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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: You can see an example of a negative feedback loop in Figure below . It shows how levels of thyroid hormones regulate the thyroid gland. This loop involves the hypothalamus and pituitary gland as well as the thyroid gland. Low levels of thyroid hormones in the blood cause the release of hormones by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland. These hormones stimulate the thyroid gland to secrete more hormones. The opposite happens with high levels of thyroid hormones in the blood. The hypothalamus and pituitary gland stop releasing hormones that stimulate the thyroid.
Question: Low levels of thyroid hormones in the blood cause the release of what by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland?
Answer:
|
hormones
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Context:
Question: Mesophyll consists mainly of parenchyma cells specialized for what?
Answer:
|
photosynthesis
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Mesophyll consists mainly of parenchyma cells specialized for photosynthesis.
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Context: In an anticline, rocks arch upward. A three-dimensional anticline is a dome.
Question: What is a three-dimensional anticline called?
Answer:
|
dome
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A three-dimensional anticline is called an anticline.
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Context: Amphibians have permeable skin that easily absorbs substances from the environment. This may explain why they seem to be especially sensitive to pollution. Monitoring the health and survival of amphibians may help people detect pollution early, before other organisms are affected.
Question: What group of animals has permeable skin that makes them vulnerable to pollution?
Answer:
|
amphibians
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Context: Breeding in birds is through internal fertilization, where the egg is fertilized inside the female.
Question: Breeding in birds occurs through an internal type of what process?
Answer:
|
fertilization
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Context: Greenhouse gases include CO 2 , H 2 O, methane, O 3 , nitrous oxides (NO and NO 2 ), and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). All are a normal part of the atmosphere except CFCs. The table below shows how each greenhouse gas naturally enters the atmosphere ( Table below ).
Question: Co 2 , h 2 o, methane, o 3 , nitrous oxides (no and no 2 ), and chlorofluorocarbons (cfcs) are known as what type of gases?
Answer:
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: Visit this website (http://openstaxcollege. org/l/embryo_fetus2) to see the stages of human fetal development. Labor is the muscular contractions to expel the fetus and placenta from the uterus. Toward the end of the third trimester, estrogen causes receptors on the uterine wall to develop and bind the hormone oxytocin. At this time, the baby reorients, facing forward and down with the back or crown of the head engaging the cervix (uterine opening). This causes the cervix to stretch and nerve impulses are sent to the hypothalamus, which signals the release of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary. Oxytocin causes smooth muscle in the uterine wall to contract. At the same time, the placenta releases prostaglandins into the uterus, increasing the contractions. A positive feedback relay occurs between the uterus, hypothalamus, and the posterior pituitary to assure an adequate supply of oxytocin. As more smooth muscle cells are recruited, the contractions increase in intensity and force. There are three stages to labor. During stage one, the cervix thins and dilates. This is necessary for the baby and placenta to be expelled during birth. The cervix will eventually dilate to about 10 cm. During stage two, the baby is expelled from the uterus. The uterus contracts and the mother pushes as she compresses her abdominal muscles to aid the delivery. The last stage is the passage of the placenta after the baby has been born and the organ has completely disengaged from the uterine wall. If labor should stop before stage two is reached, synthetic oxytocin, known as Pitocin, can be administered to restart and maintain labor.
Question: Labor is the muscular contractions to expel the fetus and placenta from where?
Answer:
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: Ice caps are large glaciers that cover a larger area than just a valley. An ice cap can bury an entire mountain range or region ( Figure below ). Glaciers come off of ice caps into valleys.
Question: What are large glaciers that cover a larger area than just a valley?
Answer:
|
ice caps
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Context: Muscle fibers are made mostly of protein.
Question: What type of fibers are made mostly of protein in living things?
Answer:
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muscle fibers
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Context: Paint keeps oxygen and water from coming into direct contact with the metal, which prevents corrosion. Paint is more necessary because salt is an electrolyte that increases the conductivity of water and facilitates the flow of electric current between anodic and cathodic sites.
Question: Paint keeps oxygen and water from coming into direct contact with the metal, which prevents what?
Answer:
|
corrosion
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: In the troposphere, warm air ordinarily sits below cooler air.
