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The thought "John is tall" is clearly composed of two sub-parts, the concept of John and the concept of tallness, combined in a manner that may be expressed in first-order predicate calculus as a predicate 'T' ("is tall") that holds of the entity 'j' (John). A fully articulated proposal for what a LOT would have to tak...
The language of thought hypothesis has been both controversial and groundbreaking. Some philosophers reject the LOTH, arguing that our public language "is" our mental language—a person who speaks English "thinks" in English. But others contend that complex thought is present even in those who do not possess a public la...
The notion that mental states are causally efficacious diverges from behaviorists like Gilbert Ryle, who held that there is no break between the cause of mental state and effect of behavior. Rather, Ryle proposed that people act in some way because they are in a disposition to act in that way, that these causal mental ...
Daniel Dennett accepts that homunculi may be explained by other homunculi and denies that this would yield an infinite regress of homunculi. Each explanatory homunculus is “stupider” or more basic than the homunculus it explains, but this regress is not infinite but bottoms out at a basic level that is so simple that i...
LOTH implies that the mind has some tacit knowledge of the logical rules of inference and the linguistic rules of syntax (sentence structure) and semantics (concept or word meaning). If LOTH cannot show that the mind knows that it is following the particular set of rules in question, then the mind is not computational ...
Another objection within representational theory of mind has to do with the relationship between propositional attitudes and representation. Dennett points out that a chess program can have the attitude of “wanting to get its queen out early,” without having representation or rule that explicitly states this. A multipl...
Susan Schneider has recently developed a version of LOT that departs from Fodor's approach in numerous ways. In her book, The Language of Thought: a New Philosophical Direction, Schneider argues that Fodor's pessimism about the success of cognitive science is misguided, and she outlines an approach to LOT that integrat...
Since connectionist models can change over time, supporters of connectionism claim that it can solve the problems that LOTH brings to classical AI. These problems are those that show that machines with a LOT syntactical framework very often are much better at solving problems and storing data than human minds, yet much...
Connectionists have responded to Fodor and Pylyshyn by denying that connectionism uses LOT, by denying that cognition is essentially a function that uses representational input and output or denying that systematicity is a law of nature that rests on representation. Some connectionists have developed implementational c...
Since LOTH came to be it has been empirically tested. Not all experiments have confirmed the hypothesis;
Strategy (from Greek στρατηγία "stratēgia", "art of troop leader; office of general, command, generalship") is a general plan to achieve one or more long-term or overall goals under conditions of uncertainty. In the sense of the "art of the general", which included several subsets of skills including military tactics, ...
Strategy is important because the resources available to achieve goals are usually limited. Strategy generally involves, setting goals and priorities, determining actions to achieve the goals, and mobilizing resources to execute the actions. A strategy describes how the ends (goals) will be achieved by the means (resou...
Henry Mintzberg from McGill University defined strategy as a pattern in a stream of decisions to contrast with a view of strategy as planning, while Henrik von Scheel defines the essence of strategy as the activities to deliver a unique mix of value – choosing to perform activities differently or to perform different a...
Professor Richard P. Rumelt described strategy as a type of problem solving in 2011. He wrote that good strategy has an underlying structure he called a "kernel". The kernel has three parts: 1) A "diagnosis" that defines or explains the nature of the challenge; 2) A "guiding policy" for dealing with the challenge; and ...
President Kennedy illustrated these three elements of strategy in his Cuban Missile Crisis Address to the Nation of 22 October 1962:
Rumelt wrote in 2011 that three important aspects of strategy include "premeditation, the anticipation of others' behavior, and the purposeful design of coordinated actions." He described strategy as solving a design problem, with trade-offs among various elements that must be arranged, adjusted and coordinated, rather...
Strategy typically involves two major processes: "formulation" and "implementation". "Formulation" involves analyzing the environment or situation, making a diagnosis, and developing guiding policies. It includes such activities as strategic planning and strategic thinking. "Implementation" refers to the action plans t...
Bruce Henderson wrote in 1981 that: "Strategy depends upon the ability to foresee future consequences of present initiatives." He wrote that the basic requirements for strategy development include, among other factors: 1) extensive knowledge about the environment, market and competitors;
2) ability to examine this knowledge as an interactive dynamic system; and
3) the imagination and logic to choose between specific alternatives. Henderson wrote that strategy was valuable because of: "finite resources, uncertainty about an adversary's capability and intentions; the irreversible commitment of resources; necessity of coordinating action over time and distance; uncertainty about...
