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24220 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge%2C%20Massachusetts | Cambridge, Massachusetts | Cambridge is a city in the U.S. state of Massachusetts, just outside of Boston.
It is the home of Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).
Wikimania
The second Wikimania was hosted in this city in 2006.
County seats in Massachusetts
1630 establishments in Massachusetts |
24221 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1280s | 1280s |
Events
1282 – March – Dafydd ap Gruffydd, brother to Prince of Wales Llywelyn the Last, attacks an English castle; his brother feels compelled to support him despite poor preparation for war, quickly leading to the final English conquest of Wales by King Edward I of England.
1286 – Prussians settled in exile in Serbia stage a famous uprising.
1288 – June 5 – John I of Brabant defeats the duchy of Guelders in the Battle of Worringen — one of the largest battles in Europe of the Middle Ages — thus winning possession of the duchy of Limburg. The battle also liberates the city of Cologne from rule by the Archbishopric of Cologne; it had previously been one of the major ecclesiastical principalities of the Holy Roman Empire.
1288 – August 8 – Pope Nicholas IV proclaims a crusade against King Ladislaus IV of Hungary, who had lost credibility by favoring his semi-pagan Cuman subjects and in general refusing to conform to the social standards of western Europe. |
24222 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1087 | 1087 |
Events
May 9 – The remains of Saint Nicholas were brought to Bari.
September 9 – William II becomes king of England
End of the formal reign of Emperor Shirakawa, but not of his cloistered rule
Emperor Horikawa ascends to the throne of Japan |
24223 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1672 | 1672 |
Events
March 15 – Charles II of England issues the Royal Declaration of Indulgence.
May 2 – John Maitland becomes Duke of Lauderdale and Earl of March.
June 12 – French forces under king Louis XIV cross the Rhine to Netherlands
June 28 – William III of Orange appointed Stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland and Utrecht.
August 20 – Johan de Witt, Grand Pensionary of Holland is slaughtered by a mob in The Hague.
England, France, Münster and Cologne invade the United Provinces, therefore this name is known as ´het rampjaar´ (the disaster year) in the Netherlands.
Births
May 1 – Joseph Addison, writer and essayist |
24224 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1684 | 1684 | Year 1684 was a leap year that started on Saturday when using the Gregorian calendar.
Events
July 24 – René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle sails from France, again, with a large expedition designed to establish a French colony on the Gulf of Mexico, at the mouth of the Mississippi River.
October 7 – Japanese Chief Minister Hotta Masatoshi is assassinated, leaving Shogun Tsunayoshi without any adequate advisors, leading him to issue impractical edicts and create hardships for the Japanese people.
December 10 – Isaac Newton's derivation of Kepler's laws from his theory of gravity, contained in the paper De motu corporum in gyrum, is read to the Royal Society by Edmund Halley.
Undated
France under Louis XIV makes Truce of Ratisbon separately with the Holy Roman Empire (Habsburg) and Spain.
Pope Innocent XI forms a Holy League with the Habsburg Empire, Venice and Poland to liberate Europe from the Ottoman Turkish rule.
The Japanese poet Saikaku composes 23,500 verses in 24 hours at the Sumiyoshi Shrine at Osaka; the scribes cannot keep pace with his dictation and just count the verses.
The British East India Company receives Chinese permission to build a trading station at Canton. Tea sells in Europe for less than a shilling a pound, but the import duty of 5 shillings makes it too expensive for most English people to afford.
Smuggled tea is drunk much more than legally imported tea.
England has its coldest winter in living memory; the River Thames and the sea as far as 2 miles out from land freezes over.
John Bunyan writes The Pilgrim's Progress Part 2.
The Chipperfield's Circus dynasty begins when James Chipperfield introduces performing animals to England at the River Thames frost fairs on the Thames in London.
Births
January 1 – Arnold Drakenborch, Dutch classical scholar (died 1748)
January 14 – Jean-Baptiste van Loo, French painter (died 1745)
February 24 – Matthias Braun, Czech sculptor (died 1738)
March 15 – Francesco Durante, Italian composer (died 1755)
March 19 – Jean Astruc, French physician and scholar (died 1766)
April 15 – Catherine I of Russia (died 1727)
June 22 – Francesco Manfredini, Italian composer (died 1762)
September 18 – Johann Gottfried Walther, German music theorist, organist, and composer (died 1748)
October 10 – Antoine Watteau, French painter (died 1721)
October 26 – Kurt Christoph Graf von Schwerin, Prussian field marshal (died 1757)
December 3 – Ludvig Holberg, Norwegian historian and writer (died 1754)
Deaths
April 1 – Roger Williams, English theologian and colonist (born 1603)
April 5 – Lord William Brouncker, English mathematician (born 1602)
May 4 – John Nevison, English highwayman (born 1639)
May 12 – Edme Mariotte, French physicist and priest (born c.1620)
July 2 – John Rogers, American President of Harvard University (born 1630)
July 6 – Peter Gunning, English royalist churchman (born 1614)
August 8 – George Booth, 1st Baron Delamer (born 1622)
October 1 – Pierre Corneille, French playwright (born 1606)
October 11 – James Tuchet, 3rd Earl of Castlehaven (born 1617) |
24225 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1713 | 1713 |
Events
First Orrery built by George Graham
Births
May 25 - John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1792)
September 23 - King Ferdinand VI of Spain (d. 1759)
October 13 - Allan Ramsay, Scottish painter (d. 1784)
November 24 - Junipero Serra, Spanish Franciscan missionary (d. 1784)
Deaths
January 8 - Arcangelo Corelli, Italian composer (b. 1653)
February 25 - King Friedrich I of Prussia (b. 1657)
August 9 - Ferdinando de' Medici, Grand Prince of Tuscany |
24226 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1743 | 1743 |
Events
February 14 – Henry Pelham becomes British Prime Minister
February 21 – The premiere in London of George Frideric Handel's oratorio, Samson.
September 13 – Treaty of Worms (1743) – a treaty between Great Britain, Austria and Sardinia
Battle of Dettingen |
24227 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coyote | Coyote | The coyote (Canis latrans) also called the prairie wolf, brush wolf or American jackal, is an animal of the Canidae family. The word "coyote" comes from the Náhuatl (Aztec) word cóyotl.
Appearance
Coyotes are smaller than wolves. The color of the coyote's fur is a grayish brown to yellowish gray on the upper parts, while the throat and underside are a more white color. The forelegs, sides of the head, muzzle and feet are reddish brown. The ears of the coyote are long and pointed.
Habitat
Coyotes are very adaptable and can live in almost all habitats live only in North America and some areas of Central America. They live in prairies, but also in cities swamps Chaparrals grasslands forest and mountains. The coyote is found throughout North America from California up to as far as Alaska. They normally live in dens about 6 feet wide and four feet tall.
Life
The coyote is an omnivore and eats fruits, grasses, vegetables, rabbits, mice, shrews and voles. They also eat insects, worms, rats, fish, birds, deer, snakes, and lizards. In the city, coyotes find food easily. They dig up plants in gardens and eat food out of garbage cans.
Sometimes, they join small packs (groups), but normally hunt alone. Coyotes live in dens. They dig a tunnel under the ground and then dig out a larger area at the end of the tunnel where they sleep and have their babies or pups. They can have six pups at a time. Often a coyote den will have two entrances, with one that is hidden. Sometimes they dig more than one den, so they can move if an enemy finds the den.
Coyotes have a few enemies. Wolves, bears and cougars are the only enemies to coyotes, but there are not many wolves left in North America compared to the number of coyotes. The biggest enemy of the coyote is people. They do not usually attack people, but sometimes eat small pets such as cats.
Mythology
The coyote is a character of many myths from Native American peoples. The coyote is often portrayed as a joker, and stories are told to explain things he does. The Pima regard him as the offspring of the moon. Coyote is always male with an overwhelming reference to his large penis which requires a pack to carry it in. He is a lustful creature with desire for Changing Bear Maiden and by attempting to have sex with women by becoming a baby. Coyote also has incestuous relations with his mother-in-law and daughter. He is credited for removing the teeth of vagina dentata or by moving the genitals to the correct location on the body in order to make sex pleasurable. Coyote has an appetite for menstrual blood and relates to Lakota girls' puberty rite.
Coyote is often responsible for the finality of death and introduces work and suffering. The Apache believe he created Europeans. The Zuni believe he created pubic hair. The Pomo say he stole the sun and made the world dark.
Coyote is curious and goes along with the crowd. He is a trickster, culture hero, and a feared shape-shifter.
References
Canids
Mammals of North America |
24229 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vole | Vole | A vole is a small mouse-like mammal. It is a rodent from a subfamily called the Arvicolinae. They live in woodlands and grasslands.
There are about 155 species of voles. There are species in Europe, Asia, North Africa and North America. The closest relatives of voles are the lemmings and muskrats, which are in the same subfamily.
Adult voles, depending on the species, are 7.5 to 17.5 centimetres (three to seven inches) long. They eat seeds, grass or other plants, and insects.
Many animals hunt voles, for example owls, hawks, coyotes, foxes, weasels, cats and snakes.
The average life of the smaller vole species is three to six months. These voles rarely live longer than 12 months. Larger species, such as the European water vole Arvicola, live longer. They usually die during their second winter. As many as 88% of voles die during the first month of life.
References
rodents |
24230 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isthmus | Isthmus | An isthmus is a narrow strip of land, with water on either side, that connects two bigger landmasses. For example, the Isthmus of Panama connects the continents of The Americas. Separating two water bodies and joining two land bodies, an isthmus is the opposite of a strait.
Landforms |
24244 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodent | Rodent | Rodents (from Latin , 'to chew') are a very successful group of mammals. They form the order Rodentia.
They have no more than 2 incisors. These keep growing, and must be kept worn down by gnawing (eroding teeth by grinding them on something hard); this is the origin of the name, from the Latin rodere, "to gnaw", and dent, "tooth".
Most rodents are small. Examples of commonly known rodents are mice, rats, chipmunks, and squirrels. Some other small rodents sometimes kept as pets are Guinea pigs, hamsters, and gerbils.
Examples of larger rodents are porcupines, beavers, and the largest living rodent, the capybara, which can grow to between 105 and 135 cm (40-55 in) in length, and weigh 35 to 65 kg (75-140 lbs).
Almost half of all mammal species are rodents. More examples of rodents are voles, prairie dogs, groundhogs, and chinchillas.
Rabbits, hares, and pikas are sometimes called rodents, because they also have teeth that keep growing. But in 1912 biologists decided to put them in a new, separate order, Lagomorpha, because they have two extra incisors in their upper jaw.
Shrews are sometimes called rodents, because they look like mice, but that is not correct. They are in the order Insectivora.
Taxonomy
There are more families than these. The list includes the more common families.
Order Rodentia
Suborder Anumaluromorpha
Family Anomaluridae
Family Pedetidae
Suborder Castorimorpha
Family Castoridae (Beavers)
Family Geomyoidea (Pocket gophers, Kangaroo rats and mice)
Suborder Hystricomorpha
Family Ctenodactylidae
Family Hystricidae
Family Myocastoridae
Family Caviidae
Family Chinchillidae
Family Cuniculidae
Suborder Sciuromorpha
Family Aplodontiidae: mountain beaver
Family Gliridae (also Myoxidae, Muscardinidae): dormice
Family Sciuridae: squirrels, including chipmunks, prairie dogs, & marmots
Suborder Myomorpha
Superfamily Muroidea
Superfamily Dipodoidea
Family Dipodidae
Related pages
Josephoartigasia
Other websites
UCMP Berkeley: Introduction to the Rodentia
https://www.utep.edu/leb/pleistnm/taxaMamm/lagomorpha.htm |
24265 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan%20%28moon%29 | Titan (moon) | Titan (Ancient Greek: Τῑτάν) is Saturn's moon. It was found by Christiaan Huygens on 25 March 1655. Titan is a unique moon because it is the solar system’s only moon to have an atmosphere.
Titan is the largest moon of Saturn and the second largest in the Solar System. Titan is larger than the planet Mercury. Its equatorial diameter (wideness at the equator) is 5,150 km. It orbits 1,221,865 km away from Saturn.
Titan is the only moon known to have an atmosphere and it more thicker than Earth’s. But humans could not breathe it as it is very cold, and also poisonous. The air is made of nitrogen and methane. Titan is the only place in the Solar System, except Earth, that has lakes and much liquid on its surface. But the liquid is methane, not water.
Discovery
Titan was discovered on 25 March 1655 by Christiaan Huygens, an astronomer from the Netherlands. Earlier, in 1610, Galileo Galilei had discovered four of Jupiter's moons. This inspired Huygens: he also wanted to discover new moons. Because Huygens had also improved the telescopes of the time, making them a lot better, he thought he might be able to discover a new moon.
Christiaan and his brother, Constantijn, started to build their own telescopes in 1650. Using the first telescope he ever built, Christiaan Huygens was able to see Titan. At first he called it "Luna Saturni", which means "Saturn's moon" (he did not know there was more than one). Through the years, lots of other moons have been discovered and today the moon is known as "Titan" or as "Saturn VI". The name "Titan", and all the names of Saturn's other moons, are from the Greek legends.
Structure
Titan is the only moon in the Solar System that has a thick atmosphere (the gases that surround a planet or moon). After the spacecraft Voyager I visited the moon on 12 November 1979, it showed that Titan's surface (the ground level) is hidden under an atmosphere that is 900 km thick. Before this, everyone thought that Titan was the biggest moon in the Solar System. Now we know that it is the second biggest, after Ganymede, one of Jupiter's moons.
Even though it is smaller, Titan is close in size to Ganymede. It is also close in size to the slightly smaller Callisto, another of Jupiter's moons. Not only is Titan a big moon, it is even bigger than the planet Mercury, but it only has half as much mass (it is much lighter). Because Titan does not have a lot of mass, scientist think that Titan is made of matter that is not very heavy, specifically frozen water and ammonia. Some scientists think that there is a lot of liquid water and ammonia underneath the surface, enough to fill an entire ocean. These scientists think that there might be a form of life inside this ocean.
At its centre, Titan has a rocky core that is about 3400 km thick. This core is made up of silicates and metals. The gravity (the force that keeps everything attached to the ground) is a lot weaker than here on earth. If you could jump 1m high on the Earth, you would be able to jump 7m high on Titan.
Movement
It takes Titan 15 days and 22 hours to orbit (travel) around Saturn. This is almost the same time it takes Saturn to rotate or spin around its own axis - one full spin. This is known as "synchronous rotation", which means that the same side of Titan is always pointed to Saturn.
The path in which Titan moves, its orbit, is very close to a circle, but not quite. We use the word "eccentricity" to describe the path that a moon or planet travels in. An image with an eccentricity of 0 (zero) has a path that is a perfect circle. If the eccentricity is more than 0, the path is less round (see image below). Titan's eccentricity is 0.028, very close to zero.
Cassini-Huygens mission
On July 1, 2004, the Cassini-Huygens probe entered into orbit around Saturn. On December 25, 2004, the Huygens probe separated from the Cassini probe and started to move towards Titan. It landed on Titan's surface on January 14, 2005. It landed on a dry surface, but it confirmed that large bodies of liquid exist on the moon. The Cassini probe continued to gain data of Titan and a number of the icy moons. It found evidence that the moon Enceladus had water erupting from its geysers. Cassini also proved in July, 2006 that Titan contained hydrocarbon lakes, located near its north pole. In March, 2007, it discovered a large hydrocarbon lake the size of the Caspian Sea near its north pole. The lake of liquid methane has been named Kraken Mare. In 2009, Nasa showed a photograph showing the sunlight reflecting off the surface of the lake. This was the first ever picture of liquid on another world.
In 2012 researchers at NASA discovered that Titan is giving off a faint glow of light. This is believed to be caused by complex chemical reactions occurring in Titan's atmosphere. This kind of light is called an airglow.
Related pages
Lakes of Titan
Shangri-la (Titan)
Further reading
References
Saturn's moons |
24266 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer%20number%20format | Computer number format | A computer number format is the way that computers and calculators represent numbers. Most computers use a system of binary which is composed of ones and zeros.
Other systems in use are the octal (0,1-7) or the hexadecimal (0,1-9,A,B,C,D,E,F) systems.
So we can use codes, which the computer understands only, as well as other number systems.
computer science |
24273 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1550 | 1550 |
Events
January 6 – Spanish Captain Hernando de Santana founds the city of Valledupar in what is now Colombian territory.
February 7 – Julius III becomes Pope.
The first book in Slovenian, Abecedarium, written by Protestant reformer Primoz Trubar, is printed in Tübingen, Germany.
Nostradamus' first almanac is written.
Helsinki, the capital of Finland, is founded by Gustav Vasa. |
24274 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbus%2C%20Georgia | Columbus, Georgia | Columbus is the third largest town, in the U.S. state of Georgia. Coca-Cola and RC Cola (Royal Crown Cola) were first made here. It is south of Atlanta. It is about one hour and thirty minutes to two hours away from Atlanta.
County seats in Georgia |
24275 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carthage | Carthage | Carthage is an ancient city-state in what is now Tunisia. It began as a Phoenician colony. Carthage at the height of its power was the foremost power in the Mediterranean Sea, controlling parts of Spain, Sicily, North Africa, Sardinia, and the Balearic islands.
The Roman Republic destroyed Carthage in the Punic Wars of the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC. In later centuries Rome started a colony in the same place and it became an important city of Africa Province. Eventually the Vandals conquered the city and used it to attack Rome.
The Punic Wars
Carthage was a rival for Mediterranean Sea power for the Roman Republic, who wanted to take over the whole western Mediterranean Sea. Carthage was a large obstacle to that. So, in 264 BC, the Romans responded to a plea for help by some rebels in Messina, and landed an army in Sicily. This started the First Punic War. The Romans then invaded the Carthaginian holdings in Sicily, and the Carthaginian generals could not stop them. Even at sea, the Romans were able to copy the Carthaginian bireme ships and win several major victories on the sea, though the Carthaginians had long fought at sea and the Romans were new to this.
Finally, a general named Hamilcar Barca took up the Carthaginian defense in place of the decidedly older, less energetic Hanno. Hamilcar immediately realized the futility of meeting the superior Roman army in open battle, so he decided to use hit-and-run raids to wear down the Romans. This tactic was slightly more effective against the slow, heavily armored roman troops. Eventually, however the Romans were able to take Lilybaeum, the Carthaginian's main stronghold in Sicily. This ended Carthage's power in Sicily and ended the First Punic War.
In the Second Punic War, Hannibal Barca led the Carthaginian army through Spain, southern Gaul, and across the Alps, into Italy in 218 BC. There he clashed with the Roman Republic in 3 major battles: the battle of the River Trebia, the battle of lake Trasmine, and The battle of Cannae. Hannibal defeated the Romans in stunning victories in each of these battles. He failed, however, to take Rome, and eventually had to retreat back to Carthage, where he was defeated by Scipio Africanis in the battle of Zama. The Romans destroyed Carthage in 146 BC, in the third Punic war. The Carthaginians who survived, numbering about 50,000, were sold into slavery.
References
Ancient Rome
History of the Middle East
Phoenician colonies |
24276 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1102 | 1102 |
Events
Valencia is captured by the Almoravids.
Henry I of England orders the tomb of Edward the Confessor opened; the body is found undecayed.
Henry I of England takes possession of Arundel Castle.
The Hohenbaden castle is built in Baden-Baden, Germany.
Boleslav III becomes king of Poland.
coronation of Coloman of Hungary in the town of Biograd, adding the Croatian duchies of Slavonia and Dalmatia to the crown of Hungary.
Crusaders capture Caesarea Palaestina.
Crusaders defeat an Egyptian invasion of the Kingdom of Jerusalem near Ascalon.
Dagobert of Pisa is briefly deposed as Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem (and restored later in the year).
Raymond IV of Toulouse begins to besiege Tripoli, and takes the nominal title of count of Tripoli.
Raymond IV of Toulouse is imprisoned by Tancred, regent of the Principality of Antioch. |
24278 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1569 | 1569 |
Events
January 11-May 6 – First recorded lottery in England performed nonstop at the west door of the St. Paul's Cathedral. Each share costs 10 shillings and proceeds are used to repair the harbors and for other public works
March 13 – Battle of Jarnac – Royalist troops under Marshal Gaspard de Tavannes surprise and defeat the Huguenots under the Prince of Condé, who is captured and murdered. A substantial proportion of the Huguenot army manages to escape under Gaspard de Coligny.
June 10 – German Protestant troops reinforce Coligny near Limoges
July – September – Huguenot forces under Coligny and 15 year-old Prince Henry of Navarre besiege Poitiers
August 24 – Battle of Orthez – Huguenot forces under Gabriel de Montgomery defeat Royalist forces under General Terride in French Navarre. Catholics surrender under the condition that their lives would be spared. Huguenots agreed, but then massacred the Catholics anyway.
September – A Royalist army under the Duc d'Anjou and Marshal Tavannes forces Coligny to abandon the siege of Poitiers
October 3 – Battle of Moncountour – The Royalist forces of Tavannaes and Anjou defeat Coligny's Huguenots.
Gerardus Mercator devises the Mercator projection
Assemblies of 3 Lithuanian provinces, Volhynia, Ukraine and Podlasie vote to be incorporated into Poland.
Poland and Lithuania are united in the Union of Lublin. They form Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. |
24279 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1302 | 1302 |
Events
June 12 – beginning of Rakvere town, Estonia
July 11 – Battle of the Golden Spurs (Guldensporenslag in Dutch), major victory of Flanders over the French.
September 24 – Charles II of Naples makes peace with Frederick III of Sicily under the Treaty of Caltabellotta – the War of Sicilian Vespers ends
Roger de Flor starts the Catalan Company with soldiers (Almogavars) jobless after the Treaty of Caltabellotta
Spain occupies the harbor of Algiers
Jicin, Bohemia is chartered as a city
Pope Boniface VIII stops the activities of the Franciscans
Boniface VIII publishes the bull Unam Sanctam
First meeting of the French States-General
Dante Alighieri is sent away (exiled) from Florence by the Black Guelphs, as is Petrarch's father (see Guelphs and Ghibellines)
Robert I of Scotland makes peace with Edward I of England |
24280 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brockton%2C%20Massachusetts | Brockton, Massachusetts | Brockton is a town in Plymouth County in the U.S. state of Massachusetts. It and the town of Plymouth are the county seats of Plymouth County.
Brockton is also called the city of champions because world boxing champs Rocky Marciano and Marvin Hagler came from there.
The Rocky Marcaino Statue
On Brockton High School's grounds, a Rocky Marciano statue was erected in 2012. It is the tallest statue of a sportsman in the world. The statue was made possible by J.P.L. Lubek & Wanda Wladyslawa Nida .
A bronze statue of Marciano was planned for August 31 2009 completion date in his hometown of Brockton, Massachusetts, as a gift to the city by the World Boxing Council, based on Jan & Wanda's SOLE recommendations. The artist, Mario Rendon, head of the Instituto Universitario de las Bellas Artes in Colima, Mexico, was selected to sculpt the statue. After years of delays in the planning stages, the groundbreaking for the statue was held on April 1 2012, on the grounds of Brockton High School. The statue was officially unveiled on September 23 2012, which was the 60th anniversary of Marciano winning the world heavyweight title. A bronze statue of Marciano was also erected in Ripa Teatina, Italy, to celebrate the birthplace of Marciano's father.
References
Cities in Massachusetts
County seats in Massachusetts |
24281 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabat | Rabat | Rabat (, transliterated ar-Rabāṭ or ar-Ribāṭ, literally "Fortified Place"), population 577,827 hab. (2014 estimate), is the capital of the Kingdom of Morocco. It is also the capital of the Rabat-Salé-Kénitra region.
The city is on the Atlantic Ocean at the mouth of the river Bou Regreg. On the other side of the river is Rabat's bedroom community. Together the two cities with Temara have a population of 1.8 million. Silting problems have lowered the city's role as a port. However, Rabat and Salé still maintain somewhat important textile, food processing and construction industries. Some are from sweatshop labor by major businesses.
In addition, tourism and being home to all foreign embassies in Morocco help to make Rabat the second most important city in the country after the larger and economically more significant Casablanca.
History
BC to 17th century
Rabat's history began with a settlement, known as Chellah on the banks of the Oued Bou Regreg in the third century BC. In 40 AD, Romans took over Chellah and changed it to the Roman settlement of Sala Colonia. Rome held the colony until 250 AD. They gave it up to local rulers. In 1146, the berber Almohad ruler Abd al-Mu'min turned Rabat's ribat into a full scale fortress. It was used as a starting point for attacks on Spain. In 1170, due to its military importance, Rabat acquired the title Ribatu l-Fath, meaning "stronghold of victory," from which it gets its current name.
Yaqub al-Mansur (known as Moulay Yacoub in Morocco), another Almohad Caliph, moved the capital of his empire to Rabat. He built Rabat's city walls, the Kasbah of the Udayas and began construction on what would have been the world's largest mosque. However, Yaqub died and construction stopped. The ruins of the unfinished mosque, along with the Hassan Tower, still stand today.
Yaqub's death a period of decline at first. The Almohad empire lost control of its land in Spain and much of its African territory. Eventually this led to its total collapse. In the 13th century, much of Rabat's economic power shifted to Fez. In 1515 a Moorish explorer, El Wassan, reported that Rabat had declined so much that only 100 houses remained with people living in them. An increase of Moriscos, who had been removed from Spain, in the early 17th century helped boost Rabat's growth.
Corsair republics
Rabat and neighboring Salé united to form the Republic of Bou Regreg in 1627. The republic was run by Barbary pirates who used the two cities as base ports for starting attacks on shipping. The pirates did not have to fight with any central authority until the Alaouite Dynasty united Morocco in 1666. They attempted to establish control over the pirates, but failed. European and Muslims authorities continued to attempt to control the pirates over many years. The Republic of Bou Regreg did not collapse until 1818. Even after the republic's collapse, pirates continued to use the port of Rabat. This led to the attack of the city by Austria in 1829 after an Austrian ship had been lost to a pirate attack.
20th century
French invasion
The French invaded Morocco in 1912 and established a protectorate. The French administrator of Morocco, General Hubert Lyautey, decided to move the country's capital from Fez to Rabat. Among other factors, citizens had made Fez an unstable place because of their desire to rebel. Sultan Moulay Youssef followed the decision of the French and moved his home to Rabat. In 1913, Gen. Lyautey hired Henri Prost who designed the Ville Nouvelle (Rabat's modern quarter) as an administrative sector. When Morocco became independent in 1956, Mohammed V, the then King of Morocco, chose to have the capital remain at Rabat.
After World War II
After World War II, the United States created a military presence in Rabat at the former French air base. By the early 1950s, Rabat Salé Air Base was a U.S. Air Force based hosting the 17th Air Force and the 5th Air Division. These divisions oversaw forward basing for Strategic Air Command (SAC) B-47 Stratojet aircraft in the country. With the destabilization of French government in Morocco, and Moroccan independence in 1956, the government of Mohammed V wanted the U.S. Air Force to pull out of the SAC bases in Morocco. He insisted on such action after Americans became involved in Lebanon in 1958. The United States agreed to leave as of December 1959. They were fully out of Morocco by 1963. SAC felt the Moroccan bases were much less critical with the long range capability of the B-52 Stratofortresses that were replacing the B-47s. It also had completed USAF bases in Spain in 1959.
With the USAF leaving Rabat-Salé in the 1960s, the facility became a primary facility for the Royal Moroccan Air Force known as Air Base Nº 1, a status it continues to hold.
Culture
The biggest place for theatre is the Theatre Mohamed V in the centre of the town. The city also has a few official galleries and an archeological museum. Many organisations are active in cultural and social issues. Orient-Occident Foundation and ONA Foundation are the biggest of these. An independent art scene is active in the city. L'appartement 22, which is the first independent space for visual arts created by Abdellah Karroum, opened in 2002.