Question: Does warm air sit above or below cooler air in the troposphere?
Answer:
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below
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Context: Volcanoes at divergent plate boundaries are in the East Pacific Rise. Convergent plate boundaries, where there are trenches, have volcanoes. Hotspot volcanoes are in chains in the middle of the ocean basin.
Question: What do convergent plate boundaries with trenches have?
Answer:
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volcanoes
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: The placenta permits a long period of fetal growth in the uterus. As a result, the fetus can become large and mature before birth. This increases its chances of surviving.
Question: What allows for a large and mature fetus before birth, resulting from a long period of fetal growth in the uterus?
Answer:
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the placenta
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context:
Question: The force that pulls objects toward the earth is what?
Answer:
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gravity
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The force that pulls objects toward the earth is gravity.
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: The fetus is connected to the placenta through the umbilical cord. This is a long tube that contains two arteries and a vein. Blood from the fetus enters the placenta through the umbilical arteries. It exchanges gases and other substances with the mother’s blood. Then it travels back to the fetus through the umbilical vein.
Question: The umbilical cord connects the fetus to what structure?
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placenta
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The umbilical cord connects the fetus to the placenta.
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Context: Rheumatic fever is caused by a virus that has antigens similar to molecules in human heart tissues. When the immune system attacks the virus, it may also attack the heart. What type of immune system disease is rheumatic fever? Explain your answer.
Question: Name the fever that is caused by a virus that has antigens similar to molecules in human heart tissues.
Answer:
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rheumatic fever
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Context:
Question: What have cell-surface antigen receptors for foreign molecules?
Answer:
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: Prenatal diagnosis refers to the diagnosis of a disease or condition before the baby is born.
Question: What type of diagnosis happens before a baby is born?
Answer:
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prenatal
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Context: Vertebrates are animals that have a backbone. All of them are placed in the Phylum Chordata. Modern vertebrates include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Only about 5 percent of animal species are vertebrates.
Question: What do we call animals that have a backbone and belong to the phylum chordata?
Answer:
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: DNA and RNA are nucleic acids. DNA stores genetic information. RNA helps build proteins. Proteins, in turn, determine the structure and function of all your cells. Proteins consist of chains of amino acids. A protein’s structure and function depends on the sequence of its amino acids. Instructions for this sequence are encoded in DNA.
Question: Both dna and rna are what type of acids?
Answer:
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nucleic acids
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: A genetic disorder that is caused by a mutation can be inherited. Therefore, people with a genetic disorder in their family may be concerned about having children with the disorder. Professionals known as genetic counselors can help them understand the risks of their children being affected. If they decide to have children, they may be advised to have prenatal (“before birth”) testing to see if the fetus has any genetic abnormalities. One method of prenatal testing is amniocentesis . In this procedure, a few fetal cells are extracted from the fluid surrounding the fetus, and the fetal chromosomes are examined.
Question: What measure is resorted to by people who wish to screen out genetic abnormalities in the fetus?
Answer:
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Context: Some substances are too big to be pumped across the cell membrane. They may enter or leave the cell by vesicle transport . This takes energy, so it's another form of active transport. You can see how vesicle transport occurs in Figure below .
Question: A substance too big to be pumped across the cell membrane may enter or leave the cell by what method?
Answer:
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vesicle transport
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: Mechanical digestion occurs when large chunks of food are broken down into smaller pieces. This is a physical process that happens mainly in the mouth and stomach.
Question: What physical process occurs when large chunks of food are broken down into smaller pieces?
Answer:
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mechanical digestion
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: At divergent plate boundaries hot mantle rock rises into the space where the plates are moving apart. As the hot mantle rock rises, it goes from higher to lower pressure. This is because there is no longer the weight of all the rock above it. Lower pressure lowers the melting temperature of the rock (2 in the previous section). This is why there is volcanism at divergent plate boundaries. Lava erupts through long cracks in the ground, or fissures.
Question: Lava erupts through long cracks in the ground, also called what?
Answer:
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fissures
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: Molecules move from an area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration until an equilibrium is met. The molecules continue to cross the membrane at equilibrium, but at equal rates in both directions.
Question: Molecules move from an area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration until an what is met?
