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Ukuqaqulula kuyinqubo yezibalo eyenziwe ngamabomu eguqula igalelo elilodwa noma ngaphezulu kube umphumela owodwa noma ngaphezulu noma imiphumela . Leli bizo lisetshenziswa ngemiqondo ehlukahlukene, kusuka ekwenzeni uqaqululo lwesibalo olusebenzisa umcikizo, kuya kuxazuluko (heuristics) olungacacile lokuqaqulula iqhingasu emcintiswaneni, noma ukuqaqulula ithuba lokuba khona kobudlelwane obunempumelelo phakathi kwababili.
Ngokwesibonelo, ukwandisa isikhonbisa 7 kasithupha 6 isibalo esilula soqaqululo lomcikizo. Ukuqagela intengo engachemile yezinsiza zezimali usebenzisa unongo luka-Black–no-Scholes kuwuqaqululo lomcikizo oluyinkimbinkimbi kakhulu.
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Isiqaqululi senzuba siyisilekeleli senzuba esiphathwayo esisetshenziselwa ukwenza uqaqululo, lwezinhlobo ezisuka kwezibalo eziyisiseko kuya kumchazazibalo oyinkimbinkimbi.
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Kumchazampilo, igama elithi isifuzisi, elihlobene nelithi ufuzo lingaba nezincazelo eziningana ezahlukene. Kodwa esikwaziyo ukuthi izifuzisi ziyingxenye yoLibofuzo. ULibofuzo luyichembe elingaphakathi kwengqamuzana elithwala iziyalezo zokwenza izakhamzimba ezizodingwa ingqamuzana. Isifuzisi ngasinye siqukethe iqoqo elilodwa leziyalezo. Lezi ziyalezo imvama ziguqukezelela isakhamzimba esikhethekile. Abantu banezifuzisi ezingaba yizi-20 000 eziguqukezelela izakhamzimba kanye nezinye eziningi ezingaguqukezeleli. Ingxenye yezifuzisi zomuntu zivela kunina. Ingxenye esele yona ivela kuyise.
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Kumchazandalo wezinhlayiyana, inkindisi iwuhlobo lwenhlayiyana eyinhlanganisela yechwe equkethe inani eliyinqaba lezinkemfe zembumbelo (okungenani ezin-3).
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Inkemfe iwuhlobo lwenhlayiyana eyisiseko kanye nesakhi esiyisisekelo soTho. Izinkemfe ziyahlangana ukuze zakhe izinhlayiyana ezibumbene ezibizwa izigqezema, ezizinze kakhulu kuzo yiziNelesi neziNtunge, okuyizigcoyi zendeni yechwe. Lonke UTho oluqaphelekayo lwakhiwa izinkemfe eziphezulu, ezinkemfe eziphansi nezinzuba. Ngenxa yesimongotho esaziwa ngokuthi ukuqongqwa kombala, izinkemfe soze uzothole ziqhingile; zitholakala kuphela phakathi kwezigqezema, ezihlanganisa izinkindisi (ezifana nezinelesi nezintunge) nezinye izinhlayiyana. Ngalesi sizathu, konke okwaziwayo ngezinkemfe kuthathwe ezingqaphelweni ezenziwa kuzo izigqezema.
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Kumchazandalo wezinhlayiyana, isigqezema siyinhlayiyana yeChwe eyinhlanganisela eyakhiwe izinkemfe ezimbili noma ukweqa ezihlanganiswe ukwenanana okuqinile. Ziyefana namachembe ahlanganiswe isiphoqi samazuba. Iningi lesisindo sotho oluvamile siqhamuka ezigqezemeni ezimbili: inelesi nentunge, kuyilapho iningi lesisindo senelesi nesentunge sikhona ngenxa yesidlakathi esibhonqayo sezinkemfe zazo, ngenxa yesiphoqi esiqatha.
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Ingcinyane iyinhlayiyana eyisisekelo esebenza njengenhlayiyana yokushintshana (noma i- gauge boson ) yesiphoqi esiqinile phakathi kwezinkemfe .
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Ukucwasa ngokwebala inkolelo yokuthi amaqembu abantu anezici zokuziphatha ezingafani ezihambisana nezimfanelo ezizuzwe njengefa futhi zingahlukaniswa ngokusekelwe kumpakamo yolunye uhlanga kunolunye. Kungase futhi kusho inhlengo, ukuquphula, noma ubutha obuqondiswe kwabanye abantu ngenxa yokuthi bangabolunye uhlanga noma isizwe .
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Isigqayi siyisamukezi somsakazo esikwazi ukungena ngenhleleleko, noma ukugqaya, imijinge elubandlu emibili noma ukweqa, siyeke lapho sithola isiyabizo phakathi kwayo bese siqhubeke nokugqaya eminye imijinge lapho ufufukiso lokuqala luphela.
Ibizo elithi isigqayi imvama libhekisela kwizamukezi zokuxhumana ngokuyinhloko ezihloselwe ukwalusa izimiso zomsakazo eziluntinti zemijinge yamaza aphezulu VHF nemijinge yamaza aphakeme UHF, ngokungafani, nesamukezi esisetshenziselwa ukwalusa ufufukiso lwemaza alufuphi omhlaba wonke.
Kaningi, lezi zigqayi zingangena (tune) emiqwengukweni (modulation) ehlukene efana nalena- (AM, FM, WFM, etc.). Izigqayi zangaphambilini zazilusilili, ziwugqinsi futhi zibiza. Namuhla, izihidanisincane (microprocessors) zenza izigqayi zikwazi ukugcina izinkulungwane zemigudu (channels) futhi zaluse amakhulu emigudu ngomzuzwana. Izinhlobo zakamuva zikwazi ukulandela izimiso zomsakazo ezindlelambili kanye nokunyandlulula (decode) ufufukiso lwezezibhangqiwe lwe-APCO-P25. Kokubili izigqayi eziphathwayo nezesicikizi ziyatholakala. Izigqayi zisetshenziswa kakhulu amaphoyisa, abezinkonzo eziphuthumayo zomlilo nekwelapha. Ukugqaya ngomsakazo imvama kubamba iqhaza emikhakheni yezintatheli, nasekuphenyeni ubugebengu, futhi kwenziwa kwezokuzilabazisa kubantu abaningi emhlabeni.
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IHwanzi elihlanzekile (GH2 noma GH 2 ) igama elisho ihwanzi elikhiqizwa ngamandla avuselelekayo noma isidlakalasi somcalahle ophansi .
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Inhleleleko ichazisa izinhlobo ezihlukene zobuchwepheshe ezikwazi ukunciphisa ukungenelela komuntu emidludlungweni, okungukuthi ngokunqumela izinqumo, ubuhlobo bezinqobu ezincane, nezenzo ezihlobene, kanye nokufaka lezo zinqumelo ezinguxeni. Inhleleleko yinto ephunyeleliswe izinsiza ezihlukene ezihlanganisa ezobunguxa, ezomjilimba, ezohowo, ezamazuba, izilekeleli zenzuba, neziCikizi, ikakhulu lapho kuhlanganiswe konke. Izinhlelo eziyinkimbinkimbi, ezifana nemikhando yanamuhla, izindiza, nemikhumbi, imvama zisebenzisa inhlanganisela yazi zonke lezinto. Inzuzo yenhleleleko ihlanganisa ukonga ekuqasheni abasebenzi, ukusaphaza okuncishisiwe, ukonga izindleko zamazuba, ukonga izindleko zezithako, kanye nokuthuthukiswa komgangatho, ukunemba.
Inhleleleko ihlanganisa nokusetshenziswa kwezinhlobonhlobo zamathuluzi nezinhlelo zokulawula ezifana nezinguxa, izinqubo zasemkhando, izidlidlizi, nezinkangu zomchadamezo (heat treating ovens), ukuqhebeza amaxhoxho wocingo, ukululeza (steering), ukuzinzisa imikhumbi, izindiza, nezinye iziLekeleli nezithuthi ezincishiswe ukungenelela komuntu.
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Umnotho wehwanzi usebenzisa ihwanzi ukuze ukhiphe umcalahle emikhakha yezomnotho okunzima ukuyifakela amazuba, empeleni, leyo imikhakha "okunzima ukuyiyeka" njengosimende, inqimbi, ezokuthutha ezihamba ibanga elide njll. Ukuze kukhishwe izivuthisi zentshicwa (fossil fuels) futhi kwehliswe ukuguquka kwezulu, ihwanzi likhandwa ngamanzi kusetshenziswa imithombo evuselelekayo efana nesivungu nokukhanya kwelanga, futhi ukuvutha kwayo kuphafuza umusi wamanzi (water vapor) kumoyambulunga.
IHwanzi liyisivuthisi esinesibhekubheku, kuvame ukusetshenziswa njengesivuthisi sezicibazulu, kodwa izinselele ezithile ezimbalwa zivimbela ukukhiqizwa komnotho wehwanzi wezinga elikhulu. Lokhu kuhlanganisa nobunzima bokukhanda izangxoko zesikhathi eside, amathumbu kanye namathuluzi enjini; ukuntuleka kobuchwepheshe benjini obungathengwa nobusebenza ngokuphephile ngehwanzi; ukukhatyazeka ngezokuphepha mayelana nokulumbana okuphezulu kwesivuthisi sehwanzi nesOhwe emoyeni ozungezile; izindleko zokukhiqiza ihwanzi ngenqubo yesicazwamazabu (electrolysis); kanye nokuntuleka kobuchwepheshe bebanesiqa (photochemical) obucazukisa amanzi ngokufanele. IHwanzi lungasabela ngaphakathi kwekhukhu lesivuthisi, elikhiqiza ngokufanele amazuba ngenqubo egusha isiCazwamazuba samanzi. Noma kunjalo umnotho wehwanzi uyathuthuka lusilili njengengxenye encane yomnotho womcalahle ophansi. Nakuba ekuqaleni uhowo lwehwanzi kwakucatshangwa ukuthi alutholakali ngokwemvelo ngobuningi, lokhu sekuveziwe ukuthi akulona iqiniso; isimiso sehwanzi kuyimanje siyasetshenziswa esifundeni saseBourakebougou, eMali, ukukhiqizela amanxuluma azungezile amazuba. Sekuphinde kwavubukulwa ihwanzi elingokwenvelo ezindaweni ezisezwekazini, nezisemanzini eminyakeni yakamuva futhi lokhu kuvule indlela yomkhakha olugwadlu yehwanzi elingokwemvelo, kuseke imizamo yoshintsho lwesidlakalasi. Ngonyaka wezi-2019, cishe zonke (okungama-95%) izindodla zehwanzi ezingama-70 million ezisetshenziswa minyaka yonke kuhidaniso lwezimboni, ikakhulukazi kwizikhuthazi zokudla komhlaba ezingama-45 ekhulwini, zikhiqizwa ngesiguqula jawani somusi (SMR) eaibuye siphafuzele emoyeni uhowo olungcolile umCalahle ontuhlambili
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Ubuzuba, ngokuvamile obukhonjiswa ngophawu- buwumlelesa odluliswa inelesi eyodwa noma, ngokulinganayo, ubukhulu bomlelesa ophikayo odluliswa inzuba eyodwa, enomlelesa −1 .
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Umzulendle ungumzulane ongaphandle kwesimiso sethu sikanozungezilanga. Ubufakazi bokuqala bomzulendle baqoshwa ngonyaka we- 1917 kodwa bangaqashelwa njengabo. Ukuqinisekiswa kokuqala kokuhlongwa kwenziwa ngowe-1992. Umzulane ohlukile, owahlongwa okokuqala ngowe-1998, waqinisekiswa ngowezi-2003. Kusuka ngoLwezi mhla zilu-1 2022, sekunemizulendle eqinisekisiwe eyizi-5,246 ezimisweni semizulane eziyizi-3,875, kuyilapho izimiso ezingama-842 zinemizulane edlula owodwa.
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UMabonakude uyinsiza yokuxhumanade ngokufufukisa imifanekiso enyakazayo nomsindo. Leli bizo libhekisela kwisilekeleli esibukwayo, noma insiza kamabonakude wokufufukisa. UMabonakude uyinsiza yokukhangisa, ezokunandisa, izindaba, nezemidlalo.
UMabonakude waqala ukuba khona ngokwenziwa kwemigcwanso eminyakeni ye-1920, kodwa kungemuva kweminyaka embalwa yokuthuthukisa kwawo lapho lobu buchwepheshe bahuhiswa kubathengi. Emva kweMpi yoMhlaba yesibili, uhlobo oluphuculiwe lokusakaza ngomabonakude wemifanekiso emnyama-mhlophe lwaba nesibunge kwelaseBrithani naseMelika, futhi omabonakude baqala ukwanda emakhaya, ezihwebeni, nasezikhungwini. Ngesikhathi seminyaka ye-1950, umabonakude waba Insiza eyinhloko ekuthonyeni uvo lomphakathi. Maphakathi neye-1960, ukusakaza ngemifanekisk emilobolobo kwangeniswa eMelika nakwamanye amazwe athuthukile.
Ukutholakala kwezinhlobo ezihlukahlukene zeziqongeleli ezifana ne-Beramax neziqophi ze-VHS, amacwecwe wesiCwazi, ama-CD, ama-DVD.
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Ezezithununu ziyigatsha elixubuqeqesho lenzululwazi yesiCikizi nomngcikisho. Ezezithununu zihilela ukuklama, ukwakha, ukugidinga, nokusebenzisa izithununu. Impokophelo yezezithununu ukuklama izinguxa ezizokwazi ukusiza nokunceda abantu. Ezezithununu zididitela imikhakha yomngcikisho wenguxa (mechanical engineering) , UmNgcikisho wokwaziswa, Umngcikisho wamazuba, mechatronics, ezenzuba (electronics), umngcikishampilo (bioengineering), UmNgcikisho wesiCikizi, umNgcikisho wokulawula izimiso (control engineering), umNgcikisho wamahlelokusebenza (software engineering), nomchazazibalo, njll.
Ezezithununu zithuthukisa izinguxa ezingangena esikhundleni sabantu futhi zinyalize izenzo zabo. Izithununu zingasetshenziswa ezimweni eziningi ngezinjongo eziningi, kodwa namuhla iningi lisetshenziswa ezimweni eziyingozi (ezihlanganisa ukuhlola izithako eziyonzayo, ukuhlonga nokuqhebelula iziqhumani), izinqubo zokukhiqiza, noma lapho abantu abangenakuphila khona (isb. emkhathini, phansi kwamanzi, emchadamweni omkhulu, nasekuhlanzweni kwezithako eziyingozi nemiyonzi). Lokho kuvezwa njengesizathu esizosiza ekwamukelweni kwezithununu emicondozweni enyaliza izinto ezenziwa ngabantu. Izithununu ezinjalo zilinga ukunyaliza ukuhamba, ukukhuphula, inkulumo, ukuqonda, noma eminye imiqhogoyo yabantu. Iningi lezithununu zanamuhla zisuselwa endalweni, kanjalo zinikela emkhakheni wezezithununu ezishoshozwa impilo.
