "alkane or arene complex" or as a transition state leading to a "M−C" intermediate. The intermediate of this first step (known as C−H activation and sometimes used interchangeably with C−H functionalization) can then undergo subsequent reactions to produce the functionalized product. Important to this definition is the requirement that during the C−H cleavage event, the hydrocarbyl species remains associated in the inner-sphere and under the influence of "M".As an alternative definition, other authors use the term C−H functionalization to mean any organic transformation in which the net result is the transformation of a relatively inert C−H bond into a C−X bond (i.e., a functional group), irrespective of the reaction mechanism (or with an agnostic attitude towards it). In particular, this definition does not require a transition metal coordination to the hydrocarbon in the mechanism. This broader definition includes the narrower definition given above as a subset. However, this definition would also include iron-catalyzed alkane functionalization reaction that proceed through the oxygen rebound mechanism (e.g. cytochrome P450 enzymes and their synthetic analogues), in which a metal–carbon bond is not believed to be involved. Likewise, the ligand-based reactivity of many metal carbene species with hydrocarbons would also fall under this category, although some cases are mechanistically ambiguous. Some authors similarly define C−H activation broadly as the C−H cleaving step of any mechanism that results in functionalization of a hydrocarbon group (or any observable consequence of C−H bond cleavage, like H/D exchange). Still others maintain the original narrow definition of the term C−H activation, while using C−H functionalization in its broader sense.
Classification:
Mechanisms for C-H activations can be classified into three general categories: (i) oxidative addition, in which a low-valent metal center inserts into a carbon-hydrogen bond, which cleaves the bond and oxidizes the metal.LnM + RH → LnMR(H)(ii) Electrophilic activation in which an electrophilic metal attacks the hydrocarbon, displacing a proton:LnM+ + RH → LnMR + H+substrate undergoes an SEAr-type mechanism.
Classification:
(iii) Sigma-bond metathesis, which proceeds through a "four-centered" transition state in which bonds break and form in a single step:LnMR + R'H → LnMR' + RH
Historic overview:
The first C–H activation reaction is often attributed to Otto Dimroth, who in 1902, reported that benzene reacted with mercury(II) acetate (See: organomercury). Many electrophilic metal centers undergo this Friedel-Crafts-like reaction. Joseph Chatt observed the addition of C-H bonds of naphthalene by Ru(0) complexes.Chelation-assisted C-H activations are prevalent. Shunsuke Murahashi reported a cobalt-catalyzed chelation-assisted C-H functionalization of 2-phenylisoindolin-1-one from (E)-N,1-diphenylmethanimine.
Historic overview:
In 1969, A.E. Shilov reported that potassium tetrachloroplatinate induced isotope scrambling between methane and heavy water. The pathway was proposed to involve binding of methane to Pt(II). In 1972, the Shilov group was able to produce methanol and methyl chloride in a similar reaction involving a stoichiometric amount of potassium tetrachloroplatinate, catalytic potassium hexachloroplatinate, methane and water. Due to the fact that Shilov worked and published in the Soviet Union during the Cold War era, his work was largely ignored by Western scientists. This so-called Shilov system is today one of the few true catalytic systems for alkane functionalizations.In some cases, discoveries in C-H activation were being made in conjunction with those of cross coupling. In 1969, Yuzo Fujiwara reported the synthesis of (E)-1,2-diphenylethene from benzene and styrene with Pd(OAc)2 and Cu(OAc)2, a procedure very similar to that of cross coupling. On the category of oxidative addition, M. L. H. Green in 1970 reported on the photochemical insertion of tungsten (as a Cp2WH2 complex) in a benzene C–H bond and George M. Whitesides in 1979 was the first to carry out an intramolecular aliphatic C–H activation The next breakthrough was reported independently by two research groups in 1982. R. G. Bergman reported the first transition metal-mediated intermolecular C–H activation of unactivated and completely saturated hydrocarbons by oxidative addition. Using a photochemical approach, photolysis of Cp*Ir(PMe3)H2, where Cp* is a pentamethylcyclopentadienyl ligand, led to the coordinatively unsaturated species Cp*Ir(PMe3) which reacted via oxidative addition with cyclohexane and neopentane to form the corresponding hydridoalkyl complexes, Cp*Ir(PMe3)HR, where R = cyclohexyl and neopentyl, respectively. W.A.G. Graham found that the same hydrocarbons react with Cp*Ir(CO)2 upon irradiation to afford the related alkylhydrido complexes Cp*Ir(CO)HR, where R = cyclohexyl and neopentyl, respectively. In the latter example, the reaction is presumed to proceed via the oxidative addition of alkane to a 16-electron iridium(I) intermediate, Cp*Ir(CO), formed by irradiation of Cp*Ir(CO)2.
Historic overview:
The selective activation and functionalization of alkane C–H bonds was reported using a tungsten complex outfitted with pentamethylcyclopentadienyl, nitrosyl, allyl and neopentyl ligands, Cp*W(NO)(η3-allyl)(CH2CMe3).
Historic overview:
In one example involving this system, the alkane pentane is selectively converted to the halocarbon 1-iodopentane. This transformation was achieved via the thermolysis of Cp*W(NO)(η3-allyl)(CH2CMe3) in pentane at room temperature, resulting in elimination of neopentane by a pseudo-first-order process, generating an undetectable electronically and sterically unsaturated 16-electron intermediate that is coordinated by an η2-butadiene ligand. Subsequent intermolecular activation of a pentane solvent molecule then yields an 18-electron complex possessing an n-pentyl ligand. In a separate step, reaction with iodine at −60 °C liberates 1-iodopentane from the complex.
Directed C-H activation:
Directed-, chelation-assisted-, or "guided" C-H activation involves directing groups that influence regio- and stereochemistry. This is the most useful style of C-H activation in organic synthesis. N,N-dimethylbenzylamine undergoes cyclometalation readily by many transition metals. A semi-practical implementations involve weakly coordinating directing groups, as illustrated by the Murai reaction.
The mechanism for the Pd-catalyzed C-H activation reactions of 2-phenylpyridine involves a metallacycle intermediate. The intermediate is oxidized to form a PdIV species, followed by reductive elimination to form the C-O bond and release the product.
Borylation Transforming C-H bonds into C-B bonds through borylation has been thoroughly investigated due to their utility in synthesis (i.e. for cross-coupling reactions). John F. Hartwig reported a highly regioselective arene and alkane borylation catalyzed by a rhodium complex. In the case of alkanes, exclusive terminal functionalization was observed.
Later, ruthenium catalysts were discovered to have higher activity and functional group compatibility.
Other borylation catalysts have also been developed, including iridium-based catalysts, which successfully activate C-H bonds with high compatibility.For more information, consult borylation.
Natural gas:
Naturally occurring methane is not utilized as a chemical feedstock, despite its abundance and low cost. Current technology makes prodigious use of methane by steam reforming to produce syngas, a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. This syngas is then used in Fischer-Tropsch reactions to make longer carbon chain products or methanol, one of the most important industrial chemical feedstocks. An intriguing method to convert these hydrocarbons involves C-H activation. Roy A. Periana, for example, reported that complexes containing late transition metals, such as Pt, Pd, Au, and Hg, react with methane (CH4) in H2SO4 to yield methyl bisulfate. The process has not however been implemented commercially.
Asymmetric C-H activations:
The total synthesis of lithospermic acid employs guided C-H functionalization late stage to a highly functionalized system. The directing group, a chiral nonracemic imine, is capable of performing an intramolecular alkylation, which allows for the rhodium-catalyzed conversion of imine to the dihydrobenzofuran.
The total synthesis of calothrixin A and B features an intramolecular Pd-catalyzed cross coupling reaction via C-H activation, an example of a guided C-H activation. Cross coupling occurs between aryl C-I and C-H bonds to form a C-C bond. The synthesis of a mescaline analogue employs the rhodium-catalyzed enantioselective annulation of an aryl imine via a C-H activation.
Older reviews:
Pre-2004Arndtsen, B. A.; Bergman, R. G.; Mobley, T. A.; Peterson, T. H. (1995). "Selective Intermolecular Carbon–Hydrogen Bond Activation by Synthetic Metal Complexes in Homogeneous Solution". Accounts of Chemical Research. 28 (3): 154–162. doi:10.1021/ar00051a009.
Crabtree, R. H. (2001). "Alkane C–H activation and functionalization with homogeneous transition metal catalysts: a century of progress – a new millennium in prospect". J. Chem. Soc., Dalton Trans. 17 (17): 2437–2450. doi:10.1039/B103147N.2004-7Crabtree, R. H. (2004). "Organometallic alkane CH activation". J. Organomet. Chem. 689 (24): 4083–4091. doi:10.1016/j.jorganchem.2004.07.034. S2CID 95482372.
Older reviews:
Organometallic C–H Bond Activation: An Introduction Alan S. Goldman and Karen I. Goldberg ACS Symposium Series 885, Activation and Functionalization of C–H Bonds, 2004, 1–43 Periana, R. A.; Bhalla, G.; Tenn, W. J.; III; Young, K. J. H.; Liu, X. Y.; Mironov, O.; Jones, C.; Ziatdinov, V. R. (2004). "Perspectives on some challenges and approaches for developing the next generation of selective, low temperature, oxidation catalysts for alkane hydroxylation based on the C–H activation reaction". Journal of Molecular Catalysis A: Chemical. 220 (1): 7–25. doi:10.1016/j.molcata.2004.05.036.
Older reviews:
Lersch, M.Tilset (2005). "Mechanistic Aspects of C−H Activation by Pt Complexes". Chem. Rev. 105 (6): 2471–2526. doi:10.1021/cr030710y. PMID 15941220., Vedernikov, A. N. (2007). "Recent Advances in the Platinum-mediated CH Bond Functionalization". Curr. Org. Chem. 11 (16): 1401–1416. doi:10.2174/138527207782418708.2008-2011Davies, H. M. L.; Manning, J. R. (2008). "Catalytic C–H functionalization by metalcarbenoid and nitrenoid insertion". Nature. 451 (7177): 417–424. Bibcode:2008Natur.451..417D. doi:10.1038/nature06485. PMC 3033428. PMID 18216847.
Older reviews:
Boutadla, Y.; Davies, D. L.; Macgregor, S. A.; Poblador-Bahamonde, A. I. (2009). "Mechanisms of C–H bond activation: rich synergy between computation and experiment". Dalton Trans. 2009 (30): 5820–5831. doi:10.1039/B904967C. PMID 19623381.
Wencel-Delord, J.; Dröge, T.; Liu, F.; Glorius, F. (2011). "Towards Mild Metal-Catalyzed C–H Bond Activation". Chem. Soc. Rev. 40 (9): 4740–4761. doi:10.1039/C1CS15083A. PMID 21666903.
Shulpin, G. B. (2010). "Selectivity enhancement in functionalization of C–H bonds: A review". Org. Biomol. Chem. 8 (19): 4217–4228. doi:10.1039/c004223d. PMID 20593075.
Older reviews:
Lyons, T. W.; Sanford, M. S. (2010). "Palladium-Catalyzed Ligand-Directed C–H Functionalization Reactions". Chem. Rev. 110 (2): 1147–1169. doi:10.1021/cr900184e. PMC 2836499. PMID 20078038.*Balcells, D.; Clot, E.; Eisenstein, O. (2010). "C–H Bond Activation in Transition Metal Species from a Computational Perspective". Chem. Rev. 110 (2): 749–823. doi:10.1021/cr900315k. PMID 20067255.2012-2015Hashiguchi, B. G.; Bischof, S. M.; Konnick, M. M.; Periana, R. A. (2012). "Designing Catalysts for Functionalization of Unactivated C–H Bonds Based on the CH Activation Reaction". Acc. Chem. Res. 45 (6): 885–898. doi:10.1021/ar200250r. PMID 22482496.
Older reviews:
Kuhl, N.; Hopkinson, M. N.; Wencel-Delord, J.; Glorius, F. (2012). "Beyond Directing Groups: Transition Metal-Catalyzed C H Activation of Simple Arenes". Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 51 (41): 10236–10254. doi:10.1002/anie.201203269. PMID 22996679.
Wencel-Delord, J.; Glorius, F. (2013). "C–H bond activation enables the rapid construction and late-stage diversification of functional molecules". Nature Chemistry. 5 (5): 369–375. Bibcode:2013NatCh...5..369W. doi:10.1038/nchem.1607. PMID 23609086.
Additional sources:
Bergman FAQ in Nature on C-H activation (2007) Literature Presentation by Ramtohul in Stoltz group on applications of C-H activation Powerpoint on John Bercaw's work Center for Selective C-H Functionalization | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Chinese Library Classification**
Chinese Library Classification:
The Chinese Library Classification (CLC; Chinese: 中国图书馆分类法), also known as Classification for Chinese Libraries (CCL), is effectively the national library classification scheme in China. It is used in almost all primary and secondary schools, universities, academic institutions, as well as public libraries. It is also used by publishers to classify all books published in China.
The Book Classification of Chinese Libraries (BCCL) was first published in 1975, under the auspices of China's Administrative Bureau of Cultural Affairs. Its fourth edition (1999) was renamed CLC. In September 2010, the fifth edition was published by National Library of China Publishing House.
CLC has twenty-two top-level categories, and inherits a Marxist orientation from its earlier editions. (For instance, category A is Marxism, Leninism, Maoism & Deng Xiaoping Theory.) It contains a total of 43600 categories, many of which are recent additions, meeting the needs of a rapidly changing nation.
The CLC system:
The 22 top categories and selected sub-categories of CLC (5th Edition) are as follows: A. Marxism, Leninism, Maoism and Deng Xiaoping theory A1 The works of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels A2 The works of Vladimir Lenin A3 The works of Joseph Stalin A4 The works of Mao Zedong A49 The works of Deng Xiaoping A5 The symposium/collection of Marx, Engels, Lenin, Stalin, Mao and Deng Xiaoping A7 The biobibliography and biography of Marx, Engels, Lenin, Stalin, Mao and Deng Xiaoping A8 Study and research of Marxism, Leninism, Maoism and Deng Xiaoping theory B. Philosophy and religions B-4 Education and dissemination of philosophy B-49 Learners' book and popular literature of philosophy B0 theory of philosophy B0-0 Marxist philosophy B01 Basic problems of philosophy B014 Object, purpose and method of philosophy B015 Materialism and idealism B016 Ontology B016.8 Cosmology B016.9 Time-space-theory B017 Epistemology B017.8 Determinism and indeterminism B017.9 Self theory B018 Axiology B019.1 Materialism B019.11 Naive materialism B019.12 Metaphysical materialism B019.13 Dialectical materialism B019.2 Idealism B02 Dialectical materialism B024 Materialist dialectics B025 Categories of materialist dialectics B026 Methodology B027 Application of dialectical materialism B028 Natural philosophy B029 Dialectics of nature B03 Historical materialism B031 Social material requirements of life B032 Basic social conflict B032.1 Productive forces und relations of production B032.2 Base and superstructure B033 Class theory B034 Theory of revolution B035 Theory of country B036 Social being and social consciousness B037 Contradictions among the people B038 Role of the people in historical development B08 Philosophical schools and research B081 Idealism B081.1 Metaphysics B081.2 Epistemology of idealism, apriorism B082 Positivism, Machism B083 Voluntarism and philosophy of life B084 Neo-Kantianism and Neohegelianism B085 Neorealism, logical positivism (new positivism, logical empiricism) B086 Existentialism (survivalism) B087 Pragmatism B088 Neo-Thomism (new scholasticism) B089 Other philosophical schools B089.1 Western Marxism B089.2 Philosophical hermeneutics B089.3 Philosophical anthropology B1 Philosophy (worldwide) B2 Philosophy in China B22 Pre-Qin Dynasty philosophy (~before 220 BC) B222 The Confucian School B222.2 Confucius (Kǒng Qiū, 551-479 BC) B3 Philosophy in Asia B4 Philosophy in Africa B5 Philosophy in Europe B6 Philosophy in Australasia B7 Philosophy in America B8 Cognitive science B9 Religions B91 Sociology of religion, religion and science B92 Philosophy and history of religion B93 Mythology and primitive religion B94 Buddhism B95 Taoism B96 Islam B97 Christianity B971 Bible B971.1 Old Testament B971.2 New Testament B972 Doctrine, theology B975 Evangelism, sermons B976 Christian denominations B976.1 Roman Catholic Church B976.2 Orthodox Christianity (Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy) B976.3 Protestantism (Protestant Reformation) B977 Ecclesiastical polity B978 Research on Christianity B979 History of Christianity B979.9 Biography B98 Other religions B99 Augury, superstition C. Social sciences C0 Social scientific theory and methodology C1 Present and future of social sciences C2 Organisations, groups, conferences C3 Method of research in social sciences C4 Education and popularization of social sciences C5 Serials, anthologies, periodicals in social sciences C6 Reference materials in social sciences C7 (no longer used) C8 Statistics in social sciences C9 Sociology D. Politics and law D0 Political theory D1 International campaign of Communism D2 Communist Party of China D3 Communist parties of other countries D4 Labor, peasant, youth, female organizations and movements D5 Politics (worldwide) D6 Politics in China D7 Politics in individual countries D8 Diplomacy, international relations D9 Law DF Law (Applications of laws) E. Military science E0 Military theory E1 Military (worldwide) E2 Military in China E3 Military in Asia E4 Military in Africa E5 Military in Europe E6 Military in Australasia E7 Military in America E8 Strategies, tactics, and battles E9 Military technology F. Economics F0 Economics F1 Economics, economic history and economic geography of individual countries F2 Economic planning and management F3 Agricultural economics F4 Industrial economics F5 Economics of transport F6 Economics of postal and cable services F7 Economics of commerce F8 Finance and banking G. Culture, science, education and sports G0 Philosophy of culture G1 Culture G2 Knowledge transmission G3 Science, scientific research G4 Education G5 Education in individual countries G6 Education (primary, secondary, tertiary) G7 Education (specialized) G8 Sports H. Languages and linguistics H0 Linguistics H01 Phonetics H019 Method of recitation, oratory of speech H02 Grammatology H03 Semantics, lexicology and meaning of words H033 Idiom H034 Adage H04 Syntax H05 Study of writing, rhetoric H059 Study of translation H06 Lexicography H061 Dictionaries H1 Chinese language H10 H102 Regulation, standardisation of Chinese language, promotion of Putonghua H109 H109.2 Ancient Chinese language H109.4 Modern Chinese language H11 Phone (historical Chinese phonology) H12 Grammatology H2 Languages of China's ethnic minorities H3 Commonly used foreign languages H31 English language H32 French language H33 German language H34 Spanish language H35 Russian language H36 Japanese language H37 Arabic language H4 Family of Sino-Tibetan languages (China, Tibet and Burma) H5 Family of Altaic languages (Turkic, Mongolian and Tungusic) H6 Language families in other areas of the world H61 Austroasiatic languages and Tai languages (Mainland Southeast Asia)) H62 Dravidian languages (South India) H63 Austronesian languages (Malayo-Polynesian) H64 Paleosiberian languages (Siberia) H65 Ibero-Caucasian languages (Caucasus Mountains) H66 Uralic languages H67 Afroasiatic languages (Southwest Asia, Arabian Peninsula, North Africa) H7 Indo-European languages H8 Language families on other continents H81 African languages H83 American languages H84 Papuan languages H9 International auxiliary languages (Interlingua, Ido, Esperanto, etc.) I. Literature I0 Literary theory I1 Literature (worldwide) I2 Literature in China I3 Literature in Asia I4 Literature in Africa I5 Literature in Europe I6 Literature in Australasia I7 Literature in America J. Art J0 Theory of fine art J1 Fine art of the world J2 Painting J3 Sculpture J4 Photography J5 Applied arts J6 Music J7 Dance J8 Drama J9 Cinematography, television K. History and geography K0 Historical theory K1 Human history K2 History of China K3 History of Asia K4 History of Africa K5 History of Europe K6 History of Australasia K7 History of America K8 Biography, archaeology K9 Geography N. Natural science N0 Theory and methodology N1 Present state N2 Organisations, groups, conferences N3 Research methodology N4 Education and popularization N5 Serials, anthologies, periodicals N6 Reference materials N8 Field surveys N9 Minor sciences O. Mathematics, physics and chemistry O1 Mathematics O2 Applied mathematics O3 Mechanics O4 Physics O6 Chemistry O7 Crystallography P. Astronomy and geoscience P1 Astronomy P2 Geodesy P3 Geophysics P4 Meteorology P5 Geology P6 Mineralogy P7 Oceanography P9 Physiography Q. Life sciences Q1 General biology Q2 Cytology Q3 Genetics Q4 Physiology Q5 Biochemistry Q6 Biophysics Q7 Molecular biology Q8 Bioengineering Q9 Zoology and botany R. Medicine and health sciences R1 Preventive medicine, public health R2 Traditional Chinese medicine R3 Human anatomy, physiology, pathology, microbiology, parasitology R4 Clinical medicine R5 Internal medicine R6 Surgery R7 Medical specialties R71 Obstetrics, gynecology R72 Pediatrics R73 Oncology R74 Neurology, psychiatry R75 Dermatology, venereology R76 Otolaryngology R77 Ophthalmology R78 Dentistry R79 Non-Chinese traditional medicine R8 Radiology, sport medicine, diving medicine, aerospace medicine R9 Pharmacology, pharmacy S. Agricultural science S1 Fundamental agricultural science S2 Agricultural engineering S3 Agronomy S4 Phytopathology S5 Individual crops S6 Horticulture S7 Forestry S8 Animal husbandry, veterinary medicine, hunting, sericulture, apiculture S9 Aquaculture, fishery T. Industrial technology TB General industrial technology TD Mining engineering TE Petroleum, natural gas TF Extractive metallurgy, smelting TG Metallurgy, metalworking TH Machinery, instrumentation TJ Military technology TK Power plant TL Nuclear technology TM Electrical engineering TN Electronic engineering, telecommunication engineering TP Automation, computer engineering TQ Chemical engineering TS Light industry, handicraft TU Construction engineering TV Water resources, hydraulic engineering U. Transportation U1 General transport U2 Railway transport U4 Highway transport U6 Marine transport V. Aviation and Aerospace V1 Research and Exploration of Aviation and Aerospace Technology V2 Aviation V4 Aerospace (Spaceflight) V7 Aerospace Medicine X. Environmental science X1 Fundamental environmental science X2 Environmental research X3 Environmental protection and management X4 Disaster protection X5 Pollution control X7 Waste Management and recycling X8 Environmental quality monitoring X9 Occupational safety and health Z. General works Z1 Collectanea/generalia (book series) Z12 Collectanea of China Z121 General collectanea Z121.2 Song Dynasty Z121.3 Yuan Dynasty Z121.4 Ming Dynasty Z121.5 Qing Dynasty Z121.6 Republic period Z121.7 Modern Z122 Collectanea of a particular locality Z123 Collectanea by members of a particular family Z124 Collectanea by individual writers Z125 Collectanea of lost books Z126 Collectanea of Chinese classics Z126.1 Collection of Confucian classics Z126.2 Collection of treatises Z126.21 General collection Z126.22 Remake of lost books Z126.23 Collection of a particular theme Z126.24 Chronological tables, tablets, illustrated works Z126.25 Works on phonetics, semantics and authenticity Z126.27 Research, critics and proves Z13 Collectanea and book series of Asia Z14 Book series of Africa Z15 Book series of Europe Z16 Book series of Oceania Z17 Book series of America Z2 Encyclopedias and Chinese encyclopedias (Leishu) Z22 Chinese encyclopedias Z221 Tang Dynasty Z222 Song Dynasty Z223 Yuan Dynasty Z224 Ming Dynasty Z225 Qing Dynasty Z226 Republic Z227 Modern Z228 General popular literature Z228.1 Children's books Z228.2 Popular youth books Z228.3 Elders' books Z228.4 Women's readers Z228.5 Men's readers Z23 Encyclopedias of Asia Z24 Encyclopedias of Africa Z25 Encyclopedias of Europe Z26 Encyclopedias of Oceania Z27 Encyclopedias of America Z28 Encyclopedias of a particular field Z3 Dictionaries Z4 Symposia, anthologies, selected works, essays Z5 Almanac Z6 Serials, periodicals Z8 Catalogues, abstracts, indexes
Other classifications:
The other library classifications in China are: Library Classification of the People’s University of China (LCPUC) Library Classification of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (LCCAS) Library Classification for Medium and Small Libraries (MSL) Library Classification of Wuhan University (LCWU)The other library classifications for Chinese materials outside mainland China are: Cambridge University Library Chinese Classification System Archived 2007-01-07 at the Wayback Machine, Classification Scheme for Chinese Books devised by Profs. Haloun and P. van der Loon for Cambridge University, UK.
Other classifications:
University of Leeds Classification of Books in Chinese, UK (36 pages of Catalog in PDF) Harvard-Yenching Classification System New Classification Scheme for Chinese Libraries (commonly used in Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau) | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**LPXN**
LPXN:
Leupaxin is a protein that in humans is encoded by the LPXN gene.The product encoded by this gene is preferentially expressed in hematopoietic cells and is most homologous to the focal adhesion protein, paxillin. It may function in cell type-specific signaling by associating with PYK2, a member of focal adhesion kinase family. As a substrate for a tyrosine kinase in lymphoid cells, this protein may also function in, and be regulated by tyrosine kinase activity. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Essential Skills Wales**
Essential Skills Wales:
Essential Skills Wales (ESW) is a suite of skills qualifications, available in Wales. Each Essential Skills Wales qualification is equivalent to an E grade at GCE AS-Level (Three Essential Skill Wales qualifications is equivalent to a D grade at GCE A-Level). Essential Skills Wales has replaced the earlier Key Skills in Wales and Wider Key Skills schemes. Skills covered are in the areas of communication, application of number, and ICT. ESW is also embedded within Welsh educational initiatives including the Welsh Baccalaureate and the Apprenticeship programme.
History:
Essential Skills Wales replaced the previous Key Skills in Wales in September 2011. It replaced the previous Key Skills of Communication, Application of Number and ICT, and the Basic Skills of Adult Literacy, Adult Numeracy and Skills for Life ICT. Subsequently, Essential Skills Wales merged with Wider Key Skills to form one suite of Essential Skills qualifications at levels ranging from Entry 1 to Level 3.Proposed changes in 2016 included a new set of ESW qualifications: Essential Communication Skills, Essential Application of Number Skills, and Essential Digital Literacy Skills.
Description:
Essential Skills Wales (ESW) currently consists of three different skills qualifications and is available from entry level 1 (Foundation Level) through to level 4 (Advanced Level). These skills can be achieved through the medium of Welsh or English. Four awarding bodies currently offer the qualifications: Pearson, City & Guilds, WJEC and the Welsh Open College Network, Agored Cymru.
Assessment:
Application of Number and Communication are assessed by a Controlled Task and Confirmatory Test. Digital Literacy and Employability are assessed by a Controlled Task and Structured Discussion. At entry level, the nature of the assessment for the qualifications will be determined by the awarding body delivering the qualification. Each level of the skills incorporates and builds on previous levels.
ESW in the Welsh Baccalaureate:
Essential Skills Wales is one of the four core components of the Welsh Baccalaureate qualification. ESW is intended to complement the other three components (Wales, Europe and the World; Personal and Social Education; and Work-related Education).
In 2015, 4,123 Welsh Bacc learners achieved level 3 ESW Application of Number, and 1,985 Welsh Bacc learners achieved level 3 ESW ICT. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Fudge doughnut**
Fudge doughnut:
Fudge doughnuts are a delicacy in parts of Scotland and England. They are made in chocolate and caramel frosted varieties and have a confectionery custard filling.
Fudge doughnuts are a favourite among students of the University of St Andrews, and warranted a mention in the Installation Address of the Principal and Vice-Chancellor Professor Sally Mapstone in 2016. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**AP5M1**
AP5M1:
AP-5 complex subunit mu (AP5M1), otherwise known as MUDENG (MuD), is a protein that is encoded by the AP5M1 gene. The AP5M1 gene was originally discovered when screening for genes which helped to promote death in Fas-mediated apoptosis. It is a highly conserved gene.MuD is the medium-sized subunit of the AP5 adaptor complex. MuD is expressed throughout the body and is located within both the mitochondria as well as the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of cells.MuD has been shown to have the ability to induce apoptosis; however, there is evidence that it plays an anti-apoptotic role in apoptosis mediated by tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL).
Structure:
MuD consists of 490 amino acids that interact to form a tertiary structure with three domains.The overall structure shares similarities with adaptor protein (AP) complexes that are related to clathrin-mediated endocytosis; amino acids 197 through 417 are a shared adaptin domain found in AP μ subunits.Within the adaptin domain are two aspartic acids, D276 and D290, which serve as binding sites for caspase-3.
Function:
The overall function of MuD remains unclear. It is known, however, that MuD regulates the expression of BAX, a pro-apoptotic member of the Bcl-2 family of proteins. Due to— and dependent upon— this relationship, MuD has been able to induce cell death in tumor cells.Additionally, MuD has been suggested to be involved in endosomal trafficking.
TRAIL and MuD:
TRAIL, an apoptosis-inducing ligand, activates caspase-8 and caspase-3, which initiate the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis by cleaving BH3 interacting-domain death agonist (Bid) into tBid, another pro-apoptotic member of the Bl-2 protein family. MuD interferes with this process because D276 and D290 act as alternative binding sites for caspase-3, decreasing the amount of Bid that gets cleaved. Tumor cells being treated with TRAIL are 32% more likely to survive when MuD is being expressed. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Rocaglamide**
Rocaglamide:
Rocaglamide is a natural product which belongs to a class of molecules called flavaglines. This compound was isolated in 1982 by King, Ming-Lu (金明儒) and colleagues based on its antileukemic activity. The name of Rocaglamide is named from two parts: Roc- and aglamide. Roc- means Republic of China (中華民國), the place in which this product isolated; aglamide indicates this product is isolated from Large-leaved Aglaia (Scientific name: Aglaia rimosa). Like other flavaglines, rocaglamide displays potent insecticidal, antifungal, anti-inflammatory and anticancer activities. Rocaglamide A (RocA) inhibits eukaryotic translation initiation by binding to the translation initiation factor eIF4A and converting it into a translational repressor.Rocaglamide was first synthesized by Barry Trost in 1990. Although other syntheses have been described since, Trost’s remains the only one to afford rocaglamide in an enantio-specific manner. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Small nucleolar RNA snoMBI-87**
Small nucleolar RNA snoMBI-87:
In molecular biology, Small nucleolar RNA MBI-87 is a non-coding RNA (ncRNA) molecule which functions in the biogenesis (modification) of other small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs). This type of modifying RNA is located in the nucleolus of the eukaryotic cell which is a major site of snRNA biogenesis. It is known as a small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA) and also often referred to as a "guide RNA".snoRNA MBI-87 was originally cloned from mouse brain tissues and belongs to the H/ACA box class of snoRNAs as it has the predicted hairpin-hinge-hairpin-tail structure and has the conserved H/ACA-box motifs. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Oil for Drugs**
Oil for Drugs:
The Oil for Drugs case is an Italian doping case against doctor Carlo Santuccione and a number of accomplices, started in 2003. He is accused of administering prohibited doping products to professional and amateur athletes, to enhance their performance as well as being involved in doping network across Italy.
Timeline:
Death of amateur cyclist The catalyst to start the investigation was the death of an amateur cyclist in Italy that was suspicious. The death of this unnamed cyclist, which occurred around December 2002, led to an investigation by the Italian authorities. The State Prosecutor started and coordinated the investigation.
Timeline:
Police action Italy's Anti-Narcotic Group (NAS) began an investigation, this included tapping the phones of Doctor Santuccione and installing a hidden camera in his office. On March 3, 2004, they recorded a phone call in which Santuccione advised the professional cyclist Danilo Di Luca to inject EPO before Milan–San Remo. Di Luca said that he would visit the Doctor that evening with teammate Alessandro Spezialetti. Later that evening the video surveillance of Santuccione's office showed Santuccione preparing two disposable syringes with EPO and exiting his office to where Di Luca and Spezialetti were waiting outside. A teammate of Di Luca and Spezialetti, Eddy Mazzoleni also sent SMS messages to Santuccione at this time mentioning Di Luca and hormone use.Following this surveillance the NAS squad conducted coordinated surprise raids at team hotels as well as at certain riders' homes on the night of May 24, 2004. Eight riders (all clients of Santuccione) from six different teams were involved. These were: Alessio Galletti and Mario Scirea from Domina Vacanze Fabio Sacchi from Fassa Bortolo Eddy Mazzoleni, Danilo Di Luca and Alessandro Spezialetti from Saeco Macchine per Caffè Ruggero Marzoli from Acqua & Sapone Giuseppe Muraglia from Formaggi Pinzolo Fiava Simone Masciarelli from Vini Caldirola–Nobili RubinetterieNo illegal substances were found.The NAS raid was part of a much larger raid carried out in 28 Italian cities involving 138 professional and amateur athletes, doctors and others who were under suspicion of dealing or using doping in several sports. However, by May 2004, only two arrests had been made. One of these involved a pharmacist.
Timeline:
Suspensions and bans Danilo Di Luca was given a three-month suspension due to his involvement in the case. On December 18, 2007, Doctor Santuccione was given a lifetime ban by the Italian National Olympic Committee (CONI) due to his involvement in the Oil for Drugs case and after having already serving a lengthy ban for a previous doping offense. On October 26, 2007, the Italian pole vaulter Giuseppe Gibilisco was given a two-year ban for his involvement. On April 8, 2008, Mazzoleni was given a two-year suspension due to his involvement in the case. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Formation evaluation gamma ray**
Formation evaluation gamma ray:
The formation evaluation gamma ray log is a record of the variation with depth of the natural radioactivity of earth materials in a wellbore. Measurement of natural emission of gamma rays in oil and gas wells are useful because shales and sandstones typically have different gamma ray levels. Shales and clays are responsible for most natural radioactivity, so gamma ray log often is a good indicator of such rocks. In addition, the log is also used for correlation between wells, for depth correlation between open and cased holes, and for depth correlation between logging runs.
Physics:
Natural radioactivity is the spontaneous decay of the atoms of certain isotopes into other isotopes. If the resultant isotope is not stable, it undergoes further decay until a stable isotope forms. The decay process is usually accompanied by emissions of alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. Natural gamma ray radiation is one form of spontaneous radiation emitted by unstable nuclei. Gamma (γ) radiation may be considered either as an electromagnetic wave similar to visible light or X-rays, or as a particle of photon. Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiations emitted from an atomic nucleus during radioactive decay, with the wavelength in the range of 10−9 to 10−11cm Natural radioactivity in rocks Isotopes naturally found on earth are usually those that are stable or have a decay time larger than, or at least a significant fraction of the age of the earth (about 5 x 109 years). Isotopes with shorter halflifes mainly exist as decay products from longer lived isotopes, and, as in C14, from irradiation of the upper atmosphere.
Physics:
Radioisotopes with a sufficiently long halflife, and whose decay produces an appreciable amount of gamma rays are: Potassium 40K with half-life of 1.3 x 109 years, which emits 0 α, 1 β, and 1 γ-ray Thorium 232Th with half-life of 1.4 x 1010 years, which emits 7 α, 5 β, and numerous γ-ray with different energies Uranium 238U with half-life of 4.4 x 109 years, which emits 8 α, 6 β, and numerous γ-ray with different energiesEach of these elements emits gamma-rays with distinctive energy. Figure 1 shows the energies of emitted gamma-ray from the three main isotopes. Potassium 40 decays directly to stable argon 40 with the emission of 1.46 MeV gamma-ray. Uranium 238 and thorium 232 decay sequentially through a long sequence of various isotopes until a final stable isotope. The spectrum of the gamma-rays emitted by these two isotopes consists of gamma-ray of many different energies and form a complete spectra. The peak of thorium series can be found at 2.62 MeV and the Uranium series at 1.76 MeV.
Applications:
The most common sources of natural gamma rays are potassium, thorium, and uranium. These elements are found in feldspars (i.e. granites, feldspathic), volcanic and igneous rocks, sands containing volcanic ash, and clays.
Gamma-ray measurement has the following applications: Well to well correlation: gamma-ray log fluctuates with changes in formation mineralogy. As such, gamma-ray logs from different wells within the same field or region can be very useful for correlation purposes, because similar formations show similar features.
Logging runs correlation: Gamma-ray tools is typically run in every logging tools runs in a well. Being a common measurement, logging data can be put on depth with each other by correlating the gamma-ray feature of each run.
Applications:
Quantitative evaluation of shaliness: Since natural radioactive elements tend to have greater concentration in shales than in other sedimentary lithologies, the total gamma ray measurement is frequently used to derive a shale volume (Ellis-1987, Rider-1996). This method however, is only likely to be used in a simple sandstone-shale formation, and is subject to error when radioactive elements are present in the sand.
Interpretation:
Gamma-ray detected by Gamma-ray detector in an oil or gas wells, is not only a function of radioactivity of the formations, but also other factors as follows: Borehole Fluid: the influence of borehole fluid depends on its volume (i.e. hole size), the position of the tool, its density, and composition. Potassium chloride (KCl) in mud, for example, flows into permeable sections, resulting in an increase in gamma ray activity.
Interpretation:
Tubing, Casing, etc.: Their effect depend on the thickness, density, and nature of the materials (e.g. steel, aluminum). Steel reduces the gamma-ray level, but can be corrected once the density and thickness of the casing, cement sheath and borehole fluid are known.
Interpretation:
Cement: Its impact is determined by the type of cement, additives, density and thickness Bed Thickness: Gamma-ray reading does not reflect the true value in a bed with a thickness less than the diameter of the sphere of investigation. In a series of thin beds, the log reading is a volume average of the contributions within the sphere.In addition, all radioactive phenomena are random in nature. Count rates vary about a mean value, and counts must be averaged over time to obtain a reasonable estimate of the mean. The longer the averaged period and the higher the count rate, the more precise the estimate.
Interpretation:
Sample of corrections required for different gamma-ray tools are available from Schlumberger.
Gamma ray log interpretation show different peaks in well. Shale are represent the Sharp Peaks and its range is 40-140 API and contain the high amount of potassium.
Measurement technique:
Older gamma-ray detectors use the Geiger-Mueller counter principle, but have been mostly replaced thallium-doped sodium-iodide (NaI) scintillation detector, which has a higher efficiency. NaI detectors are usually composed of a NaI crystal coupled with a photomultiplier. When gamma ray from formation enters the crystal, it undergoes successive collisions with the atoms of the crystal, resulting in a short flashes of light when the gamma-ray is absorbed. The light is detected by the photomultiplier, which converts the energy into an electric pulse with amplitude proportional to the gamma-ray energy. The number of electric pulses is recorded in counts per seconds (CPS). The higher the gamma-ray count rate, the larger the clay content and vice versa.
Measurement technique:
Primary calibration of gamma-ray tool is the test pit at the University of Houston. The artificial formation simulate about twice the radioactivity of a shale, which generates 200 API units of gamma radiation. The detector crystal is affected by hydration and its response changes with time. Consequently, a secondary and a field calibration is achieved with a portable jig carrying a small radioactive source. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Cork encoding**
Cork encoding:
The Cork (also known as T1 or EC) encoding is a character encoding used for encoding glyphs in fonts. It is named after the city of Cork in Ireland, where during a TeX Users Group (TUG) conference in 1990 a new encoding was introduced for LaTeX. It contains 256 characters supporting most west- and east-European languages with the Latin alphabet.
Details:
In 8-bit TeX engines the font encoding has to match the encoding of hyphenation patterns where this encoding is most commonly used. In LaTeX one can switch to this encoding with \usepackage[T1]{fontenc}, while in ConTeXt MkII this is the default encoding already. In modern engines such as XeTeX and LuaTeX Unicode is fully supported and the 8-bit font encodings are obsolete.
Notes:
Hexadecimal values under the characters in the table are the Unicode character codes.
The first 12 characters are often used as combining characters.
Supported languages:
The encoding supports most European languages written in Latin alphabet. Notable exceptions are: Esperanto (using IL3) Latvian language and Lithuanian language (using L7X) Welsh languageLanguages with slightly suboptimal support include: Galician language, Portuguese language and Spanish language – due to the lack of characters ª and º, which are not superscript versions of lowercase "a" and "o" (superscripts are thinner) and they are often underlined Croatian language, Bosnian language, Serbian language – due to the shared use of the slot for Đ Turkish language – due to dotless i having different uppercase and lowercase combinations than in other languages | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Lemon ice box pie**
Lemon ice box pie:
Lemon ice box pie is an icebox pie consisting of lemon juice, eggs, and condensed milk in a pie crust, frequently made of graham crackers and butter. It is a variant of key lime pie; in both, the citric acidity sets the egg yolks, with minimal baking. There are also no bake versions.
History:
No-bake icebox pies like the lemon icebox pie first became features of American cuisine in the 1930s, becoming more popular in the 1950s and 1960s as refrigerators became a standard item of the American kitchen. They are associated with the food traditions of the cuisine of the Southern United States.A 1936 recipe for stovetop lemon icebox pie was made by combining flour, cornstarch and sugar in a double boiler and gradually adding water to create a smooth batter, adding butter and stirring constantly. Egg yolks are stirred in and briefly cooked, then the mixture is taken off the heat and the lemon zest and juice are added, whipped egg whites are folded in, and the mixture is set aside to cool, then poured into a pie dish lined with ladyfingers or vanilla wafers. The pie is chilled in the refrigerator and topped with whipped cream before serving.
Preparation:
To make the pie, sweetened condensed milk is whisked with fresh lemon juice and cream cheese. Separately, the egg yolks are whisked with the lemon zest until they become pale in color, then the condensed milk mixture is added gradually to the eggs. The crust can be made with vanilla wafers that are combined with melted butter and sugar until the consistency of wet sand, then pressed into a pie pan to form a crust. The crust is lightly baked, then filled with the filling. The pie is baked gently and allowed to set for several hours in the refrigerator. Before serving, it is topped with fresh whipped cream that can be flavored with lemon zest.The classic version of the no bake pie was made with eggs. Although cooks of that era said "the lemon juice has the effect of cooking the eggs", the modern day recommendation is to heat the raw egg yolk briefly on the stovetop.No bake versions can be made without eggs. The filling has been described as "light and delicate in flavor" and is made with just three ingredients: condensed milk, lemon zest and fresh lemon juice. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Anterior compartment of leg**
Anterior compartment of leg:
The anterior compartment of the leg is a fascial compartment of the lower leg. It contains muscles that produce dorsiflexion and participate in inversion and eversion of the foot, as well as vascular and nervous elements, including the anterior tibial artery and veins and the deep fibular nerve.
Muscles:
The muscles of the compartment are: tibialis anterior extensor hallucis longus extensor digitorum longus fibularis (peroneus) tertius
Function:
The compartment contains muscles that are dorsiflexors and participate in inversion and eversion of the foot.
Innervation and blood supply:
The anterior compartment of the leg is supplied by the deep fibular nerve (deep peroneal nerve), a branch of the common fibular nerve. The nerve contains axons from the L4, L5, and S1 spinal nerves.
Blood for the compartment is supplied by the anterior tibial artery, which runs between the tibialis anterior and extensor digitorum longus muscles. When the artery crosses the extensor retinaculum, it changes its name to dorsalis pedis artery. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Retina horizontal cell**
Retina horizontal cell:
Horizontal cells are the laterally interconnecting neurons having cell bodies in the inner nuclear layer of the retina of vertebrate eyes. They help integrate and regulate the input from multiple photoreceptor cells. Among their functions, horizontal cells are believed to be responsible for increasing contrast via lateral inhibition and adapting both to bright and dim light conditions. Horizontal cells provide inhibitory feedback to rod and cone photoreceptors. They are thought to be important for the antagonistic center-surround property of the receptive fields of many types of retinal ganglion cells.Other retinal neurons include photoreceptor cells, bipolar cells, amacrine cells, and retinal ganglion cells.
Structure:
Depending on the species, there are typically one or two classes of horizontal cells, with a third type sometimes proposed.Horizontal cells span across photoreceptors and summate inputs before synapsing onto photoreceptor cells. Horizontal cells may also synapse onto bipolar cells, but this remains uncertain.There is a greater density of horizontal cells towards the central region of the retina. In the cat, it is observed that A-type horizontal cells have a density of 225 cells/mm2 near the center of the retina and a density of 120 cells/mm2 in more peripheral retina.Horizontal cells and other retinal interneuron cells are less likely to be near neighbours of the same subtype than would occur by chance, resulting in ‘exclusion zones’ that separate them. Mosaic arrangements provide a mechanism to distribute each cell type evenly across the retina, ensuring that all parts of the visual field have access to a full set of processing elements. MEGF10 and MEGF11 transmembrane proteins have critical roles in the formation of the mosaics by horizontal cells and starburst amacrine cells in mice.
Function:
Horizontal cells are depolarized by the release of glutamate from photoreceptors, which happens in the absence of light. Depolarization of a horizontal cell causes it to hyperpolarize nearby photoreceptors. Conversely, in the light, a photoreceptor releases less glutamate, which hyperpolarizes the horizontal cell, leading to depolarization of nearby photoreceptors. Thus, horizontal cells provide negative feedback to photoreceptors. The moderately wide lateral spread and coupling of horizontal cells by gap junctions, measures the average level of illumination falling upon a region of the retinal surface, which horizontal cells then subtract a proportionate value from the output of photoreceptors to hold the signal input to the inner retinal circuitry within its operating range. Horizontal cells are also one of two groups of inhibitory interneurons that contribute to the surround of retinal ganglion cells:Illumination → Center photoreceptor hyperpolarization → Horizontal cell hyperpolarization → Surround photoreceptor depolarization The exact mechanism by which depolarization of horizontal cells hyperpolarizes photoreceptors is uncertain. Although horizontal cells contain GABA, the main mechanisms by which horizontal cells inhibit cones probably do not involve the release of GABA by horizontal cells onto cones. Two mechanisms that are not mutually exclusive likely contribute to horizontal cell inhibition of glutamate release by cones. Both postulated mechanisms depend on the protected environment provided by the invaginating synapses that horizontal cells make onto cones. The first postulated mechanism is a very fast ephaptic mechanism that has no synaptic delay, making it one of the fastest inhibitory synapses known. The second postulated mechanism is relatively slow with a time constant of about 200 ms and depends on ATP release via Pannexin 1 channels located on horizontal cell dendrites invaginating the cone synaptic terminal. The ecto-ATPase NTPDase1 hydrolyses extracellular ATP to AMP, phosphate groups, and protons. The phosphate groups and protons form a pH buffer with a pKa of 7.2, which keeps the pH in the synaptic cleft relatively acidic. This inhibits the cone Ca2+ channels and consequently reduces the glutamate release by the cones.The center-surround antagonism of bipolar cells is thought to be inherited from cones. However, when recordings are made from parts of the cone that are distant from the cone terminals that synapse onto bipolar cells, center-surround antagonism seems to be less reliable in cones than in bipolar cells. As the invaginating synapses from horizontal cells are made onto cone terminals, the center-surround antagonism of cones is thought to be more reliably present in cone terminals. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Surprise factor**
Surprise factor:
Storytelling is the social and cultural activity of sharing stories, sometimes with improvisation, theatrics or embellishment. Every culture has its own stories or narratives, which are shared as a means of entertainment, education, cultural preservation or instilling moral values. Crucial elements of stories and storytelling include plot, characters and narrative point of view. The term "storytelling" can refer specifically to oral storytelling but also broadly to techniques used in other media to unfold or disclose the narrative of a story.
Historical perspective:
Storytelling, intertwined with the development of mythologies, predates writing. The earliest forms of storytelling were usually oral, combined with gestures and expressions. Some archaeologists believe that rock art, in addition to a role in religious rituals, may have served as a form of storytelling for many ancient cultures. The Australian aboriginal people painted symbols which also appear in stories on cave walls as a means of helping the storyteller remember the story. The story was then told using a combination of oral narrative, music, rock art and dance, which bring understanding and meaning to human existence through the remembrance and enactment of stories. People have used the carved trunks of living trees and ephemeral media (such as sand and leaves) to record folktales in pictures or with writing. Complex forms of tattooing may also represent stories, with information about genealogy, affiliation and social status.Folktales often share common motifs and themes, suggesting possible basic psychological similarities across various human cultures. Other stories, notably fairy tales, appear to have spread from place to place, implying memetic appeal and popularity.
Historical perspective:
Groups of originally oral tales can coalesce over time into story cycles (like the Arabian Nights), cluster around mythic heroes (like King Arthur), and develop into the narratives of the deeds of the gods and saints of various religions.
The results can be episodic (like the stories about Anansi), epic (as with Homeric tales), inspirational (note the tradition of vitae) and/or instructive (as in many Buddhist or Christian scriptures).
Historical perspective:
With the advent of writing and the use of stable, portable media, storytellers recorded, transcribed and continued to share stories over wide regions of the world. Stories have been carved, scratched, painted, printed or inked onto wood or bamboo, ivory and other bones, pottery, clay tablets, stone, palm-leaf books, skins (parchment), bark cloth, paper, silk, canvas and other textiles, recorded on film and stored electronically in digital form. Oral stories continue to be created, improvisationally by impromptu and professional storytellers, as well as committed to memory and passed from generation to generation, despite the increasing popularity of written and televised media in much of the world.
Contemporary storytelling:
Modern storytelling has a broad purview. In addition to its traditional forms (fairytales, folktales, mythology, legends, fables etc.), it has extended itself to representing history, personal narrative, political commentary and evolving cultural norms. Contemporary storytelling is also widely used to address educational objectives. New forms of media are creating new ways for people to record, express and consume stories. Tools for asynchronous group communication can provide an environment for individuals to reframe or recast individual stories into group stories. Games and other digital platforms, such as those used in interactive fiction or interactive storytelling, may be used to position the user as a character within a bigger world. Documentaries, including interactive web documentaries, employ storytelling narrative techniques to communicate information about their topic. Self-revelatory stories, created for their cathartic and therapeutic effect, are growing in their use and application, as in Psychodrama, Drama Therapy and Playback Theatre. Storytelling is also used as a means by which to precipitate psychological and social change in the practice of transformative arts.Some people also make a case for different narrative forms being classified as storytelling in the contemporary world. For example, digital storytelling, online and dice-and-paper-based role-playing games. In traditional role-playing games, storytelling is done by the person who controls the environment and the non-playing fictional characters, and moves the story elements along for the players as they interact with the storyteller. The game is advanced by mainly verbal interactions, with dice roll determining random events in the fictional universe, where the players interact with each other and the storyteller. This type of game has many genres, such as sci-fi and fantasy, as well as alternate-reality worlds based on the current reality, but with different setting and beings such as werewolves, aliens, daemons, or hidden societies. These oral-based role-playing games were very popular in the 1990s among circles of youth in many countries before computer and console-based online MMORPG's took their place. Despite the prevalence of computer-based MMORPGs, the dice-and-paper RPG still has a dedicated following.
Oral traditions:
Oral traditions of storytelling are found in several civilizations; they predate the printed and online press. Storytelling was used to explain natural phenomena, bards told stories of creation and developed a pantheon of gods and myths. Oral stories passed from one generation to the next and storytellers were regarded as healers, leaders, spiritual guides, teachers, cultural secrets keepers and entertainers. Oral storytelling came in various forms including songs, poetry, chants and dance.Albert Bates Lord examined oral narratives from field transcripts of Yugoslav oral bards collected by Milman Parry in the 1930s, and the texts of epics such as the Odyssey. Lord found that a large part of the stories consisted of text which was improvised during the telling process.
Oral traditions:
Lord identified two types of story vocabulary. The first he called "formulas": "Rosy-fingered Dawn", "the wine-dark sea" and other specific set phrases had long been known of in Homer and other oral epics. Lord, however, discovered that across many story traditions, fully 90% of an oral epic is assembled from lines which are repeated verbatim or which use one-for-one word substitutions. In other words, oral stories are built out of set phrases which have been stockpiled from a lifetime of hearing and telling stories.
Oral traditions:
The other type of story vocabulary is theme, a set sequence of story actions that structure a tale. Just as the teller of tales proceeds line-by-line using formulas, so he proceeds from event-to-event using themes. One near-universal theme is repetition, as evidenced in Western folklore with the "rule of three": Three brothers set out, three attempts are made, three riddles are asked. A theme can be as simple as a specific set sequence describing the arming of a hero, starting with shirt and trousers and ending with headdress and weapons. A theme can be large enough to be a plot component. For example: a hero proposes a journey to a dangerous place / he disguises himself / his disguise fools everybody / except for a common person of little account (a crone, a tavern maid or a woodcutter) / who immediately recognizes him / the commoner becomes the hero's ally, showing unexpected resources of skill or initiative. A theme does not belong to a specific story, but may be found with minor variation in many different stories.
Oral traditions:
The story was described by Reynolds Price, when he wrote: A need to tell and hear stories is essential to the species Homo sapiens – second in necessity apparently after nourishment and before love and shelter. Millions survive without love or home, almost none in silence; the opposite of silence leads quickly to narrative, and the sound of story is the dominant sound of our lives, from the small accounts of our day's events to the vast incommunicable constructs of psychopaths.In contemporary life, people will seek to fill "story vacuums" with oral and written stories. "In the absence of a narrative, especially in an ambiguous and/or urgent situation, people will seek out and consume plausible stories like water in the desert. It is our innate nature to connect the dots. Once an explanatory narrative is adopted, it's extremely hard to undo," whether or not it is true.
Oral traditions:
Märchen and Sagen Folklorists sometimes divide oral tales into two main groups: Märchen and Sagen. These are German terms for which there are no exact English equivalents, however we have approximations: Märchen, loosely translated as "fairy tale(s)" or little stories, take place in a kind of separate "once-upon-a-time" world of nowhere-in-particular, at an indeterminate time in the past. They are clearly not intended to be understood as true. The stories are full of clearly defined incidents, and peopled by rather flat characters with little or no interior life. When the supernatural occurs, it is presented matter-of-factly, without surprise. Indeed, there is very little effect, generally; bloodcurdling events may take place, but with little call for emotional response from the listener.Sagen, translated as "legends", are supposed to have actually happened, very often at a particular time and place, and they draw much of their power from this fact. When the supernatural intrudes (as it often does), it does so in an emotionally fraught manner. Ghost and Lovers' Leap stories belong in this category, as do many UFO stories and stories of supernatural beings and events.Another important examination of orality in human life is Walter J. Ong's Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word (1982). Ong studies the distinguishing characteristics of oral traditions, how oral and written cultures interact and condition one another, and how they ultimately influence human epistemology.
Learning:
Storytelling is a means for sharing and interpreting experiences. Peter L. Berger says human life is narratively rooted, humans construct their lives and shape their world into homes in terms of these groundings and memories. Stories are universal in that they can bridge cultural, linguistic and age-related divides. Storytelling can be adaptive for all ages, leaving out the notion of age segregation. Storytelling can be used as a method to teach ethics, values and cultural norms and differences. Learning is most effective when it takes place in social environments that provide authentic social cues about how knowledge is to be applied. Stories function as a tool to pass on knowledge in a social context. So, every story has 3 parts. First, The setup (The Hero's world before the adventure starts). Second, The Confrontation (The hero's world turned upside down). Third, The Resolution (Hero conquers villain, but it is not enough for Hero to survive. The Hero or World must be transformed). Any story can be framed in such format.
Learning:
Human knowledge is based on stories and the human brain consists of cognitive machinery necessary to understand, remember and tell stories. Humans are storytelling organisms that both individually and socially, lead storied lives. Stories mirror human thought as humans think in narrative structures and most often remember facts in story form. Facts can be understood as smaller versions of a larger story, thus storytelling can supplement analytical thinking. Because storytelling requires auditory and visual senses from listeners, one can learn to organize their mental representation of a story, recognize structure of language and express his or her thoughts.Stories tend to be based on experiential learning, but learning from an experience is not automatic. Often a person needs to attempt to tell the story of that experience before realizing its value. In this case, it is not only the listener who learns, but the teller who also becomes aware of his or her own unique experiences and background. This process of storytelling is empowering as the teller effectively conveys ideas and, with practice, is able to demonstrate the potential of human accomplishment. Storytelling taps into existing knowledge and creates bridges both culturally and motivationally toward a solution.