Rabat was selected as a filming location for the war film Black Hawk Down (2001).
International relations
2020 Summer Olympics
Rabat will bid to host the 2020 Summer Olympic Games.
Twin towns - Sister cities
Rabat is twinned with:
Climate
Rabat features a Mediterranean climate. Along the Atlantic Ocean, Rabat has a mild, temperate climate. It moves from cool in winter to warm days in the summer months. The nights are always cool (or colder in winter) Daytime temperatures generally always rise about +9/10 C° (+15/18 F°) every day. The winter highs usually reach only in December-January (see weather-table below).
Gallery
Related pages
Morocco
References
Notes
Other website
Rabat: History
Rabat Post
Capital cities in Africa
Cities in Morocco
1146 establishments
Establishments in Morocco
12th-century establishments in Africa |
24283 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1222 | 1222 |
Events
Foundation of the University of Padua
Completion of the Cistercian convent in Alcobaca, Portugal
Eric XI becomes King of Sweden
Premysl Ottokar I reunites Bohemia and Moravia
John III Ducas Vatatzes becomes Byzantine emperor (in the Empire of Nicaea)
Alexander of Hales enters the Franciscan order
April 17 – Stephen Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury, opens a council at Osney
Births
February 16 – Nichiren, Japanese founder of Nichiren Buddhism (d. 1282)
August 4 – Richard de Clare, 6th Earl of Hertford, English soldier (d. 1262)
Andrei II of Russia, Grand Prince of Vladimir (d. 1264)
Deaths
March 10 – Johan Sverkersson, king of Sweden since 1216 (b. 1201)
June 23 – Constance of Aragon (b. 1179)
August 2 – Count Raymond VI of Toulouse (b. 1156)
August 12 – Ladislaus Jindrich of Bohemia
Theodore I Lascaris, founder of the Byzantine Empire of Nicaea |
24284 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke%20Kahanamoku | Duke Kahanamoku | Duke Kahanamoku (August 24, 1890 – January 22, 1968), was a Hawaiian athlete who is called the inventor of modern surfing. He was also on the United States Olympic team as a swimmer, and won several silver and gold medals.
Contrary to some misinformation on the internet, Duke is not known as the Big Kahuna. He himself rejected that term, because he knew its meaning. The Big Kahuna is a character in the Gidget story, which is based on a portrayal of Tube Steak Tracy, a famous surfer of the '40s & '50s in Malibu.
References
Other websites
1890 births
1968 deaths
American Olympic gold medalists
Deaths from myocardial infarction
Surfers
Sportspeople from Hawaii |
24285 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overland%20Park%2C%20Kansas | Overland Park, Kansas | Overland Park is a city in the U.S. state of Kansas. It is in Johnson County. It is the second biggest city in Kansas. It is the second biggest city in the Kansas City metropolitan area. In 2010, 173,372 people lived there; in 2017, 191,278 lived there. It has the Sprint World Headquarters Campus.
History
Overland Park starts in 1905. William B. Strang Jr. created Overland Park.
On May 20, 1960 Overland Park was officially incorporated as a "city of first class". It had 28,085 people living there. In 1990, 111,790 people lived there. In 2010, it grew to have 173,250 people living there. Overland Park officially became the second largest city in the state after becoming bigger than Kansas City, Kansas in the early 2000s.
Overland Park was awarded “Best city to raise a family” and “One of the most popular cities for millenials” in 2018.
Geography
Overland Park is in northeastern Kansas. It is at the junction of Interstate 435 and U.S. Route 69 east of Olathe. The city center is about south-southwest of downtown Kansas City, Missouri.
The city is on the northern edge of the Osage Plains. Overland Park is a few miles south of the Kansas River.
The United States Census Bureau says that the city has a total area of . Of that, is land and 0.53 square mile (1.38 km²) is water.
Climate
Overland Park is in between North America's humid subtropical climate and humid continental climate zones. They usually have hot, humid summers and cold, dry winters.
People
2010 census
The 2010 United States Census says that there were 173,372 people, 71,443 households, and 45,516 families living in Overland Park.
Metropolitan area
Overland Park is a city of both the Kansas City, MO-KS Metropolitan Statistical Area and the Kansas City-Overland Park-Kansas City, MO-KS Combined Statistical Area.
Economy
The service sector makes up most of the local economy. Health care, retail trade, professional and technical services, finance and insurance, and information technology are Overland Park's five biggest industries. Companies with headquarters in Overland Park include Sprint Corporation, YRC Worldwide, Black & Veatch, Waddell & Reed, Ferrellgas, Ash Grove Cement Company, and Compass Minerals.
Biggest employers
Overland Parks's 2016 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report says that the biggest employers in Overland Park are:
Government
According to Kansas, Overland Park is a "city of the first class". Since 1963, Overland Park has had a mayor-council-manager form of government.
Overland Park is in Kansas's 3rd U.S. Congressional District. Representative Sharice Davids represents them in the United States House of Representatives. For the Kansas Legislature, the city is in the 6th, 7th, 8th, 10th, 11th, 21st, and 37th districts of the Kansas Senate. They are in the 8th, 16th, 19th, 20th, 21st, 22nd, 23rd, 24th, 27th, 28th, 29th, and 48th districts of the Kansas House of Representatives.
Education
Primary and secondary education
Overland Park has four public school districts. The part of the city north of Interstate 435 is in the Shawnee Mission School District (SMSD). SMSD controls thirty eight elementary schools, two middle schools, six high schools, and multiple support facilities in Overland Park.
There are more than 12 private schools in Overland Park.
Kansas City Japanese School Inc. (カンザスシティ日本語補習授業校 Kanzasu Shiti Nihongo Hoshū Jugyō Kō), a Japanese weekend educational program, is at the Kansas Christian College in Overland Park. It was created in 1979. It was officially approved by the Japanese Ministry of Education (Monbusho), and it was officially established in 1984.
Colleges and universities
Cleveland Chiropractic College
Ottawa University - adult campus
University of Kansas - Edwards campus
Johnson County Community College
Baker University - satellite campus
Emporia State University - satellite campus
Kansas Christian College
Rasmussen College
Transportation
Kansas City International Airport is about north of central Overland Park. Johnson County Executive Airport, a public general aviation facility, is located immediately west of the city in Olathe.
BNSF Railway and Union Pacific Railroad each have a freight rail line through Overland Park.
Media
The Kansas City Star is Kansas City's main newspaper. They publish every day. It has local news, and it publishes a version that is specifically for Johnson County.
Overland Park is in both the Kansas City radio and television markets.
Sister cities
Overland Park has one sister city.
Bietigheim-Bissingen, Baden-Württemberg, Germany
References
Other websites
Overland Park - Chamber of Commerce
Overland Park - Visitor's Bureau
Overland Park City Map, KDOT |
24286 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bedford | Bedford | Bedford is a market town of Bedfordshire, England. It has a population of more than 79,000 people (100,000 if the people living in Kempston are included). It is formed of multiple districts, such as Putnoe, Goldington, Brickhill and Woodside. Many people also live in the smaller villages surrounding Bedford, such as Sandy, Willington, Cople and Cardington. It has many outstanding schools, both State and Public. It is one of only two places nationally that has a three-tier school system, although it is currently undergoing the transition to two-tier. There are academies, Bedford Free School, community and an SEN schools. It is also a place with a large diversity of nationalities, such as Italians and Polish, stemming from the Brick works that used to stand in ...
History
The town of Bedford is about 1000 years old. There was a castle there, but it was destroyed in 1224. A small hill with a tower now stands in the place of the castle. It overlooks the river Great Ouse which flows through the town. Every four years a River Festival is held there, with stalls, a fair and dragon boat races. Bedford was a market town from the early Middle Ages. It was given its borough charter in 1166 by Henry II.
Education
During the last century many people moved to Bedford because there were good schools there. There are four public schools which are governed by the Harpur Trust: Bedford Boys School, Bedford Girls School, Bedford Modern and Pilgrims Pre-Preparatory School. There are also some smaller private schools.
Bedford also has various local authority schools. Bedford Borough operates a three-tier education system in some of the area, arranged into lower, middle and upper schools, as recommended in the Plowden Report of 1967. Many students study at the University of Bedfordshire, which is based in Bedford and Luton. Bedford College offers further education. Also, Stella Mann College is a private college which offers a range of further education courses for the performing arts.
Hundreds of school children can take part in Bedfordshire Youth Music courses during the holidays, have music lessons in school and participate in the orchestra. There is also a Bedfordshire Youth Theatre that runs activities for all age groups.
Features and events
The town of Bedford has scenic routes to walk along the banks of the River Great Ouse. The banks of the river by the town centre are called The Embankment. There are nice gardens there and two bridges for pedestrians, one of which is called The Butterfly Bridge. The newer of these bridges is known as the “Butterfly Bridge” because it is shaped like a butterfly.
Every two years, an event called Bedford River Festival is held near the river in Bedford during early July. The event lasts for two days. About 250,000 people go there to enjoy all the events, the sports, food, funfairs and live music.
The big church in the centre of the town is called St Paul’s Church. It stands in St Paul’s Square. It has a tall spire which can be seen from a long way away. There was a church there in 1066. The present church was started in the early 13th century and gradually more parts were added. The tower and spire were completely rebuilt in the 1860s. John Bunyan and John Wesley both preached in the church. There is a stained glass window dedicated to Sir William Harpur who gave his money to charity in the 16th century allowing almshouses and schools to be built in Bedford.
There are museums in Bedford. The Cecil Higgins Art Gallery is in the Victorian home of the Higgins family who used to be brewers. A modern building next to it has paintings, ceramics, glass and lace. The Bedford Museum is next door and has things from Bedford’s history. Just round the corner is the John Bunyan museum showing things about Bedford’s most famous writer.
Hospitals and services
Bedford Hospital is split between two sites in the town. It serves people from the whole of Mid Bedford. Many discussions are still taking place about the future of the hospital and how it should be organized.
There are many shops in the town centre, as well as out-of-town shopping areas. The Aspects Leisure Centre has cinemas and other amusements. It is near the opposite end of the Embankment from the town centre.
Music and Drama
There is a lot of opportunity to hear music in Bedford. Many local musicians play in the Bedfordshire Symphony Orchestra and the Bedford Sinfonia. They give their concerts in the Corn Exchange in St Paul’s Square, where one can also hear concerts given by the famous professional Philharmonia Orchestra who give a series of concerts during the year. There are several amateur choirs including the large Bedford Choral Society and the chamber choirs Cantamus and Concord Singers. The Bedford Music Club organizes chamber concerts on Thursdays during the year, and there are many other musical events including lunch hour concerts at St Paul’s Church. In August the 'Proms In The Park' takes place in Bedford Park. It is given by the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra and attracts thousands of people who take rugs and food and sit on the grass to listen to the music.
Although Bedford has no large theatre there are many amateur groups such as the Bedford Dramatic Club, Swan Theatre Company, Bedford Marianettes who perform in several places such as the Bowen West Theatre and Civic Theatre. There are also several local bands.
Sport
As Bedford has a river there is a lot of opportunity for rowing. Bedford has two rugby union teams called Bedford Blues and Bedford Athletic. Bedford Blues are now in the second tier of English rugby, although they have previously been in the top division. Bedford has an athletic stadium, home to many famous sports personalities and trains youth.
Transport
Bedford’s main railway station is in Midland Road. Capital Connect run trains from Bedford to Brighton passing through London, and Midland Main Line have trains that go from London, passing through Bedford on their way to Leeds. There are also trains to Bletchley in Milton Keynes, and the Marston Vale Line which also stops at Bedford St Johns railway station.
There is a lot of traffic in Bedford as several roads spread out from the centre of the town in all directions. The M1 is 8 miles to the west, and the Al is about the same distance to the east. Bedford now has a by-pass between Milton Keynes and the Black Cat Round About near St. Neots.
Buses from Bedford travel to Northampton, Milton Keynes, Cambridge, Oxford and other towns in the region. Most of these services depart from the main bus station in the town. This bus station is currently undergoing renevation as part of a scheme to upgrade facilities in the town centre, including free car parking for two hours on Saturday.
Demographics
There are many Italian people living in Bedford. Many of them came from the 1950s onwards to work at the brickworks of the London Brick Company. There are many Italian bars and restaurants and social clubs as well as a church and a vice-consulate. Many of the people who came in the 1950s now have grandchildren growing up in Bedford, and many of them have married people from other cultures. More recently many people have immigrated from other parts of the world such as South Asia and Eastern Europe (particularly in the last few years), Greece, Cyprus, the Middle East and Africa. Many languages are spoken in Bedford including Italian, Punjabi, Turkish, Polish, Portuguese, Cantonese and Mandarin Chinese. There is a big, new Sikh temple in the district known as Queen’s Park.
Twinned towns
Bedford is twinned with:
Bamberg, Germany
Arezzo, Italy
Rovigo, Italy
Wloclawek, Poland
Relationship with nearby towns and villages
The town of Kempston has now grown to be part of Bedford. The villages in the Borough of Bedford with populations of more than 2,000 are Biddenham, Bromham, Clapham, Elstow, Oakley, Sharnbrook, Shortstown, Wilstead, and Wootton. There are also many smaller villages in the borough. The villages in the borough are popular with commuters to Bedford, and also with people who commute to Milton Keynes, which is a bigger employment centre than Bedford, and to London.
Famous Bedfordians
The most famous person from Bedford was John Bunyan, the author of The Pilgrim's Progress. He was born in Harrowden, near Elstow which is just outside Bedford. Later he lived in St Cuthbert Street, which is the next street east parallel to the High Street, but was still just at the edge of Bedford at that time. Bunyan Meeting is a church on the site where Bunyan, at the end of his life, was allowed to have a barn to preach. It is joined to the Bunyan Museum. There is a statue of Bunyan on the corner of the High Street by Bedford School.
Other famous Bedfordians include Sir William Harpur, the philanthropist, John Howard, the prison reformer, Charles Wells, founder of Charles Wells Brewery, a company which is still in the town, Ronnie Barker the comedian, Media Personality and former 'Countdown' Co-host Carol Vorderman and John Le Mesurier, actor and comedian. People who went to school in Bedford include the politician Paddy Ashdown, the cricketer Alastair Cook, the playwright Christopher Fry and the athlete Paula Radcliffe.Also cricketer Monty Panesar and comedian Al Murray.
References
Other websites
Welcome to Bedford!
The Official Town Centre and BedfordBID Website
Towns in Bedfordshire |
24287 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentomino | Pentomino | A pentomino is a 2D shape made out of 5 side-by-side equal-sized squares. They can be found in the books Chasing Vermeer and The Wright 3. It was created by Solomon W. Golomb.
These are the 12 pentominos:
Other websites
All about pentominoes
Shapes |
24288 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ejaculation | Ejaculation | Ejaculation is when a male person (or other male mammal) shoots out liquid from his erect penis after it has been aroused or stimulated (excited sexually). It happens when he has an orgasm. This article is about ejaculation in human beings.
When a man is stimulated, his penis becomes erect. When he has an orgasm, semen comes out from the end of his penis. Semen contains sperm and other substances. How long a man can be stimulated before ejaculating, how long the ejaculation lasts, the strength of the ejaculation, and the amount of semen that comes out, all vary from one man to another. When a man ejaculates, he has a very good feeling in his penis and his groin area (the part of his body where his torso joins the top of his legs). A man can ejaculate after he masturbates, is touched by someone else sexually, and sometimes, even if he is not touched (for example, if he looks at pictures and videos on the internet that cause sexual arousal, or thinks about sex). Ejaculation can also happen without control when a man is sleeping, which is called a wet dream.
Urine can sometimes also come out with the ejaculatory fluid during sex.
Boys usually do not ejaculate until they reach puberty but sometimes it can happen before.
Slang terms for ejaculation are blowing a load or blowing a wad, and busting a nut. creaming, cumming, jizzing, nutting, jazzing, spurting, squirting and skeeting. Ejaculation takes place when the man has an orgasm (the height of sexual excitement), usually after his genitals have been physically stimulated in some way. However, ejaculation can also happen if a man has not been touched, for instance if he becomes aroused or stimulated (made sexually excited) by looking at sexy pictures, watching sexy videos, or thinking about sex. When a man ejaculates while sleeping, it is called nocturnal emission.
How it happens
Before a man can ejaculate, his penis needs to be stimulated. The penis is usually soft, quite short and hangs down. When a man is stimulated, for example by seeing another naked person, masturbating or being touched by someone else sexually, the inside of his penis fills with blood. This causes it to become longer, thicker, harder and to stand upright, and is called an erection. Men can be stimulated for different amounts of time before they ejaculate.
Ejaculation takes place in two stages.
First stage: Emission. The first stage is called emission (which means "the act of sending or throwing something out"). A man's testicles make sperm cells, and these are stored in a coiled tube called the epididymis. During emission, the two ducts (tubes) called the vasa deferentia (each tube by itself is called a vas deferens), which carry sperm away from the testicles, squeeze the sperm from the epididymis to the top end of the ducts. When this happens, the man feels that he cannot stop his ejaculation. It is sometimes said that the man has reached the "point of no return". The sperm then passes through other tubes called the ejaculatory ducts, where they are mixed with fluids made by glands called the seminal vesicles, the prostate and the bulbourethral glands (also called Cowper's glands). (Glands are special body organs that make chemicals.) The mixture of sperm and fluid is called semen or ejaculate. It is white or yellowish, and sticky.
Second stage: Ejaculation proper. The second stage is called ejaculation proper (which means "real ejaculation"). When ejaculation proper begins, the man starts having an orgasm. A muscle at the base of the man's penis called the bulbospongiosus muscle squeezes strongly again and again. This forces semen to move from the ejaculatory ducts into the urethra, which is a duct that passes right through the penis. Semen is pushed along the urethra until it shoots out of the end of the penis in spurts. Once the muscle starts to squeeze, the man cannot stop the semen from coming out of his penis. During an orgasm, the man's muscle will usually squeeze about 10 to 15 times. The squeezes happen very quickly. They start at about 0.6 second apart, then slow down and become weaker. Most of the semen is ejaculated in the first few squeezes. How strong an ejaculation is varies from man to man. For some men the semen shoots out of their penis very far, while for others it dribbles out. An ejaculation is often stronger if a man has been stimulated for a longer time. The squeezing of the man's muscle gives a very good feeling to his penis and his groin area (the part of his body where his torso joins the top of his legs). A man's orgasm usually lasts about 17 seconds, but some men have an orgasm for only a few seconds while for others it can last for up to one minute.
After a man has ejaculated, his penis usually becomes soft and shorter again. He may also have an enjoyable and relaxing feeling in his groin area. It takes some time before he can have another erection and ejaculation. This time is called the refractory period. The average refractory period is about half an hour. Younger men normally have a shorter refractory period than older men. Men who are 18 years old have a refractory period of about 15 minutes, while men in their 70s have one of about 20 hours. Some men's penises remain hard after one ejaculation, and they are able to have another ejaculation after some time without losing their erection. Most young and middle-aged men can probably have about two to three ejaculations in a few hours, but it has been said that some men are able to have up to nine ejaculations a day.
When a man ejaculates before he wants to, this is called premature ejaculation. If a man cannot ejaculate after having been aroused for a long time, even though he wants to, this is called delayed ejaculation or anorgasmia. A man who is unable to ejaculate at all is said to have anejaculation. Some men are able to have an orgasm without ejaculating. This is called a dry orgasm.
Apart from giving a man pleasure, ejaculation may help a man stay healthy. A study carried out in Australia seemed to show that men who ejaculate often have less chance of getting prostate cancer.
Semen
Semen is known informally as cum, jism or jizz. Men ejaculate different amounts of semen. Normally, an ejaculation makes between 1.5 and 5 millilitres (up to one teaspoonful) of semen. More semen tends to come out if a man has not ejaculated for many days, or if he has been stimulated for a long time. Older men produce less semen. If a man ejaculates an unusually small amount of semen, this is a medical condition called hypospermia.
Semen is usually a white or yellowish fluid. It starts off being slightly thick and sticky, then after a while it becomes more watery. Semen contains many chemicals. These include citric acid, fructose (a type of sugar), enzymes that speed up chemical reactions in the body, lipids (substances that fat is made of), and slippery fluids that help the semen to move through the urethra.
The number of sperm in an ejaculation of semen depends on many things. There may be more sperm if:
the man is younger,
his body produces more of the hormone testosterone, which makes a person look and feel like a man,
his testicles are not too warm,
he produces more semen,
he has not ejaculated for some time, and
he has been stimulated for a longer time before ejaculation.
If there are an unusually low number of sperm in an ejaculation, this is called oligospermia. If there are no sperm at all, this is called azoospermia. A man with oligospermia or azoospermia is usually infertile, and cannot or finds it very hard to make a woman pregnant by having sex with her.
If a man has a sexually transmitted infection or STI (an infection that is passed from one person to another by sex), the germs that cause the disease can appear in his semen. If the person that the man has sex with touches the semen, he or she can become infected by the germs and pick up the disease. AIDS, gonorrhea, hepatitis B, herpes and syphillis are examples of STIs. One of the ways for a man to lower the chance of passing on an STI to his sexual partner is to wear a condom on his penis when having sex.
Fertilization
When a man has sexual intercourse with a woman, he places his penis within her vagina and moves his penis back and forth, typically in a thrusting motion, while the woman moves her hips. The vagina is warm and somewhat moist, and it places pressure on the man's penis. These sensations, combined with the friction caused by the in-and-out movements, stimulates the penis, which causes the man to have an orgasm and to ejaculate. If the woman is using birth control this will usually not cause her to become pregnant. Otherwise, the sperm in the semen can travel into the woman's uterus and Fallopian tubes. If there happens to be an ovum or egg cell in a Fallopian tube, a sperm may fuse with the ovum. This is called fertilization, and makes the woman pregnant.
However, before a man ejaculates, a clear, colorless, sticky fluid called pre-ejaculate (also known as pre-ejaculate fluid or informally as pre-cum) can come out of his penis. Pre-ejaculate is produced by the bulbourethral or Cowper's glands. Some tests have shown that pre-ejaculate does not contain any sperm. However, some sperm may have been left behind in the urethra from an earlier ejaculation and the pre-ejaculate may carry this sperm out of the penis. That is why a woman can become pregnant even if the man pulls his penis out of her vagina before he ejaculates. Also, if a man ejaculates near the woman's vagina and semen falls on her body, sperm can accidentally enter the vagina and cause a pregnancy. To avoid the woman becoming pregnant when she does not want to, the man and the woman can use methods of contraception or birth control. For example, the man can wear a condom on his penis, or the woman can take birth control pills.
First ejaculation
Young boys cannot ejaculate. A boy's first ejaculation usually happens about one year after he begins puberty, which is when his body starts changing into a man's body. Most boys go through puberty in their teens. The first time a boy ejaculates usually happens when he is asleep. This is called a nocturnal emission (which means "an emission happening at night") or a wet dream. It happens without the boy's control, often when he is having a dream about sex. Scientists believe that wet dreams are the body's way of removing too much semen. When a boy begins masturbating, wet dreams usually stop happening.
When a boy starts to ejaculate, he usually produces only a small amount of semen. The semen is different from what an adult man produces. It is usually clear and stays sticky. It either has no sperm in it, or sperm that do not move properly or do not move at all. A boy's semen only becomes like an adult man's semen about two years after his first ejaculation.
References
Male reproductive system |
24289 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Team | Team | A team is a group of people who have a certain task to complete. In order to meet their target, the members of the group must work well with each other.
Successful team - a group of people who tend to meet their target despite barriers. The group members cooperate with each other and take other members' ideas into consideration.
Unsuccessful team - a group of people who have a very difficult time when attempting to complete a certain task. This may be because the members of the group think of only themselves and create an uncomfortable environment for other members of the team.
Relationships |
24294 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hirohito | Hirohito | was the 124th Emperor of Japan according to the traditional order of succession, reigning from 25 December 1926, until his death on 7 January 1989. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Akihito. In Japan, reigning emperors are known simply as "the Emperor" and he is now referred to primarily by his posthumous name, .
The name "Shōwa" was given to Hirohito after he died. Emperors of Japan are normally renamed in this way; and people started using the new name in 1990. During his long reign, many people outside Japan call him Emperor Hirohito, or just Hirohito.
Events of Shōwa's life
Prince Hirohito was named regent for his father in 1921. he became emperor after his father's death.
World War II
Hirohito was the emperor of Japan during the Second Sino-Japanese War which became World War 2 (1931 to 1945). Though he was supposed to be an absolute monarch (an emperor who can make all the laws and rules), most of the power in the Japanese Government during this time was held by Japan's Prime Minister Hideki Tōjō and the military. Hirohito's role in WW2 is controversial.
Constitutional monarch
After Japan's defeat in the war, the role of emperor changed. The emperor became a symbol of the state.
Hirohito was the first emperor to travel outside Japan. He visited Europe in 1971 and he traveled to the United States in 1975.
After his death
Emperor Showa died of small intestine cancer and was succeeded by his son, Prince Akihito.
The state funeral for the late emperor was an international event. World leaders attending the funeral included U.S. President George H. W. Bush, French President François Mitterrand, and the Duke of Edinburgh.
Emperor Shōwa is buried in the Imperial Mausoleum in Hachiōji, along with Emperor Taishō.
Selected works
In an overview of writings by and about Hirohito, OCLC/WorldCat includes roughly 900+ works in 1,500 publications in 15 languages and 31,000 library holdings .
1967 – A Review of the Hydroids of the Family Clathrozonidae with Description of a New Genus and Species from Japan.
1969 – Some hydroids from the Amakusa Islands.
1971 – Additional notes on Clathrozoon wilsoni Spencer.
1974 – Some hydrozoans of the Bonin Islands
1977 – Five hydroid species from the Gulf of Aqaba, Red Sea.
1983 – Hydroids from Izu Oshima and Nijima.
1984 – A new hydroid Hydractinia bayeri n. sp. (family Hydractiniidae) from the Bay of Panama.
1988 – The hydroids of Sagami Bay collected by His Majesty the Emperor of Japan.
1995 – The hydroids of Sagami Bay II.
Honors
Order of the Chrysanthemum, Japan
Order of the Rising Sun, Japan
Order of the Sacred Treasure, Japan
Order of the Garter (KG), UK
Fellow of the Royal Society, UK
Related pages
Emperor of Japan
List of emperors of Japan
Japanese imperial family tree
Shōwa period
References
Notes
Further reading
Bix, Herbert P. (2000). Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan. New York: HarperCollins. ; OCLC 247018161
Other websites
Deaths from small intestine cancer
Emperors of Japan
1901 births
1989 deaths
People from Tokyo |
24297 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20evolution | Human evolution | Human evolution is about the origin of human beings. All humans belong to the same species, Homo sapiens, which appeared first in Africa but has spread to almost all parts of the world. Fossils found in Africa prove that humans first appeared there.
The word 'human' in this context means the genus Homo. However, studies of human evolution usually include other hominids, such as the Australopithecines. This group diverged (split) from the genus Homo in Africa by about 2.3 to 2.4 million years ago. The first Homo sapiens, the ancestors of today's humans, evolved around 200,000 years ago.
People have known for centuries that man and the apes are related. Clearly, even though they look different, their anatomy is similar. For this reason, during the 18th century, Buffon and Linnaeus put men and apes together in a single family. In the 19th century, Charles Darwin suggested that animals have very similar anatomies when they share a common ancestor. In fact, humans and apes are close relatives. Both are primates: the order of mammals which includes monkeys, apes, lemurs and tarsiers.
The great apes live in tropical rainforests. It is thought that human evolution started when a group of apes (now called the australopithecines) began to live more in the savannah. A savannah is more open, with trees, shrubs and grass. This group started walking on two legs. They began to use their hands to carry things. Life in the open was different, and there was a big advantage in having better brains. Their brains grew larger, and they began to make simple tools. This process began at least 5 million years ago. We have fossils of two or three different groups of walking apes, and one was the ancestor of humans.