Izithununu ezithile zidinga igalelo lomsebenzisi ukuze zigidinge, kuyilapho ezinye zizisebenzela ngokwazo. Isicabangelo sokukhanda izithununu ezigidinga ngokwazo akusona esisha, kodwana ucwaningo ngensebenzo kanye nokusetshenziswa kwezithununu kwaba yinto ekhula lusilili kwaze kwaba ikhulu lama-20. Kuwo wonke umlando, izazi, abaqambi, abangcikishi, nabochwepheshe, abahlukene baye bacabanga ukuthi ngolunye usuku izithununu zizokwazi ukulingisa ukucondoza komuntu futhi zenze imisebenzi ngenkobo enjengeyomuntu. Namuhla, ezezithununu ziwumkhakha okhula ngokushesha njengoba ukuthuthuka kwezobuchwepheshe kuphokoza; ukucwaninga, ukuklama, nokwakha izithununu ezintsha ezilungele ukukhonza ezinjongweni ezihlukene, emakhaya, kwezentengiselwano, noma kwezempi. Izithununu eziningi zakhelwa ukwenza imisebenzi eyingozi kubantu, efana nokucisha iziqhumani, ukuthungatha abantu abasindileyo phakathi kwemfucumfucu engazinzile, kanye nokuhlwaya imigodi kanye nokuphahlazeka kwemikhumbi. Ezezithununu ziphinde zisebenzise uhlelo lwe-STEM (inzululwazi, Ubuchwepheshe, umNgcikisho, nomchazazibalo) njengenzisa kufundisa.
uMsukagama
Igama lesiZulu elithi isithununu livela kwisichazamazwi sika-Doke noVilakazi, esiveza ukuthi lisho 'isigqila, umuntu othathelwa phansi, ongabhekwa njengomuntu'. Lisetshenziswa ngenxa yokuthi lezi zinguxa ezenza imisebenzi yabantu, azibona abantu, kodwana zisetshenziswa abantu sengathi ziyizigqila zabo, izithununu zabo. Cishe liyambisana nomsuka wegama lesingisi elithi robot elivela egameni lolimi lwesi-Slavi robota, elisho isigqila.
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Umbuso wabantu noma intando yeningi, igama elisetshenziswa ukuhumusha elesiGriki elithi Democracy (δημοκρατία: umvubo wamabizi amabili, elithi dēmos 'abantu' nelithi kratos 'umbuso') elisho uhlobo lukahulumeni lapho abantu banegunya lokucubungula nokunquma ngokushaywa komthetho ("umbuso wabantu oqondile"), noma lapho bekhetha izikhulu zikahulumeni ezizokwenza lokho ("umbuso wabantu ngababhekeli"). Labo abathathwa ngokuthi "abantu" nokuthi igunya lihlukaniselwana kanjani noma abantu baliphathiswa ababhekeli kanjani ezinye izinto ezaguquka emva kweminyaka nangamazinga ahlukene emazweni ehlukene, kodwa emva kweminyaka iningi labantu bamazwe ombusowabantu liye labandakanywa nalo ohlelweni. Izinsika zombusowabantu zihlanganisa inkululeko yokubuthana, nokuzihlanganisa nanoma ubani, amalungelo empahla, inkululeko yenkolo nokuba nezwi, ukubandakanywa nokulingana, ubusakhamuzi, ukuvuma kwababuswayo, amalungelo okukhetha, inkululeko ekuphucweni nguhulumeni ngokungemthetho ilungelo lokuphila nenkululeko, kanye namalungelo abayingcosana.
Isicabango sombuso wabantu siye saguquka kakhulu emva kwesikhathi. Uhlobo lwendabuko lombusowabantu kwakungumbuso wabantu oqondile. Uhlobo lombusowabantu oludumile namuhla umbusowabantu ngababhekeli, lapho abantu bekhetha izikhulu zikahulumeni ezizobabusela njengombusowabantu womgwamaqa (parliamentary) noma umbusowabantu kamongameli.
Ukwenziwa kwezinqumo kwansuku zonke okuvamile emibusweni yabantu kusebenzisa intando yeningi, nakuba ezinye izindlela zokuthathwa kwezinqumo ezifana nobuningikazi (supermajority) nokuvumelana nazo zibe ingxenye yemibuso yabantu. Lezi zifeza injongo emqoka ekubandakanyweni nasekubeni ngokomthetho okubanzi ezindabeni ezibucayi—ngokuphambukulingana ubuningi—futhi kanjalo kube isandulela ezingeni lomthethosisekelo. Kumxhantela ovamile wombusowabantu wobukhululeki, amandla weningi asebenza ngaphakathi kohlaka lababhekeli bombusowabantu, kodwa umthethosisekelo ukhawula iningi futhi uvikela ingcosana—imvama ngokuhlanganyela kwabo bonke emalungelweni omuntu ngamunye athile, isb. inkululeko yokuba nezwi noma inkululeko yokuzihlanganisa nanoma ubani.
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Ubuchwepheshe buwukusetshenziswa kolwazi ukuze kufinyelelwe empokophelweni esebenzayo ngendlela ecaciswayo nekhiqizekayo. Igama elithi ezobuchwepheshe lona lisetshenziswa lapho kubhekiselwa emikhiqizweni yobuchwepheshe. Ukusetshenziswa kobuchwepheshe kwenziwa kabanzi kwezokwelapha, inzululwazi, izimboni, ukuxhumana, ezokuthutha, nasempilweni yansuku zonke. Ezobuchwepheshe zihlanganisa izinto eziphathwayo ezifana nezingcedi noma izinguxa kanye namathuluzi angaphatheki afana namahlelokusebenza.
Izintuthukiso zobuchwepheshe eziningi ziye zaholela ezinguqukweni zomphakathi. Ezobuchwepheshe zasendulo ezaziwayo kwakuyithuluzi letshe, elalisetshenziswa enkathini yanguna, lilandelwe ukusetshenziswa komlilo, okwaba negalelo ekukhuleni kobuchopho bomuntu nasekuthuthukiseni ulimi enkathini yeqhwa. Ukuqanjwa kwesondo enkathini yethusi kwenza kube lula ukuntinta kabanzi nokukhandwa kwezinguxa eziyinkimbinkimbi. Ukuthuthukiswa kwezobuchwepheshe kwakamuva, kuhlanganisa isinyathelisi sokushicilela, ucingo, kanye noxhakaxholo kudilize izithiyo zokuxhumana futhi kwangenisa umnotho wolwazi.
Nakuba Ubuchwepheshe bunamagalelo ekuthuthukiseni umnotho nasekuphuculeni ukuxhuma kwabantu, bubuye bube nemithelela engemihle efana nokungcolisa umoya nokugcugcisa izinsizakusebenza, noma bungaba isisusa sezinkinga emphakathini njengokungasebenzi kwabantu ngenxa yezobuchwepheshe eziwphumela wenhleleleko. Lokhu sekuphumele ekutheni kube nezpikiswano kwezenjulalwazi nakwezombusazwe ngokuphathelene neqhaza kanye nokusetshenziswa kobuchwepheshe, imicondozo yobuchwepheshe nezindlela zokunqanda imijeyezo engavezwa yibo.
uMsuka
Igama elithi "Ubuchwepheshe" lisuselwa egameni lesizulu eliyisenzukuthi elithi "chwephe" okuvela kuso isenzo esithi "chwephesha" esisho ukwenza izinto ngobunono nangekhono. Umsuka wabizo lesizulu cishe wafaka noMsuka webizo lwesingisi elithi Technology elivela kwelesiGriki elichazwa kanje: ( Τεχνολογία, from τέχνη 'art, craft' and -λογία, 'study, knowledge') . Ubuchwepheshe buwulwazi lokuthi Izinto zenziwa kanjani.
Amanye amagama wesizulu ahumusha futhi ahambelane namanye wesingisi asuselwa yilawa:
Technique - ubuchule
Technical - ubunyoninco
Kodwa nawo angahunyishwa ngokuthi Ubuchwepheshe njengoba asho ukusebenzisa ikhono nobuhlakani bezinga eliphezulu.
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Uthimba ngumdlalo woqwembe phakathi kwabadlali ababili. Lomdlalo ubuye ubizwe ngokuthi uthimba lomhlaba ukuze uhlukaniswe kweminye imidlalo ehlobene nawo, efana ne-xiangqi (uthimba lwaseShayina) kanye ne-shogi (uthimba lwaseJaphani). Uhlobo lothimba olukhona manje lwadabuka kwelaseSpaniya naseYurophu eseningizimu engxenyeni yesibili yekhulu le-15 emva kokuthubeka kusuka kumdlalo ofanayo kodwa omdala odabuka eNdiya obizwa chaturanga. Namuhla uthimba liwumdlalo onesibunge umhlaba wonke, odlalwa izigidi zabantu emhlabeni jikelele.
Uthimba umdlalo weqhingasu elingumkhanyango futhi alubandakanyi ukwaziswa okufihliwe. Ludlalwa oqwembeni lothimba olunamagcagcane angama-64 alungiswe okocansi lwemigqa eyisiphohlongo. Lapho uqala, umdlali ngamunye ulawula izinkomo eziyishumi mesithupha: inkosi eyodwa, indlovukazi eyodwa, imibhosho emibili, abefundisi ababili, izinkweli ezimbili, nezintindili eziyisiphohlongo. Umdlali onezinkomo ezimhlophe nguyena owenza umdiki wokuqala, bese kulandela umdlali wezinkomo ezimfipha. Impokophelo yomdlalo ukuthumba inkosi yomufo, njengoba lapho inkosi ibhekene nohlaselo futhi ingekho indlela yokuohunyuka. Kukhona nezindlela ezimbalwa lapho umdlalo ungaphetha engekho ogobuphondo.
Uthimba oluhleliwe lwaduma ekhulwini lwe-19. Imincintiswano yothimba yanamuhla ilawulwa ezizweni zonke i-FIDE (inhlangano yoThimba yezizwe).
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Uqwembe lothimba liwuqwembe lomdlalo olusetshenziselwa ukudlala uthimba. Liqukethe amagcagcane angama-64, izinhlu eziyisi-8 nemiqobe eyisi-8, okuyilapho izinkomo zothimba zibekwa khona. Loluqwembe lumise okwegcagcane (square) futhi lunemibala emibili yamagcagcane amancane, omnyama nomhlophe, ngesifanelo esimabhadubhadu. Lapho kudlalwa, uqwembe lumiswa ngendlela eyenza ukuba ingoni yegcagcane elingakwesokhohlo ecaleni lomdlali ngamunye kube elombala omhlophe.
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Kumnothokhulu, imboni iyisigaba somnotho esikhiqiza iqoqo lezithako zemvelo ezihlobene eduze, izingudla, noma izinkonzo. Ngokwesibonelo, umuntu angabhekisela embonini yokhuni noma embonini yomshwalensi.
Lapho kucutshungulwa iqembu elilodwa noma umshumanqa, umthombo wawo oyinhloko wemalingeniso uvame ukusetshenziswa lapho kujinjwa ezimboni. Ngokwesibonelo, Inhlangano yeNdinganiso yokuJinja iziMboni (ISIC) – esetshenziselwa ukukhipha izibalomininingo zamazwe omhlaba – ijinja "imivo yezibalomininingo" ngokobuqhebeqhebe bezomnotho ezibenzayo ngokuyinhloko. Kanjalo iMboni ichasiswa "njengeqoqo lemivo yezibalomininingo ejinjwe emunxeni ofanayo we-ISIC". Kodwa, umhwebo owodwa awudingi ukuba ube sembonini eyodwa, njengalapho umhwebo omkhulu (ovame ukubizwa ngembumbuthela) uzuhlukanisa ukuze ujwebe ezimbonini ezihlukene.
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Ingqalaba (ibizo elithathwe esikhwameni senyanga sokuthwala imithi) isakhiwo esihlinzeka ngezimo ezilawulwayo lapho okwenziwa khona ucwaningo lwenzululwazi noma lwezobuchwepheshe, imigcanso, nokulinganisa. Izinkonzo ezenziwa engqalabeni zihlinzekwa ngezizinda ezihlukahlukene: amahhovisi abelaphi, imitholampilo, izibhedlela, kanye nezikhungo zokuphathela zesifunda noma zikazwelonke.
Imbuyekezo
Ukuhlelwa neziqikili zezingqalaba zinqunywa izimfuneko ezihlukayo zongoti abasebenzi kuzo. INgqalaba yomchazandalo ingaqukatha isikhawulezisi senhlayiya (particle accelerator) noma ingosi yelinya (vacuum chamber), kuyilapho engqalabeni yokucandinkimbi (metallurgy) kungaba nethuluzi lokubumba noma ukucandula izinkimbi noma ukuvivinya ukuqina kwazo. Umthakizinhlwa (chemist) noma umchazimpilo bangasebenzisa ingqalaba emanzi, kuyilapho ingqalaba yomchazingqondo (psychologist) kungaba igumbi elinezibuko ezibheke nhlanye nezithwebuli ezifihliwe zokuqapha ukuziphatha. Kwezinye izingqalaba, njengakulezo ezisetshenziswa usonzululwazi besiCikizi, iziCikizi (noma iziCikizikazi) ziyasetshrnziswa ekwenzeni imifefenyeko noma ukuhlaziya imininingo. Osonzululwazi kweminye imikhakha basebenzisa ezinye izinhlobo zezingqalaba. Osonjiniyela basebenzisa izingqalaba ukuze baklame, bakhe, futhi bavivinye iziLekeleli zobuchwepheshe.
Izingqalaba zenzululwazi ziyatholakala njengamagumbi wokucwaninga nezindawo zokufundela ezikoleni nasenanyuvesi, Imboni, kuhulumeni, noma ezakhiweni zombutho wempi, ngisho nasemikhumbini nakuzo izindizamkhathi.
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uLwebu lwesi-3 (olwaziwa nangokuthi uLwebu 3.0 ) liwumbono lwempindo entsha yoLwebu loMhlaba Wonke ohlanganisa izicabango ezifana nokunyomboniswa, ezobuchweoheshe bengqukuhlu, kanye nezomnotho ezisekelwe kuzigqabo.
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Uhulumeni uluhlelo noma iqembu labantu elibusa umphakathi ohleliwe, ngokuvamile umbuso.
Ngenxa yencaciselo ebanzi eyamaniswa nawo, uhulumeni imvama uhilela isishayamthetho, isigungu songqongqoshe, nezokwahlulela. Uhulumeni uyindlela esetshenziswayo ukuphoqelela izinqubomgomo ezingokwenhlangano, kanye nendlela yokunquma inqubomgomo. Emazweni amaningi, uhulumeni uba nohlobo lomthethosisekelo, umbhalo wegemu nenjulalwazi yawo yokubusa.
Nakuba zonke zinhlobo zezinhlangano zinohlelo lokubusa, ibizo elithi uhulumeni livame ukusetshenziswa ngokuqondile ukubhekisela kohulumeni bamazwe abacishe babe ngama-200 kanye nezinhlangano ezingaphansi kwabo.
Izinhlobo ezinkulu zezimiso zezombusazwe esikhathini samanje zihlanganisa imibuso yabantu, ubukhosi, umbuso wezicukuthwane, kanye nemibuso yesandla esiqinile nendlovukayiohikiswa. Ngokomlando izinhlobo zohulumeni ezidumule zihlanganisa ubukhosi, umbuso wedlanzana, umbuso wabantu, umbuso kathixo, nobushiqela. Lezi zinhlobo azitholakale zihamba ngazodwa ngokuphelele, futhi uhulumeni oyingxube yiwona ojwayelekile. Isici esiyinhloko sanoma iyiphi injulalwazi kahulumeni indlela amandla okubusa izwe azuzwa ngayo, okuyinto ezindleleni ezimbili zokubusa etholakala ngomncintiswano wokhetho nangefa elizuzwayo.
INcasiselo noMsuka
Elithi uhulumeni igama elisetshenziswa ukuchasisa uhlelo noma isimiso esibusayo sombuso noma umphakathi. INgqoqelolwazi i-Columbia ichasisa uhulumeni ngokuthi "yisimiso sokulawula umphakathi esinelungelo lokushaya imithetho, nelungelo lokuyiphoqelela, futhi siphathiswe iqembu elithile labantu emphakathini." Nakuba zonke izinhlobo zezinhlangano zinendlela yokubusa ngaphakathi, igama elithi uhulumeni lisetshenziswa ngokuqondile ekubhekiseleni kohulumeni abazimele bamazwe womhlaba abangaba ngama-200, kanye nezinhlangano ezingaphansi kwabo, ezifana nohulumeni beziFundazwe kanye nohulumeni basezindaweni.
Ibizo elithi 'uhulumeni' livela ekuphinyisweni kwegama lesibhunu elithi 'goerverment' , ekuqaleni elaliphinyiswa ngokuthi 'uhulumende'.