Learning:
Stories are effective educational tools because listeners become engaged and therefore remember. Storytelling can be seen as a foundation for learning and teaching. While the story listener is engaged, they are able to imagine new perspectives, inviting a transformative and empathetic experience. This involves allowing the individual to actively engage in the story as well as observe, listen and participate with minimal guidance. Listening to a storyteller can create lasting personal connections, promote innovative problem solving and foster a shared understanding regarding future ambitions. The listener can then activate knowledge and imagine new possibilities. Together a storyteller and listener can seek best practices and invent new solutions. Because stories often have multiple layers of meanings, listeners have to listen closely to identify the underlying knowledge in the story. Storytelling is used as a tool to teach children the importance of respect through the practice of listening. As well as connecting children with their environment, through the theme of the stories, and give them more autonomy by using repetitive statements, which improve their learning to learn competence. It is also used to teach children to have respect for all life, value inter-connectedness and always work to overcome adversity. To teach this a Kinesthetic learning style would be used, involving the listeners through music, dream interpretation, or dance.
Learning:
In indigenous cultures For indigenous cultures of the Americas, storytelling is used as an oral form of language associated with practices and values essential to developing one's identity. This is because everyone in the community can add their own touch and perspective to the narrative collaboratively – both individual and culturally shared perspectives have a place in the co-creation of the story. Oral storytelling in indigenous communities differs from other forms of stories because they are told not only for entertainment, but for teaching values. For example, the Sto:lo community in Canada focuses on reinforcing children's identity by telling stories about the land to explain their roles.Furthermore, Storytelling is a way to teach younger members of indigenous communities about their culture and their identities. In Donna Eder's study, Navajos were interviewed about storytelling practices that they have had in the past and what changes they want to see in the future. They notice that storytelling makes an impact on the lives of the children of the Navajos. According to some of the Navajos that were interviewed, storytelling is one of many main practices that teaches children the important principles to live a good life. In indigenous communities, stories are a way to pass knowledge on from generation to generation.
Learning:
For some indigenous people, experience has no separation between the physical world and the spiritual world. Thus, some indigenous people communicate to their children through ritual, storytelling, or dialogue. Community values, learned through storytelling, help to guide future generations and aid in identity formation.In the Quechua community of Highland Peru, there is no separation between adults and children. This allows for children to learn storytelling through their own interpretations of the given story. Therefore, children in the Quechua community are encouraged to listen to the story that is being told in order to learn about their identity and culture. Sometimes, children are expected to sit quietly and listen actively. This enables them to engage in activities as independent learners.This teaching practice of storytelling allowed children to formulate ideas based on their own experiences and perspectives. In Navajo communities, for children and adults, storytelling is one of the many effective ways to educate both the young and old about their cultures, identities and history. Storytelling help the Navajos know who they are, where they come from and where they belong.Storytelling in indigenous cultures is sometimes passed on by oral means in a quiet and relaxing environment, which usually coincides with family or tribal community gatherings and official events such as family occasions, rituals, or ceremonial practices. During the telling of the story, children may act as participants by asking questions, acting out the story, or telling smaller parts of the story. Furthermore, stories are not often told in the same manner twice, resulting in many variations of a single myth. This is because narrators may choose to insert new elements into old stories dependent upon the relationship between the storyteller and the audience, making the story correspond to each unique situation.Indigenous cultures also use instructional ribbing— a playful form of correcting children's undesirable behavior— in their stories. For example, the Ojibwe (or Chippewa) tribe uses the tale of an owl snatching away misbehaving children. The caregiver will often say, "The owl will come and stick you in his ears if you don't stop crying!" Thus, this form of teasing serves as a tool to correct inappropriate behavior and promote cooperation.
Learning:
Types There are various types of stories among many indigenous communities. Communication in Indigenous American communities is rich with stories, myths, philosophies and narratives that serve as a means to exchange information. These stories may be used for coming of age themes, core values, morality, literacy and history. Very often, the stories are used to instruct and teach children about cultural values and lessons. The meaning within the stories is not always explicit, and children are expected to make their own meaning of the stories. In the Lakota Tribe of North America, for example, young girls are often told the story of the White Buffalo Calf Woman, who is a spiritual figure that protects young girls from the whims of men. In the Odawa Tribe, young boys are often told the story of a young man who never took care of his body, and as a result, his feet fail to run when he tries to escape predators. This story serves as an indirect means of encouraging the young boys to take care of their bodies.Narratives can be shared to express the values or morals among family, relatives, or people who are considered part of the close-knit community. Many stories in indigenous American communities all have a "surface" story, that entails knowing certain information and clues to unlocking the metaphors in the story. The underlying message of the story being told, can be understood and interpreted with clues that hint to a certain interpretation. In order to make meaning from these stories, elders in the Sto:lo community for example, emphasize the importance in learning how to listen, since it requires the senses to bring one's heart and mind together. For instance, a way in which children learn about the metaphors significant for the society they live in, is by listening to their elders and participating in rituals where they respect one another.
Learning:
Passing on values Stories in indigenous cultures encompass a variety of values. These values include an emphasis on individual responsibility, concern for the environment and communal welfare.Stories are based on values passed down by older generations to shape the foundation of the community. Storytelling is used as a bridge for knowledge and understanding allowing the values of "self" and "community" to connect and be learned as a whole. Storytelling in the Navajo community for example allows for community values to be learned at different times and places for different learners. Stories are told from the perspective of other people, animals, or the natural elements of the earth. In this way, children learn to value their place in the world as a person in relation to others. Typically, stories are used as an informal learning tool in Indigenous American communities, and can act as an alternative method for reprimanding children's bad behavior. In this way, stories are non-confrontational, which allows the child to discover for themselves what they did wrong and what they can do to adjust the behavior.Parents in the Arizona Tewa community, for example, teach morals to their children through traditional narratives. Lessons focus on several topics including historical or "sacred" stories or more domestic disputes. Through storytelling, the Tewa community emphasizes the traditional wisdom of the ancestors and the importance of collective as well as individual identities. Indigenous communities teach children valuable skills and morals through the actions of good or mischievous stock characters while also allowing room for children to make meaning for themselves. By not being given every element of the story, children rely on their own experiences and not formal teaching from adults to fill in the gaps.When children listen to stories, they periodically vocalize their ongoing attention and accept the extended turn of the storyteller. The emphasis on attentiveness to surrounding events and the importance of oral tradition in indigenous communities teaches children the skill of keen attention. For example, Children of the Tohono O'odham American Indian community who engaged in more cultural practices were able to recall the events in a verbally presented story better than those who did not engage in cultural practices. Body movements and gestures help to communicate values and keep stories alive for future generations. Elders, parents and grandparents are typically involved in teaching the children the cultural ways, along with history, community values and teachings of the land.Children in indigenous communities can also learn from the underlying message of a story. For example, in a nahuatl community near Mexico City, stories about ahuaques or hostile water dwelling spirits that guard over the bodies of water, contain morals about respecting the environment. If the protagonist of a story, who has accidentally broken something that belongs to the ahuaque, does not replace it or give back in some way to the ahuaque, the protagonist dies. In this way, storytelling serves as a way to teach what the community values, such as valuing the environment.
Learning:
Storytelling also serves to deliver a particular message during spiritual and ceremonial functions. In the ceremonial use of storytelling, the unity building theme of the message becomes more important than the time, place and characters of the message. Once the message is delivered, the story is finished. As cycles of the tale are told and retold, story units can recombine, showing various outcomes for a person's actions.
Research:
Storytelling has been assessed for critical literacy skills and the learning of theatre-related terms by the nationally recognized storytelling and creative drama organization, Neighborhood Bridges, in Minneapolis. Another storyteller researcher in the UK proposes that the social space created preceding oral storytelling in schools may trigger sharing (Parfitt, 2014).Storytelling has also been studied as a way to investigate and archive cultural knowledge and values within indigenous American communities. Iseke's study (2013) on the role of storytelling in the Metis community, showed promise in furthering research about the Metis and their shared communal atmosphere during storytelling events. Iseke focused on the idea of witnessing a storyteller as a vital way to share and partake in the Metis community, as members of the community would stop everything else they were doing in order to listen or "witness" the storyteller and allow the story to become a "ceremonial landscape," or shared reference, for everyone present. This was a powerful tool for the community to engage and teach new learner shared references for the values and ideologies of the Metis. Through storytelling, the Metis cemented the shared reference of personal or popular stories and folklore, which members of the community can use to share ideologies. In the future, Iseke noted that Metis elders wished for the stories being told to be used for further research into their culture, as stories were a traditional way to pass down vital knowledge to younger generations.
Research:
For the stories we read, the "neuro-semantic encoding of narratives happens at levels higher than individual semantic units and that this encoding is systematic across both individuals and languages." This encoding seems to appear most prominently in the default mode network.
Serious storytelling:
Storytelling in serious application contexts, as e.g. therapeutics, business, serious games, medicine, education, or faith can be referred to as serious storytelling. Serious storytelling applies storytelling "outside the context of entertainment, where the narration progresses as a sequence of patterns impressive in quality ... and is part of a thoughtful progress".
As a political praxis:
Some approaches treat narratives as politically motivated stories, stories empowering certain groups and stories giving people agency. Instead of just searching for the main point of the narrative, the political function is demanded through asking, "Whose interest does a personal narrative serve"? This approach mainly looks at the power, authority, knowledge, ideology and identity; "whether it legitimates and dominates or resists and empowers". All personal narratives are seen as ideological because they evolve from a structure of power relations and simultaneously produce, maintain and reproduce that power structure".Political theorist, Hannah Arendt argues that storytelling transforms private meaning to public meaning. Regardless of the gender of the narrator and what story they are sharing, the performance of the narrative and the audience listening to it is where the power lies.
Therapeutic:
Therapeutic storytelling is the act of telling one's story in an attempt to better understand oneself or one's situation. Oftentimes, these stories affect the audience in a therapeutic sense as well, helping them to view situations similar to their own through a different lens. Noted author and folklore scholar, Elaine Lawless states, "...this process provides new avenues for understanding and identity formation. Language is utilised to bear witness to their lives". Sometimes a narrator will simply skip over certain details without realizing, only to include it in their stories during a later telling. In this way, that telling and retelling of the narrative serves to "reattach portions of the narrative". These gaps may occur due to a repression of the trauma or even just a want to keep the most gruesome details private. Regardless, these silences are not as empty as they appear, and it is only this act of storytelling that can enable the teller to fill them back in.
Therapeutic:
Psychodrama uses re-enactment of a personal, traumatic event in the life of a psychodrama group participant as a therapeutic methodology, first developed by psychiatrist, J.L. Moreno, M.D. This therapeutic use of storytelling was incorporated into Drama Therapy, known in the field as "Self Revelatory Theater". In 1975 Jonathan Fox and Jo Salas developed a therapeutic, improvisational storytelling form they called Playback Theatre. Therapeutic storytelling is also used to promote healing through transformative arts, where a facilitator helps a participant write and often present their personal story to an audience.
As art form:
Aesthetics The art of narrative is, by definition, an aesthetic enterprise, and there are a number of artistic elements that typically interact in well-developed stories. Such elements include the essential idea of narrative structure with identifiable beginnings, middles, and endings, or exposition-development-climax-resolution-denouement, normally constructed into coherent plot lines; a strong focus on temporality, which includes retention of the past, attention to present action and protention/future anticipation; a substantial focus on characters and characterization which is "arguably the most important single component of the novel"; a given heterogloss of different voices dialogically at play – "the sound of the human voice, or many voices, speaking in a variety of accents, rhythms and registers"; possesses a narrator or narrator-like voice, which by definition "addresses" and "interacts with" reading audiences (see Reader Response theory); communicates with a Wayne Booth-esque rhetorical thrust, a dialectic process of interpretation, which is at times beneath the surface, conditioning a plotted narrative, and at other times much more visible, "arguing" for and against various positions; relies substantially on now-standard aesthetic figuration, particularly including the use of metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche and irony (see Hayden White, Metahistory for expansion of this idea); is often enmeshed in intertextuality, with copious connections, references, allusions, similarities, parallels, etc. to other literatures; and commonly demonstrates an effort toward bildungsroman, a description of identity development with an effort to evince becoming in character and community.
As art form:
Festivals Storytelling festivals typically feature the work of several storytellers and may include workshops for tellers and others who are interested in the art form or other targeted applications of storytelling. Elements of the oral storytelling art form often include the tellers encouragement to have participants co-create an experience by connecting to relatable elements of the story and using techniques of visualization (the seeing of images in the mind's eye), and use vocal and bodily gestures to support understanding. In many ways, the art of storytelling draws upon other art forms such as acting, oral interpretation and Performance Studies.
As art form:
In 1903, Richard Wyche, a professor of literature at the University of Tennessee created the first organized storytellers league of its kind. It was called The National Story League. Wyche served as its president for 16 years, facilitated storytelling classes, and spurred an interest in the art.
As art form:
Several other storytelling organizations started in the U.S. during the 1970s. One such organization was the National Association for the Perpetuation and Preservation of Storytelling (NAPPS), now the National Storytelling Network (NSN) and the International Storytelling Center (ISC). NSN is a professional organization that helps to organize resources for tellers and festival planners. The ISC runs the National Storytelling Festival in Jonesborough, TN. Australia followed their American counterparts with the establishment of storytelling guilds in the late 1970s. Australian storytelling today has individuals and groups across the country who meet to share their stories. The UK's Society for Storytelling was founded in 1993, bringing together tellers and listeners, and each year since 2000 has run a National Storytelling Week the first week of February.Currently, there are dozens of storytelling festivals and hundreds of professional storytellers around the world, and an international celebration of the art occurs on World Storytelling Day.
Emancipation of the story:
In oral traditions, stories are kept alive by being told again and again. The material of any given story naturally undergoes several changes and adaptations during this process. When and where oral tradition was superseded by print media, the literary idea of the author as originator of a story's authoritative version changed people's perception of stories themselves. In centuries following, stories tended to be seen as the work of individuals rather than a collective effort. Only recently when a significant number of influential authors began questioning their own roles, the value of stories as such – independent of authorship – was again recognized. Literary critics such as Roland Barthes even proclaimed the Death of the Author.
In business:
People have been telling stories at work since ancient times, when stories might inspire "courage and empowerment during the hunt for a potentially dangerous animal," or simply instill the value of listening. Storytelling in business has become a field in its own right as industries have grown, as storytelling becomes a more popular art form in general through live storytelling events like The Moth.
In business:
Recruiting Storytelling has come to have a prominent role in recruiting. The modern recruiting industry started in the 1940s as employers competed for available labor during World War II. Prior to that, employers usually placed newspaper ads telling a story about the kind of person they wanted, including their character and, in many cases, their ethnicity.
In business:
Public Relations Public influence has been part of human civilization since ancient times, but the modern public relations industry traces its roots to a Boston-based PR firm called The Publicity Bureau that opened in 1900. Although a PR firm may not identify its role as storytelling, the firm's task is to control the public narrative about the organization they represent.
In business:
Networking Networking has been around since the industrial revolution when businesses recognized the need—and the benefit—of collaborating and trusting a wider range of people. Today, networking is the subject for more than 100,000 books, seminars and online conversations.Storytelling helps networkers showcase their expertise. "Using examples and stories to teach contacts about expertise, experience, talents, and interests" is one of eight networking competencies the Association for Talent Development has identified, saying that networkers should "be able to answer the question, 'What do you do?' to make expertise visible and memorable." Business storytelling begins by considering the needs of the audience the networker wishes to reach, asking, "What is it about what I do that my audience is most interested in?" and "What would intrigue them the most?" Within the workplace In the workplace, communicating by using storytelling techniques can be a more compelling and effective route of delivering information than that of using only dry facts. Uses include: To manage conflicts For managers storytelling is an important way of resolving conflicts, addressing issues and facing challenges.
In business:
Managers may use narrative discourse to deal with conflicts when direct action is inadvisable or impossible.
To interpret the past and shape the future In a group discussion a process of collective narration can help to influence others and unify the group by linking the past to the future.
In such discussions, managers transform problems, requests and issues into stories. Jameson calls this collective group construction story building.
In the reasoning process Storytelling plays an important role in reasoning processes and in convincing others.
In business meetings, managers and business officials preferred stories to abstract arguments or statistical measures. When situations are complex or dense, narrative discourse helps to resolve conflicts, influences corporate decisions and stabilizes the group.
In business:
In marketing Storytelling is increasingly being used in advertising in order to build customer loyalty. According to Giles Lury, this marketing trend echoes the deeply rooted human need to be entertained. Stories are illustrative, easily memorable and allow companies to create stronger emotional bonds with customers.A Nielsen study shows consumers want a more personal connection in the way they gather information since human brains are more engaged by storytelling than by the presentation of facts alone. When reading pure data, only the language parts of the brain work to decode the meaning. But when reading a story, both the language parts and those parts of the brain that would be engaged if the events of the story were actually experienced are activated. As a result, it is easier to remember stories than facts.Marketing developments incorporating storytelling include the use of the trans-media techniques that originated in the film industry intended to "build a world in which your story can evolve". Examples include the "Happiness Factory" of Coca-Cola. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Erdős–Dushnik–Miller theorem**
Erdős–Dushnik–Miller theorem:
In the mathematical theory of infinite graphs, the Erdős–Dushnik–Miller theorem is a form of Ramsey's theorem stating that every infinite graph contains either a countably infinite independent set, or a clique with the same cardinality as the whole graph.The theorem was first published by Ben Dushnik and E. W. Miller (1941), in both the form stated above and an equivalent complementary form: every infinite graph contains either a countably infinite clique or an independent set with equal cardinality to the whole graph. In their paper, they credited Paul Erdős with assistance in its proof. They applied these results to the comparability graphs of partially ordered sets to show that each partial order contains either a countably infinite antichain or a chain of cardinality equal to the whole order, and that each partial order contains either a countably infinite chain or an antichain of cardinality equal to the whole order.The same theorem can also be stated as a result in set theory, using the arrow notation of Erdős & Rado (1956), as κ→(κ,ℵ0)2 . This means that, for every set S of cardinality κ , and every partition of the ordered pairs of elements of S into two subsets P1 and P2 , there exists either a subset S1⊂S of cardinality κ or a subset S2⊂S of cardinality ℵ0 , such that all pairs of elements of Si belong to Pi . Here, P1 can be interpreted as the edges of a graph having S as its vertex set, in which S1 (if it exists) is a clique of cardinality κ , and S2 (if it exists) is a countably infinite independent set.If S is taken to be the cardinal number κ itself, the theorem can be formulated in terms of ordinal numbers with the notation κ→(κ,ω)2 , meaning that S2 (when it exists) has order type ω . For uncountable regular cardinals κ (and some other cardinals) this can be strengthened to κ→(κ,ω+1)2 ; however, it is consistent that this strengthening does not hold for the cardinality of the continuum.The Erdős–Dushnik–Miller theorem has been called the first "unbalanced" generalization of Ramsey's theorem, and Paul Erdős's first significant result in set theory. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Outer measure**
Outer measure:
In the mathematical field of measure theory, an outer measure or exterior measure is a function defined on all subsets of a given set with values in the extended real numbers satisfying some additional technical conditions. The theory of outer measures was first introduced by Constantin Carathéodory to provide an abstract basis for the theory of measurable sets and countably additive measures. Carathéodory's work on outer measures found many applications in measure-theoretic set theory (outer measures are for example used in the proof of the fundamental Carathéodory's extension theorem), and was used in an essential way by Hausdorff to define a dimension-like metric invariant now called Hausdorff dimension. Outer measures are commonly used in the field of geometric measure theory.
Outer measure:
Measures are generalizations of length, area and volume, but are useful for much more abstract and irregular sets than intervals in R or balls in R3 . One might expect to define a generalized measuring function φ on R that fulfills the following requirements: Any interval of reals [a,b] has measure b−a The measuring function φ is a non-negative extended real-valued function defined for all subsets of R Translation invariance: For any set A and any real x , the sets A and A+x={a+x:a∈A} have the same measure Countable additivity: for any sequence (Aj) of pairwise disjoint subsets of R φ(⋃i=1∞Ai)=∑i=1∞φ(Ai).
Outer measure:
It turns out that these requirements are incompatible conditions; see non-measurable set. The purpose of constructing an outer measure on all subsets of X is to pick out a class of subsets (to be called measurable) in such a way as to satisfy the countable additivity property.
Outer measures:
Given a set X, let 2X denote the collection of all subsets of X, including the empty set ∅.
Outer measures:
An outer measure on X is a set function such that null empty set: μ(∅)=0 countably subadditive: for arbitrary subsets A,B1,B2,… of X, Note that there is no subtlety about infinite summation in this definition. Since the summands are all assumed to be nonnegative, the sequence of partial sums could only diverge by increasing without bound. So the infinite sum appearing in the definition will always be a well-defined element of [0,∞].
Outer measures:
If, instead, an outer measure were allowed to take negative values, its definition would have to be modified to take into account the possibility of non-convergent infinite sums.
An alternative and equivalent definition. Some textbooks, such as Halmos (1950), instead define an outer measure on X to be a function μ:2X→[0,∞] such that null empty set: μ(∅)=0 monotone: if A and B are subsets of X with A⊆B, then μ(A)≤μ(B) for arbitrary subsets B1,B2,… of X,
Measurability of sets relative to an outer measure:
Let X be a set with an outer measure μ.
One says that a subset E of X is μ -measurable (sometimes called Carathéodory-measurable relative to μ, after the mathematician Carathéodory) if and only if for every subset A of X.
Measurability of sets relative to an outer measure:
Informally, this says that a μ -measurable subset is one which may be used as a building block, breaking any other subset apart into pieces (namely, the piece which is inside of the measurable set together with the piece which is outside of the measurable set). In terms of the motivation for measure theory, one would expect that area, for example, should be an outer measure on the plane. One might then expect that every subset of the plane would be deemed "measurable," following the expected principle that whenever A and B are disjoint subsets of the plane. However, the formal logical development of the theory shows that the situation is more complicated. A formal implication of the axiom of choice is that for any definition of area as an outer measure which includes as a special case the standard formula for the area of a rectangle, there must be subsets of the plane which fail to be measurable. In particular, the above "expected principle" is false, provided that one accepts the axiom of choice.
Measurability of sets relative to an outer measure:
The measure space associated to an outer measure It is straightforward to use the above definition of μ -measurability to see that if A⊆X is μ -measurable then its complement X∖A⊆X is also μ -measurable.The following condition is known as the "countable additivity of μ on measurable subsets." if A1,A2,… are μ -measurable subsets of X and Ai∩Aj is empty whenever i≠j, then one has A similar proof shows that: if A1,A2,… are μ -measurable subsets of X, then the union A1∪A2∪⋯ and intersection A1∩A2∩⋯ are also μ -measurable.The properties given here can be summarized by the following terminology: Given any outer measure μ on a set X, the collection of all μ -measurable subsets of X is a σ-algebra. The restriction of μ to this σ -algebra is a measure.
Measurability of sets relative to an outer measure:
One thus has a measure space structure on X, arising naturally from the specification of an outer measure on X.
This measure space has the additional property of completeness, which is contained in the following statement: Every subset A⊆X such that μ(A)=0 is μ -measurable.This is easy to prove by using the second property in the "alternative definition" of outer measure.
Restriction and pushforward of an outer measure:
Let μ be an outer measure on the set X Pushforward Given another set Y and a map f:X→Y define f♯μ:2Y→[0,∞] by (f♯μ)(A)=μ(f−1(A)).
One can verify directly from the definitions that f♯μ is an outer measure on Y Restriction Let B be a subset of X. Define μB : 2X→[0,∞] by μB(A)=μ(A∩B).
One can check directly from the definitions that μB is another outer measure on X.
Measurability of sets relative to a pushforward or restriction If a subset A of X is μ-measurable, then it is also μB-measurable for any subset B of X.
Given a map f : X→Y and a subset A of Y, if f −1(A) is μ-measurable then A is f# μ-measurable. More generally, f −1(A) is μ-measurable if and only if A is f# (μB)-measurable for every subset B of X.
Regular outer measures:
Definition of a regular outer measure Given a set X, an outer measure μ on X is said to be regular if any subset can be approximated 'from the outside' by μ-measurable sets. Formally, this is requiring either of the following equivalent conditions: for any subset A of X and any positive number ε, there exists a μ-measurable subset B of X which contains A and with μ(B) < μ(A) + ε.
Regular outer measures:
for any subset A of X, there exists a μ-measurable subset B of X which contains A and such that μ(B) = μ(A).It is automatic that the second condition implies the first; the first implies the second by considering the intersection of a minimizing sequence of subsets.
The regular outer measure associated to an outer measure Given an outer measure μ on a set X, define ν : 2X→[0,∞] by inf -measurable subsets with B⊃A}.
Then ν is a regular outer measure on X which assigns the same measure as μ to all μ-measurable subsets of X. Every μ-measurable subset is also ν-measurable, and every ν-measurable subset of finite ν-measure is also μ-measurable.
So the measure space associated to ν may have a larger σ-algebra than the measure space associated to μ. The restrictions of ν and μ to the smaller σ-algebra are identical. The elements of the larger σ-algebra which are not contained in the smaller σ-algebra have infinite ν-measure and finite μ-measure.
From this perspective, ν may be regarded as an extension of μ.
Outer measure and topology:
Suppose (X, d) is a metric space and φ an outer measure on X. If φ has the property that φ(E∪F)=φ(E)+φ(F) whenever inf {d(x,y):x∈E,y∈F}>0, then φ is called a metric outer measure.
Theorem. If φ is a metric outer measure on X, then every Borel subset of X is φ-measurable. (The Borel sets of X are the elements of the smallest σ-algebra generated by the open sets.)
Construction of outer measures:
There are several procedures for constructing outer measures on a set. The classic Munroe reference below describes two particularly useful ones which are referred to as Method I and Method II.
Method I Let X be a set, C a family of subsets of X which contains the empty set and p a non-negative extended real valued function on C which vanishes on the empty set.
Theorem. Suppose the family C and the function p are as above and define inf {∑i=0∞p(Ai)|E⊆⋃i=0∞Ai,∀i∈N,Ai∈C}.
That is, the infimum extends over all sequences {Ai} of elements of C which cover E, with the convention that the infimum is infinite if no such sequence exists. Then φ is an outer measure on X.
Construction of outer measures:
Method II The second technique is more suitable for constructing outer measures on metric spaces, since it yields metric outer measures. Suppose (X, d) is a metric space. As above C is a family of subsets of X which contains the empty set and p a non-negative extended real valued function on C which vanishes on the empty set. For each δ > 0, let diam (A)≤δ} and inf {∑i=0∞p(Ai)|E⊆⋃i=0∞Ai,∀i∈N,Ai∈Cδ}.
Construction of outer measures:
Obviously, φδ ≥ φδ' when δ ≤ δ' since the infimum is taken over a smaller class as δ decreases. Thus lim δ→0φδ(E)=φ0(E)∈[0,∞] exists (possibly infinite).
Theorem. φ0 is a metric outer measure on X.
This is the construction used in the definition of Hausdorff measures for a metric space. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Equine polysaccharide storage myopathy**
Equine polysaccharide storage myopathy:
Equine polysaccharide storage myopathy (EPSM, PSSM, EPSSM) is a hereditary glycogen storage disease of horses that causes exertional rhabdomyolysis. It is currently known to affect the following breeds American Quarter Horses, American Paint Horses, Warmbloods, Cobs, Dales Ponies, Thoroughbreds, Arabians, New Forest ponies, and a large number of Heavy horse breeds. While incurable, PSSM can be managed with appropriate diet and exercise. There are currently 2 subtypes, known as Type 1 PSSM and Type 2 PSSM.
Pathophysiology of glycogen storage disorders and sub-typing of PSSM:
Glycogen is a molecular polymer of glucose (a polysaccharide) used to store energy, and is important for maintaining glucose homeostasis in the blood, as well as for providing energy for skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle contraction. Molecules of glucose are linked into linear chains by α-1,4-glycosidic bonds. Additionally, branches of glucose are formed off of the chain by α-1,6-glycosidic bonds. 2 molecules of glucose are joined into an α-1,4-glycosidic bonds by an enzyme known as glycogen synthase. This bond may be broken by amylase when the body wishes to break down glycogen into glucose for energy. Glycogen branching enzyme is responsible for the required α-1,6-glycosidic bonds needed to start a branch off of these linear chains.
Pathophysiology of glycogen storage disorders and sub-typing of PSSM:
Any disruption to this system results in a glycogen storage disease. There are currently 2 subcategories of glycogen storage diseases in horses: Type 1 polysaccharide storage myopathy, glycogen branching enzyme deficiency, and Type 2 polysaccharide storage myopathy.
Pathophysiology of glycogen storage disorders and sub-typing of PSSM:
Type 1 PSSM Type 1 PSSM is caused by an autosomal dominant genetic mutation known as GSY1. This mutation causes an up-regulation of glycogen synthase, and high levels of glycogen synthase relative to glycogen branching enzyme (GBE). This altered ratio of glycogen synthase to GBE results in glycogen molecules with long chains and few branches, making these molecules somewhat amylase resistant. The GSY1 mutation is associated with altered glucose metabolism (but normal glycogen metabolism), as well as accumulation of high levels of glycogen and abnormal polysaccharide in the muscles of the horse. Additionally, some horses have been shown to have insulin sensitivity, which improves glucose uptake by muscle cells and contributes to excessive glycogen storage that is already elevated secondary to the GSY1 mutation.
Pathophysiology of glycogen storage disorders and sub-typing of PSSM:
Glycogen branching enzyme deficiency Low levels of glycogen branching enzyme leads to a condition known as glycogen-branching enzyme deficiency. This condition is caused by a mutation of the GBE1 gene responsible for producing the glycogen branching enzyme. Subsequently, glycogen molecules are produced with few branches, which greatly decreasing the number of nonreducing ends, drastically slowing the rate as which the molecule can be synthesized or broken down. This causes low levels of muscle glycogen that is very resistant to amylase. This disease is usually seen in Quarter Horse foals and is fatal.
Pathophysiology of glycogen storage disorders and sub-typing of PSSM:
Type 2 PSSM Type 2 PSSM is a category for disorders that lead to abnormal deposition of glycogen in the skeletal muscles of the horse that is not due to mutations in GSY1 or GBE1.
Presentation:
PSSM is most prevalent in American Quarter Horses and their related breeds (Paint horse, Appaloosa, Appendix Quarter Horse), Draft horse breeds (especially Belgian Draft and Percherons), and Warmblood breeds. The Belgian Draft been shown to have a 36% prevalence of PSSM. Other breeds that have been diagnosed with PSSM include the Arabian, Lipizzaner, Morgan, Mustang, Peruvian Paso, Rocky Mountain Horse, Standardbred, Tennessee Walking Horse, Thoroughbred, and National Show Horse. It has been suggested that the GSY1 mutation provided some benefit to hard working animals with poor-quality diets, and is now damaging members of those "thrifty" breeds that are managed with moderate to low levels of work and diets high in non-structural carbohydrates.PSSM Type 1 (homozygous or heterozygous for the GSY1 mutation) is more common in Quarter Horses and their related breeds, and draft breeds, while PSSM Type 2 (negative for the GSY1 mutation) is more commonly seen in other breeds, including warmbloods. There is no sex predilection to the disease.
Clinical signs:
Horses with Type 1 PSSM usually appear normal at rest, but show signs of exertional rhabdomyolysis ("tying up") such as shortened stride, stiffness, firm musculature, sweating, pain or reluctance to exercise, when asked to perform light work. While episodes of exertional rhabdomyolysis is one of the most frequent signs associated with affected horses (reported in ~37% of affected animals), other common signs include gait abnormalities, shifting lameness, muscle weakness that may result in an inability to rise, colic-like pain, and muscle fasciculation, atrophy, and/or stiffness (most commonly seen in the semimembranosus, semitendinosus, and longissimus muscles).These clinical signs usually first become apparent when the horse is placed into training as a young animal; however, affected horses will show histological changes consistent with muscle damage at one month of age, and may also show elevations in creatine kinase (CK), an enzyme that elevates with muscle damage. Concurrent illness, such as respiratory or gastrointestinal infection, can lead to elevations in CK and potentially life-threatening rhabdomyolysis, even without exercise. Horses with PSSM often have a persistently elevated CK at rest, which differentiates the disease from recurrent exertional rhabdomyolysis, in which horses have normal CK concentrations between episodes.
Clinical signs:
Variability in phenotype and modifying genes Some affected animals may remain subclinical, others may have mild signs that do not impede athletic performance, while some horses will have clinical signs that prevent any forced exercise. Rarely, horses will die from acute episodes of rhabdomyolysis. The reason for such variability of phenotype is not fully understood. Temperament, gender, and body type have no effect on degree of clinical signs. However, environmental factors such as diet and exercise, whether the horse is heterozygous or homozygous for the mutated GSY1 allele, and the presence of modifying genes all play a role. Additionally, some affected horses may have PSSM Type 2, which will produce different cellular changes and subsequently different phenotypic effects.One such modifying genes is RYR1, which is responsible for calcium regulation in muscle cells. RYR1 mutation causes malignant hyperthermia, a rare but potentially fatal disorder usually associated with anesthesia. While RYR1 mutation is rare in horses, including the general Quarter Horse population, it is much more common in Quarter Horses with GSY1 mutation. Horses with both mutations are more likely to have a severe PSSM phenotype, including higher levels of blood creatine kinase (CK), more severe exercise intolerance, more severe episodes of rhabdomyolysis (more frequent muscle fasciculations, more frequent episodes that are not associated with exercise, acute death), and poor response to PSSM treatment.Additionally, defects in both GSY1 and the SCNA4 gene, responsible for hyperkalemic periodic paralysis (HYPP) in Quarter Horses and related breeds, has been found in 14% of Halter horses. A combination of both of these genes can cause severe rhabdomyolysis should the horse become recumbent due to an HYPP attack.
Diagnosis:
A genetic test is available for Type 1 PSSM. This test requires a blood or hair sample, and is less-invasive than muscle biopsy. However, it may be less useful for breeds that are more commonly affected by Type 2 PSSM, such as light horse breeds. Often a muscle biopsy is recommended for horses displaying clinical signs of PSSM but who have negative results for GYS1 mutation.
Diagnosis:
A muscle biopsy may be taken from the semimembranosis or semitendinosis (hamstring) muscles. The biopsy is stained for glycogen, and the intensity of stain uptake in the muscle, as well as the presence of any inclusions, helps to determine the diagnosis of PSSM. This test is the only method for diagnosing Type 2 PSSM. Horses with Type 1 PSSM will usually have between 1.5-2 times the normal levels of glycogen in their skeletal muscle. While abnormalities indicating muscle damage can be seen on histologic sections of muscle as young as 1 month of age, abnormal polysaccharide accumulation may take up to 3 years to develop.
Management:
Effect on metabolism Horses with PSSM have elevated levels of muscle glycogen at rest. During exercise, glycogen levels are depleted faster than is seen in unaffected horses, and are reduced down to levels considered normal for a resting non-PSSM horse. This demonstrates that glycogen metabolism is actually normal in these animals. However, PSSM horses synthesize muscle glycogen at double the rate of a normal horse once exercise has ceased, which leads to elevated muscle glycogen. The exact mechanism of abnormal glucose metabolism has not yet been established, but it may have similarities to phosphofructokinase deficiency in humans.Quarter Horse-related breeds with PSSM show insulin sensitivity, which improves glucose uptake by cells, and these horses clear the blood of glucose more quickly after eating than unaffected horses. This provides easy access to glucose by the muscles, which can then use the substrate to produce glycogen. The GYS1 defect, which up-regulates the glycogen synthase enzyme, allows the muscles to use this glucose to rapidly produce glycogen for storage in the muscle. Surprisingly, increased insulin sensitivity is not seen in draft horse breeds.Dietary and exercise manipulation may be used to counteract these metabolic changes. Approximately 50% of horses that adhere to the dietary recommendations, and 90% of horses that adhere to both dietary and exercise recommendations, have few to no episodes of exertional rhabdomyolysis.
Management:
Diet For most horses, diet has a significant impact on the degree of clinical signs. PSSM horses fed diets high in nonstructural carbohydrates (NSC), which stimulate insulin secretion, have been shown to have increased severity of rhabdomyolysis with exercise. Current recommendations for horses with PSSM include a low-starch, high-fat diet. Low-starch diets produce low blood glucose and insulin levels after eating, which may reduce the amount of glucose taken up by the muscle cells. High fat diets increase free fatty acid concentrations in the blood, which may promote the use of fat for energy (via free fatty acid oxidation) over glucose metabolism. Horses with the most severe clinical signs often show the greatest improvement on the diet.Dietary recommendations usually include a combination of calorie restriction, reduction of daily NSC content, and an increase in dietary fat. Diet recommendations need to be balanced with the animal's body condition score and exercise level, as it may be beneficial to wait on increasing dietary fat after an obese animal has lost weight. The diet should have <10% of digestible energy coming from NSC, and 15-20% of daily digestible energy coming from fat.
Management:
Exercise Horses with PSSM show fewer clinical signs if their exercise is slowly increased over time (i.e. they are slowly conditioned). Additionally, they are much more likely to develop muscle stiffness and rhabdomyolysis if they are exercised after prolonged stall rest.Horses generally have fewer clinical signs when asked to perform short bouts of work at maximal activity level (anaerobic exercise), although they have difficulty achieving maximal speed and tire faster than unaffected horses. They have more muscle damage when asked to perform lower intensity activity over a longer period of time (aerobic activity), due to an energy deficit in the muscle. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Assemblin**
Assemblin:
Assemblin (EC 3.4.21.97) is an enzyme with systematic name. This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction Cleaves -Ala-Ser- and -Ala-Ala- bonds in the scaffold proteinThis enzyme is coded by the herpes-virus virion. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Valediction**
Valediction:
A valediction (derivation from Latin vale dicere, "to say farewell"), or complimentary close in American English, is an expression used to say farewell, especially a word or phrase used to end a letter or message, or a speech made at a farewell.Valediction's counterpart is a greeting called a salutation.
English:
Valedictions normally immediately precede the signature in written correspondence. The word or words used express respect, esteem, or regard for the person to whom the correspondence is directed, and the exact form used depends on a number of factors.In British English, valedictions have largely been replaced by the use of "Yours sincerely" or "Yours faithfully". "Yours sincerely" is typically employed in English when the recipient is addressed by name (e.g. "Dear John") and is known to the sender to some degree, whereas "Yours faithfully" is used when the recipient is not addressed by name (i.e., the recipient is addressed by a phrase such as "Dear Sir/Madam") or when the recipient is not known personally by the sender.
English:
Formal usage Historically, valedictions were often elaborate and formal. Vestiges of such formality remain in various cases. The examples below are subject to some variation but generally follow the pattern described.
English:
United Kingdom Letters to the King of the United Kingdom should end, "I have the honour to remain, Sir, Your Majesty’s most humble and obedient servant." Alternatively, "I remain, with the profoundest veneration, your Majesty's most faithful subject and dutiful servant." Letters to other members of the royal family should end, "I have the honour to remain, Sir/Madam, Your Royal Highness’s most humble and obedient servant." Letters to ambassadors should end, "I have the honour to be, with the highest consideration, Your Excellency’s obedient servant." Letters to high commissioners should end, "I have the honour to be Your Excellency’s obedient servant." Letters to the pope should end, "I have the honour to be, Your Holiness’s most devoted and obedient child." (substituting "obedient servant" if not a Roman Catholic).
English:
Letters to a cardinal should end, "I have the honour to be, My Lord Cardinal, Your Eminence's devoted and obedient child." (substituting "obedient servant" if not a Roman Catholic).
Letters to an archbishop should end, "I have the honour to be Your Grace's devoted and obedient child." (substituting "obedient servant" if not a Roman Catholic).
Letters to a bishop should end, "I have the honour to be Your Lordship's obedient child." (substituting "obedient servant" if not a Roman Catholic).
Letters to an abbot should end, "I beg to remain, my Lord Abbot, your devoted and obedient servant." Business usage in the United States The following table contains complimentary closings as recommended for business hard-letter use by two American authorities: Barron's Educational Series and American Management Association.
Diplomatic usage A diplomatic note verbale always ends with an elaborate valediction, most commonly "[Sender] avails itself of this opportunity to renew to [recipient] the assurances of its highest consideration".
Valedictions in e-mail Valedictions in formal e-mail are similar to valedictions in letters; on the whole, they are variations of "regards" and "yours". However, a wide range of popular valedictions are used in casual e-mail but very rarely in letters.
Other forms "Yours aye" is a Scottish expression meaning "Yours always", still commonly used as a valediction to end written correspondence in the Royal Navy and British Army, and occasionally used by sailors or people working in a maritime context. It is commonly used in the Royal Australian Navy as a sign-off in written communication such as emails.
"Yours, etc." is used historically for abbreviated endings. It can be found in older newspaper letters to the editor, and often in US legal correspondence. "&c." may be seen as an alternative abbreviation of et cetera, the ampersand functioning as a ligature form of "et". "I am, etc." and "I remain, etc." are also used.
"Yours hopefully" is occasionally used in letters of respect or complaint.
English:
United States military usage Current regulations of the United States Department of Defense, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the U.S. Air Force, the U.S. Army, and the U.S. Navy call for two complimentary closings for letters: "Respectfully yours" and "Sincerely". "Respectfully yours" is reserved for the president (and, for the Army only, the president's spouse) and the president-elect. "Sincerely" is used in all other cases.For more informal (but still professional) correspondence among military service members, "Respectfully" and "Very Respectfully" are used. These are often abbreviated as "R" and "V/R." "Respectfully" is addressed to those of lower rank and "Very Respectfully" is addressed to those of the same rank or above.The Commander of the Navy's school in the military's Mustang University stated his preference, in 2014, that the older "Very respectfully" be used in letters to someone senior in pay-grade or positional authority. However, the commander acknowledged that current regulations call for "Sincerely" and told students they were free to follow that practice.
Bengali:
In written form, valediction is very important in Bengali. When writing official letters, general customs are: Apnar ekantô badhyôgôtô (আপনার একান্ত বাধ্যগত) transl. Yours Sincerely.
Apnar Bishwôstô (আপনার বিশ্বস্ত) transl. Yours faithfully.In oral form, various forms are used Khoda Hafez (খোদা হাফেজ), from Persian, literal meaning: 'May God be your Guardian' (primarily Bengali Muslims).
Allah Hafez (আল্লাহ হাফেজ), from Persian, literal meaning: 'May Allah be your Guardian' (primarily among Bengali Muslims).
Namaskar (নমস্কার), from Sanskrit, literal meaning: 'I bow to the divine in you' (primarily among Bengali Hindus).
Chinese:
Valedictions in Chinese are highly variable and reflect the relative social status of the sender and recipient. Salutation (問候語) is traditionally placed after valediction (申悃語) and the closing of the main body of the letter, as opposed to its typical location in English. Traditional valediction include: To social seniors: 肅此上達 (prostrating [to you], delivering up)、敬此馳稟 (respectfully, speedily reporting)、耑肅奉稟 (especially prostrating, respectfully reporting)、肅此 (prostrating [to you])、敬此 (respectfully)、謹此 (reverently)。 To social equals: 耑此奉達 (especially, respectfully delivering)、匆此布臆 ([apologetically] quickly, relaying [my] estimations)、特此奉聞 (especially relaying [for your] information)、草此奉達 ([apologetically] simply, respectfully delivering)、草此 (simply)、耑此 (especially)。 For replications especially: 耑肅敬覆、耑此奉覆、肅函奉覆、耑此敬覆、匆此布覆。 For congratulations or commemoration: 敬申賀悃、肅表賀忱、用申賀意。 To or from mourning persons: 恭陳唁意、肅此上慰、敬申哀悃。 For expression of gratitude: 肅誌謝忱、敬此鳴謝、耑鳴謝悃。
French:
Standard French language valedictions tend to be much more complex than standard English ones, more akin to older English valedictions. They show a fair degree of variation, for example: Veuillez agréer, Madame, Monsieur, l'expression de mes sentiments distingués "Please accept, Madam, Sir, the expression of my distinguished sentiments."Or: Veuillez recevoir, Madame, mes sincères salutations.
"Please receive, Madam, my sincere salutations."Or: Je vous prie de croire, Monsieur, à mes sentiments les meilleurs.
French:
"I beg you to believe, Sir, in my best sentiments."In the latter case of a formula beginning with the first person, the valediction is often enhanced with a participial phrase concluding the sense of the letter (since traditionally it is not considered appropriate to begin a paragraph with the first person singular je in a letter): Espérant recevoir une réponse favorable, je vous prie d'agréer, Madame… "Hoping for a favourable answer, I beg you to allow, Madam…"A number of rules concern the use of these formulae: the title used in the salutation of the letter must be reproduced in the valediction; so a letter addressing Madame la députée would conclude, Veuillez, Madame la députée.
French:
the wording recevoir l'assurance should be used in a letter from a hierarchical superior to an inferior, whereas the wording agréer l'expression should be used in a letter from a hierarchical inferior to a superior, and not conversely.
French:
in a letter from a man to a woman or from a woman to a man, the writer must not send sentiments if they are not close family relatives (i.e. mother and son, father and daughter, brother and sister, or possibly close cousins).Such formulae may be used even in more friendly letters, often with the adjective cher or chère for the recipient. Letters to dignitaries may use even more grandiose styles, such as: Daignez, Monsieur le Premier ministre, agréer l'expression de ma considération très distinguée.
French:
"Deign, Mr. Prime Minister, to allow the expression of my most distinguished consideration."or more commonly: Veuillez agréer, Monsieur le Premier ministre, l'expression de ma très haute considération.
"Please accept, Mr. Prime Minister, the expression of my highest consideration."According to French typographic rules, the proper capitalization for the official title is "Premier ministre" although people who mimic English titles or fear that they might appear disrespectful often use more capitals than the rules commend.
Veuillez agréer, Madame l'Ambassadeur, l'expression de mes salutations les plus respectueuses.
"Please allow, Madam Ambassador, the expression of my most respectful salutations."Another French typographic rule states that when addressing someone, styles like Monsieur, Madame, Mademoiselle, should never be abbreviated, even if followed by a title (hence, writing M. le Premier Ministre or Mme l'Ambassadeur would be considered clumsy).
French:
Much shorter styles may be used in brief notes (Sincères salutations), and informal letters (such as between intimates) may use expressions such as (with approximate English equivalents – not literal translations): Amicalement ("In friendship") Amitiés ("Your friend") À bientôt ("See you soon") Au plaisir de vous revoir ("Hope to see you again soon") Bien amicalement ("In Good Friendship") Bien à vous ("Sincerely yours") Cordialement ("Cordially") Meilleures salutations ("Best Salutations") Salutations distinguées ("With Distinguished Salutations")Unlike in English, when the letter writer has a title that is unique in his or her organization, it is placed before, not after, the name:
German:
Valedictions in German, while a lot less complex than those in French, are similarly flexible. The highly formal form Hochachtungsvoll (lit. 'highly respectfully') has been practically obsolete for many years and is very rarely used in modern German, except for highly formal correspondence from authorities or in letters with a highly negative connotation where "friendliness" would not be appropriate.
German:
The standard business valediction is Mit freundlichen Grüßen (lit. 'with friendly regards') and is equivalent to Yours sincerely or Yours faithfully in English. A more seldom used variant of this is Mit freundlichem Gruß, which is as above but in the singular form. Other semi-formal alternatives include (roughly in descending order of formality) Mit besten Grüßen (lit. 'with best regards'), Beste Grüße, Mit herzlichen Grüßen (lit. 'with cordial regards'), Viele Grüße (lit. 'many regards'), Schöne Grüße (lit. 'nice regards').
German:
German valedictions also offer the possibility of adding your location, e.g. Mit freundlichen Grüßen aus Berlin to added effect. While this is no less formal, it does have a more "relaxed" feel to it. Other less formal location-centric variations are also possible, such as Viele Grüße aus dem sonnigen Barcelona (lit. 'many regards from sunny Barcelona').
German:
These valedictions are also often adapted to specific professions, states or political views. For example, it is common to use Mit solidarischen Grüßen ("with regards in solidarity") among socialist and communist groups, Mit gewerkschaftlichen Grüßen (lit. 'with union regards') or Mit kollegialen Grüßen (lit. 'with cooperative regards') among labour union members, Mit kameradschaftlichen Grüßen (lit. 'with comradely regards') among military personnel, Mit sportlichen Grüßen ("with sporting regards") among sportspeople, and Mit gebärdenfreundlichen Grüßen ("with gesture-friendly regards", implying sign language gestures) among persons hard of hearing.
German:
More familiar valedictions in German follow the same formula. Alles Liebe or (Viele) liebe Grüße are common in German for friends or family. Friends or close colleagues among each other may use simply Gruß.
German:
It is possible in informal and rapid e-mail communication to sometimes use abbreviations of the forms, unlike in English. In this way, Mit freundlichen Grüßen may be shortened to MfG and Liebe Grüße may be shortened to LG. A popular form in Germany in recent years, hdl (habe dich lieb, lit. 'am fond of you') and hdgdl (habe dich ganz doll lieb, lit. 'am very fond of you', for somewhere between "I like you" and "I love you") has found increased usage in SMS text messaging and e-mails in more intimate relationships.
German:
Judges have deemed that Section 86a of the German Criminal Code forbids the use of Mit deutschem Gruß (lit. 'with German regards'), as it has National Socialist overtones; deutscher Gruß refers to the Nazi salute.
Hebrew:
Formal letters in Israeli Hebrew often end with בברכה (bivraKHA; lit., with blessing). A strictly formal ending is בכבוד רב (bekhaVOD RAV; with great honor, or respect). Slightly less formal forms, used between individuals, are כל טוב (kol TOOV; all the best), as well as להשתמע (lehishtaMEah) or נשתמע (nishtaMEah; we shall hear from each other), which are in essence somewhat dated equivalents of להתראות (lehitraOT; we shall see each other, or simply, see you).
Hebrew:
Jews in the United States often use 'B'shalom' or 'shalom' (Hebrew: בשלום, lit. 'in peace') within Jewish circles, for example, from a Rabbi to his congregation. This is an American Jewish usage, rarely heard from native speakers of modern Israeli Hebrew. 'B'shalom' is incorrect, as it is religiously tantamount to wishing death on someone. Indeed, the Talmud says: "In bidding farewell to the living one should not say, 'Go with peace' [lech b'shalom], but 'Go to peace' [lech l'shalom], because [King] David said to [his son] Absalom, 'Go with peace', and he went and was hanged; whereas Jethro said to Moses, 'Go to peace', and he went and succeeded." [Talmud, Moed Katan 29a]
Hungarian:
Maradok tisztelettel: Very formal and now dated, means "I respectfully remain (your servant)".
Tisztelettel: Very formal, means "With regards". This is the equivalent of the English "Yours sincerely/faithfully/truly".
Üdvözlettel: Somewhat formal, assumes existing relationship. Often used between colleagues. It literally means "Greetings".
Üdv: An abbreviated and informal form of Üdvözlettel. Very frequently used in e-mails among colleagues.
Puszi: Informal and somewhat intimate, means "kiss on the cheek". Often used within family and among friends, between or toward women.
Csók: Intimate, it means "kiss (on the mouth)". Mostly used between couples.Hungarian valedictions are extendable, which makes a number of variations on the above expressions possible, such as Őszinte tisztelettel ("With sincere appreciation") or Szívélyes üdvözlettel ("With cordial regards").
Japanese:
Keigu (敬具 – Sincerely) Kashiko (かしこ – With great humility)
Portuguese:
Formal valedictions should end with a comma followed by a paragraph where the valedictor's name (and optionally his status) is identified. Depending on the occasion, different degrees of formality are adequate, ranging from highly formal (e.g. solemn occasions) to totally informal (e.g. a conversation among friends). Some formal valedictions can be used at different formality degrees, but almost never in informal situations.
Portuguese:
Highly formal valedictions Com os melhores cumprimentos ("With the best compliments") Respeitosamente ("Respectfully") Reverentemente ("Reverently") Com protestos da mais elevada estima e consideração ("With protestations of the highest esteem and consideration") Formal valedictions Atenciosamente ("Graciously") Atentamente ("Attentively") Saudações académicas ("Academic salutations", very common within Portuguese universities) Semi-formal valedictions Cordialmente ("Cordially") Com amizade ("With friendship") Cumprimentos ("Regards") Saudações cordiais ("Cordial salutations") Informal valedictions Abraço ("a hug", usually between men), also Abraços ("hugs"). Some common variants include Forte Abraço ("Strong hug") and Grande Abraço ("Big hug") Até já ("see you soon"), also Até depois and Até logo ("see you later") Beijo ("a kiss", usually between women or between woman and man), also Beijos ("kisses") and Grande Beijo ("big kiss") Beijinho (literally "a kisslet", very common especially between female and male friends), also Beijinhos (literally "kisslets") Muitas saudades ("I miss you verily") Seu / Sua ("Yours": male/female valedictor) Tudo de bom ("All the best") Abbreviated valedictions (informal) Abs, Abr, Abç abbreviated form of Abraço ("hug") or Abraços ("hugs") Bj, Bjo, abbreviated forms of Beijo ("kiss") or Beijinho ("kisslet"), also Bjs ("many kisses/kiss") Cumps. abbreviated form of Cumprimentos ("Regards")
Russian:
С (глубоким) уважением ((Very) respectfully yours) – most often used С (наи)лучшими пожеланиями (Best regards) – allowed between long-time partners, otherwise sounds condescending Искренне Ваш (Sincerely yours) – a bit affectionate, e.g. a younger colleague addressing a senior one Ваш (yours) Ваш покорный слуга (Your obedient servant) – ironic; the least possible degree of formality between people not being close friends or socially equal Примите заверения в моём самом искреннем уважении и почтении (Please accept the assurances of my sincerest regards and respect) – diplomatic etiquette До скорой встречи (See you soon) – informal
Slovak:
S pozdravom (Sincerely) S úctou (Yours truly) - very formal Srdečné zdravím (Cordial greetings) Drž sa (Take care)
Spanish:
Saludos (Regards) Atentamente (literally "attentively", a very common business valediction similar to "respectfully") Cordialmente ("cordially") Amablemente (literally "amiably", similar to "kindly") Amorosamente ("lovingly", not commonly used in Spain) Tiernamente ("tenderly", not commonly used in Spain) Un cordial saludo ("cordial greetings") Reciba un cordial saludo ("receive cordial greetings") Un abrazo ("a hug", very common between male friends and male family members) Abrazos ("hugs") Un beso ("a kiss", very common to and from female friends and family members) Besos ("kisses")
Swedish:
Högaktningsfullt (Highly respectfully – Old style and very formal, no longer in common use) Med vänlig hälsning (With friendly regard – Common in business letters) or: Med vänliga hälsningar (With friendly regards) in informal emails often written: Mvh or: Vänligen (Kindly) Hjärtliga hälsningar (Cordially – somewhat formal among friends, informal in business letters) Kram (Hug – informal, between friends)
Turkish:
Saygılarımızla (yours faithfully) Saygılarımla (yours sincerely, or kind/best regards) Saygılar (respectfully yours, or regards) | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Methylamide**
Methylamide:
In biochemistry, an N-methylamide (NME) is a blocking group for the C-terminus end of peptides. When the carboxyl group of the C-terminus is replaced with a methylamide, further elongation of the peptide chain is prevented. C-Terminal modified peptides are also useful for the modulation of structure-activity relationships and for modifying conformational properties of peptides. N-Methylamides can be prepared directly from solid phase resin-bound peptides. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Green Point Formation**
Green Point Formation:
The Green Point Formation is a geologic formation in Newfoundland and Labrador. It preserves fossils dating back to the Ordovician period. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Boyle temperature**
Boyle temperature:
The Boyle temperature is formally defined as the temperature for which the second virial coefficient, B2(T) , becomes zero.
Boyle temperature:
It is at this temperature that the attractive forces and the repulsive forces acting on the gas particles balance out P=RT(1Vm+B2(T)Vm2+⋯) This is the virial equation of state and describes a real gas. Since higher order virial coefficients are generally much smaller than the second coefficient, the gas tends to behave as an ideal gas over a wider range of pressures when the temperature reaches the Boyle temperature (or when {\textstyle c={\frac {1}{V_{m}}}} or {\textstyle P} are minimized). In any case, when the pressures are low, the second virial coefficient will be the only relevant one because the remaining concern terms of higher order on the pressure. Also at Boyle temperature the dip in a PV diagram tends to a straight line over a period of pressure. We then have if P→0 where Z is the compressibility factor.