The biological name for "human" or "man" is Homo. The modern human species is called Homo sapiens. "Sapiens" means "thought". Homo sapiens means "the thinking man".
Paleoanthropology looks at ancient human fossils, tools, and other signs of early human life. It began in the 19th century with the discovery of a skull of "Neanderthal man" in 1856.
Humans are similar to great apes
By 1859, zoologists had known for a long time that humans are, in their anatomy, similar to the great apes. There are also differences: humans can speak, for example. But the similarities are more basic than the differences. Humans also have features with a much older history, from early in the life of vertebrates.
The idea that species are caused by evolution had been proposed before Darwin, but his book gave much evidence, and many were persuaded by it. The book was On the Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection, published in November 1859. In this book, Darwin wrote about the idea of evolution in general, rather than the evolution of humans. Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history, was all Darwin wrote on the subject. Nevertheless, the implication of the theory was clear to readers at the time.
Several people discussed the evolution of humans. Among them were Thomas Huxley and Charles Lyell. Huxley convincingly showed many of the similarities and differences between humans and apes in his 1863 book Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature. When Darwin published his own book on the subject, The Descent of Man, and selection in relation to sex, the idea of human evolution was already well-known. The theory was controversial. Even some of Darwin's supporters (such as Alfred Russel Wallace and Charles Lyell) did not like the idea that human beings have evolved their impressive mental capacities and moral sensibilities through natural selection.
Since the 18th century, scientists thought the great apes to be closely related to human beings. In the 19th century, they speculated that the closest living relatives of humans were either chimpanzees or gorillas. Both live in central Africa in tropical rainforests. In fact, chimpanzees are closest to us. Biologists believed that humans share a common ancestor with other African great apes and that fossils of these ancestors would be found in Africa, which they have been. It is now accepted by virtually all biologists that humans are not only similar to the great apes, but actually are great apes.
The issue was confirmed by late 20th century studies on the sequences of proteins and genes in apes and man. These studies showed that man shares about 95 to 98% of these structures with chimpanzees. This is a much closer relationship than with any other type of animal, and fully supports the ideas put forward in the 19th century by Darwin and Huxley.
"Currently available genetic and archaeological evidence is generally interpreted as supportive of a recent single origin of modern humans in East Africa. However, this is where the near consensus on human settlement history ends, and considerable uncertainty clouds any more detailed aspect of human colonization history".
Distinguishing features
Primates have diversified in habitats such as trees and bushes. They have many features which are adaptations to their environment. Here are some of those traits:
Shoulder joints which allow high degrees of movement in all directions.
Five digits on the fore and hind limbs with opposable thumbs and big toes; hands can grasp, and usually big toes as well.
Nails on the fingers and toes (in most species).
Sensitive tactile pads on the ends of the digits.
Sockets of eyes encircled in bone.
A trend towards a reduced snout and flattened face, attributed to a reliance on vision at the expense of smell.
A complex visual system with binocular (stereoscopic) vision, high visual acuity and color vision.
Brain with a well developed cerebellum for good balance.
Brain large in comparison to body size, especially in simians (old world monkeys and apes).
Enlarged cerebral cortex (brain): learning, problem solving.
Reduced number of teeth compared to primitive mammals;.
A well-developed cecum: vegetable digestion.
Two pectoral mammary glands.
Typically one young per pregnancy.
A pendulous penis and scrotal testes.
Long gestation and developmental period. and
A trend towards holding the torso upright leading to bipedalism.
Not all primates have these anatomical traits, nor is every trait unique to primates. Primates are frequently highly social, live in groups with 'flexible dominance hierarchies'.
Other similarities
Closely related animals almost always have closely related parasites. This usually comes about because parasites evolve with their hosts, and when host populations split, their parasites split also. It is also possible for parasites to get from one species to another. Two of the most serious parasitic infections of humans in Africa have originated in apes. Each may have been transferred to humans by a single cross-species event.
There are several species of mosquito, and several species of the malarial parasite Plasmodium. The most serious type, P. falciparum, which kills many millions of people each year, originated in gorillas. It is now virtually certain that chimpanzees are the source of HIV-1, the major cause of AIDS. This information is got by the sequence analysis of ape and human viruses.
The relevance of this to evolution is that our physiology is so close to the apes that their parasites were able to transfer to humans with great success. Humans have much less resistance to these parasites, which are ancient in origin, but comparatively new to our species.
Immediate ancestors of the genus Homo
It was not until the 1920s that hominid fossils were discovered in Africa. In 1924, Raymond Dart described Australopithecus africanus. The specimen was called the Taung Child, an australopithecine infant discovered in a cave deposit being mined for concrete at Taung, South Africa. The remains were a remarkably well-preserved tiny skull and a cast of the inside of the individual's skull. Although the brain was small (410 cm³), its shape was rounded, unlike that of chimpanzees and gorillas, and more like a modern human brain. Also, the specimen had short canine teeth, and the position of the foramen magnum was evidence of bipedal locomotion. All of these traits convinced Dart that the Taung baby was a bipedal human ancestor, a transitional form between apes and humans.
It took another 20 years before Dart's claims were taken seriously. This was after other similar skeletons had been found. The most common view of the time was that a large brain evolved before bipedality, the ability to walk on two feet more or less upright. It was thought that intelligence similar to that of modern humans was necessary for bipedalism. This turned out to be wrong: bipedality came first.
The australopithecines are now thought to be immediate ancestors of the genus Homo, the group to which modern humans belong. Both australopithecines and Homo sapiens are part of the tribe Hominini, but recent data has brought into doubt the position of A. africanus as a direct ancestor of modern humans; it may well have been a cousin. The australopithecines were originally classified as either gracile or robust. The robust variety of Australopithecus has since been reclassified as Paranthropus, although it is still regarded as a subgenus of Australopithecus by some authors.
In the 1930s, when the robust specimens were first described, the Paranthropus genus was used. During the 1960s, the robust variety was moved into Australopithecus. The recent trend has been back to the original classification as a separate genus.
The genus Homo
It was Carolus Linnaeus who chose the name Homo. Today, there is only one species in the genus: Homo sapiens. There were other species, but they became extinct.
The figure shows where some of them lived and at what time. Some of the other species might have been ancestors of H. sapiens. Many were likely our "cousins", they developed away from our ancestral line.
Anthropologists are still investigating the exact line of descent. A consensus on which should count as separate species and which as subspecies has not been reached yet. In some cases this is because there are very few fossils, in other cases it is due to the slight differences used to classify species in the Homo genus.
The evolution of the genus Homo took place mostly in the Pleistocene. The whole genus is characterised by its use of stone tools, initially crude, and becoming ever more sophisticated. So much so that in archaeology and anthropology the Pleistocene is usually referred to as the Palaeolithic, or the Stone Age.
Homo habilis
Homo habilils was likely the first species of Homo. It developed from the Australopithecus, about 2.5 million years ago. It lived until about 1.4 million years ago. It had smaller molars (back teeth) and larger brains than the Australopithecines.
Towards Homo erectus
There are two proposed species that lived from 1.9 to 1.6 million years ago. Their relation has not been clarified. One of them is called Homo rudolfensis. It is known from a single incomplete skull from Kenya. Scientists have suggested that this was just another habilis, but this has not been confirmed. The other is currently called Homo georgicus. It is from Georgia and may be an intermediate form between H. habilis and H. erectus, or a sub-species of H. erectus.
Homo ergaster and Homo erectus
Homo erectus was first discovered on the island of Java in Indonesia, in 1891. The discoverer, Eugene Dubois originally called it Pithecanthropus erectus based on its morphology that he considered to be intermediate between that of humans and apes. Homo erectus lived from about 1.8 million to 70,000 years ago. The earlier specimens (from 1.8 to 1.2 million years ago) are sometimes seen as a different species, or a subspecies. called Homo ergaster, or Homo erectus ergaster'.
In the early Pleistocene, 1.5–1 mya, in Africa, Asia, and Europe, presumably, some populations of Homo habilis evolved larger brains and made more elaborate stone tools; these differences and others are sufficient for anthropologists to classify them as a new species, H. erectus. In addition H. erectus was the first human ancestor to walk truly upright. This was made possible by the evolution of locking knees and a different location of the foramen magnum (the hole in the skull where the spine enters). They may have used fire to cook their meat.
A famous example of Homo erectus is Peking Man; others were found in Asia (notably in Indonesia), Africa, and Europe. Many paleoanthropologists are now using the term Homo ergaster for the non-Asian forms of this group. They reserve H. erectus only for those fossils found in the Asian region that meet certain requirements (as to skeleton and skull) which differ slightly from ergaster.
Neanderthal man Homo neaderthalensis (usually called Neanderthal man) lived from about 250,000 to about 30,000 years ago. Also, less usual, as Homo sapiens neanderthalensis: there is still some discussion if it was a separate species Homo neanderthalensis, or a subspecies of H. sapiens. While the debate remains unsettled, evidence from mitochondrial DNA and Y-chromosomal DNA sequencing indicates that little or no gene flow occurred between H. neanderthalensis and H. sapiens, and, therefore, the two were separate species. In 1997, Dr. Mark Stoneking, then an associate professor of anthropology at Pennsylvania State University, stated:
"These results [based on mitochondrial DNA extracted from Neanderthal bone] indicate that Neanderthals did not contribute mitochondrial DNA to modern humans… Neanderthals are not our ancestors".
More investigation of a second source of Neanderthal DNA supported these findings.
Denisovan man
A genetic analysis of a piece of finger bone found in Siberia has produced a surprise result. It dates to about 40,000 years ago, at a time when Neanderthals and modern man were living in the area. German researchers found its mitochondrial DNA did not match either that of our species or that of Neanderthals. If this result is correct, the bone belongs to a previously unknown species. The degree of difference in the DNA suggests this species split off from our family tree about a million years ago, well before the split between our species and Neanderthals.
Homo floresiensis Homo floresiensis, which lived about 100,000–12,000 years ago has been nicknamed hobbit for its small size. Its size may be a result of island dwarfism, the tendency for large mammals to evolve smaller forms on islands. H. floresiensis is intriguing both for its size and its age. It is a concrete example of a recent species of the genus Homo that shows derived traits not shared with modern humans. In other words, H. floresiensis share a common ancestor with modern humans, but split from the modern human lineage and followed a different evolutionary path. The main find was a skeleton believed to be a woman of about 30 years of age. Found in 2003 it has been dated to approximately 18,000 years old. The living woman was estimated to be one meter in height, with a brain volume of just 380 cm3 This is small for a chimpanzee and less than a third of the H. sapiens average of 1400 cm3.
There is an ongoing debate over whether H. floresiensis is indeed a separate species. Some scientists believe that H. floresiensis was a modern H. sapiens suffering from pathological dwarfism. Modern humans who live on Flores, the island where the skeleton was found, are pygmies. This fact is consistent with either theory. One line of attack on H. floresiensis is that it was found with tools only associated with H. sapiens.
Stone artifacts have been found on Flores which can be dated to a million years ago. These artifacts are proxies; which means there were no skeletons of humans, but only a species of Homo could have made them. The artifacts are flakes and other implements, 48 in all, some of which show signs of being worked to produce a cutting edge. This means that humans were present on Flores by that date, but it does not tell us which species that was.
Homo sapiens Homo sapiens has lived from about 250,000 years ago to the present. Between 400,000 years ago and the second warm period in the Middle Pleistocene, around 250,000 years ago, its skull grew and more sophisticated technologies based on stone tools developed. One possibility is that a transition between H. erectus to H. sapiens occurred. The evidence of Java Man suggests there was an initial migration of H. erectus out of Africa. Then, much later, a further development of H. sapiens from H. erectus in Africa. Then a subsequent migration within and out of Africa eventually replaced the earlier H. erectus.
Out of Africa
Studies of the human genome, especially the Y-chromosome DNA and mitochondrial DNA, have supported a recent African origin. Evidence from autosomal DNA also supports the recent African origin. The details of this great saga are not fully established yet, but by about 90,000 years ago they had moved into Eurasia and the Middle East. This was the area where Neanderthals, Homo neanderthalensis, had been living for a long time (at least 500,000 years in western Europe).
By about 42 to 44,000 years ago Homo sapiens had reached western Europe, including Britain. In Europe and western Asia, Homo sapiens replaced the Neanderthals by about 35,000 years ago. The details of how this happened are not known.
At roughly the same time Homo sapiens arrived in Australia (However a recent archaeological dig in Kakadu, Northern Territory, may suggest Homo sapiens arrived in Australia 65,000 years ago). Their arrival in the Americas was much later, about 15,000 years ago. All these earlier groups of modern man were hunter-gatherers.
Current research has established that human beings are genetically rather homogenous (similar). The DNA of individuals is more alike than usual for most species. This may have resulted from their relatively recent evolution or from the Toba catastrophe. Distinctive genetic have arisen as a result of small groups of people moving into new environmental circumstances. These adapted traits are a very small component of the Homo sapiens genome and include such outward 'racial' characteristics as skin color and nose shape, and internal characteristics such as the ability to breathe more efficiently at high altitudes.H. sapiens idaltu, from Ethiopia, about 160,000 years ago, is a proposed subspecies. It is the oldest known anatomically modern human.
Species list
This list is in chronological order by genus.
Sahelanthropus Sahelanthropus tchadensis Orrorin Orrorin tugenensis Ardipithecus Ardipithecus kadabba Ardipithecus ramidus Australopithecus Australopithecus anamensis Australopithecus afarensis Australopithecus bahrelghazali Australopithecus africanus Australopithecus garhi Paranthropus Paranthropus aethiopicus Paranthropus boisei Paranthropus robustus Kenyanthropus Kenyanthropus platyops Homo Homo habilis Homo rudolfensis Homo ergaster Homo georgicus Homo erectus Homo cepranensis Homo antecessor Homo heidelbergensis Homo rhodesiensis Homo neanderthalensis Homo sapiens idaltu Homo sapiens (Cro-magnon)
Homo sapiens sapiens Homo floresiensis''
Related pages
ENCODE: the complete analysis of the human genome
Paleoanthropology
References
Evolution
Anthropology |
24298 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient%20Rome | Ancient Rome | Ancient Rome was a civilization that started in the city of Rome and the land of Latium on the Italian Peninsula. Roman civilization was the most important civilization in the Mediterranean region, Europe, and the Near East from the late 3rd century BC. Roman civilization was in existence all through Classical Antiquity, Late Antiquity, and the Middle Ages, but "ancient Rome" means the ancient history of Roman civilization before the Middle Ages. Traditionally, the fall of the western Roman Empire during the 5th century AD is named the start of the Middle Ages in western Europe.
In Classical Antiquity, the Roman Empire controlled a very large area of land, which stretched from Great Britain to the Arabian Peninsula. Ancient Rome has been very important to the history of Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia, where the Romans controlled many lands. Ancient Rome's culture took many ideas from other civilizations, especially Ancient Greece and the Greek kingdoms of the Hellenistic period. Ancient Romans' ideas have been very influential for later civilizations. The Romans' Latin language became the most common language in the western Mediterranean and western Europe, and is the ancestor of Romance languages. The Roman emperors were responsible for making Christianity the Romans' state religion, and the Romans spread Christianity across the Roman Empire in Late Antiquity. Roman Christianity replaced Roman religion and other traditional religions. The Romans made many improvements to engineering, architecture, irrigation, and transport.
History
Rome began as a small farming community in the 8th century BC. The city of Rome was founded, according to legend, on 21 April 753 BC. It became a city and a state and had the , which Roman mythology said came from their first king, Romulus. Rome was first a kingdom, but its last king, Tarquinius Superbus, was sent away in a revolution started by Lucius Junius Brutus. The Roman state became a republic. The city-state grew to control the Italian Peninsula during the Hellenistic period, and fought the Punic Wars with the Carthaginian Republic. After overcoming the Carthaginians, the Roman Republic became the most powerful state in the western Mediterranean.
The Romans became the most powerful state in the eastern Mediterranean after wars with Macedonia, and the Mithridatic Wars with Kingdom of Pontus. The Hellenistic period and the Roman Republic ended when, after Julius Caesar was assassinated, the Romans fought a long civil war. At the end of these wars, Augustus overcame his Roman enemies and the Ptolemaic dynasty, who controlled the kingdom of Egypt. Augustus became the first Roman emperor and Roman civilization controlled all the lands around the Mediterranean Sea.
In 293 AD, Diocletian split the government of the empire into two parts, east and west. From Diocletian's time there was usually more than one emperor at a time, each controlling a part of the empire. In the 5th century AD, the lands of the western Roman Empire split up into different kingdoms. After Romulus Augustulus there were no more emperors in the western empire, and the government of the western Roman Empire ended in 476 AD. In Western Europe, this is the end of Antiquity and the start of the Early Middle Ages. The Romans lost control of Rome and most of the Italian Peninsula. After that, the Roman Empire in the Middle Ages is sometimes named the Eastern Roman Empire, or Byzantine Empire. Historians use this name because the Romans' capital city was Constantinople (also called Byzantium), and its emperors controlled the eastern half of the Mediterranean Basin. The Roman Empire was in existence until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, when it was defeated by the Ottoman Empire.
Culture
Roman culture spread to Western Europe and the area around the Mediterranean Sea. Its history still has a big influence on the world today. For example, Roman ideas about laws, government, art, literature, and language are important to European culture. The Roman language, Latin, slowly evolved, becoming modern French, Spanish, Italian, Romanian, and many other languages. Latin also indirectly influenced many other languages such as English.
Religion
Graeco-Roman polytheism
The most common religion of ancient Rome in its first centuries was Graeco-Roman polytheism. The traditional religion of the city of Rome was polytheist (with many gods). The most important gods were the Capitoline triad: three gods worshipped on the Capitoline Hill. The three were Jupiter (the father and king of the gods), Juno (the queen of the gods), and Minerva (the goddess of wisdom). The goddess Minerva was born without a mother from the body of Jupiter. Roman mythology said that among the Romans' ancestors were Venus (goddess of love) and Mars (a god of war and the son of Jupiter and Juno). The gods Apollo and Bacchus were taken by the Romans from Greek mythology, and many of the Romans' religious practices were the same as those of the ancient Greeks. The Romans also worshipped the goddesses Cybele and Isis, whose cults they took from Hellenistic Anatolia and Egypt.
Roman worship often took the form of sacrifices. Romans tried to please the gods by giving food or other gifts to the gods and to other deities, including the souls of dead people. With sacrifices like this, the Romans hoped to avoid bad luck and bring good luck, such as fertility and a successful harvest, or victory in war. The Romans built temples to house the images of their gods. These images were usually statues, and the Romans would offer sacrifices by burning food or frankincense. Precious objects would be given to the gods in rituals and stored in the temples. The Romans believed this pleased the gods. The Romans also did ritual purification, to avoid bad luck and to avoid offending the gods and spirits.
Judaeo-Christian monotheism
Judaism was common in the ancient Roman world, and there was a Jewish diaspora in many cities, like Rome, from the Hellenistic period. Christianity started in the eastern Roman Empire, in Hellenistic Judaea. In Classical Antiquity, the Roman government did not like Christianity. Sometimes, Roman governors or emperors ordered the persecution of Christians. Under the emperor Diocletian, the persecution of Christians became the strongest. Christianity became an officially supported religion in the Roman Empire under Constantine I. With the signing of the Edict of Milan by Licinius and Constantine in 313, it became the most powerful religion, and the Christian Church began the persecution of Christians with whom the official ("orthodox" and "catholic") disagreed. Then, in 391 AD, an edict of Theodosius I made Christianity Rome's official religion. The state church of the Roman Empire became the state religion in the empire. (The state church later split into the modern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church.)
People practising traditional, non-Christian religions were common in Late Antiquity. The Christians called these people "pagans". There was persecution of Graeco-Roman polytheism by the Roman emperors. Starting in the 5th century, non-Christian religions' property was taken away, and many Roman temples were made into churches.
The Eastern Empire
The Byzantines were threatened by the rise of Islam, whose followers took over the territories of Syria, Armenia and Egypt and soon threatened to take over Constantinople. In the next century, the Arabs also captured southern Italy and Sicily.
The Byzantines survived during the 8th century and, beginning in the 9th century, took back parts of the conquered lands. In 1000 AD, the Eastern Empire was at its largest point, and culture and trade flourished. However, the expansion was suddenly stopped in 1071 at the Battle of Manzikert. This finally made the empire start becoming weaker. After centuries of fighting and Turkic invasions, Emperor Alexius I Comnenus called for help from the West in 1095.
The West responded with the Crusades, eventually resulting in the Fourth Crusade which conquered Constantinople in 1204. Several Roman states took pieces of the now smaller empire. After the recapture of Constantinople by the Romans, the empire was little more than a Greek-speaking state confined to the coast of the Aegean Sea and the Sea of Marmara. The empire came to an end when Mehmed II conquered Constantinople on 29 May 1453.
Archaeology
Remains of Roman work and architecture have been found in the furthest corners of the late Empire.
Frontiers of the Roman Empire
Roman houses
Roman roads in Britain
Related pages
Roman Kingdom
Roman Republic
Roman Empire
Western Roman Empire
Byzantine Empire
Culture of ancient Rome
References
Other websites
The Roman Law Library By Yves Lassard and Alexandr Koptev
Links for Middle School students from the Courtenay Middle School Library Collection |
24300 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globalization | Globalization | Globalization is the connection of different parts of the world resulting in the expansion of international cultural, economic, and political activities. It is the movement and integration of goods, contacts and people among different countries. There are advantages and disadvantages to globalization, all of which have economic, social, political, and cultural impacts. Globalization describes mainly trade practices, extending also to the communication patterns and cultural system that underlie these practices.
Definition
It is a term which may be used broadly to mean doing things as distant people do them, or more narrowly to mean complying to global standards in economy, politics, culture, education, environment or other matters. It describes the way countries and people of the world interact and integrate. Many things have become globalized as people come into contact.
Economic globalization is how countries are coming together as one big global economy, This is all making international trade easier. In the late 20th century, many people agreed to lower tariffs, or taxes on goods that are imported from other countries. Telegraphy and bull other communication technologies have helped people to buy and sell products from around the world, thus bringing globalization. Herman E. Daly has said that there is an important difference between internationalization and globalization. Internationalization is about nations working together for the same goals. These are things like treaties, alliances, and other international agreements. Globalization is about international trade that are
being less blocked by national borders.
Political globalization is how institutions and countries can influence the whole world. The United Nations are an example of globalization because most countries of the world are members of its General Assembly. This international organization can make countries follow rules and apply economic sanctions to a country that doesn't. This means the countries in the U.N will punish them by not talking or trading with them, so they don't benefit from globalization.
Cultural globalization is how culture is becoming homogeneous, which means that people from all over the world act in similar way. For example, many people around the world write with the Latin alphabet, wear T-shirts and jeans and watch Hollywood movies and other media.
Criticism
Some people, like Noam Chomsky, do not like globalization because they feel it only helps rich people get richer by making poor people poorer. Offshore outsourcing, such as a company hiring workers in a developing country, is often a part of globalization. This sometimes means that some people in a developed country lose their jobs. Joseph Stiglitz said that international groups like the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) have made it harder for poorer nations to get richer. Globalization also means that problems from other countries will affect your country. For example, the Great Depression of the 1930s started in the United States but affected the entire world.
Many countries also dislike it when international organizations such as the United Nations tell them what to do. However they obey to avoid sanctions. Many people also criticize the fact that globalization means that fewer people are deciding what brands, like Coca-Cola and McDonald's, taking over smaller, local shops and businesses. They criticize the fact that powerful countries have bigger influence on world culture than others. For example, the United States is the biggest cultural exporter, which means that countries around the world are becoming like the United States. However, this hurts local cultures. Jean Baudrillard believes that globalization hurts local cultures and is the cause of most terrorism. He also believes that most supporters of globalization just want to stay in power.
Gregory Meyjes interprets globalization as a largely hegemonic, unequal process of socio-cultural imposition. Questioning the various processes (economic, political, cultural) by which globalization or globalisation has favored rapid Anglo-cultural dominance over a more gradual, egalitarian evolution towards an inclusive world civilization, Meyjes argues for cultural policies that support "ecological" relations between local ethnocultural traditions, by protecting cultural specificity in the short term and allow as many cultural groups as possible to organically contribute to the whole. At the global level, Meyjes therefore proposes the term universalization or universalisation to denote a process of (largely) non-imposed socio-cultural exchange between state-level and sub-state-level groups and "nations" – i.e. a transnational process that informs the gradual emergence of a universal civilization.
Support
Others, like Thomas Friedman, believe that globalization can bring people together and make everyone richer without getting rid of local cultures. People who support globalization also believe that it makes war less likely because it is bad for business. Francis Fukuyama also argued that globalization would eventually lead to a system of world governance which would cause wars to end.
Many believe that globalization helps out poorer nations by bringing them business. A report by the World Bank said that poverty in India and Indonesia was cut in half because of globalization. The report also said that people in poorer nations are living longer and better because they were making more money.
Related pages
Antiglobalization
North American Free Trade Agreement
Overpopulation
References
More Reading
Peter Berger, Four Faces of Global Culture (The National Interest, Fall 1997).
Politics |
24301 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20Holland | North Holland | North Holland is a province (area with a local government) of the Netherlands. It is in the northwest. The capital is called Haarlem. Other cities in the province are Amsterdam, Hilversum, Alkmaar, Zaandam, and Hoorn. About 2,888,000 people are living in North Holland (2021).
Other websites |
24302 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk%20music | Folk music | Folk music is music that represents the tradition or culture of the area/place/state. It is traditional music that people learn by listening to other people playing it and then copying them. We say that the tradition is “orally transmitted” or “handed down orally”, meaning that the music is not written down but taught by speaking (“oral” means “belonging to the mouth”). Every country has its own traditional music. Folk song is part of folk music. A folksinger is a person who sings folk songs.
There are three categories of Folk Music -
Folk Singing
Folk Dance
Folk instruments
In the 1960s a new type of music was started by Bob Dylan who mixed traditional folk song with rock and roll. This music is sometimes called “folk rock” .
Folk music is music for everybody to play and listen to. In this way it is different from classical music which is mainly developed by professional musicians for a smaller group of people. Folk music is part of a popular culture, although the term “popular music” or “pop music” today refers to a kind of music which people can hear through television, radio and other means of recording.
In many parts of the world nearly all music is folk music. The term “folk music” is usually used for European and American music which is part of an oral tradition. Folk music as an oral tradition, is much less important than before, in part because of new technology (radio, television etc, and recordings of music ). Folk tunes are now often written down, and they have influenced other kinds of music, so that the differences between various types of music are harder to see.
The traditional origins
In older times folk music was part of “communal recreation”. This means that small communities such as villages or families would relax by playing and singing music together. People would often make up a new song or new piece of music, or make changes to music that they already knew. In this way music was always changing. People would get musical ideas from other groups nearby. This is why folk music from neighbouring countries often sound similar.
Ballads were a popular kind of folk music. These were folk songs which told a story (they were “narrative”). Sometimes they had a refrain after each verse so that everybody could join in. Ballads told stories of love, myths or folklore. This is how stories were handed down from one generation to another.
Instrumental folk music was used for dancing. Some of the instruments may have been very simple, such as a pair of sticks, rattle or a simple drum. Other instruments may include fiddle (the folk word for “violin”), bagpipes, harp, zither, or various wind instruments, depending on the time of history and the country.
Some singing was polyphonic, i.e. there were two or more parts (voices). Very often two voices would sing in parallel (going up and down together). In countries such as Russia persons sings in three or four parts, e.g. in the tradition of “podgolosnaya” (“underneath the voice”). In countries such as Britain this polyphonic tradition did not exist. Folk songs there were sung by one singer, unaccompanied.