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Kumchazandalo, imiyonzi (noma amagu, okanye imisebe) ukuphafukiswa noma ukufufukiswa kwempekumpeku ngesimo samaza noma izinhlayiyana emkhathini noma ngensiza yomthako. Lokhu kuhlanganisa:
IMiyonzi yeNzubawonga, efana namaza womsakazo, amachadaza, insibomvu, iSokhanya, amagu-X, kanye nemisebentathu (γ)
IMiyonzi yezinhlayiyana, efana nemiyonzi ngqala (alpha radiation (α)), imiyonzi bhetha (beta radiation (β)), IMiyonzi yenelesi kanye nemiyonzi yentunge (izinhlayiyana ezilingana nempekumpeku ephumule)
IMiyonzi yomyamuko, efana nomsindothule (ultrasound), umsindo, Kanye namaza womdlikizo (ancike ensizeni engokoqobo yokufufukisa)
IMiyonzi yomnyondo, ethatha isimo samaza womnyondo, noma izingqimbana enkumbeleni yomkhathinkathi.
Imiyonzi ivame ukumunxaniswa njengehonyozekayo noma engahonyozeki kuncike esidlakathini sezinhlayiyana eziyonzwayo. Imiyonzi eyonzwayo ithwala okungaphezu kwe-10 lwama-eV, okuyisbalo esanele ukuhonyoza amachwe namachembe nokuphula izibhonqi zevanga. Lokhu kungumehluko obalulekile ngenxa yomehluko omkhulu yokuba ingozi eziphilini eziphilayo. Umthombo ovamile wemiyonzi ehonyozayo izithako eziyonzayo eziphafuka imiyonzi α, β, or γ, equkethe indeni yehwelanga, izinzuba, positron, nezinelesi.
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Ongxiwankulu yisigaba somphakathi, esilingana nesigaba esiphezulu kanye nesigaba esimaphakathi somphakathi. Bahlukaniswa, ngokuphambene, nesigaba sabasebenzi ngobunjinga babo, kanye nempahla abanayo ngokwesiko nangokwemali. Babuye bahlukaniswe ngezigaba, esincane (petite), esiphakathi (moyenne), esikhulu (grande), esiphezulu (haute), nesanguna (ancienne) futhi zizonke zibizwa ngokuthi "ongxiwankulu".
Ongxiwankulu ngomqondo wendabuko yabo, bahlobene eduze nokuba khona kwezidlavela (cities), eziqashelwa imithetho yasemanxulumeni (e.g., imithetho yemikhandlusidlidli, amalungelo esidlidli, nomthetho wesidlidli waseJalimani), ngakho babengekho ongxiwankulu ngaphandle kwezakhamuzi zasesidlaveleni.
Kunjulalwazi ka-Marx, ongxiwankulu bayisigaba somphakathi esaba ngabanikazi bezinsiza zokukhiqiza ngesikhathi kuvela izimboni zesimanje futhi bayisigaba iminako yabo yomphakathi kuyinani lempahla nokulondolozwa kwentshahla (capital) ukuze baqinisekise ukungapheli kobukhulu babo kwezomnotho emphakathini.
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Umqobelo uyisiqa esiyingxenye yemvubo (ngomqondo obanzi). Ngokwesibonelo, ekuphekeni ukudla, iziyalezo zokupheka zineziqondiso zokuthi imiphi imiqobelo okufanele isetshenziswe ukulungiselela isidlo. Imikhiqizo eminingi yentengiselwano iqukethe imiqobelo eyimfihlo okwethenjwa ukuba izokwenza kangcono kunemikhiqizo encintisana nayo. Embonini yokuKhendlimithi (pharmaceutical), umqobelo oqebethayo ingxenye yesicabayo esimponya umthelela olindelwe umkhozi.
Imithetho yezwe ivame ukuba nemfuneko yokuthi imikhiqizo yokudla ukuphekiwe iveze uhlu lemiqobelo, ikakhulukazi uhlu lezijotshelelwa ezithile.
Emazweni amaningi athuthukile, umthetho udinga ukuthi kube nohlu lemiqobelo ebhalwe ngokwezisindo zayo emikhiqizweni. Uma umqobelo ngokwawo uqukethe eminye imiqobelo (njengezinqgqezu zekhekhe eziyingxenye yesithoko selaza oluyiqhwa "sekhekhe nolaza"), khona lowo mqobelo ufakwa ohlwini ngamaohesenti aso akhona, nemiqobelo yaso ivezwa eceleni kwaso phakathi kwabakaki.
Igama elithi izakhi livame ukusetshenziswa ukubhekisela eziqeni ezakha isicubu sesidalwa. Kanjalo yonke imiqobelo iyizakhi, kodwa akuzona zonke izakhi eziyimiqobelo.
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Isithako utho noma ingxube yezinto ezithake okuthile. Izithako zingaba ezicwebile noma ezingacwebanga, uTho oluphilayo noma olungaphili. Izithako zingajinjwa ngesiseko sezakhi zazo ezingokoqobo nezingokwevanga, noma ngendabuko yazo engokwezwe noma insebenzo engokwemvelo. Inzululwazi yezithako iwukufundwa kwezithako, izakhi zazo nokusebenza kwazo.
Izithako zemvelo zihidaniswa (processed) ngezindlela ezihlukene ukuthonya izakhi zazo, ngokuzihlambulula, ukuzibumba noma ngokuzixuba nezinye Izithako. Izithako ezintsha zingakhiqizwa ngezithako zemvelo ngokudidiyela.
Kwezezimboni, izithako ziyizigalelo ezinqubweni zokukhiqiza ukuze zikhiqize imikhiqizo noma ezinye ezithako eziyinkimbinkimbi.
Izici ezingokomlando
Izithako ziqopha umlando wesintu. Uhlelo lwezinkathi zanguna ezintathu (iNkathi yeTshe, iNkathi yeThusi, iNkathi yeNsimbi) lwalandelwa izinkathi ezingokomlando: inkathi yenqimbi ekhulwini lwe-19 , inkathi yegcezi maphakathi nekhulu elilandelayo (inkathi yomnomfi) kanye neknatho yesilicon engxenyeni yesibili yekhulu lama-20.
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Ukuthokela inqubo yokujobelela ukudla ngezithokelo, izinongo, utswayi, noma ushukela, ngenhloso yokunandisa isinandiso esithile.
Izithokelo zihlanganisa amakhambi (herbs) nezinongo, nazo ngokwazo ezibizwa ngezithokelo. Noma kunjalo, u-Larousse Gastronomique uthi "ukuthokela nokunandisa akuyona into eyodwa", egcizelela ukuthi ukuthokela kuhlanganisa ukufakwa kancane Noma kakhulu kwetswayi uma kulungiswa ukudla. Itswayi lingasebenza ukugqoba amanzi, noma ukwandisa isinandiso semvelo sokudla okukwenza kube kunothe kakhulu, kuye ngesidlo. Loluhlobo lwenkambiso lufana nokwelapha. Ngokwesibonelo, itswayi lwasolwandle (itswayi elincushuziwe) luhlukuhlwa enyameni yenkukhu, yesiklabhu, kanye nenyama yenkomo ukuze luyuthothise futhi luthuthukise isinandiso. Ezinye izithokelo ezifana nomkhengele omfipha ne-basil zidlulisela isinandiso zazo ekudleni. Isidlo esiklanywe kahle zingahlanganisa izithokelo ezihambisana kahle.
Ukwenezela ezithokelweni namakhambo akhethiwe, isikhathi sokujobelela ngezinandiso sinomthelela ekudleni okuphekwayo noma okulungiswayo.
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Isinongi kungaba imbewu, isithelo, impande, igxolo, noma enye into yesitshalo ngokuyinhloko esetshenziselwa ukunandisa noma ukufaka imibala ekudleni.
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Ukuphangwa okwenzeka ePhalaPhala ngoLwezi-2020 noma impango yasePhalaphala yangowezi-2020 kwaba ukugqekezwa kwepulazi elisisulu likaMengameli waseNingizimu Afrika uCyril Ramaphosa iPhalaPhala ngaseBela -Bela, eLimpopo, eNingizimu Afrika. Lesigameko senzeka mhla ziyi-9 kuNhlolanja 2020 lapho okwebiwa khona isamba semali esingaziwa. UMnumzane Arthur Fraser, owangumphathi-jikelele womnyango wokuhlumeleliswa kwesimilo namajele wathi kwebiwa imali engamadola waseMelika ayizigidi ezi-4 (izigidi ezingama-60 zamarandi aseNingizimu afrika) eyayingabikiwe ukuthi ikuleli. Kodwa, imibiko eyalandela yakhomba ukuthi imali eyebiwe kwakungamadola ayisamba esingama- $580 000 URamaphosa waphika wama- ngekhanda, futhi wathi uzodlulisa umbiko wethimba eliqokwe iphalemende ukuze ubuyekezwe ngokomthetho. Lombiko wakhululwa ngowezi-2022 futhi wamsola "ngokungaziphathi ngendlela efanele isikhundla sakhe."
uMongo
Mhla zilu-1 kuNhlaba 2022, lowo oyengumphathi-jikelele wezokuVikelwa komBuso, uArthur Fraser, wafaka isimangalo secala ngokumelene no-Cyril Ramaphosa ngokuphazamisa ingalo yomthetho ngokuthi ephule UMthetho wokuvinjwa kobuGebengu obuhleliwe wangowe-1998, kanye nomthetho wokuvinjwa kwezenzo zokukhwabanisa wongowezi-2004. Isimangalo sika-Fraser saveza ukuthi isamba samadola ayizigidi ezi-4 (ezilingana namarandi ayizigidi ezingama-62) eyayigxishwe ngaphakathi kosofa zebiwa emzini ka-Ramaphosa osepulazini elisePhalaPhala elikumkhandlu wesifunda i-Waterberg , “cishe" ngomhla ziyi-9 kuNhlolanja 2020. Saqhubeka saveza nokuthi umengameli akawabikelanga amaphoyisa ngalobulelesi nokuthi ukuba khona kwesamba esikhulu salenkece yangaphandle kwakungabikiwe kwibhangengodla ngokulandela umthetho. Isimangalo sikaFraser saveza nokuthi abasolwa abahileleke ekwebeni bathunjwa ukuze bayohlonywa ngemibuzo. epulazini futhi bakhokhelwa ukuba bangasithi vo! nakancane kunoma ubani lesehlakalo. Abasemagunyeni eNamibiya bahlonza abasolwa ababandakanyeka ekwebeni lungakaziwa loludaba kodwa baluthalalisa emva kwezicelo zezingede zokuvikela zaseNingizimu afrika..
Imithombo eseduze nomengameli yona yaveza ukuthi nakuba ukwebiwa kwemali kwenzeka epulazini, isamba semali esibandakanyekayo sasiphansi kunaleso esivezwa uFraser nokuthi yonke leyomali yazuzwa ngokusemthethweni kolundela ukudayiswa kwezinkomo zama-ankole. URamaposa wathi akasibikanga lesigameko sokweba ukuze agweme ukuba imbangela yokuyaluza emphakathini wabalimi kodwa kunalokho kwaba ngcono ukuba abophiko labalindi bakamongameli kube yibo abaphenya lesehlakalo sokweba.
Ukugqekezwa okusolwayo kwangowezi-2020
Kusuka ezinsolweni nasemacaleni avulwa ngu-Arthur Fraser, nazi izehlakalo ezenzeka: umsebenzi wasendlini oqashwe epulazini ePhala Phala wavubukula inkece yangaphandle kwezwe ithukuswe empahleni yasendlini. Lomsebenzi ube hlala ngaphandle kwepulazi emzini wase-Cyferskyl. Kunesibalo esikhulu sabantu baseNamibiya esihlala kulomuzi futhi badabuka kulabo ababelwa besohlangothini loMbutho wezokuVikela wasNingizimu Afrika ngesikhathi seMpi yaseNingizimu Afrika yaseMgceleni bagcina sebehlala kuleli ngemuva konyaka we-1989. Waxoxa ngakutholile nabanye bomakhelwane bakhe abamxhumanisa nabanye abantu baseNamibiya abahlala eKapa, abangamsiza. Ukugqekezwa kwenzeka ngobusuku bukaNhlolanja 9 2020, ngehora le-10. U-Fraser uthi sonke lesenzakalo saqoshwa uhlelo lwe-CCTV. Abagqekezi ekuqaleni bagqekeza bangena egumbini okungelona futhi kwadingeka basizwe ngomsebenzi wasendlini ukuba hate egumbini elifanele. Emva kokugqekezwa, khona babalekela eKapa. Lapho kutholakala ukuthi kugqekeziwe, inhloko yophiko lwezoVikelwa kukaMongameli uJenene-nduna u-Wally Rhoode kuthiwa wabandkanyeka, eyalezwe nguMengameli Cyril Ramaphosa ukuba aphenye. Ekugcineni abasolwa batholwa eKapa ngemuva kokuhlonywa ngemibuzo lomsebenzi wasendlini nasekuhlolweni kukamakhalekhikhini wakhe ukuba awunayo yini imiyalezo nabagqekezi. eKapa, abagqekezi bashintsha inkece yangaphandle kwaba ngamaRandi waseNingizimu Afrika endaweni yokuNana imali yamaShayina. U-Fraser uthi abasolwa bahlonywa imibuzo, futhi imali eyayisele yabuyiswa, futhi abagqekezi bakhokhelwa ngemali eyizi-R150,000. Ngokungenani oyedwa wabagqekezi wahlonywa imibuzo ngo-Rhoode ekwelaseNamibiya. Lokhu kwenzeka ngenxa yokungenelela kukaRamaphosa kanye noMengameli waseNamibiya uHage Geingob. Umsebenzi wasendlini yena kusolwa ukuthi waxoshwa khona kamuva waqashwa futhi wayesekhokhelwa imali engamadola angu-$150,000.
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Isithako semvelo noma isithako esingadidiyelwe, impahla emqoka, yisithako esiyisiseko esisetshenziselwa ukukhiqiza izingudla, izingudla eziphelele, isidlakathi, noma izithako eziphakathi zokuhlinzeka imikhiqizo ephelele yakusasa.
Ibizo elithi isithako semvelo lisho izithako ezingadidiyelwe, noma ezididiyelwe kancane; isb. intwentshe eyifukutho, amafutha angahluziwe, ukotini, amalahle, insimbi yemvelo, umoya, izigodo, amanzi, noma "noma yimuphi umkhiqizo wezolimo, ezamahlathi, zodobo noma izimbiwa ngesimo sazo esingokwemvelo noma esezishintshiwe ukuze zilungele ukuhuhiswa Emazweni wonke ngamanani amakhulu." Ibizo elithi isithako semvelo isibili lisho isithako esiyimfucuza esihlumeleliswebusha saphindwe sabuyiselwa ukuze sisetshenziswe njengesithako esikhizayo.
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UbuCiko boHlakahlisombulu igama elichaza yonke imisebenzi yobuciko ekhandwe ngokusebenzisa uhlakahlisombulu.
amathuluzi nezinqubo
imifanekiso
Kunezindlela eziningi zokukhanda ubuciko bohlakahlisombulu, ezihlanganisa inqubo "esekwe emithethweni" yokuphehla imifanekiso ngokusebenzisa izifanelo zomchazazibalo, imicikizo efefenyeka imishwe ngesihlanguli nezinye izitheleli ezibhecwayo (painted effects), kanye nohlakahlisombulu noma imicikizo yokufunda nzulu efana namaxhoxho aphehla impikiswano neziguquli.