In military theory, strategy is "the utilization during both peace and war, of all of the nation's forces, through large scale, long-range planning and development, to ensure security and victory" ("Random House Dictionary").
The father of Western modern strategic study, Carl von Clausewitz, defined military strategy as "the employment of battles to gain the end of war." B. H. Liddell Hart's definition put less emphasis on battles, defining strategy as "the art of distributing and applying military means to fulfill the ends of policy". Henc...
Eastern military philosophy dates back much further, with examples such as "The Art of War" by Sun Tzu dated around 500 B.C.
Modern business strategy emerged as a field of study and practice in the 1960s; prior to that time, the words "strategy" and "competition" rarely appeared in the most prominent management literature.
Alfred Chandler wrote in 1962 that: "Strategy is the determination of the basic long-term goals of an enterprise, and the adoption of courses of action and the allocation of resources necessary for carrying out these goals." Michael Porter defined strategy in 1980 as the "...broad formula for how a business is going to...
Henry Mintzberg described five definitions of strategy in 1998:
In game theory, a "strategy" refers to the rules that a player uses to choose between the available actionable options. Every player in a non-trivial game has a set of possible strategies to use when choosing what moves to make.
A strategy may recursively look ahead and consider what actions can happen in each contingent state of the game—e.g. if the player takes action 1, then that presents the opponent with a certain situation, which might be good or bad, whereas if the player takes action 2 then the opponents will be presented with a differ...
Strategies in game theory may be random (mixed) or deterministic (pure). Pure strategies can be thought of as a special case of mixed strategies, in which only probabilities 0 or 1 are assigned to actions.
Strategy based games generally require a player to think through a sequence of solutions to determine the best way to defeat the opponent.
Divide and rule (), or divide and conquer, in politics and sociology is gaining and maintaining power by breaking up larger concentrations of power into pieces that individually have less power than the one implementing the strategy.
The use of this technique is meant to empower the sovereign to control subjects, populations, or factions of different interests, who collectively might be able to oppose his rule. Niccolò Machiavelli identifies a similar application to military strategy, advising in Book VI of "The Art of War" (1521) ("L'arte della gu...
The maxim divide et impera has been attributed to Philip II of Macedon. It was utilised by the Roman ruler Julius Caesar and the French emperor Napoleon (together with the maxim "divide ut regnes)".
The strategy, but not the phrase, applies in many ancient cases: the example of Aulus Gabinius exists, parting the Jewish nation into five conventions, reported by Flavius Josephus in Book I, 169–170 of "The Jewish War" ("De bello Judaico"). Strabo also reports in "Geographica", 8.7.3 that the Achaean League was gradua...
by Immanuel Kant (1795), Appendix one, "Divide et impera" is the third of three political maxims, the others being "Fac et excusa" (Act now, and make excuses later) and "Si fecisti, nega" (If you commit a crime, deny it).
Historically, this strategy was used in many different ways by empires seeking to expand their territories.
Immanuel Kant was an advocate of this tactic, noting that "the problem of setting up a state can be solved even by a nation of devils" so long as they possess an appropriate constitution which pits opposing factions against each other with a system of checks and balances.
The concept is also mentioned as a strategy for market action in economics to get the most out of the players in a competitive market.
Divide and rule can be used by states to weaken enemy military alliances. This usually happens when propaganda is disseminated within the enemy states in an attempt to raise doubts about the alliance. Once the alliance weakens or dissolves, a vacuum will allow the state to achieve military dominance.
In politics, the concept refers to a strategy that breaks up existing power structures, and especially prevents smaller power groups from linking up, causing rivalries and fomenting discord among the people to prevent a rebellion against the elites or the people implementing the strategy. The goal is either to pit the ...
The principle "divide et impera" is cited as a common in politics by Traiano Boccalini in "La bilancia politica".
Clive R. Boddy found that "divide and conquer" was a common strategy by corporate psychopaths used as a smokescreen to help consolidate and advance their grip on power in the corporate hierarchy.
Harry G. Broadman opined in Forbes regarding President Donald Trump: "[a]s in his campaign, the President has been successfully—at least to date—pursuing a divide and conquer strategy domestically and internationally to try to achieve his goals. The result is an absence of a robust set of checks and balances to ensure ...