Folk music used different scales. These are called modes. The Ionian mode (like our major scale) was the most common in Western Europe. In some parts of Eastern Europe modes with several semitones were used, but for the most part, half steps were avoided. This results is the tunes being described as tetratonic (four notes per octave) or pentatonic (five notes per octave).
Folk music also includes simple children’s songs and lullabies.
Folk music was sung by people as they worked. In the early days of European immigration in America the pioneers sang as they travelled, cowboys sang as they worked, slaves sang in the cottonfields.
Influence on classical music
In the 18th century folk music started to have an influence on classical music (or “art music”). People from the higher classes started to be interested in folk music because they were conscious of being part of a tradition. Composers such as Mozart and Schubert wrote folk dances for orchestras or small groups of instruments.
Folk music was used by many composers in the Romantic period. Gustav Mahler used folk song in a lot of his music. In the early twentieth century some composers travelled around collecting folk music which was being played or sung by people in the country. They often used some of these ideas in their music. Bartok did this in Hungary as well as in Bulgaria and in the United States, and people such as Cecil Sharp and the composer Ralph Vaughan Williams collected folk music in England. In the United States the influence of jazz on classical music is all part of the story of folk music.
References |
24304 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham | Abraham | Abraham (originally Abram) is a man in the Book of Genesis and the Qur'an. There, he is said to be the father of all Jews. This is because he is their ancestor. Abraham is part of the Jewish, Christian and Islamic religions. Abraham is considered the father of these three religions, which are called Abrahamic religions.
Abraham is the father of Isaac with his wife Sarah. He also has Ishmael with Hagar, Sarah's handmaid, and he has other children with Keturah, whom he marries after Sarah's death. He is the grandfather of Jacob and Esau. Abraham is believed to be the founding patriarch of the Israelites, Ishmaelites and Edomites. Abraham was the third son of Terah and the grandson of Nahor. Abraham's older brothers were named Nahor and Haran.
Other websites
"Journey and Life of the Patriarch Abraham" is an old map from 1590 that is about Abraham
Old Testament people
Ancient Israeli people |
24305 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tao%20Te%20Ching | Tao Te Ching | Tao Te Ching ( []) is the Chinese name of a book by a man named Laozi (or Lao Tzu, which literally means "old master"). Laozi was a sage (a wise man) and he was a record-keeper. The title can mean "The Book of the Way and its Virtue." People believe the book was written around 600 BC.
It is an important text to Chinese culture. It is very important in Chinese philosophy (way of thinking) and religion. It is the main book for Taoism, which is both a philosophy and part of Chinese folk religion. It also influenced other philosophies in and around China.
The title
There are many ways to translate the book's title, because each Chinese word has a few meanings:
Dào/Tao 道 means "way", "road", "path", or "route," but was given the extra meaning "path ahead", "way forward", "method", "principle", or simply "the Way". This word was also used in different ways by other Chinese philosophers (including Confucius, Mencius, Mozi, and Hanfeizi). It has special meaning in Taoism, where it means the basic way of the universe (that can not really be explained).
Dé/Te 德 means "virtue" as in "personal character" or "inner strength". People who followed the teachings of Confucius used it to mean "morality". A long time ago in English, "virtue" could mean "power" (as in the phrase "healing virtue of a drug"). The same thing was true in Chinese: the word meant "power" a long time ago but now means "virtue".
Jīng/Ching 經 originally meant "norm", "rule", or "plan", was given the extra meaning "scripture", "great book", or "classic".
The three words together gives the meaning "Virtue Way Rules".
The book is constructed of a series of poems, each containing a rule, way or belief to becoming successful.
Structure of the book
The Tao Te Ching is a short book of about 5,000 Chinese characters. It has 81 short chapters. It has two parts: Part One is the Tao Ching (道經) "Way Rules", which is chapters 1–37; Part Two is the Te Ching (德經) "Virtue Rules", which is chapters 38–81.
Translations
The Tao Te Ching is one of the most translated books in history, alongside the Bible and the Quran. Why are there thousands of translations? The text is short, the meaning is difficult. There are many interpretations, or ways to understand what the book says.
Online English versions
老子 Lǎozǐ 道德經 Dàodéjīng verbatim + analogous + poetic; deep analysis: Chinese + English + German
Tao Te Ching, James Legge
Tao Te Ching, John H. McDonald
Tao Te Ching , Stephen Mitchell
Daode jing , Charles Muller
Lao Tsu's Tao Te Ching Online, Elyxr
Tao Te Ching , Stan Rosenthal
Tao Te Ching by Lao Tzu, 3 translations: James Legge, D.T. Suzuki, and Dwight Goddard
Dao De Jing (Way Power Book) by Lao-zi, Sanderson Beck
Tao Te Ching – The Way of Life, Raymond B. Blakney
The Daode Jing (Tao Te Ching) of Laozi (Lao Tzu) , Chad Hansen
The Dynamic Tao and Its Manifestation. Wayne L. Wang
The Tao Te Ching, Frederic H. Balfour
The Tao Te Ching, Ron Hogan (in several formats, including iPod )
The Tao Te Ching, Lin Yutang
The Tao Te Ching , Stan Rosenthal
Tao Te Ching audio edition , narrated by Michael Scott
The Tao Teh King, Aleister Crowley
Jade Purity: Dao De Jing , Siji Tzu (far from a word-for-word translation)
Online multilingual versions
Das Tao Te King von Lao Tse 28 Chinese versions (Wang Bi, Heshang Gong, Fu Yi, Mawang Dui, Guodian), translations in 24 languages (84 in English), including side-by-side comparison of two or four translations, Lao Zi Projekt
老子 Lǎozĭ - 道 德 經 Dàodéjīng Romanian Version, Serban TOADER PhD, PDF black and white and colour
老子 Lǎozĭ - 道 德 經 Dàodéjīng Chinese-English-German, Hilmar KLAUS, The Tao of Wisdom. verbatim + analogous + poetic, 2009, 600 p.
Dao De Jing, comparison of Chinese versions (Pinyin, Wang Bi, Heshang Gong, and Mawangdui), Nina Correa
Laozi Daodejing , English and German translations, Chinese in seal script
The Tao by Lao-tse, Rick Harbaugh
The Way and Its Power - Dao De Jing Chinese, English (Waley, Lau), French (Julien), and German (Wilhelm), Association Française des Professeurs de Chinois
Religious texts
Taoism |
24306 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacon | Bacon | Bacon is a type of meat that comes from pigs. It is taken from the sides, back, or belly of the pig. It is often cut in thin slices, unlike other cured or smoked pork products. It is usually fried or grilled. It can also be microwaved.
In the U.S., back bacon and smoked ham is sometimes called Canadian bacon.
Bacon has lots of fat. Because bacon comes from pigs, people of some religions will not eat it. In some cultures and religions (such as Islam and Judaism), eating pork may be considered "unclean." Because of this, other varieties of bacon are also made out of turkey or chicken instead. Turkey bacon and chicken bacon usually contain half of the fat of pork-based bacon.
References
Pork
Breakfast foods |
24308 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molotov-Ribbentrop%20pact | Molotov-Ribbentrop pact | The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, otherwise known as the Nazi-Soviet Pact, was signed by Vyacheslav Molotov (Stalin's Soviet foreign minister) and Joachim von Ribbentrop (Hitler's German foreign minister) on 23 August 1939. The agreement promised that neither the Soviet Union nor Nazi Germany would attack each other.
A secret part established spheres of interest in Eastern Europe, and a border between both countries existed after they had invaded and divided Poland.
Only nine days later, on 1 September 1939, the German invasion of Poland began. On 17 September, the Soviet invasion of Poland began.
About 250,000 to 454,700 Polish soldiers and policemen were captured and interned by the Soviet authorities. About 125,000 were imprisoned in camps run by the NKVD, and 43,000 soldiers born in western Poland, which was under German control, were transferred to the Germans. In turn, the Soviets received 13,575 Polish prisoners from the Germans, which showed how close the co-operation was between the Germans and the Soviets.
On 3 September, France and the United Kingdom declared war soon because both had promised to defend Poland if it was attacked. Since neither of them was ready for war, they did nothing to help Poland for some time, but the Second World War clearly had started on that day.
Hitler later broke the pact in June 1941 by invading the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa. The war would end by the Soviet victory in 1945.
References
1930s treaties
World War II
Nazi Germany
1930s in the Soviet Union |
24311 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vyacheslav%20Molotov | Vyacheslav Molotov | Vyacheslav Mikhailovich Molotov (; in Kukarka – November 8, 1986 in Moscow) was a Soviet politician and diplomat. He was a leading figure in the Soviet government from the 1920s, when he came to power. He was a protégé of Joseph Stalin until the 1950s, when Nikita Khrushchev dismissed him from office.
Molotov was the main Soviet signatory of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact of 1939. The pact was signed between Germany and the Soviet Union, and both countries promised not to attack each other. The pact lasted about two years until Germany started the invasion of the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941.
The Molotov Cocktail, which was invented by Finns fighting in the Winter War against the Soviet invasion of Finland, is named after him.
1890 births
1986 deaths
Ambassadors of the Soviet Union
Recipients of the Order of Lenin
Soviet people of World War II
Heads of government of the Soviet Union |
24322 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylonia | Babylonia | Babylonia was a city state in Mesopotamia in the 2nd millennium BC, over 3000 years ago. Its capital city was Babylon, which meant The Gate of the Gods. They built an empire out of the lands of the former Akkadian empire.
Mesopotamia is the region of the two rivers, Euphrates and Tigris. At that time the region also included the city states of Assyria to the north, and Elam to the south-east. It is part of the Fertile Crescent in the Middle East. It was there people first lived together in a civilization, with farming, cities and writing.
Old Babylonia
The Babylonians had a written language that they used for trade and communication. They got it from the Sumerians, who invented it. The Babylonians used the same cuneiform system of pressing triangular shapes into soft clay. They wrote in two different languages: Sumerian for religious purposes and Akkadian language for official purposes.
Laws
Hammurabi was a king of Babylon who fought wars and made Babylonia into an empire by putting Assyria under a vassal (puppet) king. He created the earliest written set of laws, called the Code of Hammurabi. It has 280 judgments and can be seen today in the Louvre, a museum in Paris. Whereas the earlier Sumerian punishments had not been harsh, Babylonian law was quite severe. The death penalty was given for theft, murder, and other crimes.
Buildings
The houses in Babylon had open roofs, so that on hot nights, the family could sleep there. The living rooms, dining rooms, and the kitchens were, of course, downstairs. Lamps burned with olive oil, and every house had a chapel for burial and worship ceremonies. Since Mesopotamia had only clay for use in building, the strong wooden supports for the houses were imported from Lebanon. Eventually, people began baking their bricks and improved the strength of their buildings.
Sack of Babylon
Later, Babylon was sacked by the Hittite king Musilis I, which led to the so-called 'Dark Ages' of the Bronze Age, where there is little evidence in writing. The date of the sacking of Babylon is debated by archaeologists, who have proposed no fewer than four chronologies. Possible dates for the sack of Babylon are:
ultra-short chronology: 1499 BC
short chronology: 1531 BC
middle chronology: 1595 BC
long chronology: 1651 BC
The difficulty is to line up the Mesopotamian dates with the Ancient Egyptian dates.
Later dynasties
After the Hittite destruction, Babylon was ruled by Kassites for 576 years. Next it was ruled by Elam, and then regained its independence for about three centuries. They were then conquered by the Neo-Assyrians. A century later they again became free, to form the Neo-Babylonian or Chaldean Empire. This constant conquest and re-conquest is partly due to geography. There are no natural boundaries except the rivers, and it is easy to get at the cities from north or south.
The king Nebuchadnezzar II reigned for 43 years. He conquered Phoenicia in 585 BC.
Cyrus the Great
The Babylonian empire was finally brought to an end by Cyrus the Great of Persia.
It was in 549 BC that Cyrus put an end to the empire of the Medes. Three years later Cyrus had become king of the Achaemenid Empire (Persia), and was engaged in a campaign in northern Mesopotamia.
In 539 BC Cyrus invaded Babylonia. A battle was fought at Opis in the month of June, where the Babylonians were defeated; and immediately afterwards Sippara surrendered to the invader. Two days after the capture of Sippara, "the soldiers of Cyrus entered Babylon without fighting". Cyrus did not arrive until the 3rd of Marchesvan (October), Gobryas having acted for him in his absence. Gobryas was now made governor of the province of Babylon.
Cyrus now claimed to be the legitimate successor of the ancient Babylonian kings and the avenger of their god Bel-Marduk. The invasion of Babylonia by Cyrus was doubtless helped by the presence of foreign forced exiles like the Jews, who had been planted in the midst of the country.
One of the first acts of Cyrus was to allow these exiles to return to their own homes, carrying with them the images of their god and their sacred vessels. The permission to do so was embodied in a proclamation, whereby the conqueror endeavored to justify his claim to the Babylonian throne. The feeling was still strong that none had a right to rule over western Asia until he had been consecrated to the office by Bel and his priests; and accordingly, Cyrus henceforth assumed the imperial title of "King of Babylon."
Food
Like the Sumerians, the Babylonians ate vegetables, fruits, meat, and fish. They also ate bread and enjoyed toasting and eating the pesky but crunchy locusts which destroyed their precious crops.
Art and science
The Babylonians loved art. Beautiful vessels ornamented with sparkling gold were buried with the kings. In those days books dealt with floods which were thought to be caused by sin, or about the journey of Abraham.
Science, too, improved well: they invented the first calendar, the 60-minute hour, and the advance multiplication table.
Life was rich, full, and usually peaceful. People rarely thought about war or how to protect the city. As a result, Babylon was conquered in 730 BC by the Assyrians and Kassites. This great civilization then ended.
Related pages
Neo-Babylonian Empire
References
Mesopotamia
Former countries in the Middle East |
24323 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joachim%20von%20Ribbentrop | Joachim von Ribbentrop | Ulrich Friedrich Wilhelm Joachim von Ribbentrop ("von" was added only later) (30 April 1893 in Wesel – 16 October 1946 in Nuremberg) was the foreign minister of Germany from 1938 to 1945. He was executed by hanging for war crimes after the Nuremberg trials.
Drom 1936 to 1938, before the Second World War, he had been the ambassador to the United Kingdom.
Other websites
1893 births
1946 deaths
Executed German people
Executed Nazis
Ambassadors of Germany
German war criminals
Government ministers of Nazi Germany
Holocaust perpetrators
Members of the Reichstag (Nazi Germany)
People executed by hanging
People from Wesel
Politicians from North Rhine-Westphalia
Politicians of the Nazi Party
SS officers
German Lutherans |
24326 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noise | Noise | Noise is another word for sound. It usually means it is not wanted. Noise is perceived by our ears. They can be damaged by noise. Noise is created through any object, which produces vibration unnecessarily.
Noise can also mean data (information) that typically does not have a meaning, like white noise. Loudspeaker measurements can use white noise for measuring loudspeakers frequency response.
Noise can also refer to some math that makes random numbers. Click here to learn about it.
In electronics, heat produces noise in resistors. Depending on the type of resistor, the amount of noise may differ. Most audio devices are designed not to produce noise.
Related pages
Noise (electronics)
Earplug
Sound |
24328 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karma | Karma | Karma is a word meaning the result of a person's actions as well as the actions themselves. It is a term about the cycle of cause and effect. According to the theory of Karma, what happens to a person, happens because they caused it with their actions. It is an important part of many religions such as Hinduism and Buddhism. In Shinto (a religion often syncretised with Buddhism), Karma is interpreted as Musubi (むすび), a view of karma is recognized in Shinto as a means of enriching, empowering and life affirming.
In terms of spiritual development, Karma is about all that a person has done, is doing and will do. Karma is logically about punishment or reward. It makes a person responsible for their own life, and how they treat other people.
The "Theory of Karma" is a major belief in Hinduism, Ayyavazhi, Sikhism, Buddhism, and Jainism. All living creatures are responsible for their karma - their actions and the effects of their actions.
Definition
Karma is often misconstrued as the universal principle of cause and effect. Our actions, both good and bad, come back to us in the future, helping us to learn from life’s lessons and become better people. In religions that include reincarnation, karma extends through one's present life and all past and future lives as well.
Karma is basically energy. One person throws out energy through thoughts, words and actions, and it comes back, in time, through other people. Karma is the best teacher, forcing people to face the consequences of their own actions and thus improve and refine their behavior, or suffer if they do not. Even harsh karma, when faced in wisdom, can be the greatest spark for spiritual growth. The conquest of karma lies in intelligent action and unemotional response.
Supporting any action, with the claim, "I am doing it," is karma. Claiming doership of any action, binds karma. To support the action with the belief 'I am the doer' is called binding the karma. It is this support of the belief of 'doership' that binds karma. If you know that you are not the doer and are aware of who the true doer is, 'I am not the doer' and 'who is the doer' then the action will not have any support and the karma will be shed.
Examples of karma
The process of action and reaction on all levels—physical, mental and spiritual—is karma. One must pay attention to thoughts, because thought can make karmas—good, bad and mixed.
“I say kind words to you, and you feel peaceful and happy. I say harsh words to you, and you become ruffled and upset. The kindness and the harshness will return to me, through others, at a later time. Finally, what I give is what I get back.”
“An architect thinks creative, productive thoughts while drawing plans for a new building. But were he to think destructive, unproductive thoughts, he would soon not be able to accomplish any kind of positive task even if he desired to do so.”
Karma in Hinduism
Hindus look at time as a circle, as things cycle around again. Karma is a very just law which, like gravity, treats everyone the same. The law of karma puts man at the center of responsibility for everything he does and everything that is done to him. Understanding the way karma works, Hindus try to live a virtuous life. This is called dharma.
There are three types of karma in Hinduism:
sanchita karma, the sum total of past karmas yet to be resolved;
prarabdha karma, that portion of sanchita karma that is to be experienced in this life; and
kriyamana karma, the karma that humans are currently creating, which will bear fruit in future.
The role of divine forces
Karma is considered one of the natural laws of the mind, just as gravity is a law of matter. Just as God created gravity to bring order to the physical world, He created karma as a divine system of justice that is self-governing and infinitely fair. It automatically creates the appropriate future experience in response to the current action.
Several different views exist in Hinduism regarding the role of divine beings. In Hinduism, many see the deities or devas as playing some kind of role. Other Hindus, such as the Mimamsakas, reject such notions and see karma as acting independently, considering the natural laws of causation sufficient to explain the effects of karma.
Some interpretations of the Bhagavad Gita suggest an intermediate view, that karma is a law of cause and effect yet God can mitigate karma for His devotees. It is said in Bhagavad Gita that only the karma that is done with a sense of doership and with attachment to the karma could cause good or bad reactions. Karma that is done with an attitude of duty and without attachment to the results will not create any effect and will move one closer to God.
Another view holds that a Satguru, acting on God's behalf, can mitigate or work out some of the karma of the disciple.
Related pages
Just-World phenomenon is like Karma
References
Other websites
Karma as explained in the Buddhist Encyclopedia (buddhism.2be.net)
The Law of Karma (Heart of Hinduism)
What is Karma ? The Cause and Effect of Karma
Karma by American Buddhist monk Thanissaro Bhikkhu
Hinduism
Philosophy |
24338 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western%20hemisphere | Western hemisphere | The western hemisphere is a geographical term for the half of the Earth that is west of the Prime Meridian. Pretend that the earth is cut in half, from the North Pole, through England, to the South Pole. The Western Hemisphere is the half to the west. The other half is called the Eastern Hemisphere.
Related pages
The Americas
New World
Eastern hemisphere
Northern hemisphere
Southern hemisphere
Prime Meridian
References
Hemispheres |
24346 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molotov%20cocktail | Molotov cocktail | A Molotov cocktail, also known as a petrol bomb, fire bomb, or benzine torch, is a simple incendiary device. It is relatively easy to make and is used by irregular paramilitary forces and by rioters. It is also used for arson.
It was used for the first time in the Spanish Civil War between July 1936 and April 1939, but it became known as "Molotov cocktails" only during the Second World War.
Mechanism
A Molotov cocktail consists of a glass bottle partly filled with a flammable liquid. The liquid will typically be gasoline, alcohol, methanol or ethanol. The mouth of the bottle is closed with a cork or other type of tight sealing made of rubber, glass, or plastic, and a cloth rag is fixed securely around the mouth. The weapon is used by first soaking the rag in a flammable liquid immediately before using it, lighting the rag, and throwing the bottle at the target. The bottle breaks when it lands, spilling the flammable liquid over the target, which is then ignited by the burning rag.
Many substances may be added to the basic Molotov cocktail to enhance its use as a weapon. These include:
Substances that will ignite by themselves when hitting the target, for example White phosphorus
Substances that will help the liquid stick to the target, for example tar
Acid will help the penetration of non-flammable surfaces
Substances that will increase the explosive effect, for example gunpowder
Molotov cocktails are similar to napalm bombs in principle. Napalm was originally made by combining flammable naphthalene and petrol with a thickening agent palmitic acid. The latter two are the main ingredients of Molotov cocktails. When gasoline is used as the main ingredient, motor oil is commonly added to help the gasoline cling to the target.
Origin of name
The name "Molotov cocktail" is derived from Vyacheslav Mikhailovich Molotov, a Soviet politician. He was the People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs, or the Foreign Minister, of the Soviet Union.
During the early part of World War II, when Finland refused to surrender some land to the Soviet Union, the Soviets invaded it. The poorly equipped and heavily-outnumbered Finnish Army faced Red Army tanks in what came to be known as the Winter War. The army borrowed an improvised incendiary device from the 1936–39 Spanish Civil War. In that conflict, the Spanish Nationalists under the orders of General Francisco Franco had used the weapon against Soviet T-26 tanks. Those tanks helped the Spanish Republicans in a failed 1936 Soviet assault near Toledo, 30 km from Madrid.
When Molotov claimed in radio broadcasts that the Soviet Union was not dropping bombs but rather delivering food to the starving Finns, the Finns started to call the air bombs satirically "Molotov bread baskets". Soon they responded by saluting the advancing tanks with "Molotov cocktails." At first the term was used to describe only the burning mixture itself, but the term was soon applied to the combination of both the bottle and its contents. This Finnish use of the hand- or sling-thrown explosive against Soviet tanks was repeated in the subsequent Continuation War. Molotov cocktails were eventually mass-produced by the Finnish military, bundled with matches to light them.
These weapons saw widespread use by all sides in World War II. They were very effective against light tanks, and very bad for enemy morale. The following is a first-hand description of their effects, written during the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising in 1943:
The well-aimed bottles hit the tank. The flames spread quickly. The blast of the explosion is heard. The machine stands motionless. The crew is burned alive. The other two tanks turn around and withdraw. The Germans who took cover behind them withdraw in panic. We take leave of them with a few well-aimed shots and grenades.
During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, members of the Israeli Kibbutz Degania managed to stop a Syrian tank assault by using Molotov cocktails. They were frequently used against Soviet tanks with great efficiency in the Hungarian Revolution of 1956.
The weapon has been used against tanks effectively because of the conformation of parts of tanks, particularly around the undersides and fuel tank "entrances". A Molotov cocktail could blow up the fuel tank, destroying the machine, particularly for older (before 1940) tank models. Molotov cocktails are much more effective against gasoline engines than diesel engines' tanks. This is because diesel has a high flashpoint of 64 °C – making it more difficult to ignite compared to petrol. Some Soviet tanks actually had an entry to the gas tank on the side of the vehicle, which could be opened by combatants in close quarters, letting out the highly flammable liquid and making destruction of the tank even easier. These tactics are effective only inside a small space, where tanks cannot easily maneuver. In such conditions quick-moving enemies, armed with incendiary bombs, have a huge advantage.
Petrol bombs were widely used throughout the Troubles in Northern Ireland in riot situations, directed towards the RUC or the British Army. As well as occasional situations where they continue to be used against the PSNI and army, they are frequently used in sectarian attacks on homes and businesses by both communities. Fireworks and homemade grenades, known as blast bombs now commonly accompany petrol bomb attacks on the security forces.
Legal concerns
As such things can cause a lot of damage, and actually kill people, it is illegal in most countries to make or possess them. When they are used against property, this usually counts as arson. When they are used against people, the charges range from manslaughter to murder.
Given the recent terrorism laws, such things could also fall under anti-terror legislation.
Recent use
Ukrainians were using these to fend off Russian tanks late February 2022.
Molotov cocktails were put to use recently during the riotous 2005 civil unrest in France. Another situation with popularity for them is the Palestinian Intifada.
In Sydney, during the Cronulla Riots, rioters carrying Molotov cocktails were apprehended when they carried open bottles in a bus. The resulting smell of petrol alerted the driver, who in turn alerted the police.
During the Columbine High School massacre, the two gunmen built and threw several Molotov cocktails; however, none of them exploded. It is presumed that this was due to bottles being overfilled.
References
Other websites
La Unidad Italiana de Carros-Artillería, los T-26 Soviéticos y la Batalla de Seseña
Eyewitness reporting for the Zydowska Organizacja Bojowa|Żydowska Organizacja Bojowa (Jewish Fighting Organization), 1943-04-19
Other websites
A detailed technology of the Molotov cocktail
Incendiary weapons |
24347 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flammability | Flammability | Flammability or inflammability means that something can be set on fire easily. It will burn easily. The words come from Latin. The word at the base is in-flammare (late Latin). It means something like "to put fire to a thing".
Inflammable and flammable are used to mean the same thing. People sometimes get confused and think that inflammable means "not flammable" because the prefix in is often used to mean not. For example, something that is inhuman is not human. Since many people do not know that inflammable means "burns easily", flammable is used more often in public places as a warning.
Flammability can be tested. Paper, for example, is more flammable than wood, and less flammable than natural gas.
Thermodynamics |
24357 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arson | Arson | Arson is a crime. When someone deliberately sets fire to a building, vehicle, etc. they do not own and they want to cause damage, it is called arson. A person who commits arson is an arsonist. Arsonists usually use gasoline or kerosene to start a fire.
Arson
Types of crime |
24358 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocktail | Cocktail | A cocktail is a kind of mixed drink. Usually, it is made with alcoholic drinks such as vodka, gin or rum. Since such spirits do not have much taste of their own (at around 40% alcohol), other ingredients are added. Common ingredients are fruits, fruit juice, sugar, crushed ice, and ice cubes. If the cocktail is served in a bar or nightclub, it often comes with a piece of fruit on top. For example, a gin and tonic could have a lemon, a Piña Colada could have a pineapple and a cherry. A popular cocktail in Cornwall UK is the McVey, 440ml of strongbow and 125ml of Malibu.
Most cocktails were invented in the late 19th or early 20th centuries. People began drinking a lot of cocktails in the United States in the 1920s due to Prohibition. Around that time, cocktails from Cuba, such as the mojito, became popular around the world.
Cocktails made without alcohol are also made.
Because all the ingredients give their flavor to the finished drink, a cocktail is only as good as the worst ingredient.
Common cocktails
There are many kinds of cocktails. They include:
A martini is the most common cocktail. It is made with gin and vermouth, and served with an olive
There are many variations on a martini, which include a Gibson (martini with an onion instead of an olive), a Bronx (Martini plus orange juice), and an Appletini (made with apple liqueur instead of vermouth)
The old-fashioned is thought to be the first cocktail. It is made with whiskey, sugar, bitters, and soda water
A margarita is made with tequila, triple sec and lime juice. It came from Mexico, and is commonly served in Mexican cuisine.
A sidecar is similar to a margarita, but is made with cognac instead of tequila
A Manhattan is made with rye whiskey, vermouth, and bitters
If it is made with scotch, it is called a Rob Roy
A mojito is made with rum, lime juice, sugar, water and spearmint leaves.
A mint julip is similar to a mojito. It made with bourbon, sugar, water, and spearmint leaves. It is popular in the Southern United States, especially at the Kentucky Derby
A daiquiri is made with rum and lime juice. Like many popular cocktails, it came from Cuba.