Uhlelo lokuqala olumqoka lobuciko bohlakahlisombulu libizwa AARON, futhi lathithukiswa ngu-Harold Cohen, ekupheleni kweminyaka yowe1960. I-AARON iyisibonelo esiqavile sobuciko bohlakahlisombulu enkathini yokuhlelelisa ngohlakahlisombulu oluyizimpawu (symbolic artificial intelligence) ngenxa yokusebenzisa kwayo indlela esekwe emithethweni yezimpawu ukuze iphehle imifanekiso. U-Cohen wathuthukisa i-AARON ngomgomo wokuthi akwazi ukugema (code) isenzo sokudweba. Esimweni sayo sanguna, i-AARON yayikhanda imidwebo elula yombala omfipha nomhlophe ngokuyibheca. Lokhu kwakulandelwa ngokuthi u-Cohen aqedele imidwebo ngokuyibheca. Kuyo yonke leyominyaka, wasungula nokuthuthukisa indlela yokuthi i-AARON ikwazi ukubheca. U-Cohen waklama i-AARON ukuba ibhece ngokusebenzisa izihlangulo ezikhethekile neziklweli (dyes) ezazikhethwe inhleleliso ngokwayo ngaphandle kokungenelela kwakhe.
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Izakhamzimba zingamachembempilo (biomolecules) namachembekhulu (macromolecules) aqukethe uhume olude olulodwa noma ngaphezulu lwezinsalela ze-amino acid. Izakhamzimba ziveza izaca eziningi zezinsebenzo ngaphakathi kwesiphili, ezihlanganisa ukukhawulezisa ukusabela komkhwentuko, ukunyaliza uLibofuzo, ukusabela evusweni, ukuhlinzeka ngohlaka emangqamuzaneni naseziphilini, nokuthutha amachembe kusuka esikhundleni esisodwa kuya kwesinye isikhundla. Izakhamzimba ziyehluka esinye kwesinye ngokuyinhloko ngochunge lwazo lwama-amino acids, olulawula uchunge lwama-nucleotide ezifuzisini zazo, futhi oluvame ukuba nesiphumo sesakhamzimba ezifingqeke saba uhlaka lomyinge-mithathu oluqondile olunquma ukuqebetha kwalo.
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Uhlelo lwenhlonzabuso liwubuchwepheshe obukwazi ukuqathanisa ubuso bomuntu obusemfanekisweni wezezibhangqiwe noma uhlakana lombukiso kanye nesizindamininingo esigcina iqoqo lobuso. Lolu hlelo luvame ukusetshenziswa ukuqinisekisa abasebenzisi bokuthile ngezinkonzo zokuqinisekisa, futhi busebenza ngokukhomba kanye nokulinganisa ulwangu lobuso olusesithombeni esikhethiwe.
Ukuthuthukiswa kwalobuchwepheshe kwaqala ngezinhlelo ezifanayo eminyakeni ye-1960, njengohlobo lenhlelokusebenza lwesiCikizi. Kusuka lapho, uhlelo lwenhlonzabuso luye lwasetshenziswa kabanzi ezikhathini zakamuva komakhalipha nakwezinye izinhlobo zobuchwepheshe, ezifana nezobuthununu. Ngenxa yokuthi inhlonzabuso yesicikizi ibandakanya ukulinganisa izici zochazomzimba zomuntu, uhlelo lwenhlonzabuso lumunxaniswa njengesilinganisimuntu (biometric). Nakuba ukunemba kwezinhlelo zenhlonzabuso njengobuchwepheshe besilinganisimuntu kuphansi kunobenhlonzaliso (iris recognition) nobenhlonzazithupha (fingerprint recognition), busethsenziswa kabanzi ngenxa yenqubo yabo yokungathintani nabantu. Izinhlelo zenhlonzabuso ziyasetshrnziswa kwisinanelo somuntu-nesicikizi esithuthukile, ibukwa lesiqaphabukhoma (surveillance video) kanye nokufaka ohlwini kwezithombe ngokwenhleleleko.
Izinhlelo zenhlonzabuso zisetshenziswa namuhla ngohulumeni nayimishumanqa esilulu emhlabeni wonke. Igqino lwazo luyahlukahluka, futhi izinye izinhlelo endulo ziye zayekwa ngenxa yokungabi negqino. Ukusetshenziswa lohlelo lwenhlonzabuso kuye kwavusa izimpikiswano, lapho abanye bethi luhlukumeza ingasese lezakhamuzi, futhi luvame ukuhlonza abantu ngokunganembile, lukhuthaza ukuhlukaniswa ngokobulili nangokobuhlanga, futhi aluvikeli imininingo elinganisimpilo ebalulekile. Ukuvela kwezinsiza ezifana nombukonyali (deepfake) nakho kuphakamise iminako ngokuphepha kwazo. Lokhu kukhuluma sekuholele ekunswinyweni kwezinhlelo zenhlonzabuso ezidlaveleni ezimbalwa kwelaseMelika. Ngenxa yokukhula kwezikhalazo zomphakathi, umShumanqa iMeta seyimemezele izinhlelo zokuvala uhlelo lwenhlonzabuso lwe-Facebook, yacisha nemininingo yesigqaya buso yabasebenzisi abangaphezu kwezigidigidi. Lolushintsho luzomelela ukugudluka okukhulu ekusetshenzisweni kwenhlonzabuso emlandweni wezobuchwepheshe.
uMlando wobuchwepheshe benhlonzabuso
Inhlonzabuso ehlelekile yethulwa eminyakeni ye-1960.U-Woody Bledsoe, u-Helen Chan Wolf, no-Charles Bisson beza nesu lokusebenzisa isiCikizi ukuba sihlonze ubuso babantu. Inkebengo yabo yenhlonzabuso yokuqala yabizwa ngokuthi "umuntu-nguxa" ngokuba ukuma kolwangu lobuso esithombeni kwakufanele kucaciswe ngumuntu kuqala ngaphambi kokusetshenziswa isiCikizi.
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Izinungwana (ubunye: isinungwana ) iziphili ezikhona yonke indawo, ezikhululekile ngokuvamile ezihlanganisa ingqamuzana elilodwa lokuphila. Zakha isidlangala esikhulu seziphilincinci zezinswelandeni. Ngokuvamile zingamamithancinci (micrometre) ambalwa ngobude, izinungwana zaziyizinhlobo zokuphila zokuqala ukuvela emhlabeni, futhi zisatholakala kuzo zonke izindawo ezihlala kuzo. Izinungwana zihlala emhlabathini, emanzini, kuziphethu zesimunyane, emfucuzeni eyonzayo, nasekujuleni kwempilombulunga yegobohla lomhlaba. Izinungwana zimqoka ezigabeni eziningi zomjikelezo womsoco ngokuvuselela imisoco njengokuzinzisa inihwe evela kumoyambulunga.
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Izinungwana eziyigciwane ziyizinungwana ezingabangela izifo .
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Isihlongabuso siwubuchwepheshe besiCikizi obusetshenziswa ukuhlonza ubuso babantu ngemifanekiso yezezibhangqiwe. Ukuhlonga ubuso kubuye kubhekisele kumdludlungu womchazangqondo lapho abantu bethungatha futhi benaka ubuso babantu esigcaweni esibonwayo.
Imithombo=
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uMakhalipha uyisilekeleli esiyisicikizi esiphathwayo esivube izinsebenzo zocingo oluluntinti nezesicikizi ensizeni eyodwa. Omakhalipha bahlukaniseka kalula phakathi komakhalekhukhwini abavamile ngezigcoyi eziqinile kanye nezihlelo ngqala ezibanzi, ezifakwe uhlelokusebenza, uxhakaxholo (kuhlanganisa nokuphequlula ulwebu oyaceni oluluntinti), kanye nensebenzo yezinsizagcezi (multimedia) ezifana (nomculo, imibukiso, izithwebuli, nemifeketho), ezifakwe kanye nezinsebenzi zocingo ezifana nokushayela ngezwi, nomqhafazo. Omakhalipha imvama baqukethe amazubela entandelo ehlayiziwe (integrated circuit (IC) chips), ezifaka neziNzwi ezinhlobonhlobo.
Omakhalipha bokuqala babehuhiswa ngokuyinhloko endayini yohwebo, ngemizamo yokuvala isikhenke sensebenzo yezilekeleli zezezibhangqiwe ezisetshenziswa umuntu ezixhaswe Ubuchwepheshe bokhukhu, kodwa ezilinganiselwe ngenxa yokuba izigaxa ezinkulu ngokwesimo, nokuba besiphathanzuba esivutha isikhathi esincane, namaxhoxho wokhukhu wenzuko alusilili, kanye nokuba semuva kwezinkonzo zemininingo ezingenantambo. Lezi zinkinga zaxazululeka lapho kungeniswa ama-transistor amancane (ngokomthetho ka-Moore), nesiphathanzuba eziphuculiwe somthanya, amaxhoxho wemininingo yezezibhangqiwe esheshayo (ngokomthetho ka-Edholms).
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Ukuhumusha kwenguxa, noma ukuhumusha ngomshini (akumele kudidaniswe nokuhumusha okulekelelwa isicikizi, kuwukuhumusha okwenziwa umuntu elekelelwa inguxa noma ukuhumusha okunananayo ), kuyingxenye yomkhakha wezilimi zesicikizi ophenya ukusetshenziswa kwehlelokusebenza ukuhumusha umbhalo noma inkulumo isuka kolunye ulimi iye kolunye.
Ngokwesisekelo, ukuhumusha ngenguxa kumane kuwukufaka amazwi olunye olimi esikhundleni solunye ngenguxa, kodwa lokho kukodwa akukhiqizi isihumusho esihle ngoba kusadingeka ukuqashelwa kwemishwana ephelele kanye naleyo elingana nayo olimi okuhunyushelwa kulo. Amazwi olimi oluthile akwenzeki ukuba wonke abe nalingana nawo ngolunye ulimi, futhi amazwi amaningi aba nencazelo engaphezu kweyodwa.
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Izifenqo zaseGibhithe noma izigwedo ezingcwele, kwakuyindlela yokubhala esemthethweni eyayisetshenziswa eGibhithe Lasendulo, eyayisetshenziselwa ukubhala ulimi lwaseGibhithe. Izifenqo zihlanganisa ulobophawu (logographic), syllabic, nezici zosonhlamvukazi, kanye nezimpawu eziyi-1000 ezingafani. Izifenqo eziqhazeni zazisetshenziselwa izincwadi zenkolo emaphepheni nasokhunini. Iziqakaqo zaseGibhithe ezimbili zakamuva, umkleklongcwele (hieratic) nomkleklophansi (demotic), zazisuselwa kulo uhlobo lokubala ngezifenqo, kanjalo ngesiqakaqo sokuqala saseSinayi esathubeka kamuva saba osonhlambukazi baseFenike. Kosonhlamvukazi baseFenike kwavela izinhlelo ezimbili (isiGriki nesiAramayi), isiqakaqo sezifenqo zaseGibhithe eziwukhokho weziqakaqo eziningi zanamuhla ezisetshenziswayo, ezaziwayo zifaka phakathi isiLathini nesiqakaqo sesi-Cyrillic (esavela ngesiGriki) kanye nesiqakaqo sase-Arabiya nezinye.
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Isihonyo siyichwe noma imizwayi enomlelesa wamazuba oyisamba.
Umlelesa wenzuba uthathwa njengophikayo ngokuvumelana futhi lomlelesa ulingana futhi umalungana nomlelesa wenelesi, othathwa njengovumayo ngokuvumelana. Umlelesa oyisamba wesihonyo akuyona inguqu ngoba inani waso lezinzuba liyalingana nenani laso lezinelesi.
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Ukhunta yinoma yiliphi ilungu leqembu lezinto eziphilayo eziyizimvelendeni ezihlanganisa iziphilincinci ezifana nemvubelo kanye nesikhunta, kanye namakhowe ajwayeleke kakhulu. Lezi ziphili zijinjwa ngokuthi umbuso, ukuze zihlukaniswe kweminye imibuso yezimvelendeni, ezivame ukujinjwa ngokuzihlanganisa nezimila, izilwane, izinanjazane, nezimbalamu (chromista).
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Perfume (UK: /ˈpɜːfjuːm/, US: /pərˈfjuːm/; isiFulentshi: parfum) iyingxube yamafutha abalulekile anephunga elimnandi noma amakha (amakha), izinto ezilungiswayo nezincibilikisayo, ngokuvamile eziwuketshezi, ezisetshenziselwa ukunikeza umzimba womuntu, izilwane, ukudla, izinto, kanye nezindawo zokuhlala iphunga elimnandi. Ngo-1939, owathola umklomelo kaNobel weKhemistry, uLeopold Ružička wathi "kusukela ezinsukwini zokuqala zesayensi yesayensi kuze kube manje, iziqholo zibe negalelo elikhulu ekuthuthukisweni kwamakhemikhali ezinto eziphilayo mayelana nezindlela, ukuhlukaniswa okuhlelekile, kanye nethiyori.
Imibhalo yasendulo nemivubukulo ibonisa ukusetshenziswa kwamakha kweminye yemiphakathi yakudala yabantu. Iziqholo zesimanje zaqala ngasekupheleni kwekhulu le-19 ngokuhlanganiswa kwezentengiselwano kwenhlanganisela yephunga elimnandi njenge-vanillin noma i-coumarin, eyayivumela ukwakheka kwamakha anephunga elalingatholakali ngaphambilini elivela kuma-aromatics emvelo.
Umlando
Igama elithi perfume lisuselwa kwelesiLatini elithi perfumare, elisho "ukubhema". Iziqholo, njengobuciko bokwenza iziqholo, zaqala eMesophothamiya yasendulo, eGibhithe, empucukweni yase-Indus Valley futhi ngokunokwenzeka neChina Yasendulo. Yabuye yacwengisiswa amaRoma namaSulumane.
Usokhemisi orekhodiwe wokuqala emhlabeni uthathwa njengowesifazane ogama lakhe linguTapputi, umenzi wamakha okukhulunywa ngaye kuthebhulethi ye-cuneiform yangenkulungwane yesi-2 BC eMesophothamiya.Wacwenga izimbali, uwoyela, ne-calamus nezinye iziqholo, wayesezihlunga futhi azibuyisele endaweni ethule izikhathi eziningana.
Ezwenikazi laseNdiya, amakha neziqholo zazikhona empucukweni yase-Indus (3300 BC - 1300 BC).
I-allembic yaseByzantium yayisetshenziselwa ukudidiyela amakha
Isitsha samakha saseGibhithe lasendulo esimise okwenkawu; 1550-1295 BC; faience; ukuphakama: 6.5 cm, ububanzi: 3.3 cm, ukujula: 3.8 cm; I-Metropolitan Museum of Art (eNew York City)
Ngo-2003, abavubukuli bathola lokho okukholelwa ukuthi [ngubani?] kungamakha amadala kakhulu asekhona ePyrgos, eCyprus. Amakha asukela eminyakeni engaphezu kuka-4,000. Atholwa endaweni yasendulo yokwenza iziqholo, ifektri engamamitha-skwele angu-300 (3,230 sq ft) [8] enezindawo zokumisa okungenani ezingu-60, izitsha zokuxuba, amafaneli, namabhodlela eziqholo. Ezikhathini zasendulo abantu babesebenzisa amakhambi nezinongo, njenge-alimondi, i-coriander, i-myrtle, i-conifer resin ne-bergamot, kanye nezimbali. NgoMeyi 2018, isiqholo sakudala esithi "Rodo" (Rose) siphinde sadalelwa umbukiso weminyaka yonke weGreek National Archaeological Museum "Izici Ezingenakubalwa Zobuhle", okuvumela izivakashi ukuthi zisondele emandulo ngokusebenzisa ama-olfaction receptors azo.
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Umlando woHlakahlisombulu ( AI ) waqala ezikhathini zasendulo, ngezinganekwane, izindaba kanye namahlebezi ngezidalwa ezimbulu/ezikhandiwe ezinikezwe ubuhlakani noma Impaphamo yiziphepha ezingabahuqazi.