Examples of this strategy are not entirely limited to deliberate efforts from U.S. Politicial Candidates. Political divide is a systemic problem with bipartisan politics itself, with numerous examples of divided interest among competing politicians adversely sowing divide among the populace they are meant to represent,...
The disruptive solutions process (DSP) is a concept for innovation execution applied to the mishap prevention part of the combat operations process, often at the tactical or operational level, primarily in Air National Guard applications. However, it has been used successfully in other government agencies and the priva...
Typical defense industry bureaucratic approach to problem-solving involves exquisite enterprise solutions requiring long lead times, the establishment of large, standing teams, and relative inflexibility. The long development cycles and lead times associated with this approach sometimes result in fielding a solution th...
Because most preventable "safety" mishaps are caused by human factors (83% of the Fiscal Year 2007 Air Force major mishap costs due to human factors per AF Safety Center) and can be traced to human cultural and behavioral issues, according to DSP, safety can and should uniquely apply a "disruptive" solution set to addr...
To address the safety cultural issues associated with mishap prevention in a large bureaucracy, Air National Guard safety directorate pursued a disruptive approach in requirement definition, problem identification, solution vetting, funding, and procurement. Using Boyd's Observe, Orient, Decide, Act OODA Loop to assess...
The DSP approach is both persistent and adaptive, which makes it entrepreneurial, according to Christopher Gergen and Gregg Vanourek in their article "Fending off the Recession with 'Adaptive Persistence'," published in Harvard Business Review, April 2009. They write... "Persistence is about refusing to give up even in...
The "process" is executed similar to a venture capitalist's portfolio of projects in that the team invests small amounts of resources in many disruptive ideas. Steps in the process are not rigorous and may be eliminated, combined, or reordered appropriately to the desired outcome. Then the team assesses initial demonst...
Essentially DSP is a six-step process that runs counter to the military mantra of "requirements-driven", which is backward-looking and focuses instead on projecting future market needs that will eventually become formal requirements but not currently identified as such. Accomplish this by looking at front-line problem ...
1. POLL FIELD—IDEA MINING: use network of professionals at the field unit level to identify best practice mishap prevention, education, mishap investigation, procurement, and other tools. Project unpublished requirements by including end-use customers in the idea mining process. Look for full and partial solutions.
2. CONSOLIDATE / RACK AND STACK: Heuristically sort list of ideas into groups based on resource requirements, proven record, technology leveraging, mission accomplishment, Department of Defense, Air Force Instruction, and National Guard Bureau identified needs. Based on chosen development cycles, monthly, quarterly, et...
3. ELIMINATE BAD FITS: Scrub the list for those items requiring major hardware, Air Force Major Command level funding, or other special, difficult to acquire funding or processes. Enterprise-level and/or exquisite programs are anathema to this innovative process. Additionally remove from consideration solutions that du...
4. SELECT AND DEM/VAL: Consider resource requirements and rapidly source field unit funding or headquarters seed monies in the sub-$50K range to perform a limited DEM/VAL of concept. Many technology solutions can be demonstrated with little or no initial funding. Air National Guard Safety office has a presentation on c...
5. ITERATE FOR RESULTS: Establish definition of success at the outset. Measurable and reportable. Demonstrate measurable results within six months and seek further external and scalable funding from sources such as DARPA, Defense Safety Oversight Council (DSOC), other services, other government agencies, etc. Match req...
6. LEAD AND MARKET: lead the effort on behalf of the United States Department of Defense, Joint, Interagency, etc. and tighten the OODA loop down to nothing. Essentially creating an agile, continuous loop so tight, Boyd might describe it as an OODA Point. Market the solution intensely and seek buy in by returning the s...
More recently, DSP has been used in the ANG and USAF to create and field mishap prevention programs. Safety programs created, executed, or developed using DSP:
SEE AND AVOID – Joint DOD and Interagency with AOPA, EAA, and FAA. It is a web based civilian-military midair collision avoidance program created by then-Lt Col Ed Vaughan and led by ANG Safety directorate from 2005 to 2009, considered a best practice. ACC is partner; AFCENT asked for Iraq, Afghanistan coverage, now un...
WingmanDay.org: Originally fielded as RealBase across the Air National Guard...this Comprehensive Commander’s Toolkit identifies safety issues, resiliency subject matter, and provides tools for commanders, leaders, and care practitioners to address; created by ANG Safety directorate after 2007 Safety Stand Down Day to ...