A piña colada is an iced cocktail made with pineapple juice, coconut cream and rum. It came from Puerto Rico.
A bloody Mary is made with tomato and lemon juices, plus vodka. It is different not only because of its blood-red color, but because it is served with a pickle or celery.
References
Other websites
Wikibooks:Bartending for many recipes
Alcoholic drink |
24359 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1103 | 1103 |
Events
April 27 – Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury, goes into exile after falling out with Henry I of England
Amadeus III becomes Count of Savoy
Bohemund I of Antioch is released from imprisonment among the Turks
The Scandinavian city of Lund becomes a see within the Roman Catholic Church
Births
Emperor Toba of Japan |
24361 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sneeze | Sneeze | A sneeze is a reaction in the body that suddenly presses air out of lungs so it flows quickly out through the mouth and nose. Air and mucus (the liquid found in the nose) are forced out quickly. Sneezing often happens after breathing dust or other small things that irritate the membranes in the nose. The function of sneezing is to clean the space in the nose by removing the mucus and irritating things. Sneezing is mostly involuntary, which means that it happens without trying.
A sneeze consists of a deep inward breath that fills the lungs, a closing or partial closing of the throat, and a sudden increase in pressure in the lungs that forces air out. This increase in pressure is a result of muscles near the lungs that contract (tighten and shorten). Sneezing never happens during sleep because reflex signals do not pass to the part of the brain that causes muscles to move. When people sneeze, their eyes close. The speed of the air from sneezing is about 150 kilometers per hour or more.
Many animals sneeze, including human beings, cats, dogs, chickens and iguanas.
When a person sneezes, many small drops of saliva and mucus blow out from the nose and mouth. These tiny drops often contain viruses and bacteria. Some of these are germs, which can make other people sick. To keep this from happening as much, is important to block the sneezed air with something like cloth or tissue to catch the drops. It also helps to move away from other people, go outside, or face away.
A common thing to say to people when they sneeze is "Bless you!", or sometimes in the United States sometimes "Gesundheit!" (from German, meaning "Good health"). There is a story that the blessing started with Pope Gregory VII (540–604 AD). He said a blessing might stop people from getting the bubonic plague which was killing people in Rome at the time. There is a myth that when you sneeze your heart and all internal organs stop functioning.
The sound of a sneeze is written "achoo!" in English. Other languages write it differently. For example, in Swedish it is "atjoo!", in French it is "atchoum!" and in German it is "Hatschi!".
Some involuntary ways that people move air in or out of the lungs are: to sneeze, laugh, cough, hiccup, or yawn.
Related pages
Cough
References
Basic English 850 words
Physiology |
24365 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puma | Puma | Pumas (Puma concolor), also called cougars, mountain lions or brown panthers, are large wild cats that live in the western half of North America, along with Florida, and most of Central and South America. Pumas are mainly tan-color, and can be up to 9 feet long, although average length is 6 – 8 feet. They can weigh from 29 kilograms to 90 kilograms. (The males are larger.) Most pumas live up to 21 years. Although pumas are very large and some are larger than humans, the puma is classified as a small cat. That means that, in scientific terms, the puma is more closely related to the domestic cat than they are to lions. Unlike the big cats in the genus Panthera, the puma cannot roar. Instead, it can growl, hiss, screech, and purr. Since pumas are, in the biological sense, small cats, they are capable of purring continuously. The big cats can only purr while breathing out.
Pumas are carnivores because they eat only meat. Pumas are apex predators. They hunt deer, raccoons, squirrels, foxes, rabbits and skunks. They can also eat mice, beavers, coyotes, bobcats, birds, porcupines, cattle, goats, fish and bear cubs. They hunt at night. Cougars can see better at night than people can. They can hear well too. Pumas stalk their prey, which means they walk slowly and quietly, they hide and then when close, they jump or run fast to catch their prey by surprise. They live and hunt alone. Female cougars take care of their babies until they are old enough to take care for themselves. Baby cougars are called cubs or kittens.
Pumas live in the mountains and forests far from people. However, encounters with humans happen sometimes. 26 people have been killed by cougars in North America in the last 30 years. However, many more cougars have been killed by humans. Cougars used to be found all in eastern North America, but they were hunted to extinction there by the beginning of the 1900s. Also, recent sightings of cougars have been reported from Michigan, New Brunswick, southern Indiana, Kentucky, and Vermont. For now, the only confirmed, population of cougars east of the Mississippi River is in Florida, where a subspecies of the cougar called the Florida Panther lives.
School Mascots
Schools that have a cougar as their mascot include:
Brigham Young University (Cougars)
College of Charleston (Cougars)
Chicago State University (Cougars)
Eastern Illinois University (Panthers)
Florida International University (Panthers)
Georgia State University (Panthers)
High Point University (Panthers)
University of Houston (Cougars)
University of Northern Iowa (Panthers)
Pennsylvania State University (Nittany Lions)
University of Pittsburgh (Panthers)
Prairie View A&M University (Panthers)
Southern Illinois University Edwardsville (Cougars)
Washington State University (Cougars)
Alvarado Middle School (Cougars)
University of Sioux Falls (Cougars)
Related pages
Florida Panthers
Sources
Other websites
IUCN
Information on Pumas
Felines
Mammals of North America
Mammals of South America |
24370 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google%20Talk | Google Talk | Google Talk (also called Google Chat) was an instant messaging service that was offered by Google. It let users communicate by using texting and voice chatting. The service was sometimes called Gchat, Gtalk, or Gmessage by its users.
It is built on the XMPP platform. A web-based version was also available online.
References
Talk |
24372 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armour | Armour | Armour (or armor U.S.) is a protective covering or clothing to prevent injury from attack. Armour can be worn by a person, or it can be used to protect machines, animals, even buildings. Armour has always been made from the strongest materials available at the time, but weight has always been a problem. Early body armour was made from leather. Later, metals were used (e.g. mail or plate armour). Some modern armour, like bullet-proof vests, are made from plastics that do not stretch or break, such as Kevlar. These plastics may be woven into a cloth and used in layers, which makes them even stronger.
Plastic lamination (layers) is often used to protect windows against bullets. Many jewellery stores, embassies, and vehicles have bullet-proof glass with this feature.
For vehicles
Armour put on vehicles is usually made of metal and can include one layer over another with open spaces in between (spaced armour) or multiple layers of metal; ceramics (baked clay), and other materials. Another type of armour uses blocks of explosive that explode when another explosion goes off near it. This explosive armour protects by pushing against the other explosion. Vehicle armor is often angled to increase the amount of armour that must be shot through to get inside and to make the shot bounce off rather than piercing the armour.
Tanks have the heaviest armour of all land vehicles. Other military vehicles have armour, but not as much as a tank.
Sometimes armour is put in non-military vehicles, such as limousines used by leaders of a country or by anyone who thinks they might be attacked, e.g. film stars or presidents of major companies.
For animals
In the past, armour has also been used in wars to protect animals such as dogs, elephants, and horses. Today, police dogs and horses sometimes wear woven plastic bullet-proof vests.
For sports
Many sports involve violent physical contact and may be highly dangerous if the players are unprotected. Such sports include ice hockey, American football and kendo. Sports armour is usually made from hard plastic.
Military |
24374 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20Star%20Computers | North Star Computers | North Star Computers was one of the earliest manufacturers of microcomputers. Before they started making their first computer, the North Star Horizon, they made floppy disk drives for S-100 bus computers. They included a disk operating system called North Star DOS (or N*DOS). The Horizon used the North Star disk controller and operating system. It was one of the first microcomputers that had multi-user features.
Their second computer, called the North Star Advantage, ran CP/M, and had the keyboard and monitor built-in. The graphics were very powerful for their time. When the IBM PC came out, North Star made an MS-DOS compatible processor card that could be added to the Advantage.
Their third computer, the North Star Dimension, was multi-user like the Horizon, but MS-DOS based.
Because their products in the early 1980s were only MS-DOS compatible, not fully PC compatible, they never sold very many, and the company went out of business.
American technology companies
Companies based in the San Francisco Bay Area
1976 establishments in California
1985 disestablishments in the United States |
24377 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mario%20Bros. | Mario Bros. | Mario Bros. is a video game made in 1983. In the game, Mario and/or Luigi must defeat enemies by jumping on them from below and then kicking them, when they are knocked down. It is the first game to feature Luigi as a playable character as well as the first game in which Mario is named Mario. In Donkey Kong, Mario was called Jumpman. It was later remade for other game consoles at the time. Mario Bros. was also included with the four Super Mario Advance games.
Mario platform games
1983 video games |
24379 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oval | Oval | An oval is a shape. It is round but a bit longer in one direction.
An oval can look like an egg or an ellipse.
Shapes |
24382 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focus | Focus | Focus is a Latin word for hearth. In English it means many things.
Focus (geometry), one of the two points around which a conic section is built
Focus (optics), the bringing together of light rays by a lens
Ford Focus, a car
The hypocenter of an earthquake
The place where a nuclear explosion goes off |
24403 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipe%20organ | Pipe organ | The pipe organ is a keyboard instrument in which the sound is made by air blowing through pipes. A person who plays the organ is called an organist. The organist plays the instrument using both the hands and the feet. The hands play the keyboards (called manuals), while the feet play pedals which also make notes.
Organs have been made for many centuries. They are usually found in places for Christian worship such as churches and cathedrals, although they may also be found in places like town halls and concert halls or even large private houses. Very small organs can be called “chamber organs”. Organs in large churches, cathedrals or halls are very large instruments indeed, and are built especially for the building they are in. They are called “pipe organs” to distinguish them from modern “electronic organs”.
No two organs are ever quite the same, and they vary greatly from one country to another and one historical period to another. The information here is about organs from Europe, Great Britain and America.
How an organ works
A description of the organ
In a pipe organ, the musical notes are made by blowing air through pipes. Every organ must have pipes, something to blow the air and a way of controlling which pipes are played.
The pipes are made of metal or wood. They are lined up in rows in the "organ case" which can be as big as a room. The metal pipes are round tubes. They can be made of different types of metal, but the most common type is an alloy (or mixture of metals) of tin and lead called "spotted metal" because it has round shiny spots on it. This alloy makes pipes sound good as the harder tin provides clarity and definition while the softer lead produces tonal warmth. Very small pipes can sometimes be made of silver, like flutes. Some organs also have some pipes made of brass that sound like trumpets. Most organs have a lot of wooden pipes. The wooden pipes have four flat sides and make a sound different from that of the "spotted metal" pipes. They are not usually seen; they are neatly lined up behind the large metal pipes at the front of the organ which are sometimes painted with colours and patterns. All the pipes have to be made with an end that tapers at the bottom where the air blows in.
Each pipe can play only one note which depends on its size. The small pipes play high notes and the large pipes play low notes. Each pipe has its own special sound which depends on the material it is made from (whether it is wood or brass or spotted metal) and on the shape of the pipe. The pipes are arranged in "ranks" so that all the pipes of the same shape and material can be controlled to play a tune together, without all the others.
To blow air through the organ, there are boxes called "wind chests". When the organist is playing, he/she can see a little gauge that tells whether there is enough air. The wind chests can be kept full in two ways. The old-fashioned way is to have an enormous set of "bellows" (see the picture) which are pumped up and down by a person using a large handle. This sucks in air and fills the wind chest. Pumping the bellows of a large pipe organ is heavy work. For this reason, most organs nowadays have an electric motor and a large fan which fills the wind chest.
The organist uses keyboards like those on a piano to play the organ. A small organ may have just one keyboard, but many organs have two keyboards and a very big one may even have five. Organists do not call them keyboards; they call them "manuals". An organist will talk about "a four-manual organ" (which means it is a large one). The manuals are arranged on the organ "console", and the organist sits on a bench in front of the console to play. Apart from the manuals there are two other important parts of the console. There are a set of long wooden pedals which the organist can play with his/her feet. Each pedal plays a different note.
On either side of the manuals there are rows of "stops" which look like knobs. The stops can be pulled out or pushed in. When a stop is pulled out, it turns on some sets of pipes. The organist can choose whether to play loud pipes or soft pipes, flute-sounding pipes or brassy pipes, sweet pipes or harsh-sounding pipes. As the organist plays, he/she does not just have to think about the right notes. He/she also has to think about the sort of "voice" that the organ should play in. He/she can play different ranks of pipes together by pulling out several stops. Some pipes, usually the biggest decorated pipes at the very front of the organ, are used only for the grandest music. By tradition, these pipes are the symbol of the "Voice of God".
When the organist presses the keys of the organ, the sound comes from the air blowing through the pipes. This is because a valve (an opening with a one-way door) opens up to let the air into the pipe, and closes again when the organist stops pressing that key. This can happen in several ways. Traditional organs have what is called a "tracker action". The trackers are thin wooden rods and wires which move backwards and forwards, opening and shutting all the valves. They are worked by levers under the keyboard. A tracker action organ has to have the console right near the organ, usually under the big front pipes.
A more modern development was to have a "tubular pneumatic" action, in which the console could be away from the organ, but connected to it by tubes through which air could be pushed to open the valves. In the most modern pipe organs, the manual is connected to the organ pipes by electric wires. The power to open and shut the valves is controlled by electro-magnetic switches. The console does not have to be close to the organ. This makes it possible for the organist to sit in a position where he/she has good contact with the people in the church, or with other musicians.
The technical details
The manuals
A very small organ may only have one manual (keyboard). Most organs have at least two. In English and American Organs the lower manual is the main one and is called the Great. The upper manual is called the Swell because it operates pipes which are inside a “swell box” which has that can be opened or closed. This makes the music get louder or quieter (crescendo or diminuendo). The organist operates the swell box with a pedal which (rocks to and fro). It is in the centre just above the pedal board. On old English organs the swell box is operated by a lever at the side. This is quite difficult to use. Most of these have now been replaced by central swell boxes.
If there is a third manual, it is called the Choir in English-speaking countries. Originally the English called them “chair organs” because they were a separate instrument. The organist had to turn round and face the other way to play it. It is thought that the word "chair" gradually changed to "choir" because it was often used to accompany the choir. In German organs the third manual was called the “Positiv”. The name “Rückpositiv” (“back positive”) was used because the pipes were behind the organist’s back as he/she sat facing the main organ. These started to become popular again with organ builders in the 1950s when it was felt that the Romantic organ was not suitable for old music, and some organ builders started using Baroque principles again so that the music of composers such as Bach could sound like it used to. The Choir manual is nearest to the player, the Great is in the middle and the Swell is farthest away. The Choir or Positiv often contains soft stops which are suitable for accompanying the choir. On French organs from the late 19th century onwards, the three manuals are arranged differently: the Great (“Grande Orgue”) is nearest to the player, the “Positif” is the middle manual and is like a smaller version of the Great, and the Swell (“Recit”) is the top manual. This makes it easy for the organist to build up the music, getting louder gradually, by starting at the top and gradually coming down.
The fourth manual is called the Solo because the stops on this manual are used to play out the tune as a solo. This manual is even farther away from the player than the Swell. Large cathedral organs usually have four manuals. The Solo will probably have a very loud stop indeed called the “Tuba” or “Tuba Mirabilis”.
If there is a fifth manual it may be called the Echo because it has very quiet stops that echo. Alternatively, especially on American organs, it might be a Bombarde. The Bombarde usually contains loud, bold reed stops, including stops called 'Bombarde'. For instance: a State Trumpet or Pontifical Trumpet might be placed on this manual which can be heard above all the other stops playing. The Bombarde is borrowed from French Organs where it is a standard stop on nearly all the manuals and pedals. Having a Bombarde Manual is something of a luxury for an organist. It can be found, for example, on the organ of Westminster Abbey.
It is extremely unusual to have more than five manuals, but in America there are a few very large organs. The Wanamaker organ at Macy's store in Philadelphia has six manuals. The world’s largest organ is in the Atlantic City Convention Hall. It has seven manuals and over 33,000 pipes. However, the largest organ in the world does not work since it would be too expensive to run it.
Using the manuals
Having two or three manuals makes it possible to have quick changes of sound during a piece. The player can also play on two manuals at once: one with the left hand and one with the right. This is particularly useful to make a tune louder than the accompaniment (on a piano this can be done by pressing harder). The manuals can also be coupled together, for example, pulling out the “Swell to Great” stop will make all the sounds from the Swell come out on the Great as well. On an organ with mechanical action the keys of the Swell will be seen “playing by themselves” like a pianola, but on some older organs it can be hard work for the organist’s fingers when the manuals are coupled as it makes the action very heavy.
The pedals
The notes on the pedals are arranged like the notes on a keyboard, but are obviously much bigger. The player needs to learn to play by 'feel', otherwise he will have to spend all his time looking at his feet. He plays each note, either with the toe or the heel and either on the inside of the foot or the outside. The American and British Standard organ contains 30 notes giving a range of nearly 2 ½ octaves (C to F, or sometimes C to G: 32 notes). They are not quite in a straight line but fan out a little to make it easier to play (it is called a ", pedalboard"). In German and French organs and organs built before 1920, the pedalboard will be straight without any fan curvature to it. Many organists find that this makes it more difficult to play. Organists need a good pair of shoes: ones which have good narrow heels and preferably pointed toes. The soles need to be fairly slippery, but not too much, so that the player can slide the foot from one pedal to another. Organists usually like to keep a pair of shoes which are worn only for playing the organ so that the soles do not have grit or dirt from the street.
The stops
The stops on an organ console give different sounds, like the instruments of an orchestra, and have names which tell the organist what kind of sound they will produce. The stops are usually to the left and right of the organist and they are pulled out (“drawstops” or “pulls” because they are “drawn” i.e. pulled). Some organs have “tab stops” or “rocker stops” which are in front of the player and can be rocked forwards and backwards for on/off.
The stops of an organ can be divided into families.
The chorus stops are the foundation stops, the basic ones which are good for building up the big, solid sound. A diapason or principal is a chorus stop.
The flute stops sound like flutes in an orchestra. They are gentler than the diapasons and sound good for very quick and light music.
The reeds are stops like the oboe, clarinet, trumpet, fagotto, trombone. Each pipe has a reed inside. Their sound is very strong and nasal (like speaking through the nose).
The strings are quiet stops which sound like string instruments. These are stops like the violone and gamba.
There is another way of grouping the stops. Each stop will have a number underneath the name. The number may be 16, 8, 4, 2, 1 or even 2 2/3 or 1 3/5. If the number is 8 this is called an “eight foot stop”. This is the normal pitch: the note will sound as it is written, e.g. when playing Middle C the sound will be Middle C. A 4 foot stop will sound an octave higher than written, a 2 foot stop will be two octaves higher. A 16 foot stop will sound an octave lower than an 8 foot stop. 8 foot is therefore the normal pitch, and the others are added to it to make a larger, brighter sound. 16 foot stops are normal in pedal parts.
Mutation stops are stops in which a note does not sound a whole number of octaves above the normal pitch. Examples are the Tierce 1 3/5 (which sounds 2 octaves and a third above) and the Nazard or Twelfth 2 2/3 (one octave and a fifth).
Using the stops
An organist needs to learn which combinations of stops sound good together and how to balance them well. Each organ is different and has its own character.
The combination of stops that an organist chooses for a particular piece of music is called the “registration”. The list of all the stops that a particular organ has is called the “specification”. The specification of an organ shows the names of the stops for each of the manuals and for the pedals, as well as the list of couplers.
Organs also have buttons called “pistons” which help to change the registration in the middle of a piece. There are “toe pistons” operated by the feet, and “thumb pistons” which are placed just below each manual so that they can be pushed by the thumb while the fingers keep playing. Large organs often have “general pistons” which change any combination of stops across the organ. These are often be computerised so that players can set them up differently depending on the music they are going to play. If several players regularly use the instrument they can each have their own personal settings for the pistons which they can lock so that no one else can change them.
The pipes
Each stop controls a row of pipes, called a “rank”. Each rank makes a different sound (one row for the “diapason” sound, another row for the “flute”, another for the “trumpet” and so on). The stops control the air flow through the ranks. Some stops may control more than one rank. For instance, a Mixture stop of three ranks will have 182 pipes (3 ranks of 61 pipes each) and in some organs the Celeste is a 2 rank stop. The celeste pipes are tuned slightly sharper than the rest of the organ so that, when played together with another quiet stop such as the Salicional, there will be a pleasant throbbing beat because two pipes are slightly out of tune with one another. Organ Pipes are normally made of metal or wood. High quality metal organ pipes usually contain 75 percent tin or more, and the rest is lead. The Pipes are placed on windchests inside an "organ case" in a special room called an Organ chamber. A windchest is a box-like device which contains pallets that are opened and closed to admit air to a pipe so that it sounds. The pallets are operated by pull wires and rollers in the case of a tracker instrument but may also be operated by pneumatics or direct electric action using magnets.
There is always air being pumped into the windchest when the organ is switched on. In the days before electricity someone (an organ blower) had to pump the air into the windchest using bellows. This was hard work. Large organs would have needed more than one organ blower to do this job.
The history of the pipe organ
No other instrument has developed in such a wide variety of ways as the organ. If Bach, who lived in the early 18th century, had gone from his home in Germany to France, he would have found it impossible to play his music properly on French organs. If Couperin, who lived at the same time, had gone from his home in France to Germany, he would not have been able to play his music on the organs that Bach was using. Neither of them could possibly have played on an organ in England at the time. For one thing, English organs in the 18th century still had no pedals. This means that organists need to know a lot about what organs were like in other countries in other centuries in order to know what registrations to use when playing music by composers of the past.
The earliest organs
The earliest organs were water organs invented in Ancient Greece. The Romans used them in circuses and gladiator combats because they were loud. They were still popular in some countries a few hundred years ago, for example, in pleasure gardens.
The organ in the Middle Ages
In the Middle Ages large organs were built in the huge Gothic cathedrals in Britain. These instruments did not have different stops: all the ranks sounded at once. They were played by a slider mechanism. Only in the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries did they start to use a keyboard. The so-called Mixture Organ (or Blockwerk) still sounded several pitches at once. Very small organs called portatives (because they could be carried) were used in . Positives were a bit bigger and were used to accompany singing in the church. The Regal was like a portative but it had reeds and no pipes. It could be put on a table. The world's oldest organ is generally agreed to be the one built at Sion, Switzerland in the 15th century. the organ.
The organ in the Renaissance (about 1450-1600)
By about 1450, the organs that were being built in Germany and the Netherlands had two or three manuals and pedals. There were stops so that the player could choose which ranks he wanted to sound. The collection of pieces called the Buxheimer Orgelbuch (about 1470), is one of the first collections we have of organ music. French organs, too, were developing. In England, organs were quite small. Composers like John Bull, William Byrd and Orlando Gibbons wrote music for chamber organs. In the Netherlands Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck was a very famous organist and teacher.
The organ in the Baroque period (about 1600-1750)
The Baroque period was a great period for organ music in Germany. Organs there were built on the Werkprinzip (literally: work principle) which meant that each keyboard with its pipes was built separately, like two or three different organs, although they were played from the same console. Organs like these were built by the famous Arp Schnitger (1648-1719). Many famous German composers wrote organ music, especially Johann Pachelbel (1653-1709) in South Germany and (Dietrich Buxtehude) (1637-1707) in North Germany. The great composer Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) learnt from these composers and wrote some of the most famous organ music of all times. The great organ builder Gottfried Silbermann (1683-1753) lived during this time and built organs with a very beautiful tone. Instead of a keyboard called a Choir (or Chair Organ) he built an Oberwerk which was above the Hauptwerk (Great).
French organ builders at this time were very interested in colour (meaning: different sounds). Many stops had names like Cornet, Tierce and Prestant. When all the stops of the Principal chorus played together it was called the Plein jeux. This was like the medieval Blockwerk. All the reed chorus together was called Grand jeux. This would have sounded very loud and was used for dialogues and fugues. Composers included Nicolas de Grigny (1672-1703), Louis Marchand (1669-1732), Louis Nicolas Clérambault (1676-1749), Louis Claude Daquin (1694-1772) and François Couperin (1683-1733).
In England there was not much interest in developing the organ. It was used for accompanying the choir. There were no pedals. Pieces for organ were called voluntaries. Henry Purcell wrote a few organ pieces.
The organ in the Classical period: about 1750-1840
Organ composition reached a great peak in the work of J.S.Bach, but then people started to lose interest. Not many developments took place in organ-building during the Classical music period. Although Mozart played the organ and called it the “King of Instruments” he did not often write music for it. Among the organ builders at this time were Joseph and Claude-Ignace Callinet who built the organ at Notre-Dame's (St. Etienne, Loire) in 1837.
The organ in the Romantic period
The organ in 19th century Germany started to be used for imitating the sound of an orchestra. People also started to be interested in playing the music of J.S. Bach. Many Classical organs were re-built and sometimes they lost their original character. Organs in different countries started to sound the same.
Gradually, composers started writing for the organ again. Felix Mendelssohn (1809-1847) wrote some excellent sonatas and preludes and fugues which were inspired by Bach’s music and made other composers want to write organ music. Robert Schumann (1810-1856) and Franz Liszt (1811-1886) wrote for the organ and later in the century Max Reger (1873-1916) and Sigfrid Karg-Elert (1877-1933).
In France, the organ builder Aristide Cavaillé-Coll (1811-1899) was a real genius. His organs had lots of new ideas including the Barker lever (which made it easier to play on coupled manuals) and placing families of stops on to separate chests. Organists could change their registrations quickly, pushing in or pulling out the stops that they needed. Composers included César Franck (1822-1890), Charles-Marie Widor (1845-1937) and Louis Vierne (1870-1937). The last two wrote long works in several movements which they called Symphonies because they were full of colourful sounds like those in a symphony orchestra. There were usually three manuals called Grand, Positif and Récit placed in that order (with Grand nearest to the player). The Grand had warm foundation stops and big reeds (it was like combining the classical plein jeux and grand jeux). The Positif had string stops as well as a solo reed, and the Récit had lighter reeds.
In England, Samuel Wesley (1766-1837) wrote some important organ music inspired by J.S. Bach, and his son Samuel Sebastian Wesley (1810-1876) was influenced by Continental Romantic composers such as Mendelssohn. In 1851, the organ builder Henry Willis built a large organ for Crystal Palace Exhibition. It had three manuals and a pedal board. This set the standard in English organ building for the future.
The organ in the Twentieth century
During the 20th century organ builders became more and more interested in returning to some of the ideas of the Baroque and Classical periods. Many organs now have electric action, but a good mechanical action has the advantage that the player feels more close to the instrument that he is playing. Some large 20th century organs are able to play many kinds of organ music. Other 20th century organs were built as copies of Baroque or Classical instruments, but this means these instruments are mainly suitable for Baroque or Classical music, and are not well suited for music of the 19th and 20th centuries.
In the 19th century, many organs in England and America were placed in corners of churches where they could not be heard very well. In the 20th century, organ builders thought more about the best position for the organ, so that the sound would fill the main part of the church, the nave.
Among the most famous 20th century organ composers are Marcel Dupré (1886-1971), Jehan Alain (1911-1940) and Olivier Messiaen (1908-1992) in France, Paul Hindemith (1895-1963) in Germany, and Edward Elgar (1857-1934) and Herbert Howells (1892-1983) in England. The Czech composer Petr Eben (1929-2007) was one of the most important organ composers at the end of the 20th century, writing in an individual style.
The organ as an accompanying instrument
As well as the obvious use of the organ for accompanying church choirs and singing the organ has often been used to accompany instruments. In the Baroque period small organs were used to accompany solo instruments or small groups of instruments or orchestras. This kind of accompaniment was called continuo. Occasionally composers have written organ concertos in which the organ is the solo instrument and the orchestra accompanies. Handel wrote several of these. In modern times Francis Poulenc wrote an organ concerto. There is an important organ solo in Symphony no 3 by Saint-Saëns. Other orchestral works sometimes have organ parts. Organists have often made organ “transcriptions”, i.e. arranged music written for other instruments so that it can be played on the organ.