Boyle temperature:
Expanding the van der Waals equation in {\textstyle {\frac {1}{V_{m}}}} one finds that Tb=aRb | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Metakaryota**
Metakaryota:
The superkingdom Metakaryota was defined by Thomas Cavalier-Smith as advanced eukaryotes resulting from the endosymbiosis of a proteobacterium, giving rise to the mitochondrion, by an archezoan eukaryote. However, with the collapse of the Archezoa hypothesis (that amitochondriate eukaryotes were basal), this grouping was abandoned in later schemes.In 2023, using molecular phylogenetic analysis of 186 taxa, Al Jewari and Baldauf proposed a phylogenetic tree with the metamonad Parabasalia as basal Eukaryotes. Discoba and the rest of the Eukaryota appear to have emerged as sister taxon to the Preaxostyla, incorporating a single alphaproteobacterium as mitochondria by endosymbiosis. Thus the Fornicata are more closely related to e.g. animals than to Parabasalia. The rest of the Eukaryotes emerged within the Excavata as sister of the Discoba.Caesar al Jewari and Sandra Baldauf argue instead that the Eukaryotes possibly started with an endosymbiosis event of a deltaproteobacterium or gammaproteobacterium, accounting for the otherwise unexplained presence of anaerobic bacterial enzymes in metamonada in this scenario. The sister of the Preaxostyla within Metamonada represents the rest of the Eukaryotes which acquired a alphaproteobacterium. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Nanocomposite hydrogels**
Nanocomposite hydrogels:
Nanocomposite hydrogels (NC gels) are nanomaterial-filled, hydrated, polymeric networks that exhibit higher elasticity and strength relative to traditionally made hydrogels. A range of natural and synthetic polymers are used to design nanocomposite network. By controlling the interactions between nanoparticles and polymer chains, a range of physical, chemical, and biological properties can be engineered. The combination of organic (polymer) and inorganic (clay) structure gives these hydrogels improved physical, chemical, electrical, biological, and swelling/de-swelling properties that cannot be achieved by either material alone. Inspired by flexible biological tissues, researchers incorporate carbon-based, polymeric, ceramic and/or metallic nanomaterials to give these hydrogels superior characteristics like optical properties and stimulus-sensitivity which can potentially be very helpful to medical (especially drug delivery and stem cell engineering) and mechanical fields.Nanocomposite hydrogels are not to be confused with nanogel, a nanoparticle composed of a hydrogel.
Synthesis:
The synthesis of nanocomposite hydrogels is a process that requires specific material and method. These polymers need to be made up of equally spaced out, 30 nm in diameter, clay platelets that can swell and exfoliate in the presence of water. The platelets act as cross-links to modify molecular functions to enable the hydrogels to have superior elasticity and toughness that resembles closely that of biological tissue. Using clay platelets that do not swell or exfoliate in water, using an organic cross-linker such as N,N-methylenebisacrylamide(BIS), mixing of clay and BIS, or preparing nanocomposite hydrogels in a method other than cross-link, will be unsuccessful.Despite all the specifications, the process of synthesizing nanocomposite hydrogels is simple and because of the flexible nature of the material, these hydrogels can be easily made to come in different shapes such as huge blocks, sheets, thin films, rods, hollow tubes, spheres, bellows and uneven sheets.
Properties:
Mechanical Nanocomposite hydrogels are tough, and can withstand stretching, bending, knotting, crushing, and other modifications.
Tensile Tensile testings were performed on nanocomposite hydrogels to measure the stress and strain it experiences when elongated under room temperature. The results show that this material can be stretched up to 1000% of its original length.
Compression Hysteresis is used to measure the compression properties of nanocomposite hydrogels, which shows that this material can withstand around 90% compression. This data shows that nanocomposite hydrogels exhibit superior strength relative to conventionally-made hydrogels, which would have broken down under less compression.
Properties:
Swelling and stimulus sensitivity Swelling, de-swelling The porous network of clay particles enable nanocomposite hydrogels to swell in the presence of water. Swelling (and de-swelling) distinguishes NC gels from conventionally-made hydrogels (OR gels) as it is a property that OR gels lack. The swelling property of NC gels allows them to collect the surrounding aqueous solution instead of being dissolved by it, which helps make them good candidates for drug delivery carriers.
Properties:
Stimulus sensitivity Nanocomposite hydrogels are observed to be temperature sensitive and will change temperature when their surrounding is altered. Inorganic salts, when absorbed, will result in changing the hydrogels to a lower temperature whereas cat-ionic surfactant will shift the temperature the other way. The temperature of these hydrogels are around 40 degrees Celsius, making it a possible candidate for use as biomaterial. The stimulus-sensitivity of hydrogels allow for a responsive release system where the hydrogels can be designed to deliver the drug in response to changes in condition of the body.
Types:
Via carbon-based nanomaterials Nanocomposite hydrogels that are enforced with carbon-based nanomaterials are mechanically tough and electrically conducive, which make them suitable for use in biomedicine, tissue engineering, drug delivery, biosensing, etc. The electrical conducting property of these hydrogels allow them to mimic the characteristic of nerve, muscle, and cardiac tissues. However, even though these nanocomposite hydrogels demonstrate some functions of human tissue in lab environments, more research is needed to ensure their utility as tissue replacement.
Types:
Via polymeric nanoparticles Nanocomposite hydrogels incorporated with polymeric nanoparticles are tailored for drug delivery and tissue engineering. The addition of polymeric nanoparticles gives these hydrogels a reinforced polymeric network that is more stiff and has the ability to enclose hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs along with genes and proteins. The high stress-absorbing property makes them a potential candidate for cartilage tissue engineering.
Types:
Via inorganic nanoparticles Most inorganic nanoparticles used for nanocomposite hydrogels are already present in and necessary for the body, and thus present no negative impacts on the body. Some of them, like calcium and silicon, help with preventing bone loss and skeletal development. Others, like nanoclays, improve the structural formation and characteristics of hydrogels where they acquire self-healing properties, flame retardant structures, elasticity, super gas-barrier membrane, oil-repellence, etc. The unique properties obtained by incorporating nanocomposite hydrogels with inorganic nanoparticles will let researchers work on improving bone-related tissue engineering.
Types:
Via metal and metal-oxide nanoparticles The electrical and thermal conductivity and magnetic property of metals enhance the electrical conductivity and antibacterial property of nanocomposite hydrogels when incorporated. The electrical conducting property is necessary for the hydrogels to start forming functional tissues and be used as imaging agents, drug delivery systems, conductive scaffolds, switchable electronics, actuators, and sensors.
Applications:
Researchers have been looking for a material that can mimic tissue properties to make the tissue engineering process more effective and less invasive to the human body. The porous, interconnecting network of nanocomposite hydrogels, created through cross-link, enable wastes and nutrients to easily enter and exit the structure, and their elastomeric properties let them acquire the desired anatomical shape without needing prior molding. The porous structure of this material would also make the process of drug delivery easier where the pharmaceutical compounds present in the hydrogel can easily escape and be absorbed by the body. Aside from that, researchers are also looking into incorporating nanocomposite hydrogels with silver nanoparticles for antibacterial applications and microorganism elimination in medical and food packing and water treatment. Hydrogels infused with nanoparticles have a number of biological applications, including: tissue engineering, chemical and biological sensing and drug and gene delivery.
Applications:
Tissue engineering As tissue replacements, nanocomposite hydrogels need to interact with cells and form functional tissues. With the incorporated nanoparticles and nanomaterials, these hydrogels can mimic the physical, chemical, electrical, and biological properties of most native tissue. Each type of nanocomposite hydrogels has its own unique properties that let it mimic certain types of animal tissue.
Applications:
Drug delivery The emergence of nanocomposite hydrogels allow for more site-specific and time-controlled delivery of drugs of different sizes at improved safety and specificity. Depending on the method of inserting drugs into the material, for example, dissolved, encased, or attached, the drug carrier will be named differently: nanoparticles, nanospheres (where the drug is evenly dispersed throughout the polymeric network), or nanocapsules (where the drug is surrounded by a polymer shell structure). The elastomeric nature of this material allows the hydrogels to obtain the shape of the targeted site and thus the hydrogels can be manufactured identically and used on all patients.Hydrogels are controlled drug delivery agents that can be engineered to have desired properties. Specifically, hydrogels can be designed to release drugs or other agents in response to physical characteristics of the environment like temperature and pH. The responsiveness of hydrogels is a result of their molecular structure and polymer networks.Hydrogel nanoparticles have a promising future in the drug delivery field. Ideally, drug delivery systems should, “…maximize the efficacy and the safety of the therapeutic agent, delivering an appropriate amount at a suitable rate and to the most appropriate site in the body”. Nanotechnology incorporated within hydrogels has the potential to meet all the requirements of an ideal drug delivery system. Hydrogels have been studied with a variety of nanocomposites including: clay, gold, silver, iron oxide, carbon nanotubes, hydroxyapatite, and tricalcium phosphate.Nanoparticles, largely due to their size related physical properties, are highly useful as drug delivery agents. They can overcome physiological barriers and reach specific targets. Nanoparticles’ size, surface charge and properties enable them to penetrate biological barriers that most other drug carriers cannot. To become even more specified, nanoparticles can be coated with targeting ligands. The ability of nanoparticles to deliver drugs to specific targets suggests the potential to limit systemic side-effects and immune responses.The ability of nanoparticles to carry and release drugs is also largely dependent on characteristics which result from the small size and unique surface area to volume ratio of nanoparticles. Nanoparticles can generally carry drugs in two ways: drugs can either be bound to the outside of the nanoparticles or packed within the polymeric matrix of the nanoparticles. Smaller nanoparticles have higher surface area ratios and can thus bind a high quantity of drug, while larger nanoparticles can encapsulate more of the drug within its core. The best method of drug loading is dependent on the structures of the drug to be bound. Also, drug loading can occur as the nanoparticles are produced, or the drugs can be added to pre-existing nanoparticles. The release of drugs, depends largely on the size of the nanoparticle carrying it. Because nanoparticles can be bound to the surface of nanoparticles, which is large relative to the volume of the particles, drugs can be released quickly. In contrast, drugs that are loaded within nanoparticles are released more slowly.
Applications:
Antibacterial applications Silver nanoparticles are inserted into the 3D polymeric networks of nanocomposite hydrogels for applications in antibacterial activity and improvement in electrical conductance. The presence of silver ions either stop the respiratory enzyme from transferring electrons to oxygen molecules during respiration or prevent proteins from reacting with thiol groups (-SH) on bacteria membrane, both result in the death of bacteria and microorganism without damaging mammal cells. The size of these silver nanoparticles need to be small enough to pass through the cell membrane and thus further research is required to manufacture them into appropriate sizes.
Applications:
Concerns Some concerns relating to hydrogels infused with nanoparticles are the chances of either bursting, or of incomplete release of drugs. Although hydrogels infused with nanoparticles are speculated to be quite promising methods of drug, protein, peptide, oligosaccharide, vaccine, and nucleic acid delivery, more studies regarding nanotoxicology and safety are required before clinical applications can be pursued. Further, to avoid accumulation, biodegradable gels and nanoparticles are highly desirable. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**N-Formylpiperidine**
N-Formylpiperidine:
N-Formylpiperidine is an organic compound with the formula C6H11NO. It is the amide of formic acid and piperidine. It can be used as a polar aprotic solvent, with better hydrocarbon solubility than other amide solvents such as dimethylformamide (DMF). It has also been used to transfer the formyl group to a Grignard reagent: PhCH2CH2MgCl + C6H11NO → PhCH2CH2CHOIn some formylation reaction of alkyllithium compounds, N-formylpiperidine gives higher yields than the DMF. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Paradoxical embolism**
Paradoxical embolism:
An embolus, is described as a free-floating mass, located inside blood vessels that can travel from one site in the blood stream to another. An embolus can be made up of solid (like a blood clot), liquid (like amniotic fluid), or gas (like air). Once these masses get "stuck" in a different blood vessel, it is then known as an "embolism." An embolism can cause ischemia—damage to an organ from lack of oxygen. A paradoxical embolism is a specific type of embolism in which the embolus travels from the right side of the heart (venous circulation) to the left side of the heart (arterial circulation) and lodges itself in a blood vessel known as an artery. Thus, it is termed "paradoxical" because the embolus lands in an artery, rather than a vein.
Pathophysiology:
An embolism may be made from any one of numerous materials that may find itself in a blood vessel, including a piece of a thrombus, known as a thromboembolism, air from an intravenous catheter, fat globules from bone marrow, amniotic fluid during birth. In order for an embolus to become a paradoxical embolus it must traverse from venous circulation, in the veins, to arterial circulation, in the arteries. There are many routes in which an embolism can traverse from the right (venous) side of the heart to the left (arterial) side of the heart. These routes include moving through a patent foramen ovale (a congenital hole connecting the right and left atria of the heart), a ventricular septal defect (a congenital hole connecting the ventricles), or a pulmonary arteriovenous fistula, where arteries in the lungs connect directly to veins without capillaries in between. Although there are many routes an embolism may take to enter the arterial circulation, the term paradoxical embolism most commonly refers to a clot passing through a patent foramen ovale. The formen ovale is open during development of the heart in a developing fetus, and normally closes soon after birth - studies have found that patent foramen ovale is present in a significant portion of the population into adulthood.Once an embolus enters arterial circulation it continually travels down arteries to smaller vessels before lodging itself in vessels and stopping blood flow to the tissues supplied by those blood vessels. Often, the embolus will reach the brain and cause permanent stoppage of blood flow to a region of the brain, a feared complication of paradoxical embolism. This stoppage of blood flow in the brain, or ischemia, is called a cerebral infarct, also known as a stroke.
Epidemiology:
Although aging data has suggested paradoxical emboli may cause up to 47,000 strokes per year, it is difficult to measure the actual rates of paradoxical emboli because it remains challenging to definitively diagnose the disease. Because many strokes have no known cause, an individual who has an embolic event, often a stroke, and is found to have patent foramen ovale or right-to-left shunt, the speculative diagnosis of paradoxical embolism is given to the patient. Although no conclusive evidence has reported a true prevalence of the disease, data suggests that the presence of patent foramen ovales and other inter-cardiac shunts are associated with large increase in the prevalence of strokes of unknown etiology, suggesting paradoxical embolism may be the cause. Regardless of true disease prevalence, the difficulties surrounding diagnosis may lead it to be an under-recognized etiology of strokes.
Clinical Manifestations:
Symptoms experienced by an individual with a paradoxical embolism can be from both the original site of thrombus and the location of where the emboli lodges. It is believed that the most common origin site of thrombus is from a deep vein thrombosis (DVT), however, in most patients with suspected paradoxical embolism no evidence of a DVT is found. Symptoms of a DVT will include unilateral leg swelling and pain, warmth, and redness of the affected area. This is due to the blockage of blood attempting to return to the heart through the venous system.
Clinical Manifestations:
Additional findings in a patient with a paradoxical embolism will be dependent upon where the emboli lodges and disrupts blood flow. Three important clinical manifestations that may be caused by paradoxical embolism include a stroke, migraine, and acute myocardial infarction, also known as a heart attack. A stroke and migraine in the setting of a paradoxical embolism are caused by the emboli disrupting blood flow in a cerebral artery. A myocardial infarction in the setting of a paradoxical embolism are caused by the emboli disrupting blood flow in a coronary artery. Physical findings that should be evaluated include a comprehensive neurological examination for evaluation of stroke symptoms such as weakness, gait changes, slurred speech, and facial droop.Additionally, if a paradoxical embolism is suspected in a patient, findings consistent with a congenital heart defect that may lead to right-to-left shunting can be evaluated. These include digital clubbing due to chronic hypoxemia in distal extremities or a widely-split S2, a pathological heartbeat pattern where the second heart sound has two components.
Evaluation and Diagnosis:
Resources suggest a paradoxical embolism should be expected when three findings are present simultaneously; a deep vein thrombosis (a thrombus occurring in a large vein, usually of the leg), a passageway or right-to-left shunt that allows an emboli across the heart, and evidence of arterial emboli. Once suspicion is raised for a paradoxical embolism, a battery of tests may be ordered for the patient and a discussion regarding past medical history and family history is useful for identifying contributing risk factors.
Evaluation and Diagnosis:
History It is essential to discuss if the patient has personal or family history of a patent foramen ovale or other congenital heart disease that may have allowed an embolus into arterial circulation. Additionally patients may be asked about a history of deep vein thrombosis or factors that contribute to DVT, including high blood pressure, high cholesterol, prior heart attacks, or diabetes. Use of substance that make blood clots more likely such as tobacco or estrogen may also be discussed.
Evaluation and Diagnosis:
Laboratory Studies and other Diagnostic Tests Specific blood tests known as coagulation studies may be ordered. These tests measure how quickly a blood clot can form and may include PT, PTT, INR, and Protein C and S levels. A complete blood count (CBC) can also be ordered to test for low platelets. An EKG may be started to evaluate for abnormal heart rhythms, especially atrial fibrillation which often cause traditional emboli to form in the heart. Arterial blood gas measurements and metabolic panels may also be drawn for the purpose of supportive measures.
Evaluation and Diagnosis:
Imaging Imaging can be done for various reasons during a suspected paradoxical embolism including scanning for a DVT that may have caused the emboli, evaluating the brain for ischemic changes secondary to embolism, and to evaluate for heart defect that could cause an emboli to enter systemic circulation.
Evaluation and Diagnosis:
Ultrasound, MRI imaging, or CT scans of the lower extremities help to identify a possible DVT, which provides evidence that an emboli may have come from venous circulation. Although these imaging modalities are used to evaluate for venous thromboembolism, their use in detecting heart defects is limited. The use of MRI to detect cardiac shunts is "controversial" and that the use of CT is not recommended due to exposure to ionizing radiation and lack of functional imaging.It is reported that transesophageal echocardiography or TEE, is the best non-invasive option for diagnosing intracardiac shunts like a patent foramen ovale. Additionally, there is a need for a color flow Doppler study or the injection of agitated saline/contrast medium followed by a Valsalva maneuver to visualize flow of blood from the lower pressure venous system to the higher pressure arterial system.Similar to a TEE, a transcranial Doppler sonography study is also described as helping to evaluate for right-to-left shunts of the heart. However, it can also be used to detect other forms of right-to-left shunts including pulmonary arteriovenous malformations because it too needs agitated saline/contrast injected, but rather than imaging the heart, observes if any microemboli appear in the middle cerebral artery, an artery or the brain, following a valsalva maneuver.Ear oximetry is also described as a fairly accurate screening tool for a shunt. It measures the oxygen saturation of blood as it passes through the ear. Following a valsalva maneuver, pressure increases in the right heart, deoxygenated blood is shunted into arterial circulation, and a decrease in oxygen saturation can then be measured in the capillaries of the ear.
Treatment:
Current recommendation suggest that the two major goals of treatment include medical management of the thrombotic event to help prevent further thrombus/embolus formation and closure of the patent foramen ovale or other route that let to a pardoxical embolism.A paradoxical emboli should be medically managed similar to any other thromboembolism with medical anticoagulation. This is to prevent new or worsening blood clot formation that may occlude vessels and cause organ ischemia. Some sources suggest anticoagulation with heparin be performed, while others give a list of reasonable drug options including anticoagulants like heparin and warfarin, anti-platelet therapy like aspirin and clopidogrel, and thrombolytic therapy like alteplase and streptokinase. If an embolus is causing life or limb-threatening ischemia, is located in a reasonable location, and is first visualized with fluoroscopy, catheter embolectomy can be performed to retrieve the clot as well.Surgical closure of a patent foramen ovale or other atrial septal defects is often done through an out-patient, percutaneous, surgery that has few complications. Although closure of a patent foramen ovale or atrial septal defect theoretically removes the pathway for an arterial embolus to enter venous circulation and cause a paradoxical embolism, data suggests that closing intracardiac shunts is no more effective than medical management alone in preventing strokes. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Reduced mass**
Reduced mass:
In physics, the reduced mass is the "effective" inertial mass appearing in the two-body problem of Newtonian mechanics. It is a quantity which allows the two-body problem to be solved as if it were a one-body problem. Note, however, that the mass determining the gravitational force is not reduced. In the computation, one mass can be replaced with the reduced mass, if this is compensated by replacing the other mass with the sum of both masses. The reduced mass is frequently denoted by μ (mu), although the standard gravitational parameter is also denoted by μ (as are a number of other physical quantities). It has the dimensions of mass, and SI unit kg.
Equation:
Given two bodies, one with mass m1 and the other with mass m2, the equivalent one-body problem, with the position of one body with respect to the other as the unknown, is that of a single body of mass μ=11m1+1m2=m1m2m1+m2, where the force on this mass is given by the force between the two bodies.
Properties The reduced mass is always less than or equal to the mass of each body: μ≤m1,μ≤m2 and has the reciprocal additive property: 1μ=1m1+1m2 which by re-arrangement is equivalent to half of the harmonic mean.
In the special case that m1=m2 :μ=m12=m22 If m1≫m2 , then μ≈m2
Derivation:
The equation can be derived as follows.
Derivation:
Newtonian mechanics Using Newton's second law, the force exerted by a body (particle 2) on another body (particle 1) is: 12 =m1a1 The force exerted by particle 1 on particle 2 is: 21 =m2a2 According to Newton's third law, the force that particle 2 exerts on particle 1 is equal and opposite to the force that particle 1 exerts on particle 2: 12 21 Therefore: m1a1=−m2a2⇒a2=−m1m2a1 The relative acceleration arel between the two bodies is given by: := 12 μ Note that (since the derivative is a linear operator) the relative acceleration arel is equal to the acceleration of the separation xrel between the two particles.
Derivation:
arel=a1−a2=d2x1dt2−d2x2dt2=d2dt2(x1−x2)=d2xreldt2 This simplifies the description of the system to one force (since 12 21 ), one coordinate xrel , and one mass μ . Thus we have reduced our problem to a single degree of freedom, and we can conclude that particle 1 moves with respect to the position of particle 2 as a single particle of mass equal to the reduced mass, μ Lagrangian mechanics Alternatively, a Lagrangian description of the two-body problem gives a Lagrangian of L=12m1r˙12+12m2r˙22−V(|r1−r2|) where ri is the position vector of mass mi (of particle i ). The potential energy V is a function as it is only dependent on the absolute distance between the particles. If we define r=r1−r2 and let the centre of mass coincide with our origin in this reference frame, i.e. m1r1+m2r2=0 ,then r1=m2rm1+m2,r2=−m1rm1+m2.
Derivation:
Then substituting above gives a new Lagrangian L=12μr˙2−V(r), where μ=m1m2m1+m2 is the reduced mass. Thus we have reduced the two-body problem to that of one body.
Applications:
Reduced mass can be used in a multitude of two-body problems, where classical mechanics is applicable.
Moment of inertia of two point masses in a line In a system with two point masses m1 and m2 such that they are co-linear, the two distances r1 and r2 to the rotation axis may be found with where R is the sum of both distances R=r1+r2 This holds for a rotation around the center of mass.
The moment of inertia around this axis can be then simplified to Collisions of particles In a collision with a coefficient of restitution e, the change in kinetic energy can be written as ΔK=12μvrel2(e2−1) ,where vrel is the relative velocity of the bodies before collision.
Applications:
For typical applications in nuclear physics, where one particle's mass is much larger than the other the reduced mass can be approximated as the smaller mass of the system. The limit of the reduced mass formula as one mass goes to infinity is the smaller mass, thus this approximation is used to ease calculations, especially when the larger particle's exact mass is not known.
Applications:
Motion of two massive bodies under their gravitational attraction In the case of the gravitational potential energy V(|r1−r2|)=−Gm1m2|r1−r2|, we find that the position of the first body with respect to the second is governed by the same differential equation as the position of a body with the reduced mass orbiting a body with a mass equal to the sum of the two masses, because m1m2=(m1+m2)μ Non-relativistic quantum mechanics Consider the electron (mass me) and proton (mass mp) in the hydrogen atom. They orbit each other about a common centre of mass, a two body problem. To analyze the motion of the electron, a one-body problem, the reduced mass replaces the electron mass me→mempme+mp and the proton mass becomes the sum of the two masses mp→me+mp This idea is used to set up the Schrödinger equation for the hydrogen atom.
Applications:
Other uses "Reduced mass" may also refer more generally to an algebraic term of the form x∗=11x1+1x2=x1x2x1+x2 that simplifies an equation of the form 1x∗=∑i=1n1xi=1x1+1x2+⋯+1xn.
Applications:
The reduced mass is typically used as a relationship between two system elements in parallel, such as resistors; whether these be in the electrical, thermal, hydraulic, or mechanical domains. A similar expression appears in the transversal vibrations of beams for the elastic moduli. This relationship is determined by the physical properties of the elements as well as the continuity equation linking them. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Plug nozzle**
Plug nozzle:
The plug nozzle is a type of nozzle which includes a centerbody or plug around which the working fluid flows. Plug nozzles have applications in aircraft, rockets, and numerous other fluid flow devices.
Hoses:
Common garden hose trigger nozzles are a simple example of the plug nozzle and its method of operation. In this example the nozzle consists of a conical or bell shaped opening with a plug on a movable rod positioned in front of the nozzle. The plug looks similar to a poppet valve. The stem of the valve runs back through the body of the nozzle body to a "trigger", normally a long lever running down the back of the nozzle assembly. A spring keeps the valve pressed against the opening under normal use, thereby providing a failsafe cut-off that stops the flow of water when the nozzle is dropped.
Hoses:
When water is supplied to the hose, it flows through the nozzle body to the opening, where it would normally flow straight forward in a stream. Just after leaving the opening it encounters the plug, which deflects the water sideways through an angle. After travelling a short distance the water encounters the outside of the nozzle opening, which deflects it forward again. This two-step process causes the water to be ejected in a ring-shaped pattern, which causes less water to strike any one location, and thereby reduces erosion while also making it easier to water larger areas.
Hoses:
The shaping of the plug and the nozzle opening allows the angle of the ring to be adjusted. Normally this is shaped so that when the plug is pulled back toward the opening it both partially cuts off the water flow, as well as causing it to spread out to the widest possible angle. This can be used for "misting" plants. When the trigger is pushed down further, the plug moves away from the opening, causing less blockage and disruption of the flow, ultimately allowing the water to form back into a stream.
In rockets:
Plug nozzles belong to a class of altitude compensating nozzles, much like the aerospike, which, unlike traditional designs, maintains its efficiency at a wide range of altitudes.Similar to the garden hose example, plug nozzles use a shaped rocket nozzle with a poppet-shaped plug to allow the pattern of the rocket exhaust to be changed. This is used to adjust for changes in altitude; at lower altitudes the plug is pulled back to cause the exhaust to spread out, while at higher altitudes the lower air pressure will cause this to happen naturally. An alternative construction for the same basic concept is to use two nozzles, one inside the other, and adjust the distance between them. This pattern has the advantage of better control over the exhaust and simpler cooling arrangements.
In rockets:
Confusingly, the term "plug nozzle" may also be used to refer to an entirely different class of engine nozzles, the aerospikes. In theory the aerospike should look roughly like a lance, with a wide base and long tapering forebody. However, the "spike" portion can be cut off with only minor effects on performance, leaving just the base section. This looks very similar to a common drain plug or bung, and leads to widespread use of the term "plug nozzle" for this design as well.
In aircraft and missiles:
The jet-engine plug nozzle has its origins in rocketry but has also been studied over the years, but not used, for supersonic cruise aircraft such as the Boeing SST, the proposed General Electric Variable Cycle Engine, with its acoustic plug nozzle, and Concorde. However, it was used for the AGM-28 Hound Dog missile and the Tu-144 airliner. The plug / "external-expanding" nozzle has a central plug and a freely-expanding supersonic jet rather than a diverging cone surface to contain the internal supersonic expansion as in a delaval convergent-divergent nozzle (con-di) nozzle. The Pratt & Whitney J52 aircraft engine used in the supersonic AGM-28 Hound Dog missile used a plug nozzle which performed better over the missile's flight envelope than either a convergent or a con-di nozzle. A translating center-body was used on the non-afterburning Kolesov RD-36-51A engine used for the Tupolev Tu-144D supersonic airliner. The center-body was perforated and compressed air forced into the exhaust jet through the perforations to attenuate the noise. Weight and cooling are typical concerns with aircraft plug nozzles. A plug nozzle design evaluated at the National Gas Turbine Establishment was rejected for the Concorde engine due to the weight penalty from the required variable features and concerns about adequate plug cooling during reheat operation. Plug nozzle model tests have shown reduced noise levels compared to traditional con-di nozzles.Propelling nozzles for subsonic aircraft have used a center-body/bullet/cone to give the nozzle exit area required to set an axial compressor running-line correctly on its map. The first operational German turbojet engines with axial compressors, the Jumo 004 and BMW 003, needed a different exhaust nozzle areas for running properly at each of the operating regimes: start/idle, climb, high speed, high altitude. A nozzle with a fore/aft-translating "bullet" restrictive body in the center was chosen for each design. It provided area control with relatively simple actuation and matched the annular shape of the turbine exhaust. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Casemate**
Casemate:
A casemate is a fortified gun emplacement or armored structure from which guns are fired, in a fortification, warship, or armoured fighting vehicle.When referring to antiquity, the term "casemate wall" means a double city wall with the space between the walls separated into chambers, which could be filled up to better withstand battering rams in case of siege (see Antiquity: casemate wall).
Casemate:
In its original early modern meaning, the term referred to a vaulted chamber in a fort, which may have been used for storage, accommodation, or artillery which could fire through an opening or embrasure. Although the outward faces of brick or masonry casemates proved vulnerable to advances in artillery performance, the invention of reinforced concrete allowed newer designs to be produced well into the 20th century. With the introduction of ironclad warships, the definition was widened to include a protected space for guns in a ship, either within the hull or in the lower part of the superstructure. Although the main armament of ships quickly began to be mounted in revolving gun turrets, secondary batteries continued to be mounted in casemates; however, several disadvantages eventually also led to their replacement by turrets. In tanks that do not have a turret for the main gun, the structure that accommodates the gun is also called a casemate.
Etymology:
First recorded in French in the mid-16th century, from the Italian casamatta or Spanish casamata, perhaps meaning a slaughterhouse, although it could derive from casa (in the sense of "hut"), and matta (Latin matta), "done with reeds and wickers", thus a low-roof hut without windows or other openings set in marshy place. It could also come from casa matta with matta in the sense of "false". However, it may have been ultimately derived from the Greek chásmata (χάσματα), a gap or aperture.
Antiquity: casemate wall:
The term casemate wall is used in the archaeology of Israel and the wider Near East, having the meaning of a double wall protecting a city or fortress, with transverse walls separating the space between the walls into chambers. These could be used as such, for storage or residential purposes, or could be filled with soil and rocks during siege in order to raise the resistance of the outer wall against battering rams. Originally thought to have been introduced to the region by the Hittites, this has been disproved by the discovery of examples predating their arrival, the earliest being at Ti'inik (Taanach) where such a wall has been dated to the 16th century BC. Casemate walls became a common type of fortification in the Southern Levant between the Middle Bronze Age (MB) and Iron Age II, being more numerous during the Iron Age and peaking in Iron Age II (10th–6th century BC). However, the construction of casemate walls had begun to be replaced by sturdier solid walls by the 9th century BC, probably due the development of more effective battering rams by the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Casemate walls could surround an entire settlement, but most only protected part of it. The three different types included freestanding casemate walls, then integrated ones where the inner wall was part of the outer buildings of the settlement, and finally filled casemate walls, where the rooms between the walls were filled with soil right away, allowing for a quick, but nevertheless stable construction of particularly high walls.
Modern period:
Land fortification Early modern period In fortifications designed to resist artillery, a casemate was originally a vaulted chamber usually constructed underneath the rampart. It was intended to be impenetrable and could be used for sheltering troops or stores. With the addition of an embrasure through the scarp face of the rampart, it could be used as a protected gun position. In bastion forts, artillery casemates were sometimes built into the flanks of bastions, but in action they quickly filled with smoke making them inoperable and for that reason, had fallen out of favor during the 17th century.
Modern period:
18th and 19th centuries In the late 18th century, Marc René, marquis de Montalembert (1714–1800) experimented with improved casemates for artillery, with ventilation systems that overcame the problem of smoke dispersal found in earlier works. For coastal fortifications, he advocated multi-tiered batteries of guns in masonry casemates, that could bring concentrated fire to bear on passing warships. In 1778, he was commissioned to build a fort on the Île-d'Aix, defending the port of Rochefort, Charente-Maritime. The outbreak of the Anglo-French War forced him to hastily to build his casemated fort from wood but he was able to prove that his well-designed casemates were capable of operating without choking the gunners with smoke. The defenses of the new naval base at Cherbourg were later constructed according to his system. After seeing Montalembert's coastal forts, American engineer Jonathan Williams acquired a translation of his book and took it to the United States, where it inspired the Second and Third Systems of coastal fortification; the first fully developed example being Castle Williams in New York Harbor which was started in 1807.
Modern period:
In the early 19th century, French military engineer Baron Haxo designed a free-standing casemate that could be built on the top of the rampart, to protect guns and gunners from the high-angle fire of mortars and howitzers.
Modern period:
The advantages of casemated artillery were proved in the Crimean War of 1853–1856, when attempts by the Royal Navy to subdue the casemated Russian forts at Kronstadt were unsuccessful, while a casemated gun tower at Sevastopol, the Malakoff Tower, could only be captured by a surprise French infantry attack while the garrison was being changed. In the early 1860s, the British, apprehensive about a possible French invasion, fortified the naval dockyards of southern England with curved batteries of large guns in casemates, fitted with laminated iron shields tested to withstand the latest projectiles.However, in the American Civil War (1861-1865), the exposed masonry of casemate batteries was found to be vulnerable to modern rifled artillery; Fort Pulaski was quickly breached in a few hours by only ten of these guns. In contrast, hastily constructed earthworks proved much more resilient. This led to casemates for artillery again falling out of favor. In continental Europe, they were often replaced by rotating gun turrets, but elsewhere large coastal guns were mounted in less expensive concrete gun pits or barbettes, sometimes using disappearing carriages to conceal the gun except at the moment of firing. Casemates for secure barrack accommodation and storage continued to be built; the 1880s French forts of the Séré de Rivières system for example, had a central structure consisting of two stories of casemates, buried under layers of earth, concrete and sand to a depth of 18 metres (59 ft), intended to defeat the new high explosive shells.
Modern period:
Towards the end of the century, Imperial Germany had developed a new form of fortification called a feste (German article: Festung#Feste), in which the various elements of each fort were more widely dispersed in the landscape. These works, the first of which was Fort de Mutzig near Strasbourg, had separate artillery blocks, infantry positions and underground barracks, all built of reinforced concrete and connected by tunnels or entrenchments. Although the main armament of these forts was still mounted in armored turrets, local defense was provided by separate protected positions for field guns; these concrete structures were copied by the French who called them casemates de Bourges (French article: Casemate de Bourges) after the proving ground where they had been tested.
Modern period:
20th century Following experience gained in the World War I, French engineers began to design a new scheme of fortifications to protect their eastern border, which became known as the Maginot Line. The main element of this line were large underground forts based on the feste principle, whose main armament was in turrets, however the countryside between them was defended by smaller self-sufficient works based on the earlier casemates de bourges, housing either light field guns or anti-tank guns. As the World War II approached, similar casemate designs were adopted by other European nations as they offered protection from attacking aircraft. The German Organisation Todt undertook the development of casemates for the large coastal guns of the Atlantic Wall. Built of concrete up to 10 metres (33 ft) thick, they were thought to be able to withstand any form of attack. Work by the Western Allies to develop countermeasures that could defeat casemates and other types of bunker resulted in weapons such as tank-mounted spigot mortars, rocket-assisted projectiles, recoilless rifles, various types of demolition charge and earthquake bombs.
Modern period:
Naval In warship design the term "casemate" has been used in a number of ways, but it generally refers to a protected space for guns within a ship's hull or superstructure.
Modern period:
The first ironclad warship, the French ironclad Gloire (1858), was a wooden steamship whose hull was covered with armored plating, tested to withstand the largest smoothbore guns available at the time. The response by the British Royal Navy to this perceived threat was to build an iron-hulled frigate, HMS Warrior (1860). However, it was realised that to armor all of the hull to fully withstand the latest rifled artillery would make it unfeasibly heavy, so it was decided to create an armored box or casemate around the main gun deck, leaving the bow and stern unarmored.
Modern period:
The American Civil War saw the use of casemate ironclads: armored steamboats with a very low freeboard and their guns on the main deck ('Casemate deck') protected by a sloped armoured casemate, which sat atop the hull. Although both sides of the Civil War used casemate ironclads, the ship is mostly associated with the southern Confederacy, as the north also employed turreted monitors, which the south was unable to produce. The most famous naval battle of the war was the duel at Hampton Roads between the Union turreted ironclad USS Monitor and the Confederate casemate ironclad CSS Virginia (built from the scuttled remains of USS Merrimack)."Casemate ship" was an alternative term for "central battery ship" (UK) or "center battery ship" (US). The casemate (or central battery) was an armored box that extended the full width of the ship protecting many guns. The armored sides of the box were the sides or hull of the ship. There was an armored bulkhead at the front and rear of the casemate, and a thick deck protecting the top. The lower edge of the casemate sat on top of ship's belt armour. Some ships, such as HMS Alexandra (laid down 1873), had a two-story casemate.A "casemate" was an armored room in the side of a warship, from which a gun would fire. A typical casemate held a 6-inch gun, and had a 4-to-6-inch (100 to 150 mm) front plate (forming part of the side of the ship), with thinner armor plates on the sides and rear, with a protected top and floor, and weighed about 20 tons (not including the gun and mounting). Casemates were similar in size to turrets; ships carrying them had them in pairs, one on each side of the ship.
Modern period:
The first battleships to carry them were the British Royal Sovereign class laid down in 1889. They were adopted as a result of live-firing trials against HMS Resistance in 1888. Casemates were adopted because it was thought that the fixed armor plate at the front would provide better protection than a turret, and because a turret mounting would require external power and could therefore be put out of action if power were lost – unlike a casemate gun, which could be worked by hand. The use of casemates enabled the 6-inch guns to be dispersed, so that a single hit would not knock out all of them. Casemates were also used in protected and armored cruisers, starting with the 1889 Edgar class. and retrofitted to the 1888 Blake class during construction.In the pre-dreadnought generation of warships, casemates were placed initially on the main deck, and later on the upper deck as well. Casemates on the main deck were very close to the waterline. In the Edgar-class cruisers, the guns in the casemates were only 10 feet (3.0 m) above the waterline. Casemates that were too close to the waterline or too close to the bow (such as in the 1912 Iron Duke-class dreadnoughts) were prone to flooding, making the guns ineffective.
Modern period:
Shipboard casemate guns were partially rendered obsolete by the arrival of "all-big gun" battleship, pioneered by HMS Dreadnought in 1906, but were reintroduced as the increasing torpedo threat from destroyers forced an increase in secondary armament calibre. Many battleships had their casemates plated over during modernization in the 1930s (or after the Attack on Pearl Harbor, in the case of US vessels) but some, like HMS Warspite carried them to the end of World War II. The last ships built with casemates as new construction were the American Omaha-class cruisers of the early 1920s and the 1933 Swedish aircraft cruiser HSwMS Gotland. In both cases the casemates were built into the forward angles of the forward superstructure (and the aft superstructure as well, in the Omahas).
Modern period:
Armoured vehicles In regards to armored fighting vehicles, casemate design refers to vehicles that have their main gun mounted directly within the hull and lack the rotating turret commonly associated with tanks. Such a design generally makes the vehicle mechanically simpler in design, less costly in construction, lighter in weight and lower in profile. The saved weight can be used to mount a heavier, more powerful gun or alternatively increase the vehicle's armor protection in comparison to regular, turreted tanks. However, in combat the crew has to rotate the entire vehicle if an enemy target presents itself outside of the vehicle's limited gun traverse arc. This can prove very disadvantageous in combat situations.
Modern period:
During World War II, casemate-type armored fighting vehicles were heavily used by both the combined German Wehrmacht forces, and the Soviet Red Army. They were mainly employed as tank destroyers and assault guns. Tank destroyers, intended to operate mostly from defensive ambush operations, did not need a rotating turret as much as offensively used tanks, while assault guns were mainly used against fortified infantry positions and could afford a longer reaction time if a target presented itself outside the vehicle's gun traverse arc. Thus, the weight and complexity of a turret was thought to be unnecessary, and could be saved in favor of more capable guns and armor. In many cases, casemate vehicles would be used as both tank destroyers or assault guns, depending on the tactical situation. The Wehrmacht employed several casemate tank destroyers, initially with the still-Panzerjäger designation Elefant with an added, fully enclosed five-sided (including its armored roof) casemate atop the hull, with later casemate-style tank destroyers bearing the Jagdpanzer (literally 'hunting tank') designation, with much more integration of the casemate's armour with the tank hull itself. Examples are the Jagdpanzer IV, the Jagdtiger and the Jagdpanther. Assault guns were designated as 'Sturmgeschütz', like the Sturmgeschütz III and Sturmgeschütz IV. In the Red Army, casemate tank destroyers and self-propelled guns bore an "SU-" or "ISU-" prefix, with the "SU-" prefix an abbreviation for Samokhodnaya Ustanovka, or "self-propelled gun". Examples are the SU-100 or the ISU-152. Both Germany and the Soviet Union mainly built casemate AFVs by using the chassis of already existing turreted tanks, instead of designing them from scratch.
Modern period:
While casemate AFVs played a very important role in World War II (the Sturmgeschütz III for example was the most numerous armored fighting vehicle of the German Army during the entire war), they became much less common in the post-war period. Heavy casemate tank destroyer designs such as the US T28 and the British Tortoise never went beyond prototype status, while casemate vehicles of a more regular weight, such as the Soviet SU-122-54, saw only very limited service. The general decline of casemate vehicles can be seen in the technological progress which resulted in the rise of universal main battle tanks, which unified in them the capability to take up the roles and tasks which in the past had to be diverted between several different classes of vehicles. However, vehicles such as the German Kanonenjagdpanzer of the 1960s still let the casemate concept live on, while the Swedish Army went as far as employing a casemate tank design, the Stridsvagn 103, or "S-Tank", as their main armored fighting vehicle from the 1960s until the 1990s, favoring it over contemporary turreted designs. Other casemate design ideas, such as the projected German Versuchsträger 1–2 with two main guns, were developed even later. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**White sale**
White sale:
A white sale is a marketing strategy in which a store steeply discounts its merchandise to increase sales during a short period of time.
Origins:
In 1878, John Wanamaker of Philadelphia department store fame decreed January to be the time for a "White sale". Bed linens, which were available in white only, were sold at a discount. This was done to increase sales for these items at a time of the year when sales were normally slow.
Today:
Today, white sales usually revolve around household items. However, they no longer only involve items that are white in color, and they are not restricted to take place in the month of January. "White sales" should not be confused with sales on "white goods", which is to say durable goods such as refrigerators, freezers, stoves, washing machines, and similar large appliances. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Glucose 1-phosphate**
Glucose 1-phosphate:
Glucose 1-phosphate (also called cori ester) is a glucose molecule with a phosphate group on the 1'-carbon. It can exist in either the α- or β-anomeric form.
Reactions of α-glucose 1-phosphate:
Catabolic In glycogenolysis, it is the direct product of the reaction in which glycogen phosphorylase cleaves off a molecule of glucose from a greater glycogen structure. A deficiency of muscle glycogen phosphorylase is known as glycogen storage disease type V (McArdle Disease).
Reactions of α-glucose 1-phosphate:
To be utilized in cellular catabolism it must first be converted to glucose 6-phosphate by the enzyme phosphoglucomutase in a free equilibrium. One reason that cells form glucose 1-phosphate instead of glucose during glycogen breakdown is that the very polar phosphorylated glucose cannot leave the cell membrane and so is marked for intracellular catabolism. Phosphoglucomutase-1 deficiency is known as glycogen storage disease type 14 (GSD XIV).
Reactions of α-glucose 1-phosphate:
Anabolic In glycogenesis, free glucose 1-phosphate can also react with UTP to form UDP-glucose, by using the enzyme UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase. It can then return to the greater glycogen structure via glycogen synthase.
β-Glucose 1-phosphate:
β-Glucose 1-phosphate is found in some microbes. It is produced by inverting α-glucan phosphorylases including maltose phosphorylase, kojibiose phosphorylase and trehalose phosphorylase and is then converted into glucose 6-phosphate by β-phosphoglucomutase. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Safety orange**
Safety orange:
Safety orange (also known as blaze orange, vivid orange, OSHA orange, hunter orange, or Caltrans orange) is a hue used to set objects apart from their surroundings, particularly in complementary contrast to the azure color of the sky. (Azure is the complementary color of orange, and thus there is a stark contrast between the two colors.) The high-visibility color is commonly used for hunting during the rifle season, and is also used for upland-bird hunting. Places such as construction sites use this orange to help ensure the safety of others.
Safety orange:
ANSI standard Z535.1–1998 states how safety orange is defined in the following notation systems: Munsell notation:5.0YR (hue) 6.0/15 (value/chroma)Approximate PMS (Pantone) Color (mixing directions):13 parts yellow, 3 parts warm red, 1⁄4 part blackPantone number152CIE Data:x = 0.5510 y = 0.4214 Y% = 30.05Note that this CIE color point is outside the gamut of common color spaces like sRGB or Adobe RGB.
Safety orange:
The closest CIE color point that is still in the sRGB gamut is x = 0.54091, y = 0.40869, Y% = 30.05, corresponding to the sRGB-255 coordinates (232, 118, 0).The Adobe RGB color space is larger than the sRGB color space; the closest "safety orange" CIE color point that is still in the Adobe RGB gamut is x = 0.54467, y = 0.41424, Y% = 30.05%, corresponding to the AdobeRGB-255 coordinates (206, 118, 0).
Safety orange:
Safety orange is the color usually used in the United States for traffic cones (starting in 1961), stanchions, barrels, and other construction zone marking devices. OSHA requires that certain construction equipment must be painted safety orange. Two large trucking companies, Allied Van Lines and Schneider National, paint their trucks and trailers safety orange. In Europe, Dayglo orange (or "luminous orange"; RAL 2005) serves the same purpose.
Safety orange:
Safety orange is the same color as blaze orange, the shade of orange (Color No. 12199) required by United States law (U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 15 Commerce and Foreign Trade, Section 1150.3) to be on the tips of barrels of replica guns such as airsoft guns, and cap or toy guns. Hunter orange is also the color of hats, caps, and other safety wear required to be worn while hunting in most US states.
Elsewhere:
Orange vests using colors such as safety orange as high visibility clothing may be commonly worn by workers in the US, but this is not merely a legal standard but can be influenced by culture.
Since such colored patterned gear is easily produced, it can be assigned any kind of meaning. In Indonesia, it is commonly worn by parking attendants. Similarly in Thailand, it is used by motorcycle taxi workers. In Hong Kong, some Government Flying Service's aircraft and helicopters are painted in safety orange. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Ruplizumab**
Ruplizumab:
Ruplizumab (trade name Antova) is a humanized monoclonal antibody intended for the treatment of rheumatic diseases like systemic lupus erythematosus and lupus nephritis. A study showed that the drug was associated with life-threatening thromboembolisms, while another study only found thrombocytopenia. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Register of Clinical Technologists**
Register of Clinical Technologists:
The Register of Clinical Technologists (RCT) is a professional register for clinical technologists and practitioners specialising in the practical application of physics, engineering and technology to clinical practice in the UK. Registrants work in NHS hospitals, private health care, academic institutions and the medical device industry.
History:
The Register was formed in August 2000 as the Voluntary Register of Clinical Technologists (VCRT), with the aim of protecting the public by advocating statutory, professional regulation for Clinical Technologists. Management of the Register was undertaken by members of the Institute of Physics and Engineering in Medicine (IPEM), the Association of Renal Technologists and the Institution of Incorporated Engineers (now the Institution of Engineering and Technology).At its formation, the Register was designed to be a platform for the Clinical Technologist profession’s campaign for statutory regulation with the then Health Professions’ Council (HPC). However, in 2011 the UK Government Command Paper ‘Enabling Excellence: Autonomy and Accountability for Health and Social Care Staff’ stated that extensions to statutory regulation "will only be considered where there is a compelling case on the basis of a public safety risk and where assured voluntary registers are not considered sufficient to manage this risk", and indicated that the way forward would be via assured voluntary registration. This was subsequently developed into a system of Accredited Registers administered by the Profession Standards Authority (PSA).
History:
In 2013, at the request of the VCRT Management Panel, the management of the register was integrated into the professional work of IPEM, in order to provide a firmer footing for an application to the PSA to become an Accredited Register. In 2015, the Register was successful in achieving accreditation. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Perpendicular bisector construction of a quadrilateral**
Perpendicular bisector construction of a quadrilateral:
In geometry, the perpendicular bisector construction of a quadrilateral is a construction which produces a new quadrilateral from a given quadrilateral using the perpendicular bisectors to the sides of the former quadrilateral. This construction arises naturally in an attempt to find a replacement for the circumcenter of a quadrilateral in the case that is non-cyclic.
Definition of the construction:
Suppose that the vertices of the quadrilateral Q are given by Q1,Q2,Q3,Q4 . Let b1,b2,b3,b4 be the perpendicular bisectors of sides Q1Q2,Q2Q3,Q3Q4,Q4Q1 respectively. Then their intersections Qi(2)=bi+2bi+3 , with subscripts considered modulo 4, form the consequent quadrilateral Q(2) . The construction is then iterated on Q(2) to produce Q(3) and so on.
An equivalent construction can be obtained by letting the vertices of Q(i+1) be the circumcenters of the 4 triangles formed by selecting combinations of 3 vertices of Q(i)
Properties:
1. If Q(1) is not cyclic, then Q(2) is not degenerate.2. Quadrilateral Q(2) is never cyclic. Combining #1 and #2, Q(3) is always nondegenrate.
3. Quadrilaterals Q(1) and Q(3) are homothetic, and in particular, similar. Quadrilaterals Q(2) and Q(4) are also homothetic.
3. The perpendicular bisector construction can be reversed via isogonal conjugation. That is, given Q(i+1) , it is possible to construct Q(i) 4. Let α,β,γ,δ be the angles of Q(1) . For every i , the ratio of areas of Q(i) and Q(i+1) is given by cot cot cot cot (δ)).
5. If Q(1) is convex then the sequence of quadrilaterals Q(1),Q(2),… converges to the isoptic point of Q(1) , which is also the isoptic point for every Q(i) . Similarly, if Q(1) is concave, then the sequence Q(1),Q(0),Q(−1),… obtained by reversing the construction converges to the Isoptic Point of the Q(i) 's. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**OR5AC2**
OR5AC2:
Olfactory receptor 5AC2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the OR5AC2 gene.Olfactory receptors interact with odorant molecules in the nose, to initiate a neuronal response that triggers the perception of a smell. The olfactory receptor proteins are members of a large family of G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCR) arising from single coding-exon genes. Olfactory receptors share a 7-transmembrane domain structure with many neurotransmitter and hormone receptors and are responsible for the recognition and G protein-mediated transduction of odorant signals. The olfactory receptor gene family is the largest in the genome. The nomenclature assigned to the olfactory receptor genes and proteins for this organism is independent of other organisms. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Johnson–McMillin syndrome**
Johnson–McMillin syndrome:
Johnson–McMillin syndrome, also known as Johnson neuroectodermal syndrome, is a neuroectodermal syndrome characterized by conductive hearing loss and alopecia, microtia, conductive hearing loss, anosmia/hyposmia, and hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**IEEE 1902.1**
IEEE 1902.1:
The IEEE 1902.1-2009 standard is a wireless data communication protocol also known as RuBee, operates within the Low Frequency radio wave range of 30–900 kHz. Although very resistant to interference, metal, water and obstacles, it is very limited in range, usually only suitable for short-range networks. The baud rate is limited to 1,200 kB/s, making it a very low-rate communication network as well. This standard is aimed at the conception of wireless network of sensors and actuators in industrial and military environments. One of the major advantage 1902.1 tags is they are extremely low power and last for years on a simple coin size battery and they can be sealed in a MIL STD 810G package. RuBee tags emit virtually no RF and do not produce any Compromising Emanations, as a result are used in high security facilities. RuBee tags are safe and in use near and on high explosive facilities.
IEEE 1902.1:
The IEEE 1902.1 is an alternative to other higher-power wireless network of sensors and actuators based on the standard IEEE 802.15.4, such as Zigbee and 6LoWPAN. Other concurrent standards also exist: ISO/IEC 18000-7 DASH7, infrared networking and ultra-wide band networking.
IEEE 1902.1 is unique as it uses a very low frequency and magnetic field modulation (created by a magnetic dipole antenna in the near-field) as the physical mean. Due to its low frequency, RuBee has negligible multipath reflections so the signal can be used to geolocate assets.
The IEEE Working Group on 1902.1 named itself RuBee, after the gem and insect. RuBee stands in contrast to the well-known network certification Zigbee, a related but completely different networking standard.
Network devices:
IEEE 1902.1 supports the design of networks constituted by two devices: Controllers and Responders, based on a simplified IEEE MAC data layer.
The Controller initiates a command request and the Responder detects the request, processes some functions like measuring pressure, temperature or activating a relay, before sending a Response packet back to the Controller.
Responder devices have four addresses, two of them configurable, and two by fabric design.
Network Power:
The maximum power of emission recommended is 10 micro-Watts. This power limits the area of the network to a piconet, between 0.5 metres (1.6 ft) and 30 metres (98 ft).
Physical layer:
The physical communication mean used is the inductive coupling signaling working in the near field of a 131 kHz magnetic dipole antenna. Inductive coupling power falls cubically with the distance between the Controller and Responder.
Modulation:
The recommended modulations are Amplitude-shift keying (ASK), and Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK). The Controller must support both modulations, although the Responder may only support one.
Encoding:
On top of the modulation, the IEEE 1902.1 recommends two encoding methods: BMC, Bi-phase Marc Coding, known as a Manchester Encoding technique. This encoding method combined with BPSK is insensitive to a polarity reversal and has a good signal-to-noise ratio.
Data Protocol:
The protocol is simple: the Controller originates the signal and sends out a protocol data unit (PDU) to a Responder along with its address and the command to be processed. The Responder sends a PDU back to the Controller in response.
Two types of PDUs are available for use in the protocol: the Request PDU and the Respond PDU. Each support an application protocol that the specific implementation must define. A frame check sequence is responsible for error checking, which, due to the system's simplicity, must be done on the application layer.
The protocol uses heuristics - measures that generally work but do not absolutely guarantee their reception or accuracy - in order to be most efficient. Unlike the Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) standard there is no anti-collision mechanism; multiple signals are unable to be distinguished by the network if the Controllers and Responders are not completely synchronized.
Responder States:
The Controller is considered permanently "Awake" and to have a power supply provided by a permanent source. The Responder is made to work on battery and alternate between "Listening" and "Sleeping" states.
Responder States:
The Responder, in the "Listen" state, tries to detect a carrier at 131 kHz and to read its commands. An emitting Controller in ASK sends a low power carrier for a zero bit whereas in BPSK the carrier is always present at the maximum emitting power. Thus, the Responder can detect the communicating Controller and stay listening. If there are many Responders and if the Controller uses only the one-to-one Request PDU, the Responder will stay listening for all commands sent and received on the network, and therefore may stay permanently awake. The use of responder groups, multicast or broadcast, help to better manage battery life for the Responders. An optimization for the cost and sleeping period of the Request PDUs must be done on the application layer.
Carrier Power:
A nice feature proposed in the standard is a frequency available to broadcast energy and supply the Responders. This frequency is 65.536 kHz, about half of the 131 kHz frequency that is used for data communication. The IEEE 1902.1 recommends devices to have an average power of less than 10 milli-Watts (mW). As the medium in an inductive signal, the signal diminishes cubically, so the Responders must sleep quite a long time in order to store enough energy to listen and respond to the Controller requests. It is often desirable for them to charge for periods of time before being used again. Use of a higher wattage is not allowed in Europe.
Anti-collision mechanisms:
BMC encoding on BPSK modulation allows synchronizing the listening of the carrier on a specific Responder or Controller signal, rejecting all other signals as noise. The listener device can also have two listening channels with synchronized sampling at 90° (phase quadrature) and help to distinguish even signals with orthogonal interference.