Maintenance Resource Management (MRM): Joint DOD-wide. Originated by Lt Col Doug Slocum (AZ ANG) --see Maintenance Resource Management. ANG included it in DSP and took it DOD-wide with ANG and DOD funding...now Air Force program mandated by Air Force Instruction 21–101. Air Force Safety Center will propose way ahead on...
FlyAwake: ANG-wide, soon to be DOD-wide Joint Service. 201 Airlift Squadron (DC ANG), under command of Col Woody Akins, originated the basic concept for a web-based fatigue risk management tool which returns quantitative fatigue analysis for given flight schedule. This tool was based on the algorithm contained within F...
Wingman Project: The Wingman Project was created by Lt Col Edward Vaughan, chief of aviation safety at the Air National Guard in August 2007. Wingman Project is an ANG suicide intervention initiative that SHOWS, not tells, family and friends of distressed Airmen how to intervene to save a life, using a validated model ...
dBird bird mortality model. Created and developed as interagency program combining partners from CDC, Smithsonian, NSF, USDA, DHS, and NOAA under ANG leadership to track, target, and predict movements of pathogen-infected bird flocks using BASH resources such as BAM/AHAS, NexRAD radar system, and others.
BASH: ANG has comprehensive full-service BASH assessments and plan writing program, with MIPR and contracts from ANG to USDA and the world’s leading expert in avian wildlife biology, Dr. Russ DeFusco.
Air Reserve Component Chief of Safety Course (ARCCOS) – created by the ANG safety directorate in 2005, ARCCOS is tailored to ANG/AFRC needs; syllabus designed and course taught by ANG, well represented at active duty mishap investigation courses.
Low Altitude Deconfliction Program – Deconflict.org is online scheduling function with FAA's MADE program to provide collision avoidance for military aircraft operating in low altitude environment.
Ready 54 – Ready54.org is online joint resiliency outreach and education tool with associated mobile apps. Ready 54 is a joint endeavor between the Air and Army National Guard.
On September 25, 2009, Dr. John Ohab of the American Forces Press Service, and host of Armed With Science interviewed Lt Col Edward Vaughan about the Disruptive Solutions Process. An article about that interview can be found here Defense News Service. A direct link to the interview here
Strategic planning is an organization's process of defining its strategy, or direction, and making decisions on allocating its resources to pursue this strategy.
It may also extend to control mechanisms for guiding the implementation of the strategy. Strategic planning became prominent in corporations during the 1960s and remains an important aspect of strategic management. It is executed by strategic planners or strategists, who involve many parties and research sources in the...
Strategy has many definitions, but generally involves setting strategic goals, determining actions to achieve the goals, and mobilizing resources to execute the actions. A strategy describes how the ends (goals) will be achieved by the means (resources). The senior leadership of an organization is generally tasked with...
Strategy includes processes of formulation and implementation; strategic planning helps coordinate both. However, strategic planning is analytical in nature (i.e., it involves "finding the dots"); strategy formation itself involves synthesis (i.e., "connecting the dots") via strategic thinking. As such, strategic plann...
Michael Porter wrote in 1980 that formulation of competitive strategy includes consideration of four key elements:
The first two elements relate to factors internal to the company (i.e., the internal environment), while the latter two relate to factors external to the company (i.e., the external environment). These elements are considered throughout the strategic planning process.
Data is gathered from a variety of sources, such as interviews with key executives, review of publicly available documents on the competition or market, primary research (e.g., visiting or observing competitor places of business or comparing prices), industry studies, etc. This may be part of a competitive intelligence...
Strategic planning activities include meetings and other communication among the organization's leaders and personnel to develop a common understanding regarding the competitive environment and what the organization's response to that environment (its strategy) should be. A variety of strategic planning tools (describe...
The organization's leaders may have a series of questions they want to be answered in formulating the strategy and gathering inputs, such as:
The output of strategic planning includes documentation and communication describing the organization's strategy and how it should be implemented, sometimes referred to as the strategic plan. The strategy may include a diagnosis of the competitive situation, a guiding policy for achieving the organization's goals, and ...
The organization may use a variety of methods of measuring and monitoring progress towards the strategic objectives and measures established, such as a balanced scorecard or strategy map. Companies may also plan their financial statements (i.e., balance sheets, income statements, and cash flows) for several years when ...
Whilst the planning process produces outputs, as described above, strategy implementation or execution of the strategic plan produces Outcomes. These outcomes will invariably differ from the strategic goals. How close they are to the strategic goals and vision will determine the success or failure of the strategic plan...