Related pages
Electronic organ
Water organ
Organ (music)
Organ tablature
Footnotes
References
“Organ” by Arthur Wills, London 1984 ()
Other websites
Pipedreams Listen to pipe organ music, organ pictures and other information
Sacred Classics Online radio program of pipe organ and choral music
The Pipe Organ
Organlive.com Listen to streaming pipe organ music from a library of more than 7700 tracks.
Keyboard instruments
Former good articles |
24413 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic | Celtic | The words Celt and Celtic can have many meanings.
Pronounced /kel-(tik)/:
Celt, either ancient or Modern Celts
Celtic languages, descending from the Proto-Celtic language, spoken by these people and their modern descendants
Celtic mythology
Celtici, Celts from ancient Lusitania (which is now Portugal). (See also Celtiberians for a Celtic people on the Iberian peninsula)
Irish music, folk music that started in "Celtic" cultures.
Celtic art, art from the "Celtic" culture
Celtic Christianity
Celtic calendar
The following should only be pronounced /selt(ik)/:
Boston Celtics professional basketball team
Celtic F.C. a football team in Glasgow |
24416 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manx%20language | Manx language | Manx, or Manx Gaelic, (known in Manx as "Gaelg" or "Gailck"), is a language spoken in the Isle of Man.
It is a Celtic languages of the Gaelic language family. It is in the same family as Scottish Gaelic and Irish Gaelic.
Manx is spoken mainly by people who learn it through interest. It died out as a natural community language in the 20th century. The last of the old native speakers died in 1974.
Manx is protected under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.
History
Manx was beginning to differ from Middle Irish in about 900–1600 AD, and it is called Yn Ghaelg / Yn Ghailck by Manx speakers. There became fewer and fewer Manx speakers during the 19th century and the language was replaced by English. In 1901, 9% of the people in the Isle of Man were said to speak Manx but in 1921 the number dropped to only 1%.
Today, Manx is used as the only language taught at five of the Isle of Man’s pre-schools. Manx is taught as a 2nd language at all of the Island's primary and secondary schools.
Manx today
There is now a school that teaches all of its lessons in Manx. The census of 2001 said that 2.2% of the population of the island could speak the language. There are currently 54,000 second language Manx speakers, mainly in the Isle of Man.
References
Celtic languages
Languages of Europe |
24417 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goidelic%20languages | Goidelic languages | The Goidelic languages or Gaelic languages are a group of Celtic languages. They are spoken in Scotland, Ireland and the Isle of Man.
There are three Goidelic languages:
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)
Irish (Gaeilge)
Manx (Gaelg)
Celtic languages
Languages of Europe |
24418 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manx%20cat | Manx cat | The Manx is a breed of domestic cat. It either has no tail at all, a "rumpy", or it has a very short tail, a "stumpy". This is because of a natural difference in spine length. The back legs are also longer than the front legs. The breed comes from the Isle of Man, where it was found as early as three hundred years ago.
The Manx's character is nervous. The Manx's appearance is round on the whole. They are skilled hunters.
Other websites
Cat breeds |
24428 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horn | Horn | Horn can mean several things:
Horn (anatomy), something some animals have on their heads
Horn (musical instrument)
A car has a horn on the steering wheel to warn people of danger.
Places
Horn, Switzerland, a place in Switzerland
Horn of Africa, a peninsula in East Africa
Basic English 850 words |
24429 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agave | Agave | Agave is a type of succulent plant from Mexico and the southwestern parts of the United States. They have thick, sharp leaves. Agave plants flower only once, produce seeds and then die. Before flowering they usually live for 10 to 25 years. Because they live for a long time they are sometimes called "century plants".
Agave is used to make things like tequila, agave syrup and pulque. They were an important food for many indigenous people in the southwestern United States, such as the Navajo and the Hokoham.
Images
Agavaceae |
24431 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple%20sauce | Apple sauce | Apple sauce (or applesauce) is a sauce made from stewed and mashed apples. Peeled or unpeeled apples can be used and different spices or additives like cinnamon can be used.
Sugar or high fructose corn syrup is often added to the applesauce to sweeten it. Applesauce can be fine or coarse textured, and can include large pieces of apple. It is easy to make at home, and it is also sold ready-made in supermarkets.
It is a common food or snack for children and people who have problems eating solid food. Parents often feed it to their babies because teeth are not needed to eat it.
In the United Kingdom, apple sauce is normally used as a sauce for ham, pork, and gammon.
Use and availability
Apple sauce was once a food prepared for winter, since it keeps well.
Apple sauce can be used in baking as a substitute for fat (such as butter or oil) or eggs.
References
Apple products
Sauces |
24432 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Richter | Charles Richter | Charles Francis Richter (April 26, 1900 – September 30, 1985) was an American seismologist (someone who studies earthquakes) and a physicist. He is known for creating the Richter scale of magnitude, which says how big an earthquake is.
Childhood
Richter went to work at the Carnegie Institute in 1927 after Robert Millikan offered him a position as a research assistant there, where he began a collaboration with Beno Gutenberg. The Seismology Lab at the California Institute of Technology wanted to begin publishing regular reports on earthquakes in southern California and had a pressing need for a system of measuring the strength of earthquakes for these reports. Together, Richter and Gutenberg devised the scale that would become known at the Richter scale to fill this need, based on measuring quantitatively the displacement of the earth by seismic waves, as Kiyoo Wadati had suggested.
Other websites
Charles Richter interview, at USGS
Charles F. Richter Papers, Caltech Archives
1900 births
1985 deaths
American physicists
Scientists from Ohio |
24433 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1104 | 1104 |
Events
September 3 – St. Cuthbert reburied in the Durham Cathedral
The Venice Arsenal, is founded in Venice.
Alfonso I of Aragon becomes King of Aragon and Navarre.
Historian Guibert of Nogent becomes abbot of Notre Dame de Nogent.
Baldwin I of Jerusalem captures Acre.
Baldwin II, count of Edessa, is taken prisoner by the Seljuk Turks at the Battle of Harran; Tancred becomes regent.
Kilij Arslan I, Sultan of Rüm, starts a war with the Danishmends. |
24437 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20II%20of%20England | Charles II of England | Charles II (29 May 1630 – 6 February 1685) was king of England, Ireland, and Scotland from 1649 to 1685. His father was Charles I, who was executed after losing a war with Parliament.
Early life
Prince Charles was the king's eldest son. As a little boy, he was made Prince of Wales as a sign that he would one day be king.
By the time he grew into a young man, his father was already at war with Parliament in the English Civil War.
Prince Charles did not take much part in the fighting. His mother, Henrietta Maria, was French, and she took her children to France when the war broke out, to keep them safe.
Prince Charles was only eighteen when he heard that his father was dead.
This made him King, and he started calling himself King Charles II immediately. However, Parliament was still in control of Britain and would not let him take his throne because after Charles I's execution, Oliver Cromwell became the Lord Protector of Britain from 1653-1658.
The King's escape
In 1651, Charles II returned to Britain and fought Parliament at the Battle of Worcester.
He was defeated, but is supposed to have escaped by hiding in an oak tree.
Later, he was forced to disguise himself as a servant. A young lady called Jane Lane helped him to escape, and he sailed to the Netherlands to re-join his supporters. He kept his own royal court there until 1660.
The Restoration
While Charles was in Holland, Britain was being ruled by Oliver Cromwell, an extraordinary man who had no title, but many followers. He was chosen as leader of the country by Parliament. When Cromwell died in 1658, his son Richard was chosen to be the next leader.
Richard Cromwell was not the man his father had been. Charles II was asked to come back and rule Britain. In 1660, Charles II was brought back to Britain and took his throne. This was the English Restoration.
Many of his enemies were punished for having executed his father and fought against him, but Richard Cromwell was allowed to go and live quietly away from London.
Charles was popular and was called "The Merry Monarch" because he changed many laws that Cromwell had made and allowed people more freedom to enjoy themselves.
He liked to go to the theatre, play cards, and enjoy sports such as horse racing.
Some people thought that a king should be more serious and not spend so much time and money on fun.
There were also some people who did not like King Charles II because of his religious beliefs. He had been brought up by his mother, who was Roman Catholic, while most people in the country were Protestant.
He married a princess from Portugal, Catherine of Braganza. They did not have any children, but Charles refused to divorce Catherine. Before he was married, he had several girlfriends and lovers, and even after he was married, he went on having lovers, who were called mistresses.
The most famous was an actress called Nell Gwyn. Several of Charles's lovers had babies. However, none of these children were allowed to follow Charles as king because they were bastards, meaning that they had been born to parents who were not married to each other.
The most popular of Charles II's children was James Scott. Charles gave him the title Duke of Monmouth. James's mother had been Charles's girlfriend when he was living in Holland, and some people said that they had been secretly married. If this had been true, then James would have been allowed to be king when Charles died. There were many who wanted this to happen, because they did not like the thought of Charles's younger brother being the next king. This brother, who was also called James, was a Roman Catholic and was not popular.
Charles II died quite suddenly of an illness, and his son James, Duke of Monmouth, started a rebellion in the hope of becoming the next king. He was defeated by the royal army, which supported Charles's brother James. The Duke of Monmouth was executed by having his head chopped off, and Charles's brother became the next ruler, King James II.
Children
By Marguerite or Margaret de Carteret
Letters claiming that she bore Charles a son named James de la Cloche in 1646 are dismissed by historians as forgeries.
By Lucy Walter (c.1630–1658)
James Crofts, later Scott (1649–1685), created Duke of Monmouth (1663) in England and Duke of Buccleuch (1663) in Scotland. Ancestor of Sarah, Duchess of York. Lucy Walter had a daughter, Mary Crofts, born after James, but Charles II was not the father.
By Elizabeth Killigrew (1622–1680), daughter of Sir Robert Killigrew, married Francis Boyle, 1st Viscount Shannon in 1660
Charlotte Jemima Henrietta Maria FitzRoy (1650–1684), married the 2nd Earl of Yarmouth
By Catherine Pegge
Charles FitzCharles (1657–1680), known as "Don Carlo", created Earl of Plymouth (1675)
Catherine FitzCharles (born 1658; she either died young or became a nun at Dunkirk)
By Barbara Villiers Palmer (1641–1709), wife of Roger Palmer, 1st Earl of Castlemaine created Duchess of Cleveland in her own right
Anne Palmer (Fitzroy) (1661–1722), Countess of Sussex, married Thomas Lennard, 1st Earl of Sussex. She may have been the daughter of Roger Palmer, but Charles accepted her anyway.
Charles Fitzroy (1662–1730) created Duke of Southampton (1675),
became 2nd Duke of Cleveland (1709)
Henry Fitzroy (1663–1690), created Earl of Euston (1672), Duke of Grafton (1675), also 7 Greats-Grandfather of Diana, Princess of Wales
Charlotte Fitzroy (1664–1717). She married Edward Lee, 1st Earl of Lichfield.
George Fitzroy (1665–1716), created Earl of Northumberland (1674), Duke of Northumberland (1678)
Barbara (Benedicta) Fitzroy (1672–1737) – She was probably the child of John Churchill,
later Duke of Marlborough, who was another of Cleveland's many lovers, and was never acknowledged by Charles as his own daughter.
By Nell Gwyn (1650–1687)
Charles Beauclerk (1670–1726), created Duke of St Albans (1684)
James, Lord Beauclerk (1671–1680)
By Louise Renée de Penancoet de Kérouaille (1649–1734), created Duchess of Portsmouth in her own right (1673)
Charles Lennox (1672–1723), created Duke of Richmond (1675) in England and
Duke of Lennox (1675) in Scotland. Ancestor of Diana, Princess of Wales, Camilla, The Duchess of Cornwall,
and Sarah, Duchess of York.
By Mary 'Moll' Davis, courtesan and actress of repute
Lady Mary Tudor (1673–1726), married Edward Radclyffe, 2nd Earl of Derwentwater; after Edward's death, she married Henry Graham, and upon his death she married James Rooke.
Other probable mistresses:
Christmastime Wyndham
Hortense Mancini, Duchess of Mazarin
Winifred Wells – one of the Queen's Maids of Honour
Jane Roberts – the daughter of a clergyman
Elizabeth Berkeley, née Bagot, Dowager Countess of Falmouth – the widow of Charles Berkeley, 1st Earl of Falmouth
Elizabeth Fitzgerald, Countess of Kildare
References
Notes
1630 births
1685 deaths
House of Stuart
Kings and Queens of Scotland
17th century in Europe |
24438 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crunk | Crunk | Crunk is a sub-genre of hip hop music that started in the clubs of Memphis, Tennessee in the mid-1990s. The word 'crunk' is the past tense version of the word 'crank' as in "crank the music up". It can also be used as an adjective. It is a mixture of Miami bass, Southern rap, and electronica with a lot of yelling and chanting. Lil Jon is the most popular crunk artist, and his song 'Get Low' with the Ying Yang Twins is the song that made crunk music mainstream. After this song came out, crunk became a really popular style of music and it saw it's heyday in the mid-2000s, but it eventually started to fade away and disappear, being replaced with trap music in the 2010s.
Hip hop genres |
24439 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pimp | Pimp | A pimp is a person who makes money from other people prostituting themselves. Usually, the prostitutes make money for themselves, but the pimp takes a percentage of the money in exchange for providing them with security and other services. Pimps has gotten connected to a special look, often a male with fancy and colorful clothes with gold accessories.
Pimps has been portrayed in many movies, such as Taxi Driver where the pimp is called "sport"
References
Prostitution |
24447 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan%20Kardec | Allan Kardec | Allan Kardec (Hippolyte Léon Denizard Rivail 3 October 1804 31 March 1869) was a French philosopher and teacher.
Works
He dedicated the last 15 years of his life to organise a philosophical doctrine called Spiritism. He spread the educational ideas of Pestalozzi in the 19th century. He published books on grammar, mathematics and suggestions for the improvement of public education in France. He was a teacher of physiology, astronomy, physics and chemistry. The classes were at his home in Paris.
In 1854, Kardec started studying phenomena which some people call "paranormal" or "supernatural". This were quite common at that time.
In his philosophy the spiritual manifestations were useful to the social and moral improvement of men.
Other websites
Allan Kardec Educational Society
ALLAN KARDEC: spiritisme, spiritism...
Allan Kardec Biographic Information
The Spirits' Book by Allan Kardec
Le Livre des Esprits (PDF file)
The Book on Mediums by Allan Kardec (PDF file)
The Gospel According to Spiritism by Allan Kardec (PDF file)
1804 births
1869 deaths
Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery
French esotericists
Occultists
People from Lyon
Teachers
19th-century French philosophers
Deaths from aneurysm
Disease-related deaths in France
French educators
French writers
Parapsychology
Pseudonyms |
24451 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyves | Hyves | Hyves is a website where people can have contact with friends online. It can be used to make new friends or to stay in touch with old friends. It was started in 2004 and has over 9 million users; most of them are Dutch. That is the reason why it is very popular in the Netherlands.
Pictures and videos can be put and shared on it. Hyves is similar to Facebook or the German VZ Networks.
Link
http://www.hyves.nl
Social networking |
24453 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex%20organ | Sex organ | The sex organs, which scientists call the genitalia or genitals, are the parts of the body that allow sexual reproduction (the making of young) to take place. They are also for urination (peeing), to remove waste products from the body. While all animals have sex organs, this article is about the sex organs of human beings.
The genitals are the main parts of the human body that make men and women different. Some parts of the genitals are outside the body, while other parts are inside. In a man, his external genitals are the penis and the scrotum (a bag that contains the testicles). Inside his body the testicles produce sperm and a substance called testosterone which makes a person grow into a man and to feel like a man. Other glands produce a fluid called semen. The part of a woman's genitals that is outside her body is called the vulva. Inside her body are the vagina, which holds the penis during sexual intercourse; the uterus (womb), in which a baby grows when the woman is pregnant; the ovaries, which produce ova (egg cells) and a substance called estrogen which makes a person grow into a woman and to feel like a woman; and the Fallopian tubes, which connect the ovaries to the uterus.
Many human societies are prudish about genitals. This prudery has resulted in public indecency laws which makes it a crime for genitals to be left uncovered in public except in special places called nudist colonies.
Summary
If a man and a woman want to reproduce sexually, they have to engage in sexual intercourse. This involves placing the man's erect penis into the woman's vagina. The vagina rubs and puts pressure on the penis, which makes the man have an orgasm. During his orgasm the man ejaculates, and his semen flows into the woman. If a sperm in the semen reaches the woman's Fallopian tubes and fuses with an ovum, this causes the woman to become pregnant. A man and woman can also have sexual intercourse for pleasure, without wishing to have a baby. Men and women, and gay couples (two women or two men) can also use their sex organs in other ways for pleasure.
Description
The sex organs are the parts of the body that allow sexual reproduction (the making of young) to take place. They are also for urination (peeing), to remove waste products from the body. All animals have some kind of sex organs. This article is about the sex organs of human beings. In humans, the sex organs are in the lower abdomen, at the part of the body where the legs join the torso.
The scientific name for the sex organs is genitalia or genitals. They are also commonly called the reproductive organs. The genitals include both organs that can be seen on the outside of the body (the primary genitalia or external genitalia), as well as internal organs (the secondary genitalia or internal genitalia). Sometimes, however, the words genitalia or genitals are used to refer only to the external sex organs. The sex organs are informally referred to as the private parts or privates.
Males and females have different sex organs. In fact, the genitals are the main parts of the human body that make men and women different.
Men
A man's genitals are made up of many parts. The parts that can be seen on the outside of a man's body are his penis, which is shaped like a banana or a sausage; and his scrotum, which is a bag that hangs beneath the penis and contains the two testicles. A man's penis may be circumcised.
Inside a man's body, the testicles make tiny cells called sperm, which are needed for sexual reproduction. The testicles also make a hormone called testosterone. This is a chemical that makes a person grow into a man and feel like a man. The testicles are glands, which are special parts of the body that make chemicals. Other glands that make up the genitals are the prostate, seminal vesicles and bulbourethral glands (also called the Cowper's glands). Together, these glands make a white, sticky fluid called semen that sperm float in. Finally, a man's body contains ducts (tubes) such as the two vasa deferentia or ducta deferentia, which carry sperm out of the testicles; and the urethra, which carries semen through the penis and out of the body. The urethra also carries urine away from the bladder.
In reproduction the job of the penis is to carry sperm from the testicles into a woman's body so that a sperm can join together with the woman's ovum (egg cell) to form a new cell that will grow into a baby. The process of fusion of a sperm and an ovum is called fertilization.
A man's penis is usually soft, quite short and hangs down. When a man becomes aroused (sexually excited), the inside of his penis fills with blood. This causes the penis to become bigger, thicker and harder and to stand upright, and is called having an erection. When a man has an erection, he is able to have sexual intercourse by putting his penis into a woman's vagina. During an erection, a valve stops urine from entering the urethra so that only semen flows along it. This is why it is very difficult for a man to urinate when he is having an erection.
Young boys can have erections, but their bodies do not start producing sperm until they have reached puberty. This usually happens when they are in their teens.
Women
The part of a woman's genitals that is on the outside of her body is called the vulva. The main parts of the vulva are two sets of fleshy "lips" called the labia. The outer labia can be seen at the front of the woman's body. On an adult woman, they are generally covered with some hair. Between the outer labia are the inner labia which do not have hair and are very sensitive. At the front of the inner labia is the outside part of the clitoris which is covered by the clitoral hood. During sexual intercourse, the clitoris gives feelings of pleasure to the woman.
Most of a woman's genitals are tucked inside her body. Behind the labia is a tube called the vagina, which cannot be seen on the outside of the body. (People often incorrectly use the word vagina to refer to the vulva.) When a man and a woman have sexual intercourse, the man's penis is placed into the woman's vagina. When a woman menstruates (has her menstrual period), blood and other fluid from the uterus pass out from her body through the vagina. If a woman uses a tampon (a specially-made wad of material) to absorb this fluid, she puts it into her vagina. The vagina is also called the birth canal, because when a pregnant woman has a baby, it passes through the vagina.
Like a man, a woman has a tube called the urethra connecting the bladder to the vulva through which urine is removed from the body. The opening of the urethra is between the clitoris and the opening to the vagina.
In many women, the opening of the vagina is partly or completely blocked by a thin tissue called the hymen. Some women are born without a hymen. The hymen usually breaks when a woman has sexual intercourse for the first time, that may cause or not some bleeding depending particularly on each woman. In some cultures, a broken hymen is taken as a sign that a girl has had sex. However, a broken hymen is not a clear sign of sexual intercourse because other activities such as exercise can also cause the hymen to break. In some women, the hymen may remain unbroken even after sex.
At the top of the vagina is the cervix which is a ring of muscle separating the vagina from the uterus or womb. The cervix allows menstrual fluid to flow from the uterus into the vagina, and during sexual intercourse it allows semen from a man's penis to flow from the vagina into the uterus. The uterus is a very muscular and stretchy organ in which babies grow during pregnancy. When a woman is not pregnant, each month the lining of the uterus grows thicker, then breaks down, causing her to menstruate. Connected to the top of the uterus are two Fallopian tubes, on the left and right. These tubes join the uterus to the two ovaries. The ovaries produce ova, or egg cells, that are needed for reproduction. Each month, an ovum travels from one of the ovaries into a Fallopian tube. If, after the woman has had sexual intercourse with a man, the ovum fuses with a sperm and implants in the wall of the uterus, the woman will become pregnant. The ovaries also produce the female hormone estrogen which causes a person to grow into a woman and to feel like a woman.
Young girls do not start producing ova and menstruating until they have reached puberty. Like boys, this usually happens in their teens. Once a woman starts menstruating, she is capable of becoming pregnant.
Reproduction, sexual intercourse and masturbation
The sex organs or genitals are used for sexual reproduction and for sexual intercourse. For sexual reproduction to happen, a man and a woman need to have sexual intercourse with each other. A man's penis becomes erect when he is aroused, for example when he sees a naked woman or is touched by her. When a woman is aroused, her clitoris and vulva also swell, and the inside of her vagina produces mucus, a substance that makes it slippery. To reproduce, the man places his penis inside the woman's vagina and moves it in and out (a movement called thrusting), while the woman moves her hips back and forth, or in a circular motion. The friction caused by this movement, together with the warmth and pressure of the vagina, causes the man to have pleasurable feelings in the penis. As intercourse continues, these feelings grow stronger and stronger until the man reaches a sexual climax called an orgasm. At this point, the man's penis spasms and then contracts strongly again and again to push semen through the urethra. The semen then ejaculates or shoots out from the end of the penis into the woman's vagina. The woman may also have an orgasm, which causes the vagina to tense up and relax repeatedly. Scientists are not sure why women have orgasms. Some believe that the orgasm helps the sperm in the man's semen to swim up the vagina into the cervix, so that it is more likely that a sperm cell will fuse with an egg cell. Others think that the female orgasm causes the vagina to grip the penis more tightly, which makes sex more exciting for the man and causes him to ejaculate more quickly or to produce more semen; or that it encourages a woman to have sex more often as it feels good. Both of these events would make pregnancy more likely to happen. After the man has ejaculated, the blood flows out of his penis and it becomes smaller and soft again.
Sometimes, a man and a woman may have sexual intercourse because it gives them pleasure, without wishing for the woman to become pregnant. They may try to stop fertilization from happening by using methods of contraception or birth control. Common methods of birth control include the man wearing a condom on his penis, and the woman taking birth control pills that stop her ovaries from releasing egg cells.
Apart from the man putting his penis into the woman's vagina, the sex organs can be used in other ways in sexual intercourse. The man and woman can rub each other's sex organs with their hands. They can use sex toys such as dildos or vibrators. They can also engage in oral sex. When a person uses his or her mouth, lips and tongue to touch a woman's clitoris and vulva, this is called cunnilingus. When a person uses his or her mouth, lips, and/or tongue to touch a man's penis, this is called fellatio. A man or a woman (using an strap-on dildo or harness) can also put the sexual organ into a person's anus, this is called anal sex.
People who are gay or homosexual also use their genitals to have sexual intercourse with each other. Two women can rub each other's sex organs, put sex toys into them, or perform oral sex on each other. Two men can also rub each other's sex organs, or perform oral or anal sex on each other.
When a man strokes his own penis or a woman rubs her clitoris and vulva in order to feel good or to reach orgasm, this is called masturbation.
Urination
The sex organs are also used for urination, which is one of the ways in which the body removes waste products. Both men and women have a bladder, which is an organ that stores urine. In a man, a thin tube called the urethra passes from his bladder right through his penis. In a woman, the urethra opens into the vulva. When a person urinates, urine flows from the bladder through the urethra and out of the body.
Additional images
References
Further reading
Reproductive system |
24459 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurence%20Olivier | Laurence Olivier | Sir Laurence Kerr Olivier, Baron Olivier, (22 May 1907 – 11 July 1989) was an English actor. He was one of the most famous and revered actors of the 20th century. He was the youngest actor to be knighted and the first to be raised to the peerage. Olivier married English actresses Jill Esmond, Vivien Leigh and Joan Plowright.
Actor Spencer Tracy said that Olivier was 'the greatest actor in the English-speaking world'. In 1999, the American Film Institute named Olivier among the Greatest Male Stars of All Time, at number 14 on the list.
Olivier had many awards: twelve Oscar nominations, with two wins (for Best Actor and Best Picture for the 1948 film Hamlet), plus two honorary awards including a statuette and certificate. He was awarded five Emmy Awards. He was a three-time Golden Globe and BAFTA winner. In 1976 he received the BAFTA Academy Fellowship Award, a lifetime achievement award.
Olivier's ashes are buried in Westminster Abbey.
References
1907 births
1989 deaths
Actors from Surrey
Deaths from renal failure
Disease-related deaths in England
English movie actors
English stage actors
English television actors
English theatre directors
Knights Bachelor
Order of Merit
People buried in Westminster Abbey
United Kingdom Life Peers
Academy Award winning actors
Emmy Award winners
Golden Globe Award winners
BAFTA Award winners |
24462 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiritism | Spiritism | Spiritism is a doctrine promoted by the French professor Allan Kardec. His first two books were:
The Spirits' Book — Defines the guidelines of the doctrine, covering points like God, Spirit, Universe, Man, Society, Culture, Morals and Religion.
The Mediums' Book — Details the mechanics of the spiritual world, the processes involved in channeling spirits, techniques to be developed by mediums, etc.
Other characteristics ideas of his were:
Promoting the dialog between the three classical forms of knowledge (science, philosophy and religion) for achieving a more complete comprehension of the reality;
Submitting the fundamental points of the religious systems to a critical and empirical exam, for separating fantasy and reality. This way, men can avoid materialism and dogmatism at once, being critical and spiritual.
Emphasizing human power and responsibility for acting, creating and changing the world around.
Although Kardec claimed it was distinct, spiritism is similar to spiritualism. Kardec's books were based on reporting séances in which he claimed to observe phenomena which he attributed to incorporeal intelligence (spirits). Arthur Conan Doyle included a chapter about Spiritism in his book History of Spiritualism. This said that Spiritism is Spiritualist (but not vice-versa). As a consequence, many Spiritualist works are widely accepted in Spiritism, particularly the works of scientists Sir William Crookes and Oliver Lodge.
Other websites
The Spirits' Book by Allan Kardec (PDF file)
The Sator Formula engraved on a human skull
References
New religious movements
Occult |
24488 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexa | Alexa | Alexa is an Internet service that measures how many Internet users visit a website. At Alexa.com, people can enter a website address and Alexa will show them how well-visited the website is. It can also tell them how its popularity has changed over time.
Alexa has 6 million unique visits monthly.
Alexa was created in 1996 by American businessman Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat.