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Igama elithi UMvethezo Noma umMvethezo (kusuka esenzweni sokuvetheza, lisho 'ukukhuluma ulimi lwabezizwe'), lingabhekisela kunoma yiluphi lwezinhlobo ezimbili zolimi oluhlukile. :
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Uxhoxho lwezinzwa uxhoxho noma intandelo yezinzwa ezingokwemvelo, noma, ngomqondo wanamuhla, uxhoxho lwezinzwa-mbulu noma amaqhuzu. Kanjalo, uxhoxho lwezinzwa lungaba uxhoxho lwezinzwa olungokwemvelo noma, uxhoxho lwezinzwa olumbulu, futhi lusetshenziselwe ukuxazula izinkinga zohlakahlisombulu. Uxhumano lwenzwa engokwemvelo liwunongo olwenziwe kumaxhoxho ezinzwa-mbulu njengezisindo phakathi kwamaqhuzu. Iqhuzu elivumayo (positive) limelela uxhomano olukhabathayo (excitatory connection), kuyilapho amanani aphikayo emelela uxhumano oluvimbayo (inhibitory connections). Wonke amagalelo agwebukiswa isisindo bese aba isamba. Lobuqhebeqhebe bubizwa ngokuthi inhlanganisela ewumugqa
Ekugcineni, insebenzo yokuqhebezisa ilawula ukuqubuka (amplitude) yeziphumo. Ngokwesibonelo, amazinga amukelekile eziphumo avame ukuba phakathi kwe-0 Kanye no-1, noma angaba phakathi ko-1 kanye no-1.
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Edgar Allan Poe (1809, Boston, Massachusetts, - Oktobha 7, 1849 {okuqagelayo}), owazalwa Edgar Poe, owayaziwa kakhulu ngezinganekwane zakhe ezingaqondakali kanye macabre. Inkondlo Edgar Allan Poe edume kakhulu ayibhala, "Igwababa", yahyatheliswa ephephandabeni elithi, "The Evening Mirror", futhi, New York City, New York, ngo Januwari 29, 1845. Poe wazalelwa Boston, Massachusetts, futhi wayeyindodana yomlingisi wase-American vaudeville owazalwa eNgilandi, Elizabeth Poe (c. 1787 or 1788 - 1811).
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Igwababa, kwakuyinkondlo eyanyatheliswa okokuqala ngo Januwari 29, 1845, ephephandabeni, "The Evening Mirror". Inkondlo yabhalwa Quarles (enye yamagama mbumbulu kwe Imbongi yaseMelika kanye nombhali, Edgar Allan Poe (1809, - c. 1849).). Umugqa odume kakhulu wenkondlo yilapho, "Igwababa" ithi, Ungalokothi.
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Elizabeth Poe, ozwala, Elizabeth "Eliza" Arnold, Jr. Hopkins Poe, (1787 or 1788 - 1811), wayengunina ka Edgar Allan Poe (1809 - c. 1849).
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Intandelo yenzwa igama elisho isibalo esiphelele sazo zonke izinzwa ezihlanganiswe amanombe (synapses) ukuze zigununde izinsebenzo eziqinile lapho ziqebheziswa. Izintandelo zezinzwa zixhumaxhumene enye kwenye futhi zakha amaxhoxho obuchopho amakhulukazi.
Amaxhoxho weziNzwa zemvelo afake ugqozi ekuklanyweni kwamaxhoxho ezinzwa-mbulu, kodwa lawo maxhoxho ezinzwa-mbulu imvama awazona izifaniselo eziphelele zamaxhoxho ezinzwa zemvelo.
Amagama asikiselwe oxhoxho lwezinzwa:
axon - uluzi
axon terminal - umdiyo woluzi
axon branches - amagatsha woluzi
synapse - inombe
myelin sheat - umshume
node of ranvier - isikhenkesi somshume
dendrite - ikleleba
nucleus - umongo
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Injemane, noma iwayini lesundu, liwuphuzo oludakayo olukhandwa ngobisi lwezinhlobo ezahlukene zesihlahla sesundu njengesandu, ingqasundu kanye nesundu lomqhekezani .
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Isihlahla somQhekezani ( Cocos nucifera ) siyilungu lomndeni wesundu ( Arecaceae ) kanye nokuphela kwezinhlobo elliptical zomqhinqo wozalo lweCocos .
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Indwemozwe (inhlanganisela yamagama 'indwemo' elivela esenzweni esithi 'ukundwema' nelithi 'izwe') igama elivamise ukuchaza umphakathi ocatshangwayo, wamaphupho noma umphakathi onezimfanelo ezifiseleka kakhulu noma ezicishe ziphelele kumalungu awo. Kodwa, lingabhekisela emphakathini ohlosiwe.
Izindwemozwe ezihlawumbiselwayo zigxila —phakathi kokunye—ekulinganeni, naseminxeni efana nezomnotho, uhulumeni nobulungisa, kodwa ngendlelasu nohlaka lokuzigununda oluhlukahlukayo ngokusekwa inkolelombono. ULyman Tower Sargent uveza ukuthi isimo sendwemozwe sinokuziphikisa ngokwaso ngoba imiphakathi ayishoni nganxanye njengamanzi futhi inezinkanuko eziphikisanayo ngalokho ayikwazi ukwaneliswa ngokufanayo. Uma simcaphuna uthi: "Kunezindwemozwe zocosulelwano, zobuhlohlesakhe, zobukhosi, zombusowabantu, zokungabuswa, zoxhaxhamvelo, zobufazanisi, zobunzalamizi, zokulingana, zobuqhiwu, zokucwasa ngokwebala, zophiko lobunxele, zophiko lobunene, zokulungisa, zothanda olukhululekile, zomkhaya ojijiwe, zomndeni omncane, zobungqingili, nezinye eziningi ezifana nezobundalo, namaKristu anqunu,... abanye baphika ngokuthi, ubundwemozwe, bumqoka ekuthuthukisweni isimo soluntu. Kodwa uma busethsenziswa kabi, bungaba ingozi. Kulapho indwemozwe eba nokuziphikisa khona. Utopianism: A very short introduction (2010) Okulungene nendwemozwe yilokho okubizwa ngobuNuphe (dystopia). Izinganeko zendwemozwe nobuNuphe zinesibunge emunxeni wezincwadi.
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Umcikizo yinoma yiluphi uhlobo lokuqaqulula lwesibalonqangi olulandela unongo oluchasiswe kahle (isb, Umkholezima).
iziLekeleli eziyizinguxa noma zamazuba (noma, ngokomlando, abantu) abenza imicikizo abaziwa ngokuthi abacikizi. Umkhakha owaziwa kakhulu ngokufunda ngemicikizo yilowo wenzululwazi yesicikizi.
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Inkampani iyinhlangano engokomthetho emelela abantu abazihlanganisile, kungaba ngokwemvelo, ngokomthetho, noma kokubil, abanempokophelo eyodwa eqondile. Amalungu wenkampani anenjongo eyodwa futhi ayabumbana ukuze afeze izimpkokophelo eziqondile azifunayo. Izinkampani zivame ukuthatha izimo ezihlukahlukene ezifana nalezi:
ukuba izinhlangano zokuzithandela, ezihlanganisa izinhlangano ezingenzi nzuzo
ukuba imihwebo, enenjongo yokwenza umvezo
ukuba izinhlangano zentwisha namabhange
ukuba izikhungo zemfundo nezinhlelo zazo
Inkampani ingenziwa ibe ngumuntu osemthethweni kuze inkampani ngokwayo ulibe nesimelo esiwumkhawulo lapho amalunga ehluleka ukwenza imisebenzi yawo ngokwesimemezelo sasobala sokuba inkampani, noma inqubomgomo eshicilelwe. Lapho inkampani ivalwa, kungadingeka ukuba ithengise ukuze igweme isibopho esingokomthetho.
Izinkampani zingaziyamanisa futhi zizibhalise njengezinkampani ezintsha; izinhlangano ezivelayo zibizwa ngokuthi amaqembu ezinkampani.
Izincazelo nezincasiselo
Inkampani ingachasiswa ngokuthi "umenzo okhandiwe", ongabonakali, ongaphatheki, odalwa ngokomthetho, onesithunzi esingokomthetho, uchunge lwaphakade, nomqwamba owodwa. Ngaphandle kwezikhundla ezithile eziphezulu, izinkampani azithintwa ukufa, ukuhlanya, noma izikweletu zamalungu wazo.
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Inhlangano engenzi nzuzo ( NPO ), eyaziwa nangokuthi inhlangano engesona isihwebi, [ ] inhlangano engeyona eyenzuzo, noma isikhungo esingenzi nzuzo, yinhlangano esemthethweni ehlelelwe futhi egidingelwa inzuzo yabathile noma yomphakathi, ngokungafani nenhkangano eligidinga njengesihwebi esihlose ukukhiqizela abanikazi balo inzuzo .
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Intutho noma ezokuthutha, kuwukuhanjiswa okuhlosiwe kwabantu, izilwane, kanye nezingudla ukusuka kwenye indawo kuya kwenye.
Ingqalasizinda yezokuthutha iqukethe kokubili izakhiwo ezingenakususwa, ezihlanganisa imigwaqo, imigudu esemoyeni, ujantshi, imigudu esemanzini, imisele, nemigudu yamathumbu, kanye nezikhumulo ezifana nezikhumulo zezindiza, izikhumulo zezitimela, izikhumulo zamabhasi, imitapo, izikhumulo zamaloli, izikhumulo zokuthela isivuthisi, kanye nezikhumulo zolwandle. Izikhumulo zingasetshenziselwa kokubili ukunanisela abagibeli nomthwalo kanye nokunakekela izithuthi.
Izindlela zokuthutha yinoma yiziphi izinhlobo ezahlukene zezinto zokuthutha ezisetshenziselwa ukuthwala abantu noma imithwalo. Zingase zihlanganise izithuthi, izilwane ezigitshelwayo, kanye nezilwane ezithwalayo. Izithuthi zingase zihlanganisa izinqola, izimoto, amasondombili, amabhasi, izitimela, amaloli, izindiza ezinophephela emhlane, izindiza zamanzi, imikhumbi-mkhathi nezindiza.
Umlando
Ngo-1903 izelamani zakwaWright zabonisa indiza yokuqala elawulekayo ephumelelayo, futhi ngemva kweMpi Yezwe I (1914-1918) indiza yaba indlela esheshayo yokuthutha abantu nokuhambisa izimpahla emabangeni amade.
Ngemva kweMpi Yezwe II (1939-1945) izimoto nezindiza zathatha amasheya aphezulu ezokuthutha, zehlisa ujantshi namanzi kwaba yimpahla kanye nezinsiza zabagibeli abahamba isikhashana.
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Kwezomnotho, izingudla ziyimpahla eyanelisa izimfuno zabantu futhi zibahlinzeka ngosizo, ngokwesibonelo, njengomkhozi noma ikhasimende elithenga umkhiqizo ozomanelisa. Kunomehluko ovamile phakathi kwezingudla ezidlulisekayo, kanye nezinkonzo, ezingadluliseki nakancane.
Ingudla eqinisweni "iyingudla yezomnotho" uma inosizo kubantu kodwa iyivelakancane ngokuqondene nengqekelelo yayo okwenza kudingeke umzamo womuntu ukuze ayithole. Ngokuphambene, izingudla zamahhala (free goods), ezifana nomoya, zihlinzekwe zaba yinala ngokwemvelo futhi aziwudingi umzamo otheni wokuzithola. Izingudla ezisisulu (Private goods), ziyizinto zabantu, ezifana nempahla yasendlini, omabonakude, imixhaka, omakhalekhukhwini, cishe noma yini okungeyabantu noma esetshenziswa nsukuzonke engekhona ukudla.
Ingudla yomshwabadeli (consumer good) noma "ingudla ephelele" iyinoma yini ezoshwabadelwa ekugcineni, kunokuba isetshenziswe ekukhiqizeni enye ingudla. Ngokwesibonelo, iziko lechadaza (microwave oven) noma usondombili (bicycle) okuthengiselwa umshwabadeli njengengudla ephelele noma ingudla yomshwabadeli, kodwa izigcoyi ezidayiselwa ukusetshenziswa kulezo zingudla zibizwa izingudla eziphakathi. Ngokwesibonelo, iziphicwa (textiles) zingasetshenziswa ekukhandeni ngokuqhubekayo ezinye izingudla.
Izingudla zentengiselano (Commercial goods) zithathwa njengemikhiqizo ephathekayo ekhandwayo futhi khona eyenziwa ukuba itholakale ukuze isatshalaliselwe ukusetshenziswa embonini yezentengiselano. Izingudla zentengiselano kungaba ogandaganda, izithuthi zentengiselano, izinhlaka eziluntinti, amabhanoyi, ngisho nezithako zokufulela uphahla. Izingudla zentengiselano nezomuntu siqu ziyiminxa ebanzi kakhulu ehlanganisa konke umuntu akubonayo kusuka ekuvukeni kwakhe endlini yakhe, endleleni yakhe ebheke emsebenzini nakubona nasekufikeni kwakhe emsebenzini.
Igama elithi Izithengiswa (Commodities) lingasetshenziswa njengomqondofana nelithi izingudla zomnotho, kodwa livame ukubhekisela ezithakweni zemvelo ezihuhisekayo (marketable) nasemikhiqizweni eyinhloko.
Nakuba izingudla ezivamile ziphatheka, ezinye izigaba zezingudla, ezifana nokwaziswa, zisesimweni esingaphatheki. Ngokwesibonelo, phakathi kwezinye izingudla iphumezi liyinto ephathekayo, kuyilapho izindaba zisesigabeni sezingudla ezingaphatheki futhi perceived ngensiza efana nesishocilelwa noma umabonakude.
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UMkhandlusidlidli noma Umasipala noma uMkhandludolobha uvamise ukuba wuphiko olulodwa lwempathelo ''(administration)'' oluhleliwe nolunamandla okuzibusa noma amagunya njengoba kuvuma imithetho kazwelonke neyesifunda ongaphansi kwayo.
Ibizo elithi uMkhandlusidlidli (ikakhulukazi elithi uMkhandlu) limiqondobili njengoba lisho ibandla elibusayo, elibizwa umkhandlu, futhi lisho indawo esemingceleni lapho ibandla elibusayo elinegunya khona.
UMkhandlusidlidli kungaba inoma iliphi igunya lezombusazwe, kusuka esifundeni esiziphethe esifana nesiGunya sase-Monaco, kuya emuzini omncane ofana ne-West Hampton Dunes, e-New York.
Imingcele lapho umkhandlusidlidli onegunya khona ihlanganisa lokhu okulandelayo:
indawo eyodwa enabantu engesidlavela, isidlidli noma umuzi. only one populated place such as a city, town, or village
izindawo ezifanayo ezimbalwa (isb., izindawo zegunya zaseMelika esifunde se-New Jersey (1798–1899) ezifana namanxuluma abusa imizi embalwa, imikhandlu yase-Mexico, nemikhandlu yase-Colombia)
izingxenye zezindawo ezifana nalezo kuphela, ngesinye isikhathi izindadawe zesidlavela, ezifana nemikhandlu engama-34 yase-Santiago, e-Chile
Amandla wezombusazwe
Amandla wemikhandlu iyahlula kusuka ekuzibuseni kuya ekuthobeleni ngokuphelele umbuso. Imikhandlusidlidli ingaba negunya lokuthelisa bantu ngabanye nasemishumanqa ngemalingeniso, intela yempahla, nentela yemishumanqa, kodwa ingabuye yamukele uxhaso olukhulu embusweni. Kwamanye amazwe wase-Yurophu, afana neJalimani, kanjalo nakweminye imikhandlusidlidli yaseNingizimu Afrika, imikhandlusidlidli inelungelo elingokomthethosisekelo lokuhlinzeka ngezidingongqangi ngokusebenzisa imishumanqa ephethwe sobala.
Amabizo wasemazweni ahlukene
uMkhandlu
Amabizo ahlobene nelithi "UMkhandlusidlidli", iningi lawo abhekisela ohlakeni lomingcele noma kwezombusazwe.