Volume multiplexing and Clip Mechanism:
If a network is composed of many Controllers and a large number of Responders, the Controllers' requests are synchronized as well as Responders' responses (the "Clip" mechanism). In the traditional "volume multiplexing" concept, however, the Controllers would be placed nearby their Responders and answer only to the nearest Controller. This "Clip" Controller signal is much better that others at greater distances and filters out more noise.
Where to use the IEEE 1902.1 standard:
This is the lowest power, frequency and rate wireless network available for industrial use. The use of an inductive signal enables the creation of a small piconet for sensors and actuators that become completely insensitive to metal, water and surrounding obstacles, unlike the well known IEEE 802.15.4, on which other standards are based (for example, LRWPAN, the Low Rate Wireless Personal Area Network, like Zigbee, uses the 2.4 GHz frequency that is very sensitive to multipath, radio reflection, obstacles, water, and metals). The baud rate of IEEE 1902.1 is, however, 250 times less than that of IEEE 802.15.4.
Where to use the IEEE 1902.1 standard:
The simplicity of the modulation is due to the lack of components that implement this standard. All must be done with discrete components.
Where to use the IEEE 1902.1 standard:
The distinguishing factor of the IEEE 1902.1 standard: «RuBee is the only wireless technology to ever be approved for use in secure facilities by the U.S. Department of Energy (DoE). RuBee has also been approved by DoE and HERO tests by the Department of Defense for use in high explosive areas with a Safe Separation Distance (SSD) and intrinsic safety of zero».Explanation: RuBee uses very low frequency modulation and is not so absorbed by matter than more used standards of IEEE 802 like WiFi, Zigbee, Bluetooth. So, RuBee heats less matter. For explosive manufacturing and storage, it should be safer if the comparison uses identical emitting power between compared solutions.
Where to use the IEEE 1902.1 standard:
RuBee "Tags" may be detected with high sensitivity through doors, even if the asset is hidden in a steel briefcase, as well as in vehicles through gates using antennas buried in a road.
Highly sensitive assets can be secured by Rubee's Tags with the particular advantage that obstacles, conductive barriers, or walls will not create false alarms or diminish the range of detection of the Tag. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Mobility (military)**
Mobility (military):
Mobility in military terms refers to the ability of a weapon system, combat unit or armed force to move toward a military objective. Combat forces with a higher mobility are able to move more quickly, and/or across more hostile terrain, than forces with lower mobility.
Mobility (military):
Mobility is regarded as a vital component of the modern battlefield, as the ability to deliver weapon systems or combat units to their objective quickly can often mean the difference between victory and defeat. Armies around the world have massively increased their mobility over the last 100 years. In World War I, for example, most combat units could move on the battlefield only as fast as a soldier could walk. In the face of overwhelming firepower presented by machine guns and artillery, that resulted in stalemate and an inability to outmaneuver the enemy. By World War II, battlefield mobility had greatly improved with the development of the tank, and with tracked and other mechanized vehicles, to move forces to, from, along and across the battlefront even under fire.Since the end of World War II, armies have continued to develop their mobility. By the 1980s, for example, intercontinental travel shifted from sea to air transport, enabling military forces to move from one part of the world to another within hours or days instead of weeks.
Mobility (military):
Mobility has also been referred to as a combat multiplier. A highly-mobile unit can use its mobility to engage multiples of its own combat strength of less mobile units. For example, German panzer divisions in World War II were considered the equivalent of two or three infantry divisions, partly by their superior mobility and partly by their inherently greater firepower.
Mobility (military):
As intelligence, surveillance, target acquisition, and reconnaissance capabilities are rapidly developing, mobility becomes even more important. In 2016, Chief of Staff of the United States Army Gen. Mark A. Milley stated that "On the future battlefield, if you stay in one place longer than two or three hours, you will be dead... With enemy drones and sensors constantly on the hunt for targets, there won't even be time for four hours' unbroken sleep".Mobility has also been defined in terms of three generally recognized levels of warfare: tactical, operational, and strategic. Tactical mobility is the ability to move under fire. Operational mobility is the ability to move men and materiel within the area of operations to the decisive point of battle. Strategic mobility is the ability to move an army to the area of operations.
Mobility (military):
In World War I, most armies lacked tactical mobility but enjoyed good strategic mobility through the use of railroads, thus leading to a situation where armies could be deployed to the front with ease and rapidity, but once they reached the front became bogged down by their inability to move under fire.
Mobility corridor:
A mobility corridor is an area where a military force will be canalized (channeled) due to terrain restrictions. It allows forces to capitalize on the principles of mass and speed, and needs to be relatively free of obstacles.Mobility corridors can be combined to make avenues of approach. Maximum distances between mobility corridors (sizes of avenues of approach) are as follows: Division avenues of approach have regimental mobility corridors no more than 10 kilometers apart.
Mobility corridor:
Regimental avenues of approach have battalion mobility corridors no more than 6 kilometers apart.
Battalion avenues of approach have company mobility corridors no more than 2 kilometers apart.
Company avenues of approach are at least 500 meters wide. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Procaine blockade**
Procaine blockade:
Procaine blockade is a medical treatment, where procaine solution affects the peripheral nervous system. Procaine blockade was developed by Aleksandr Vasilyevich Vishnevsky in 1929. There are lumbar, jugular, sacral, extremity and short neural blockades used. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Solar eclipse of December 22, 1870**
Solar eclipse of December 22, 1870:
A total solar eclipse occurred on December 22, 1870. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun's, blocking all direct sunlight, turning day into darkness. Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth's surface, with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide.
Solar eclipse of December 22, 1870:
Totality was visible from southern Portugal and Spain, across northern Algeria, then crossing Sicily, Greece, Bulgaria, and ending in the south-west of the Russian Empire.
Related eclipses:
It is a part of solar Saros 120. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Myelopoiesis**
Myelopoiesis:
In hematology, myelopoiesis in the broadest sense of the term is the production of bone marrow and of all cells that arise from it, namely, all blood cells. In a narrower sense, myelopoiesis also refers specifically to the regulated formation of myeloid leukocytes (myelocytes), including eosinophilic granulocytes, basophilic granulocytes, neutrophilic granulocytes, and monocytes.The common myeloid progenitor can differentiate in the bone marrow into red blood cells and megakaryocytes (leading to platelets) as well as mast cells and myeloblasts, the latter leading to the myelocytic line (granulocytes) and to monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells of the innate immune system. The granulocytes, also called polymorphonuclear leukocytes because of their multilobed nuclei, are three short lived cell types including eosinophils, basophils, and neutrophils. A granulocyte differentiates into a distinct cell type by a process called granulopoiesis. In this process it first transforms from a common myeloblast (myeloid progenitor) to a common promyelocyte. This promyelocyte gives rise to a unique myelocyte that for the first time can be classified as an eosinophil, basophil, or neutrophil progenitor based on the histological staining affinity (eosinophilic, basophilic, or neutral granules). The unique myelocyte next differentiates into a metamyelocyte and then a band cell, with a "C" shaped nucleus, before becoming a mature eosinophil, basophil, or neutrophil. Macrophages come from monoblast progenitors that differentiate into promonocytes, which mature into monocytes. Monocytes eventually enter the tissues and become macrophages. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Stellar-wind bubble**
Stellar-wind bubble:
A stellar-wind bubble is a cavity light-years across filled with hot gas blown into the interstellar medium by the high-velocity (several thousand km/s) stellar wind from a single massive star of type O or B. Weaker stellar winds also blow bubble structures, which are also called astrospheres. The heliosphere blown by the solar wind, within which all the major planets of the Solar System are embedded, is a small example of a stellar-wind bubble.
Stellar-wind bubble:
Stellar-wind bubbles have a two-shock structure. The freely-expanding stellar wind hits an inner termination shock, where its kinetic energy is thermalized, producing 106 K, X-ray-emitting plasma. The hot, high-pressure, shocked wind expands, driving a shock into the surrounding interstellar gas. If the surrounding gas is dense enough (number densities 0.1 cm −3 or so), the swept-up gas radiatively cools far faster than the hot interior, forming a thin, relatively dense shell around the hot, shocked wind. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**McGurk effect**
McGurk effect:
The McGurk effect is a perceptual phenomenon that demonstrates an interaction between hearing and vision in speech perception. The illusion occurs when the auditory component of one sound is paired with the visual component of another sound, leading to the perception of a third sound. The visual information a person gets from seeing a person speak changes the way they hear the sound. If a person is getting poor-quality auditory information but good-quality visual information, they may be more likely to experience the McGurk effect. Integration abilities for audio and visual information may also influence whether a person will experience the effect. People who are better at sensory integration have been shown to be more susceptible to the effect. Many people are affected differently by the McGurk effect based on many factors, including brain damage and other disorders.
Background:
It was first described in 1976 in a paper by Harry McGurk and John MacDonald, titled "Hearing Lips and Seeing Voices" in Nature (23 December 1976). This effect was discovered by accident when McGurk and his research assistant, MacDonald, asked a technician to dub a video with a different phoneme from the one spoken while conducting a study on how infants perceive language at different developmental stages. When the video was played back, both researchers heard a third phoneme rather than the one spoken or mouthed in the video.This effect may be experienced when a video of one phoneme's production is dubbed with a sound-recording of a different phoneme being spoken. Often, the perceived phoneme is a third, intermediate phoneme. As an example, the syllables /ba-ba/ are spoken over the lip movements of /ga-ga/, and the perception is of /da-da/. McGurk and MacDonald originally believed that this resulted from the common phonetic and visual properties of /b/ and /g/. Two types of illusion in response to incongruent audiovisual stimuli have been observed: fusions ('ba' auditory and 'ga' visual produce 'da') and combinations ('ga' auditory and 'ba' visual produce 'bga'). This is the brain's effort to provide the consciousness with its best guess about the incoming information. The information coming from the eyes and ears is contradictory, and in this instance, the eyes (visual information) have had a greater effect on the brain, and thus the fusion and combination responses have been created.Vision is the primary sense for humans, but speech perception is multimodal, which means that it involves information from more than one sensory modality, in particular, audition and vision. The McGurk effect arises during phonetic processing because the integration of audio and visual information happens early in speech perception. The McGurk effect is very robust; that is, knowledge about it seems to have little effect on one's perception of it. This is different from certain optical illusions, which break down once one "sees through" them. Some people, including those that have been researching the phenomenon for more than twenty years, experience the effect even when they are aware that it is taking place. With the exception of people who can identify most of what is being said from lip reading alone, most people are quite limited in their ability to identify speech from visual-only signals. A more extensive phenomenon is the ability of visual speech to increase the intelligibility of heard speech in a noisy environment. Visible speech can also alter the perception of perfectly audible speech sounds when the visual speech stimuli are mismatched with the auditory speech. Normally, speech perception is thought to be an auditory process; however, our use of information is immediate, automatic, and, to a large degree, unconscious and therefore, despite what is widely accepted as true, speech is not only something we hear. Speech is perceived by all of the senses working together (seeing, touching, and listening to a face move). The brain is often unaware of the separate sensory contributions of what it perceives. Therefore, when it comes to recognizing speech the brain cannot differentiate whether it is seeing or hearing the incoming information.It has also been examined in relation to witness testimony. Wareham and Wright's 2005 study showed that inconsistent visual information can change the perception of spoken utterances, suggesting that the McGurk effect may have many influences in everyday perception. Not limited to syllables, the effect can occur in whole words and have an effect on daily interactions that people are unaware of. Research into this area can provide information on not only theoretical questions, but also it can provide therapeutic and diagnostic relevance for those with disorders relating to audio and visual integration of speech cues.
Factors:
Internal Brain damage Both hemispheres of the brain make a contribution to the McGurk effect. They work together to integrate speech information that is received through the auditory and visual senses. A McGurk response is more likely to occur in right-handed individuals for whom the face has privileged access to the right hemisphere and words to the left hemisphere. In people that have had callosotomies done, the McGurk effect is still present but significantly slower. In people with lesions to the left hemisphere of the brain, visual features often play a critical role in speech and language therapy. People with lesions in the left hemisphere of the brain show a greater McGurk effect than normal controls. Visual information strongly influences speech perception in these people. There is a lack of susceptibility to the McGurk illusion if left hemisphere damage resulted in a deficit to visual segmental speech perception. In people with right hemisphere damage, impairment on both visual-only and audio-visual integration tasks is exhibited, although they are still able to integrate the information to produce a McGurk effect. Integration only appears if visual stimuli is used to improve performance when the auditory signal is impoverished but audible. Therefore, there is a McGurk effect exhibited in people with damage to the right hemisphere of the brain but the effect is not as strong as a normal group.
Factors:
Dyslexia Dyslexic individuals exhibit a smaller McGurk effect than normal readers of the same chronological age, but they showed the same effect as reading-level age-matched readers. Dyslexics particularly differed for combination responses, not fusion responses. The smaller McGurk effect may be due to the difficulties dyslexics have in perceiving and producing consonant clusters.
Specific language impairment Children with specific language impairment show a significantly lower McGurk effect than the average child. They use less visual information in speech perception, or have a reduced attention to articulatory gestures, but have no trouble perceiving auditory-only cues.
Factors:
Autism spectrum disorders Children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) showed a significantly reduced McGurk effect than children without. However, if the stimulus was nonhuman (for example bouncing a tennis ball to the sound of a bouncing beach ball) then they scored similarly to children without ASD. Younger children with ASD show a very reduced McGurk effect; however, this diminishes with age. As the individuals grow up, the effect they show becomes closer to those who did not have ASD. It has been suggested that the weakened McGurk effect seen in people with ASD is due to deficits in identifying both the auditory and visual components of speech rather than in the integration of said components (although distinguishing speech components as speech components may be isomorphic to integrating them).
Factors:
Language-learning disabilities Adults with language-learning disabilities exhibit a much smaller McGurk effect than other adults. These people are not as influenced by visual input as most people. Therefore, people with poor language skills will produce a smaller McGurk effect. A reason for the smaller effect in this population is that there may be uncoupled activity between anterior and posterior regions of the brain, or left and right hemispheres. Cerebellar or basal ganglia etiology is also possible.
Factors:
Alzheimer’s disease In patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD), there is a smaller McGurk effect exhibited than in those without. Often a reduced size of the corpus callosum produces a hemisphere disconnection process. Less influence on visual stimulus is seen in patients with AD, which is a reason for the lowered McGurk effect.
Factors:
Schizophrenia The McGurk effect is not as pronounced in schizophrenic individuals as in non-schizophrenic individuals. However, it is not significantly different in adults. Schizophrenia slows down the development of audiovisual integration and does not allow it to reach its developmental peak. However, no degradation is observed. Schizophrenics are more likely to rely on auditory cues than visual cues in speech perception.
Factors:
Aphasia People with aphasia show impaired perception of speech in all conditions (visual-only, auditory-only, and audio-visual), and therefore exhibited a small McGurk effect. The greatest difficulty for aphasics is in the visual-only condition showing that they use more auditory stimuli in speech perception.
Factors:
Bipolar disorder A small study (N=22 per group) showed no apparent difference between individuals with bipolar disorder and those without, with respect to the McGurk effect. However, people with bipolar disorder showed significantly lower scores on a lipreading task. This may suggest that the neural pathways formed and activated in the integration of auditory and visual speech information in individuals with bipolar disorder are different compared to those in people without any mental disorder.
Factors:
External Cross-dubbing Discrepancy in vowel category significantly reduced the magnitude of the McGurk effect for fusion responses. Auditory /a/ tokens dubbed onto visual /i/ articulations were more compatible than the reverse. This could be because /a/ has a wide range of articulatory configurations whereas /i/ is more limited, which makes it much easier for subjects to detect discrepancies in the stimuli. /i/ vowel contexts produce the strongest effect, while /a/ produces a moderate effect, and /u/ has almost no effect.
Factors:
Mouth visibility The McGurk effect is stronger when the right side of the speaker's mouth (on the viewer's left) is visible. People tend to get more visual information from the right side of a speaker's mouth than the left or even the whole mouth. This relates to the hemispheric attention factors discussed in the brain hemispheres section above.
Visual distractors The McGurk effect is weaker when there is a visual distractor present that the listener is attending to. Visual attention modulates audiovisual speech perception. Another form of distraction is movement of the speaker. A stronger McGurk effect is elicited if the speaker's face/head is motionless, rather than moving.
Syllable structure A strong McGurk effect can be seen for click-vowel syllables compared to weak effects for isolated clicks. This shows that the McGurk effect can happen in a non-speech environment. Phonological significance is not a necessary condition for a McGurk effect to occur; however, it does increase the strength of the effect.
Factors:
Gender Females show a stronger McGurk effect than males. Women show significantly greater visual influence on auditory speech than men did for brief visual stimuli, but no difference is apparent for full stimuli. Another aspect regarding gender is the issue of male faces and voices as stimuli in comparison to female faces and voices as stimuli. Although, there is no difference in the strength of the McGurk effect for either situation. If a male face is dubbed with a female voice, or vice versa, there is still no difference in strength of the McGurk effect. Knowing that the voice you hear is different from the face you see – even if different genders – doesn't eliminate the McGurk effect.
Factors:
Familiarity Subjects who are familiar with the faces of the speakers are less susceptible to the McGurk effect than those who are unfamiliar with the faces of the speakers. On the other hand, there was no difference regarding voice familiarity.
Expectation Semantic congruency had a significant impact on the McGurk illusion. The effect is experienced more often and rated as clearer in the semantically congruent condition relative to the incongruent condition. When a person was expecting a certain visual or auditory appearance based on the semantic information leading up to it, the McGurk effect was greatly increased.
Factors:
Self-influence The McGurk effect can be observed when the listener is also the speaker or articulator. While looking at oneself in the mirror and articulating visual stimuli while listening to another auditory stimulus, a strong McGurk effect can be observed. In the other condition, where the listener speaks auditory stimuli softly while watching another person articulate the conflicting visual gestures, a McGurk effect can still be seen, although it is weaker.
Factors:
Temporal synchrony Temporal synchrony is not necessary for the McGurk effect to be present. Subjects are still strongly influenced by auditory stimuli even when it lagged the visual stimuli by 180 milliseconds (point at which McGurk effect begins to weaken). There was less tolerance for the lack of synchrony if the auditory stimuli preceded the visual stimuli. In order to produce a significant weakening of the McGurk effect, the auditory stimuli had to precede the visual stimuli by 60 milliseconds, or lag by 240 milliseconds.
Factors:
Physical task diversion The McGurk effect was greatly reduced when attention was diverted to a tactile task (touching something). Touch is a sensory perception like vision and audition, therefore increasing attention to touch, decreases the attention to auditory and visual senses.
Factors:
Gaze The eyes do not need to fixate in order to integrate audio and visual information in speech perception. There was no difference in the McGurk effect when the listener was focusing anywhere on the speaker's face. The effect does not appear if the listener focuses beyond the speaker's face. In order for the McGurk effect to become insignificant, the listener's gaze must deviate from the speaker's mouth by at least 60 degrees.
Other languages:
Whatever the language, all listeners rely on visual information to a degree in speech perception. But the McGurk effect's intensity differs across languages. Dutch, English, Spanish, German, Italian and Turkish language listeners experience a robust McGurk effect; Japanese and Chinese listeners, weaker. Most research on the McGurk effect between languages has been between English and Japanese. A smaller McGurk effect occurs in Japanese listeners than English listeners. The cultural practice of face avoidance in Japanese people may diminish the McGurk effect, as well as tone and syllabic structures of the language. This could also be why Chinese listeners are less susceptible to visual cues, and similar to Japanese, produce a smaller effect than English listeners. Studies also show that Japanese listeners do not show a developmental increase in visual influence after six, as English children do. Japanese listeners identify incompatibility between visual and auditory stimuli better than English listeners. This greater ability could relate to Japanese's lacking consonant clusters. Regardless, listeners of all languages resort to visual stimuli when speech is unintelligible; the McGurk effect then applies to them equally. The McGurk effect works with listeners of every tested language.
Hearing impairment:
Experiments have been conducted involving hard-of-hearing individuals and individuals who have had cochlear implants. These individuals tend to weigh visual information from speech more heavily than auditory information. In comparison to normal-hearing individuals, this is not different unless there is more than one syllable, such as a word. Regarding the McGurk experiment, responses from cochlear-implanted users produced the same responses as normal-hearing individuals when an auditory bilabial stimulus is dubbed onto a visual velar stimulus. However, when an auditory dental stimulus is dubbed onto a visual bilabial stimulus, the responses are quite different. The McGurk effect is still present in individuals with impaired hearing or using cochlear implants, although it is quite different in some aspects.
Infants:
By measuring an infant's attention to certain audiovisual stimuli, a response that is consistent with the McGurk effect can be recorded. From just minutes to a couple of days old, infants can imitate adult facial movements, and within weeks of birth, infants can recognize lip movements and speech sounds. At this point, the integration of audio and visual information can happen, but not at a proficient level. The first evidence of the McGurk effect can be seen at four months of age; however, more evidence is found for 5-month-olds. Through the process of habituating an infant to a certain stimulus and then changing the stimulus (or part of it, such as ba-voiced/va-visual to da-voiced/va-visual), a response that simulates the McGurk effect becomes apparent. The strength of the McGurk effect displays a developmental pattern that increases throughout childhood and extends into adulthood. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Microwork**
Microwork:
Microwork is a series of many small tasks which together comprise a large unified project, and it is completed by many people over the Internet. Microwork is considered the smallest unit of work in a virtual assembly line. It is most often used to describe tasks for which no efficient algorithm has been devised, and require human intelligence to complete reliably. The term was developed in 2008 by Leila Chirayath Janah of Samasource.
Microtasking:
Microtasking is the process of splitting a large job into small tasks that can be distributed, over the Internet, to many people. Since the inception of microwork, many online services have been developed that specialize in different types of microtasking. Most of them rely on a large, voluntary workforce composed of Internet users from around the world.
Microtasking:
Typical tasks offered are repetitive but not so simple that they can be automated. Good candidates for microtasks have the following characteristics: They are large volume tasks They can be broken down into tasks that are done independently They require human judgementIt may also be known as ubiquitous human computing or human-based computation when focused on computational tasks that are too complex for distributed computing.
Microtasking:
Microtasks are distinguished from macrotasks, which typically can be done independently. They require a fixed amount of time and they require a specialized skill.
The wage paid can range from a few cents per task to hundreds of dollars per project.
Examples:
Toloka and Amazon Mechanical Turk are examples of micro work markets, and they allow workers to choose and perform simple tasks online, reporting directly through the platform to receive payments in exchange. A task can be as complex as algorithm writing or as simple as labelling photos or videos, describing products, or transcribing scanned documents. Employers submit tasks and set their own payments, which are often pennies for each task. This crowdsourcing project was initiated by Amazon as a way for users to find duplicate webpages, and soon it became a service for individuals to contract computer programmers and other individuals to finish tasks that computers are unable to accomplish. Since then this project has expanded from its original form; nowadays, there are people who will complete various Mechanical Turk projects as extra income on the side.
Examples:
LiveOps uses a distributed network of people to run a "Cloud Call Center", which is a virtual call center. Contracted workers can answer calls and provide other call center facilities without the need for the physical building or equipment of a traditional call center. The Red Cross used this system successfully during Hurricane Katrina in 2005, to process 17,000+ calls without having to open or hire staff for a call center.A similar model is used by text message question-answering services like 63336. Researchers connect with the service at home and receive questions as they are submitted.
Examples:
InnoCentive allows businesses to post problems and offer payment for answers. These questions are often far less simple than tasks posted on services like Mechanical Turk, and the payments are accordingly higher. For example: "Think you can find a way to prevent orange juice stored in see-through bottles from turning brown? There may be $20,000 in it for you."Samasource is a non-profit organization that allows people living in poverty the opportunity to complete microwork for a living wage. The service specializes in online content moderation, digital transcription, and data gathering and promotion.Galaxy Zoo is a scientific effort to use online crowdsourcing to classify a very large number of galaxies from astronomical images.
Examples:
In 2010, the company Internet Eyes launched a service where in return for a potential reward, home viewers would watch live CCTV streams and alert shop owners of potential theft in progress.
Uses:
Most uses of microtasking services involve processing data, especially online. These include driving traffic to websites, gathering data like email addresses, and labelling or tagging data online. They are also used to accurately translate or transcribe audio clips and pictures, since these are activities that are better suited to humans than computers. These are used both for practical data conversion purposes, but also to improve upon and test the fidelity of machine learning algorithms. Identification of pictures by humans has been used to help in missing persons searches, though to little effect.Other than the manipulation of data, these services are also a good platform for reaching a large population for social studies and surveys since they make it easy to offer monetary incentives.Companies can also outsource projects to specialists on whom they otherwise would have expended more resources hiring and screening. This method of pay per task is attractive to employers; therefore, companies like Microsoft, AT&T, Yahoo! are currently crowdsourcing some of their work through CrowdFlower, a company that specializes in allocating jobs for foreign and local crowd workers. CrowdFlower alone has completed 450 million completed human intelligence tasks between 2007 and 2012. CrowdFlower operates differently than Amazon Mechanical Turk. Jobs are taken in by the company; then in turn they are allocated to the right workers through a range of channels. They implemented a system called Virtual Play, which allows the users to play free games that would in turn accomplish useful tasks for the company.
Demographics:
In 2011 an estimated $375 million was contributed by digital crowdsourced labour.As of November 2009, India and the United States together make up roughly 92% of the workers on Amazon Mechanical Turk with the U.S. making up 56% of these. However, the percentage of Indian Turkers quadrupled in only one year from 2008 to 2009. As of 2009, the Indian Turkers are much younger and more educated than their American counterparts, with the average age of Indian workers being 26 and American workers being 35. In addition, 45% of the digital workforce in India have bachelor's degrees and 21% have master's degrees; in contrast only 38% of American Turkers have a bachelor's degree and 17% with a master's degree. Nonetheless, a majority of the digital workforce is educated young adults. The major difference between the American and Indian workforce lies in the gender: 63% of Indian Turkers are male compared to the 37% that makes up American Turkers.
Reasons for using microwork services:
Microtasking services as they are implemented now allow their workers to work from home. Workers complete tasks on a voluntary basis; other than with time-sensitive jobs like call centers, they choose which jobs to complete and when they complete them.
Reasons for using microwork services:
Workers can work from anywhere in the world and receive payment directly over the Internet. Because workers can reside anywhere in the world, microwork can provide job opportunities with large Fortune 500 companies and many smaller companies for people living in poverty who would otherwise not be able to make a living wage. Through services like Samasource work and wealth are distributed from companies in developed countries to a large volume of families in poverty, especially women and youth who would otherwise not be able to generate income. (Some services like Amazon Mechanical Turk, restrict the countries workers can connect from.) For employers, microtasking services provide a platform to quickly get a project online and start receiving results from many workers at the same time. The services offer large workforces which complete tasks concurrently, so large volumes of small tasks can be completed quickly. Furthermore, since each task is discretely contained and tasks are usually simple in nature, each individual worker does not have to be fully trained or have complete knowledge of the project to contribute work. Under United States tax law, workers are treated as independent contractors, which means employers do not have to withhold taxes, and they only need to file a form 1099-MISC with the Internal Revenue Service if a given worker earns more than $600 per year. Workers are responsible for paying income taxes, including self-employment tax that would otherwise be paid by their employer.
Treatment of workers:
Microtasking services have been criticized for not providing healthcare and retirement benefits, sick pay, and minimum wage, because they pay by the piece and treat workers as independent contractors rather than employees. They can also avoid laws on child labor and labor rights. Additionally, workers may have little idea of what their work is used for. The result may be that workers end up contributing to a project which has some negative impact or which they are morally opposed to.Some services, especially Amazon Mechanical Turk and other services that pay pennies on the task, have been called "digital sweatshops" by analogy with sweatshops in the manufacturing industry that exploit workers and maintain poor conditions. Wages vary considerably depending on the speed of the worker and the per-piece price being offered. Workers choose what tasks they complete based on the task, price, and their experience with the employer. Employers can bid higher for faster completion or for higher-quality workers. On average, unskilled Turkers earn less than $2.00 an hour. This is below minimum wage in the United States; however, for India, this is well above the minimum for most cities (India has more than 1200 minimum wages).Because global services outsource work to underdeveloped or developing regions, competitive pricing and task completion could result in lower wages. Those low wages brought down by global competition are felt by microworkers in developed countries like the UK, where it's estimated that nearly two in three microworkers are paid less than £4 an hour. The possibility also exists for true brick and mortar sweatshops to exploit microtasking services by enlisting those that are too poor to afford a computer of their own and aggregating their work and wages. There is also the possibility that the requesters may tell the worker that they reject the work but cheat the worker by using it anyway to avoid paying for it. However, while the dispersed geography of microwork can be used to keep wages low, the very networks that fragment the labour process can also be used by workers for organising and resistance.The San Francisco-based company CrowdFlower has facilitated outsourcing digital tasks to countries with poverty to stimulate their local economies. The crowdsourcing company has a partnership with Samasource, a non-profit organization that brings computer based work to developing countries, they have currently outsourced millions of repetitive microwork to the Kenyan refugee camps. These workers make $2 an hour; to the locals this is above average for refugees. When asked if this is exploitation, Lukas Biewald of CrowdFlower argues that the "digital sweatshop" is a much better job for people from the developing world as opposed to working in a manufacturing sweatshop. He states that the treatment received by the workers are far superior and should not be categorized as a sweatshop, "The great thing about digital work is it's really hard to make a sweatshop out of digital work. It's really hard to force someone to do work, you can't beat someone up through a computer screen." | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Hackworth valve gear**
Hackworth valve gear:
The Hackworth valve gear is a design of valve gear used to regulate the flow of steam to the pistons in steam engines. It is a radial gear, with an actuating lever driven from the crank. The drive may be taken directly from the crank or indirectly via a return crank (as in all pictures). The other end of the actuating lever is attached to a die block which slides in a slotted link. When the link is vertical, the engine is in mid-gear. Forward, reverse and cut-off adjustments are made by moving the link away from the vertical. The valve rod is pivoted to a point on the actuating lever.
History:
The gear was patented by John Wesley Hackworth (1820-1891), son of Timothy Hackworth, in 1859.
Klug's valve gear:
Hackworth valve gear was a precursor to Klug's valve gear, but it differs from the latter in that the eccentric rod's suspension point moves to-and-fro in a straight line by means of a die block sliding in a slotted guide. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Rheopheresis**
Rheopheresis:
Rheopheresis is a process to change the viscosity of blood by filtering blood to remove some components such as fibrinogen, alpha-2-macroglobulin, von Willebrand factor, LDL cholesterol and immunoglobulin M.It is an experimental treatment for dry age-related macular degeneration, and acute ischemic stroke. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Transmarginal inhibition**
Transmarginal inhibition:
In psychology, transmarginal inhibition, or TMI, is an organism's response to overwhelming stimuli.
Research:
Ivan Pavlov enumerated details of TMI on his work of conditioning animals to pain. He found that organisms had different levels of tolerance. He commented "that the most basic inherited difference among people was how soon they reached this shutdown point and that the quick-to-shut-down have a fundamentally different type of nervous system."Patients who have reached this shutdown point often become socially dysfunctional or develop one of several personality disorders. Often patients who dissociate during and after the experience, will more easily dissociate or shut down during stressful or painful experiences, and may experience post traumatic stress disorder for the remainder of their lives.
Stages:
There are three stages passed through for state of TMI to be reached.
equivalent phase: when the response matches the stimuli, which is considered the normal baseline behavior.
paradoxical phase: associated with quantity reversal, occurs when small stimuli receive major responses and major stimuli elicit small responses.
ultra-paradoxical: the final stage, associated with quality reversal in which negative stimulation results in positive responses and vice versa.Additional research on these phases was done by William Sargant in his work on shell-shocked servicemen.
Stages:
An organism can progress through these stages by increased stimulation, random negative stimulation, reversing positive and negative stimulation, or physically debilitating the organism. As observed by Pavlov, tolerance of stimulation varies greatly between individuals. Highly sensitive persons may be overstimulated by the loud volumes in a movie theater or the background confusion of a large social gathering. Other individuals will find those same stimulations as ideal stimulation levels, or even understimulating.
Use in mental conditioning:
The sudden conversion methods of mental conditioning rely heavily on TMI. Of the ten elements of control (environment control, physical fatigue, mental fatigue, tension or uncertainty, confession, superstimulation, crisis, euphoria, proselytization, and restimulation), six can be seen as stimulation toward TMI. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**SUCLG1**
SUCLG1:
Succinyl-CoA ligase [GDP-forming] subunit alpha, mitochondrial is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the SUCLG1 gene.
Structure:
The enzyme encoded by SUCLG1 can exist in either a phosphorylated form or a dephosphorylated form. In the dephosphorylated structure, a phosphate ion works in coordination with a histidine residue in the active site and the two alpha helices, one contributed by each subunit of the alphabeta-dimer to stabilize the structure. One of the alpha helices contains amino acids, the modification of which result in conformational changes that accommodate either the bound phosphoryl group or the free phosphate ion.
Function:
This gene encodes the alpha subunit of the heterodimeric enzyme succinate coenzyme A ligase. This enzyme is targeted to the mitochondria and catalyzes the conversion of succinyl CoA and ADP or GDP to succinate and ATP or GTP. Mutations in this gene are the cause of the metabolic disorder fatal infantile lactic acidosis and mitochondrial DNA depletion.
Clinical significance:
Succinate-CoA ligase deficiency is responsible for encephalomyopathy with mitochondrial DNA depletion and mild methylmalonic aciduria. Mutations in SUCLG1 lead to complete absence of SUCLG1 protein and are responsible for a very severe disorder with antenatal manifestations. Furthermore, it is shown that in the absence of SUCLG1 protein, no SUCLA2 protein is found in fibroblasts by western blot analysis. This result is consistent with a degradation of SUCLA2 when its heterodimer partner, SUCLG1, is absent. As mitochondrial DNA depletion in muscle is not a constant finding in SUCLG1 patients, diagnosis should not be based on it; additionally, it may be that alternative physiopathological mechanisms may be considered to explain the combined respiratory chain deficiency observed in these patients.
Interactive pathway map:
Click on genes, proteins and metabolites below to link to respective articles. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Pulmonary plexus**
Pulmonary plexus:
The pulmonary plexus is an autonomic plexus formed from pulmonary branches of vagus nerve and the sympathetic trunk. The plexus is in continuity with the deep cardiac plexus.
Structure:
It innervates the bronchial tree and the visceral pleura. According to the relation of nerves to the root of the lung, the pulmonary plexus is divided into the anterior pulmonary plexus, which lies in front of the lung and the posterior pulmonary plexus, which lies behind the lung. The anterior pulmonary plexus is close in proximity to the pulmonary artery. The posterior pulmonary plexus is bounded by the superior edge of the pulmonary artery and the lower edge of the pulmonary vein. Both lungs are innervated primarily by the posterior pulmonary plexus; it accounts for 74–77% of the total innervation.
Function:
Innervation of the bronchial tree regulates contraction of bronchial smooth muscles, mucous secretions from submucosal glands, vascular permeability, and blood flow. Sensory fiber innervation of the visceral pleura is thought to allow stretch detection. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Net Ghost PiPoPa**
Net Ghost PiPoPa:
Net Ghost PiPoPa (ネットゴーストPIPOPA(ピポパ), Netto Gōsuto Pipopa) is a Japanese anime television series directed by Shinichiro Kimura. It premiered on TV Tokyo on April 6, 2008. A manga adaptation was serialized in Kerokero Ace. It is also streamed in the United States on Crunchyroll under the title Web Ghosts PiPoPa since December 2008. An English language pilot was produced by William Winckler Productions in 2017.A spin-off game entitled Net Ghost PiPoPa: PiPoPa×DS@Big Adventure!!! (ネットゴーストPIPOPA ピポパ×DS@ダイボウケン!!!, Netto Gōsuto PIPOPA Pipopa × DS Dai Bouken!!!) was also released for the Nintendo DS.
Net Ghost PiPoPa:
Pipopa is an onomatopoeia of computer beeps.
Overview:
The story is about a boy, Yūta Akikawa, who is afraid of computers. His family moves to Kamimai City, a technologically advanced city, where his mother works. The same day, he receives a mysterious encrypted message from an anonymous source. When he opens this, he is transported into the Net World, meeting three Web Ghosts known as Pit, Pot, and Pat. Here, the three Web Ghosts, whom Yūta dubs as PiPoPa, explain to Yūta that the Net World is what is going on inside of all outside computers, cell phones, and all technology. Yūta decides to hide this discovery from his friends and family, and he uses this to his advantage to help any friend in need and save technological breakdowns, mishaps, and overloads.
Characters:
Yūta Akikawa (秋川 勇太, Akikawa Yūta) Voiced by: Rina SatōYūta is a school boy who is afraid of computers, but is fond of astronomy. One day, he was sucked inside his cellphone where he met Pit, Pot and Pat. As his adventure continues, he protects the Web World along with PiPoPa.Hikaru Sofue (祖父江 ひかる, Sofue Hikaru) Voiced by: Sayuri YahagiHikaru is the first person that Yūta met in Kamimai City. She is the one who mostly shows Yūta how things go around in Kamimai. They became classmates in school. Eventually, Hikaru managed to get Yuta to allow her to go to the Web World. Her Web Ghost is Ecolon.Pit (ピット, Pitto) Voiced by: Ryōko ShiraishiPit is a show-offy net ghost who can transform into a car, a plane, a UFO, a stamper (under the right conditions) and various other things. Pit, along with Pot and Pat hate to be called PiPoPa, but Pit is the one who hates it most.Pot (ポット, Potto) Voiced by: Satomi AraiPot is a net ghost who always likes to eat. He also has the most affection towards girls. He has been helpful on many occasions, and claims he can also shift his hands into a stamper similar to Pit. However, it is unknown if the effect can be replicated.Pat (パット, Patto) Voiced by: Masahito YabePat is the computer freak in the group, calculating many things. He is the one that finds the "virus core" in Web Monsters.Pū / Seiren (プー（セイレーン）, Pū (Siren)) Voiced by: Aki Toyosaki, Ayahi Takagaki (singing voice)Project Siren is a top secret project hidden inside the Dream Future facility in Kamimai. She escapes and becomes friends with the PiPoPa trio. It is later known that she is not the original, and there was one before her.Mamoru Shindo (進藤 守, Shindō Mamoru) Voiced by: Kahoru SasajimaMamoru is one of the best friends of Yūta. He taught him the basics of computers, and he is a computer programming expert. It is later revealed that Divine Forest was Mamoru, in a sense.Kazushige Enoshima (江ノ島 カズシゲ) Voiced by: Takashi MitoKazushige is a bully at school and one of Yūta's classmates. He has a crush on Hikaru and Sayaka plus he also becomes frustrated when Yūta gets close to either of them. Kazushige eventually catches and Yuta going to the Web World. He is also "Dynagon", a poet that Hikaru adores. Kazushige's Web Ghosts are Bit, Bot, and Bat.Shuzo Matsushita (松下 シュウゾウ, Matsushita Shūzō) Voiced by: Tsubasa Yonaga and Kosuke Kitayama (北山 コースケ, Kitayama Kōsuke) Voiced by: Asami YaguchiKazushige's friends and underlings.Web Venus (ネットヴィーナス, Netto Vīnasu) Voiced by: Kaori ShimizuWeb Venus is a very mysterious web ghost who frequently appears near Pit, Pot and Pat. Apparently, she defends peace in the Web World but works only by herself. Web Venus is actually Sayaka, using an avatar achieved by a web diving machine. [ep. 32]Kenta Akikawa (秋川 健太, Akikawa Kenta) Voiced by: Tomoyuki ShimuraA photographer, Kenta is Yūta's father.Yūko Akikawa (秋川 優子, Akikawa Yūko) Voiced by: Saori SetoA programmer at Dream Future Japan, Yūko is Yūta's mother.Juzo Sofue (祖父江 十三, Sofue Jūzō) Voiced by: Takeshi MaruyamaJuzo is Hikaru's grandfather and is very protective of Hikaru. He also specializes in the internet. He rejects the ideas of Dream Future. It is also notable that he is addicted to pudding.BiBoBa (ビボバ) (Bit (ビット, Bitto) Voiced by: Takeshi Maruyama, Bot (ボット, Botto) Voiced by: Sayaka Kinoshita, and Bat (バット, Batto) Voiced by: Yuko Gibu)BiBoBa has been the mortal rivals of PiPoPa, although they team up later. Like their rivals, they hate to be called BiBoBa. [ep. 5]Jin Kazama (風間 ジン, Kazama Jin) Voiced by: Masahito YabeKazama is the president of the Dream Future Japanese branch.Azusa Sakamoto (坂本 あずさ, Sakamoto Azusa) Voiced by: Ayahi TakagakiSakamoto works under Kazama as time manager. She remains faithful to Kazama even after he was fired.Tomio Hirame (平目 富雄, Hirame Tomio) Voiced by: Teruyuki TanzawaA no-good man, Hirame worked as a chief in Dream Future. After Kazama was fired, he was assigned as the president.Karin Yukitani (雪谷 花梨, Yukitani Karin) Voiced by: Ayahi TakagakiShe is a friend of Hikaru. In one episode, Hikaru and Yūta help her set-up the website for Karin's inn.Yuzuru Aizawa (相沢 譲, Aizawa Yuzuru) Voiced by: Hiroki TochiA seemingly poor person looking for a permanent job. He seems to be a bit computer literate. Undercover, he is a member of the internet police. He has developed feelings for Yūta and Hikaru's teacher Eriko.Eriko Murata (村田 エリ子, Murata Eriko) Voiced by: Sayaka KinoshitaThe young-at-heart homeroom teacher of Yūta's homeroom class. In privacy, she takes on the role of a net idol named EriEri.Ecolon (エコロン, Ekoron) Voiced by: Ayano IshikawaAn ecology focused net ghost. He is the net ghost of Hikaru's favorite website. Without him, Hikaru cannot net dive (in the same way as with Yūta and Pi Po Pa) unless with someone else who can net dive (as seen in episode 13).Sayaka Erenkova (サヤカ・エレンコワ, Sayaka Erenkowa) Voiced by: Ui MiyazakiA Russian transfer student. She can speak Russian and some Japanese. By the end of the series she can say more Japanese than she did at the beginning. She is also Web Venus,achieved through a web diving machine.Seiko Erenkova (セイコ・エレンコワ, Seiko Erenkowa) Voiced by: Kaori ShimizuSayaka's mother who looks like Web Venus. She was a former assistant at Dream Future and a friend of Juzo in research.The Dream Future Big Four A special division in Dream Future made purely of data.Ash (アッシュ, Asshu) Voiced by: Tetsuya Motomura The head of the American branch, Ash specializes in throwing cards.
Characters:
Langa (ランガ, Ranga) The head of the Asian branch, Langa is able to hypnotize.
François (フランソワ, Furansowa) The head of the European branch.
Mohammad (モハンマド, Mohamado) Voiced by: Akira Harada The head of the North African branch.
Characters:
Doctor Forest (ドクターフォレスト, Dokutā Foresuto) Voiced by: Hajime IijimaThe founder of Dream Future and grandfather of Mamoru. After a mysterious accident, Doctor Forest went ill and was sent to the hospital and has never woken up since.Divine Forest (ディバイン・フォレスト, Dibain Foresuto) Voiced by: Yuichi NakamuraA person who forcibly became the leader of the Dream Future Big Four. He has the ability to turn web ghosts into web monsters.
Theme songs:
Opening songs"Password@PiPoPa" (パスワード@PIPOPA, Pasuwādo Pipopa) by Atsuko Bungo (episodes 2-4) "Get On Up" by Sugimoto Shimai (5-26) "Password@PiPoPa" (パスワード@PIPOPA, Pasuwādo Pipopa) by COON (27-50)Ending songs"Hoshi Kirari" (星キラリ) by COON (1-26) "Virtual Love" (ヴァーチャル☆ラブ, Vācharu Rabu) by Sugimoto Shimai (27-50)
Reception:
Famicom Tsūshin scored the game a 18 out of 40, making it one of the lowest rated Nintendo DS games of that year. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Magnetic catalysis**
Magnetic catalysis:
Magnetic catalysis is a physics phenomenon, which is defined as an enhancement of dynamical symmetry breaking by an external magnetic field in quantum field theory, used for the description of quantum (quasi-)particles in particle physics, nuclear physics and condensed matter physics. The underlying phenomenon is a consequence of the strong tendency of a magnetic field to enhance binding of oppositely charged particles into bound states. The catalyzing effect comes from a partial restriction (dimensional reduction) of the motion of charged particles in the directions perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field. Commonly, the magnetic catalysis is specifically associated with spontaneous breaking of flavor or chiral symmetry in quantum field theory, which is enhanced or triggered by the presence of an external magnetic field.
General description:
The underlying mechanism behind magnetic catalysis is the dimensional reduction of low-energy charged spin-1/2 particles. As a result of such a reduction, there exists a strong enhancement of the particle-antiparticle pairing responsible for symmetry breaking. For gauge theories in 3+1 space-time dimensions, such as quantum electrodynamics and quantum chromodynamics, the dimensional reduction leads to an effective (1+1)-dimensional low-energy dynamics. (Here the dimensionality of space-time is written as D+1 for D spatial directions.) In simple terms, the dimensional reduction reflects the fact that the motion of charged particles is (partially) restricted in the two space-like directions perpendicular to the magnetic field. However, this orbital motion constraint alone is not sufficient (for example, there is no dimensional reduction for charged scalar particles, carrying spin 0, although their orbital motion is constrained in the same way.) It is also important that the fermions have spin 1/2 and, as follows from the Atiyah–Singer index theorem, their lowest Landau level states have an energy independent of the magnetic field. (The corresponding energy vanishes in the case of massless particles.) This is in contrast to the energies in the higher Landau levels, which are proportional to the square root of the magnetic field. Therefore, if the field is sufficiently strong, only the lowest Landau level states are dynamically accessible at low energies. The states in the higher Landau levels decouple and become almost irrelevant. The phenomenon of magnetic catalysis has applications in particle physics, nuclear physics and condensed matter physics.
Applications:
Chiral symmetry breaking in quantum chromodynamics In the theory of quantum chromodynamics, magnetic catalysis can be applied when quark matter is subject to extremely strong magnetic fields. Such strong magnetic fields can lead to more pronounced effects of chiral symmetry breaking, e.g., lead to (i) a larger value of the chiral condensate, (ii) a larger dynamical (constituent) mass of quarks, (iii) larger baryon masses, (iv) modified pion decay constant, etc. Recently, there was an increased activity to cross-check the effects of magnetic catalysis in the limit of a large number of colors, using the technique of AdS/CFT correspondence.
Applications:
Quantum Hall effect in graphene The idea of magnetic catalysis can be used to explain the observation of new quantum Hall plateaus in graphene in strong magnetic fields beyond the standard anomalous sequence at filling factors ν=4(n+½) where n is an integer. The additional quantum Hall plateaus develop at ν=0, ν=±1, ν=±3 and ν=±4.
Applications:
The mechanism of magnetic catalysis in a relativistic-like planar systems such as graphene is very natural. In fact, it was originally proposed for a 2+1 dimensional model, which is almost the same as the low-energy effective theory of graphene written in terms of massless Dirac fermions. In application to a single layer of graphite (i.e., graphene), magnetic catalysis triggers the breakdown of an approximate internal symmetry and, thus, lifts the 4-fold degeneracy of Landau levels. It can be shown to occur for relativistic massless fermions with weak repulsive interactions. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Anoikis**
Anoikis:
Anoikis is a form of programmed cell death that occurs in anchorage-dependent cells when they detach from the surrounding extracellular matrix (ECM). Usually cells stay close to the tissue to which they belong since the communication between proximal cells as well as between cells and ECM provide essential signals for growth or survival. When cells are detached from the ECM, there is a loss of normal cell–matrix interactions, and they may undergo anoikis. However, metastatic tumor cells may escape from anoikis and invade other organs.
Etymology:
The word "anoikis" was coined by Frisch and Francis in a paper published in the Journal of Cell Biology in 1994. "Anoikis", in their words, means "(…the state of being without a home) to describe the cells' apoptotic response to the absence of cell–matrix interactions". The word apparently is a neologism construction consisting of three Greek morphemes agglutinated together: ἀν- "without", οἰκ- "house", and the suffix -ις. Unfortunately, for a Greek native speaker that does not make sense, because in Greek the state of being without a home is described by the word "αστεγος", pronounced "astegos". Furthermore, "anoikis" is pronounced exactly the same way as the Greek word "ανήκεις", which means "you belong", adding to the confusion.
In metastasis:
The mechanism by which invading tumor cells survive the anoikis process remains largely unknown. Recent findings suggest that the protein TrkB, best known for its role in the nervous system, might be involved together with its ligand, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). It seems that TrkB could make tumor cells resistant to anoikis by activating phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) signaling cascade.
In squamous cell carcinoma, researchers have found that anoikis resistance can be induced through hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) activating BOTH extracellular signalling-receptor kinase (ERK) and PI3K.
In metastasis:
Using a novel high-throughput screening assay, Mawji et al. showed that anisomycin can sensitize metastatic epithelial cells to anoikis and reduce circulating tumor cell implantation in vivo. Anisomycin achieved this anti-metastatic activity in part by decreasing the abundance of the death receptor inhibiting protein FLIP. In related work, Schimmer's team showed that FLIP levels are higher in metastatic cells than non-metastatic cells, and that reducing FLIP levels using RNAi (RNA Interference) or other small molecule inhibitors of FLIP can sensitize metastatic cells to anoikis. Given that FLIP is an inhibitor of anoikis, and that reducing FLIP can sensitize metastatic cells to anoikis, Mawji et al. hypothesize that FLIP reduction may be a viable therapeutic strategy against cancer metastasis.
In metastasis:
Cancer cells develop anoikis resistance by several mechanisms, including changes in integrin and matrix signaling, metabolic deregulation, and stress responses of cancer cells.
One key mechanism that renders cancer cells independent from tissue adherence is dysregulation of the pathway network that controls transcription factor NF-κB. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Gallagher index**
Gallagher index:
The Gallagher index measures an electoral system's relative disproportionality between votes received and seats in a legislature. As such, it measures the difference between the percentage of votes each party gets and the percentage of seats each party gets in the resulting legislature, and it also measures this disproportionality from all parties collectively in any one given election. That collective disproportionality from the election is given a precise score, which can then be used in comparing various levels of proportionality among various elections from various electoral systems. The Gallagher index is a statistical analysis methodology utilised within political science, notably the branch of psephology.
Gallagher index:
Michael Gallagher, who created the index, referred to it as a "least squares index", inspired by the sum of squares of residuals used in the method of least squares. The index is therefore commonly abbreviated as "LSq" even though the measured allocation is not necessarily a least squares fit. The Gallagher index is computed by taking the square root of half the sum of the squares of the difference between percent of votes ( Vi ) and percent of seats ( Si ) for each of the political parties ( i=1,…,n ).
Gallagher index:
LSq=12∑i=1n(Vi−Si)2 The division by 2 gives an index whose values range between 0 and 100. The larger the differences between the percentage of the votes and the percentage of seats summed over all parties, the larger the Gallagher index. The larger the index value the larger the disproportionality and vice versa. Michael Gallagher included "other" parties as a whole category, and Arend Lijphart modified it, excluding those parties. Unlike the Loosemore–Hanby index, the Gallagher index is less sensitive to small discrepancies. Other indices measuring the proportionality between seat share and party vote share are the Loosemore–Hanby index, Rae index and the Sainte-Laguë Index.
Application in Canada:
The Gallagher index gained considerable attention in Canada in December 2016 in the context of efforts to reform Canada's electoral system. The Special Committee on Electoral Reform (a Parliamentary Committee) recommended "that the Government should, as it develops a new electoral system, use the Gallagher index in order to minimize the level of distortion between the popular will of the electorate and the resultant seat allocations in Parliament." The committee recommended that "the government should seek to design a system that achieves a Gallagher score of 5 or less."
Examples of calculating disproportionality:
Canada In the 2015 Canadian federal election, the Gallagher index was 12.02, where 0 would be a perfectly proportional election outcome.
Examples of calculating disproportionality:
Australia This table uses for example the 2012 Queensland state election, one of the largest landslides in Australian electoral history. Though Australia and New Zealand have somewhat similar political histories, Australia uses preferential voting in Single-member districts for Commonwealth House of Representative and most state and territory Legislative Assembly elections, which tends to result in far less proportionality compared to New Zealand's MMP system (or other proportional electoral systems), especially for larger minor parties, such as The Greens or, historically, the Australian Democrats. The 2012 Queensland election had an extremely high Gallagher Index, at 31.16, due to the massive landslide in seats for the victorious LNP. The LNP gained 88% of the seats with less than 50% of the vote. Most recent Australian state and federal elections however score between 10 and 12.
Examples of calculating disproportionality:
EU The 7 political groups of the European Parliament instead of the 203 political parties allow a concise calculation of disproportionality between votes and seats. The Gallagher index for the European Parliament is 7.87.
Sweden The disproportionality of the 2018 Swedish general election was 1.8 according to the Gallagher index, which is extremely low by international standards (resulting in almost perfectly proportional seat allocations), due to Sweden's use of the modified Sainte-Laguë method in elections to the Riksdag.
Republic of Ireland The disproportionality of the 2020 Irish general election was 1.96 according to the Gallagher index. The Republic of Ireland uses the single transferable vote (STV) system with Droop quota in elections to the Dáil Éireann.
Examples of calculating disproportionality:
United States This table uses the aggregate results of the 2016 elections to the United States House of Representatives. These 435 single-seat elections are winner-take-all, which would tend to create disproportionate results, but this is moderated by the extremely high share of votes obtained by the two major parties—more than 97%, likely in part caused by fears of wasted votes and vote splitting. The Gallagher index ignores the effect of the primaries on the proportionality.
Countries:
The Gallagher indices for individual countries are listed below, only the last available index is shown. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Gastric inhibitory polypeptide**
Gastric inhibitory polypeptide:
Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (more commonly known earlier as gastric inhibitory polypeptide or gastric inhibitory peptide), abbreviated as GIP, is an inhibiting hormone of the secretin family of hormones. While it is a weak inhibitor of gastric acid secretion, its main role, being an incretin, is to stimulate insulin secretion.GIP, along with glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), belongs to a class of molecules referred to as incretins, which stimulate insulin release on oral food intake.
Synthesis and transport:
GIP is derived from a 153-amino acid proprotein encoded by the GIP gene and circulates as a biologically active 42-amino acid peptide. It is synthesized by K cells, which are found in the mucosa of the duodenum and the jejunum of the gastrointestinal tract.Like all endocrine hormones, it is transported by blood.
Gastric inhibitory polypeptide receptors are seven-transmembrane proteins (GPCRs) found on beta-cells in the pancreas.
Functions:
It has traditionally been named gastrointestinal inhibitory peptide or gastric inhibitory peptide and was found to decrease the secretion of stomach acid to protect the small intestine from acid damage, reduce the rate at which food is transferred through the stomach, and inhibit the GI motility and secretion of acid. However, this is incorrect, as it was discovered that these effects are achieved only with higher-than-normal physiological level, and that these results naturally occur in the body through a similar hormone, secretin.It is now believed that the function of GIP is to induce insulin secretion, which is stimulated primarily by hyperosmolarity of glucose in the duodenum. After this discovery, some researchers prefer the new name of glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide, while retaining the acronym "GIP." The amount of insulin secreted is greater when glucose is administered orally than intravenously.In addition to its role as an incretin, GIP is known to inhibit apoptosis of the pancreatic beta cells and to promote their proliferation. It also stimulates glucagon secretion and fat accumulation. GIP receptors are expressed in many organs and tissues including the central nervous system enabling GIP to influence hippocampal memory formation and regulation of appetite and satiety.GIP recently appeared as a major player in bone remodeling. Researchers at Universities of Angers and Ulster evidenced that genetic ablation of the GIP receptor in mice resulted in profound alterations of bone microarchitecture through modification of the adipokine network. Furthermore, the deficiency in GIP receptors has also been associated in mice with a dramatic decrease in bone quality and a subsequent increase in fracture risk. However, the results obtained by these groups are far from conclusive because their animal models give discordant answers and these works should be analysed very carefully.
Pathology:
It has been found that type 2 diabetics are not responsive to GIP and have lower levels of GIP secretion after a meal when compared to non-diabetics. In research involving knockout mice, it was found that absence of the GIP receptors correlates with resistance to obesity. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Mine dewatering**
Mine dewatering:
Mine dewatering is the action of removing groundwater from a mine. When a mine extends below the water table groundwater will, due to gravity, infiltrate the mine working. On some projects groundwater is a minor impediment that can be dealt with on an ad-hoc basis. In other mines, and in other geological settings, dewatering is fundamental to the viability of the mine and may require the use of very large resources and management.