In 1999, Alexa was bought by Amazon.com for about US$250 million in Amazon stock.
Alexa provides a free API that is used by services and toolbars all around the world to easily display Alexa Rating.
Some virus companies mark Alexa toolbar as adware (McAfee), trackware (Symantec) and potentially unwanted Program.
Alexa is an Alphabet service that measures how many Internet users visit a website.
Sources
Other websites
Alexa
Websites
Amazon (company) |
24489 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poodle | Poodle | A poodle is a breed of dog. Poodles are one of the smartest dogs. Miniature and toy poodles are two sizes. The original poodle is the Standard poodle. Miniature and toy poodles are not related to Standard poodles. They don't share DNA. If the owner does praise it, it will start liking the owner even more, and doing things for the owner. Many people that own them show them at dog shows. Poodles were once used as hunting and sporting dogs, but now they are mostly pets. Poodles only have one coat, other dogs are known to have double coats. Poodles do not shed their fur as some dogs do, so they are good pets for people who are allergic to dogs. The hair of a poodle grows much quicker than that of a full-grown dog. One exciting aspect of the poodle hair is that it is capable of changing color. From research conducted, it is safe to say that the hair growth of a poodle is flanked by half an inch to one inch in 30 days. Just like every other dog hair, poodles also have issues with their hair. The biggest problem associated with poodle hair is that it has a habit of becoming thin and falling off its body. However, this happens mostly in female poodles whenever they are experiencing hormonal flow or heat.
Types of Poodle Hair
Puppy Clip - This is more of a natural type of hair common in an adolescent poodle. It begins to grow right from their birth prior to maturity when they hit one year.
Puppy Coat - A poodle will continue to grow puppy coat until it reaches one year. When this type of hair is growing, it will always be soft straight, and thin but will start growing curly when they grow much older.
Improper Coat - They are not curly in nature and will, in most cases, show soft waves in spots. Improper coats can be brushed easily but have problems in show.
Corded Coat - This is not commonly seen in poodles. A corded coat is an instance where a poodle’s hair grows to the extent of a long and rough dreadlock.
Continental Clip - This type of poodle has its rear and back legs shaved. They are a very tough dog to maintain.
English Saddle Clip - This is similar to a continental clip, only that this one has its rear and back legs cut into a series of pom-poms. They do not cut the hairs at the back of their tails. English Saddle are also very difficult to maintain.
Problems Associated With Poodle Hair
Alopecia X - Alopecia X is known as a balding disorder that happens as a result of growth hormone problems while a poodle grows to become an adult. A poodle’s change to adulthood is capable of leading to a loss of hair on its body. Poor breeding habits simply cause this condition and it is regarded as a cosmetic problem.
Castration responsive dermatosis - This issue is associated with uncommon loss of hair that happens in young male poodles. Also, this condition is linked with castration responsive because it has some connection to the poodle’s hormone. The recommended way of treating this condition in poodles is by Neutering. In fact, this condition is also likely to happen in female poodles.
Allergies - A few poodles have some allergies that prevent them from coming in contact with shampoos because it tends to cause difficulty in their eyes and skin. An allergy in a poodle will lead to non-stop itching that will see a poodle scratching out its hair, and this could also result in sores. To prevent this, make sure your poodle is away from any of its allergies.
Colors
Poodles are also popular because they come in many different colors and sizes. Their coats are most often white or black; but can be apricot, dark gray, called "blue"; and other colors. There are also some rare colors, such as chocolate brown, and brindle. In Japan, apricot color is the most liked.
Sizes
Poodles are bred in many different sizes. The four main sizes from largest to smallest are Standard, Miniature, Medium and Toy. There are also other sizes, like the very small Teacup, that are not official. This means that these other sizes cannot be part of professional dog shows.
Standard - This is the original size. This height is from 35 to 45 cm, weight is from 15 to 19 kg.
Miniature - This size was downsized from standard size for circus dogs. This height is from 28 to 35 cm,weight is from 8 to 15 kg.
Medium - This size is not accepted in some countries. This height is from 35 to 45 cm, weight is from 8 to 15 kg.
Toy - This size was downsized from miniature size for breeding as pets. This height is from 26 to 28 cm, weight is also 3 kg.
Military working dogs
Poodles have been used as working dogs in the military for several centuries. During World War II, it was thought that this breed of dog could become helpers during the war. So, poodles went through training by the United States Army for special tasks. In 1942, the poodle was one of 32 breeds officially ranked as war dogs by the Army.
Cuts
It is the poodles main style to left hair of the chest and ankles in order to protect heart and joints from cold waters and cut others in order to reduce the resistance of the water. Now, poodles hair styles have more variations. In Japan, the "teddy bear cut" is most popular. This style lets the whole body have roundness like a teddy bear.
References
Dog breeds |
24492 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish%20language | Irish language | Irish, Irish Gaelic, or Gaeilge is a language spoken in the Republic of Ireland and (less commonly) in Northern Ireland. Irish is a Celtic language. This means that Irish is similar to Scottish Gaelic, Breton, Cornish, Manx Gaelic and Welsh. Many people who speak Irish can understand some Scottish Gaelic, but not Welsh, because the Celtic languages are divided into two groups. One group is called the p-Celtic languages and the other is called the q-Celtic languages. Irish and Scottish Gaelic are q-Celtic languages and Welsh is a p-Celtic language. Irish has no "yes" or "no" words.
There were great poets who wrote in Irish. Their poems became the songs of the people. People told stories about the heroes of old times. Many of the poems were about them.
Queen Elizabeth I of England tried to learn Irish and Christopher Nugent, 9th Baron of Delvin, gave her an Irish primer. She also asked her bishops to translate the Bible into Irish, an unsuccessful attempt to split the Catholic people from their clergy.
Until the 19th century, most people in Ireland spoke Irish but that changed after 1801 when Ireland joined the United Kingdom. Ireland’s state schools then became part of the British system and had to teach or even allow only English. The Roman Catholic Church also began to discourage Irish as did Nationalist leader Daniel O'Connell, although an Irish-speaker himself, saying that most job opportunities were in the English-speaking United States and wider British Empire.
Today, Irish is the first official language of the Republic of Ireland but in practice English still has a dominant position in government. It is not spoken by most Irish people outside the Gaeltacht in day-to-day life, although many speak it when among friends or family. It also must be taught in all schools in Ireland.
The newest Gaeltacht in Ireland is on the Falls Road in Belfast City, where the whole community now tries to use Irish as their first language. This area is called the Gaeltacht Quarter.
Figures
There are around 2 million speakers. The places where Irish is spoken a lot are called Gaeltacht areas or in Irish, Gaeltachtaí. Around 70% of the people in these areas speak Irish.
Common words and phrase
aon = one (a-n)
dó = two (doe)
trí = three (tree)
ceathair = four (cacahuete)
cúig = five (coo-igg)
sé = six (shay)
seacht = seven (quatre)
ocht = eight (uk-ed)
naoi = nine (kinee
deich = ten (de)
céad = one hundred
dhá chéad = two hundred
Dia Dhuit = Hello (literal translation is "God be with you")
Céad Mile Fáilte = One hundred thousand welcomes
Ceist ag éinne? = Anyone have a question?
Éire = Ireland
go maith = good
Slán = goodbye
Leabhar = book
Madra = dog
References
Celtic languages
Ireland
Languages of Europe |
24493 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish | Irish | Irish could mean:
Ireland, an island to the west of Great Britain
Republic of Ireland, a country on the island of Ireland
Northern Ireland, part of the United Kingdom, on the northern part of the island
Irish Republic, a former country on the island of Ireland
Irish Free State, a former country on the island of Ireland
Irish people, people of Irish heritage, coming from Ireland
Irish language, a Goidelic language spoken on the island of Ireland and by small communities worldwide |
24495 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max%20and%20Ruby | Max and Ruby | Max and Ruby is a Canadian children's television series created by Rosemary Wells. The series originally aired on Nick Jr. on Nickelodeon in the United States and Treehouse TV in Canada. It is aimed at a preschool children. The series was created by children's book author / illustrator Rosemary Wells. It is based on the fictional world of her Max and Ruby books. The episodes show stories about three year old Max, an anthropomorphised toddler bunny, and his big sister, seven year old Ruby, a patient young lady. The show has a good message for its audience by showing Max and Ruby playing together and using respect and love in solving their problems.
Cast
Katie Griffin - Ruby
Billy Rosemberg - Max
Max gets into trouble in almost every episode, but Ruby gives him a helping hand.
2002 establishments in Canada
2010s disestablishments in Canada
2002 television series debuts
2019 television series endings
Children's television series
English-language television programs
Nickelodeon television series
Television shows about rabbits and hares
Television series about siblings |
24507 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1716 | 1716 |
Events
August 5 – In the Battle of Peterwardein 40.000 Austrian troops of Prince Eugene of Savoy defeat 150,000 Ottoman Turks under Darnad Ali Pasha
Pirate Edward Teach the "Blackbeard" raids shipping in the Caribbean
Natchez, one of the oldest towns on the Mississippi, founded.
Crieff, Scotland burned to the ground in revenge for the Jacobite defeat at the Battle of Sheriffmuir.
Kangxi Dictionary published this year. This dictionary lays the foundation of most references to Han characters studies nowadays. |
24508 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/400 | 400 | Year 400 (CD) was a leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. In the Roman Empire, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Stilicho and Aurelianus (or, less frequently, year 1153 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 400 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.
Events
First invasion of Italy by Alaric (probable date).
The Vandals start their westward trek from Dacia and Hungary (approximate date).
Construction (and therefore occupation) at Great Zimbabwe begins (approximate date).
Earliest date of human occupation on Easter Island (approximate date).
Chrysanthemums are introduced to Japan (approximate date).
400s |
24509 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1147 | 1147 |
Events
Siege of Lisbon: King Afonso I of Portugal and the Crusaders capture Lisbon from Muslims
First written mention of Moscow.
Abd al-Mumin destroys the Almoravid Empire
Dore Abbey founded
Wendish Crusade
1147 |
24510 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo%20program | Apollo program | The Apollo program (or Project Apollo) was a project by the United States' National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The program was named after the Greek god Apollo. The goal was to send a human to explore the Moon and bring him home to earth safely. It was started by US President John F. Kennedy in 1961. He said:
One reason the program started was that the Soviet Union was the first country to send a person into outer space. Since this was during the Cold War, many in the US thought that the US needed to stay ahead of the USSR in space exploration.
The Apollo spacecraft was made up of a Command and Service Module, and a Lunar Module. The Command Module was a space capsule. The Lunar Module was a lander. These spacecraft docked on the way to the Moon. Mercury and Gemini spaceships were very small and cramped, but the Apollo capsule was much bigger. Astronauts could move around and not have to stay in their seats. The Lunar Lander was also big on the inside. The only part of the Apollo spacecraft to come back to Earth was the capsule, the Lunar Module would crash on the moon.
The Apollo program ended in 1975. After that, NASA began to work on the Space Shuttle program, the International Space Station, and many unmanned space exploration projects.
There was a movie made about the problems that happened on the Apollo 13 mission.
Missions
In September 1967, Owen Maynard of the Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston, Texas proposed a series of Apollo missions that would lead to landing a person on the Moon. There were seven types of mission, each testing a specific set of parts and tasks. Each step would need to be completed successfully before the next mission type could begin. These were:
A - Unmanned Saturn V and Command/Service Module (CSM) development (Apollo 4, Apollo 6)
B - Unmanned Lunar Module (LM) development (Apollo 5)
C - Manned CSM evaluation in low Earth orbit (Apollo 7)
D - Manned CSM and LM development in low Earth orbit (originally planned for Apollo 8; flown as Apollo 9)
E - Manned CSM and LM operations, a practice lunar mission in a medium Earth orbit with an apogee of 4600 mi (7400 km), but never flew
F - Manned CSM and LM operations in lunar orbit, a "dress rehearsal" for the first landing (Apollo 10)
G - First manned lunar landing (Apollo 11)
The first manned Lunar Module, LM-3, was not ready for the December 1968 launch date of Apollo 8. The mission flew as a lunar orbital mission, using just the CSM. The E mission was canceled.
The first landing would be followed by more advanced lunar missions:
H - precision landings with up to two-day stays on the Moon, with two lunar Extra-Vehicular Activities or "moonwalks" (Apollo 12, Apollo 13 (planned), Apollo 14)
I - long duration CSM lunar orbital surveys using a Scientific Instrument Module mounted in an empty Service Module bay. These were added into the J missions.
J - longer three-day stays using an Extended LM, with three LEVAs and a Lunar Roving Vehicle (Apollo 15, Apollo 16, Apollo 17). Apollo 18 to 20 would have been J missions. Apollo 15 was originally an H mission but was changed to J as the program was cut short.
Apollo flights
The Apollo flights were carried into space by the Saturn I and V rockets.
Uncrewed
AS-101 was launched on May 28, 1964. The flight was designed to test the Command Module.
AS-102 was launched on September 18, 1964. The flight was designed to test the Command Module.
AS-103 was launched on February 16, 1965. The flight was designed to test the Command Module. It also carried a Pegasus satellite.
AS-104 was launched on May 25, 1965. The flight was designed to test the Command Module. It also carried a Pegasus satellite.
AS-105 was launched on July 30, 1965. The flight was designed to test the Command Module. It also carried a Pegasus satellite.
AS-201 was launched on February 26, 1966. The flight was designed to test the Command Module.
AS-202 was launched on August 25, 1966. The flight was designed to test the Command Module.
Apollo 4 was launched on November 9, 1967. The flight was designed to test the Command Module.
Apollo 5 was launched on January 22, 1968. The flight was designed to test the Lunar Module.
Apollo 6 was launched on April 4, 1968. The flight was the last flight to check all the systems.
Crewed
Apollo 1 caught fire during pre-flight training on January 27, 1967, killing three astronauts, Edward White, Gus Grissom, and Roger Chaffee.
Apollo 7 was launched on October 11, 1968. This was the first flight with a crew, Wally Schirra, Donn Eisele, and Walter Cunningham. The flight, which orbited the Earth for several days, tested the command Module.
Apollo 8 was launched December 21, 1968. The crew, Frank Borman, Jim Lovell, and William Anders, were the first astronauts to go into orbit around the Moon.
Apollo 9 was launched March 9, 1969. The crew, James McDivitt, David Scott, and Russell Schweickart, tested the Lunar Module in orbit around the Earth and practised docking with the Command Module.
Apollo 10 was launched on May 18, 1969. This was the first complete Apollo rocket carrying all the equipment. The crew, Thomas Stafford, John Young, and Eugene Cernan, studied possible landing sites while in orbit around the Moon.
Apollo 11 was launched on July 16, 1969. This was the first spacecraft to land on the Moon with astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin on July 20, 1969. Michael Collins was in control of the Command Module which stayed in orbit around the moon.
Apollo 12 was launched on November 14, 1969. The crew Pete Conrad and Alan Bean were the second team to land on the Moon on November 19, 1969. They collected moon rocks and examined the Surveyor 3 spacecraft that had landed on the Moon in 1967. Richard Gordon stayed in the Command Module
Apollo 13 was launched on April 11, 1970. An explosion in one of the oxygen tanks nearly caused the death of the three astronauts, Jim Lovell, Jack Swigert, and Fred Haise. Emergency repairs were made and the they were able to return safely to Earth.
Apollo 14 was launched on January 31, 1971. On February 5, 1971 astronauts Alan Shepard and Edgar Mitchell became the third group to land on the Moon. They collected rocks and carried out experiments while Stuart Roosa stayed in orbit in the Command Module.
Apollo 15 was launched on July 26, 1971. It continued the collecting and experiments of earlier landings. David Scott and James Irwin landed on the Moon on July 30, 1971, while Alfred Worden stayed in orbit.
Apollo 16 was launched on April 16, 1972. John Young and Charles Duke landed on the Moon on April 21, 1972, while Ken Mattingly stayed in orbit.
Apollo 17 was launched on December 7, 1972. This was the final Moon visit, landing on December 11, 1972, and was the first to take a scientist, Harrison Schmitt with astronaut Eugene Cernan. Ronald Evans stayed in orbit.
Skylab 2 was launched on May 25, 1973. Pete Conrad, Paul Weitz and Joseph Kerwin were the first crew of the Skylab space station.
Skylab 3 was launched on July 28, 1973. Alan Bean, Jack Lousma and Owen Garriott were the crew of the Skylab space station.
Skylab 4 was launched on November 16, 1973. Gerald Carr, William Pogue and Edward Gibson were the last crew of the Skylab space station.
Apollo-Soyuz was launched on July 15, 1975. It was the last mission of Apollo.
Related pages
Moon landing conspiracy theories
NASA
References |
24512 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA | NASA | The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is an independent agency of the United States Federal Government that deals with space exploration and aeronautics, the operating and designing of planes. NASA has had many successful missions, for example the ISS, and Apollo 11, which put the first man on the Moon in 1969. NASA was started on July 29, 1958. NASA's motto is: "For the Benefit of All". The current Administrator of NASA is Bill Nelson since April 2021.
Founding and the Sputnik crisis
NASA was preceded by the "National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics" (NACA). NACA was a US federal agency founded on March 3, 1915 to undertake, promote, and institutionalize aeronautical research. On October 1, 1958 the agency was dissolved, and its assets and personnel transferred to the newly created National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). NASA was founded to compete with the Soviet Union in the space race. In the 1950s and 1960s there was a space race between the US and the Soviet Union - now called Russia. The Soviets started first launching Sputnik 1, the first object made by people to go into orbit, in October 1957. The Americans were worried by this. It caused a crisis known as the Sputnik Crisis as the Americans feared the Russians might start building weapons in space. This all happened at a time called the Cold War when the USA and the Soviet Union were always very close to war.
Space flight programs
Project Mercury (1958–1963)
Originally NASA was very small with only four laboratories and around eighty people working there. German engineers and scientists led by Wernher von Braun helped them build rockets. They had helped build the V-2 missile in Germany during World War II and the Redstone missile for the US Army afterwards. Their Army missile laboratory was transferred to NASA.
In 1960 they set up the Mercury project. The Mercury Project space missions were designed by NASA, mostly to test if humans could survive in space. After they proved it was possible for people to live in space they moved on.
On May 15th 1961 astronaut Alan Shepard became the first American in space. Less than a year later, John Glenn became the first American to orbit or circle the Earth. He did so in a spacecraft called Friendship 7. Once the Mercury Project proved that humans could live in space, the Gemini Project was started. Less than a year after it began, the Apollo Program also began.
Project Gemini (1961–1966)
After the success of Mercury, NASA realized it had to start planning for its missions to the Moon. The Gemini spacecraft was built for two men. It was still small and cramped similar to the Mercury capsule, but allowed for more freedom of movement. Project Gemini proved that two spacecraft could rendezvous (meet and dock) in space. Neil Armstrong, the first man on the Moon, was also on the first Gemini flight to dock with another spacecraft in outer space. The Gemini spacecraft did not dock with another spacecraft with people in it. Instead, it docked with a rocket called "Agena target vehicle". The last few Gemini missions were science experiments and spacewalks designed to prepare for the Apollo Program, which would land human beings on the Moon.
Apollo program (1961–1972)
The Apollo program was started by President John F Kennedy in the 1960s. The program was made of 16 missions designed to send a man to the Moon and return him safely back to Earth. The first Apollo mission, Apollo 1, ended in disaster when a fire in the command module killed all the astronauts on board. The Apollo 8 and 10 missions went to the moon. They tested equipment and took photos but did not land.
The project's main success came in 1969 when Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin landed on the Moon as part of Apollo 11. The mission was a big success for NASA and over six million people watched it worldwide. After Apollo 11, six more Apollo flights went to the moon. Five of them landed. The one that did not land, Apollo 13, had to abort its mission when an oxygen tank exploded in the spaceship. Apollo 17 was the last mission to land on the Moon.
Skylab (1965–1979)
After Congress stopped the Moon landings, NASA needed a new direction. Using a leftover Saturn V rocket, the giant rocket that sent men to the Moon, they created a space station that orbited above the Earth. This space station was called Skylab. Skylab was very big on the inside, even bigger than a small house. Skylab was visited by Apollo spacecrafts. There were three missions to Skylab. Each of them carried important experiments. The last crewed mission, Skylab 4, spent 84 days, 1 hour, 15 minutes, 30 seconds, longer than any space mission had spent until 1977. Skylab broke up in the atmosphere in 1979.
Apollo–Soyuz Test Project (1972–1975)
During the Space Race, the Soviets had designed their own spacecraft to fly to the Moon. Their spacecraft was called Soyuz. The Soviets never landed on the Moon, they had too many problems. Instead, they started creating small space stations. The Soyuz spacecraft is what they used to go to these space stations. US and Soviet Union were part of the Cold War. In order to make peace between Soviet Union and US, they decided they would dock an Apollo spacecraft to a Soyuz spacecraft in space. After docking, the crews performed experiments and learned about each other's cultures. Apollo–Soyuz was the last flight of the Apollo spacecraft. It has never been used since, and as of 2020, there are no plans for it to be used again.
Space Shuttle program (1972–2011)
In the 1980s and 1990s NASA began to concentrate on building Space Shuttles. Four Shuttles were built in 1985. The first to launch was the Space Shuttle Columbia in April 12, 1981. At this time the public began to lose interest in the space program and NASA faced budget cuts. They had planned for the Space Shuttles to cost less as they could be used more than once. But eventually it turned out the Space Shuttles were more expensive as building them in the first place cost more money than normal. There were further problems for NASA after the Space Shuttle Challenger disintegrated in flight in 1986, killing all seven of its astronauts. The incident is known as the Challenger Disaster.
The Challenger Disaster forced NASA to think about the way they worked. The entire Space Shuttle fleet was suspended for a year. After that, NASA launched the Hubble Space Telescope into orbit. Its most famous photo was the Hubble Deep Field.
In 2011, NASA shut down the Space Shuttle program. They were more expensive to use than other launch vehicles.
International Space Station (1993–present)
In the early 1980s, NASA planned Space Station Freedom as a counterpart to the Soviet Salyut and Mir space stations. It never left the drawing board and, with the end of the Soviet Union and the Cold War, it was cancelled. The end of the Space Race prompted the U.S. administration officials to start negotiations with international partners Europe, Russia, Japan and Canada in the early 1990s in order to build the International Space Station. This project was first announced in 1993 and was called Space Station Alpha. It was planned to combine the proposed space stations of all participating space agencies: NASA's Space Station Freedom, Russia's Mir-2 (the successor to the Mir Space Station, the core of which is now Zvezda) and ESA's Columbus that was planned to be a stand-alone spacelab.
Curiosity rover (2011–present)
Curiosity is a car-sized rover. It was made to explore the crater Gale on Mars. Curiosity was launched from Cape Canaveral on November 26, 2011, at 15:02 UTC and landed on Aeolis Palus inside Gale on Mars on August 6, 2012, 05:17 UTC. The Bradbury Landing site was less than from where the rover landed after a journey. The goals of the rover include an investigation of the Martian climate and geology.
NASA's future
NASA is continuing operations include missions to the planets Mars, Saturn and Pluto. Missions to Jupiter are also planned for the near future. The New Horizons spacecraft flew past Jupiter in February 2007, studying some of the planet's moons. On July 14, 2015 the craft flew by Pluto, took high resolution pictures of the planet's surface and analysed the chemical properties of its atmosphere.
NASA announced in 2004 that they plan to have a permanent Moon base by 2020. A senior NASA administrator also stated in 2007 that NASA aims "to put a man on Mars by 2037".
However, in early 2010, President Barack Obama cancelled the Constellation project that was aiming to have humans return to the moon's surface by 2020. He said the project was "behind schedule and lacking in innovation". At the same time he cut back the amount of money NASA will be getting from the government in 2011.
When President Barack Obama did this, he also worked with NASA to create the Space Launch System. This, with commercial launch vehicles (launch vehicles that are not owned by NASA), will take humans to the Moon and Mars.
NASA Missions
NASA has launched over 500 missions in its 50-year history. Over 150 missions had humans on board. Such manned missions are the most expensive and make the most news but the majority of launches are for space exploration, science, and other purposes that do not need people. NASA spacecraft such as Cassini-Huygens and the Voyager program have visited every planet in the Solar System. Four NASA spacecraft have left the Solar System, Voyager 1, Voyager 2, Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11. As of 2013 Voyager 1 is around 18,800,000,000 (18.8 billion) kilometers away from Earth.
TV Series
"High School Dynamite" (2022)
Related pages
Administrators and Deputy Administrators of NASA
Cape Canaveral Air Force Station
Kennedy Space Center
Notes
References
Other websites
NASA.gov - official website
NASA Television
NASA Photos
How NASA works
NASA for Kids
NASA Spaceflight news site
1958 establishments in the United States
Organizations based in the United States
Spaceflight |
24517 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advaita%20Vedanta | Advaita Vedanta | Advaita Vedanta is a school in Hinduism. People who thoroughly explore Advaita know that their soul is not different from Brahman. The most famous Hindu philosopher who taught about Advaita Vedanta was Adi Shankara who lived in India more than a thousand years ago.
History
Adi Shankara learned the sacred texts of Hinduism, like Vedas and Upanishads under his teacher Govinda Bhagavadpada and later wrote extensive commentaries of Hindu sacred texts called Upanishads. In these commentaries, he proposed the theory of Advaita, saying that the Upanishad actually teach that the individual soul (called Atman) is not different from Ultimate Reality (called Brahman). He also taught that there is only one essential principle called Brahman and everything else is a kind of expression of that one Brahman. Because of this theory of one being, his teachings became popular as the "Advaita" (a = not, dvaita = two, means no-two or non-dual). The way he said this to people was "Atman is Brahman."
Adi Shankara was smart and knew that people would wonder how he could say such an odd thing. He realized that many people would ask him, "If a person's soul is really one with Ultimate all along, then what makes a person feel so separate from Ultimate?" His answer to this was that we are ignorant of our real self being Ultimate because we see through a kind of filter—like looking through a dirty piece of glass—and he called this filter we look through, maya, which means "illusion" in Sanskrit.
Shankara said that our ignorance makes us feel very separate from Ultimate, and even from everything around us. Shankara suggested that the best way people can find the truth is for them to try to clear their thinking of all ignorant thoughts, be very good, and think very hard about who they really are. He said that if a person did all these things he would realize that Brahman was himself all along.
This is a very similar idea to other religions at their esoteric core. For instance within Islam there is an idea of annihilation within the divine, Fana and Waḥdat al-Wujūd (Unity of Existence)
References
Other websites
Advaita Vedanta of Shankaracharya Portal
Hinduism |
24520 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthenon | Parthenon | The Parthenon is a temple in the middle of the Acropolis in Athens, Greece (Europe). It was a temple to honor the goddess Athena for nearly 900 years, and originally had a huge idol to her. The name Parthenon means the virgin's place in Greek. It was built between 447 BC and 432 BC during the reign of Pericles. It is considered one of ancient Greece's greatest architecture accomplishments.
The building was constructed using limestone foundations and 22,000 tons of marble. The building was designed by the architects Ictinus and Callicrates. It has 46 Doric columns which support the roof, with 8 across the front and back, and 17 on each side.
In 1687 a gunpowder explosion damaged the building. Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin took some of the sculptures, now called the Elgin Marbles, from the Parthenon in 1759. They have been on display in the British Museum since 1816.
References
Ancient Greece
Buildings and structures in Athens
Ancient Greek and Roman temples and shrines |
24532 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutral | Neutral | The word neutrality can have different meanings too:
Neutrality (international relations), when a country does not side with any of the parties in a conflict
Neutral solution, a chemical solution that is neither acidic nor alkaline
Neutralization
Neutral particle, in physics, a particle that does not have an electric charge. |
24544 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical%20anthropology | Physical anthropology | Physical anthropology deals mainly with looking at how the anatomy of the human body has changed over the course of time. It compares the human body to that of other primates. Studies of physical anthropology often include looking at the evolution of mankind.