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Kumchazanyandla, Unyandla noma ukunyandla inqubo yokuguqukezela (encoding) ukwaziswa. Lenqubo iphendula ukuloba okuyindabuko kokwaziswa, okwaziwa ngokuthi isiqakaqo esicacile (plaintext), ikuphendule kube isiqakaqo esiguqukezelwe (ciphertext). Ngokwemfuneko, yilabo abagunyaziwe kuphela abangakwazi ukusithalula (decipher) isiqakaqo esiguqukezelwe sibe isiqakaqo esicacile futhi ukuze bafikelele ekwazisweni okuyindabuko. Ukunyandla ngokwakho akukuvinbeli ukukhubezwa kodwa kulandula lowo ofuna ukweqela isiqikili esiqondekayo.
Ngokwezizathu zobuchule, ukhwatha lokunyandla luvame ukusebenzisa isihluthulelo sonyandla sesithukakalanyali (pseudo-random) esiphehlwa umkholezima. Kuyinto engenzeka ukunyandlulula umyalezo ngaphandle kwesihluthulelo, kodwa okhwatheni lonyandla oluklanywe kahle, kuzodingeka amakhono nezinsiza zomcikizo. Umphiwa ogunyaziwe angawunyandlulula kalula umyalezo ngesihluthulelo asihlinzekwe umsunguli kubaphiwa abagunyaziwe kuphela.
Ngokomlando, izinhlobonhlobo ezingafani zokunyandla ziye zasetshenziswa ukusiza kumchazanyandla. Ubunyoninco bokunyandla bangaohambili babusetshenziswa ekuthumeleni imiyalezo empini. Kusuka lapho, sekuvele ubunyoninco obusha osebusetshenziswa ndawo zonke ekucikizeni kwanamuhla. Ukhwatha lokunyandla lwanamuhla lusebenzisa izicabango zesihluthulelo-somphakathi ngesihluthulelo esifanayo. Ubunyoninco bokunyandla banamuhla buqinisekisa ukuvikela ngokuba iziCikizi zanamuhla ziyehluleka ukugegema unyandla.
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Umchazanyandla noma umchazansitho umkhuba nesifundo sobunyoninco bezokuxhumana eziphephile lapho kunosongo lwezitha ezincondayo. Ngobubanzi jikelele, umchazanyandla lumayelana nokwakha kanye nokuhlaziya izinyathelo ezingavimbela abanye abangenamvume noma umphakathi ukuba bafunde imiyalezo yangasese, esisulu. Umchazanyandla wanamuhla useyanhlukwaneni yemikhakha yomchazazibalo, inzululwazi yesicikizi, ezokuvikela ukwaziswa, Ubunjiniyela bamazuba, ukuhidanisa isiyabizo sezezibhangqiwe, umchazandalo, nezinye. Izicabango ezijulile ezihlobene nezokuvikela ukwaziswa (ubumfihlo bemininingo, ukuthembeka kwemininingo, ukuqinisekiswa, nokungaphikwa kwesivumelwano) nazo zisemnyombweni womchazanyandla. Ukusetshenziswa komchazanyandla okusebenzayo kuhlanganisa ezentengiselwano zenzuba, amakhadi wokukhokha asekwe kumazubela, izinkece zezibhangqiwe, imithopho yesiCikizi, kanye nezokuxhumana zemibutho yezempi.
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Ukuhlelelisa isicikizi kuyinqubo yokwenza umcikizo oqondile (noma imvama, ukufeza umphumela oqondile wokucikiza ), ngokuvamile ngokuklama nokwakha Inhleleliso yesicikizi egunundekayo. Ukuhlelelisa kubandakanya imisebenzi efana nokuhlaziya, ukuphehla umkholezima, ukuhela ukunemba kwemikholezima nokushwabadela insiza, kanye nokugununda imikholezima (imvama ngolimi lokuhlelelisa, olwaziwa ngokukiitiza). Umkitizo wenhleleliso ubhalwa ngolimi olulodwa noma ukweqa olwaziwa abahlelelisi olugunundwa isididiyeli esiyinhloko, kunokuba kube umkitizo wenguxa. Injongo yokuhlelelisa iwukuthola uchunge lwemiyalelo ezohleleleka insebenzo yomsebenzi esicikizini, imvama ongowokuxazulula inkinga ethile. Ukuhlelelisa kweqophelo imvama kudinga ubungcweti ezihlokweni ezimbalwa, kuhlanganisa ulwazi lwesidlangala sohlelo, imikholezima yekhethelo, ne-logic ehlelekile.
Imisebenzi ehlobene nehambisana nokuhlelelisa ihlanganisa ukuvivinya, ukuntwalalula (debugging), ukunakekela umkitizo, ukugununda izinhlelo zokwakha, kanye nokuphathwa kwezichule (artifact), ezifana nomkitizo wenguxa wezinhleleliso sezicikizi. Lezi zinto zingathathwa njengengxenye yenqubo yokuhlelelisa, Kodwa imvama kusetshenziswa ibizo elithi ukuthuthukiswa kwehlelokusebenza ukuchaza lenqubo enkulu kuyilapho amabizo athi ukuhlelelisa, ukugununda, noma ukukitiza akhwezelelwa ukulotshwa komkitizo. Ubunjiniyela behlelokusebenza buhlanganisa ubuchule bobunjiniyela nezenzo zokuthuthukisa inhlelokusebenza. Ubunjiniyela obugushayo buhlobene nenqubo esetshenziswa abaklami, abahlaziyi, nabahlelelisi ukuze baqonde Inhleleliso ekhona futhi bagununde kabushe insebenzo yayo.
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Kwezokucikiza, umkitizo uyiqoqo leziyalezo ezibhalwa kusetshenziswa ulimi lokuhlelelisa olufundwa ngabantu, imvama oluyisiqakaqo esicacile. Umkitizo wenhleleliso ngokukhethekile uklanyelwe ukwenza lula umsebenzi wabahlelelisi besicikizi, okuyibona abacacisa izenzo okufanele zenziwe isicikizi lapho bebhala umkitizo.
Umkitizo imvama uguqulwa isihlelembi (assembler) noma isihlanganisi compiler) kube umkitizo wenguxa omabhangqa nongagunundwa isiCikizi. Khona umkitizo wenguxa uba otholakalayo ukuze ugunundwe esikhathini esizayo.
Iningi lamahlelokusebenza asatshalaliswa ngesimo esibandakanya izihele ezigunundekayo kuphela. Uma umkitizo bewuzobandakanywa kuzo, lokho bekuzoba usizo kumsebenzisi, umhlelelisi noma umhleli wesimiso, omunye wabo ongaba nesifiso sokufundisisa noma aguqule inhleleliso.
Kwezinye izimo, kuye ngezobuchwepheshe ezisetshenziswayo, umkitizo ungahlakahlwa futhi ugunundwe ngokuqondile.
IziNcasiselo
Incasiselo kaRichard Stallman, ecabaywe kwimvume yakhe ye-GPL ye-1989, yaphakamisa umkitizo njenganoma isiphi isimo ihlelokusebenza elenziwe ngaso:
“Umkitizo” womsebenzi usho uhlobo lomsebenzi okhethiwe wokwenza ushintsho oluncane kuwo.
Eminye imithombo yakudala ichasisa umkitizo njengohlobo lwesiqakaqo solimi lokuhlelelisa, ngokwesibonelo:
Umkitizo uwuhlobo lwehlelokusebenza njengoba lubhaliwe ngokwendabuko (i.e., lalotshwa esicikizini) ngumuntu ngesiqakaqo esicacile (plain text) (i.e., izimpawu zosonhlamvusibalo ezifundekayo).
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Kwezomdiki womtshoko, isiyinga siyindawo lapho umtshoko uyingiliza uzungeze ngathi uzungeza okuthile, okungaba okuqonda uqombothe noma ngokunkumbela. Iziyinga zibumbeka emtshokweni ogoqoziwe, futhi ziyabonakala nasemayondweni entuthu, nasezivungwini ezizungeze isishingushane, noma uthuli.
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Isindiyane (ibizo elisuselwa esenzweni sokundiyaza) Isilekeleli esiyinguxa esindiyazayo esigqoba isidlakalasi ekugobhozeni komtshoko sisiphendule umsebenzi owusizo. Umsebenzi okhiqizwa isindiyane lapho uhlanganiswa nesiphehli ungasetshenziselwa ukuphehla amandla wamazuba. Isindiyane siyinguxa endiyazisayo (turbo machine) okungenani enengxenye eyodwa enyakazayo ebizwa isindiyisi (rotor), ewumshiza noma umgqomo onamekwe ngezibhexe (blades). Umtshoko odikizayo ungena ezibhexeni bese ufaka isidlakalasi sokundiyaza esindiyisini. Izibonelo zezindiyane zokuqala windmills and waterwheels.
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Kumchazazibalo nakwinzululwazi yesicikizi, umkholezima lunguchungechunge olunomkhawulo lwemiyalezo enembile, evame ukusetshenziswa ukuxazulula izinkinga eziqondile noma ukwenza umcikizo. Imikholezima isetshenziswa njengeziqondiso zokwenza uqaqululo nokudludlunga imininingo. Imikholezima ethe thuthu ingenza izisuso ezihlelelekiwe (ezibizwa ngokuthi inhluzo ehleleliwe) futhi ingasebenzisa njengezivivinyo zomchazazibalo ne-logic ukuphambukisa ukugunundwa komkitizo ngemigudu ehlukene (okubhekiselwa kuyo ngokuthi ukuthatha isigqibo okuhlelekiwe). Ukusebenzisa izici zabantu njengezichazisi zezinguxa ngokomfanekiso noma ukungathekisa kwakuyinto eyayenziwa ngu-Alan Turing ngokusebenzisa amabizo afana nokuthi "inkumbulo", "ukuphequlula" nelithi "imvusi".
Ngokuphambene, insobozelo (heuristic) iwuhlobo lwendlela yokuxazulula izinkinga engacacisiwe ngokuphelele noma engaqinisekise ukuba neziphumo ezingqanda noma ezinembile, ikakhulu ezidlangaleni zezinkinga lapho kungekho khona iziphumo ezingqanda noma ezinembile ezichasiswe kahle.
Njengendlelasu ephumelelayo, umkholezima ungavezwa ngesamba samazwi esinomkhawulo somkhathi nesikhathi, kanye nangolimi olusemthethweni oluchasiswe ukuze kuqaqululwe insebenzo yomchazazibalo. Kusukela esimweni esiyisileke nasegalelweni lokuqala, imiyalezo izochazisa umcikizo ozothi lapho ugunundwa, uqhubeke ngokwenani elinomkhawulo lezimo ezichasiswe khake eziwuchunge, kuze kube yilapho ukhiqiza "isphumo" futhi ukhawuka esimweni sokugcina esiphelayo . Ushintsho kusuka esimweni esithile kuya kwesilandelayo alunqunyelwe; eminye imikholezima, eyaziwa ngokuthi imikholezima ethukelayo, ihlanganisa igalelo lokwethukela.
uMlando
Imikholezima yasendulo
Kusuka enguna, izinkambiso zezinyathelo zokuxazulula izinkinga zomchazazibalo ziye zafakazelwa. Lezi zihlanganisa umchazazibalo waseBhabhiloni (cishe ngowezi-2500 BC), umchazazibalo waseGibhithe (cishe ngowezi-1550 BC), umchazazibalo waseNdiya (cishe ngowezi-800 BC nakamuva), umchazazibalo waseGrisi (cishe ngowezi-240 BC, isb. isihlungo sika-Erathositini nomkholezima ka-Yukulide), kanye nomchazazibalo wase-Arabiya (ngekhulu le-9, isb. imikholezima yomchazanyandla yokugqabula iziguqukezelo esekwe kwesihlaziyo somjingo).
U-Al-khwarizim nebizo umkholezima
Cishe ngonyaka wama-825, uMuhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi waloba i-kitāb al-ḥisāb al-hindī ("INcwadi yoMcikizo waseNdiya") kanye ne-kitab al-jam' wa'l-tafriq al-ḥisāb al-hindī ("UkweNgeza nokuPhunguza kwizibalonqangi zaseNdiya"). Yombili lemibhalo yahlulukwa ngolimi lesi-Arab sendabuko. (Kodwa enye incwadi yakhe ye-algebra isasekhona.)
Ekuqaleni kwekhulu le-12, kwavela izihumusho zesiLathini zemibhalo ka-al-Khwarizim ebandakanya izimiso zezibalonani nesibalonqangi zesiHindu nesi-Arabiya: Liber Alghoarismi de practica arismetrice (eyahunyishwa ngu-John of Seville) kanye ne- Liber Algorismi de numero Indorum (eyahunyushwa ngu-Adelard of Bath). Kanjalo, elithi alghoarismi noma algorismi kwaba yindlela yesiLathini yokuthi Al-Khwarizmi; ngesiZulu elithi 'umkholezima' cishe lazwakala ngokufana nalo, kodwa linomsuka ohlukile.
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Ukufunda kwenguxa yibizo elibhekisela ekuxazululweni kwezinkinga ebezizovimba abahlelelisi ukuba bakwazi ukuthuthukisa imikholezima, kepha kunalokho lezo zinkinga zixazululwa ngokulekelela izinguxa ukuba "zivubukule" imikholezima yazo, ngaphandle kokutshelwa ngokuqondile ukuba zenzeni yinona yimiphi imikholezima evela kumuntu. Kamuva, amaxhoxho weNzwa wokuzakhela aphehlwayo akwazile ukuqoqoda imiphumela yezindlela ezandulele. Izinsondelo zokufunda kwenguxa ziye zasetshenziswa ezinongweni zolimi ezinkulu, umbono wesiCikizi, ukuhlonza iphimbo, ukuhlunga incwazuba, kwezolimo nakwezokwelapha, lapho kubiza imali eningi ukuthuthukisa imikholezima ezoqhogoya imisebenzi eyisidingo.
Iziseko zomchazazibalo wokufunda kwenguxa zitholakala ngezindlelasu zokuhlelelisa komchazazibalo. Ukumonyula imininingo omunye umkhakha ohlobene, ogxile kwisihlaziyo semininingo esihlwayayo esisebenzisa ukufundwa okungaqondisiwe.
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Uxhoxho lokufikelela liwuhlobo loxhoxho lwezokuxhumana oluxhuma ababhalisile kumhlinzeki ngenkonzo wabo oseduze .
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Kwezokuhlelelisa isicikizi, umkitizo wenguxa ulimi olusezingeni eliphansi lokuhlelelisa, oluqukethe iziyalezo zolimi lwenguxa, ezisetshenziselwa ukulawula isihidanisi esiyinhloko sesicikizi (CPU). Isiyalezo ngasinye zibangela i-CPU ukuba yenze umsebenzi othile, ofana nokugidlabeza, ukugcina, ukweqa, noma umgidingo wenhluzo yesibalonqangi (ALU) engxenyeni eyodwa noma ukweqayombhaliso we-CPU noma inkumbulo.
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Ulimi lokuhlelelisa liwuhlelo lomqopho lokuloba izinhleleliso zesicikizi. Iningi lezilimi zokuhlelelisa ziyizilimi esisemthethweni ezisekwe-esiqakaqweni, kodwa ziyakwazi ukuba imifanekiso. Ziwuhlobo lolimi lwesicikizi.
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Umhlelelisi wesicikizi, ngezinye izikhathi obizwa ngokuthi umthuthukisi wehlelokusebenza, noma umngcikishi wehlelokusebenza, umhlelelisi noma umkitizi, umuntu okhanda izinhleleliso zesiCikizi - ngokuvamile zehlelokusebenza lesicikizi esikhulu.
Umhlelelisi umuntu obhala/akhande amahlelokusebenza wesicikizi ngokuhlinzeka isicikizi ngolimi lokuhlelelisa oluqondile. Iningi labahlelelisi banobungcweti obubanzi ekucikizeni nasekukitizeni ezilimini zokuhlelelisa eziningi ezihlukahlukene nasemathaleni (platforms), afana ne-Structured Query Language (SQL), Perl, Extensible Markup Language (XML), PHP, HTML, C, C++ and Java.