History:
The act of taking water from a mine that is being operated has been done since Neolithic times. In the past it was done by using a shadoof, digging deeper dikes so that gravity would remove the water, by mounting leather water-filled buckets on water wheels or, if nothing else, carrying water-filled buckets manually. The Archimedes' screw was also historically used to pump water out of mines. Where no dewatering techniques were effective the mine had to be shut down due to flooding.In the 15th century mine dewatering techniques made some technical advancements as the first mechanized wooden pumps were used in the German Rammelsberg mine (Lower Saxony), and later in the Ehrenfriedersdorf (Saxony) mines in the 16th century.With the Industrial Revolution, the demand for more coal also demanded dewatering of ever-deeper mines. Water was put in buckets and removed using rope conveyors powered by horses on treadmills.Thomas Savery was the first to realize that a steam engine could be used to pump water out of mines, so he patented an early form of a steam engine. His proposed engine however, was ineffective and problematic in design. It could not pump water higher than 9 metres (30 ft) above water level.
History:
The atmospheric engine, invented by Thomas Newcomen in 1712, combined the ideas of Thomas Savery, who he was forced to go into partnership with due to Savery's patent, and Denis Papin, using his invention of a piston. It was the first practical application of the steam engine in a mine and was used to dewater coal and tin mines. The first reliable metal pump was developed by József Károly Hell and used in Schemnitz in 1749.In the 20th century submersible pumps offered another innovation in mine dewatering. Currently dewatering techniques and systems are so advanced and well defined for each type of mine - open pit or underground - that even mines thousands of metres deep are successfully dewatered.
Problems with mine dewatering:
Dewatering a totally or partially flooded mine, or even as a normal procedure in normal mine activity, may carry a number of problems, most of which are environment related. This can happen in open pit mines as well as in underground mines. Large problems are also developing with abandoned mines that have accumulated acid mine drainage that are growing to become a larger problem as the water sits in the mine and reacts with the exposed rock. There can be mitigation through proper management and with enough funds.The most relevant concerns with mine dewatering are related to acid mine drainage and the dispersal of contaminated water into other water fonts and the general environment becoming a serious source of pollution.
Types of dewatering techniques and systems:
Dewatering open pit mines and underground mines is different. Each method relies on different apparel and techniques.
For dewatering open pit mines the following are used: Filter wells Disposal wells Inverted wells Vacuum drainage Horizontal drains Sealing walls Cut off walls Guard wellsUnderground, the following methods are used: Adits Sump pumps | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**James H. Wilkinson Prize in Numerical Analysis and Scientific Computing**
James H. Wilkinson Prize in Numerical Analysis and Scientific Computing:
The James H. Wilkinson Prize in Numerical Analysis and Scientific Computing is awarded every four years by the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics (SIAM). The award, named in honor of James H. Wilkinson, is made for research in, or other contributions to, numerical analysis and scientific computing during the 6 years preceding the year of the award. The prizewinner receives the prize, with $2000 (US), at the autumn conference of SIAM and gives a lecture there. It is intended to stimulate younger scientists in the early years of their careers.
Prize winners:
1982 Björn Engquist 1985 Charles S. Peskin 1989 Paul Van Dooren 1993 James Demmel 1997 Andrew M. Stuart 2001 Thomas Y. Hou 2005 Emmanuel Candès 2009 Assyr Abdulle 2013 Lexing Ying 2017 Lek-Heng Lim 2021 Stefan Güttel | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Flavor-changing neutral current**
Flavor-changing neutral current:
In particle physics, flavor-changing neutral currents or flavour-changing neutral currents (FCNCs) are hypothetical interactions that change the flavor of a fermion without altering its electric charge.
Details:
If they occur in nature (as reflected by Lagrangian interaction terms), these processes may induce phenomena that have not yet been observed in experiment. Flavor-changing neutral currents may occur in the Standard Model beyond the tree level, but they are highly suppressed by the GIM mechanism. Several collaborations have searched for FCNC. The Tevatron CDF experiment observed evidence of FCNC in the decay of the strange B-meson to phi mesons in 2005.FCNCs are generically predicted by theories that attempt to go beyond the Standard Model, such as the models of supersymmetry or technicolor. Their suppression is necessary for an agreement with observations, making FCNCs important constraints on model-building.
Example:
Consider a toy model in which an undiscovered boson S may couple both to the electron as well as the tau (τ−) via the term Sψ¯eψτ Since the electron and the tau have equal charges, the electric charge of S clearly must vanish to respect the conservation of electric charge. A Feynman diagram with S as the intermediate particle is able to convert a tau into an electron (plus some neutral decay products of the S).
Example:
The MEG experiment at the Paul Scherrer Institute near Zurich will search for a similar process, in which an antimuon decays to a photon and an antielectron (a positron). In the Standard Model, such a process proceeds only by emission and re-absorption of a charged W+, which changes the μ+ into a neutrino on emission and then a positron on re-absorption, and finally emits a photon that carries away any difference in energy, spin, and momentum.
Example:
In most cases of interest, the boson involved is not a new boson S but the conventional Z0 boson itself. This can occur if the coupling to weak neutral currents is (slightly) non-universal. The dominant universal coupling to the Z boson does not change flavor, but sub-dominant non-universal contributions can.
Example:
FCNCs involving the Z boson for the down-type quarks at zero momentum transfer are usually parameterized by the effective action term cos θWd¯LαUαβγμdLβZμ This particular example of FCNC is often studied the most because we have some fairly strong constraints coming from the decay of B0 mesons in Belle and BaBar. The off-diagonal entries of U parameterizes the FCNCs and current constraints restrict them to be less than one part in a thousand for |Ubs|. The contribution coming from the one-loop Standard Model corrections are actually dominant, but the experiments are precise enough to measure slight deviations from the Standard Model prediction.
Example:
Experiments tend to focus on flavor-changing neutral currents as opposed to charged currents, because the weak neutral current (Z0 boson) does not change flavor in the Standard Model proper at the tree level whereas the weak charged currents (W± bosons) do. New physics in charged current events would be swamped by more numerous W± boson interactions; new physics in the neutral current would not be masked by a large effect due to ordinary Standard Model physics. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Code page 720**
Code page 720:
Code page 720 (CCSID 720) (also known as CP 720, IBM 00720, and OEM 720) is a code page used under DOS to write Arabic in Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, and Syria. The Windows (ANSI) code page for Arabic is Windows-1256.
Character set:
Each character is shown with its equivalent Unicode code point. Only the second half of the table (code points 128–255) is shown, the first half (code points 0–127) being the same as code page 437. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Dual control stand**
Dual control stand:
Rail terminology is a form of technical terminology. The difference between the American term railroad and the international term railway (used by the International Union of Railways and English-speaking countries outside the United States) is the most significant difference in rail terminology. These and other terms have often originated from the parallel development of rail transport systems in different parts of the world. In English-speaking countries outside the United Kingdom, a mixture of US and UK terms may exist.Various terms, both global and specific to individual countries, are listed here. Where a term has multiple names, this is indicated. The abbreviation "UIC" refers to standard terms adopted by the International Union of Railways in its official publications and thesaurus.
A:
Acorn.
A general term used to finish the ends of rods of various forms.
Adhesion railway The most common type of railway, where power is applied by driving some or all of the wheels of the locomotive.
Adhesive weight The weight on the driving wheels of a locomotive, which determines the frictional grip between wheels and rail, and hence the drawbar pull a locomotive can exert Adjusting spring A heavy spiral spring or nest of springs used for controlling the side motion of a two-wheel radial trailing truck.
Adjusting spring case Also Centering spring cylinder.
A cylindrical cast-iron holder in which an adjusting string is placed.
Adjusting spring seat A casting, or a part of the bolster of a two-wheel trailing truck, forming a bearing for the end of the adjusting spring.
Admission The opening of steam port to admit steam to one end of a cylinder. If the valve has no lead, admission takes place at the moment the piston of its stroke and just as it is to begin the return stroke.
A:
Air brake Also Railway air brake. Any brake operated by air pressure, but usually restricted to systems of continuous brakes operated by compressed air, in distinction from Vacuum Brakes, which are operated by creating a vacuum. The air is compressed by some form of steam pump on the locomotive, or a motor-compressor on electric locomotives, and is conveyed by pipes and flexible hose between the engine, tender and cars to cylinders and pistons under the tender and each car, by which the pressure is transmitted to the brake levers, and thence to the brake shoes. This system is what is now termed the straight-air brake. This brake is now obsolete in steam road practice, having been replaced by the Automatic Air Brake.
A:
Air brake hose Flexible tubes made of alternate layers of rubber and canvas by which the brake pipes under engines, tenders, and cars are connected together, and compressed air, which operates the brakes, conducted through the train. The hose is made with a coupling at each end of the engine and tender so that it can readily be connected or disconnected. Also called air hose and brake hose.
A:
Air cylinder (air pump) A cylinder forming part of the air brake pump and having its piston fastened to the same rod to which the piston of the steam cylinder is fastened. It is furnished with air inlet and discharge valves at each end, communicating respectively with the air inlet and the discharge pipe.
Air cylinder bracket A projecting piece of metal bolted to the frame of a locomotive or tender, to which the brake cylinder is attached. See Truck Brake, Tender Brake.
Air cylinder gasket See Gasket.
Air cylinder oil cup (air pump) A small brass receptacle with a stopcock or faucet, screwed to the air cylinder of an air pump, to hold a supply of lubricant for the air cylinder. See Automatic Air Cylinder Oil Cup.
Air drum Also Main Reservoir and Reservoir.
A:
A cylindrical reservoir, made of sheet steel, into which air is pumped and stored for use in the air brake system and train air signal line. Sometimes placed under the cab deck or between the frames in front of the guide yoke; but now two are commonly used, placed under the running board near the cab, one on each side of the engine.
A:
Air drum hanger An iron strap riveted to the lower side of the running board, or to the boiler, to support the air drum.
Air drum head The end of the air drum, to which the cylindrical body is riveted or welded.
Air drum saddle A strip of iron fastened to the locomotive frame for supporting the air drum or drums when the drums are placed between the cylinder saddles and the guide yoke.
A:
Air gage (air brake) A gage to register the pressure of air in the reservoirs, brake pipe, or brake cylinders, similar to an ordinary steam pressure gage. They are made either with a single pointer or with two pointers, to indicate on one dial both the reservoir pressure and the brake pipe pressure. The latter type is called a duplex gage.
A:
Air gage fitting A pipe connection by means of whichan air gage is connected to an engineer's brake valve in a locomotive cab.
Air gage stand A bracket or support to hold an air gage.
A:
Alerter or watchdog Similar to the dead man's switch other than it does not require the operator's constant interaction. Instead, an alarm is sounded at a preset interval in which the operator must respond by pressing a button to reset the alarm and timer if no other controls are operated. If the operator does not respond within a preset time, the prime mover is automatically throttled back to idle and the brakes are automatically applied.
A:
Adhesion railway#All-weather adhesion The adhesion available during traction mode with 99% reliability in all weather conditions Alternator An electrical generator that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy in the form of alternating current American Locomotive Company (Alco) The second largest builder of steam locomotives in the United States American type A steam locomotive with a 4-4-0 wheel arrangement.
A:
Angle cock A valve affixed to each end of a piece of rolling stock that, when opened, admits compressed air to the brake pipe (or vents it to the atmosphere if air hose is detached) Annett's key A large key which locks levers or other items of signalling apparatus, thereby serving as a portable form of interlocking Articulated locomotive A steam locomotive with one or more engine units that can move relative to the main frame Articulated vehicles (articulation) The sharing of one truck by adjacent ends of two rail vehicles.
A:
Ashpan A feature of a locomotive with the same form and purpose as the domestic variety (i.e. to collect the ashes that fall through the bars of the grate). The only significant difference is the size, measured in feet rather than inches.
Asynchronous motor An alternating current electric motor whose speed varies with load and has no fixed relation to the frequency of the supply.
Atlantic type A steam locomotive with a 4-4-2 wheel arrangement.
Automatic block signaling (ABS) A system that consists of a series of signals that divide a railway line into a series of blocks and then functions to control the movement of trains between them through automatic signals.
Automatic train control (ATC) A system that applies an emergency brake if the driver does not react to certain signals or speed restrictions Automatic train operation (ATO) A technology for automation of trains.
A:
Automatic train protection (ATP) A system that enforces obedience to signals and speed restrictions by speed supervision, including automatic stop at signals GWR Autotrain A branch-line train consisting of a steam locomotive and passenger carriages that can be driven from either end by means of rodding to the regulator and an additional vacuum brake valve. The fireman remains with the locomotive and, when the driver is at the other end, the fireman controls the cut off and vacuum ejectors in addition to his usual duties. See also: Push-pull train.
A:
Axlebox The housing that holds the axle bearings on a rail vehicle The housing that attaches to the end of the axle to the bogie and contains the bearing on which the axle rotates See also journal box below.
B:
Backhead The cab-side rear panel of a steam locomotive boiler through which the firebox is accessed.
Bad order A tag or note applied to a defective piece of equipment. Generally, equipment tagged as bad order must not be used until repaired, inspected, and approved for use.
Bail off To release the locomotive brakes while the train brakes are applied, to permit smoother handling and prevent excessive slack, wheel slide and flat wheels.
Balancing The reciprocation and revolving masses of any steam, diesel or electric locomotive need balancing, if it is to work smoothly. Revolving masses can easily be balanced by counterweights, but the balancing of reciprocating parts is a matter of compromise and judgement.
Balise A transponder that is used as an intermittent data point in an automatic train protection (ATP) system or as reference point for train location in radio-based train control Ballast Aggregate stone, gravel, or cinders forming the track bed on which sleepers (ties) and track are laid to ensure stability and proper drainage Ballast tamper See Tamping machine.
Balloon A looped length of track, usually at the end of a spur or branch, which trains use to turn around for the return trip without reversing or shunting. Can be used as part of a freight installation to allow the loading or unloading of bulk materials without the need to stop the train (see merry-go-round train (MGR)).
Bay platform A platform and track arrangement where the train pulls into a siding, or dead-end, when serving the platform.
Bellmouth A widening of an underground rail tunnel, in preparation for future connection or expansion of service. Used particularly in subway nomenclature.
Berkshire type A steam locomotive with a 2-8-4 wheel arrangement.
Bilevel rail car A type of rail car that has two levels of passenger accommodation, as opposed to one, increasing passenger capacity.
Blastpipe A part of a steam locomotive that discharges exhaust steam from the cylinders into the smokebox beneath the chimney to increase draught through the fire.
Block section A section of track in a fixed block system that a train may only enter when it is not occupied by other vehicles.
Bo-Bo (Europe) A locomotive with a four-wheel, two wheels per truck configuration, each individually powered, as opposed to a six-wheel "Co-Co" configuration.
Bogie A swivel-mounted wheel assembly; known as a Truck in North America.
Boiler A cylindrical container adjacent to the firebox in which steam is produced to drive a steam locomotive.
Bolster A transverse floating beam member of a truck suspension system supporting the weight of a vehicle body.
B:
Boom barrier A pivoted road barrier at a level crossing Booster engine An extra set of cylinders that can be engaged on a steam locomotive to drive a trailing truck or tender truck to give additional tractive effort at starting and low speeds Brakeman's cabin or brakeman's cab A small hut at one end of a railway wagon to protect the brakeman from the elements.
B:
Brake pipe The main air pipe of a train's air brake system Branch line A secondary railway line that splits off from a main line Brick arch A brick or concrete baffle provided at the front of a locomotive firebox below the tubes to extend the flame path. Early locomotives burned coke; provision of a brick arch was necessary before coal could be used without producing excessive smoke.
B:
British Rail Universal Trolley Equipment (BRUTE) A type of platform trolley found on stations all over the UK rail network from the late 1960s to the early 1980s.
Broad gauge Track where the rails are spaced farther apart than standard gauge, or 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in) Bubble car A nickname for a British Rail Class 121 railcar Buckeye coupler A side-operated version of the top- or bottom-operated Janney coupler Buffer A device that cushions the ends of rail vehicles against each other.
Buffer stop or bumper post The barrier installed at the end of a dead-end track to prevent rail vehicles from proceeding further.
Builder's plate The nameplate fitted by their manufacturer to locomotives and items of rolling stock.
Bulkhead flatcar An open-top flatcar with a wall at each end.
Bungalow The housing for signals and communications computers that control switches, crossings, and other such controls, relaying information to and from the rail traffic control (RTC) Bustitution A blend of the words "bus" and "substitution", the practice of replacing a train service with one provided by buses, whether as a temporary or a permanent measure.
C:
Cab The control room of a locomotive housing the engine crew and their control consoles Cab forward A steam locomotive with its cab at the leading end of the boiler, rather than the usual trailing end adjacent to the tender. The best known example is the Southern Pacific Railroad's AC type, built to handle drag freights through the SP's many tunnels and snow sheds without the danger of the exhaust asphyxiating the engine crew.
C:
Cabless A locomotive without a cab. Commonly referred to as a B unit or a Slug, although not all Slugs are cabless.
Caboose In North America, a railroad car attached usually to the end of a train, in which railroad workers could ride and monitor track and rolling stock conditions. Largely obsolete, having been replaced by the electronic end-of-train device (ETD), or flashing rear-end device (FRED).
Cant The angle of an individual rail relative to vertical (e.g. around curves).
Carbody unit A locomotive that derives structural strength from a bridge-truss design framework in the sides and roof, which cover the full width of the locomotive.
Catenary The overhead wire system used to send electricity to an electric locomotive or multiple unit, tram or light rail vehicle Centerbeam A bulkhead flatcar with a braced beam bisecting its length, used to transport lumber products Challenger type A steam locomotive with a 4-6-6-4 wheel arrangement.
Chord A section of subsidiary track that interconnects two primary tracks that cross at separated grades, to permit traffic to flow between them.
Co-Co locomotives (EU) A heavier duty locomotive with six wheels, three wheels per truck (all axles being separately driven) configuration as opposed to a four-wheel "Bo-Bo" configuration. The correct classification is Co'Co', but Co-Co is used more often.
Coal pusher A steam-operated device in the tender intended to push coal forward to a point where it can be shovelled directly into the fire.
Colour light signal A signal in which the colour of the light determines the signal meaning.
Colour position signal A signal that uses both colour and light position to indicate meaning.
Combined power handle A handle or lever that controls both the throttle and dynamic braking on the locomotive: on a desktop-type control stand, forward (away from operator) past center operates the dynamic brake, backward (toward operator) past center, is throttle up.
Compound locomotive A steam locomotive passing steam through two sets of cylinders. One set uses high pressure steam, then passes the low pressure exhausted steam to the second.
Configurable System Capability of the system to allow users to select, from pre-programmed functions (modular software units), those functions necessary to accomplish a control strategy or other complex function, without the use of computer language.
Consist Single vehicle or a group of vehicles that are not separated during normal operation.
Consolidation type A steam locomotive with a 2-8-0 wheel arrangement.
Container on flat car (COFC) The loading of a shipping container onto a simple flat car.
Continuous welded rail (CWR) A form of track made from rails welded together by with a thermite reaction or flash butt welding to form one continuous rail that may be several kilometres long.
Control car A passenger coach with a full set of train controls at one end, allowing for the use of push-pull train operation.
Control System The microprocessor based control and fault diagnostic system has been developed for conventional electric locomotives including locos provided with static converter. It performs logical control of the locomotive by continuously monitoring various digital/ analog inputs and checks for any abnormality in the operation.
Coupler pulling faces, length over Effective length of piece of rolling stock Coupling rods Rods between crank pins on the wheels, transferring power from a driving axle to a driven axle of a locomotive.
Covered goods wagon (UIC) A type of rolling stock with a flat bottom enclosed on all sides and top, which is loaded and unloaded from sliding doors on each side.
Cow-calf or cow and calf A diesel locomotive with a crew cab permanently coupled to and acting as a controller for a similar slave diesel locomotive without a crew cab, primarily used for switching or shunting duties for large groups of rolling stock. Also known as master and slave.
Crank pin A pin protruding from a wheel into a main or coupling rod.
Crosshead In a steam locomotive, the moving member of a sliding guide that absorbs upward and downward forces from the connecting (main) rod, which otherwise would tend to bend the piston rod.
Cut To uncouple one or more cars from a train (i.e. to "make a cut").
Same as "cutting" Cut lever A manual lever that releases the pin of an automatic coupler when pulled to separate cars or locomotives.
Cut off Also see Reverser handle.
A variable device on steam locomotives that closes the steam valve to the steam cylinder before the end of the piston stroke, thus conserving steam while letting steam in the cylinder expand under its own energy.
Cutting A channel dug through a hillside to enable rail track to maintain a shallow gradient. See also embankment.
Cycle braking Making repeated service brake reductions in short succession to maintain a constant speed on short but steep grades. Each reduction must be at least 5 PSI lower than the previous one to keep the brakes applying regularly, but excessive cycle braking can deplete the air supply and require an emergency application.
Cylinder A cavity in a reciprocating engine in which a piston travels.
Cylinder cock On steam locomotives, crews use this appurtenance to drain water from the steam cylinders when the throttle is open, thus preventing damage to the pistons, running gear, and cylinder heads.
D:
Dark signal A block signal that is displaying no discernible aspect, often due to burned out lamps or local power failure. Most railroads require that a dark signal be treated as displaying its most restrictive aspect (e.g. stop and stay for an absolute signal).
Dark territory A section of track without block signals.
D:
Dead-end rail A railway ending in a locality (terminus) with no other rail services. Typically includes buffer stops at the end of the tracks. The opposite of rail crossing Dead man's handle A safety mechanism on a train controller that automatically applies the brake if the driver releases the handle. It is intended to stop a train if the driver is incapacitated. In some forms, this device may be pedal-actuated. See also Dead-man's vigilance device.
D:
Decapod type A steam locomotive with a 2-10-0 wheel arrangement.
Defect detector A track side device used to detect various defects such as hotboxes (overheated axle bearings), dragging equipment, leaning cars, overloaded cars, overheight cars, seized (locked) wheels, etc.
Degraded Operation Operation resulting from an unplanned event that prevents the normal delivery of train services.
Demurrage A monetary charge levied by a railroad to a customer for excessive delay in loading or unloading cars.
Derail or derailer A safety device that derails vehicles that pass it, typically to prevent rolling stock from accidentally entering the mainline from a siding.
Detonator A small explosive charge placed on the running rail, which detonates loudly when run over to warn drivers in following trains of an incident ahead. Known as a torpedo in the United States.
Diamond Track that lets a rail line cross another at grade Diesel multiple unit (DMU) A set of diesel-powered self-propelling passenger rail vehicles able to operate in multiple with other such sets. Such units, especially those consisting of a single vehicle, are sometimes termed railcars.
Direct traffic control (DTC) A system in which train dispatchers communicate directly with train crews via radio to authorize track occupancy in predefined blocks.
D:
Distributed power A practice originally used to move large trains through the mountains. Now commonly used to facilitate longer, heavier trains in all types of terrain. Consists of the locomotives on the head end, a "swing" (mid-train) helper or two, and pusher locomotive(s) on the rear; today, all units are remotely controlled by the engineer in the lead unit. The remote locomotives are referred to as Distributed Power Units (DPUs). The power distribution alleviates stress on the couplers and relieves the lead units of the full weight of the train, making it easier to move on grades.
D:
Ditch lights A pair of lights, usually found on modern locomotives, located some distance below and outboard of the main headlight. They may also flash alternately when a locomotive sounds its horn.
Division In North America, the trackage area under the jurisdiction of a railway superintendent.
Dog or dogspike (India) A spike with a slightly altered head shape for easier extraction when the spike has become too loose in the sleeper.
Doodlebug A self-powered gasoline-electric passenger car used for small capacity rural commuter service. Also a British Rail Class 153 DMU.
Double If a train has insufficient power to climb a grade and no helpers are available, the crew splits the train into two sections and runs them separately to the top.
Double heading A configuration in which two locomotives are coupled head-to-tail so they can haul a heavy train up a long or steep hill. Currently, double heading (and occasionally triple heading) are used primarily by large passenger trains or as a show for railfans.
Drag A long, heavy freight train moving at low speed.
Dragging equipment detector See Defect detector.
Drawbar The part of a coupler that attaches to the frame of the car or locomotive; may be equipped with a pneumatic cushion depending on a freight car's design cargo (e.g. an autorack). Alternately, the pinned double bars coupling a steam locomotive to its tender.
Driver or engine driver The operator of a locomotive.
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Driver only operation (DO or DOO) Operation of a train by the engineer or driver only. Also known as one person train operation (OPTO) Driver A wheel in contact with the rail that also propels a locomotive Dual control stand the practice of having two control stands (a "control stand" is a diesel locomotive subsystem which integrates all engine and brake functional controls within the operational radius of the locomotive engineer's left forearm from his/her customary seating position, facing forward at all times) in the cab of a hood unit locomotive, one on either side facing opposite directions to allow operation either long hood or short hood forward at all times. Dwarf signal A signal light that is considerably smaller and closer to the ground than a high-mast signal; often absolute, and placed within interlocking limits, its aspects tend to differ from those conveyed by a taller signal for certain indications. Also called 'pot' or 'jack'.
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Dwell time The time a train spends at a scheduled stop without moving. Typically, this time is spent boarding or deboarding passengers, but it may also be spent waiting for traffic ahead to clear, or idling time in order to get back on schedule.
Dynamic braking The use of a traction motors' output, working as generators, to retard train speed without relying solely on the air brakes.
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Ejector A component of vacuum brake system usually fitted in pairs. Steam passing through a cone sucks air from the train pipe to create the vacuum.
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A small ejector running continuously to overcome leaks and to restore the vacuum after light braking and a large ejector operated when needed to release the brakes quickly after a heavy application or to create the initial vacuum after coupling Electric multiple unit (EMU) A set of electrically powered self-propelling passenger rail vehicles able to operate in multiple with other such sets.
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Electro-Motive Diesel (EMD) The world's second largest builder of railroad locomotives. EMD was previously Electro-Motive Division of General Motors before being sold.
Elevated railway, el, or L A railway built on supports over city streets.
Embankment A bank, usually of earth but sometimes of stone, constructed to form a level or minimally graded trackbed for a line of railway needing to pass over a depression in the terrain or other pre-existing surface feature. See also cutting.
Empty coaching stock (ECS) A train used to bring carriages into (or out of) service. They usually run between sidings and main stations, with the carriages then forming a service train to another destination. They are often worked under freight train rules (e.g. without needing a guard in the UK).
Emergency release A device accessible under certain conditions that permits the operation of an apparatus in case of failure.
End-cab switcher A switching locomotive with no short hood, thus having its cab forming one end of its car body.
Engineer In North America, the operator of a locomotive.
Equalizing reservoir A small air reservoir in a locomotive control stand. When the automatic brake valve is operated, this reservoir responds by reducing or increasing the air pressure in the brake pipe.
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Event recorder A device that continuously captures analog and digital train systems information and stores that data for a minimum of 48 hours. This data is used to evaluate incidents and accidents. Typical stored data includes speed, brake pressure, dynamic brake, horn activation, track signal, etc. In the U.S., event recorders are mandated by the Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) for freight, passenger and commuter rail. Regulations for railroads outside the U.S. vary by country. Transit operations are not generally required to have event recorders, but have begun to add them voluntarily.
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Express train A train that passes selected stations without stopping.
Extra A train not included in the normal schedule of a railroad. They often run during busy holiday travel periods in order to handle larger crowds and reduce the number of passengers waiting or stranded at a station. In train order territory, extras are required to clear the main line for scheduled trains to pass.
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Facing A turnout that can select which way to diverge a train—the opposite of trailing.
Fairlie A type of articulated locomotive, typically (but not exclusively) with two boilers and connected fireboxes in a central cab.
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Fall plate A heavy, hinged steel plate attached in a horizontal position to the rear of the locomotive footplate or front of a locomotive tender. When the tender is attached to its locomotive the plate is allowed to fall to cover the gap in the "floor" between the two units. The sliding edge is not fixed and has a smooth chamfer so as to avoid a trip hazard.
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Fallen flag An abandoned or bankrupt railroad or one absorbed by another company that loses its historic name.
Feedwater heater A device to preheat the water for a steam locomotive to improve efficiency.
Feed valve or regulating valve A valve that controls the amount of air pressure channelled from the locomotive's main reservoir to the brake pipe, in accordance with the set pressure in the equalizing reservoir.
Fiddle yard In railway modelling, a concealed group of sidings used to provide more realistic operation in a limited space.
Firebox In steam locomotives, a chamber in which a fire produces sufficient heat to create steam once the hot gases created there are carried into the adjacent boiler via tubes or flues.
Fireman, stoker, or boilerman A worker whose primary job is to shovel coal into the firebox and ensure that the boiler maintains sufficient steam pressure.
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Flat A wheel defect where the tread of a wheel has a flat spot and is no longer round; flats can be heard as regular clicking or banging noises when the wheel passes by. This is caused either by a locked bearing, or a brake that was not fully released before the car was moved, dragging the wheel without turning.
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Flying junction or flyover A railway junction that has a track configuration in which merging or crossing railroad lines provide track connections with each other without requiring trains to cross in front of opposing traffic on the same level Fouling point A point of a switch turnout where a car or locomotive on one track obstructs movements on the adjacent track.
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Four-quadrant gate A type of boom barrier Free-mo A type of modular layout in model railroading.
Freight wagon (UIC) A rail vehicle designed for the carriage of freight.
Full service reduction The maximum air pressure that can be exerted against brake pistons in a normal brake application. To increase pressure beyond this point, the brakes must be placed in emergency.
Fusee A pyrotechnic device similar to an automotive flare that is used in signalling.
Fusible plug A threaded plug, with a soft metal core, that is screwed into the crown plate of a firebox. If the water level gets too low the core melts and the noise of the escaping steam warns the enginemen.
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Garratt locomotive A type of steam locomotive that is articulated into three parts Gauge The width between the inner faces of the rails.
Geep Any of the GP ("general-purpose") series of Electro-Motive four-axle diesel locomotives; originally applied only to EMD GP7, GP9, and GP18 models Generator field The control switch of a diesel-electric locomotive that opens or closes the circuit between the main generator and the traction motors.
Get a knuckle To break a train in two, usually by shearing the knuckle pin in a coupler, often caused by the application of excessive head end power at startup.
GEVO A nickname for General Electric's Evolution series of modern diesel locomotives.
Gladhand connector A quick coupling and uncoupling connector at the end of a trainline air hose that resembles a pair of shaking hands when hoses are connected.
Go-devil A hand-powered railroad car (see Handcar and Draisine), or a small gasoline powered railroad car.
Grab bar or Grab iron A handle on the side of a car to allow switching personnel to hold on.
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Harmonic rock or harmonic rock and roll The condition of locomotives and cars swaying in opposite directions when traversing depressions on the roadbed. A potentially dangerous condition that can cause coupler damage, lading damage, or derailments at slower speeds.
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Head-End Power A scheme whereby the locomotive engine or a separate generator provides hotel power to carriages Headboard A sign attached to a locomotive to identify a named train or charter, or for other special occasions Headstock A transverse structural member located at the extreme end of a rail vehicle's underframe. The headstock supports the coupling at that end of the vehicle, and may also support buffers, in which case it may also be known as a "buffer beam".
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Heavy haul Heavy freight operations High rail The upper rail in a curve or superelevation, which typically experiences higher lateral loads and greater wear Hole A passing siding. Inferior trains "lay over in the hole" to let superior ones pass.
Home signal See absolute signal.
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Horn blocks Plates lining the axlebox cut-outs in a locomotive frame to allow smooth vertical movement under control of the springs Hostling The action of shuttling a locomotive from the yard to the engine house or vice versa Hotbox An axle bearing that has become excessively hot due to friction Hotbox detector A device attached to the track that monitors passing trains for hot axles, and reports results via radio transmission (typical in the US) or a circuit to the signal box (typical in the UK). See defect detector.
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Hudson type A steam locomotive with a 4-6-4 wheel arrangement Hump A raised section in a rail sorting yard that allows operators to use gravity to move freight railcars into the proper position within the yard when making up trains of cars. This is faster and requires less effort than moving cars with a switching engine.
Hunting Swaying motion of a railway vehicle or bogie caused by the coning action on which the directional stability of an adhesion railway depends. The truck or bogie wanders from side to side between the rails, "hunting" for the optimum location based on the forces at play.
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Independent brake or locomotive brake The braking system that applies or releases the brakes of a locomotive independently from its train Infill station or in-fill station A train station built on an existing passenger line to address demand in a location between existing stations Injector A device to force water into a steam locomotive's boiler by steam pressure Insulated rail joint (IRJ) or insulated block joint (IBJ) Rail joints incorporating insulation to isolate individual track circuits Interchange Any track or yard where rail cars are transferred from one carrier to another Interlocking An arrangement of switches and signals interconnected in a way that each movement follows the other in a proper and safe sequence Intermodal freight transport Moving goods by more than one type of vehicle, often achieved using shipping containers that are transferred among railroad flatcars, ships, airplanes, and tractor-trailer trucks Intermodal passenger transport Moving people by more than one type of vehicle Interoperability Ability of a transport network to operate trains and infrastructures to provide, accept and use services so exchanged without any substantial change in functionality or performance Island platform A railway platform that has tracks along the full lengths of both sides
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Jacobs Bogie A Bogie, or truck (American), shared between two pieces of rolling stock. Cars joined with Jacobs bogies are semi-permanently joined in an articulated configuration. A weight-saving feature used on lightweight passenger trains.
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Joint bar or rail joiner A metal plate that joins the ends of rails in jointed track Jointed track Track in which the rails are laid in lengths of around 20 m and bolted to each other end-to-end by means of fishplates or joint bars Journal bearing A bearing without rolling elements; a plain bearing Journal box The housing of a journal bearing. See also Axlebox above.
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Jubilee type A steam locomotive with a 4-4-4 wheel arrangement Junction A point at which two lines or separate routes diverge from each other
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Keeper A padlock or hook securing the lever of a hand-operated switch, thereby preventing the switch points from moving as rolling stock passes over them Kick To shove a car a short distance and uncouple it in motion, allowing it to roll free under gravity and/or its own inertia onto a track. Commonly practiced in bowl or hump yards to make up or break down trains or classify large numbers of cars in an expedient fashion. Differs from a flying switch in that the locomotive is pushing the car rather than pulling it when the cut is made.
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Kicker A freight car with a defect in its brake valve that causes the entire train's brake system to go into emergency when any application is made Kinematic envelope (KE) The outline of the space beside and above the track that must be kept clear of obstructions for the train to pass. This can be larger than the static clearance around an unmoving engine or car. See also: loading gauge and structure gauge Knuckle The articulating part of a coupler that locks automatically in its closed position to join rail cars; so named because its movement resembles that of the human finger
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Lead track A non-main track from which several others branch within a short distance, such as within a rail yard or engine terminal Level crossing (LC), railroad crossing, railway crossing, train crossing, or grade crossing A crossing on one level ("at-grade intersection")—without recourse to a bridge or tunnel—generally of a railway line by a road or path. Not to be confused with non-dead-end railways (see Rail crossing) Light engine A locomotive travelling on its own, or perhaps with just a caboose (brake van) attached Light rail A city-based rail system based on tram design standards that operates mostly in private rights-of-way separated from other traffic but sometimes, if necessary, mixed with other traffic in city streets. Light rail vehicles (LRVs) generally have a top speed of around 55 mph (89 km/h) though mostly operating at much lower speeds, more akin to road vehicles. Light rail vehicles usually run on trackage that weighs less per foot (due to a smaller track profile) than the tracks used for main-line freight trains; thus they are "light rail" due to the smaller rails usually used.
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Link and pin An obsolete method of coupling rail cars, consisting of manually dropping the coupling pin into the drawbar as the cars joined. Extremely hazardous to the brakemen of its day, it was outlawed in the United States by the Railroad Safety Appliance Act of 1893.
Local train A train that stops at most, if not all, stations along its route Lunar An off-white color of railway signal light, like the Moon, achieved by the use of a clear lens of very light blue, to make it distinct from a light that has a broken lens.
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Maglev A system of high speed train transportation that uses two sets of magnets: one set to repel and push the train up off the track, and another set to move the elevated train ahead, taking advantage of the lack of friction.
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Main generator The electric generator in a diesel-electric locomotive that is coupled directly to the prime mover and feeds electrical energy to the traction motors Main reservoir The compressed-air tank of a locomotive containing source air for the brakes and other pneumatic appliances Mallet A type of articulated locomotive designed by the Swiss mechanical engineer Anatole Mallet (pronounced "mallay"). See Compound engine.
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Manifest An express freight train carrying a variety of general merchandise Mars Light A nose-mounted mechanically oscillated light used to warn traffic of an approaching locomotive. Functionally replaced by ditch lights on modern locomotives.
Mechanical semaphore signal A signal in which the aspect is conveyed by moving an arm Meet In rail transport operations, a meet occurs when two trains arrive at a location and pass each other on parallel tracks, such as on a siding, usually in opposing directions. This is also sometimes referred to as a crossing of two trains.
Mikado type A steam locomotive with a 2-8-2 wheel arrangement Milk train In the U.S., milk trains ran from the countryside to cities making numerous stops at minor depots to pick up cans of fresh milk, making them a colloquial expression for a very slow train.
In the U. K., an aggregator for transporting milk from farms to dairies, such as British Railways Milk Trains; as these trains invariably ran very early in the morning, "milk train" became a colloquialism for a particularly early train.
Modalohr An inter-modal car Mogul type A steam locomotive with a 2-6-0 wheel arrangement Mothballed A track that is still serviceable but no trains are running on them.
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Mountain type A steam locomotive with a 4-8-2 wheel arrangement Mud ring The bottom of the water space surrounding a steam locomotive's firebox that collects solids precipitating from the water supply during the boiling process Multiple aspect signalling A system of colour-light signalling in which signals may show three or four aspects Multiple unit (MU) A self-propelled rail vehicle that can be joined with compatible others and controlled from a single driving station. The sub-classes of this type of vehicle; Diesel Multiple Unit (DMU), Diesel-Electric Multiple Unit (DEMU) and Electric Multiple Unit (EMU) are more common terms. These may also be termed railcars.
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Multiple-unit train control The control of multiple locomotives or MUs from a single set of controls.
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Narrow gauge Railroad track where the rails are spaced less than 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in) apart, Northern type A steam locomotive with a 4-8-4 wheel arrangement, also known in North America as "Pocono", "Niagara", "Confederation", "Greenbrier", and "Potomac" Notch 8 or run 8 The eighth notch of a locomotive throttle control, indicating full power on the standard American diesel locomotive control scheme
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Open wagon (UIC) A form of freight hauling car for bulk goods Out to foul When equipment is placed ahead of the fouling point of a switch turnout
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Pacific type A steam locomotive with a 4-6-2 wheel arrangement Pannier tank A tank locomotive where the water tanks are mounted on the boiler in pannier-like fashion Pantograph An apparatus mounted on the roof of a rail vehicle to allow the collection of electric current from overhead lines Paperwork As a reason for delays, written instructions conveyed to a train's engineer in which the train must proceed slower than its normal speed. These instructions are either handed to the crew or recited and read back over radio.
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Pennsy Abbreviation for the former Pennsylvania Railroad Per diem (pronounced by some U.S. railroaders per die-um, not per dee-um) A fee paid by a rail company to the owner of a car (or wagon) for the time it spends on the company's property An authorized living expense payment for some workers forced away from their home terminal Permissive signal A block signal whose most restrictive indication is stop and proceed. A permissive signal is identified by the presence of a number plate affixed to the mast or supporting structure. Proceeding beyond a permissive signal at stop is allowed at restricted speed if operating conditions enable a train operator to stop before reaching any train or obstruction.
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Pilot A deflective shield affixed to the front of a locomotive to protect its wheels from on-track debris; archaically called a "cowcatcher" See also: Pilot (locomotive) An employee qualified on the operating rules and physical characteristics of a certain section of the railroad, assisting a crew member who is not so qualified See also: Railroad engineer Pilot engine The leading locomotive during a double-heading operation An unattached locomotive driven a specified distance in front of a special train Pilot man Where it is necessary to temporarily work a section of line as single track (for instance if the other track of a double-track line is out of use), a person (the pilot man) acts as the single track token.
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Piston The moving component in the cylinder of a steam engine or internal combustion engine that translates into motion the force exerted by pressurised steam or quickly-burning fuel Piston travel A specified distance that a brake piston may move from its cylinder to the brake rigging. If the travel exceeds or falls short of this distance, the equipment must be set out for repair.
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Platform screen doors Infrastructure used to separate the platform from train tracks.
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Pony truck A two-wheel truck or bogie at the front of a locomotive Porch The extended walkway at either end of a U.S. locomotive Porter An employee who performs or performed (the role has now largely become obsolete) various physical duties, chiefly but not exclusively involving lifting. Various types of porter include: A baggage porter assisting with luggage An operating porter assisting with safeworking duties A station porter assisting with general station duties A lad porter being a junior station porterPortion working The practice of coupling two or more passenger trains together over common sections of their respective routes, but otherwise operating the trains separately Position light signal A block signal in which the relative position of the lights determines the meaning Positive train control (PTC) An American system of functional requirements for monitoring and controlling train movements with the aim of increasing operational safety Possession In Britain, a period of time when one or more tracks are closed for maintenance. For the duration of the work, a person in charge of possession (PICOP) has control of the line. When work is complete the possession is relinquished and control of the line handed back to the signaller.
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Pound The weight (and thus the cross section) of a length of rail. A heavier rail can carry heavier loads with less distortion and less damage to the rails themselves and the roadbed.
Power A locomotive or group of connected (MU'd) locomotives serving as the motive power for a train Power braking Pulling against the train brakes at the higher end of the locomotive's power output (e.g. notches five through eight on a conventional throttle). This is considered wasteful of fuel and brake shoes, and is therefore discouraged by most operating departments.
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Prairie type A steam locomotive with a 2-6-2 wheel arrangement Prime mover The internal combustion engine of a diesel locomotive Pull apart A rail broken from cold-related contraction Push pole A pole about 12 feet (366 cm) long and having a diameter of 5 inches (127 mm) and used in the United States between 1870 and the mid-1960s to push a freight car onto or off a siding or onto another track by being placed between a locomotive (on an adjacent track) and the freight car. The two ends of the poles were placed in receptacles called push pole pockets. The practice of using a push pole for switching was called "poling".
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Push–pull train A configuration for locomotive-hauled trains, allowing them to be driven from either end of the train, whether having a locomotive at each end or not. See also: Auto train. See Top and tail for train with locomotives at both front and back.
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Rack railway, rack-and-pinion railway, or cog railway A steep-grade railway with a toothed rack rail (usually between the running rails), used when adhesion is insufficient Railbus A passenger rail vehicle (typically non-articulated or rigid frame) that derived from bus propulsion and construction technology, but may evolve into larger dimensions, performance, and characteristics similar in appearance to a light DMU railcar Railcar A powered single unit or articulated passenger car, usually "railroad-derived" light DMU or EMU, with a driver's cab at one or both ends Rail crossing The opposite of a dead-end rail, i.e. a line connecting locations accessed by other railways, often associated with the overcoming of natural obstacles, such as mountain ranges. Not to be confused with a railway crossing a road (see Level crossing) Railfan A hobbyist or enthusiast of trains Rail grinder A machine used to remove irregularities in the surface of the rails that may be self-powered or part of a consist Rail profile The cross section shape of rail. There are many rail profiles, often specific to individual railroads. Rails must be periodically scanned electronically, the data inspected and analysed, then re-profiled with rail grinding machines to maintain the safe and proper rail profile. Rails that cannot be brought back to the proper rail profile are condemned and replaced.
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Rail squeal A screeching train-track friction sound, most commonly occurring on sharp curves or heavy braking Rail tractor A small petrol (gas) or diesel shunting (switcher) locomotive Railroad car Any railroad vehicle other than a locomotive Railroadiana Artifacts of railways around the world Railway line, railroad line, rail line, or train line A railway route connecting two or more places or other railway routes A railway route constructed by an organization, usually one formed for that purpose A railway route that has an official name (notably bestowed by engineers line references in the UK) A set of railway routes that are bundled for publicity purposes (e.g. a UK train operating company) Railway station A train station, a stopping point for trains, usually with passenger access Railway terminal A building for passengers at the end of a railway line Red A colour generally associated with stop, when shown by signals or flags Red zone The area between, under, or within a few feet of cars and locomotives. To enter the zone, a ground employee must obtain protection from the locomotive engineer (if a locomotive is coupled) or a blue signal (if no locomotive is coupled).
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Reefer A refrigerated railcar, used to transport perishable goods Refuge siding A siding used as a passing place on a main line, where slow trains may be held whilst an express passes—a simpler, but less convenient, form of the passing loop Reporting mark A two- to four-letter code, assigned by the Association of American Railroads, that is applied to equipment operating on North American railroads to identify the owner Rerail frog or rerailer A metal casting slotted over the rail near the wheel of a derailed train car. The engine then pushes or pulls the car so that the derailed wheel runs up the rerailer and back onto the track.
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Retarder A device installed in a classification yard used to reduce the speed of freight cars as they are sorted into consists Reverser or reverser handle The handle that controls the directional control on a locomotive. See also Cut off.
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Ribbon rail Continuously welded rail Right-side failure A failure in a signalling or other safety critical system that leaves the system in a safe condition Roadrailer A highway trailer, or semi-trailer, that is specially equipped for direct use on a railroad Rolling stock In UK parlance, any railway vehicle that is not capable of moving under its own power In US parlance, any railroad car or locomotive Rookie See Trainee.
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Rotary Short for rotary snowplow, an extreme-duty railroad snowplow used mainly in the mountain ranges of the American West Roundhouse A circular or semi-circular structure used for storage and running maintenance of locomotives Route selector panel, punch box, or train-identification pushbuttons (New York City Subway) A box or panel adjacent to a rail line at an interlocking, with several buttons for train operators to select a desired route, which is then either communicated to a signal tower where an operator fulfills the request, or switched automatically Ruling gradient The longest or steepest grade on a division, thus setting the standard for track speeds, locomotive tonnage ratings, and train handling instructions Run The action verb for the train's movement. The train runs across the track.
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Runaway A heavy train that has lost speed control while descending a steep grade, due to either brake failure or poor preparation by the crew Running track An other-than-main track, typically providing access to a yard or industry and governed by the requirements of restricted speed Run-round The practice of detaching a locomotive from its train, driving it to the other end of the train and re-attaching it, to allow the train to proceed in the direction it has just come from (e.g. when it reaches its destination and forms a service in the other direction).
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Run-through power Locomotives that remain attached to a manifest or unit train from their home rails over the tracks of a receiving railroad until the train reaches its final destination
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Saddle tank A tank locomotive with the water tank mounted on top of the boiler like a saddle Safe place An area within the network of an operator where evacuation of passengers can be performed, depending on current operational conditions, with a minimum of risk to the passengers (e.g. stations, refuges on the line) Safeworking In Australia, the system of rules and equipment designed to ensure the safe operation of trains Sandbox A container on locomotives and self-propelled multiple units, or trams, that run on tramways and adhesion railways. The container holds sand, which a crew can drop onto the rail to improve rail adhesion under wet, steep, or slippery rail conditions. The sandbox and operating mechanism are collectively known as sanding gear.
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Sandite Consists of a mixture of sand, aluminium, and a unique type of adhesive, used instead of plain sand for extreme slippery rail conditions Santa Fe type A steam locomotive with a 2-10-2 wheel arrangement, named for the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway—the first railroad to use such a configuration Saturated locomotive A steam locomotive not equipped with a superheater; the steam thus remains at the same temperature as the water in the boiler Scale Solid debris distilled from boiling water in a steam locomotive. To prevent corrosion damage from scale build-up, the locomotive must undergo a boiler wash once each operating month.
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Schnabel car A specialized type of freight car for extra heavy and oversized loads where the car is loaded in such a way that the load forms part of the car superstructure Searchlight A signal with a single light source usually capable of displaying three different colors. An internal mechanism governs the color displayed.
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Section A portion of a train that may be operated independently or combined with other sections to operate as a single unit A portion of railway line designated for signalling or maintenance An interior portion of a sleeping car made up of two double seats during daytime that convert to two double berths during nighttime Semaphore signal A type of signal that has a moving arm to change the indication Shay locomotive A type of geared steam locomotive built to the patents of Ephraim Shay Shunt In UK and Australian parlance, to make up and divide trains in sidings, to move trains to or from sidings, or to move trains between platforms in a station Shoofly Temporary track used to avoid an obstacle that blocks movement on the normal track section Shuttle train A train, usually a passenger service, that runs back and forth, usually over a relatively short distance, such as between a junction station and a branch-line terminus.
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Side tank A tank locomotive with water tanks mounted each side of the boiler Siding A section of track off the main line. Sidings are often used for storing rolling stock or freight. A siding is also used as a form of rail access for warehouses and other businesses, where the siding often meets up with loading docks at rail car height. In the U.S. the term also covers the British term loop. Also, a passing track in the U.S.
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Signal A device that indicates the condition of the line ahead to the driver of a train Signal box A building or room that houses signal levers (usually in a frame), a control panel or a VDU-based control system Signal passed at danger The British term for the event in which a train passes a signal to stop without authorization to do so Signaller or signalman A person in charge of the signalling at a station or junction, often in a signal box Slippery rail The condition of fallen leaves or other debris lying on and clinging to a railroad track that could cause train wheel slippage, resulting in premature wheel wear and train delays Slow order A local speed restriction below the track's normal speed limit often designated by yellow and green flags. Slow orders can be imposed on a temporary basis to protect, for example, maintenance of way employees while sections of track are under repair. Widely used in areas where track is substandard and in need of repair.
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Slug A locomotive that contains traction motors yet lacks the diesel engine to create its own power, which is instead supplied by a connected mother locomotive Smokebox An enclosed (normally cylindrical) space attached to the end of the boiler opposite the firebox on a steam locomotive (normally the front). Supports the stack; steam pipes to and from the cylinders pass through here; contains the blastpipe where the exhaust steam is used to provide draft for the fire. In superheated locomotives, also contains the superheater header and (optionally) a front-end throttle.
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Snowplow, snow plow, snowplough, or snow plough A rail service vehicle used for snow removal from train tracks Snow shed A long shelter erected over a railroad track on the side of a mountain to protect the line from avalanches and drifting Span bolster The beam between two bogies Spike A bolt, pin, or nail used to hold rails, or plates connected to the rails (known as tie plates), to sleepers (ties) Spiral easement See Track transition curve. Also known as tangent lead-in.
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Spreader Maintenance of way equipment designed to spread or shape ballast profiles, remove snow, clean and dig ditches as well as trim embankments Spur line A very short branch line may be called a spur line.
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Self-propelled ultrasonic rail testing (SPURT) (India) A self-propelled rail-defect detector car Staff and ticket The Australian term for a method of safeworking involving a token Standard gauge A gauge where the rails are spaced 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in) apart—by far the most common gauge worldwide Station master The person in charge of a station Steam generator A device generally used in passenger trains to create steam for heating. The steam generator is usually in the locomotive but may also be located in other cars.
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Steam reverser A reversing gear worked by a steam cylinder controlled from the cab Stop signal overrun The American term for the event in which a train passes a signal to stop without authorization to do so Subdivision In North America, the trackage area within a division covered by a single timetable Supercharger A mechanical device that boosts the pressure of engine intake air to above atmospheric level, causing an increase in power. Not to be confused with the blower used to scavenge the cylinders of a naturally aspirated two-stroke Diesel engine.
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Superelevation Areas on curves where the outside rail is elevated higher than the inside rail, creating a banked curve, generally allowing higher speeds and more comfort for passengers (on passenger trains).
Superheater A device in a steam locomotive that raises the temperature of saturated steam substantially beyond the boiling point of water, increasing power and efficiency Survey To determine the position of constructed objects, including rail infrastructure, in relation to the earth's surface. This is accomplished by measuring angles and distances based on the principles of triangulation.
Surveyor A person assigned to perform survey work Switchback or zig zag A method of climbing and descending steep gradients, where shallow-gradient track reverses direction for a while, and then reverses again to continue in the original direction Switchman A railroad worker responsible for assembling trains and switching railroad cars in a yard
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Tamping machine Generally, a locomotive used in track maintenance and equipped with track lifting facilities, and paddles that push ballast beneath a rail track to assure its level and cant Tank car A type of rolling stock designed to transport liquid and gaseous commodities Tank locomotive or Tank engine A steam locomotive that carries its water in one or more on-board water tanks rather than in a separate tender.
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Team track In North America, A spur or siding for loading freight, often used by firms not having their own direct rail access Tender A specialized rail car attached to a steam locomotive to carry its fuel and water supplies, sometimes along with tools and flagging equipment Terminal railroad (or terminal railway) A company in the United States that owns no cars of its own and transports only the railroad cars of other companies around a specific terminal station Texas type A steam locomotive with a 2-10-4 wheel arrangement Third rail An electrified rail that runs along the tracks, giving power to trains. Used mostly in subways and rapid transit systems.
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Through coach A passenger coach that is disconnected from one train and attached to another before continuing on with its journey, thus avoiding the need for passengers themselves to switch trains Through platform The standard platform and track arrangement at a station. The train pulls alongside the platform, arriving from one end of the station, and may pass out the other end of the station by continuing along the same track Tie plate A plate bolted to sleepers to hold the rails in place Trailer on flat car (TOFC) Intermodal freight transport Token A physical object given to a locomotive driver to authorize use of a particular stretch of single track Track bed or trackbed The foundation of rail tracks Track bulletin In North America, a form used by railroad employees that shows the locations of slow orders, maintenance of way work locations, and other conditions affecting the track and movement of trains Track circuit An electrical circuit that detects the presence of locomotives or cars (as their wheelsets electrically bond the rails) in a block of track, and provides real-time input to signaling logic Track transition curve The gradual application of superelevation and tighter curve radius, calculated with reference to the anticipated line speed and the final curve radius, on the approach to a bend. Also known as the transition spiral and spiral easement.
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Track Warrant Control Control of train movements by "track warrants" which are sets of instructions issued to a train crew authorizing specific train movements.
Trackside objects See Wayobjects.
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Traction current pylon Traction motor A large electric motor that powers the driving wheels of an electric or diesel-electric locomotive Tractive effort The pulling or pushing force exerted by a locomotive or other vehicle Trailing A turnout where both legs merge in the direction of travel—the opposite of facing Train bell In North American practice, the warning bell on a locomotive or any autonomous railway vehicle Train coupler The mechanical interface that links vehicles so a driver can operate them together. The coupler can be a purely mechanical device such as a screw coupler or bar coupler. Alternatively the coupler can also incorporate electrical or pneumatic connections.
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Train horn The warning horn in a locomotive or in a control car Trainman In North America, an employee assigned to train service, such as a conductor, brakeman, or switchman Train inauguration The automated process of train bus configuration that includes detecting all bus nodes and their orientation, assigning the numbers to particular bus nodes and collecting their properties.
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Train operation and management In Europe, the procedures and related equipment enabling a coherent operation of the different structural subsystem, both during normal and degraded operation, including in particular train driving, traffic planning and management Trainmaster, terminal manager, or road manager In North America, an employee who supervises operations over a given territory Train order The process whereby signallers or dispatchers can change the order or timing of trains to maximise overall train service performance in real time Train set A toy train with its tracks, buildings, etc.
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Trainset A group of rolling stock that is permanently or semi-permanently coupled together to form a unified set of equipment. Trainsets are most often used in passenger train configurations.
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Tram A city-based rail system that typically shares its operational space with other vehicles and often runs on, across, or down the center of city streets Tram-train Trams that are designed to run both on the tracks of a city-based rail system and on the existing railway networks. Tram-trains' dual-voltage capability makes it possible to operate at lower speeds on city streets and at over 60 miles per hour (97 km/h) on main line tracks allowing travel in an extended geographical area without changing the method of transport.
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Treadle A mechanical or electrical device for detecting the presence of a rail vehicle with pin-point accuracy, unlike a track circuit, which provides detection over an arbitrary distances Turnout or points A switch Turntable A section of track that rotates to let locomotives and rolling stock turn around or access several engine maintenance sidings in a small area
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Unit train A train in which all cars (wagons) carry the same commodity and are shipped from the same origin to the same destination, without being split up or stored en route
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Vactrain A proposed design for very-high-speed rail transportation.