A variety of analytical tools and techniques are used in strategic planning. These were developed by companies and management consulting firms to help provide a framework for strategic planning. Such tools include:
Simply extending financial statement projections into the future without consideration of the competitive environment is a form of financial planning or budgeting, not strategic planning. In business, the term "financial plan" is often used to describe the expected financial performance of an organization for future pe...
McKinsey & Company developed a capability maturity model in the 1970s to describe the sophistication of planning processes, with strategic management ranked the highest. The four stages include:
Categories 3 and 4 are strategic planning, while the first two categories are non-strategic or essentially financial planning. Each stage builds on the previous stages; that is, a stage 4 organization completes activities in all four categories.
For Michael C. Sekora, Project Socrates founder in the Reagan White House, during the cold war the economically challenged Soviet Union was able to keep on western military capabilities by using technology-based planning while the U.S. was slowed by finance-based planning, until the Reagan administration launched the S...
Strategic planning has been criticized for attempting to systematize strategic thinking and strategy formation, which Henry Mintzberg argues are inherently creative activities involving synthesis or "connecting the dots" which cannot be systematized. Mintzberg argues that strategic planning can help coordinate planning...
The Campaign Between the Wars (Hebrew: המערכה בין המלחמות or מב"ם lit. the military campaign between wars) refers to the targeted covert inter-war campaign waged by the State of Israel. This is done through the IDF and the Israeli Intelligence Community, by preventing Israel's enemies, whomsoever they may be, from deve...
Among the activities attributed to Israel: the 2007 strike on a suspected nuclear reactor in Syria (Operation Outside the Box), the assassination of Syrian General Muhammad Suleiman (although not publicly attributed to Israel, only that Israel was consulted on the assassination), Imad Mughniyah, the military commander ...
An organizing principle is a core assumption from which everything else by proximity can derive a classification or a value. It is like a central reference point that allows all other objects to be located, often used in a conceptual framework. Having an organizing principle might help one simplify and get a handle on ...
Geostrategy, a subfield of geopolitics, is a type of foreign policy guided principally by geographical factors as they inform, constrain, or affect political and military planning. As with all strategies, geostrategy is concerned with matching means to ends—in this case, a country's resources (whether they are limited ...
Geostrategists, as distinct from geopoliticians, approach geopolitics from a nationalist point of view. Geostrategies are relevant principally to the context in which they were devised: the strategist's nation, the historically rooted national impulses, the strength of the country's resources, the scope of the country'...
Many geostrategists are also geographers, specializing in subfields of geography, such as human geography, political geography, economic geography, cultural geography, military geography, and strategic geography. Geostrategy is most closely related to strategic geography.
Especially following World War II, some scholars divide geostrategy into two schools: the uniquely German organic state theory; and, the broader Anglo-American geostrategies.
Most definitions of geostategy below emphasize the merger of strategic considerations with geopolitical factors. While geopolitics is ostensibly neutral — examining the geographic and political features of different regions, especially the impact of geography on politics — geostrategy involves comprehensive planning, a...
The term "geo-strategy" was first used by Frederick L. Schuman in his 1942 article "Let Us Learn Our Geopolitics." It was a translation of the German term "Wehrgeopolitik" as used by German geostrategist Karl Haushofer. Previous translations had been attempted, such as "defense-geopolitics". Robert Strausz-Hupé had coi...
As a science or science based political practice geostrategy uses factual and empirical analysis, thus theoretical formulations in geostrategy usually heavily rely on empirical base although facts-values relations or conclusions are differently observed by different and/or competitive geostrategic approaches. Geostrate...
The geostrategy of location include river valleys, inland sea, world ocean, world island, and so on. For instance, the start of Western civilization was located in the river valleys of the Nile in Egypt and the Tigris and Euphrates in Mesopotamia. The Nile and Tigris and Euphrates not only provided the fertile soil for...
As early as Herodotus, observers saw strategy as heavily influenced by the geographic setting of the actors. In "History", Herodotus describes a clash of civilizations between the Egyptians, Persians, Scythians, and Greeks—all of which he believed were heavily influenced by the physical geographic setting.
Dietrich Heinrich von Bülow proposed a geometrical science of strategy in the 1799 "The Spirit of the Modern System of War." His system predicted that the larger states would swallow the smaller ones, resulting in eleven large states. Mackubin Thomas Owens notes the similarity between von Bülow's predictions and the ma...

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