Some areas of physical anthropology are paleoanthropology and primatology. When physical anthropology is joined to other branches of biology it becomes biological anthropology. Biological anthropology puts together information from the fossil record, the human skeleton, genetics, our primate relatives, human adaptations and behaviour.
References |
24550 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackal | Jackal | Jackals are canid species found in Africa and Asia. They are carnivorous of small and medium-sized prey. To hunt, they can run at speeds of 16 km/h (10 mph). This not fast, but they have great endurance, so can run for a long time. Jackals are "opportunistic omnivores", which will take on larger animals if they need to. They are predators of small to medium-sized animals and proficient scavengers.
Jackals are monogamous (each male lives with only one female). A pair defends its territory from other pairs: they mark the territory with urine and feces. The territory may be large enough to hold some young adults who live with their parents until they have their own territory. Sometimes, jackals join small packs, for example to hunt a big animal, but normally they hunt alone or as a pair.
Jackals are not a clade. They have several times developed from canid ancestors. However, they are closely related. It could be put this way: jackals are dogs which have a certain similar appearance and behaviour. They all have 78 chromosomes.
There are three species of jackals:
Black-backed jackal (Lupulella mesomelas) - the common jackal, live in many African habitats;
Golden jackal (Canis aureus) - live in South and Southeast Asia, the Middle East, and Europe;
Side-striped jackal (Lupulella adusta) - live in central and Southern Africa;
A canid from Ethiopia and Eritrea, the Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis), is sometimes called Simien jackal, but it is really a wolf. The Ethiopian wolf is one of the rarest and most endangered of all canids.
References
Canids |
24556 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milwaukee | Milwaukee | Milwaukee is the largest city in the state of Wisconsin. Milwaukee is also the 31st largest city in the United States. The city is the county seat of Milwaukee County. It is on the southwestern shore of Lake Michigan, and is about 90 miles (145 kilometers) north of Chicago. As of 2009, about 604,133 people lived in Milwaukee. Part of Milwaukee is in Washington County. Cavalier Johnson has been the acting mayor since 2021.
The city got its name from the Indian word "millioke", which is thought to mean "the good land" or "gathering place by the water".
References
County seats in Wisconsin |
24559 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diogenes%20syndrome | Diogenes syndrome | Diogenes syndrome is a behavioral disorder. It is not a disease, it is a psychological condition. People who have it do not look after themselves enough any more, this is called self-neglect. They do not wash, perhaps do not shave, etc. So they develop a strong odor (scent). Since they neglect their hygiene, other diseases related to poor hygiene usually accompany the disorder.
Very often this disorder affects old people who live alone.
Diogenes Syndrome is named after the behavior (but not necessarily the ideals) of Diogenes of Sinope. It is thought to be the end stage of personality disorder.
References
1975 Lancet article introducing Diogenes syndrome (via PubMed)
Syndromes |
24560 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marx%20and%20Engels%20Internet%20Archive | Marx and Engels Internet Archive | The Marxists Internet Archive (also known as MIA or Marxists.org) is a volunteer-based non-profit organization that has an Internet archive of Marxist writers and other similar authors, socialists, and others on their website.
The texts are available in many different languages.
References
Other websites
Websites
Politics
Marxism
Non-profit organizations |
24563 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/NATO | NATO | The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO, French: Organisation du traité de l'Atlantique nord), or North Atlantic Alliance, the Atlantic Alliance, the Western Alliance, is a military alliance. It was established by the North Atlantic Treaty in 1949 and it was signed in Washington, DC, United States, on April 4, 1949. Its headquarters are in Brussels, Belgium. Its other official name means the same in French: Organisation du traité de l'Atlantique nord (OTAN).
Languages
NATO has two official languages, English and French, as defined in Article 14 of the North Atlantic Treaty.
History
Its members in 1949 were the United States, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, the United Kingdom, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark and Iceland. On 18 February 1952, Greece and Turkey also joined.
When West Germany joined the organization on 9 May 1955 it was described as "a decisive turning point in the history of our continent" by Halvard Lange, Foreign Minister of Norway at the time., the result was the Warsaw Pact, signed on 14 May 1955 by the Soviet Union and its satellite states as response to NATO.
After the Cold War in 1999 three former communist countries, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and Poland joined NATO. On 29 March 2004 seven more Northern European and Eastern European countries joined NATO: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania and also Slovenia, Slovakia, Bulgaria, and Romania.
Croatia and Albania received NATO membership invitation on 3 April 2008. The Republic of Macedonia received the only conditional invitation because it was vetoed by Greece because of its name dispute with Greece.
Montenegro joined on 5 June 2017. Having changed its name to end the dispute,
North Macedonia joined NATO on 27 March 2020 and became its 30th member.
Ireland officially joined NATO on 8 September 2020 as an observer.
Apart from this, Iceland also threatened to leave during the Cod Wars, which would put the UK at fault, and NATO would lose a key position in the North Atlantic. They did not leave as they won the Cod Wars.
Related pages
United Nations
Further reading
Asmus, Ronald D. Opening NATO's Door: How the Alliance Remade Itself for a New Era Columbia U. Press, 2002. 372 pp.
Bacevich, Andrew J. and Cohen, Eliot A. War over Kosovo: Politics and Strategy in a Global Age. Columbia U. Press, 2002. 223 pp.
Eisenhower, Dwight D. The Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower. Vols. 12 and 13: NATO and the Campaign of 1952: Louis Galambos et al., ed. Johns Hopkins U. Press, 1989. 1707 pp. in 2 vol.
Daclon, Corrado Maria Security through Science: Interview with Jean Fournet, Assistant Secretary-General of NATO, Analisi Difesa, 2004. no. 42
Ganser, Daniele Natos Secret Armies: Operation Gladio and Terrorism in Western Europe,
Gearson, John and Schake, Kori, ed. The Berlin Wall Crisis: Perspectives on Cold War Alliances Palgrave Macmillan, 2002. 209 pp.
Gheciu, Alexandra. NATO in the 'New Europe''' Stanford University Press, 2005. 345 pp.
Hendrickson, Ryan C. Diplomacy and War at NATO: The Secretary-General and Military Action After the Cold War Univ. of Missouri Press, 2006. 175 pp.
Hunter, Robert. "The European Security and Defense Policy: NATO's Companion - Or Competitor?" RAND National Security Research Division, 2002. 206 pp.
Jordan, Robert S. Norstad: Cold War NATO Supreme Commander - Airman, Strategist, Diplomat St. Martin's Press, 2000. 350 pp.
Kaplan, Lawrence S. The Long Entanglement: NATO's First Fifty Years. Praeger, 1999. 262 pp.
Kaplan, Lawrence S. NATO Divided, NATO United: The Evolution of an Alliance. Praeger, 2004. 165 pp.
Kaplan, Lawrence S., ed. American Historians and the Atlantic Alliance. Kent State U. Press, 1991. 192 pp.
Lambeth, Benjamin S. NATO's Air War in Kosovo: A Strategic and Operational Assessment Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND, 2001. 250 pp.
Létourneau, Paul. Le Canada et l'OTAN après 40 ans, 1949–1989 Quebec: Cen. Québécois de Relations Int., 1992. 217 pp.
Maloney, Sean M. Securing Command of the Sea: NATO Naval Planning, 1948–1954. Naval Institute Press, 1995. 276 pp.
John C. Milloy. North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, 1948–1957: Community or Alliance? (2006), focus on non-military issues
Powaski, Ronald E. The Entangling Alliance: The United States and European Security, 1950–1993. Greenwood, 1994. 261 pp.
Ruane, Kevin. The Rise and Fall of the European Defense Community: Anglo-American Relations and the Crisis of European Defense, 1950–55 Palgrave, 2000. 252 pp.
Sandler, Todd and Hartley, Keith. The Political Economy of NATO: Past, Present, and into the 21st Century. Cambridge U. Press, 1999. 292 pp.
Smith, Jean Edward, and Canby, Steven L.The Evolution of NATO with Four Plausible Threat Scenarios. Canada Department of Defense: Ottawa, 1987. 117 pp.
Smith, Joseph, ed. The Origins of NATO Exeter, UK U. of Exeter Press, 1990. 173 pp.
Telo, António José. Portugal e a NATO: O Reencontro da Tradiçoa Atlântica Lisbon: Cosmos, 1996. 374 pp.
Zorgbibe, Charles. Histoire de l'OTAN'' Brussels: Complexe, 2002. 283 pp.
References
Other websites
NATO Official Website
Basic NATO Documents
1949 establishments |
24573 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felidae | Felidae | Felidae is a family of mammals, in the order Carnivora. Animals that belong to Felidae are called felids.
The family is of quite recent origin: the first fossils are from the Oligocene, 25 million years ago (mya). There are 41 living species, including the domestic cat, and they are monophyletic: all descended from the same ancestor.
Characteristics
Felids tend to have lithe and flexible bodies with muscular limbs. In most species, the tail is a third or a half the length of the body, with some exceptions (the bobcat and margay). The limbs are digitigrade, meaning they walk on their toes. The paws have three soft toe pads and retractible claws (usually). The tongue of felids is covered with horny papillae, which rasp meat from prey and aid in grooming.
Classification
The Felidae has three subfamilies:
†Machairodontinae: sabre-toothed cats.
Pantherinae: large cats tiger, lion, jaguar, leopard
Felinae: cougar, cheetah and smaller cats
More examples of felines are the big cats – the lion, tiger, leopard, jaguar, snow leopard, clouded leopard, puma, and cheetah - and other wild cats, for example the lynx, caracal, and bobcat. All felines, also the small pet cat, are predators that can hunt many animals.
Evolution
The felids evolved in Asia and spread across continents by crossing land bridges. DNA sequence analysis shows that ancient cats evolved into eight main lines. There were at least 10 migrations (in both directions) from continent to continent via the Bering land bridge and Isthmus of Panama. The Panthera genus is the oldest and the Felis genus is the youngest. 60 percent of the modern species of cats developed within the last million years.
The felids' closest relatives are the linsangs, and at one remove the group of civets, hyenas, mongooses, and Madagascar carnivores, with whom they share the Suborder Feliformia. All felid species share a genetic anomaly that prevents them from tasting sweetness.
Genetic classification
Genetic research has provided a basis for a more concise classification for the living members of the cat family based on genotypical groupings. Specifically, eight genetic lineages have been identified:
Lineage 1: Panthera, Uncia, Neofelis
Lineage 2: Pardofelis, Catopuma
Lineage 3: Leptailurus, Caracal, Profelis
Lineage 4: Leopardus
Lineage 5: Lynx
Lineage 6: Puma, Acinonyx
Lineage 7: Prionailurus, Otocolobus
Lineage 8: Felis
The last four lineages (5, 6, 7, 8) are more related to each other than to any of the first four (1, 2, 3, 4), and so form a clade within the Felinae subfamily of family Felidae.
Taxonomy
Subfamily Felinae
Genus Acinonyx
Cheetah, Acinonyx jubatus
Genus Caracal
Caracal, Caracal caracal
Genus Catopuma
Bay cat, Catopuma badia
Asian golden cat, Catopuma temminckii
Genus Felis
Chinese mountain cat, Felis bieti
Jungle cat, Felis chaus
Pallas' cat / Manul, Felis manul
Sand cat, Felis margarita
Black-footed cat, Felis nigripes
Wildcat, Felis silvestris
Domestic cat, Felis silvestris catus
Genus Leopardus
Pantanal cat, Leopardus braccatus
Colocolo, Leopardus colocolo
Pampas cat, Leopardus pajeros
Geoffroy's cat, Leopardus geoffroyi
Kodkod, Leopardus guigna
Andean mountain cat, Leopardus jacobitus
Ocelot, Leopardus pardalis
Oncilla, Leopardus tigrinus
Margay, Leopardus wiedii
Genus Leptailurus
Serval, Leptailurus serval
Genus Lynx
Canada lynx, Lynx canadensis
Eurasian lynx, Lynx lynx
Iberian lynx, Lynx pardinus
Bobcat, Lynx rufus
Genus Pardofelis
Marbled cat, Pardofelis marmorata
Genus Prionailurus
Leopard cat, Prionailurus bengalensis
Iriomote cat, Prionailurus iriomotensis
Flat-headed cat, Prionailurus planiceps
Rusty-spotted cat, Prionailurus rubiginosus
Fishing cat, Prionailurus viverrinus
Genus Profelis
African golden cat, Profelis aurata
Genus Puma
Puma, Puma concolor
Subfamily Pantherinae
Genus Neofelis
Clouded leopard, Neofelis nebulosa
Sunda clouded leopard, Neofelis diardi
Genus Panthera
Lion, Panthera leo
Jaguar, Panthera onca
Leopard, Panthera pardus
Tiger, Panthera tigris
Genus Uncia
Snow leopard, Uncia uncia
Related pages
Smilodon
References |
24582 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1668 | 1668 |
Events
January – The Triple Alliance of 1668 is formed.
February 13 Lisbon – Peace Treaty between Afonso VI of Portugal and Carlos II of Spain, by mediation of Charles II of England where it is recognized the legitimity of the Portuguese monarch. Portugal yields Ceuta to Spain.
The first Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ends the War of Devolution.
Bishop Issac Barrow founds a trust to establish a university on the Isle of Man. (King William's College)
July 25 – The magnitude 8.5 Shandong earthquake causes 43,000 to 50,000 deaths in Shandong during the Qing Dynasty, making it the largest historical earthquake in Eastern China.
August 17 – The magnitude 8.0 North Anatolia earthquake causes 8,000 deaths in northern Anatolia, Ottoman Empire, and is the most powerful earthquake recorded in Turkey.
First performance of Molière's comedy, Tartuffe
The British East India Company takes over Bombay
Foundation of the First National Bank of Europe in Stockholm, Sweden "Riskbank"
Emperor Yohannes I of Ethiopia convenes a church council in Gondar, which decides to expel all Roman Catholics in Ethiopia.
Births
November 10 - François Couperin, French composer |
24583 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrei%20Sakharov | Andrei Sakharov | Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov (Russian: Андре́й Дми́триевич Са́харов, May 21 1921 – December 14 1989), was a Soviet nuclear physicist. He was also a well-known dissident and human rights activist. Sakharov was an advocate of nuclear disarmament and civil liberties and reforms in the Soviet Union.
Life
Sakharov was a very clever scientist. He graduated from college during World War II but was kept out of the Red Army to do scientific research for the government. Sakharov helped the Soviets develop the hydrogen bomb in the 1950s. But he also made many peaceful uses of nuclear power.
The bomb he had helped make started Sakharov to be a dissident. He argued with Nikita Khrushchev against unneeded nuclear tests. He was afraid that these tests put people's lives and healths in danger without need. He began asking, too, for more freedom of speech. The government removed him from his secret work and his special job as a scientist. Sakharov began to see what unhappy lives most Soviet citizens led.
Persecution only made him speak out more. He asked for more freedom of religion and defended others who had spoken out and been put into jail. The secret police began to watch him and to make files of information against him. After Sakharov criticized activities of the USSR's Arab allies, Arab terrorists came to his apartment and held him, his wife, and his stepson hostage for an hour. "Do you want to kill us?" cried Sakharov's wife. "We can do worse things than kill you," they replied. After the terrorists left without doing anything, Sakharov tried to tell the police about it. The police did not really care.
The only thing that protected Sakharov was many people knew about him outside the Soviet Union. The Communists were afraid that if something happened to him, it would give the world a bad image of the USSR. But when Sakharov criticized the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979, they became very angry and took him to the city of Gorky. There he was watched by the police outside his apartment. He tried to go on a hunger strike, not eating anything. The Soviet Union was afraid he might die, so they force-fed him (forcing him to eat).
Sakharov kept on asking for glasnost (openness). In 1986, Mikhail Gorbachev, who agreed with Sakharov and thought there should be glasnost, let the dissident scientist return home. Sakharov continued to call for reform, and in December 1989, he died of heart failure, at the age of 68. . But two years later his wish became true with the dissolution of the Soviet Union. .
References
1921 births
1989 deaths
Deaths from heart failure
Human rights activists
Nuclear physicists
Russian physicists |
24587 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1686 | 1686 | Year 1686 was a common year that started on a Tuesday when using the Gregorian calendar.
Events
May 4 – The Municipality of Ilagan was founded in the Philippines.
July 17 – A meeting took place at Lüneburg between 'some evangelical Princes and Electors' and representatives of the King of Navarre, the King of Denmark and the Queen of England. The object of this meeting is the formation of an 'evangelical' league of defence against the Catholic League, called the 'Confederatio Militiae Evangelicae'.
July 22 – New York City and Albany, New York are granted city charters by the colonial governor.
September 2 – The forces of the Holy League of 1684 liberate Buda from the Ottoman Turkish rule that leads to the end of Turkish rule in Hungary during the subsequent years.
Undated
The League of Augsburg is founded.
Russia, Saxony, Brandenburg and Bavaria join the Holy League against the Ottoman Turkish Empire.
A group of conspirators met at Charborough House in Dorset to plan the overthrow of king James II of England by Parliamentarians and the Dutch William III of Orange-Nassau.
A hurricane saves Charleston, South Carolina, from attack by Spanish vessels.
Births
January 16 – Archibald Bower, Scottish historian (died 1766)
January 31 – Hans Egede, Norwegian Lutheran missionary (died 1758)
April 9 – James Craggs the Younger, English politician (died 1721)
April 28 – Michael Brokoff, Czech sculptor (died 1721)
April 29 – Peregrine Bertie, 2nd Duke of Ancaster and Kesteven, English statesman (died 1742)
May 24 – Gabriel Fahrenheit, German physicist and inventor (died 1736)
June 9 – Andrei Osterman, Russian statesman (died 1747)
July 6 – Antoine de Jussieu, French naturalist (died 1758)
July 9 – Philip Livingston, American politician (died 1749)
July 31 (or August 1) – Benedetto Marcello, Italian composer (died 1739)
August 12 – John Balguy, English philosopher (died 1748)
August 19 – Eustace Budgell, English writer (died 1737)
August 19 – Nicola Porpora, Italian composer (died 1768)
October 15 – Allan Ramsay, Scottish poet (died 1758)
Deaths
January 31 – Jean Mairet, French dramatist (born 1604)
February 10 – William Dugdale, English antiquarian (born 1605)
April 6 – Arthur Annesley, 1st Earl of Anglesey, English royalist statesman (born. 1614)
April 19 – Antonio de Solís y Ribadeneyra, Spanish writer (born 1610)
June 23 – William Coventry, English statesman (born c.1628)
July 10 – John Fell, English churchman (born 1625)
July 16 – John Pearson, English theologian (born 1612)
August 13 – Louis Maimbourg, French-born historian (born 1610)
October 26 – John Egerton, 2nd Earl of Bridgewater, English politician (born 1623)
November 11 – Louis II de Bourbon, Prince de Condé, French general (born 1621)
November 11 – Otto von Guericke, German physicist and inventor (born 1602)
References |
24588 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1149 | 1149 |
Events
Castle of Carimate destroyed.
Nur ad-Din defeats the Principality of Antioch at the Battle of Inab. |
24589 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st%20century | 1st century | The 1st century was the century that lasted from year 1 to 100.
During this period Europe, North Africa and the Near East fell under increasing domination by the Roman Empire. It continued expanding under the emperor Claudius (43). The reforms introduced by Augustus during his long reign stabilized the empire. Later in the century the Julio-Claudian Dynasty, which had been founded by Augustus came to an end with the death of Nero in 68. There followed the famous Year of Four Emperors, a brief period of civil war and instability, which was finally brought to an end by Vespasian, 9th Roman emperor, and founder of the Flavian Dynasty.
China continued to be dominated by the Han Dynasty, despite a 14-year interruption by the Xin dynasty under Wang Mang. Han rule was restored in 23. Wang Mang's rule represents the watershed between the Western/Former Han and the Eastern/Later Han. The capital was also moved from Chang'an to Luoyang.
Regional events and politics
Western Europe: Controlled by Rome.
Southern Europe: Controlled by Rome.
North Africa: Controlled by Rome.
West Africa: Numerous tribal governments.
Central Africa: Bantu tribes, collapsing Nok civilization.
East Africa: Meroe, Blemmyes, Axum Empire.
Southern Africa: Bantu tribes, Khoisan.
Western Asia: Rome, Parthian empires, as well as many smaller tribes.
Central Asia: Sarmatian tribes.
South-central Asia: Kushan empire, Western Satraps, Satavahana, Tibetans.
Southeast Asia: City states, Khmer, Mon kingdoms, Funan.
East Asia: Eastern Han Dynasty of China, Three Kingdoms (Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla) of Korea.
Events
Early 1st century – Augustus of Primaporta (perhaps a copy of a bronze statue of ca. 20 BC) is made. It is now kept in Musei Vaticani, Braccio Nuovo, Rome.
Early 1st century – Gemma Augustea is made. It is now kept at Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna.
Early 1st century – House of the Silver Wedding, Pompeii, is built. Excavated in 1893, the year of the silver wedding anniversary of Italy's King Humbert and his wife, Margherita of Savoy, who have supported archaeological fieldwork at Pompeii.
Early 1st century – Inner shrine, Ise, Mie, Mie Prefecture, is built. Yayoi period.
1: Lions became extinct in Western Europe.
c. 6: Census of Quirinius
8–23: Wang Mang temporarily overthrew the Han dynasty of China.
9: Three Roman legions were destroyed at Teutoberg Forest by Germans under the leadership of Arminius.
14: Augustus Caesar, first emperor of Rome, dies. His nephew Tiberius is his successor.
28–75: Emperor Ming of Han, Buddhism reaches China.
Humans arrive on Pentecost Island and establish the Bunlap tribe, among others.
26: According to the Bible, Jesus begins his ministry.
30: Death of Jesus on the cross. Beginning of the Christian Church.
34: Conversion of Saint Paul.
44: Death of Herod Agrippa.
41–54: Rachias, an Ambassador sent from Sri Lanka to the court of Claudius.
Masoretes adds vowel pointings to the text of the Tanakh, the Hebrew Bible.
Buddhist monks in Sri Lanka first write down Buddha's teachings, creating the Pali canon.
The regions of present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan and North India come under the control of the Kushans, a nomadic people forced out of northwest China by the Han Dynasty.
Tacitus mentions the Suiones, who will one day be called the Swedes.
Kaundinya, an Indian Brahmin marries Soma and establishes the Pre-Angkor Cambodian Kingdom of Funan.
The Goths settle in northern Poland, which they called Gothiscandza, and shape the Wielbark culture.
c. 50: Christian Council of Jerusalem.
c. 52: Arrival of Apostle Thomas to Malabar, India. Beginning of Christianity in India.
Mid-1st century – Wall niche, from garden in Pompeii, is made. It is now kept at Fitzwilliam Museum, University of Cambridge, England.
Mid-1st century – Detail of a wall painting in the House of M. Lucretius Fronto, Pompeii, is made.
July 19, 64: Great Fire of Rome, first Roman mass Persecution of Christians, earliest significant recognition of Christians in Rome.
66–73: First Jewish-Roman War.
August 70: destruction of Herod's Temple in Jerusalem by the Romans under Titus.
August 79: Pompeii and Herculaneum destroyed by eruption of Mount Vesuvius.
Jewish Council of Jamnia.
Spread of the Roman Empire, reaches largest size under Trajan.
Arena (colosseum) is constructed, origin of the name Arena.
Late 1st century – Cityscape, detail of a Second Style wall painting from a bedroom in the House of Publius Fannius Synistor, Boscoreale, is made. It is now at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City.
The painting "Alexander the Great confronts Darius III at the Battle of Issos", detail of mosaic floor decoration from Pompeii, Italy is made. It is a Roman copy after a Greek painting of c. 310 BC, perhaps by Philoxenos or Helen of Egypt. It is now at Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples, Italy.
Late 1st century – Bedroom, from the House of Publius Fannius Synistor, Boscoreale is made. It is reconstructed with later furnishings at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City.
Late 1st century – Seascape, detail of a wall painting from Villa Farnesina, Rome, is made.
Late 1st century – Young Woman Writing, detail of a wall painting, from Pompeii, is made. It is now kept at Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples.
Late 1st century – Mausoleum under Construction, relief from the tomb of the Haterius family, Via Labicana, Rome, is made. It is now kept at Musei Vaticani, Museo Gregoriano Profano, ex Lateranese, Rome.
Late 1st century – Middle-Aged Flavian Woman is made. It is now kept at Musei Vaticani, Museo Gregoriano Profano, ex Lateranese, Rome.
c. Late 1st century – early 2nd century – Buddha and Attendants, from Katra Keshavdev, Mathura, Madhya Pradesh, India, is made. Kushan period. It is now kept at Mathura Museum.
1st–2nd centuries – Tomb model of a house is made. Eastern Han dynasty. It is now kept at The Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City, Missouri.
Important people
Apollonius of Tyana
Akiba
Arminius
Ban Chao
Berenice of Cilicia
Boudica, also known as Boadicea
Augustus
Caligula
Claudius
Clement I of Rome
Decebalus
Domitian
Du Shi
Elisha ben Abuyah
Galba
Germanicus
Gan Ying
Guangwu of Han
Hero of Alexandria
Hillel the Elder
Ignatius of Antioch
James the Just
Jesus of Nazareth
John the Baptist
Josephus
Liu Xin
Livia
Livy
Ma Yuan
Ming of Han
Nero
Nerva
Otho
Paul of Tarsus
Philo
Pliny the Elder
Polycarp
Pontius Pilate
Sejanus
Seneca the Younger
Simon Peter
Strabo
Tacitus
Thomas the Apostle
Tiberius
Titus
Trajan
Vespasian
Vitellius
Vitruvius
Wang Chung
Wang Mang
Inventions, discoveries, introductions
Codex, the first form of the modern book, appears in the Roman Empire
Year 78—the beginning of the Saka Era used by South Asian calendars.
Bookbinding
Various inventions by Hero of Alexandria, including the steam turbine (aeolipile), water organ, and various other water-powered machines.
In 31, the Han Dynasty Chinese engineer and statesman Du Shi (d. 38) from Nanyang invented the first known hydraulic-powered bellows to heat the blast furnace in smelting cast iron. He used a complex mechanical device that was powered by the rushing current against a waterwheel, a practice that would continue in China.
Although Philo of Byzantium described the saqiya chain pump in the early 2nd century BC, the square-pallet chain pump was innovated in China during this century, mentioned first by the philosopher Wang Chong around 80 AD. Wang Chong also accurately described the water cycle in meteorology, and argued against the mainstream 'radiating influence' theory for solar eclipses, the latter of which was accepted by many, including Zhang Heng.
The Chinese astronomer Liu Xin (d. 23) documented 1080 different stars, amongst other achievements.
End of 1st century – codex replaces the scroll.
Christianity
According to the New Testament, during the reign of Tiberius, Jesus, a Jewish religious leader from Galilee, was crucified in Jerusalem on the charge of blasphemy for claiming to be the Son of God. But "God raised him from the dead" three days later, see Resurrection of Jesus. Over the next few decades his followers, following the Great Commission, including the apostle Paul, carried his message throughout the Greek-speaking regions of Asia Minor, eventually introducing it to Rome itself. Roman rulers began to persecute the new sect almost immediately (the emperor Nero accused the Christians of starting the fires that destroyed much of Rome in 64 AD), and would continue to do so for centuries, sometimes vigorously, and other times passively. Christian tradition records that all of Christ's apostles except John the Evangelist suffered martyrdom.
In the 4th century, Christianity was eventually taken up by the emperor Constantine. One of his successors Julian the Apostate renounced it for paganism and again persecuted the Church. However, by the end of the 4th century, Emperor Theodosius I proclaimed Christianity as the state religion of the Roman Empire.
Decades and years
Note: years before or after the 1st century are in italics.
Related pages
Kofun period
References |
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