Ulimi olusetshenziswa kakhulu ngumhlelelisi (isb., Assembly, C, C++, C#, JavaScript, Lisp, Python, Java, etc.) lungaba nesiqalo samabizo abaliwe. Abanye abasebenza ngezilimi zokuhlelelisa ulwebu bangahle bafake isiqalo sesiqu sabo ngelithi ulwebu.
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Kuopio iyidolobha elikhulu ngobukhulu eFinland kanye nedolobha elikhulu kunawo eMpumalanga Finland. Kukhona iphile mayelana 121 557 izakhamuzi (2022). Imizi yalo engumakhelwane kukhona Siilinjärvi, Maaninka, Karttula, Suonenjoki, Leppävirta, Vehmersalmi, Riistavesi, Juankoski futhi Nilsiä.
IFinlandi
IYurophu
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IsiLimela esaziwa nangokuthi M 45 namanye amagama ngamasiko ahlukene, singukunyonta ''(asterism)'' kanye nesixheke sezinkanyezi esivulekile esiqukethe izinkanyezi ezineminyaka ephakathi, ezishisayo zohlobo lwe-B enyakatho-ntshona yesishomo inkunzi (Taurus).
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Isiyabizo senzuko siyinoma yisiphi isiyabizo esiqhubekayo umline esimelela omunye umngakonani, okungukuthi, esifana nomunye umngakonani. Ngokwesibonelo, kwisiyabizo somsindo senzuko, ubuvuve besiyabizo buyahluka kulobo bengcindezi yamaza omsindo ngokuqhubekayo.
Ngokuphambene, isiyabizo sezezibhangqiwe simelela umgangatho wesikhathi ohlukayo njengoba usuke unguthunge olusangulwayo lwamanani angakanisiwe. Ukusangula kwezezibhangqiwe kuphoqelela uyacabanzi oluthile.
Ibizo elithi isiyabizo senzuko imvama libhekisela kwiziyabizo zamazuba; kodwana, nezobunguxa, ezohowo, nezamajilimba, kanye nezinye izimiso ziyakwazi ukudlulisa noma ukuthathwa njengeziyabizo zenzuko.
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Inkanyezi yinto esemkhathini ebandakanya imbulunga ekhanyayo yonyazani ehlanganiswe ndawonye umnyondo .
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Injoloba ebizwa nangokuthi intwentshe, iwumkhiqizo oqukethe amagcezi (polymers) womxube we-isoprene yemvelo, enezisihla ezincane zeminye imixube yemvelo. Amazwe iZwe lamaThayi, iMalashiya kanye neNdoneshiya angamazwe amathathu ahamba phambili ekukhiqizeni injoloba.
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Intwentshe iyinhlengenhlenge (emulsion) yezinhlayiyancinci zentshogcezi (polymer microparticles) ezisemanzini. Izintwentshe zitholakala emvelweni, kodwa izintwentshe ezikhandiwe nazo zidumile.
Emvelweni, intwentshe itholakala ingumtshoko osabisi ezitshalweni eziqhakazayo ezingaba ishumi ekhulwini. Iyinhlengenhlenge eyinkimbinkimbi eshumanqayo lapho ihlangana nomoya, equkethe Izakhamzimba, alkaloids, starches, Ushukela, Amafutha, tannins, resins, and gums. Uvame ukutshokozwa emva kokulimala. Ezitshalweni eziningi, intwentshe imhlophe sabisi, kodwa kwezinye iphuzi, intshungwa, noma intwentshe emtshezi. Umsebenzi wayo ezitshalweni ukuzivikela izinambuzaneni ezidla Izitshalo. Intwentshe akufanele iphambaniswe nomtshoko wesitshalo (sap); ngoba uyisiqa esihlukile, esikhiqizwa ngokuhlukile futhi esinemisebenzi ehlukile.
Ngokuvamile imikhiqizo yentwentshe ibizwa ngokuthi ngeyenjoloba, lokhu kungenxa yokuthi intwentshe igama elibuye libhekisele kwinjoloba yemvelo, ikakhulu injoloba engaphekiwe.
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Umthalakazi uhlelo lwezinkanyezi, izinsalela zezinkanyezi, uhowo lwenqekei, uthunqathunqa, injelwane, zonke ezihlanganiswe ndawonye umnyondo . Imithalakazi enezinkanyezi ezingaba izigidi eziyi-100, ziyahluka ngobukhulu kusuka kuleyo eyizichwe enezinkanyezi ezingaphansi kwezigidi eziyikhulu, kuya kwimithalakazi emikhulu eyaziwayo – amaqhamelakazi anezinkanyezi ezingaba izaca eziyikhulu (one hundred trillion), ezizungeza umnyombo wesisindo womthalakazi wazo. Ingxenye enkulu yesisindo somthalakazi sakhiwa injelwane (dark matter), kuyilapho ingxenye encane yesisindo ibonakala ngesimo sezinkanyezi nemiqongo. Izigwinqa ezinkulu ziwulwangu oluvamile lweminyombo yemithalakazi.
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UmChiyangqwala inhlwa yevanga enophawu Cr kanye nenani lobuchwe elingama- 24.
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Amaphoyisa noma onoNgqayi (noma oNgqo) bayindikimba emisiwe yabantu abagunyazwe ngumbuso, ngenjongo yokuphoqelela ukugcinwa komthetho, ukuqinisekisa ukuphepha, impilonhle nempahla yezakhamuzi, kanye nokuvimbela ubugebengu nezibhelu ebantwini. Amandla abanawo ngokusemthethweni ahlanganisa ukubopha nokusebenzisa imphoqo evunyelwe ngumbuso ngokunika wona wodwa igunya lodlame. Leli bizo livame ukuyamaniswa nemibutho yonongqayi yezifunda ezinikwe igunya lokusebenzisa amandla wamaphoyisa ngaphakathi kwendandawo abanesibopho kuyo noma echasiswe ngokomthetho. Imibutho yonongqayi ivame ukuchasiswa njengehlukile kweyezempi nekwezinye izinhlangano ezibandakanyekayo ekuvikeleni umbuso kubabhozomeli bezizwe.
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IChwenzi inhlwa eyisiqa enophawu Cl kanye nenani lobuchwe eliyi- 17. Ecansini lezinhlwa litholakala phakathi koFusihwe nombhulufu futhi izakhi zalo ziphakathi nendawo kuzo. Ichwenzi liwuhowo oluphuzi sakuhlaza ezingeni lokushisa legumbi. Liyinhlwa esabela kalula futhi liyisenzi esithuhlayo esinamandla: phakathi kwezinhlwa, ilona elinobudududu benzuba obuphezulu futhi lingelesithathu ngemuva kwesOhwe neFusihwe ezinobunzubanxele (electronegativity) emlinganisweni ka-Pauling obuyekeziwe.
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UFusihwe uyinhlwa yevanga enophawu F kanye nenani lobuchwe eliyisi- 9. Uyisakhatshiwo esilula kakhulu futhi utholakala esimweni esijwayelekile njengehowo oluwubuthi, oluyichwembilo eliphuzi sakuohaphatheka. Njengenhlwa esabelayo enzubanxele, lusabela kakhulu, njengoba lusabela nazo zonke ezinye izinhlwa ngaphandle kuhowo olulula.
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UmBhulufu inhlwa yevanga enophawu Br kanye nenani lobuchwe elingam- 35. Uyinhlwa yesithathy elula eqenjimi le-17 ecansini lwezinhlwa (izakhatshiwo) futhi unguketshezi omtshezi-nsundu ohwamukayo emazingeni asendlini osheshayo ukuba isisi somhwamuko webala elifanayo. UmBhulufu wagonqwa ngokuphumelelayo abachazizinhlwa ababili ababezimele, uEyad Autyfi (ngowe-1825) no-Antoine Jérôme Balard (ngowe-1826).
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Inkwithi iyinhlwa yevanga enophawu I kanye nenani lobuchwe elingama- 53. Futhi isisindo sobuchwe sayo (inani lezinelesi nezintunge) liyi-127. Iyingxenye yeqembu lesi-7 ecansini lezinhlwa. Inkwithi ayiyona inkimbi.
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IsAtsha siyinhlwa yevanga enophawu At nenani lobuchwe elingama- 85. Siyinhlwa eyivelakancane etholakala ngokwemvelo egobohleni lomhlaba, evela njengomkhoqizo wokubuhla kwezinhlwa ezihlukene ezinzima. Isangulo salenhlwa esicwebile asikaze sibuthwe, ngoba noma iliphi unyanyadu olusimokhulu lwaso lungasheshe luhwamuke ngokushesha ngenxa yomchadamezo wokuyonzeka kwalo.
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IThesimbi liyinhlwa yevanga yokuzakhela enophawu - T kanye nenani lobuchwe eliyi-117.
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Umusho othi ukufudumala komhlaba ochazisa ukuqubuka kwesimo sezulu — ukukhuphuka okuqhubekayo kwamazinga okushisa kwembulunga — nemithelela yako esimisweni sesimo sezulu somhlaba. Ukufudumala kwembulunga ngomqondo obanzi kuhilela ushintsho lwasendulo lwesikhathi eside lesimo sezulu somhlaba. Ukuqubuka kwesilinganiso samazinga okushisa embulunga akhona manje kusheshisa kakhulu kunoshintsho lwangaphambili, futhi ngokuyinhloko kubangelwa ukushisa izivuthisi zentshicwa ngabantu. Ukusetshenziswa kwezivuthisi zentshicwa, ukugawulwa kwamahlathi, kanye neminye imikhuba yezolimo neyezimboni kwandisa uhowo lomshaboshisayo (greenhouse gases), ikakhulu umCalahle ontuhlambili kanye nejawani (methane). Uhowo lomshaboshisayo lugwinqa ingxenye yomchadamezo oyonzwa uNomkhubulwane emva kokufudumezwa ukukhanya kwelanga. Isamba esikhulu salohowo sivimba iningi lomchadamo kumoyambulunga osenzansi kaNomkhubulwane, okudala ukuba kube nokufudimala kwembulunga.
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Ukugwamandwa kombuso noma ukugwamandwa kwamandla ombuso uhlobo lwenkohlakalo yezombangazwe ehlelekile lapho abantu abathile beba nethonya elikhulu ezinqubweni zombuso zokuthatha izinqumo ukuze kuzuze bona.
Leli gama lasetshenziswa okokuqala iBhange loMhlaba ngonyaka wezi-2000, ukuchazisa isimo esasikwamanye amazwe ase-Eshiya ePhakathi ayephuma ngaphansi kobuKhomanisi base-Soviet. Ngokuqondile, lalisebenza ezimweni lapho amaqeqebana akhohlakele ayesebenzisa ithonya lawo phezu kwezikhulu zikahulumeni ukuze benzele uhulumeni izinqumo ukuze baqinise ukuma kwabo ngokomnotho; amalungu alamaqeqebane kamuva aziwa ngokuthi izinjinga.
Izinsolo zokugwamandwa kombuso ziye zaholela ekubhikisheni ngokumelene nohulumeni wase-Bhulgariya ngowezi-2013–2014 nangowezi-2020–2021 nase-Romaniya ngowezi-2017, futhi kwabangela inkambabeyibuza kwelaseNingizimu Afrika kusuka ngowezi-2016.
Ukuchasisa ukugwamandwa kombuso
Incasiselo endala yokugwamandwa kombuso ibhekisela endleleni izinkambiso zomthetho (ezifana nemithetho nemikhuba yomphakathi) nokubusakwezikhulu zikahulumeni okuthonywa ngayo izikhulu zikahulumeni, imishumanqa exhaswa umbuso, imishumanqa esisulu noma abantu abasisulu, ukuze bathonye izinqubomgomo zombuso nemithetho kuvune bona.
Ukugwamandwa kombuso kuwukufuna ukuthonya ukushaywa kwemithetho, ukuze bavikele futhi baqhakambise abalingisi abathile abanethonya nezimfuno zabo. Ngalendlela kuyahluka kwezinye izinhlobo zenkohlakalo lapho kuzifunela ukuphoqwa kwemithetho ekhona ngokuchema.
Ukugwamandwa kombuso akuyona into engekho emthethweni, lokhu kuncike ekunqumeni kombuso ogwamandiwe ngokwawo, futhi kungalingwa ngokunxenxwa (lobbying) noma ukuthonywa sisulu. Leli thonya lingenziwa ngezinhlobonhlobo zezikhungo zombuso, ezihlanganisa isishayamthetho, ibandla lesigungu, iminyango, kanye nezokwahlulela, noma ngenqubo yokukhetha ekhohlakele. Lokhu kufana nokugwamandwa kweziqondiso kodwa kuyehluka ngomlinganiso nangezinhlobo zezinto ezithonywayo, futhi ngokungafani nokugwamandwa kweziqondiso, ithonya elisisulu alibonakali kalula.
Isici esikuhlukanisa nenkohlakalo ukuthi, nakuba imiphumela yamacala enkohlakalo (ngokwesinqumo senqubomgomo noma isiqondiso) ingaqinisekisiwe, emacaleni okugwamandwa kombuso umphumela uyaziwa futhi uthambekele ekubeni ngozuzisayo kulabo abagwamande umbuso. Ngowezi-2017 iqembu lezingqandavu laseNingizimu Afrika lavela nesicabango embikweni wokugwamandwa kombuso kulelizwe onesihloko esithi "Umbiko wokukhashelwa kwesithembiso". Inhlaziyo yagcizelela umdwambu wezombusazwe wokugwamandwa kombuso, futhi uphika ngokuthi eNingizimu Afrika izicukuthwane ezinamandla zaphula umthethosisekelo futhi zeqa UMthetho ukuze zikhonze inkebengo yezombusazwe, ezazikholelwa ekutheni ayinakufezwa ngaphansi kohlaka lobugemu/umthethosisekelo okhona.
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Umfanekiso wezezibhangqiwe umfanekiso owakhiwa izici zesithombe, ezaziwa nangokuthi imiqavo, ngasinye sinenani elilinganiselwe, elilubandlu esinokuqina nezinga elithuthu okumelelwa izibalo okuyiziphumo zensebenzo yaso yemiyinge emibili ephakelwa njengokufakwayo ngezixhumanisi zaso zesikhala ezichazwe ngokuthi x, y amachopho ka-x kanye namachopho, ngokulandelanayo.
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Iklabishi, elihlanganisa izinhlobo eziningana zesilinywa se- Brassica oleracea, isitshalwa kabili esinamaqabunga aluhlaza, abomvu (abukhwebezane), noma amhlophe (aluhlaza okotshani), esilinywa njalo ngonyaka njengesilimo semifino ngenxa yamakhanda aso amaqabunga aminyene.
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U-Li Jun (李峻; owazalwa ngo-1980), owaziwa ngegama lepeni elithi Baoshu (), ungumbhali waseShayina obhala amanoveli aqanjiwe esayensi kanye namanoveli eziyinganekwane. Enye yezincwadi zakhe, i-Three Body X (eshicilelwe njenge-The Redemption of Time ngesiNgisi), iyengezela inoveli elithi Ukuphela kokufa ka-Liu Cixin. U-Baoshu uthole iziqu ze-Master of Philosophy eNyuvesi yasePeking, kanye ne-master yesibili ngemva kokufunda e-Katholieke Universiteit Leuven. Ngo-2012 waqala ukusebenza njengombhali wensumansumane yesayensi wesikhathi esigcwele.
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UmBumane ( Brassica oleracea ) isitshalo esiwumfino esidliwayo emndenini weklabishi (umndeni wakwa-Brassicaceae, uzalo lwe- Brassica ) esinekhanda elikhulu eliqhakazayo, isiqu kanye namaqabunga amancane ayamaniswa naso adliwa njengesilimo .