Answer:
|
equilibrium
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The molecules continue to cross the membrane at equilibrium, but at equal rates in both directions.
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: Chromosomal alterations are mutations that change chromosome structure. They occur when a section of a chromosome breaks off and rejoins incorrectly or does not rejoin at all. Possible ways these mutations can occur are illustrated in Figure below . Go to this link for a video about chromosomal alterations: http://www. youtube. com/watch?v=OrXRSqa_3lU (2:18).
Question: Chromosomal alterations are mutations that change what?
Answer:
|
chromosome structure
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: Reactions and Compounds of Nitrogen Like carbon, nitrogen has four valence orbitals (one 2s and three 2p), so it can participate in at most four electron-pair bonds by using sp3 hybrid orbitals. Unlike carbon, however, nitrogen does not form long chains because of repulsive interactions between lone pairs of electrons on adjacent atoms. These interactions become important at the shorter internuclear distances encountered with the smaller, second-period elements of groups 15, 16, and 17. (For more information on internuclear distance, see Chapter 7 "The Periodic Table and Periodic Trends", Section 7.2 "Sizes of Atoms and Ions" and Chapter 8 "Ionic versus Covalent Bonding", Section 8.2 "Ionic Bonding". ) Stable compounds with N–N bonds are limited to chains of no more than three N atoms, such as the azide ion (N 3−). Nitrogen is the only pnicogen that normally forms multiple bonds with itself and other second-period elements, using π overlap of adjacent np orbitals. Thus the stable form of elemental nitrogen is N 2, whose N≡N bond is so strong (DN≡N = 942 kJ/mol) compared with the N–N and N=N bonds (DN–N = 167 kJ/mol; DN=N = 418 kJ/mol) that all compounds containing N–N and N=N bonds are thermodynamically unstable with respect to the formation of N2. In fact, the formation of the N≡N bond is so thermodynamically favored that virtually all compounds containing N–N bonds are potentially explosive. Again in contrast to carbon, nitrogen undergoes only two important chemical reactions at room temperature: it reacts with metallic lithium to form lithium nitride, and it is reduced to ammonia by certain microorganisms. (For more information lithium, seeChapter 21 "Periodic Trends and the ". ) At higher temperatures, however, N2 reacts with more electropositive elements, such as those in group 13, to give binary nitrides, which range from covalent to ionic in character. Like the corresponding compounds of carbon, binary compounds of nitrogen with oxygen, hydrogen, or other nonmetals are usually covalent molecular substances. Few binary molecular compounds of nitrogen are formed by direct reaction of the elements. At elevated temperatures, N2 reacts with H2 to form ammonia, with O2 to form a mixture of NO and NO2, and with carbon to form cyanogen (N≡C–C≡N); elemental nitrogen does not react with the halogens or the other chalcogens. Nonetheless, all the binary nitrogen halides (NX3) are known. Except for NF3, all are toxic,.
Question: What is the most electron-pair bonds a nitrogen atom can participate in?
Answer:
|
four
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: Flammability is the ability of matter to burn. Wood is flammable; iron is not. When wood burns, it changes to ashes, carbon dioxide, water vapor, and other gases. After burning, it is no longer wood.
Question: The ability of matter to burn is called?
Answer:
|
flammability
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The ability of matter to burn is called flammability.
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Context: There are two different types of immune responses. Both types involve lymphocytes. However, one type of response involves B cells. The other type involves T cells.
Question: What type of systemic response involves lymphocytes?
Answer:
|
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: Plastids are organelles in plant cells that may have various jobs. The main types of plastids are chloroplasts, chromoplasts, and leucoplasts.
Question: Chloroplasts, chromoplasts, and leucoplasts are all plastids, organelles found in what kind of cells?
Answer:
|
plant cells
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: Urine is a liquid waste formed by the kidneys as they filter the blood. If you are getting plenty of fluids, your urine should be almost clear. But you might have noticed that sometimes your urine is darker than usual. Do you know why this happens? Sometimes your body is low on water and trying to reduce the amount of water lost in urine. Therefore, your urine gets darker than usual. Your body is striving to maintain homeostasis through the process of excretion.
Question: What is the term for liquid waste formed by kidneys?
Answer:
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urine
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The term for liquid waste formed by kidneys is urine.