Vacuum brake A continuous train brake that is fail-safe in operation. It is powered by a vacuum from the locomotive but the application is actually by atmospheric pressure when the vacuum is released. Primarily used historically in Britain and in countries influenced by British practice. Now largely superseded by the air brake.
Valve gear The linkage mechanism that operates the valve for a driving cylinder, to alternately admit steam to the cylinder and then exhaust it when the piston's stroke is nearly complete
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Wagon Top Boiler Also see Extended Wagon Top Boiler.
A boiler having the steam dome over the firebox and a sloping course from in front of the firebox to the cylindrical shell.
Waist (of Boiler) Also see Waist Sheet.
That part of the boiler shell immediately in front of the firebox.
Waist Brace Also see Expansion Knee.
A vertical steel plate riveted to the waist sheet crosstie and to an angle piece which is also fastened to the waist of a boiler to secure that part to the frame, and at the same time allow a small amount of expansion and contraction.
Waist Brace Angle A steel strip riveted to the shell of a boiler and having its edge bent to a right angle, and to which a plate or strut is fastened for the purpose of bracing the waist of a boiler to the frames.
Waist Sheet The plate forming that portion of a boiler directly ahead of the outside firebox sheet. It is sometimes made cylindrical in shape and sometimes tapering or conical.
Waist Sheet Crosstie A transverse brace or casting binding the frames together in front of the firebox and usually having a plate fastened to it and to the boiler to support the waist of the boiler at this point.
Waist Sheet Wearing Plate A steel strip riveted to the waist sheet of a boiler and to the angle of the waist sheet brace or expansion plate, to reinforce the bearing or support of the boiler at this point.
Walschaerts Valve Gear Also see Valve Gear.
A valve gear socalled from its inventor, largely in use in Europe and being rapidly introduced in the United States. It has no eccentric and is entirely outside of the frames.
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Washer A plate of metal or other material, usually annular, which is placed under a nut or bolt head to give it a better bearing. Two or more washers are sometimes combined and called washer plates, strap washers, double or twin washers, triple washers, etc. They are sometimes made beveled or triangular for a rod or bolt, which is oblique, with reference to the bearing surface. A socket washer or Hush washer is one provided with a recess for the bolt head, so as to leave it Hush with the adjoining parts. Cut or wrought washers are those stamped out of rolled iron plates. Cast washers are made from cast iron. Both kinds are used.
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Wash-out Plug A short, solid metal cylinder with a screw thread cut on the outside and a square or hexagonal head for convenience in applying a wrench, screwed into the water leg and above the crown sheet of a locomotive boiler. Wash-out plugs are usually located near the bottom of a water leg, a little above the mud ring, or above the crown sheet, and from four to eight are provided in order to allow mud to be thoroughly washed out.
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Waste The spoiled bobbins of cotton or woolen mills, used for wiping machinery and for Journal Packing, which sec.
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Waste Cock or Waste Valve An arrangement attached to and forming part of the body of an injector, consisting of a valve provided with a handle or lever. If this valve is left open when the steam and water supply valves to the injector are also open, steam passes back through the injector feetf pipe and may thus be used to prevent the water in the tender tank from freezing.
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Water A liquid composed of two gases, hydrogen and oxygen in the proportion of 8 to 1 by weight, colorless and transparent in the pure state. It is never obtained pure for locomotive use, always holding in solution a quantity of solid matter such as sulphates and carbonates of lime and magnesia that may form objectionable quantities of scale in a boiler. See Steam. Boilers fed with water that forms much scale must be washed out at frequent intervals; in some districts even at the completion of every trip. The best practice at present is to install water-treating plants at water stations, by means of which the scale forming matters in the water are chemically treated and removed before the water reaches the locomotives.
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Water Brake An arrangement, consisting of a set of pipes and valves connected to a locomotive boiler below the water line, for admitting water to the cylinders to retard the motion of the pistons and thus act as a brake on the locomotive, which is run with the reverse lever back of the center. It is used on lines having long, steep grades.
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Water Brake Valve A globe valve with its connecting pipe screwed in the boiler back head below the water line, for operating the water brake.
Water Cooler A tank or vessel for carrying drinking water which is usually cooled with ice. The sides are generally made double, and the space between Tilled with some non-conducting substance. When used on locomotives they are commonly located on the tender tank.
Water column (railroad) Also Standpipe A device used for delivering a large volume of water into the tank or tender of a steam locomotive.
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Water gauge or water glass A device to enable an engineman or fireman to observe the height of water in a locomotive boiler. It consists of two brass fittings screwed into the back head, one above the other, and connected by a stout glass tube which communicates, through the fittings, with the water and steam in the boiler. The water level showing in the glass tube must be the same as that inside the boiler.
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Water Gage Casing A covering or protector around a water gage glass. The casing prevents the glass from flying about in case of breakage.
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Water Gage Cock One of two brass fittings screwed into a locomotive boiler head, having a valve or plug cock for opening or closing communication between the boiler and the water gage glass. The end of the glass tube rests in an opening in the gage cock and is held in place by a coupling nut which is screwed down on an elastic washer surrounding the tube.
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Water Gage Cock Extension A piece of pipe leading from an opening in a boiler to one of the water gage cocks.
Water Gage Cock Gland A neck or extension formed on a water gage cock to receive the end of the glass tube, or the stem of the cock or plug.
Water Gage Nut A hexagonal brass nut surrounding a water gage glass near the end and holding an elastic washer so as to prevent leakage of water or steam around it.
Water Grate See Grate and Water Pull Bar Grate.
Water Leg The space between the inner and outer sheets of a firebox. At the bottom, where the two sheets are riveted to the mud ring, the width of the water leg is from three to five inches, increasing more or less rapidly, according to the design and size of the firebox.
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Water Pull Bar Grate Also see Grate A grate designed for burning anthracite coal, consisting of tubes running longitudinally through the bottom of the firebox and communicating with the front and back water legs, usually screwed into the tube sheet and expanded into the back sheet, a copper ferrule being used to insure a tight joint. Between the water tubes, iron pull bars, enclosed in short tubes, pass completely through the back water leg and project a snort distance outside the back head. These outer ends have slots in them, into which a rod can be put, and the bars pulled out for the purpose of dumping or cleaning the fire. Midway of the length of tfye firebox is a bearer or bridge that supports both the tubes and bars that form the grate. A similar bearer is placed at the front end of the box to hold the bars.
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Water Scoop A device for putting water in a locomotive tender, while it is in motion, from a trough laid between the rails, and sometimes called a track tank. It consists of a cast-iron or steel plate conduit of rectangular cross section, about 8 x 12 inhes, passing up through the tender tank and turned over at the top so as to discharge the water downward. The lower end, underneath the tender frame, is fitted with a scoop or dipper that can be lowered into the trough by a lever worked by hand, or by compressed air applied in a cylinder whose piston rod is connected to the mechanism for raising and lowering the scoop. Owing to its inertia, the water is forced up through the siphon pipe into the tender tank when the scoop moves through the trough at a speed of from 25 to 40 miles per hour.
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Water Scoop Air Cylinder A small cast-iron cylinder fastened underneath a tender for operating the water scoop. Compressed air is conveyed to it from the main air reservoir through a valve, thus moving the piston. The piston rod is connected to the levers that lower the dipper into the water trough between the rails. To insure the rapid raising of the dipper, when the locomotive reaches the end of the track tank, a coil spring is fastened to the scoop mechanism.
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Water Scoop Air Cylinder Piston A metal disk fitted inside a water scoop air cylinder and having attached to it a rod connected to the operating mechanism of the scoop.
Water Scoop Arm A bent lever or bell crank, to one end of which the air cylinder piston rod is attached, while to the other the links for raising and lowering the dipper are bolted.
Water Scoop Body That portion of a water scoop shaped like the frustum of a pyramid that is lowered into the track trough and to the lower end of which the dipper or nozzle is attached. It is usually made of cast iron.
Water Scoop Cylinder Connecting Rod A short rod attached to the end of the piston rod of a water scoop cylinder, and with a coil spring attached to the end. This spring raises the scoop out of the water when the end of the track tank is reached and holds it in that position.
Water Scoop Cylinder Piston Rod A wrought-iron or cast-steel rod attached to the piston of the air cylinder at one end, and to the bell crank for operating the water scoop at the other.
Water Scoop Cylinder Support A metal carrier secured underneath a tender frame for the purpose of holding the water scoop air cylinder, which is bolted to it.
Water Scoop Delivery Pipe The square pipe which joins the scoop with the siphon pipe in the tender tank.
Water Scoop Delivery Pipe Brace A rod secured to the tender frame center sills to stiffen the delivery pipe.
Water Scoop Delivery Pipe Bracket A cast-iron support riveted on to the end of the delivery pipe and having a hole or bearing in its outer end for one of the trunnions of the water scoop.
Water Scoop Dipper A hinged extension or hood at the end of a water scoop. That portion of the scoop that goes into the water.
Water Scoop Dipper Adjusting Bracket A support or holder fastened underneath a tender to limit the movement of the dipper arm and thus prevent the scoop from hanging too low and striking the ties or ballast.
Water Scoop Dipper Lifting Link A short metal bar attached to the bell crank or arm of the scoop-lifting mechanism and to the dipper, for raising it out of the water.
Water Scoop End Support A metal rod fastened to either side of the outer end of a water scoop, next to the dipper, a.nd to the under side of the tender frame.
Water Scoop Hanger The bracket or frame fastened underneath a tender frame to support a water scoop and the mechanism for raising and lowering it.
Water Scoop Lifter One of two links or bars attached to a water scoop at one end and to the water scoop arm at the other.
Water Scoop Locking Cylinder A small air cylinder whose function is to hold the water scoop in place and prevent it from dropping down on the track.
Water Scoop Neck The upper end of a water scoop; that portion that joins the water scoop pipe directly under the tender tank.
Water Scoop Operating Lever The arm or lever by which the water scoop is raised or lowered by hand. It extends up through the tender deck alongside the tank leg.
Water Scoop Operating Lever Connecting Rod A long piece of pipe or solid rod, attached to the water scoop operating lever at one end and the scoop lifting arm at the other.
Water Scoop Operating Lever Fulcrum A cast iron support fastened on a tender frame and holding a bolt or pin that passes through the water scoop operating lever.
Water Scoop Pipe The cast iron or steel plate conduit passing up through a tender for conveying the water forced into the scoop to the top of the tank.
Water Scoop Pneumatic Valve The valve for admitting compressed air to a water scoop cylinder.
Water Scoop Rod The rod connecting the water scoop lever with the arm or bell crank.
Water Scoop Shaft A pivot fastened at right angles to a water scoop arm and resting in bearings in supports or hangers attached to the tender frame by bolts or rivets.
Water Scoop Shaft Bracket A carrier attached to a tender frame and holding the ends of the water scoop shaft.
Water Scoop Side Brace A rod fastened on either side of a water scoop and to the side sill of a tender to give transverse stiffness to the scoop.
Water Scoop Spring The spring used to assist in lowering or raising a water scoop.
Water Scoop Spring Rod A shaft attached to a water scoop operating mechanism and to the coil spring which forms a part of it.
Water Space That part of a locomotive boiler that is filled with water, in contrast with the part normally occupied by steam. A Water Leg, which see, is also called a water space.
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Water Table A device for improving the combustion of fuel in a locomotive firebox. The form invented by William Buchanan, of the N. Y. C. & H. R. R. R., consists of two flat, parallel plates, extending diagonally upward from the tube sheet to the back sheet of the firebox. These plates are about 4 Ms inches apart, are strengthened with staybolts in the same manner as are the inner and outer firebox sheets, and form an inclined water leg connecting the front and back legs of the firebox. A hole 18 or 20 inches in diameter is made through the center of the water table for the passage of the products of combustion to the upper part of the firebox on their way to the tubes. Not extensively used.
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Water Tube A pipe containing water and surrounded with hot gases in contrast to a lire tube surrounded by water and having hot gases passing through it. See below.
Water Tube Boiler A boiler in which water circulates through tubes surrounded by hot gases, the products of combustion in the firebox. Not extensively used for locomotives although tried on the London & South Western.
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Watt An electrical unit expressing the rate at which energy is transformed, or work done. It is used to express the product of the voltage of an electric circuit and the current or amperage. As it is a very small unit, a multiple of it, 1,000 times as large, and called a kilowatt, is commonly used. One kilowatt is about 1.34 horsepower.
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Way car An alternate term for a caboose used by the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, Chicago and North Western Railway, and Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway.
Wayobjects or wayside objects Trackside objects or any structures at the wayside or beside the rail tracks usually within the right-of-way, such as railway signals, third rails, overhead lines and their supports, traction current pylons, utility poles, electrification systems, platforms, or boom barriers at level crossings.
Wedge 1. A term in quite general use for a Journal Bearing Key, which see.
2. A Pedestal Wedge, which see, is a tapering liner for the jaws of a pedestal to adjust the position of the driving box and take up wear.
Wedge Bolt A bolt passing through the pedestal cap of a driving or trailing wheel for adjusting the pedestal wedge.
Weigh Shaft (British) See Reverse Shaft.
Weigh Shaft Balance Weight (British) A large mass of cast iron used on British locomotives in place of a reverse shaft spring.
Weigh Shaft Lever (British) See Reverse Shaft Arm.
Well tank A type of tank locomotive. The water tank is mounted between the frame plates, beneath the cab and boiler.
Well wagon (UIC) A flat wagon with a depressed centre used for carrying extra tall loads.
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Wheel The rolling component typically pressed onto an axle and mounted on a rail car or locomotive truck or bogie. Wheels are cast or forged (wrought) and are heat treated to have a specific hardness. New wheels are trued to a specific profile before being pressed onto an axle. All wheel profiles must be periodically monitored to insure proper wheel to rail interface. Improperly trued wheels increase rolling resistance, reduce energy efficiency and may create unsafe operation. A railroad wheel typically consists of two main parts: the wheel itself, and the tire around the outside. A railway tire is itself steel, and is typically heated and pressed onto the wheel, where it remains firmly as it shrinks and cools.
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Wheel climb Also Adhesion railway.
The process of a wheel climbing up and often off the inside or gauge side of the rail. It is a major source of derailments. Wheel climb is more likely to occur in curves with wheels whose flanges are worn or have improper angles.
Wheel flange Also Adhesion railway.
The inner section of a wheel that rides between the two rails. The angle between the wheel tread and flange is often specific to the rail to prevent wheel climb and possible derailments. The wheel flange is part of the wheel tire.
Wheel–rail interface The on-contact interaction between wheels and rails. The term is used in connection with the design and management of their interaction.
Wheel slip The loss of traction due to a slippery rail or wheel. Wheel slip was common with steam engines as they started to move due to the excessive torque often generated at low speed. Steam engines carried sand dispensing gear to increase traction at the start of motion.
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Wheeltapper An historical railway occupation; people employed to tap train wheels with hammers and listen to the sound made to determine the integrity of the wheel; cracked wheels, like cracked bells, do not sound the same as their intact counterparts. The job was associated with the steam age, but they still operate in some eastern European countries. Modern planned maintenance procedures have mostly obviated the need for the wheel-tapper.
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Wheel tread Also Adhesion railway.
The slightly conical section (often with a 1 in 20 slope) of a railroad wheel that is the primary contact point with the rail.
Westinghouse Air Brake.
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A system of continuous brakes invented and patented (the first patent in 1869) by Mr. George Westinghouse, which is operated by compressed air. The air is compressed, by a steam air pump on the locomotive or an electric motor compressor on the car. and is stored up in a tank called the main reservoir on the engine or tender. By the original form of brake the compressed air was conveyed from the tank by pipes connected together between the cars by flexible brake hose to brake cylinders under each car. by means of which the pressure of the air was communicated to the brake levers, and thence to the brake shoes. A later and improved form is the Westinghouse automatic air brake, commonly called simply Westinghouse brake, which is now in universal use. At the present time the Westinghouse brake, unless otherwise specified, is always understood to mean the automatic air brake. The change made from the original form of the Westinghouse air brake in order to make it automatic was to carry a full pressure of air at all times in the brake pipes and cause the brakes to be applied by a reduction of this pressure instead of by the admission of pressure, so that the breaking apart of the train or a reduction of pressure by escape of air at any point on the brake pipe would apply the brakes to the whole train at once. A further advantage was that the action of the brakes was made quicker by saving the appreciable interval of time required for the compressed air to flow from a single reservoir at one end of the train in sufficient quantities to fill all the brake cylinders. An auxiliary reservoir is placed under each car, containing air at the same pressure as in the brake pipes. An ingenious valve called the triple valve connects the brake pipe, auxiliary reservoir and brake cylinder together in such manner that any reduction of pressure in the brake pipe opens a passage for the air from the auxiliary reservoir to the brake cylinder, applying the brakes, and closes the connection between brake pipe and reservoir. To release the brakes, the pressure in the brake pipes is restored, when the triple valve closes the connection between the auxiliary reservoir and brake cylinder and opens one between the brake cylinder and the outer air and between the auxiliary reservoir and the brake pipe. In order that the train brakes may be applied from any car, each car is fitted with a valve called the conductor's valve, connected to the brake pipe so that the compressed air therein can be permitted to escape by opening the valve.
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Westinghouse E-T Locomotive Brake Equipment (Air Brake) A new arrangement of air brake apparatus as applied to a locomotive. It differs from previous locomotive brake schedules principally in that the details are centralized and simplified so as to reduce the total number required, occupy less space, and give the engineman a mere certain and flexible control of the locomotive brakes. It has all the good features of any of the older equipment, besides a number of new ones, viz., uniform brake cylinder pressure on engine and tender, and a pressure-maintaining feature by which the brake-cylinder pressure is automatically held to that resulting from the brake application as long as such application lasts. See Distributing Valve.
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Westinghouse Friction Draft Gear A form of draft gear in which the forces are absorbed and dissipated by friction. The friction device is encased in a malleable iron cylinder open at the front end. The front follower bears against a preliminary spring, the other end of which bears against the center wedge of the shape of the frustum of an octagonal pyramid. Surrounding the wedge are four pairs of segmental carriers having one rib each which lies in a groove in the cylinder. The other grooves in the cylinder are filled by friction strips resting on the carriers. These strips are of wrought iron and have lugs formed on them which engage in corresponding cavities in the carriers so that the friction strips must move with the carriers. The function of the preliminary spring is to absorb the light shocks without bringing into action the friction parts. The main release spring, placed back of the carriers, forces the carriers to their normal position when the pressure is removed and also adds to the capacity of the device. When the follower plates are moved toward each other, the preliminary spring is compressed until its capacity of 20,000 pounds is exceeded, when the follower bears against the release pin and forces it forward, relieving the wedge from the pressure of the auxiliary release spring, thereby allowing the compression of the preliminary and auxiliary preliminary springs to force the wedge forward and press the segmental carriers and friction strips firmly into the cylinder grooves. The follower then strikes and forces the segmental carriers in, producing friction between the friction strips and the grooves. The complete movement gives a resistance of 100,000 pounds. In releasing, the preliminary spring is gradually restored, and the auxiliary release spring then forces the wedge out, while the release spring returns the friction strips and carriers, giving a complete release. Owing to the varying width of the slots and lugs on the friction strips and carriers the strips are released four at a time through successive small distances. The operations of buffing and pulling are exactly the same, except that the load comes on the front or rear follower first, as the case may be. See Draft Gear.
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Westinghouse SWA-SWB Locomotive Brake Equipment See Combined Automatic and Straight-Air Locomotive Brake.
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Westinghouse Traction Brake The adaptation of the Westinghouse air brake equipments to electrically propelled cars or trains. The changed conditions of motive power and method of operating such cars or trains have necessitated various changes in the details of the equipments, while the general principles of the Westinghouse straight-air and automatic brakes, which are the foundation of all known air brake equipments, remains the same. A motor-driven air compressor furnishes the compressed air; an electric pump governor controls the operation of the same; the brake and triple valves are of different design to accord with the conditions for which they are required. Otherwise the description of the Westinghouse Air Brake, which see, covers the traction brake also.
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Westinghouse Train Air Signal Apparatus.
Also see Train Air Signal Apparatus.
A device for utilizing the supply of compressed air required for operating the Westinghouse brakes to transmit signals to the engine or motorman's cab instead of using the ordinary bell cord.
Westinghouse Unit Switch System of Control Also see Control System.
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A system of control for railway and other motors by means of low potential train line circuits taken from a storage battery under the car which operate electro-magnets controlling pneumatic valves and cylinders operating the main controller circuits under each car by air taken from the brake pipe. The main controller under each car consists of a group of electro-pneumatic switches which give the desired combinations to the motor circuits. A reverse switch and auxiliary resistance are essential parts of the apparatus'under each car. The apparatus is applicable for cither direct current or alternating current motors. Also called Westinghouse electro-pneumatic system of control.
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Wheel 1. A circular frame or solid piece of wood or metal which revolves on an axis.
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A circular frame or disk, revolving on an axle, serving to support a moving vehicle. Engine truck wheels are sometimes made of chilled cast iron, but more commonly have a cast iron or cast steel center with a steel tire fastened on, as are also tender truck wheels. See Wheel Center.' Driving wheels and trailing wheels are always made with a spoke center of cast iron or cast steel with a steel tire shrunk on. In addition to shrinkage, driving wheel tires are held on by bolts through the rim and by retaining rings also held by bolts.. {{{content}}} Wheels (Specification for Cast Iron, A. R. M. M. Recommended Practice). At the convention of 1888 the following specifications and tests for castiron wheels were adopted as standard. In 1801 these were changed to Recommendations. The specifications and tests are as follows: 1. The cliills in which the wheels of any one wheelmakcr are cast shall be of equal diameters, and the same chill must not vary at different points more than one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter. 2. There shall not be a variation of more than one-half inch in the circumference of any given number of wheels of the same nominal diameter, furnished by any one maker, and the same wheel must not vary more than one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter. The body of the wheel must be smooth and free from slag or blow holes. The tread must be free from deep and irregular wrinkles, slag, chill cracks and sweat or beads in the throat which are one-eighth of an inch or over in diameter, or which occur in clusters of more than six inches in length. 3. The wheels broken must show clean, gray iron in the plates; the depth of pure white iron must not exceed seven-eighths of an inch or be less than three-eighths of an inch in the middle of the tread, and shall not be less than three-sixteenths of an inch in the throat. The depth of the white iron shall not vary more than one-fourth of an inch around the tread on the rail line in the same wheel. 4. Wheels shall not vary from the specified weight more than two per cent. 5. The flange shall not vary in the same wheel more than three thirty-seconds of an inch from its mean thickness. 6. The single plate part of a 33-inch wheel, known as the Washburn pattern, shall not be less than five-eighths of an inch in thickness in a wheel weighing from 550 to 575 pounds, and not less than three-fourths of an inch in thickness in a wheel weighing from 575 to 600 pounds.
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Wheel Base The horizontal distance between centers ©f the first and last axles of a locomotive or tender. It is usual, in stating locomotive dimensions, to give the rigid wheel base, the truck wheel base and the total wheel base.
Wheel Bore The hole through the hub or central part of a wheel in which an axle is fitted. Also called axle seat.
Wheel Boss (British).
American term hub. The center of the wheel, which is bored out to receive the axle.
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Wheel Center The portion of a wheel inside of the tire and between it and the hub or boss. The centers of engine and tender truck wheels are sometimes in one piece and sometimes made up of two parts, the hub or boss, and the # central filling piece. Face plates, front and back, are also used. The term is seldom applied to chilled, cast or rolled steel wheels. Driving and trailing wheel centers are made of cast iron or cast steel. In Great Kritain, wheel centers are frequently made of wrought iron.
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Wheel Cover A strip of thin steel plate, curved to a radius slightly greater than that of a wheel, to prevent mud and oil being spattered over the locomotive. Wheel covers are usually bolted to the engine truck frame for the truck wheels, and the under side of the running board for the driving wheels. British, splasher.
Wheel Cover Block A small piece of metal fastened to a running board or engine truck frame for the attachment of a wheel cover.
Wheel Cover Bracket A small cast iron post or holder, for the attachment of a wheel cover.
Wheel Cover Edge A heading or molding formed on the outer edge of a wheel cover.
Wheel Fit That part of a driving or truck wheel that is forced on an axle or crank pin.
Wheel Flange The projecting edge or rim on the periphery of a car wheel for keeping it on the rail.
Wheel Hub Also see Hub.
The center of a wheel surrounding the axle on which it is mounted. British, boss.
Wheel Hub Liner A brass or bronze disk secured to the inside hub of a wheel to form a wearing surface between the hub and the outside face of the box. Such liners are used on engine truck wheels, driving and trailing wheels.
Wheel Key A piece of steel slightly tapered, driven into a slot or keyway cut longitudinally in the wheel seat of a driving axle and a corresponding slot in the bore through a driving wheel hub to key or secure the wheel to the axle.
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Wheel Plates That part of a cast iron engine truck or tender truck wheel which connects the rim and the hub. It occupies the place and fulfils the same purpose as the spokes in an open or spoke wheel. On steel-tired wheels the plates connecting the tire and hub, and bolted or fastened to each, are called wheel plates. Distinguished as front and back face plates.
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Wheel Press (Hydraulic) A hydraulic press for forcing locomotive driving wheels on and off their axles. They are fitted with a pressure gage which is usually graduated for total tons pressure and for pounds per square inch on the rams. They are made with capacities up to 400 tons pressure.
Wheel Ribs (Cast Iron Wheels) More commonly, brackets. Projections cast usually on the inner side of plate car wheels to strengthen them. They are placed in a radial position and are often curved so as to permit the wheel to contract when it cools.
Wheel Rim Filling Piece A flat steel strip inserted in one of the radial spaces left to allow for shrinkage in casting in the rim of a driving wheel center.
Wheel Seat That portion of an axle that is forced into a driving wheel or truck wheel.
W:
Wheel Tread The exterior cylindrical surface of a wheel which bears on the rails. The usual width of wheel tread is about 4 inches, measured from outside of wheel tread to the throat or inside of flange. The standard width from outside of wheel tread to inside face of flange, i. e.. including the entire thickness of flange, is 5!£ inches. For driving wheels the width varies from to 7 inches.
W:
Wheel Web That portion of a cast iron truck wheel center between the huh and the rim.
Whistle Train whistles are used as a safety warning and also by the engineer to communicate to other railroad workers. See train whistle for a description of the whistle code used to communicate. Also a nickname for an air horn on a diesel locomotive. Steam engine whistles were historically known as chimes in the US during the 19th century.
Whistle Bell A cylindrical brass chamber with flat or hemispherical top, for producing a sound by steam blown against the edge. It is screwed on a stem directly over the whistle bowl.
Whistle Bowl A hemispherical brass cup with a cylindrical extension below it containing a valve for admitting steam. The bowl has a disk over it that docs not come quite to the edge, thus leaving an annular opening through which the steam escapes, and in the center of which the steam passing up through the bell is secured.
Whistle Crank A short metal arm attached to the whistle lever in the cab for imparting motion to the lever or bar that opens the whistle valve.
Whistle Crank Fulcrum A cast-iron bracket fastened in the cab of a locomotive to form a bearing for the whistle shaft.
Whistle Extension The cylindrical pipe below the bowl of a whistle, containing the whistle valve.
Whistle Lever An arm or bar in the cab of a locomotive for operating the whistle valve. It is attached to a crank that moves the lever on the whistle through the medium of a link or bar.
Whistle Lever Fulcrum A small bracket attached to a whistle extension to hold the pin on which the whistle lever is pivoted.
Whistle Lever Rod A link or bar connecting the whistle lever on the whistle with the operating lever in the cab.
Whistle Nut A square or hexagonal brass nut screwed on the upper end of a whistle stem to secure the whistle bell in place, and usually surmounted by an acorn-shaped top called the whistle ornament.
Whistle post Also see Whistle Stem.
An advance warning to the engineer of an upcoming grade crossing. It is the point at which the engineer should begin sounding the whistle or horn.
Whistle Reservoir (Train Air Signal.) A small steel reservoir sometimes installed for storing air to be used by an air whistle on electric locomotives.
Whistle Shaft A short metal rod in the cab, supported by a hanger or fulcrum at each end, and having the whistle lever and whistle crank attached to it.
Whistle Stem A steel or malleable iron standard, screwed in the center of a whistle bowl, and supporting the whistle bell. The bell has a hole through the top, tapped with a thread to fit that cut on the upper end of the whistle stem, which allows the height of the bell above the bowl to be adjusted.
Whistle Valve A disk with a shank or stem attached, fitting in an opening in the whistle extension for admitting steam to the whistle to cause it to sound. It is operated by a set of levers in the cab.
W:
Whyte notation A system of describing steam locomotive wheel arrangements (e.g. 4-6-4, 2-10-2). The first number indicates the number of "pilot" wheels that help lead the engine into turns. The second is the number of coupled wheels ("drivers"). Third are the trailing idler wheels, usually to provide support to larger fireboxes. Articulated locomotives are similarly described. For example, a Union Pacific "Big Boy" would be described as a 4-8-8-4, wherein the pilot has four wheels, followed by two sets of drivers, eight wheels per set, and a four-wheel trailing bogie under the firebox. The numbers include the wheels on both sides of the engine, so a 2-8-2 engine would have one idler, four drivers, and a final idler on each side of the engine.
W:
Wide Firebox Boiler A boiler with a wide, shallow firebox resting on the frames and extending out beyond them at the sides. The Wootten Firebox, which see, is a wide firebox for burning anthracite coal.
Wigwag A largely superseded Level or grade crossing warning signal that consists of a swinging disc facing road traffic, with a red light in the centre. The disc normally hangs straight down, but an approaching train sets it swinging from side to side, the red light illuminates or flashes, and a bell rings.
Window "An opening in the wall of a building or cab for the admission of light and of air when necessary. This opening has a frame on the sides, in winch are set movable sashes containing panes of glass." – Webster. Hence the window itself, especially in compound words, is often termed simply the sash.
W:
Window Glass Panes of glass used for windows. They are either plate or rolled glass, made by pouring the molten glass onto a table having the height of the desired thickness of the plate, and then passing a roller over the top; or blown, or common window glass, the latter being by far the cheapest and most widely used, but of very much inferior quality. It is made by blowing the glass into a largo bulb, which is then slit open while still hot and flattened out.
W:
Window Sill A horizontal piece of wood or metal under a window, on which the cab sashes rest when down.
Working water, foaming, or priming The condition of a steam locomotive drawing water through its throttle valve, cylinders, and smokestack, often causing damage to the cylinders or running gear.
Wootten Firebox A locomotive firebox, very wide and shallow and having a curved crown sheet of large radius, used for anthracite coal burning locomotives which require a large grate area.
Worn Flat (Car Wheels) Irregular wear under fair usage, due to unequal hardness of the tread of the wheel, and to be carefully distinguished from slid flat, which is a defect produced by the slipping of the wheels from excessive brake pressure.
Wrecking Chain A heavy steel chain, carried on a locomotive for use in emergencies.
Wrecking Frog A frog-like device with one end elevated to form an inclined plane by which derailed trucks can be replaced upon the track by pulling the car, tender, or engine in the directio nof its length.
Wrench 1. A contrivance for screwing and unscrewing a nut.
2. A socket wrench is one having a cavity to receive a square or hexagonal end. The wrenches for the Westinghouse brake are packing nut and cap screw wrenches, and the discharge valve seat wrench.
3. A spanner is a wrench for use on round or many sided nuts, like hose couplings, to which lugs or slots are added for engaging with the wrench.
4. An alligator wrench for use on pipe or other cylindrical surfaces has immovable jaws, one serrated and the other smooth, inclined to each other at an acute angle.
5. A monkey wrench has smooth, parallel jaws, one of which is fastened to the handle or stem, while the other can be moved up to or away from it by a sleeve nut working on a thread cut on the stem.
Wrist Pin Sec Crosshead Wrist Pin.
Wrong-side failure A failure in a signaling system that leaves the system in a dangerous condition.
Wrought Iron Wheel A steel tired wheel, with a wrought iron center, either with spokes or with solid plates.
Wye (rail) A wye (like the 'Y' glyph) or triangular junction is a triangular joining arrangement of three rail lines with a railroad switch (set of points) at each corner connecting to each incoming line.
Y:
YardAn arrangement of tracks where rolling stock is switched to and from trains, freight is loaded or unloaded, and consists made up.
Yellow A color associated with a warning or a need to slow down when used by flags or signals, but the exact meaning varies from railway to railway.
Yoke Also Coupler Yoke, Bell Yoke, Guide Yoke, Valve Yoke.
A bar or bent piece connection two pieces of the same kind.
Yoke Knee See Guide Yoke Knee.
Yoke Sheet See Guide Yoke Sheet.
Z:
Zig zag or switchback A method of climbing and descending steep gradients, where shallow-gradient track reverses direction for a while, and then reverses again to continue in the original direction. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Comparison of cryptography libraries**
Comparison of cryptography libraries:
The tables below compare cryptography libraries that deal with cryptography algorithms and have API function calls to each of the supported features.
FIPS 140:
This table denotes, if a cryptography library provides the technical requisites for FIPS 140, and the status of their FIPS 140 certification (according to NIST's CMVP search, modules in process list and implementation under test list).
Key operations:
Key operations include key generation algorithms, key exchange agreements and public key cryptography standards.
Public key algorithms Elliptic-curve cryptography (ECC) support Public key cryptography standards
Hash functions:
Comparison of supported cryptographic hash functions. Here hash functions are defined as taking an arbitrary length message and producing a fixed size output that is virtually impossible to use for recreating the original message.
MAC algorithms:
Comparison of implementations of message authentication code (MAC) algorithms. A MAC is a short piece of information used to authenticate a message—in other words, to confirm that the message came from the stated sender (its authenticity) and has not been changed in transit (its integrity).
Block ciphers:
Table compares implementations of block ciphers. Block ciphers are defined as being deterministic and operating on a set number of bits (termed a block) using a symmetric key. Each block cipher can be broken up into the possible key sizes and block cipher modes it can be run with.
Block cipher algorithms Cipher modes
Stream ciphers:
The table below shows the support of various stream ciphers. Stream ciphers are defined as using plain text digits that are combined with a pseudorandom cipher digit stream. Stream ciphers are typically faster than block ciphers and may have lower hardware complexity, but may be more susceptible to attacks.
Hardware-assisted support:
These tables compare the ability to utilize hardware enhanced cryptography. By using the assistance of specific hardware the library can achieve greater speeds and / or improved security than otherwise.
Smart card, SIM and HSM protocol support General purpose CPU / platform acceleration support | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Isotopes of flerovium**
Isotopes of flerovium:
Flerovium (114Fl) is a synthetic element, and thus a standard atomic weight cannot be given. Like all synthetic elements, it has no stable isotopes. The first isotope to be synthesized was 289Fl in 1999 (or possibly 1998). Flerovium has seven known isotopes, and possibly 2 nuclear isomers. The longest-lived isotope is 289Fl with a half-life of 1.9 seconds, but the unconfirmed 290Fl may have a longer half-life of 19 seconds.
List of isotopes:
It is theorized that 298Fl will have a relatively long half-life, as N = 184 is expected to correspond to a closed neutron shell.
Isotopes and nuclear properties:
Nucleosynthesis Target-projectile combinations leading to Z=114 compound nuclei The below table contains various combinations of targets and projectiles which could be used to form compound nuclei with an atomic number of 114.
Cold fusion This section deals with the synthesis of nuclei of flerovium by so-called "cold" fusion reactions. These are processes which create compound nuclei at low excitation energy (~10–20 MeV, hence "cold"), leading to a higher probability of survival from fission. The excited nucleus then decays to the ground state via the emission of one or two neutrons only.
208Pb(76Ge,xn)284−xFl The first attempt to synthesise flerovium in cold fusion reactions was performed at Grand accélérateur national d'ions lourds (GANIL), France in 2003. No atoms were detected, providing a yield limit of 1.2 pb. The team at RIKEN have indicated plans to study this reaction.
Isotopes and nuclear properties:
Hot fusion This section deals with the synthesis of nuclei of flerovium by so-called "hot" fusion reactions. These are processes which create compound nuclei at high excitation energy (~40–50 MeV, hence "hot"), leading to a reduced probability of survival from fission. The excited nucleus then decays to the ground state via the emission of 3–5 neutrons. Fusion reactions utilizing 48Ca nuclei usually produce compound nuclei with intermediate excitation energies (~30–35 MeV) and are sometimes referred to as "warm" fusion reactions. This leads, in part, to relatively high yields from these reactions.
Isotopes and nuclear properties:
248Cm(40Ar,xn)288-xFl One of the first attempts at synthesis of superheavy elements was performed by Albert Ghiorso et al. and Stan Thompson et al. in 1968 at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory using this reaction. No events attributable to superheavy nuclei were identified; this was expected as the compound nucleus 288Fl (with N = 174) falls ten neutrons short of the closed shell predicted at N = 184. This first unsuccessful synthesis attempt provided early indications of cross-section and half-life limits for superheavy nuclei producible in hot fusion reactions.
Isotopes and nuclear properties:
244Pu(48Ca,xn)292−xFl (x=2,3,4,5) The first experiments on the synthesis of flerovium were performed by the team in Dubna in November 1998. They were able to detect a single, long decay chain, assigned to 289Fl. The reaction was repeated in 1999 and a further two atoms of flerovium were detected. The products were assigned to 288Fl. The team further studied the reaction in 2002. During the measurement of the 3n, 4n, and 5n neutron evaporation excitation functions they were able to detect three atoms of 289Fl, twelve atoms of the new isotope 288Fl, and one atom of the new isotope 287Fl. Based on these results, the first atom to be detected was tentatively reassigned to 290Fl or 289mFl, whilst the two subsequent atoms were reassigned to 289Fl and therefore belong to the unofficial discovery experiment. In an attempt to study the chemistry of copernicium as the isotope 285Cn, this reaction was repeated in April 2007. Surprisingly, a PSI-FLNR directly detected two atoms of 288Fl forming the basis for the first chemical studies of flerovium.
Isotopes and nuclear properties:
In June 2008, the experiment was repeated in order to further assess the chemistry of the element using the 289Fl isotope. A single atom was detected seeming to confirm the noble-gas-like properties of the element.
During May–July 2009, the team at GSI studied this reaction for the first time, as a first step towards the synthesis of tennessine. The team were able to confirm the synthesis and decay data for 288Fl and 289Fl, producing nine atoms of the former isotope and four atoms of the latter.
Isotopes and nuclear properties:
242Pu(48Ca,xn)290−xFl (x=2,3,4,5) The team at Dubna first studied this reaction in March–April 1999 and detected two atoms of flerovium, assigned to 287Fl. The reaction was repeated in September 2003 in order to attempt to confirm the decay data for 287Fl and 283Cn since conflicting data for 283Cn had been collected (see copernicium). The Russian scientists were able to measure decay data for 288Fl, 287Fl and the new isotope 286Fl from the measurement of the 2n, 3n, and 4n excitation functions.In April 2006, a PSI-FLNR collaboration used the reaction to determine the first chemical properties of copernicium by producing 283Cn as an overshoot product. In a confirmatory experiment in April 2007, the team were able to detect 287Fl directly and therefore measure some initial data on the atomic chemical properties of flerovium.
Isotopes and nuclear properties:
The team at Berkeley, using the Berkeley gas-filled separator (BGS), continued their studies using newly acquired 242Pu targets by attempting the synthesis of flerovium in January 2009 using the above reaction. In September 2009, they reported that they had succeeded in detecting two atoms of flerovium, as 287Fl and 286Fl, confirming the decay properties reported at the FLNR, although the measured cross sections were slightly lower; however the statistics were of lower quality.In April 2009, the collaboration of Paul Scherrer Institute (PSI) and Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions (FLNR) of JINR carried out another study of the chemistry of flerovium using this reaction. A single atom of 283Cn was detected.
Isotopes and nuclear properties:
In December 2010, the team at the LBNL announced the synthesis of a single atom of the new isotope 285Fl with the consequent observation of 5 new isotopes of daughter elements.
Isotopes and nuclear properties:
239,240Pu(48Ca,xn)287,288−xFl (x=3 for 239Pu; x=3, 4 for 240Pu) The FLNR had plans to study light isotopes of flerovium, formed in the reaction between 239Pu or 240Pu and 48Ca: in particular, the decay products of 283Fl and 284Fl were expected to fill in the gap between the isotopes of the lighter superheavy elements formed by cold fusion with 208Pb and 209Bi targets and those formed by hot fusion with 48Ca projectiles. These reactions were studied in 2015. One new isotope was found in both the 240Pu(48Ca,4n) and 239Pu(48Ca,3n) reactions, the rapidly spontaneously fissioning 284Fl, giving a clear demarcation of the neutron-poor edge of the island of stability. Three atoms of 285Fl were also produced. The Dubna team repeated their investigation of the 240Pu+48Ca reaction in 2017, observing three new consistent decay chains of 285Fl, an additional decay chain from this nuclide that may pass through some isomeric states in its daughters, a chain that could be assigned to 287Fl (likely stemming from 242Pu impurities in the target), and some spontaneous fission events of which some could be from 284Fl, though other interpretations including side reactions involving the evaporation of charged particles are also possible.
Isotopes and nuclear properties:
As a decay product The isotopes of flerovium have also been observed in the decay chains of livermorium and oganesson.
Retracted isotopes 285Fl In the claimed synthesis of 293Og in 1999, the isotope 285Fl was identified as decaying by 11.35 MeV alpha emission with a half-life of 0.58 ms. The claim was retracted in 2001. This isotope was finally created in 2010 and its decay properties supported the fabrication of the previously published decay data.
Isotopes and nuclear properties:
Chronology of isotope discovery Fission of compound nuclei with an atomic number of 114 Several experiments have been performed between 2000 and 2004 at the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions in Dubna studying the fission characteristics of the compound nucleus 292Fl. The nuclear reaction used is 244Pu+48Ca. The results have revealed how nuclei such as this fission predominantly by expelling closed shell nuclei such as 132Sn (Z=50, N=82). It was also found that the yield for the fusion-fission pathway was similar between 48Ca and 58Fe projectiles, indicating a possible future use of 58Fe projectiles in superheavy element formation.
Isotopes and nuclear properties:
Nuclear isomerism 289Fl In the first claimed synthesis of flerovium, an isotope assigned as 289Fl decayed by emitting a 9.71 MeV alpha particle with a lifetime of 30 seconds. This activity was not observed in repetitions of the direct synthesis of this isotope. However, in a single case from the synthesis of 293Lv, a decay chain was measured starting with the emission of a 9.63 MeV alpha particle with a lifetime of 2.7 minutes. All subsequent decays were very similar to that observed from 289Fl, presuming that the parent decay was missed. This strongly suggests that the activity should be assigned to an isomeric level. The absence of the activity in recent experiments indicates that the yield of the isomer is ~20% compared to the supposed ground state and that the observation in the first experiment was a fortunate (or not as the case history indicates). Further research is required to resolve these issues.
Isotopes and nuclear properties:
It is possible that these decays are due to 290Fl, as the beam energies in these early experiments were set quite low, low enough to make the 2n channel plausible. This assignment necessitates the postulation of undetected electron capture to 290Nh, because it would otherwise be difficult to explain the long half-lives of the daughters of 290Fl to spontaneous fission if they are all even-even. This would suggest that the erstwhile isomeric 289mFl, 285mCn, 281mDs, and 277mHs are thus actually 290Nh (electron capture of 290Fl having been missed, as current detectors are not sensitive to this decay mode), 286Rg, 282Mt, and the spontaneously fissioning 278Bh, creating some of the most neutron-rich superheavy isotopes known to date: this fits well with the systematic trend of increasing half-life as neutrons are added to superheavy nuclei towards the beta-stability line, which this chain would then terminate very close to. The livermorium parent could then be assigned to 294Lv, which would have the highest neutron number (178) of all known nuclei, but all these assignments need further confirmation through experiments aimed at reaching the 2n channel in the 244Pu+48Ca and 248Cm+48Ca reactions.
Isotopes and nuclear properties:
287Fl In a manner similar to those for 289Fl, first experiments with a 242Pu target identified an isotope 287Fl decaying by emission of a 10.29 MeV alpha particle with a lifetime of 5.5 seconds. The daughter spontaneously fissioned with a lifetime in accord with the previous synthesis of 283Cn. Both these activities have not been observed since (see copernicium). However, the correlation suggests that the results are not random and are possible due to the formation of isomers whose yield is obviously dependent on production methods. Further research is required to unravel these discrepancies. It is also possible that this activity is due to the electron capture of a 287Fl residue and actually stems from 287Nh and its daughter 283Rg.
Isotopes and nuclear properties:
Yields of isotopes The tables below provide cross-sections and excitation energies for fusion reactions producing flerovium isotopes directly. Data in bold represent maxima derived from excitation function measurements. + represents an observed exit channel.
Cold fusion Hot fusion Theoretical calculations Evaporation residue cross sections The below table contains various targets-projectile combinations for which calculations have provided estimates for cross section yields from various neutron evaporation channels. The channel with the highest expected yield is given.
MD = multi-dimensional; DNS = Dinuclear system; σ = cross section Decay characteristics Theoretical estimation of the alpha decay half-lives of the isotopes of the flerovium supports the experimental data.
The fission-survived isotope 298Fl is predicted to have alpha decay half-life around 17 days.
Isotopes and nuclear properties:
In search for the island of stability: 298Fl According to macroscopic-microscopic (MM) theory, Z = 114 might be the next spherical magic number. In the region of Z = 114, MM theory indicates that N = 184 is the next spherical neutron magic number and puts forward the nucleus 298Fl as a strong candidate for the next spherical doubly magic nucleus, after 208Pb (Z = 82, N = 126). 298Fl is taken to be at the center of a hypothetical "island of stability" comprising longer-lived superheavy nuclei. However, other calculations using relativistic mean field (RMF) theory propose Z = 120, 122, and 126 as alternative proton magic numbers, depending upon the chosen set of parameters, and some entirely omit Z = 114 or N = 184. It is also possible that rather than a peak at a specific proton shell, there exists a plateau of proton shell effects from Z = 114–126.
Isotopes and nuclear properties:
The island of stability near 298Fl is predicted to enhance stability for its constituent nuclei, especially against spontaneous fission as a consequence of greater fission barrier heights near the shell closure. Due to the expected high fission barriers, any nucleus within this island of stability will exclusively decay by alpha emission, and as such, the nucleus with the longest half-life may be 298Fl; predictions for the half-life of this nucleus range from minutes to billions of years. It may be possible, however, that the longest living nucleus is not 298Fl, but rather 297Fl (with N = 183) has a longer half-life due to the unpaired neutron. Other calculations suggest that stability instead peaks in beta-stable isotopes of darmstadtium or copernicium in the vicinity of N = 184 (with half-lives of several hundred years), with flerovium at the upper limit of the stability region.
Isotopes and nuclear properties:
Evidence for Z=114 closed proton shell While evidence for closed neutron shells can be deemed directly from the systematic variation of Qα values for ground-state to ground-state transitions, evidence for closed proton shells comes from (partial) spontaneous fission half-lives. Such data can sometimes be difficult to extract due to low production rates and weak SF branching. In the case of Z=114, evidence for the effect of this proposed closed shell comes from the comparison between the nuclei pairings 282Cn (TSF1/2 = 0.8 ms) and 286Fl (TSF1/2 = 130 ms), and 284Cn (TSF = 97 ms) and 288Fl (TSF > 800 ms). Further evidence would come from the measurement of partial SF half-lives of nuclei with Z > 114, such as 290Lv and 292Og (both N = 174 isotones). The extraction of Z = 114 effects is complicated by the presence of a dominating N = 184 effect in this region.
Isotopes and nuclear properties:
Difficulty of synthesis of 298Fl The direct synthesis of the nucleus 298Fl by a fusion-evaporation pathway is impossible with current technology, as no combination of available projectiles and targets may be used to populate nuclei with enough neutrons to be within the island of stability, and radioactive beams (such as 44S) cannot be produced with sufficient intensities to make an experiment feasible.It has been suggested that such a neutron-rich isotope can be formed by the quasifission (partial fusion followed by fission) of a massive nucleus. Such nuclei tend to fission with the formation of isotopes close to the closed shells Z = 20/N = 20 (40Ca), Z = 50/N = 82 (132Sn) or Z = 82/N = 126 (208Pb/209Bi). Recently, it has been shown that the multi-nucleon transfer reactions in collisions of actinide nuclei (such as uranium and curium) might be used to synthesize the neutron-rich superheavy nuclei located at the island of stability, especially if there are strong shell effects in the region of Z = 114. If this is indeed possible, one such reaction might be: 23892U + 23892U → 298114Fl + 17870Yb | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**1941 Cleveland Indians season**
Player stats:
Batting Starters by position Note: Pos = Position; G = Games played; AB = At bats; H = Hits; Avg. = Batting average; HR = Home runs; RBI = Runs batted in Other batters Note: G = Games played; AB = At bats; H = Hits; Avg. = Batting average; HR = Home runs; RBI = Runs batted in Pitching Starting pitchers Note: G = Games pitched; IP = Innings pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; SO = Strikeouts Other pitchers Note: G = Games pitched; IP = Innings pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; SO = Strikeouts Relief pitchers Note: G = Games pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; SV = Saves; ERA = Earned run average; SO = Strikeouts
Awards and honors:
All-Star Game Lou Boudreau, Shortstop Bob Feller, Pitcher (starter) Jeff Heath, Outfielder (starter) Ken Keltner, Third baseman | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**N2a cell**
N2a cell:
N2a cells (also known as Neuro2a cells) are a fast-growing mouse neuroblastoma cell line.
Differentiation properties:
Originating from a mouse, the N2a cell line has a neuronal and amoeboid stem cell morphology, allowing it to differentiate in response to environmental factors. The differentiated cells have many properties of neurons, including neurofilaments. The differentiation of N2a cells is caused by activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular-signal regulated kinase (MAPK/ERK) and the phosphoinositide-3-kinase/protein kinase B (PI3K/Akt) signaling pathways. The cells, due to passaging since initial collection, can exhibit responses to toxins that differ from those of neuronal cells in a live organism. Synthesizing large amounts of microtubules, N2a cells are susceptible to viruses (such as herpes simplex and poliovirus) that can alter cell morphology and physiology.
Differentiation properties:
Factors that Affect Differentiation of N2a Cells Promoting Factors Emodin causes N2a differentiation and growth through activation of the PI3K/Akt pathway. It does so by activating Akt while inactivating glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β), an inhibitor of the Akt pathway. Emodin specifically causes phosphorylation of cAMP-responsive element binding protein (CREB), an important molecule in the differentiation of neurons.
β-Hydroxy-β-methylbutyrate (HMB) causes N2a growth through activation and phosphorylation of the PI3K/Akt and MAPK/ERK signaling pathways. HMB causes activation of mTOR, which is regulated by the Atk pathway, and expression of glucose transporters in N2a cells, leading to differentiation. It also increases the activity of MEF2, mainly MEF2C, in N2a cells.
α-lipoic acid (LA) mainly causes N2a differentiation through phosphorylation of the ERK pathway and the Akt pathway. Inhibition of only the ERK pathway will prevent LA-induced differentiation from occurring, while inhibition of the Akt pathway will not prevent LA-induced differentiation. LA causes differentiation through the production of reactive oxygen species which activate the ERK pathway.
Inhibitory Factors High density lipoproteins (HDL) inhibit differentiation of N2a cells that are differentiated through serum-withdrawal differentiation. HDL does so through inhibiting the function of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) by preventing EGFR phosphorylation. This prevents EGFR from causing activation of the Akt and ERK pathways.
Avermectin (AVM) derivatives abamectin (ABM) and doramectin (DOM) inhibit N2a differentiation by suppressing P-glycoprotein (P-gp) in N2a cells, a major contributor to N2a cell differentiation.
Research applications:
N2a cells are able to rapidly, reliably, and easily differentiate, making them effective for use in research applications relating to neurons and neuronal disorders. Serum withdrawal is a common method of inducing differentiation of N2a cells, involving removal of the serum that the cells are grown in to activate the signaling pathways governing differentiation. N2a cells have been used to study neurite outgrowth, neurotoxicity, Alzheimer's disease, asymmetric division of mammalian cell lines, adenoviral transduction, and the diagnosing of rabies. One specific research applications is the differentiation of N2a cells into dopamine neurons for potential use in treating Parkinson's Disease. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Smart Start, Inc.**
Smart Start, Inc.:
Smart Start, Inc. is an American manufacturer of alcohol-monitoring technology, including Ignition Interlock Devices and portable alcohol breath-test devices. It provides services and technologies that prevent intoxicated drivers from operating a vehicle. In almost all cases, these devices are installed by court order due to DUI or DWI violations.
History:
Smart Start Inc. was founded and incorporated in September 1992 in Dallas/Fort Worth by Bettye Rodgers and Jay D. Rodgers under the name “1A Smart Start, Inc.”On August 21, 2015, 1A Smart Start, Inc. was acquired by ABRY Partners, becoming 1A Smart Start, LLC. On Nov. 8, 2021, the Apollo Impact platform, managed by Apollo Global Management, acquired Global IID Holdco and its subsidiaries, including 1A Smart Start, LLC.Smart Start claims to have installed over 200,000 ignition interlock devices and reports that these devices have prevented over 7 million vehicle starts due to potential drivers being over the approved limit. The devices are in use in Canada, the United States, and Australia.
Devices:
In 1998, Smart Start began manufacturing National Highway Traffic Safety Association (NHTSA) certified Ignition Interlock Devices. In 2008, Smart Start became the first Ignition Interlock provider to offer a camera with its Ignition Interlock, allowing authorities to monitor alcohol testing via photo.Smart Start introduced its IN-HOM™ portable alcohol monitoring devices in 2009, rebranded as SmartMobile™. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Dominating set**
Dominating set:
In graph theory, a dominating set for a graph G is a subset D of its vertices, such that any vertex of G is either in D, or has a neighbor in D. The domination number γ(G) is the number of vertices in a smallest dominating set for G.
Dominating set:
The dominating set problem concerns testing whether γ(G) ≤ K for a given graph G and input K; it is a classical NP-complete decision problem in computational complexity theory. Therefore it is believed that there may be no efficient algorithm that can compute γ(G) for all graphs G. However, there are efficient approximation algorithms, as well as efficient exact algorithms for certain graph classes.
Dominating set:
Dominating sets are of practical interest in several areas. In wireless networking, dominating sets are used to find efficient routes within ad-hoc mobile networks. They have also been used in document summarization, and in designing secure systems for electrical grids.
Formal definition:
Given an undirected graph G = (V, E), a subset of vertices D⊆V is called a dominating set if for every vertex u∈V∖D , there is a vertex v∈D such that (u,v)∈E . Every graph has at least one dominating set: if D=V= the set of all vertices, then by definition D is a dominating set, since there is no vertex u∈V∖D . A more interesting challenge is to find small dominating sets. The domination number of G is defined as: := min is a dominating set of G}
Variants:
A connected dominating set is a dominating set that is also connected. If S is a connected dominating set, one can form a spanning tree of G in which S forms the set of non-leaf vertices of the tree; conversely, if T is any spanning tree in a graph with more than two vertices, the non-leaf vertices of T form a connected dominating set. Therefore, finding minimum connected dominating sets is equivalent to finding spanning trees with the maximum possible number of leaves.
Variants:
A total dominating set (or strongly-dominating set) is a set of vertices such that all vertices in the graph, including the vertices in the dominating set themselves, have a neighbor in the dominating set. That is: for every vertex u∈V , there is a vertex v∈D such that (u,v)∈E . Figure (c) above shows a dominating set that is a connected dominating set and a total dominating set; the examples in figures (a) and (b) are neither. In contrast to a simple dominating set, a total dominating set may not exist. For example, a graph with one or more vertices and no edges does not have a total dominating set. The strong domination number of G is defined as: := min is a strongly-dominating set of G} ; obviously, γstrong(G)≥γ(G) A dominating edge-set is a set of edges (vertex pairs) whose union is a dominating set; such a set may not exist (for example, a graph with one or more vertices and no edges does not have it). If it exists, then the union of all its edges is a strongly-dominating set. Therefore, the smallest size of an edge-dominating set is at least γstrong(G)/2 In contrast, an edge-dominating set is a set D of edges, such that every edge not in D is adjacent to at least one edge in D; such a set always exists (for example, the set of all edges is an edge-dominating set).