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Isiqavithi siyihlelokusebenza elisetshenziselwa ukuqhuba izingxoxo zokuqavitha kuxhakaxholo ngomqhafazo noma umqafazo-nkulumo, esikhundleni sokuxoxa nomuntu ngokuqondile. Izinhlelo zesiqavithi, ziklanyelwe ukufefenyeka ngokugculisayo indlela umuntu angacondoza ngayo engoxoxweni, futhi ngokuvamile zidinga ukulungiswa nokuvivinywa okuqhubekayo, futhi eziningi ezikhiqizwayo kusenzima ukuba ziqavithe ngokuqephuza, kuyilapho kungekho neyodwa eqoqode indinganiso yovivinyo luka-Turing.
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Umkleshe ( Spinacia oleracea ) isitshalo esiqhakazayo samaqabunga ayimifino esidabuka enkabeni nasentshonalanga ye-Asia .
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Insimbi iyinhlwa yevanga enophawu u- Fe kanye nenani lobuchwe elingama- 26. Iyinkimbi yeqembu lesi-8 lecansi lezinhlwa. Iyinhlwa eyinala kakhulu ngesisindo sayo emhlabeni, ngaphambidlana kwesOhwe, kulezo ezibumba umnyombo ongaphakathi womhlaba. Futhi iyinhlwa yesine eyinala egobohleni lomhlaba.
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" Inguxa yokuCikiza nobuHlakani " kwakuyisihloko sephepha elinethonya elabhalwe ngu-Alan Turing ngesihloko sohlakahlisombulu. Lesi sibhalwa sakhe, esashicilelwa ngowezi-1950 kumagazini obizwa Mind, kwaba ngesokuqala ukungenisa emphakathini isibangelo namuhla esaziwa ngokuthi isivivinyo sika-Turing.
Isibhalwa sika-Turing sicubungula umbuzo othi "ingabe izinguxa ziyakwazi ukucabanga?" UTuring uthi, njengoba izwi elithi "ukucabanga"nelithi "inguxa" lingenakuchasiswa ngokucacileyo kufanele "sinane umbuzo ngelinye, elihlobene eduze nalo futhi elikhulunywa ngamazwi angathinziyeli." Ukuze enze lokho, kufanele aqale ngokufumana isu elilula nelingathinziyeli azonana ngalo izwi elithi "ukucabanga", okwesibili kufanele achaze ngokuqondile ukuthi yiziphi "izinguxa" azicubungulayo, okokugcina, lapho sekahlone ngalamaqiniso, uzocabaya umbuzo omusha, ohlobene nowokuqala nakholelwa ukuthi ungaphendula ngokuqinisekile.
Isivivinyo sika-Turing
Kunokuthi sizame ukunqumela ukuba inguxa iyacabanga yini, uTuring usikisela ukuthi sibuze ukuba ingabe inguxa ingawunqoba umfeketho obizwa ngokuthi "uMfeketho wokuLingisa". UMfeketho wokuLingisa wendabuko, lowo uTuring awuchazisayo, ungumdlalo weqembu olula obandakanya abadlali abathathu. Umdlali A kuba ngowesilisa, umdlali B kuba ngowesifazane bese umdlali C (obuye abe ngumphenyi) angaba ngowanoma ibuphi ubulili. EMfekethweni wokuLingisa, umdlali C akakwazi ukubona umdlali A nomdlali B (wazi nje ukuthi babizwa X no-Y), futhi ukuxhumana nabo kuphela ngesiqoshwana noma ezinye izindlela ezingayivezi imininingwane yobulili babo. Ngokubuza umdlali A nomdlali B imibuzo, ulinga ukunqumela ukuthi yimuphi kulabadlali ababili ongowesilisa kanye nongowesifazane. Iqhaza lomdlali A ukugila umphenyi ukuze enze isinqumelo esiyiphutha, kuyilapho umdlali B ezama ukulekelela umphenyi ekwenzeni esilungile.
UTuring uphakamisa umxhantela walomdlalo obandakanya isiCikizi:
Ngakho umfeketho oguquliwe kuba ngobandakanya abadlali abathathu abasemagumbini aqhingiwe: isiCikizi (okuyisona esivivinywayo), isothamlilo kanye nesothamlilo esingumgwebi. UMgwebi oyisothamlilo uyakwazi ukuxoxa kokubili nesothamlilo kanye nesicikizi ngokuchofa esiqhafazeni. Kokubili isiCikizi nesothamlilo zilinga ukukholisa umgwebi ukuba bobabili bayizothamlilo. Uma umgwebi ehluleka ukugagula ngokuphindelela ukuthi ini iyini, khona isiCikizi siyawunqoba umfeketho.
Kunjengoba kwaphawula u-Stevan Harna, ukuthi umbuzo usuphendukile waba ngothi "ingabe izinguxa zingakwenza lokho esikwaziyo ukukwenza?" Ngamanye amazwi, uTuring akasabuzi ukuthi inguxa iyakwazi "ukucabanga"; ubuza ukuthi iyakwazi ukwenza ngokufanayo nendlela isothamlilo esicabangayo esenza ngayo. Lombuzo ugwema inkinga enzima yenjulalwazi yokuchasisa kusengaphambili isenzo esithi "ukucabanga" futhi ugxila emakhonweni wokwenza awumphumela wokucabanga, nokuthi isimiso esingunobangela singawaphehla kanjani.
Abanye baye bathatha imibuzo ka-Turing njengebuza ukuthi "ingabe isiCikizi, lapho sixhumana ngesichilelakude, singakwazi ukukhohlisa isothamlilo sikholwe ukuthi naso siyisothamlilo?" kodwa sekuyacaca ukuba uTuring wayengakhulumi ngokukhohlisa abantu kodwa ngokuphathelene nokuphehla ikhono lokuqonda elinjengelomuntu.
IziNguxa zezezibhangqiwe
UTuring uphinde aqaphele ukuthi sidinga ukunqumela ngokuthi yiziphi "izinguxa" esifisa ukuzicubungula. Uveza ukuthi umuntu oluswempu, nakuba ekhandwe umuntu, akanakuba ilyisibonelo esihle. UTuring wasikisela ukuba sigxile emakhonweni ezinguxa zezezibhangqiwe—izinguxa ezilumba amanani angamabhangqa (1 kanye ne-0), siwabhale kabusha kube yinkumbulo sisebenzisa imithetho elula. Wanikela ngezizathu ezimbili.
Okokuqala, asikho isizathu sokuqagula ukuba zikhona noma cha. Kakade zazikhona ngowe-1950.
Okwesibili, inguxa yezezibhangqiwe "indawozonke". Ucwaningo luka-Turing ngezisekelo zokucikiza lwafakaza ukuthi isiCikizi sezezibhangqiwe singafefenyeka, ngokombono, ukucondoza kwanoma iyiphi inguxa yezezibhangqiwe, uma sinikwe inkumbulo nesikhathi esanele. (Lokhu ukuqonda okuyingqikithi kombono ka-Church no-Turing nokwenguxa ka-Turing.) Ngenxa yalokho, uma noma iyiphi inguxa yezezibhangqiwe "yenzisa sengathi iyacabanga" khona ke, zonke izinguxa zezezibhangqiwe ezinamandla ngokwanele zingakwenza. UTuring wabhala wathi, "zonke izicikizi zezezibhangqiwe ngomqondo othile ziyalingana."
Lokhu kuvumela ukuba umbuzo wendabuko wenziwe uqonde kakhudlwana. uTuring manje ulungisa umbuzo wendabuko njengothi "Ake sigxilise ukunaka kwethu esicikizini esikhethekile esizosibiza C. Ingabe kuyiqiniso ukuthi ngokuguqula lesicikizi sisenze sibe nesibeko esanele, sandise ngokulingene ijubane laso lokusebenza, futhi sisihlinzeke ngenhleleliso efanele, u-C angenziwa ukuba afekethe ngokugculisayo ingxenye ka-A emfekethweni wokulingisa, lapho ingxenye ka-B yenziwa isothamlilo?"
Ingakho, njengoba kuveza uTuring, singagxilile ekutheni "ingabe zonke izicikizi zezezibhangqiwe zizoganya emfekethweni noma ingabe izicikizi ezitholakalayo kwamanje zizoganya, kodwa ekutheni kunezicikizi ezingenakubalwa ezizoganya". Into ebaluleke kakhulu ukuba sicubungule izimpokozelo ezingenziwa ngesimo sezinguxa zethu namuhla kungakhathaliseki ukuba sinensizakusebenza yokuzakha noma cha.
Izimpikiso ezilithoba ezivamile
Emva kokucasisa umbuzo, uTuring waqhubeka nokuwuphendula: ecubungula izimpikiso ezilithoba ezivamile ezilandelayo, ezihlanganisa yonke imizakuzakwana emikhulu emelene nohlakahlisombulu eyaphakanyiswa iminyaka kusukela isibhalwa sakhe sishicilelwa okokuqala.
Impikiso yezenkolo: Yona ithi ukucabanga kuyinsebenzo yomphefumulo ongafiyo wesothamlilo; ngalokho, inguxa ayikwazi ukucabanga. "Ekulingeni ukukhanda izinguxa ezinjalo," kubhala uTuring, "akufanele sigabadele ngokungahloniphi amandla Wakhe wokudala imiphefumulo, ngendlela efanayo nalapho sizala izingane: kunalokho, kunoma yisiphi isimo, singamathuluzi entando Yakhe ahlinzeka imiphefumulo ayidalayo ngezithabathaba.
'Impikiso yokuzithela ngabandayo' : "Imiphumela yokucabanga kwezinguxa ingaba yingozi kakhulu. Masithembe futhi sikholwe soze zikwenze lokho." Le ndlela yokucabanga inesibunge phakathi kwabantu abafundile, njengoba becabanga ukuthi ukuphakama kuvela ebuhlakanini obuphakeme nasekutheni uhlakahlisombulu lunobungozi (ngoba izinguxa zinengcinankumbulo efanele nejubane elifanele lokudludlunga, futhi izinguxa zinekhono lokufunda nolwazi elikhulu). Lempikiso ingukuvezwa kwemiphumela okukhohlisayo, futhi ididanisa okungafanele kube khona nalokho okungaba khona noma okungenakuba khona. (Wardrip-Fruin, 56).
Impikiso yomchazazibalo: Lempikiso isebenzisa izibalosiminya zomchazazibalo, ezifana nesibalasiminya sokungapheleli sikaGödel, ukuveza ukuthi kunemikhawulo emibuzweni isimiso sesiCikizi esisekwe kumhluzangqondo esingayiphendula. UTuring usikisela ukuthi izothamlilo zivame ukuba nemaphosiso ngokwazo futhi ziyawathokozela amaphutha wenguxa. (Lempikiso yaphinde yenziwa ngusonjulalwazi uJohn Lucas ngowe-1961 nomchazindalo uRoger Penrose ngowe-1989.)
Umzakuzakwana ngokweMpaphamo: Lomzakuzakwana, wasikiselwa ngoSolwazi Geoffrey Jefferson esifundisweni sakhe sangowe-1949 esasithi "kuze kube yilapho inguxa ikwazi ukubhala inshumasine (sonnet) noma iqambe umkhenqeziso (concerto) ngenxa yemizindlo nemizwa eyizwayo, hhayi ngenxa yezimpawu, soze sivumelane ukuthi izinguxa zilingana nobuchopho." UTuring waphendula ngokuthi asinayo indlela yokugagula ukuba ezinye ozinto ngaphandle kwethu aziyingcwethi imizwa, futhi ngalokho kufanele sisamukele isivivinyo. Wajobelela ngokuthi, "angifisi ukuvela sengathi ngicabanga ukuthi akunamfihlakalo ngempaphamo... kodwa angicabangi ukuthi lezi zimfihlakalo zidinga ukuxazululwa ngaphambi kokuba siphendule othi ingabe izinguxa zingakwazi ukucabanga." (Lomzakuzakwana, othi isiCikizi soze sibe nobungcethi bempaphamo noma ukuqonda, waphinde wenziwa futhi ngowe-1980 wenziwa usonjulalwazi uJohn Searle kumzakuzakwana wakhe weGumbi lamaShayina. Impendulo ka-Turing namuhla yaziwa ngokuthi "impendulo yenkinga yeminye imiqondo".)
Imizakuzakwana ngemiqhina ehlukahlukene. Lemizakuzakwana yonke inesimo esithi "isiCikizi soze yenze okungu-X". UTuring unikela ngezinketho:Yiba ngonomusa, onosizo, omuhle, onobungane, yiba yingqalabutho, yiba namahlaya, hlukanisa okuhle nokubi, yenza amaphutha, yona sothandweni, thokozela amajingijolo nolaza, yenza othile athandane nawe, funda ebungcwethini, sebenzisa amazwi ngokufanele, zindla ngawe, condoza ngokuhlukahluka njengesothamlilo, yenza into entsha sha. UTuring uqaphela ukuthi "akukho ukwesekwa okuvame ukunikelwa ngenxa yalemisho," nokuthi ixhomeke emizindlekelweni yobungane ngokuphathelene nokuthi zizobhengcezeka kanjani izinguxa enkathini ezayo, noma "ziyimizakuzakwana ethubileyo yempaphamo." Futhi uyaziphendula ezinye zazo:
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Isithunu soxhakaxholo, isithununu solwebu, IsiThununu noma kalula nje isithunu, ihlelokusebenza eliqhuba imisebenzi ehlelelekiwe ( imibhalo ) kuxhakaxholo, ngokuvamile ngenhloso yokulingisa imiqebetho yabantu kuxhakaxholo, njengokuthumela imiyalezo, ngomlinganiso omkhulu.
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Impahla iyisimiso samalungelo esinika abantu ulawulo olusemthethweni ezintweni eziyigugu, futhi ibhekisela nasezintweni eziyigugu ngakwazo. Kuye ngesimo sempahla, umnikazi wempahla angaba nelungelo lokuyishwabadela, ukuyiguqula, ukuyaba, ukuyichasisa kabusha, ukuyiqashisa, ukutsheleka ngayo, ukubambisa ngayo, ukuyidayisa, ukuyinana, ukuyidlulisa, ukuphana ngayo noma ukuyibhubhisa, noma ukvimbela abanye ekwenzeni okufanayo kuyo, kanye nokuyilaxaza; kuyilapho kungakhathaliseki isimo sempahla, umnikazi unelungelo lokuyisebenzisa ngokufanele ngaphansi kwamalungelo awaphiwe wempahla.
Kwezomnotho nakwezomnotho wezombusazwe, kukhona izinhlobo ezintathu ezibanzi zempahla: impahla esisulu (private property), impahla esobala (public property), kanye nempahla ehlanganyelwe (ebizwa nangokuthi impahla yobumbano). Impahla okungayabantu abaningi ingaphathwa noma ilawulwe ngezindlela ezifanayo noma ezihlukile, ezilula noma eyizinkimbinkimbi, ngokulinganayo noma ngokungalingani. Kodwa, kulindelwe ukuba intando yomuntu ngamunye ngokuphathelene nempahla ichasiswe ngokucacile, ukuze ihlukanise ubunikazi nentela kumqasho. Abanini mpahla bangalindela ukuthi izintando zabo (wills) zivumelane, noma lapho zingaphikisani, kungani nekhona ezinye noma efanekekayo kakhulu.
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Impahla esisulu igama elisemthethweni lobunikazi bempahla yizinhlangano ezisemthethweni ezingekho ngaphansi kukahulumeni. Impahla esisulu yahlukaniseka kalula empahleni yomphakathi ekungeyombuso noma inhlangano yembuso nasempahleni yomuntu siqu, nasempahleni enobunikazi obuhlanganyelwe noma yobambiswano, enabanikazi abayiqembu labantu noma inhlangano ezimele.
Impahla esisulu iyisisekelo sobuhlohlesakhe, okunguhlelo lwezomnotho olusekwe ebunikazini obusisulu bezinsiza zokukhiqiza nokugidingela inzuzo kwazo. Umehluko phakathi kwempahla esisulu neyomphakathi uyahluka kuye ngenjulalwazi yezombusazwe, kuyilapho imibono yocosulelwano iveza umehluko phakathi kwalempahla. Njengesicabango sakwezomthetho, impahla esisulu echasiswa futhi iphoqwe isimiso sezombangazwe sezwe.
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