Variants:
A k-dominating set is a set of vertices such that each vertex not in the set has at least k neighbors in the set (a standard dominating set is a 1-dominating set). Similarly, a k-tuple dominating set is a set of vertices such that each vertex in the graph has at least k neighbors in the set (a total dominating set is a 1-tuple dominating set). An (1 + log n)-approximation of a minimum k-tuple dominating set can be found in polynomial time. Every graph admits a k-dominating set (for example, the set of all vertices); but only graphs with minimum degree k − 1 admit a k-tuple dominating set. However, even if the graph admits k-tuple dominating set, a minimum k-tuple dominating set can be nearly k times as large as a minimum k-dominating set for the same graph; An (1.7 + log Δ)-approximation of a minimum k-dominating set can be found in polynomial time as well.
Variants:
A star-dominating set is a subset D of V such that, for every vertex v in V, the star of v (the set of edges adjacent to v) intersects the star of some vertex in D. Clearly, if G has isolated vertices then it has no star-dominating sets (since the star of isolated vertices is empty). If G has no isolated vertices, then every dominating set is a star-dominating set and vice versa. The distinction between star-domination and usual domination is more substantial when their fractional variants are considered.A domatic partition is a partition of the vertices into disjoint dominating sets. The domatic number is the maximum size of a domatic partition.
Variants:
An eternal dominating set is a dynamic version of domination in which a vertex v in dominating set D is chosen and replaced with a neighbor u (u is not in D) such that the modified D is also a dominating set and this process can be repeated over any infinite sequence of choices of vertices v.
Dominating and independent sets:
Dominating sets are closely related to independent sets: an independent set is also a dominating set if and only if it is a maximal independent set, so any maximal independent set in a graph is necessarily also a minimal dominating set.
Domination by independent sets A dominating set may or may not be an independent set. For example, figures (a) and (b) above show independent dominating sets, while figure (c) illustrates a dominating set that is not an independent set.
The independent domination number i(G) of a graph G is the size of the smallest dominating set that is an independent set. Equivalently, it is the size of the smallest maximal independent set. The minimum in i(G) is taken over less elements (only the independent sets are considered), so γ(G) ≤ i(G) for all graphs G.
Dominating and independent sets:
The inequality can be strict - there are graphs G for which γ(G) < i(G). For example, let G be the double star graph consisting of vertices x1,…,xp,a,b,y1,…,yq , where p, q > 1. The edges of G are defined as follows: each xi is adjacent to a, a is adjacent to b, and b is adjacent to each yj. Then γ(G) = 2 since {a, b} is a smallest dominating set. If p ≤ q, then i(G) = p + 1 since {x1,…,xp,b} is a smallest dominating set that is also independent (it is a smallest maximal independent set).
Dominating and independent sets:
There are graph families in which γ(G) = i(G), that is, every minimum maximal independent set is a minimum dominating set. For example, γ(G) = i(G) if G is a claw-free graph.A graph G is called a domination-perfect graph if γ(H) = i(H) in every induced subgraph H of G. Since an induced subgraph of a claw-free graph is claw-free, it follows that every claw-free graphs is also domination-perfect.For any graph G, its line graph L(G) is claw-free, and hence a minimum maximal independent set in L(G) is also a minimum dominating set in L(G). An independent set in L(G) corresponds to a matching in G, and a dominating set in L(G) corresponds to an edge dominating set in G. Therefore a minimum maximal matching has the same size as a minimum edge dominating set.
Dominating and independent sets:
Domination of independent sets The independence domination number iγ(G) of a graph G is the maximum, over all independent sets A of G, of the smallest set dominating A. Dominating subsets of vertices requires potentially less vertices than dominating all vertices, so iγ(G) ≤ γ(G) for all graphs G.
Dominating and independent sets:
The inequality can be strict - there are graphs G for which iγ(G) < γ(G). For example, for some integer n, let G be a graph in which the vertices are the rows and columns of an n-by-n board, and two such vertices are connected if and only if they intersect. The only independent sets are sets of only rows or sets of only columns, and each of them can be dominated by a single vertex (a column or a row), so iγ(G) = 1. However, to dominate all vertices we need at least one row and one column, so γ(G) = 2. Moreover, the ratio between γ(G) / iγ(G) can be arbitrarily large. For example, if the vertices of G are all the subsets of squares of an n-by-n board, then still iγ(G) = 1, but γ(G) = n.The bi-independent domination number iγi(G) of a graph G is the maximum, over all independent sets A of G, of the smallest independent set dominating A. The following relations hold for any graph G:
History:
The domination problem was studied from the 1950s onwards, but the rate of research on domination significantly increased in the mid-1970s. In 1972, Richard Karp proved the set cover problem to be NP-complete. This had immediate implications for the dominating set problem, as there are straightforward vertex to set and edge to non-disjoint-intersection bijections between the two problems. This proved the dominating set problem to be NP-complete as well.
Algorithms and computational complexity:
The set cover problem is a well-known NP-hard problem – the decision version of set covering was one of Karp's 21 NP-complete problems. There exist a pair of polynomial-time L-reductions between the minimum dominating set problem and the set cover problem. These reductions (see below) show that an efficient algorithm for the minimum dominating set problem would provide an efficient algorithm for the set cover problem, and vice versa. Moreover, the reductions preserve the approximation ratio: for any α, a polynomial-time α-approximation algorithm for minimum dominating sets would provide a polynomial-time α-approximation algorithm for the set cover problem and vice versa. Both problems are in fact Log-APX-complete.The approximability of set covering is also well understood: a logarithmic approximation factor can be found by using a simple greedy algorithm, and finding a sublogarithmic approximation factor is NP-hard. More specifically, the greedy algorithm provides a factor 1 + log|V| approximation of a minimum dominating set, and no polynomial time algorithm can achieve an approximation factor better than c log|V| for some c > 0 unless P = NP.
Algorithms and computational complexity:
L-reductions The following two reductions show that the minimum dominating set problem and the set cover problem are equivalent under L-reductions: given an instance of one problem, we can construct an equivalent instance of the other problem.
Algorithms and computational complexity:
From dominating set to set covering Given a graph G = (V, E) with V = {1, 2, ..., n}, construct a set cover instance (U, S) as follows: the universe U is V, and the family of subsets is S = {S1, S2, ..., Sn} such that Sv consists of the vertex v and all vertices adjacent to v in G.
Algorithms and computational complexity:
Now if D is a dominating set for G, then C = {Sv : v ∈ D} is a feasible solution of the set cover problem, with |C| = |D|. Conversely, if C = {Sv : v ∈ D} is a feasible solution of the set cover problem, then D is a dominating set for G, with |D| = |C|.
Algorithms and computational complexity:
Hence the size of a minimum dominating set for G equals the size of a minimum set cover for (U, S). Furthermore, there is a simple algorithm that maps a dominating set to a set cover of the same size and vice versa. In particular, an efficient α-approximation algorithm for set covering provides an efficient α-approximation algorithm for minimum dominating sets.
Algorithms and computational complexity:
For example, given the graph G shown on the right, we construct a set cover instance with the universe U = {1, 2, ..., 6} and the subsets S1 = {1, 2, 5}, S2 = {1, 2, 3, 5}, S3 = {2, 3, 4, 6}, S4 = {3, 4}, S5 = {1, 2, 5, 6}, and S6 = {3, 5, 6}. In this example, D = {3, 5} is a dominating set for G – this corresponds to the set cover C = {S3, S5}. For example, the vertex 4 ∈ V is dominated by the vertex 3 ∈ D, and the element 4 ∈ U is contained in the set S3 ∈ C.
Algorithms and computational complexity:
From set covering to dominating set Let (S, U) be an instance of the set cover problem with the universe U and the family of subsets S = {Si : i ∈ I}; we assume that U and the index set I are disjoint. Construct a graph G = (V, E) as follows: the set of vertices is V = I ∪ U, there is an edge {i, j} ∈ E between each pair i, j ∈ I, and there is also an edge {i, u} for each i ∈ I and u ∈ Si. That is, G is a split graph: I is a clique and U is an independent set.
Algorithms and computational complexity:
Now if C = {Si : i ∈ D} is a feasible solution of the set cover problem for some subset D ⊆ I, then D is a dominating set for G, with |D| = |C|: First, for each u ∈ U there is an i ∈ D such that u ∈ Si, and by construction, u and i are adjacent in G; hence u is dominated by i. Second, since D must be nonempty, each i ∈ I is adjacent to a vertex in D.
Algorithms and computational complexity:
Conversely, let D be a dominating set for G. Then it is possible to construct another dominating set X such that |X| ≤ |D| and X ⊆ I: simply replace each u ∈ D ∩ U by a neighbour i ∈ I of u. Then C = {Si : i ∈ X} is a feasible solution of the set cover problem, with |C| = |X| ≤ |D|.
Algorithms and computational complexity:
The illustration on the right show the construction for U = {a, b, c, d, e}, I = {1, 2, 3, 4}, S1 = {a, b, c}, S2 = {a, b}, S3 = {b, c, d}, and S4 = {c, d, e}.In this example, C = {S1, S4} is a set cover; this corresponds to the dominating set D = {1, 4}.D = {a, 3, 4} is another dominating set for the graph G. Given D, we can construct a dominating set X = {1, 3, 4} which is not larger than D and which is a subset of I. The dominating set X corresponds to the set cover C = {S1, S3, S4}.
Algorithms and computational complexity:
Special cases If the graph has maximum degree Δ, then the greedy approximation algorithm finds an O(log Δ)-approximation of a minimum dominating set. Also, let dg be the cardinality of dominating set obtained using greedy approximation then following relation holds, dg≤N+1−2M+1 , where N is number of nodes and M is number of edges in given undirected graph. For fixed Δ, this qualifies as a dominating set for APX membership; in fact, it is APX-complete.The problem admits a polynomial-time approximation scheme (PTAS) for special cases such as unit disk graphs and planar graphs. A minimum dominating set can be found in linear time in series–parallel graphs.
Algorithms and computational complexity:
Exact algorithms A minimum dominating set of an n-vertex graph can be found in time O(2nn) by inspecting all vertex subsets. Fomin, Grandoni & Kratsch (2009) show how to find a minimum dominating set in time O(1.5137n) and exponential space, and in time O(1.5264n) and polynomial space. A faster algorithm, using O(1.5048n) time was found by van Rooij, Nederlof & van Dijk (2009), who also show that the number of minimum dominating sets can be computed in this time. The number of minimal dominating sets is at most 1.7159n and all such sets can be listed in time O(1.7159n).
Algorithms and computational complexity:
Parameterized complexity Finding a dominating set of size k plays a central role in the theory of parameterized complexity. It is the most well-known problem complete for the class W[2] and used in many reductions to show intractability of other problems. In particular, the problem is not fixed-parameter tractable in the sense that no algorithm with running time f(k)nO(1) for any function f exists unless the W-hierarchy collapses to FPT=W[2].
Algorithms and computational complexity:
On the other hand, if the input graph is planar, the problem remains NP-hard, but a fixed-parameter algorithm is known. In fact, the problem has a kernel of size linear in k, and running times that are exponential in √k and cubic in n may be obtained by applying dynamic programming to a branch-decomposition of the kernel. More generally, the dominating set problem and many variants of the problem are fixed-parameter tractable when parameterized by both the size of the dominating set and the size of the smallest forbidden complete bipartite subgraph; that is, the problem is FPT on biclique-free graphs, a very general class of sparse graphs that includes the planar graphs.The complementary set to a dominating set, a nonblocker, can be found by a fixed-parameter algorithm on any graph. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Luteoma**
Luteoma:
A luteoma is a tumor that occurs in the ovaries during pregnancy.
Luteoma:
It is associated with an increase of sex hormones, primarily progesterone and testosterone. The size of the tumor can range from 1 to 25 cm in diameter, but is usually 6 to 10 cm in diameter and can grow throughout the duration of the pregnancy. However, luteomas are benign and resolve themselves after delivery. This type of tumor is rare with only about 200 documented cases; many of these cases were detected accidentally, so the actual rate of occurrence may be higher. The most obvious symptom of a luteoma is masculinization of the mother and the possible masculinization of the fetus. This occurs because of the release of testosterone by the luteoma. Testosterone is a sex hormone most abundant in men although small amounts are naturally present in women. Testosterone is responsible for the male characteristics such as deepening of the voice, growth of dark hair, and acne. While not life-threatening, the development of male characteristics associated with luteomas can cause visible changes in the mother and can have drastic effects on the formation of the fetus. Luteomas can cause the fetus to be born with an ambiguous sex, which, depending on how the parents prefer to raise the infant, may result in the parents choosing a sex for the fetus.
Luteoma:
Luteomas can be associated with disorders of sex development (formerly known as pseudohermaphroditism).
Signs and symptoms:
Luteoma is frequently asymptomatic; only 36% of women actually show signs of masculinization. These signs include acne, the growth of dark hair (especially on the face), deepening of the voice, temporal balding, and clitoromegaly. An increase in testosterone levels in the mother does not necessarily mean masculinization will occur. During a normal pregnancy, the testosterone level will increase slightly in the first and second trimester, but doubles in the third trimester. The testosterone level also depends on the sex of the fetus; male fetuses cause a bigger increase in testosterone levels than female fetuses.Male fetuses, when carried by a mother who develops male characteristics from a luteoma, are not highly affected by the increase in testosterone in the mother due to this conditions. However, after birth, the male fetus may have abnormally high levels of testosterone, but this resolves itself. There have not been any ties between luteomas and the male infant producing high amounts of testosterone by itself.Out of the 36% of women who show male characteristics from the luteoma, 75% of female fetuses will also show signs of masculinization. Female fetuses can have a variety of symptoms ranging from severe, requiring surgery, to mild, which resolves itself after birth. The severity of the symptoms a female fetus undergoes depends on when the exposure occurs and the duration of the exposure. If a female fetus is exposed to increased levels of testosterone in the first 7–12 weeks of the pregnancy, labioscrotal fusion and clitoromegaly can occur. These conditions would need correctional surgery if the infant was to be raised female. If testosterone exposure occurs after the first 12 weeks of pregnancy, no fusion will occur but the clitoris could still be enlarged. The enlarged clitoris usually corrects itself after birth and the abnormally high testosterone levels will decrease as the body produces its own hormones.
Risk factors:
Several conditions predispose a woman to forming a luteoma during pregnancy. Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is one such condition. This syndrome is associated with high hormone levels and the failure of the ovaries to release an egg during the menstrual cycle, a symptom more often associated with menopause. The high levels of hormones in polycystic ovary syndrome seem to predispose women to forming a luteoma during pregnancy. A characteristic of luteomas is that they grow better in the presence of high levels of hormones that function in normal growth, sexual development, and reproductive function. PCOS causes an excess of hormones in the body including some of the hormones related to these functions. Women who have already had a luteoma during a previous pregnancy have a higher high risk of having another luteoma. In this situation, women can be counseled on the risks of another pregnancy and their alternatives. Other risk factors associated with luteomas are multiple pregnancies, advanced maternal age, and Afro-Caribbean ethnicity.
Diagnosis:
Luteomas are not often detected before delivery. Most luteomas are found during surgery if a caesarean section is performed or when some other surgery is performed. Pre-delivery detection is not effective for many reasons. Some tests, that can be performed pre-delivery, measure the amount of testosterone in the blood; however, this is not a very useful detection method since normal pregnancies have increased amounts of testosterone. Another method that would be useful to determine if a fetus is being exposed to testosterone is to test the placenta and umbilical cord for testosterone. The placenta has a mechanism for converting hormones from the mother into hormones that the fetus needs. If the amount of testosterone in the umbilical cord is higher than normal, the gene type of the fetus should be determined to see if the fetus is male or female. If the fetus is female then the high levels of testosterone in the umbilical cord could be an indicator that a luteoma is present. This procedure cannot be safely performed until after the fetus has undergone differentiation (when the sex of the fetus becomes apparent). But by this time the damage has already been done.
Treatment:
No treatments for luteomas are currently available. The luteomas can be detected through ultrasound if masculinization is apparent in the mother. The fetus can be tested for gene type and if the fetus is female and the umbilical cord tests high for testosterone levels then the risks of masculinization of the fetus can be considered. Interventions cannot be made to change the outcomes, but the potential risks can be analyzed in order to make preparations. After the fetus is delivered the luteoma regresses on its own and only monitoring of the mother is needed after delivery. Depending on the sex of the fetus, exposure time and duration, the parents may need to decide if they will raise the child as male or female. Surgery may be necessary depending on what sex the child is going to be raised. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Phloxine**
Phloxine:
Phloxine B (commonly known simply as phloxine) is a water-soluble red dye used for coloring drugs and cosmetics in the United States and coloring food in Japan. It is derived from fluorescein, but differs by the presence of four bromine atoms at positions 2, 4, 5 and 7 of the xanthene ring and four chlorine atoms in the carboxyphenyl ring. It has an absorption maximum around 540 nm and an emission maximum around 564 nm. Apart from industrial use, phloxine B has functions as an antimicrobial substance, viability dye and biological stain. For example, it is used in hematoxylin-phloxine-saffron (HPS) staining to color the cytoplasm and connective tissue in shades of red.
Antimicrobial properties:
Lethal dosage levels In the presence of light, phloxine B has a bactericidal effect on gram-positive strains, such as Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus cereus, and several methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) strains. At a minimum inhibitory concentration of 25 μM, growth is reduced by 10-fold within 2.5 hours. At concentrations of 50 μM and 100 μM, growth is stopped completely and cell counts decrease by a factor of 104 to 105. For humans, the Food and Drug Administration deems phloxine B to be safe up to a daily dosage of 1.25 mg/kg.
Antimicrobial properties:
Mechanism of action Bacteria exposed to phloxine B die from oxidative damage. Phloxine B ionizes in water to become a negatively charged ion that binds to positively charged cellular components. When phloxine B is subjected to light, debromination occurs and free radicals and singlet oxygen are formed. These compounds cause irreversible damage to the bacteria, leading to growth arrest and cell death. Gram-negative bacteria are phloxine B-resistant due to the outer cell membrane that surrounds them. This polysaccharide-coated lipid bilayer creates a permeability barrier that prevents efficient uptake of the compound. Addition of EDTA, which is known to strip the lipopolysaccharides and increase membrane permeability, removes the phloxine B resistance and allows gram-negative bacteria to be killed as well.
Measure of viability:
Phloxine B can be used to stain dead cells of several yeasts, including Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Schizosaccharomyces pombe. When diluted in yeast growth media, the dye is unable to entere cell because of their membranes. Dead yeast cells lose membrane integrity, so phloxine B can enter and stain the intracellular cytosolic compounds. Therefore, staining is a measure of cell death. In cell counting assays, the number of fluorescent (i.e. dead) cells observed through a haemocytometer can be compared to the total number of cells to give a measure of mortality. The same principle can be applied at higher throughput by fluorescence-activated flow cytometry (FACS), where all phloxine B-stained cells in a sample are counted. [Note: some reports suggest that phloxine B is instead pumped out of live yeast cells but retained in dead/dying yeast cells. However, definitive evidence for either model is still needed.] | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Zero suppression**
Zero suppression:
Zero suppression is the removal of redundant zeroes from a number. This can be done for storage, page or display space constraints or formatting reasons, such as making a letter more legible.
Examples:
00049823 → 49823 7.678600000 → 7.6786 0032.3231000 → 32.3231 2.45000×1010 → 2.45×1010 0.0045×1010 → 4.5×107One must be careful; in physics and related disciplines, trailing zeros are used to indicate the precision of the number, as an error of ±1 in the last place is assumed. Examples: 4.5981 is 4.5981 ± 0.0001 4.59810 is 4.5981 ± 0.00001 4.598100 is 4.5981 ± 0.000001
Data compression:
It is also a way to store a large array of numbers, where many of the entries are zero. By omitting the zeroes, and instead storing the indices along with the values of the non-zero items, less space may be used in total. It only makes sense if the extra space used for storing the indices (on average) is smaller than the space saved by not storing the zeroes. This is sometimes used in a sparse array.Example: Original array: 0, 1, 0, 0, 2, 5, 0, 0, 0, 4, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 Pairs of index and data: {2,1}, {5,2}, {6,5}, {10,4} | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Empty nose syndrome**
Empty nose syndrome:
Empty nose syndrome (ENS) is a clinical syndrome, the hallmark symptom of which is a sensation of suffocation despite a clear airway. This syndrome is often referred to as a form of secondary atrophic rhinitis. ENS is a potential complication of nasal turbinate surgery or injury. Patients have usually undergone a turbinectomy (removal or reduction of structures inside the nose called turbinates) or other surgical procedures that injure the nasal turbinates. ENS patients may experience a range of symptoms. Commonly reported are feelings of nasal obstruction, nasal dryness and crusting, and a sensation of being unable to breathe.The overall incidence of ENS is unknown due to the small body of epidemiological study and the lack of a dedicated International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10) code, which would allow incidence reporting of the syndrome. In a 2019 study in the Facial Plastic Surgery Clinics of North America journal, study lead Jason Talmadge, MD posited that "many cases likely go unrecognized or underdiagnosed, and therefore unreported."The condition is caused by injury to the nasal turbinates, particularly with nasal procedures. This includes both minor procedures as well as total turbinate resection. It is usually observed in patients with unobstructed nasal passages following surgical intervention who report sensations of suffocation or obstruction following recovery. Early literature attributed ENS to complete turbinate resection, but later research demonstrated the syndrome in patients who had undergone a range of procedures that involved nasal turbinates.The syndrome's existence as a distinct medical condition is controversial, with adoption by a growing body of ear, nose and throat (ENT) practitioners and plastic surgeons. ENS is not fully understood and practitioner knowledge about altered nasal breathing in turbinate surgeries varies. Understanding why some patients exhibit ENS symptoms while others do not and incorrectly attributing symptoms to psychological causes such as anxiety are common reasons ENS patients do not receive care. ENS as a distinct condition is subject to debate, including whether it should be considered solely rhinologic or whether it may have neurological or psychosomatic aspects. Growing awareness of the syndrome and an increasing body of research has led to more acceptance by ENT practitioners.
Signs and symptoms:
The major symptoms of ENS include a sensation of suffocation, nasal dryness, nasal burning, nasal crusting, and an impaired sense of airflow through the nose in patients who have had surgery or injury to nasal turbinates. ENS can greatly reduce a patient's quality of life and many patients struggle to complete activities of daily living. While ENS is physical in its origin, many ENS patients also struggle with depression, anxiety, and sleep disturbances. Individuals with ENS may experience all or some of these symptoms.
Signs and symptoms:
A limited study of ENS patients found that ENS is associated with hyperventilation syndrome (HVS) in 77.3% of the study population. The study suggests that there could be an epidemiological link between ENS and HVS. Further studies are required to confirm these results. The authors hypothesize that the link between ENS and HVS could be explained by the nasal injury that occurs to the turbinates that alters the respiratory control system.
Cause:
The cause of ENS is due to the body not accepting the new airflow in the nasal passages following surgical procedures. The nose is an incredibly complex area of the body and one that has been very poorly researched in terms of the effects on aerodynamics from surgical procedures. In many patients with ENS, the airflow is modeled as being more turbulent with less laminar flow across the mucosa. This change in airflow leads to an imbalance of CO2/O2 levels in the body, which will show hyperventilation-like symptoms in patients. This reduced amount of mucus in the nose can also be attributed to the change in airflow often resulting in dry cool air hitting the back of the patient's throat.x One possible cause may be changes to the nasal mucous membrane and to the nerve endings in the mucosa resulting from chronic changes to the temperature and humidity of the air flowing inside the nose, caused in turn by removal or reduction of the turbinates. Direct damage to the nerves may be a result of surgical intervention; however, as of 2015, there is no technology that allows the mapping of the sensory nerves within the nose, so it is difficult to determine whether this is causative of ENS. Investigators have been unable to identify consistent diagnostic or precipitating features, psychological causes leading to a psychosomatic condition have been proposed.
Cause:
There seems to be a relation between reduced levels of nasal nitric oxide and depression/anxiety symptoms in ENS patients. Both have been shown to be reversible via implantation surgery.It has been proposed, that the airflow in ENS patients is changed so that most of the air flows through the middle meatus, compared to most of the air flowing through the inferior meatus in healthy individuals. This can be corrected via inferior meatus augmentation (IMAP surgery).
Diagnosis:
No consensus criteria exist for the diagnosis of ENS and many ENTs will wait a year before diagnosing in hopes the patient accepts the new airflow; it is typically diagnosed by ruling out other conditions, with ENS remaining the likely diagnosis if the signs and symptoms are present. A "cotton test" has been proposed, in which moist cotton is held where a turbinate should be or in various locations in the nasal passages, to see if it provides relief and an airflow pattern that allows for natural breathing; while this has not been validated nor is it widely accepted, it may be useful to identify which people may benefit from surgery.As of 2015, protocols for using rhinomanometry to diagnose ENS and measure response to surgery were under development, as was a standardized clinical instrument (a well defined and validated questionnaire) to obtain more useful reporting of symptoms.A validated ENS-specific, 6-item questionnaire called the Empty Nose Syndrome 6-item Questionnaire (ENS6Q) was developed as an adjunct to the standard Sino-Nasal Outcome Test 22 (SNOT-22). The ENS6Q is the first validated, specific, adjunct questionnaire to the SNOT-22. It can more reliably identify patients suspected of ENS. The ENS6Q is gaining usage in studies on ENS.
Diagnosis:
Classification Four types have been proposed: ENS-IT: Inferior turbinate (IT) was fully or partially resected ENS-MT: Middle turbinate (MT) was fully or partially resected ENS-both: Both the IT and MT were both at least partially resected ENS-type: Patient appears to have adequate turbinate tissue but suffers ENS symptoms due to damage to the mucosal surface of the turbinates.
Prevention:
Attempt non surgical methods for an extended period of time prior to surgical intervention. Avoid any unnecessary nasal surgery, avoid any surgical treatment to the turbinates and septum, seek multiple consults for any nasal surgery, conduct imagery on the nasal passages prior to any surgical treatment, seek opinions from surgeons familiar with ENS. Many surgeons will tell patients that ENS is only seen in patients that have excessive turbinate reduction, but studies have shown that any surgery/procedure involving the nasal turbinates can potentially lead to ENS. For this reason it is critical that anyone planning any surgery to the nose for function or appearance should be aware of the high risk of ENS developing if the body does not accept the new airflow and exchange of gasses.
Treatment:
Treatment of ENS by many ENTs is extremely limited with very marginal success rates once diagnosed. Initial treatment is similar to atrophic rhinitis, namely keeping the nasal mucosa moist with saline or oil-based lubricants and treating pain and infection as they arise; adding menthol to lubricants may be helpful in ENS, as may be use of a cool mist humidifier at home but has limited success and many ENT patients seek treatment from the few ENTs well educated in ENS surgical techniques. For people with anxiety, depression, or who are obsessed with the feeling that they can't breathe, psychiatric or psychological care may be helpful.In some people, surgery to restore missing or reduced turbinates or various fillers that correct the airflow in the nose may be beneficial. Corrective surgical methods are experimental and limited to a few ENT practitioners worldwide.
Treatment:
A 2015 meta-analysis identified 128 people treated with surgery from eight studies that were useful to pool, with an age range of 18 to 64, most of whom had been experiencing ENS symptoms for many years. The most common surgical approach was creating a pocket under the mucosa and implanting material - the amount and location were based on the judgement of the surgeon. In about half the cases a filler such as noncellular dermis, a medical-grade porous high-density polyethylene, or silastic was used and in about 40% cartilage taken from the person or from a cow was used. In a few cases hyaluronic acid was injected and in a few others tricalcium phosphate was used. There were no complications caused by the surgery, although one person was over-corrected and developed chronic rhinosinusitis and two people were under-corrected. The hyaluronic acid was completely resorbed in the three people who received it at the one year follow up, and in six people some of the implant came out, but this did not affect the result as enough remained. About 21% of the people had no or marginal improvement but the rest reported significant relief of their symptoms. Since none of the studies used placebo or blinding there may be a strong placebo effect or bias in reporting.
Outcomes:
Data measuring the prevalence of Empty Nose Syndrome (ENS) after turbinate surgery is limited to a few single surgeon studies with variable results. Measuring prevalence is challenging as ENS symptoms may not show up for many years after the surgery and the surgeon may no longer be following the patients. Quantifying prevalence will also depend on a valid, standardized definition.The lack of a reliable epidemiological study or ICD-10 code makes it difficult to understand the incidence of ENS. Qualitative feedback from ENTs that treat this disease indicate that the incidence is underestimated but the condition is debilitating for those that have it.
Outcomes:
Untreated, the condition can cause significant and long term physical and emotional distress in some people; some of the initial presentations on the condition described people who committed suicide. Research on safety and efficacy of existing treatments is limited to a handful of published studies with a small number of participants and self-reported results from specialists treating this condition.
History:
As early as 1914, Dr Albert Mason reported cases of "a condition resembling atrophic rhinitis" with "a dryness of the nose and throat" following turbinectomy. Mason called the turbinates "the most important organ in the nose" and claimed they were "slaughtered and removed with discriminate abandon more than any other part of the body, with the possible exception of the prepuce."The term "Empty Nose Syndrome" was first used by Eugene Kern and Monika Stenkvist of the Mayo Clinic in 1994. Kern and Eric Moore published a case study of 242 people with secondary atrophic rhinitis in 2001 and were the first to attribute the cause to prior sinonasal surgery in the scientific literature. Whether the condition existed or not and whether surgery was a cause, was hotly debated at Nose 2000, a meeting of the International Rhinologic Society that occurs every four years, and continued to be debated thereafter at scientific meetings and in the literature; as an example of how heated the debate became, in a 2002 textbook on nasal reconstruction techniques, two surgeons from University of Utrecht called turbinectomies a "nasal crime".
Society and culture:
As of 2016, according to Spencer Payne, a doctor who studies ENS, many people with ENS symptoms commonly encounter doctors who consider their symptoms to be purely psychological; according to Subinoy Das, another doctor who studies ENS, recognition among rhinologists was growing.People who experience ENS have formed online communities to support one another and to advocate for recognition, prevention, and treatments for ENS. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Flesch–Kincaid readability tests**
Flesch–Kincaid readability tests:
The Flesch–Kincaid readability tests are readability tests designed to indicate how difficult a passage in English is to understand. There are two tests: the Flesch Reading-Ease, and the Flesch–Kincaid Grade Level. Although they use the same core measures (word length and sentence length), they have different weighting factors.
The results of the two tests correlate approximately inversely: a text with a comparatively high score on the Reading Ease test should have a lower score on the Grade-Level test. Rudolf Flesch devised the Reading Ease evaluation; somewhat later, he and J. Peter Kincaid developed the Grade Level evaluation for the United States Navy.
History:
"The Flesch–Kincaid" (F–K) reading grade level was developed under contract to the U.S. Navy in 1975 by J. Peter Kincaid and his team. Related U.S. Navy research directed by Kincaid delved into high-tech education (for example, the electronic authoring and delivery of technical information), usefulness of the Flesch–Kincaid readability formula, computer aids for editing tests, illustrated formats to teach procedures, and the Computer Readability Editing System (CRES).The F–K formula was first used by the Army for assessing the difficulty of technical manuals in 1978 and soon after became a United States Military Standard. Pennsylvania was the first U.S. state to require that automobile insurance policies be written at no higher than a ninth-grade level (14–15 years of age) of reading difficulty, as measured by the F–K formula. This is now a common requirement in many other states and for other legal documents such as insurance policies.
Flesch reading ease:
In the Flesch reading-ease test, higher scores indicate material that is easier to read; lower numbers mark passages that are more difficult to read. The formula for the Flesch reading-ease score (FRES) test is: Scores can be interpreted as shown in the table below.
Flesch reading ease:
Reader's Digest magazine has a readability index of about 65, Time magazine scores about 52, an average grade six student's written assignment (age of 12) has a readability index of 60–70 (and a reading grade level of six to seven), and the Harvard Law Review has a general readability score in the low 30s. The highest (easiest) readability score possible is 121.22, but only if every sentence consists of only one one-syllable word. "The cat sat on the mat." scores 116. The score does not have a theoretical lower bound; therefore, it is possible to make the score as low as wanted by arbitrarily including words with many syllables. The sentence "This sentence, taken as a reading passage unto itself, is being used to prove a point." has a readability of 69. The sentence "The Australian platypus is seemingly a hybrid of a mammal and reptilian creature." scores 37.5 as it has 24 syllables and 13 words. While Amazon calculates the text of Moby-Dick as 57.9, one particularly long sentence about sharks in chapter 64 has a readability score of −146.77. One sentence in the beginning of Swann's Way, by Marcel Proust, has a score of −515.1.The U.S. Department of Defense uses the reading ease test as the standard test of readability for its documents and forms. Florida requires that insurance policies have a Flesch reading ease score of 45 or greater.Use of this scale is so ubiquitous that it is bundled with popular word processing programs and services such as KWord, IBM Lotus Symphony, Microsoft Office Word, WordPerfect, WordPro, and Grammarly.
Flesch reading ease:
Polysyllabic words affect this score significantly more than they do the grade-level score.
Flesch–Kincaid grade level:
These readability tests are used extensively in the field of education. The "Flesch–Kincaid Grade Level Formula" presents a score as a U.S. grade level, making it easier for teachers, parents, librarians, and others to judge the readability level of various books and texts. It can also mean the number of years of education generally required to understand this text, relevant when the formula results in a number greater than 10. The grade level is calculated with the following formula: The result is a number that corresponds with a U.S. grade level. The sentence, "The Australian platypus is seemingly a hybrid of a mammal and reptilian creature" is an 11.3 as it has 24 syllables and 13 words. The different weighting factors for words per sentence and syllables per word in each scoring system mean that the two schemes are not directly comparable and cannot be converted. The grade level formula emphasizes sentence length over word length. By creating one-word strings with hundreds of random characters, grade levels may be attained that are hundreds of times larger than high school completion in the United States. Due to the formula's construction, the score does not have an upper bound.
Flesch–Kincaid grade level:
The lowest grade level score in theory is −3.40, but there are few real passages in which every sentence consists of a single one-syllable word. Green Eggs and Ham by Dr. Seuss comes close, averaging 5.7 words per sentence and 1.02 syllables per word, with a grade level of −1.3. (Most of the 50 used words are monosyllabic; "anywhere", which occurs eight times, is the only exception.)
Limitations:
As readability formulas were developed for school books, they demonstrate weaknesses compared to directly testing usability with typical readers. They neglect between-reader differences and effects of content, layout and retrieval aids. For example, the pangram "Cwm fjord-bank glyphs vext quiz." has a reading ease score of 100 and grade level score of 0.52 despite its obscure words. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Ability**
Ability:
Abilities are powers an agent has to perform various actions. They include common abilities, like walking, and rare abilities, like performing a double backflip. Abilities are intelligent powers: they are guided by the person's intention and executing them successfully results in an action, which is not true for all types of powers. They are closely related to but not identical with various other concepts, such as disposition, know-how, aptitude, talent, potential, and skill.
Ability:
Theories of ability aim to articulate the nature of abilities. Traditionally, the conditional analysis has been the most popular approach. According to it, having an ability means one would perform the action in question if one tried to do so. On this view, Michael Phelps has the ability to swim 200 meters in under 2 minutes because he would do so if he tried to. This approach has been criticized in various ways. Some counterexamples involve cases in which the agent is physically able to do something but unable to try, due to a strong aversion. In order to avoid these and other counterexamples, various alternative approaches have been suggested. Modal theories of ability, for example, focus on what is possible for the agent to do. Other suggestions include defining abilities in terms of dispositions and potentials.
Ability:
An important distinction among abilities is between general abilities and specific abilities. General abilities are abilities possessed by an agent independent of their situation while specific abilities concern what an agent can do in a specific situation. So while an expert piano player always has the general ability to play various piano pieces, they lack the corresponding specific ability in a situation where no piano is present. Another distinction concerns the question of whether successfully performing an action by accident counts as having the corresponding ability. In this sense, an amateur hacker may have the effective ability to hack his boss's email account, because they may be lucky and guess the password correctly, but not the corresponding transparent ability, since they are unable to reliably do so.
Ability:
The concept of abilities and how they are to be understood is relevant for various related fields. Free will, for example, is often understood as the ability to do otherwise. The debate between compatibilism and incompatibilism concerns the question whether this ability can exist in a world governed by deterministic laws of nature. Autonomy is a closely related concept, which can be defined as the ability of individual or collective agents to govern themselves. Whether an agent has the ability to perform a certain action is important for whether they have a moral obligation to perform this action. If they possess it, they may be morally responsible for performing it or for failing to do so. Like in the free will debate, it is also relevant whether they had the ability to do otherwise. A prominent theory of concepts and concept possession understands these terms in relation to abilities. According to it, it is required that the agent possess both the ability to discriminate between positive and negative cases and the ability to draw inferences to related concepts.
Definition and semantic field:
Abilities are powers an agent has to perform various actions. Some abilities are very common among human agents, like the ability to walk or to speak. Other abilities are only possessed by a few, such as the ability to perform a double backflip or to prove Gödel's incompleteness theorem. While all abilities are powers, the converse is not true, i.e. there are some powers that are not abilities. This is the case, for example, for powers that are not possessed by agents, like the power of salt to dissolve in water. But some powers possessed by agents do not constitute abilities either. For example, the power to understand French is not an ability in this sense since it does not involve an action, in contrast to the ability to speak French. This distinction depends on the difference between actions and non-actions. Actions are usually defined as events that an agent performs for a purpose and that are guided by the person's intention, in contrast to mere behavior, like involuntary reflexes. In this sense, abilities can be seen as intelligent powers.
Definition and semantic field:
Various terms within the semantic field of the term "ability" are sometimes used as synonyms but have slightly different connotations. Dispositions, for example, are often equated with powers and differ from abilities in the sense that they are not necessarily linked to agents and actions. Abilities are closely related to know-how, as a form of practical knowledge on how to accomplish something. But it has been argued that these two terms may not be identical since know-how belongs more to the side of knowledge of how to do something and less to the power to actually do it. The terms "aptitude" and "talent" usually refer to outstanding inborn abilities. They are often used to express that a certain set of abilities can be acquired when properly used or trained. Abilities acquired through learning are frequently referred to as skills. The term "disability" is usually used for a long-term absence of a general human ability that significantly impairs what activities one can engage in and how one can interact with the world. In this sense, not any lack of an ability constitutes a disability. The more direct antonym of "ability" is "inability" instead.
Theories of ability:
Various theories of the essential features of abilities have been proposed. The conditional analysis is the traditionally dominant approach. It defines abilities in terms of what one would do if one had the volition to do so. For modal theories of ability, by contrast, having an ability means that the agent has the possibility to execute the corresponding action. Other approaches include defining abilities in terms of dispositions and potentials. While all the concepts used in these different approaches are closely related, they have slightly different connotations, which often become relevant for avoiding various counterexamples.
Theories of ability:
Conditional analysis The conditional analysis of ability is the traditionally dominant approach. It is often traced back to David Hume and defines abilities in terms of what one would do if one wanted to, tried to or had the volition to do so. It is articulated in the form of a conditional expression, for example, as "S has the ability to A iff S would A if S tried to A". On this view, Michael Phelps has the ability to swim 200 meters in under 2 minutes because he would do so if he tried to. The average person, on the other hand, lacks this ability because they would fail if they tried. Similar versions talk of having a volition instead of trying. This view can distinguish between the ability to do something and the possibility that one does something: only having the ability implies that the agent can make something happen according to their will. This definition of ability is closely related to Hume's definition of liberty as "a power of acting or not acting, according to the determinations of the will". But it is often argued that this is different from having a free will in the sense of the capacity of choosing between different courses of action.This approach has been criticized in various ways, often by citing alleged counterexamples. Some of these counterexamples focus on cases where an ability is actually absent even though it would be present according to the conditional analysis. This is the case, for example, if someone is physically able to perform a certain action but, maybe due to a strong aversion, cannot form the volition to perform this action. So according to the conditional analysis, a person with arachnophobia has the ability to touch a trapped spider because they would do so if they tried. But all things considered, they do not have this ability since their arachnophobia makes it impossible for them to try. Another example involves a woman attacked on a dark street who would have screamed if she had tried to but was too paralyzed by fear to try it. One way to avoid this objection is to distinguish between psychological and non-psychological requirements of abilities. The conditional analysis can then be used as a partial analysis applied only to the non-psychological requirements.Another form of criticism involves cases where the ability is present even though it would be absent according to the conditional analysis. This argument can be centered on the idea that having an ability does not ensure that each and every execution of it is successful. For example, even a good golfer may miss an easy putt on one occasion. That does not mean that they lack the ability to make this putt but this is what the conditional analysis suggests since they tried it and failed. One reply to this problem is to ascribe to the golfer the general ability, as discussed below, but deny them the specific ability in this particular instance.
Theories of ability:
Modal approach Modal theories of ability focus not on what the agent would do under certain circumstances but on what is possible for the agent to do. This possibility is often understood in terms of possible worlds. On this view, an agent has the ability to perform a certain action if there is a complete and consistent way how the world could have been, in which the agent performs the corresponding action. This approach easily captures the idea that an agent can possess an ability without executing it. In this case, the agent does not perform the corresponding action in the actual world but there is a possible world where they perform it.The problem with the approach described so far is that when the term "possible" is understood in the widest sense, many actions are possible even though the agent actually lacks the ability to perform them. For example, not knowing the combination of the safe, the agent lacks the ability to open the safe. But dialing the right combination is possible, i.e. there is a possible world in which, through a lucky guess, the agent succeeds at opening the safe. Because of such cases, it is necessary to add further conditions to the analysis above. These conditions play the role of restricting which possible worlds are relevant for evaluating ability-claims. Closely related to this is the converse problem concerning lucky performances in the actual world. This problem concerns the fact that an agent may successfully perform an action without possessing the corresponding ability. So a beginner at golf may hit the ball in an uncontrolled manner and through sheer luck achieve a hole-in-one. But the modal approach seems to suggest that such a beginner still has the corresponding ability since what is actual is also possible.A series of arguments against this approach is due to Anthony Kenny, who holds that various inferences drawn in modal logic are invalid for ability ascriptions. These failures indicate that the modal approach fails to capture the logic of ability ascriptions.It has also been argued that, strictly speaking, the conditional analysis is not different from the modal approach since it is just one special case of it. This is true if conditional expressions themselves are understood in terms of possible worlds, as suggested, for example, by David Kellogg Lewis and Robert Stalnaker. In this case, many of the arguments directed against the modal approach may equally apply to the conditional analysis.
Theories of ability:
Other approaches The dispositional approach defines abilities in terms of dispositions. According to one version, "S has the ability to A in circumstances C iff she has the disposition to A when, in circumstances C, she tries to A". This view is closely related to the conditional analysis but differs from it because the manifestation of dispositions can be prevented through the presence of so-called masks and finks. In these cases, the disposition is still present even though the corresponding conditional is false. Another approach sees abilities as a form of potential to do something. This is different from a disposition since a disposition concerns the relation between a stimulus and a manifestation that follows when the stimulus is present. A potential, on the other hand, is characterized only by its manifestation. In the case of abilities, the manifestation concerns an action.
Types:
Whether it is correct to ascribe a certain ability to an agent often depends on which type of ability is meant. General abilities concern what agents can do independent of their current situation, in contrast to specific abilities. To possess an effective ability, it is sufficient if the agent can succeed through a lucky accident, which is not the case for transparent abilities.
Types:
General and specific An important distinction among abilities is between general and specific abilities, sometimes also referred to as global and local abilities. General abilities concern what agents can do generally, i.e. independent of the situation they find themselves in. But abilities often depend for their execution on various conditions that have to be fulfilled in the given circumstances. In this sense, the term "specific ability" is used to describe whether an agent has an ability in a specific situation. So while an expert piano player always has the general ability to play various piano pieces, they lack the corresponding specific ability if they are chained to a wall, if no piano is present or if they are heavily drugged. In such cases, some of the necessary conditions for using the ability are not met. While this example illustrates a case of a general ability without a specific ability, the converse is also possible. Even though most people lack the general ability to jump 2 meters high, they may possess the specific ability to do so when they find themselves on a trampoline. The reason that they lack this general ability is that they would fail to execute it in most circumstances. It would be necessary to succeed in a suitable proportion of the relevant cases for having the general ability as well, as would be the case for a high jump athlete in this example.
Types:
It seems that the two terms are interdefinable but there is disagreement as to which one is the more basic term. So a specific ability may be defined as a general ability together with an opportunity. Having a general ability, on the other hand, can be seen as having a specific ability in various relevant situations. A similar distinction can be drawn not just for the term "ability" but also for the wider term "disposition". The distinction between general and specific abilities is not always drawn explicitly in the academic literature. While discussions often focus more on the general sense, sometimes the specific sense is intended. This distinction is relevant for various philosophical issues, specifically for the ability to do otherwise in the free will debate. If this ability is understood as a general ability, it seems to be compatible with determinism. But this seems not to be the case if a specific ability is meant.
Types:
Effective and transparent Another distinction sometimes found in the literature concerns the question of whether successfully performing an action by accident counts as having the corresponding ability. For example, a student in the first grade is able, in a weaker sense, to recite the first 10 digits of Pi insofar as they are able to utter any permutation of the numerals from 0 to 9. But they are not able to do so in a stronger sense since they have not memorized the exact order. The weaker sense is sometimes termed effective abilities, in contrast to transparent abilities corresponding to the stronger sense. Usually, ability ascriptions have the stronger sense in mind, but this is not always the case. For example, the sentence "Usain Bolt can run 100 meters in 9.58 seconds" is usually not taken to mean that Bolt can, at will, arrive at the goal at exactly 9.58 seconds, no more and no less. Instead, he can do something that amounts to this in a weaker sense.
Relation to other concepts:
The concept of abilities is relevant for various other concepts and debates. Disagreements in these fields often depend on how abilities are to be understood. In the free will debate, for example, a central question is whether free will, when understood as the ability to do otherwise, can exist in a world governed by deterministic laws of nature. Free will is closely related to autonomy, which concerns the agent's ability to govern oneself. Another issue concerns whether someone has the moral obligation to perform a certain action and is responsible for succeeding or failing to do so. This issue depends, among other things, on whether the agent has the ability to perform the action in question and on whether they could have done otherwise. The ability-theory of concepts and concept possession defines them in terms of two abilities: the ability to discriminate between positive and negative cases and the ability to draw inferences to related concepts.
Relation to other concepts:
Free will The topic of abilities plays an important role in the free will debate. The free will debate often centers around the question of whether the existence of free will is compatible with determinism, so-called compatibilism, or not, so-called incompatibilism. Free will is frequently defined as the ability to do otherwise while determinism can be defined as the view that the past together with the laws of nature determine everything happening in the present and the future. The conflict arises since, if everything is already fixed by the past, there seems to be no sense in which anyone could act differently than they do, i.e. that there is no place for free will. Such a result might have serious consequences since, according to some theories, people would not be morally responsible for what they do in such a case.Having an explicit theory of what constitutes an ability is central for deciding whether determinism and free will are compatible. Different theories of ability may lead to different answers to this question. It has been argued that, according to a dispositionalist theory of ability, compatibilism is true since determinism does not exclude unmanifested dispositions. Another argument for compatibilism is due to Susan Wolf, who argues that having the type of ability relevant for moral responsibility is compatible with physical determinism since the ability to perform an action does not imply that this action is physically possible. Peter van Inwagen and others have presented arguments for incompatibilism based on the fact that the laws of nature impose limits on our abilities. These limits are so strict in the case of determinism that the only abilities possessed by anyone are the ones that are actually executed, i.e. there are no abilities to do otherwise than one actually does.
Relation to other concepts:
Autonomy Autonomy is usually defined as the ability to govern oneself. It can be ascribed both to individual agents, like human persons, and to collective agents, like nations. Autonomy is absent when there is no intelligent force governing the entity's behavior at all, as in the case of a simple rock, or when this force does not belong to the governed entity, as when one nation has been invaded by another and now lacks the ability to govern itself. Autonomy is often understood in combination with a rational component, e.g. as the agent's ability to appreciate what reasons they have and to follow the strongest reason. Robert Audi, for example, characterizes autonomy as the self-governing power to bring reasons to bear in directing one's conduct and influencing one's propositional attitudes.: 211–2 Autonomy may also encompass the ability to question one's beliefs and desires and to change them if necessary. Some authors include the condition that decisions involved in self-governing are not determined by forces outside oneself in any way, i.e. that they are a pure expression of one's own will that is not controlled by someone else. In the Kantian tradition, autonomy is often equated with self-legislation, which may be interpreted as laying down laws or principles that are to be followed. This involves the idea that one's ability of self-governance is not just exercised on a case-by-case basis but that one takes up long-term commitments to more general principles governing many different situations.
Relation to other concepts:
Obligation and responsibility The issue of abilities is closely related to the concepts of responsibility and obligation. On the side of obligation, the principle that "ought implies can" is often cited in the ethical literature. Its original formulation is attributed to Immanuel Kant. It states that an agent is only morally obligated to perform a certain action if they are able to perform this action. As a consequence of this principle, one is not justified to blame an agent for something that was out of their control. According to this principle, for example, a person sitting on the shore has no moral obligation to jump into the water to save a child drowning nearby, and should not be blamed for failing to do so, if they are unable to do so due to Paraplegia.
Relation to other concepts:
The problem of moral responsibility is closely related to obligation. One difference is that "obligation" tends to be understood more in a forward-looking sense in contrast to backward-looking responsibility. But these are not the only connotations of these terms. A common view concerning moral responsibility is that the ability to control one's behavior is necessary if one is to be responsible for it. This is often connected to the thesis that alternative courses of action were available to the agent, i.e. that the agent had the ability to do otherwise. But some authors, often from the incompatibilist tradition, contend that what matters for responsibility is to act as one chooses, even if no ability to do otherwise was present.One difficulty for these principles is that our ability to do something at a certain time often depends on having done something else earlier. So a person is usually able to attend a meeting 5 minutes from now if they are currently only a few meters away from the planned location but not if they are hundreds of kilometers away. This seems to lead to the counter-intuitive consequence that people who failed to take their flight due to negligence are not morally responsible for their failure because they currently lack the corresponding ability. One way to respond to this type of example is to allow that the person is not to be blamed for their behavior 5 minutes before the meeting but hold instead that they are to be blamed for their earlier behavior that caused them to miss the flight.
Relation to other concepts:
Concepts and concept possession Concepts are the basic constituents of thoughts, beliefs and propositions. As such, they play a central role for most forms of cognition. A person can only entertain a proposition if they possess the concepts involved in this proposition. For example, the proposition "wombats are animals" involves the concepts "wombat" and "animal". Someone who does not possess the concept "wombat" may still be able to read the sentence but cannot entertain the corresponding proposition. There are various theories concerning how concepts and concept possession are to be understood. One prominent suggestion sees concepts as cognitive abilities of agents. Proponents of this view often identify two central aspects that characterize concept possession: the ability to discriminate between positive and negative cases and the ability to draw inferences from this concept to related concepts. So, on the one hand, a person possessing the concept "wombat" should be able to distinguish wombats from non-wombats (like trees, DVD-players or cats). On the other hand, this person should be able to point out what follows from the fact that something is a wombat, e.g. that it is an animal, that it has short legs or that it has a slow metabolism. It is usually taken that these abilities have to be possessed to a significant degree but that perfection is not necessary. So even some people who are not aware of their slow metabolism may count as possessing the concept "wombat". Opponents of the ability-theory of concepts have argued that the abilities to discriminate and to infer are circular since they already presuppose concept possession instead of explaining it. They tend to defend alternative accounts of concepts, for example, as mental representations or as abstract objects. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Orographic lift**
Orographic lift:
Orographic lift occurs when an air mass is forced from a low elevation to a higher elevation as it moves over rising terrain.: 162 As the air mass gains altitude it quickly cools down adiabatically, which can raise the relative humidity to 100% and create clouds and, under the right conditions, precipitation.: 472 Orographic lifting can have a number of effects, including precipitation, rain shadowing, leeward winds, and associated clouds.
Precipitation:
Precipitation induced by orographic lift occurs in many places throughout the world. Examples include: The Mogollon Rim in central Arizona The western slope of the Sierra Nevada range in California.
The western slope of the Wasatch range in Utah. Specifically the Little and Big Cottonwood Canyons.
The mountains near Baja California North – specifically La Bocana to Laguna Hanson.
The windward slopes of Khasi and Jayantia Hills (see Mawsynram) in the state of Meghalaya in India.
The Western Highlands of Yemen, which receive by far the most rain in Arabia.
The Western Ghats that run along India's western coast.
The northern slopes of the Pontides leading to the Black Sea, in Bulgaria, Turkey and Georgia.
The Great Dividing Range of Eastern and South Eastern Australia which forces cold, moist westerlies up the inland slopes, originating from the Southern Ocean.
The mountains of New Zealand, which face a prevailing westerly flow off the Tasman Sea.
The mountains of western Tasmania which also face a prevailing westerly flow.
The southern Andes, which face a prevailing westerly flow off the Pacific Ocean.
The mountains of the Chocó Department in Colombia, which face a prevailing westerly flow off the Pacific Ocean and are one of the wettest places on Earth.
The western uplands of Great Britain, including the Grampian mountains, Lake District, Snowdonia, Brecon Beacons and Dartmoor which face a prevailing westerly flow off the Atlantic Ocean.
Precipitation:
The Northwestern United States and Canada (Oregon, Washington, British Columbia, and Southern Alaska) see prevailing westerly flow off the northern Pacific Ocean. Places on the sea-facing side of coastal mountains see in excess of 140 inches (over 3.5 m) of precipitation per year. These locales are on the side of the mountains which are in the path of storm systems, and therefore receive the moisture which is effectively squeezed from the clouds.The ski country region of New York and Pennsylvania, particularly with lake effect snows.
Precipitation:
Transylvania County, North Carolina, which gets the most rainfall of anywhere in the Eastern U.S. (90 inches [2,300 mm]).
The Appalachian Mountains in West Virginia (particularly the western facing slopes).
The Eastern seaboard of Madagascar.
Table Mountain, Cape Town, South Africa. The cold Atlantic air mass flows up over the north western face to 3,500 feet (1,100 m) above sea level and is met by the warm Indian Ocean air mass from the south eastern back side of the mountain forming the famous "Table Cloth".
Oppland mountain area, Norway.
In Colorado west of Denver maximum snowfall is recorded at relatively low elevations, around Idaho Springs, Genesee, Evergreen, and even as low as Golden and Castle Rock.
Rain shadowing:
The highest precipitation amounts are found slightly upwind from the prevailing winds at the crests of mountain ranges, where they relieve and therefore the upward lifting is greatest. As the air descends the lee side of the mountain, it warms and dries, creating a rain shadow. On the lee side of the mountains, sometimes as little as 15 miles (25 km) away from high precipitation zones, annual precipitation can be as low as 8 inches (200 mm) per year.Areas where this effect is observed include: The Himalayas block moisture from the Tibetan Plateau The Atacama Desert in Peru and Chile Switzerland's Rhone valley Areas east of the Cascade Range in the Pacific Northwest (Washington and Oregon) Areas east of the Olympic Mountains in Washington state, (i.e. Sequim, Washington): 472 The Great Basin of the United States, east of the Sierra Nevada Geography of the United States Pacific Mountain System Pacific Cordillera California's Central Valley The Canadian Prairies All of the Hawaiian Islands. The entire island of Kaho'olawe is in the rain shadow of Maui North East England is in the eastern rain shadow of the Pennines, due to Britain's prevailing wind coming from the South West. This explains the significant differences between the rainfall between North West and North East England. This impact also occurs to varying degrees to the east of the Grampian Mountains, in Herefordshire and along the England Wales borders and in Devon to the east of Dartmoor.
Rain shadowing:
The Central Coast, Cumberland Plain, Illawarra, Monaro and the South Coast regions in Southeastern Australia in New South Wales; as snow-bearing westerlies arriving from the southwest (the Great Australian Bight) and up the ranges are forced upwind the inland slopes of the Great Dividing Range, the coastal plain remains dry and is significantly warmer than on the inland slopes at equivalent altitudes. This is evident when comparing Batlow on the windward slopes to Cooma on the leeward coastal plain, both around 800 metres (2,600 ft). Conversely, if the polar front or rain event arrives from the south-east (the Tasman Sea), then the coastal plain will be on the windward side and the inland slopes are on the leeward side.
Rain shadowing:
The Judean Desert in the Land of Israel and the Dead Sea.
The Southern Alps of New Zealand
Leeward winds:
Downslope winds occur on the leeward side of mountain barriers when a stable air mass is carried over the mountain by strong winds that increase in strength with height. Moisture is removed and latent heat released as the air mass is orographically lifted. As the air mass descends, it is compression heated. The warm foehn wind, locally known as the Chinook wind, Bergwind or Diablo wind or Nor'wester depending on the region, provide examples of this type of wind, and are driven in part by latent heat released by orographic-lifting-induced precipitation.A similar class of winds, the Sirocco, the Bora and Santa Ana winds, are examples where orographic lifting has limited effect since there is limited moisture to remove in the Saharan or other air masses; the Sirocco, Bora and Santa Ana are driven primarily by (adiabatic) compression heating.
Associated clouds:
As air flows over mountain barriers, orographic lift can create a variety of cloud effects.
Orographic fog is formed as the air rises up the slope and will often envelope the summit. When the air is humid, some of the moisture will fall on the windward slope and on the summit of the mountain.
Associated clouds:
When wind is strong, a banner cloud is formed downwind of the upper slopes of isolated, steep-sided mountains. It is created by the low pressure areas in the downwind vortices drawing in relatively humid air from the lower slopes of the mountain. This reduction in pressure compared to the surrounding air increases condensation, in the same manner as an aircraft's wingtip vortices. The most famous such cloud forms routinely in the lee of the Matterhorn.
Associated clouds:
The leeward edge of an extensive mass of orographic clouds may be quite distinct. On the leeward side of the mountain, the air flowing downward is known as a foehn wind. Because some of the moisture that has condensed on the top of the mountain has precipitated, the foehn (or föhn) is drier, and the lower moisture content causes the descending air mass to warm up more than it had cooled down during ascent. The distinct cut-off line which forms along and parallel to the ridge line is sometimes known as a foehn wall (or föhn wall). This is because the edge appears stationary and it often appears to have an abrupt wall-like edge.: 676–677 A foehn wall is a common feature along the Front Range of the Colorado Rockies.
Associated clouds:
A rotor cloud is sometimes formed downwind and below the level of the ridge. It has the appearance of the ragged cumulus cloud type but it is caused by a turbulent horizontal vortex, i.e. the air is very rough.
Lenticular clouds are stationary lens-shaped clouds that are formed downwind of mountains by lee waves if the air mass is close to the dew point. They are normally aligned at right-angles to the wind direction and are formed at altitudes up to 12,000 metres (39,370 ft).
A cap cloud is a special form of the lenticular cloud with a base low enough that it forms around and covers the peak, capping it.
Associated clouds:
A chinook arch cloud is an extensive wave cloud. It has this special name in North America where it is associated with the Chinook wind. It forms above the mountain range, usually at the beginning of a chinook wind as a result of orographic lifting over the range. It appears when seen from downwind to form an arch over the mountain range. A layer of clear air separates it from the mountain. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Cordis (medical)**
Cordis (medical):
Cordis is an American international medical company that develops and manufactures medical devices for diagnostics and interventional procedures to treat coronary and peripheral vascular diseases. The company operates in the North America, Europe, Middle East, Africa, Asia-Pacific, and Latin America markets.
Cordis (medical):
Cordis was founded in 1957 by Dr. William P. Murphy Jr. as The Medical Development Corporation in Miami, Florida. Currently, the company is jointly headquartered in Baar, Switzerland and Santa Clara, California. The headquarters also act as a hub for Cordis' operations in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East. The North American operations are based out of the San Francisco Bay area. The Asia-Pacific hub is located in Singapore, and the Latin American hub is in Puerto Rico.[1]
History:
The Medical Development Corporation was founded in 1957 in Miami, Florida, by Dr. William P. Murphy Jr. and focused on interventional vascular medicine and neuroscience. In 1959, the company's name was changed to Cordis.In 1970, Cordis introduced the first sheath introducers with hemostasis valves, designed to minimize blood loss during an angioplasty procedure.In 1996, Cordis joined the Johnson & Johnson Intervention Systems (JJIS) and a year later, Cordis Corporation expanded into electrophysiology after Johnson & Johnson acquired Biosense Inc. and merged it with Cordis. In 1998, Biosense Inc. merged with Webster Laboratories to form Biosense Webster, Inc.In 2015, Cardinal Health acquired the Cordis business from Johnson & Johnson for $1.944 billion.On March 31, 2017, Cardinal Health announced two new strategic agreements that enabled Cordis, Cardinal Health's interventional vascular business, to expand its cardiology product offering in China. In March 2021, Cardinal announced plans to sell Cordis to private equity firm Hellman & Friedman for $1 billion. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Degree of a differential equation**
Degree of a differential equation:
In mathematics, a differential equation is an equation that relates one or more unknown functions and their derivatives. In applications, the functions generally represent physical quantities, the derivatives represent their rates of change, and the differential equation defines a relationship between the two. Such relations are common; therefore, differential equations play a prominent role in many disciplines including engineering, physics, economics, and biology.
Degree of a differential equation:
The study of differential equations consists mainly of the study of their solutions (the set of functions that satisfy each equation), and of the properties of their solutions. Only the simplest differential equations are soluble by explicit formulas; however, many properties of solutions of a given differential equation may be determined without computing them exactly.
Often when a closed-form expression for the solutions is not available, solutions may be approximated numerically using computers. The theory of dynamical systems puts emphasis on qualitative analysis of systems described by differential equations, while many numerical methods have been developed to determine solutions with a given degree of accuracy.
History:
Differential equations came into existence with the invention of calculus by Newton and Leibniz. In Chapter 2 of his 1671 work Methodus fluxionum et Serierum Infinitarum, Isaac Newton listed three kinds of differential equations: dydx=f(x)dydx=f(x,y)x1∂y∂x1+x2∂y∂x2=y In all these cases, y is an unknown function of x (or of x1 and x2), and f is a given function.
He solves these examples and others using infinite series and discusses the non-uniqueness of solutions.
History:
Jacob Bernoulli proposed the Bernoulli differential equation in 1695. This is an ordinary differential equation of the form y′+P(x)y=Q(x)yn for which the following year Leibniz obtained solutions by simplifying it.Historically, the problem of a vibrating string such as that of a musical instrument was studied by Jean le Rond d'Alembert, Leonhard Euler, Daniel Bernoulli, and Joseph-Louis Lagrange. In 1746, d’Alembert discovered the one-dimensional wave equation, and within ten years Euler discovered the three-dimensional wave equation.The Euler–Lagrange equation was developed in the 1750s by Euler and Lagrange in connection with their studies of the tautochrone problem. This is the problem of determining a curve on which a weighted particle will fall to a fixed point in a fixed amount of time, independent of the starting point. Lagrange solved this problem in 1755 and sent the solution to Euler. Both further developed Lagrange's method and applied it to mechanics, which led to the formulation of Lagrangian mechanics.
History:
In 1822, Fourier published his work on heat flow in Théorie analytique de la chaleur (The Analytic Theory of Heat), in which he based his reasoning on Newton's law of cooling, namely, that the flow of heat between two adjacent molecules is proportional to the extremely small difference of their temperatures. Contained in this book was Fourier's proposal of his heat equation for conductive diffusion of heat. This partial differential equation is now a common part of mathematical physics curriculum.
Example:
In classical mechanics, the motion of a body is described by its position and velocity as the time value varies. Newton's laws allow these variables to be expressed dynamically (given the position, velocity, acceleration and various forces acting on the body) as a differential equation for the unknown position of the body as a function of time.
In some cases, this differential equation (called an equation of motion) may be solved explicitly.
Example:
An example of modeling a real-world problem using differential equations is the determination of the velocity of a ball falling through the air, considering only gravity and air resistance. The ball's acceleration towards the ground is the acceleration due to gravity minus the deceleration due to air resistance. Gravity is considered constant, and air resistance may be modeled as proportional to the ball's velocity. This means that the ball's acceleration, which is a derivative of its velocity, depends on the velocity (and the velocity depends on time). Finding the velocity as a function of time involves solving a differential equation and verifying its validity.
Types:
Differential equations can be divided into several types. Apart from describing the properties of the equation itself, these classes of differential equations can help inform the choice of approach to a solution. Commonly used distinctions include whether the equation is ordinary or partial, linear or non-linear, and homogeneous or heterogeneous. This list is far from exhaustive; there are many other properties and subclasses of differential equations which can be very useful in specific contexts.
Types:
Ordinary differential equations An ordinary differential equation (ODE) is an equation containing an unknown function of one real or complex variable x, its derivatives, and some given functions of x. The unknown function is generally represented by a variable (often denoted y), which, therefore, depends on x. Thus x is often called the independent variable of the equation. The term "ordinary" is used in contrast with the term partial differential equation, which may be with respect to more than one independent variable.
Types:
Linear differential equations are the differential equations that are linear in the unknown function and its derivatives. Their theory is well developed, and in many cases one may express their solutions in terms of integrals.
Most ODEs that are encountered in physics are linear. Therefore, most special functions may be defined as solutions of linear differential equations (see Holonomic function).
As, in general, the solutions of a differential equation cannot be expressed by a closed-form expression, numerical methods are commonly used for solving differential equations on a computer.
Types:
Partial differential equations A partial differential equation (PDE) is a differential equation that contains unknown multivariable functions and their partial derivatives. (This is in contrast to ordinary differential equations, which deal with functions of a single variable and their derivatives.) PDEs are used to formulate problems involving functions of several variables, and are either solved in closed form, or used to create a relevant computer model.
Types:
PDEs can be used to describe a wide variety of phenomena in nature such as sound, heat, electrostatics, electrodynamics, fluid flow, elasticity, or quantum mechanics. These seemingly distinct physical phenomena can be formalized similarly in terms of PDEs. Just as ordinary differential equations often model one-dimensional dynamical systems, partial differential equations often model multidimensional systems. Stochastic partial differential equations generalize partial differential equations for modeling randomness.
Types:
Non-linear differential equations A non-linear differential equation is a differential equation that is not a linear equation in the unknown function and its derivatives (the linearity or non-linearity in the arguments of the function are not considered here). There are very few methods of solving nonlinear differential equations exactly; those that are known typically depend on the equation having particular symmetries. Nonlinear differential equations can exhibit very complicated behaviour over extended time intervals, characteristic of chaos. Even the fundamental questions of existence, uniqueness, and extendability of solutions for nonlinear differential equations, and well-posedness of initial and boundary value problems for nonlinear PDEs are hard problems and their resolution in special cases is considered to be a significant advance in the mathematical theory (cf. Navier–Stokes existence and smoothness). However, if the differential equation is a correctly formulated representation of a meaningful physical process, then one expects it to have a solution.Linear differential equations frequently appear as approximations to nonlinear equations. These approximations are only valid under restricted conditions. For example, the harmonic oscillator equation is an approximation to the nonlinear pendulum equation that is valid for small amplitude oscillations.
Types:
Equation order and degree The order of the differential equation is the highest order of derivative of the unknown function that appears in the differential equation. For example, an equation containing only first-order derivatives is a first-order differential equation, an equation containing the second-order derivative is a second-order differential equation, and so on.When it is written as a polynomial equation in the unknown function and its derivatives, its degree of the differential equation is, depending on the context, the polynomial degree in the highest derivative of the unknown function, or its total degree in the unknown function and its derivatives. In particular, a linear differential equation has degree one for both meanings, but the non-linear differential equation y′+y2=0 is of degree one for the first meaning but not for the second one.
Types:
Differential equations that describe natural phenomena almost always have only first and second order derivatives in them, but there are some exceptions, such as the thin-film equation, which is a fourth order partial differential equation.
Examples In the first group of examples u is an unknown function of x, and c and ω are constants that are supposed to be known. Two broad classifications of both ordinary and partial differential equations consist of distinguishing between linear and nonlinear differential equations, and between homogeneous differential equations and heterogeneous ones.
Heterogeneous first-order linear constant coefficient ordinary differential equation: dudx=cu+x2.
Homogeneous second-order linear ordinary differential equation: 0.
Homogeneous second-order linear constant coefficient ordinary differential equation describing the harmonic oscillator: 0.
Heterogeneous first-order nonlinear ordinary differential equation: 4.
Second-order nonlinear (due to sine function) ordinary differential equation describing the motion of a pendulum of length L: sin 0.
In the next group of examples, the unknown function u depends on two variables x and t or x and y.
Homogeneous first-order linear partial differential equation: 0.
Homogeneous second-order linear constant coefficient partial differential equation of elliptic type, the Laplace equation: 0.
Homogeneous third-order non-linear partial differential equation, the KdV equation: ∂u∂t=6u∂u∂x−∂3u∂x3.
Existence of solutions:
Solving differential equations is not like solving algebraic equations. Not only are their solutions often unclear, but whether solutions are unique or exist at all are also notable subjects of interest.
Existence of solutions:
For first order initial value problems, the Peano existence theorem gives one set of circumstances in which a solution exists. Given any point (a,b) in the xy-plane, define some rectangular region Z , such that Z=[l,m]×[n,p] and (a,b) is in the interior of Z . If we are given a differential equation {\textstyle {\frac {dy}{dx}}=g(x,y)} and the condition that y=b when x=a , then there is locally a solution to this problem if g(x,y) and {\textstyle {\frac {\partial g}{\partial x}}} are both continuous on Z . This solution exists on some interval with its center at a . The solution may not be unique. (See Ordinary differential equation for other results.) However, this only helps us with first order initial value problems. Suppose we had a linear initial value problem of the nth order: fn(x)dnydxn+⋯+f1(x)dydx+f0(x)y=g(x) such that y(x0)=y0,y′(x0)=y0′,y″(x0)=y0″,… For any nonzero fn(x) , if {f0,f1,…} and g are continuous on some interval containing x0 , y is unique and exists.
Related concepts:
A delay differential equation (DDE) is an equation for a function of a single variable, usually called time, in which the derivative of the function at a certain time is given in terms of the values of the function at earlier times.
Integral equations may be viewed as the analog to differential equations where instead of the equation involving derivatives, the equation contains integrals.
An integro-differential equation (IDE) is an equation that combines aspects of a differential equation and an integral equation.
A stochastic differential equation (SDE) is an equation in which the unknown quantity is a stochastic process and the equation involves some known stochastic processes, for example, the Wiener process in the case of diffusion equations.
A stochastic partial differential equation (SPDE) is an equation that generalizes SDEs to include space-time noise processes, with applications in quantum field theory and statistical mechanics.
An ultrametric pseudo-differential equation is an equation which contains p-adic numbers in an ultrametric space. Mathematical models that involve ultrametric pseudo-differential equations use pseudo-differential operators instead of differential operators.
A differential algebraic equation (DAE) is a differential equation comprising differential and algebraic terms, given in implicit form.
Connection to difference equations:
The theory of differential equations is closely related to the theory of difference equations, in which the coordinates assume only discrete values, and the relationship involves values of the unknown function or functions and values at nearby coordinates. Many methods to compute numerical solutions of differential equations or study the properties of differential equations involve the approximation of the solution of a differential equation by the solution of a corresponding difference equation.
Applications:
The study of differential equations is a wide field in pure and applied mathematics, physics, and engineering. All of these disciplines are concerned with the properties of differential equations of various types. Pure mathematics focuses on the existence and uniqueness of solutions, while applied mathematics emphasizes the rigorous justification of the methods for approximating solutions. Differential equations play an important role in modeling virtually every physical, technical, or biological process, from celestial motion, to bridge design, to interactions between neurons. Differential equations such as those used to solve real-life problems may not necessarily be directly solvable, i.e. do not have closed form solutions. Instead, solutions can be approximated using numerical methods.
Applications:
Many fundamental laws of physics and chemistry can be formulated as differential equations. In biology and economics, differential equations are used to model the behavior of complex systems. The mathematical theory of differential equations first developed together with the sciences where the equations had originated and where the results found application. However, diverse problems, sometimes originating in quite distinct scientific fields, may give rise to identical differential equations. Whenever this happens, mathematical theory behind the equations can be viewed as a unifying principle behind diverse phenomena. As an example, consider the propagation of light and sound in the atmosphere, and of waves on the surface of a pond. All of them may be described by the same second-order partial differential equation, the wave equation, which allows us to think of light and sound as forms of waves, much like familiar waves in the water. Conduction of heat, the theory of which was developed by Joseph Fourier, is governed by another second-order partial differential equation, the heat equation. It turns out that many diffusion processes, while seemingly different, are described by the same equation; the Black–Scholes equation in finance is, for instance, related to the heat equation.
Applications:
The number of differential equations that have received a name, in various scientific areas is a witness of the importance of the topic. See List of named differential equations.
Software:
Some CAS software can solve differential equations. These CAS software and their commands are worth mentioning: Maple: dsolve Mathematica: DSolve[] Maxima: ode2(equation, y, x) SageMath: desolve() SymPy: sympy.solvers.ode.dsolve(equation) Xcas: desolve(y'=k*y,y) | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**SARG04**
SARG04:
SARG04 (named after Valerio Scarani, Antonio Acin, Gregoire Ribordy, and Nicolas Gisin) is a 2004 quantum cryptography protocol derived from the first protocol of that kind, BB84.
Origin:
Researchers built SARG04 when they noticed that by using the four states of BB84 with a different information encoding they could develop a new protocol which would be more robust, especially against the photon-number-splitting attack, when attenuated laser pulses are used instead of single-photon sources. SARG04 was defined by Scarani et al. in 2004 in Physical Review Letters as a prepare and measure version (in which it is equivalent to BB84 when viewed at the level of quantum processing).An entanglement-based version has been defined as well.
Description:
In the SARG04 scheme, Alice wishes to send a private key to Bob. She begins with two strings of bits, a and b , each n bits long. She then encodes these two strings as a string of n qubits, |ψ⟩=⨂i=1n|ψaibi⟩.
ai and bi are the ith bits of a and b , respectively. Together, aibi give us an index into the following four qubit states: 00 ⟩=|0⟩ 10 ⟩=|1⟩ 01 ⟩=|+⟩=12|0⟩+12|1⟩ 11 ⟩=|−⟩=12|0⟩−12|1⟩.
Description:
Note that the bit bi is what decides which basis ai is encoded in (either in the computational basis or the Hadamard basis). The qubits are now in states which are not mutually orthogonal, and thus it is impossible to distinguish all of them with certainty without knowing b Alice sends |ψ⟩ over a public quantum channel to Bob. Bob receives a state ερ=ε|ψ⟩⟨ψ| , where ε represents the effects of noise in the channel as well as eavesdropping by a third party we'll call Eve. After Bob receives the string of qubits, all three parties, namely Alice, Bob and Eve, have their own states. However, since only Alice knows b , it makes it virtually impossible for either Bob or Eve to distinguish the states of the qubits.
Description:
Bob proceeds to generate a string of random bits b′ of the same length as b , and uses those bits for his choice of basis when measuring the qubits transmitted by Alice. At this point, Bob announces publicly that he has received Alice's transmission. For each qubit sent, Alice chooses one computational basis state and one Hadamard basis state such that the state of the qubit is one of these two states. Alice then announces those two states. Alice will note whether the state is the computational basis state or the Hadamard basis state; that piece of information makes up the secret bit that Alice wishes to communicate to Bob. Bob now knows that the state of his qubit was one of the two states indicated by Alice. To determine the secret bit, Bob must distinguish between the two candidate states. For each qubit, Bob can check to see whether his measurement is consistent with either possible state. If it is consistent with either state, Bob announces that the bit is invalid, since he cannot distinguish which state was transmitted based on the measurement. If on the other hand, one of the two candidate states was inconsistent with the observed measurement, Bob announces that the bit is valid since he can deduce the state (and therefore the secret bit).
Description:
Consider for example the scenario that Alice transmits 00 ⟩ and announces the two states 00 ⟩ and 01 ⟩ . If Bob measures in the computational basis, his only possible measurement is 00 ⟩ . This outcome is clearly consistent with the state having been 00 ⟩ , but it would also be a possible outcome if the state had been 01 ⟩ . If Bob measures in the Hadamard basis, either 01 ⟩ or 11 ⟩ could be measured, each with probability ½. If the outcome is 01 ⟩ then again this state is consistent with either starting state. On the other hand, an outcome of 11 ⟩ cannot possibly be observed from a qubit in state 01 ⟩ . Thus in the case that Bob measures in the Hadamard basis and observes state 11 ⟩ (and only in that case), Bob can deduce which state he was sent and therefore what the secret bit is.
Description:
From the remaining k bits where both Bob's measurement was conclusive, Alice randomly chooses k/2 bits and discloses her choices over the public channel. Both Alice and Bob announce these bits publicly and run a check to see if more than a certain number of them agree. If this check passes, Alice and Bob proceed to use privacy amplification and information reconciliation techniques to create some number of shared secret keys. Otherwise, they cancel and start over.
Description:
The advantage of this scheme relative to the simpler BB84 protocol is that Alice never announces the basis of her bit. As a result, Eve needs to store more copies of the qubit in order to be able to eventually determine the state than she would if the basis were directly announced.
Intended use:
The intended use of SARG04 is in situations where the information is originated by a Poissonian source producing weak pulses (this means: mean number of photons < 1) and received by an imperfect detector, which is when attenuated laser pulses are used instead of single photons. Such a SARG04 system can be reliable up to a distance of about 10 km.
Modus operandi:
The modus operandi of SARG04 is based on the principle that the hardware must remain the same (as prior protocols) and the only change must be in the protocol itself.In the original "prepare and measure" version, SARG04's two conjugated bases are chosen with equal probability.Double clicks (when both detectors click) are important for comprehending SARG04: double clicks work differently in BB84 and SARG04. In BB84, their item is discarded because there is no way to tell what bit Alice has sent. In SARG04, they are also discarded, "for simplicity", but their occurrence is monitored to prevent eavesdropping. See the paper for a full quantum analysis of the various cases.
Security:
Kiyoshi Tamaki and Hoi-Kwong Lo were successful in proving security for one and two-photon pulses using SARG04.It has been confirmed that SARG04 is more robust than BB84 against incoherent PNS attacks.Unfortunately an incoherent attack has been identified which performs better than a simple phase-covariant cloning machine, and SARG04 has been found to be particularly vulnerable in single-photon implementations when Q >= 14.9%.
Comparison with BB84:
In single-photon implementations, SARG04 was theorised to be equal with BB84, but experiments have shown that it is inferior. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Thoracodorsal artery**
Thoracodorsal artery:
The thoracodorsal artery is a branch of the subscapular artery. It travels inferiorly with the thoracodorsal nerve and supplies the latissimus dorsi. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Rose's (marmalade)**
Rose's (marmalade):
Rose's is a brand of marmalade made by Hain Daniels Group. It is a popular product in the UK on buttered toast for breakfast.
History:
It started as L. Rose & Co. Limited in 1865, started by Lauchlan Rose (1829–1885). He also imported lime juice from the West Indies (Dominica) in the 1860s, to make Rose's lime juice cordial, supplied by Premier Foods in certain countries for which it has the trade licence. This was the world's first concentrated food drink, and helped to prevent scurvy. The founder died on 9 May 1885 in Stoke Newington. His grandson would serve in the First World War in the Royal Engineers under Sir Gordon Guggisberg, who later became Governor of the Gold Coast (Ghana). Due to an acquaintance, limes were exported from the Gold Coast from 1924.
History:
In July 1955 the lime juice gained a Royal Warrant of Appointment to Her Majesty. The company was the sole distributor of Dubonnet in the UK from 1938.
The Lime Marmalade was introduced in the 1930s. Its slogan in the 1940s was The Difference is Delightful. It was marketed as a British Empire Product. During the war it was restricted under the jam ration.
Ownership:
The company was based in London, but the premises were mostly damaged by bombs on 7 September 1940, although a new site had been built at St Albans.
After the war, the company was based on Grosvenor Road in St Albans, Hertfordshire. There was another plant at Boxmoor Wharf at Hemel Hempstead, which closed in 1983. Lime juice was transported to the site from Brentford by canal.
Lauchlan Rose MC (10 November 1894 – 9 January 1986), grandson of the founder, and son of Charles Morrison Rose, became General Manager in 1924. In 1964 Rose was President of the Food Manufacturers Federation.
Schweppes In July 1957 L. Rose & Co Ltd was approached by Schweppes, who bought it in August 1957. Sir Frederick Hooper, Managing Director of Schweppes, joined the Board of Directors. The company at the time was making around £167,000 in profit. The Rose's lime juice cordial brand is still owned by the derivative company of Schweppes.
In 1969 Schweppes became Cadbury-Schweppes.
Products:
The range of marmalades include: Lemon & Lime Lime Lemon Grapefruit Orange Ginger
Australia:
In Australia the brand is owned by Cadbury and licensed to Heinz. The product is made in New Zealand by a generic food making company. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Trans-Propenylbenzene**
Trans-Propenylbenzene:
trans-Propenylbenzene is an organic compound with the formula C6H5CH=CHCH3. It is the more stable of the two isomers of 1-propenylbenzene. Both isomers are colorless flammable liquids. It is formed by the isomerization of allylbenzene. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Hypertrichosis cubiti**
Hypertrichosis cubiti:
Hypertrichosis cubiti (also known as "hairy elbow syndrome") is a cutaneous condition characterized by multiple terminal hairs on both elbows in children.
Causes:
One known cause of hypertrichosis cubiti is Wiedemann-Steiner syndrome. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Syngenite**
Syngenite:
Syngenite is an uncommon potassium calcium sulfate mineral with formula K2Ca(SO4)2·H2O. It forms as prismatic monoclinic crystals and as encrustations.
Discovery and occurrence:
It was first described in 1872 for an occurrence as druse on halite in the Kalusa Salt deposit, Ivanovo-Frankovsk Oblast', Ukraine. The name is from Greek 'συγγενής' (related) due to its chemical similarity to polyhalite.It occurs in marine evaporite deposits as a diagenetic phase. It also forms as a volcanic sublimate, as vein fillings in geothermal fields and in caves where it is derived from bat guano. It occurs in association with halite and arcanite in salt deposits; and with biphosphammite, aphthitalite, monetite, whitlockite, uricite, brushite and gypsum in cave environments.It is also found in hardened cement which has relatively higher amount of potassium.
Production:
Syngenite can be artificially produced by the action of a potassium sulfate solution on gypsum. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Hyperspecial subgroup**
Hyperspecial subgroup:
In the theory of reductive groups over local fields, a hyperspecial subgroup of a reductive group G is a certain type of compact subgroup of G.
Hyperspecial subgroup:
In particular, let F be a nonarchimedean local field, O its ring of integers, k its residue field and G a reductive group over F. A subgroup K of G(F) is called hyperspecial if there exists a smooth group scheme Γ over O such that ΓF=G, Γk is a connected reductive group, and Γ(O)=K.The original definition of a hyperspecial subgroup (appearing in section 1.10.2 of ) was in terms of hyperspecial points in the Bruhat–Tits building of G. The equivalent definition above is given in the same paper of Tits, section 3.8.1.
Hyperspecial subgroup:
Hyperspecial subgroups of G(F) exist if, and only if, G is unramified over F.An interesting property of hyperspecial subgroups, is that among all compact subgroups of G(F), the hyperspecial subgroups have maximum measure. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Blaschke product**
Blaschke product:
In complex analysis, the Blaschke product is a bounded analytic function in the open unit disc constructed to have zeros at a (finite or infinite) sequence of prescribed complex numbers a0,a1,… inside the unit disc, with the property that the magnitude of the function is constant along the boundary of the disc.
Blaschke products were introduced by Wilhelm Blaschke (1915). They are related to Hardy spaces.
Definition:
A sequence of points (an) inside the unit disk is said to satisfy the Blaschke condition when ∑n(1−|an|)<∞.
Definition:
Given a sequence obeying the Blaschke condition, the Blaschke product is defined as B(z)=∏nB(an,z) with factors B(a,z)=|a|aa−z1−a¯z provided a≠0 . Here a¯ is the complex conjugate of a . When a=0 take B(0,z)=z The Blaschke product B(z) defines a function analytic in the open unit disc, and zero exactly at the an (with multiplicity counted): furthermore it is in the Hardy class H∞ .The sequence of an satisfying the convergence criterion above is sometimes called a Blaschke sequence.
Szegő theorem:
A theorem of Gábor Szegő states that if f∈H1 , the Hardy space with integrable norm, and if f is not identically zero, then the zeroes of f (certainly countable in number) satisfy the Blaschke condition.
Finite Blaschke products:
Finite Blaschke products can be characterized (as analytic functions on the unit disc) in the following way: Assume that f is an analytic function on the open unit disc such that f can be extended to a continuous function on the closed unit disc Δ¯={z∈C∣|z|≤1} that maps the unit circle to itself. Then f is equal to a finite Blaschke product B(z)=ζ∏i=1n(z−ai1−ai¯z)mi where ζ lies on the unit circle and mi is the multiplicity of the zero ai , |ai|<1 . In particular, if f satisfies the condition above and has no zeros inside the unit circle, then f is constant (this fact is also a consequence of the maximum principle for harmonic functions, applied to the harmonic function log (|f(z)|) | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Darwin's Dangerous Idea**
Darwin's Dangerous Idea:
Darwin's Dangerous Idea: Evolution and the Meanings of Life is a 1995 book by the philosopher Daniel Dennett, in which the author looks at some of the repercussions of Darwinian theory. The crux of the argument is that, whether or not Darwin's theories are overturned, there is no going back from the dangerous idea that design (purpose or what something is for) might not need a designer. Dennett makes this case on the basis that natural selection is a blind process, which is nevertheless sufficiently powerful to explain the evolution of life. Darwin's discovery was that the generation of life worked algorithmically, that processes behind it work in such a way that given these processes the results that they tend toward must be so.
Darwin's Dangerous Idea:
Dennett says, for example, that by claiming that minds cannot be reduced to purely algorithmic processes, many of his eminent contemporaries are claiming that miracles can occur. These assertions have generated a great deal of debate and discussion in the general public. The book was a finalist for the 1995 National Book Award in non-fiction and the 1996 Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction.
Background:
Dennett's previous book was Consciousness Explained (1991). Dennett noted discomfort with Darwinism among not only lay people but also even academics and decided it was time to write a book dealing with the subject. Darwin's Dangerous Idea is not meant to be a work of science, but rather an interdisciplinary book; Dennett admits that he does not understand all of the scientific details himself. He goes into a moderate level of detail, but leaves it for the reader to go into greater depth if desired, providing references to this end.
Background:
In writing the book, Dennett wanted to "get thinkers in other disciplines to take evolutionary theory seriously, to show them how they have been underestimating it, and to show them why they have been listening to the wrong sirens". To do this he tells a story; one that is mainly original but includes some material from his previous work.
Dennett taught an undergraduate seminar at Tufts University on Darwin and philosophy, which included most of the ideas in the book. He also had the help of fellow staff and other academics, some of whom read drafts of the book. It is dedicated to W. V. O. Quine, "teacher and friend".
Synopsis:
Part I: Starting in the Middle "Starting in the Middle", Part I of Darwin's Dangerous Idea, gets its name from a quote by Willard Van Orman Quine: "Analyze theory-building how we will, we all must start in the middle. Our conceptual firsts are middle-sized, middle-distance objects, and our introduction to them and to everything comes midway in the cultural evolution of the race." The first chapter "Tell Me Why" is named after a song.
Synopsis:
Tell me why the stars do shine,Tell me why the ivy twines, Tell me why the sky's so blue.
Then I will tell you just why I love you.
Because God made the stars to shine, Because God made the ivy twine, Because God made the sky so blue.
Because God made you, that's why I love you.
Before Charles Darwin, and still today, a majority of people see God as the ultimate cause of all design, or the ultimate answer to 'why?' questions. John Locke argued for the primacy of mind before matter, and David Hume, while exposing problems with Locke's view, could not see any alternative.
Synopsis:
Darwin provided just such an alternative: evolution. Besides providing evidence of common descent, he introduced a mechanism to explain it: natural selection. According to Dennett, natural selection is a mindless, mechanical and algorithmic process—Darwin's dangerous idea. The third chapter introduces the concept of "skyhooks" and "cranes" (see below). He suggests that resistance to Darwinism is based on a desire for skyhooks, which do not really exist. According to Dennett, good reductionists explain apparent design without skyhooks; greedy reductionists try to explain it without cranes.
Synopsis:
Chapter 4 looks at the tree of life, such as how it can be visualized and some crucial events in life's history. The next chapter concerns the possible and the actual, using the 'Library of Mendel' (the space of all logically possible genomes) as a conceptual aid.
Synopsis:
In the last chapter of part I, Dennett treats human artifacts and culture as a branch of a unified Design Space. Descent or homology can be detected by shared design features that would be unlikely to appear independently. However, there are also "Forced Moves" or "Good Tricks" that will be discovered repeatedly, either by natural selection (see convergent evolution) or human investigation.
Synopsis:
Part II: Darwinian Thinking in Biology The first chapter of part II, "Darwinian Thinking in Biology", asserts that life originated without any skyhooks, and the orderly world we know is the result of a blind and undirected shuffle through chaos.
Synopsis:
The eighth chapter's message is conveyed by its title, "Biology is Engineering"; biology is the study of design, function, construction and operation. However, there are some important differences between biology and engineering. Related to the engineering concept of optimization, the next chapter deals with adaptationism, which Dennett endorses, calling Gould and Lewontin's "refutation" of it an illusion. Dennett thinks adaptationism is, in fact, the best way of uncovering constraints.
Synopsis:
The tenth chapter, entitled "Bully for Brontosaurus", is an extended critique of Stephen Jay Gould, who Dennett feels has created a distorted view of evolution with his popular writings; his "self-styled revolutions" against adaptationism, gradualism and other orthodox Darwinism all being false alarms. The final chapter of part II dismisses directed mutation, the inheritance of acquired traits and Teilhard's "Omega Point", and insists that other controversies and hypotheses (like the unit of selection and Panspermia) have no dire consequences for orthodox Darwinism.
Synopsis:
Part III: Mind, Meaning, Mathematics and Morality "Mind, Meaning, Mathematics and Morality" is the name of Part III, which begins with a quote from Nietzsche. Chapter 12, "The Cranes of Culture", discusses cultural evolution. It asserts that the meme has a role to play in our understanding of culture, and that it allows humans, alone among animals, to "transcend" our selfish genes. "Losing Our Minds to Darwin" follows, a chapter about the evolution of brains, minds and language. Dennett criticizes Noam Chomsky's perceived resistance to the evolution of language, its modeling by artificial intelligence, and reverse engineering.
Synopsis:
The evolution of meaning is then discussed, and Dennett uses a series of thought experiments to persuade the reader that meaning is the product of meaningless, algorithmic processes.
Synopsis:
Chapter 15 asserts that Gödel's Theorem does not make certain sorts of artificial intelligence impossible. Dennett extends his criticism to Roger Penrose. The subject then moves on to the origin and evolution of morality, beginning with Thomas Hobbes (who Dennett calls "the first sociobiologist") and Friedrich Nietzsche. He concludes that only an evolutionary analysis of ethics makes sense, though he cautions against some varieties of 'greedy ethical reductionism'. Before moving to the next chapter, he discusses some sociobiology controversies.
Synopsis:
The penultimate chapter, entitled "Redesigning Morality", begins by asking if ethics can be 'naturalized'. Dennett does not believe there is much hope of discovering an algorithm for doing the right thing, but expresses optimism in our ability to design and redesign our approach to moral problems. In "The Future of an Idea", the book's last chapter, Dennett praises biodiversity, including cultural diversity. In closing, he uses Beauty and the Beast as an analogy; although Darwin's idea may seem dangerous, it is actually quite beautiful.
Central concepts:
Design Space Dennett believes there is little or no principled difference between the naturally generated products of evolution and the man-made artifacts of human creativity and culture. For this reason he indicates deliberately that the complex fruits of the tree of life are in a very meaningful sense "designed"—even though he does not believe evolution was guided by a higher intelligence.
Central concepts:
Dennett supports using the notion of memes to better understand cultural evolution. He also believes even human creativity might operate by the Darwinian mechanism. This leads him to propose that the "space" describing biological "design" is connected with the space describing human culture and technology.
A precise mathematical definition of Design Space is not given in Darwin's Dangerous Idea. Dennett acknowledges this and admits he is offering a philosophical idea rather than a scientific formulation.
Natural selection as an algorithm Dennett describes natural selection as a substrate-neutral, mindless algorithm for moving through Design Space.
Central concepts:
Universal acid Dennett writes about the fantasy of a "universal acid" as a liquid that is so corrosive that it would eat through anything that it came into contact with, even a potential container. Such a powerful substance would transform everything it was applied to; leaving something very different in its wake. This is where Dennett draws parallels from the “universal acid” to Darwin's idea: it eats through just about every traditional concept, and leaves in its wake a revolutionized world-view, with most of the old landmarks still recognizable, but transformed in fundamental ways.
Central concepts:
While there are people who would like to see Darwin's idea contained within the field of biology, Dennett asserts that this dangerous idea inevitably “leaks” out to transform other fields as well.
Skyhooks and cranes Dennett uses the term "skyhook" to describe a source of design complexity that does not build on lower, simpler layers—in simple terms, a miracle.
In philosophical arguments concerning the reducibility (or otherwise) of the human mind, Dennett's concept pokes fun at the idea of intelligent design emanating from on high, either originating from one or more gods, or providing its own grounds in an absurd, Munchausen-like bootstrapping manner.
Dennett also accuses various competing neo-Darwinian ideas of making use of such supposedly unscientific skyhooks in explaining evolution, coming down particularly hard on the ideas of Stephen Jay Gould.
Dennett contrasts theories of complexity that require such miracles with those based on "cranes", structures that permit the construction of entities of greater complexity but are themselves founded solidly "on the ground" of physical science.
Reception:
In The New York Review of Books, John Maynard Smith praised Darwin's Dangerous Idea: It is therefore a pleasure to meet a philosopher who understands what Darwinism is about, and approves of it.
Dennett goes well beyond biology. He sees Darwinism as a corrosive acid, capable of dissolving our earlier belief and forcing a reconsideration of much of sociology and philosophy. Although modestly written, this is not a modest book. Dennett argues that, if we understand Darwin's dangerous idea, we are forced to reject or modify much of our current intellectual baggage...
Reception:
Writing in the same publication, Stephen Jay Gould criticised Darwin's Dangerous Idea for being an "influential but misguided ultra-Darwinian manifesto": Daniel Dennett devotes the longest chapter in Darwin's Dangerous Idea to an excoriating caricature of my ideas, all in order to bolster his defense of Darwinian fundamentalism. If an argued case can be discerned at all amid the slurs and sneers, it would have to be described as an effort to claim that I have, thanks to some literary skill, tried to raise a few piddling, insignificant, and basically conventional ideas to "revolutionary" status, challenging what he takes to be the true Darwinian scripture. Since Dennett shows so little understanding of evolutionary theory beyond natural selection, his critique of my work amounts to little more than sniping at false targets of his own construction. He never deals with my ideas as such, but proceeds by hint, innuendo, false attribution, and error.
Reception:
Gould was also a harsh critic of Dennett's idea of the "universal acid" of natural selection and of his subscription to the idea of memetics; Dennett responded, and the exchange between Dennett, Gould, and Robert Wright was printed in the New York Review of Books.Biologist H. Allen Orr wrote a critical review emphasizing similar points in the Boston Review.The book has also provoked a negative reaction from creationists; Frederick Crews writes that Darwin's Dangerous Idea "rivals Richard Dawkins's The Blind Watchmaker as the creationists' most cordially hated text." | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Push (professional wrestling)**
Push (professional wrestling):
In professional wrestling, a push is an attempt by the booker to make a wrestler win more matches and become more popular or more reviled with the fans depending on whether they are a heroic character ("face") or a villain ("heel"). It is not uncommon for a push to be accompanied by a turn or a change in the wrestler's gimmick. This is essentially the opposite of a burial, which in contrast to the high profile of a push is typically done with little or no fanfare. Sometimes the fans generate the push for a wrestler themselves when their approval for the wrestler's work generates a positive reaction from them that is not anticipated.
History:
In the Memphis territory, Nick Gulas began to push his son George to a main event spot despite having little in-ring experience and no athletic background. The fans quickly turned on him and the promotion, but Nick Gulas continued to push him despite the negative backlash and financial losses. In the end, Nick's insistence on keeping his son at the top of the card led to a hostile split of the territory.A push can also be attributed to a political shift in the promotion's offices. Cowboy Bill Watts, whose promotions always consisted of an African-American main event heroic character, began pushing Ron Simmons, a midcarder, to main event status and eventually to the WCW World Heavyweight Championship upon being put in charge of World Championship Wrestling (WCW) at the same time he controversially pushed his son Erik into the wrestling scene.In WWE, following the fallout from the Signature Pharmacy Scandal, smaller and less muscular wrestlers such as CM Punk and Jeff Hardy began to get pushed and Vince McMahon confirmed the paradigm shift by mentioning that today's fans are drawn by charisma and not size.In WWE, when the company was being built around fan favorite John Cena, shedding his edgy, freestyle rapping anti-establishment persona which was popular in favor of a more motivational "against all odds" one, was met with a negative reaction by the fans to the point where he became one of the most booed wrestlers in the promotion. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Enzyme multiplied immunoassay technique**
Enzyme multiplied immunoassay technique:
Enzyme multiplied immunoassay technique (EMIT) is a common method for qualitative and quantitative determination of therapeutic and recreational drugs and certain proteins in serum and urine.It is an immunoassay in which a drug or metabolite in the sample competes with a drug/metabolite labelled with an enzyme, to bind to an antibody. The more drug there is in the sample, the more free enzyme there will be, and the increased enzyme activity causes a change in color.: 70 Determination of drug levels in serum is particularly important when the difference in the concentrations needed to produce a therapeutic effect and adverse side reactions (the therapeutic window) is small. EMIT therapeutic drug monitoring tests provide accurate information about the concentration of such drugs such as immunosuppressant drugs and some antibiotics.EMIT urine assays for drugs such as cannabinoids, morphine, and amphetamine are designed to detect the drug itself or a metabolite of the drug present in a concentration above a pre-specified minimum detection cutoff limit. In the U.S., the cutoff limits must be set in accordance with Mandatory Guidelines for Federal Workplace Drug Testing Programs that were developed by SAMHSA (The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration is a branch of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services). The setting of reasonable cutoff limits help reduce false positive results that occur from assay limitations. Because of the social and legal consequences, a positive test result must be confirmed by an alternative method, usually Gas Chromatography/Mass spectrometry. As an example the SAMHSA cutoffs for cannabinoids are 50 ng/ml for the immunoassay and 15 ng/ml as confirmed by GC/MS. Immunoassays that do not conform with SAMHSA, featuring a cutoff of 20 ng/ml, have been shown to produce false positives from passive inhalation of marijuana smoke. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Rewrite man**
Rewrite man:
The rewrite man (rewrite person) is a newspaper reporter who works in the office, not on the street, taking information reported by others and crafting it into stories. It is rarely used as an actual title, however. The term is something of a misnomer since rewrite men or women do not just "rewrite"; they take notes gathered by on-the-scene-reporters, information gathered by telephone, or information from wire services or clippings from other newspapers, and combine them as they write each article. The job has lost much of its importance due to technology that allows reporters to write and transmit articles from the field. In the pre-computer days of newspaper work, however, it was vital. At the most extreme example, reporters on deadline would telephone into the newsroom and dictate their notes to an editor – hence the movie cliché of reporters rushing to telephone booths and shouting "Get me rewrite!" into the phone.
Rewrite man:
A rewrite man didn't leave the office. He, or in rare instances she, would take calls from reporters who quickly needed to relay information for a story.Sometimes an entire front page, with bylines from several different reporters, will have actually been written by a single rewrite man working with an editor. Some rewrite men spent all or most of their careers in the job; others learned how to do it while acquiring additional skills. Rewrite men are common at large national magazines, where reporters handle the reporting of the story while a writer takes the material and writes the actual article. In this case, the reporter will put all the information and quotes gathered into a multipage file which is then given to the writer. In cases of a story in several areas, several reporters will give their files to the writer. Time magazine also used to engage rewrite men almost exclusively, although it has all but abandoned the practice as of its 2008 redesign.
Rewrite man:
One example of a legendary rewrite man was the late Phillip O'Connor, who worked for 40 years for the Chicago Sun-Times and Chicago Daily News. Among the last of his breed, O'Connor was known for his speed and accuracy in compiling a story in less than 15 minutes under deadline pressure.
Sources:
Pérez-peña, Richard (December 18, 2015). "Get Me Rewrite!". New York Times. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Ian Macara**
Ian Macara:
Ian G. Macara is a British-American biologist, currently the Louise B. McGavock Chair at Vanderbilt University. He received his PhD from the University of Sheffield in the United Kingdom and completed postdoctoral training at Harvard University before moving to the University of Virginia, where he was the Harrison Distinguished Professor of Microbiology and Director of the Advanced Microscopy Facility. He was named the chair of the Vanderbilt Department of Cell and Developmental Biology in 2012. His research focuses on the molecules that establish Cell polarity in Epithelium, both in normal cells and in cancer. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**The Message (Bible)**
The Message (Bible):
The Message: The Bible in Contemporary Language (MSG) is a paraphrase of the Bible in contemporary English. Authored by Eugene H. Peterson and published in segments from 1993 to 2002.A Catholic version, The Message - Catholic / Ecumenical Edition, was published in 2013.
Features:
According to the Introduction to the New Testament of The Message, its "contemporary idiom keeps the language of the Message (Bible) current and fresh and understandable". Peterson notes that in the course of the project, he realized this was exactly what he had been doing in his thirty-five years as a pastor, "always looking for an English way to make the biblical text relevant to the conditions of the people".
Translation consultants:
The publisher states: "Peterson's work has been thoroughly reviewed by a team of recognized Old and New Testament scholars to ensure that it is accurate and faithful to the original languages."Old Testament team: Robert L. Hubbard Jr., North Park Theological Seminary (chair) Richard E. Averbeck, Trinity Evangelical Divinity School Bryan E. Beyer, Columbia International University Lamar E. Cooper Sr., Criswell College E. Enns, Eastern University Duane A. Garrett, The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary Donald R. Glenn, Dallas Theological Seminary Paul R. House, Beeson Divinity School, Samford University V. Philips Long, Regent College Tremper Longman, Westmont College John N. Oswalt, Asbury Theological Seminary Richard L. Pratt Jr., Reformed Theological Seminary, Third Mill Ministries John H. Walton, Wheaton College Prescott H. Williams Jr., Austin Presbyterian Theological Seminary Marvin R. Wilson, Gordon CollegeNew Testament team: William W. Klein, Denver Seminary (chair) L. Bock, Dallas Theological Seminary A. Hagner, Fuller Theological Seminary Moises Silva, Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary Rodney A. Whitacre, Trinity School of Ministry Catholic version Deuterocanonical book translator: William Griffin, St. Lawrence Seminary
Comparison to other translations:
The Message was translated by Peterson from the original languages. It is a highly idiomatic translation, using contemporary slang from the US rather than a more neutral International English, and it falls on the extreme dynamic end of the dynamic and formal equivalence spectrum. Some scholars, like Michael J. Gorman, consider some of Peterson's idiomatic renderings unconventional. The work was awarded the Evangelical Christian Publishers Association Gold Medallion in 2003 for being the title retailers prized.
Comparison to other translations:
Psalm 23:1-4 New International Version: King James Version: The Living Bible: The Message: Lord's Prayer (Matthew 6:9-13) New International Version: King James Version: The Living Bible: The Message:
Editions:
Old Testament: The Pentateuch: ISBN 1-57683-196-5 The Books of History: ISBN 1-57683-194-9 The Wisdom Books: ISBN 1-57683-126-4 The Prophets: ISBN 1-57683-195-7New Testament: Youth Edition: ISBN 0-89109-793-7 Text Edition: ISBN 0-89109-728-7Entire Bible: With verse markings (The Message Remix): ISBN 1-57683-434-4 Without verse markings: ISBN 1-57683-289-9 With verse markings (The Message: The Numbered Edition): ISBN 1-57683-673-8; this edition was recognized as an ECPA Christian Book Award winner. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Adenylosuccinate lyase deficiency**
Adenylosuccinate lyase deficiency:
Adenylosuccinate lyase deficiency is a rare autosomal recessive metabolic disorder characterized by the appearance of succinylaminoimidazolecarboxamide riboside (SAICA riboside) and succinyladenosine (S-Ado) in cerebrospinal fluid, urine. These two succinylpurines are the dephosphorylated derivatives of SAICA ribotide (SAICAR) and adenylosuccinate (S-AMP), the two substrates of adenylosuccinate lyase (ADSL), which catalyzes an important reaction in the de novo pathway of purine biosynthesis. ADSL catalyzes two distinct reactions in the synthesis of purine nucleotides, both of which involve the β-elimination of fumarate to produce aminoimidazole carboxamide ribotide (AICAR) from SAICAR or adenosine monophosphate (AMP) from S-AMP.
Types:
ASLD is divided into three categories based on the severity of symptoms: the fatal neonatal form, type I and type II. However, as symptoms occur along a spectrum there are no set criteria to determine which category a patient should be ascribed to.
Fatal neonatal form Patients with this form of ASLD present with fatal neonatal encephalopathy, respiratory failure, a lack of spontaneous movement and intractable seizures. Possible prenatal symptoms such as microcephaly, intrauterine growth restriction, loss of fetal heart rate variability and hypokinesia have been reported. Death occurs within the first few weeks of life.
Type I This is the most common form of ASLD. Symptoms become apparent in the first months of life and include seizures, microcephaly and severe psychomotor retardation are purely neurological. Some patients display axial hypotonia, peripheral hypertonia and normal tendon reflexes. Autistic-like behaviour including poor eye contact, stereotypies, agitation, tantrums and self injurious behaviour may occur.
Types:
Type II This is considered to be a mild to moderate form of ASLD. They may demonstrate a milder degree of psychomotor retardation and transient visual and auditory contact disturbances Seizures, if they occur, begin later than in Type I, typically between 2 and 4 years old but sometimes as late as 9 years old. Speech is impaired with receptive language skills and nonverbal communication skills being better than expressive language skills. Ataxia may occur and cause increasingly severe gait disturbances.
Signs and symptoms:
Among the signs and symptoms of adenylosuccinate lyase deficiency are the following: Aggressive behavior Microcephaly Autism Brachycephaly Mild Cerebellar hypoplasia Seizures
Pathophysiology:
Adenylosuccinate lyase deficiency is responsible for a range of symptoms that involve psychomotor retardation, often accompanied by epileptic seizures, and autistic features. Two common theories were proposed to account for these effects, the first is that they result from decreased concentrations of purine nucleotides needed for purine biosynthesis. Decreased concentrations, however, could not be found in various tissues taken from ADSL-deficient people, probably because purines are furnished via the purine salvage pathway. The second is the buildup of accumulating succinylpurines causes neurotoxic effects. In the severely affected individuals, the concentration levels of SAICA riboside and S-Ado are comparable, whereas in people with milder forms of the disease, the ratio of S-Ado is more than double that of those more severely affected, while SAICA riboside concentration levels remain comparable.Biochemical studies of the enzyme have focused on proteins of ADSL from nonhuman species, the ADSL structure from the crystallized protein of Thermotoga maritime has been used, along with DNA sequencing data, to construct homology models for a variety of other organisms, including human ADSL. A variety of studies have been done using the equivalent enzyme from Bacillus subtilis, which shares a significant percentage of identity along with about some percentage of similarity in amino acid sequence with the human enzyme. Homology models overlaid on each other show a high degree of overlap between the enzymes.The family of enzymes to which ADSL belongs and that catalyze β-eliminations in which fumarate is one of the products are homotetramers with four active sites composed of amino acid residues from three distinct subunits. Much is known about the active site of human ADSL due to studies of the active site in the B. subtilis ADSL through affinity labeling and site-directed mutagenesis. While there is some variability among species in the sequencing of ADSL, the active site of the enzyme contains many residues that are conserved across species and have been shown to be critical to the enzyme's function. His68 and His141 seem to serve as the general acid and base catalysts, and are critical to the catalyzing reaction of the substrate. His89 seems to enhance the binding of the substrate's phosphoryl group and orient adenylosuccinate for catalysis. All three histidines are conserved throughout the 28 species for which the structure of ADSL is known. Glu275 and Lys268 have also been shown to contribute to the active site, indicating there are four active sites, each of which is formed from regions of three subunits. ADSL deficiency in different people is often caused by different mutations to the enzyme, more than 50 different mutations in the ADSL gene have been discovered
Diagnosis:
In terms of the diagnosis of adenylosuccinate lyase deficiency one should look for (or exam/method): MRI Demonstration of succinylpurines in extracellular fluids like plasma, cerebrospinal fluid and/or urine using high-pressure liquid chromatography, with or without mass spectroscopy Genetic testing - genomic cDNA sequencing of the ADSL gene and characterization of mutant proteins.
Treatment:
Treatment of adenylosuccinate lyase deficiency can be done via epilepsy management with anticonvulsive drugs. Additionally the following options include: D-ribose and uridine administration Ketogenic diet S-adenosyl-l-methionine
Prognosis:
The prognosis of this condition in childhood usually has a stable outcome, whereas in neonatal is almost always fatal, according to Jurecka, et al. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Laguerre transform**
Laguerre transform:
In mathematics, Laguerre transform is an integral transform named after the mathematician Edmond Laguerre, which uses generalized Laguerre polynomials Lnα(x) as kernels of the transform.The Laguerre transform of a function f(x) is L{f(x)}=f~α(n)=∫0∞e−xxαLnα(x)f(x)dx The inverse Laguerre transform is given by L−1{f~α(n)}=f(x)=∑n=0∞(n+αn)−11Γ(α+1)f~α(n)Lnα(x) | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Formimidoylaspartate deiminase**
Formimidoylaspartate deiminase:
In enzymology, a formimidoylaspartate deiminase (EC 3.5.3.5) is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction N-formimidoyl-L-aspartate + H2O ⇌ N-formyl-L-aspartate + NH3Thus, the two substrates of this enzyme are N-formimidoyl-L-aspartate and H2O, whereas its two products are N-formyl-L-aspartate and NH3.
This enzyme belongs to the family of hydrolases, those acting on carbon-nitrogen bonds other than peptide bonds, specifically in linear amidines. The systematic name of this enzyme class is N-formimidoyl-L-aspartate iminohydrolase. This enzyme is also called formiminoaspartate deiminase. This enzyme participates in histidine metabolism. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**QMC@Home**
QMC@Home:
QMC@Home was a volunteer computing project for the BOINC client aimed at further developing and testing Quantum Monte Carlo (QMC) for use in quantum chemistry. It is hosted by the University of Münster with participation by the Cavendish Laboratory. QMC@Home allows volunteers from around the world to donate idle computer cycles to help calculate molecular geometry using Diffusion Monte Carlo.
QMC@Home:
The project is developing a new application using density functional theory.
The project began its Beta testing on 23 May 2006. As of February 2010, QMC@Home has about 7,500 active participants from 102 countries, contributing about 5 teraFLOPS of computation power.
Workunits:
In order to get results from home computers the work is split into "workunits". The time it takes to complete a workunit depends on the size of the calculated system and the speed of the user's computer. The target time is between 4 and 48 hours on a 2.4 GHz system.
Workunits:
This is a list of molecules recently tested: 1a Ammonia; 1 Ammonia dimer; 2a Water; 2 Water dimer; 3a Formic acid; 3 Formic acid dimer; 4a Formamide; 4 Formamide dimer; 5a Uracil; 5 Uracil dimer; 6a 2-pyridoxine; 6b 2-aminopyridine; 6 2-pyridoxine/2-aminopyridine; 7a Adenine; 7b Thymine; 7 Adenine/thymine WC; 8a Methane; 8 Methane dimer; 9a Ethene; 9 Ethene dimer; 10 Benzene/methane; 11a Benzene; 11 Benzene dimer; 12a Pyrazine; 12 Pyrazine dimer; 13 Uracil dimer; 14a Indole; 14 Indole/benzene; 15 Adenine/thymine stack; 16b Ethyne; 16 Ethene/ethyne; 17 Benzene/water; 18 Benzene/ammonia; 19b Hydrogen cyanide; 19 Benzene/hydrogen cyanide; 20 Benzene dimer; 21 Indole/benzene; 22a Phenol; 22 Phenol dimer | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
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