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Context: Grazers, such as sea urchins, are organisms that feed on available plants. Sea urchins are omnivorous, eating both plant and animals. The sea urchin mainly feeds on algae on the coral and rocks, along with decomposing matter such as dead fish, mussels, sponges, and barnacles.
Question: What are organisms that feed on available plants called?
Answer:
|
grazers
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What are organisms that feed on both plants and animals called?
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: 6.2 Potential, Kinetic, Free, and Activation Energy Energy comes in many different forms. Objects in motion do physical work, and kinetic energy is the energy of objects in motion. Objects that are not in motion may have the potential to do work, and thus, have potential energy. Molecules also have potential energy because the breaking of molecular bonds has the potential to release energy. Living cells depend on the harvesting of potential energy from molecular bonds to perform work. Free energy is a measure of energy that is available to do work. The free energy of a system changes during energy transfers such as chemical reactions, and this change is referred to as ∆G. The ∆G of a reaction can be negative or positive, meaning that the reaction releases energy or consumes energy, respectively. A reaction with a negative ∆G that gives off energy is called an exergonic reaction. One with a positive ∆G that requires energy input is called an endergonic reaction. Exergonic reactions are said to be spontaneous, because their products have less energy than their reactants. The products of endergonic reactions have a higher energy state than the reactants, and so these are nonspontaneous reactions. However, all reactions (including spontaneous -∆G reactions) require an initial input of energy in order to reach the transition state, at which they’ll proceed. This initial input of energy is called the activation energy.
Question: What kind of energy is specifically defined as the energy that is available to do work?
Answer:
|
free
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: The majority of the human genome is non-coding sequence. These sequences include regulatory sequences, and DNA with unknown functions. These sequences include tandem repeat elements known as satellite DNA , and transposons. Satellite DNA consists of very large arrays of tandemly repeating, non-coding DNA. The repeating units can be just a single base (a mono nucleotide repeat), two bases (a dinucleotide repeat), three bases (a trinucleotide repeat) or a much larger repeating unit. Some repeating units are several thousand base pairs long, and the total size of a satellite DNA segment can be several megabases without interruption.
Question: What is the term for very large arrays of tandemly repeating, non-coding dna?
Answer:
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satellite dna
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: Photosynthesis changes light energy to chemical energy. The chemical energy is stored in the bonds of glucose molecules. Glucose is used for energy by the cells of almost all living things. Plants make their own glucose. Other organisms get glucose by consuming plants (or organisms that consume plants). How do living things get energy from glucose? The answer is cellular respiration.
Question: Photosynthesis changes light energy to what type of energy?
Answer:
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chemical
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Photosynthesis changes light energy to chemical energy. The chemical energy is stored in the bonds of glucose molecules
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: Enzymes may also allow reactions to occur by different pathways that have lower activation energy.
Question: What catalyst substances may also allow reactions to occur by different pathways that have lower activation energy?
Answer:
|
enzymes
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: Cutting down on the use of chemical fertilizers is one way to prevent dead zones in bodies of water. Preserving wetlands is also important. Wetlands are habitats such as swamps, marshes, and bogs where the ground is soggy or covered with water much of the year. Wetlands slow down and filter runoff before it reaches bodies of water. Wetlands also provide breeding grounds for many different species of organisms.
Question: Cutting down on the use of chemical fertilizers and preserving wetlands are ways to prevent what "unlivable" regions in bodies of water?
Answer:
|
dead zones
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Context: 9.3 Response to the Signal The initiation of a signaling pathway is a response to external stimuli. This response can take many different forms, including protein synthesis, a change in the cell’s metabolism, cell growth, or even cell death. Many pathways influence the cell by initiating gene expression, and the methods utilized are quite numerous. Some pathways activate enzymes that interact with DNA transcription factors. Others modify proteins and induce them to change their location in the cell. Depending on the status of the organism, cells can respond by storing energy as glycogen or fat, or making it available in the form of glucose. A signal transduction pathway allows muscle cells to respond to immediate requirements for energy in the form of glucose. Cell growth is almost always stimulated by external signals called growth factors. Uncontrolled cell growth leads to cancer, and mutations in the genes encoding protein components of signaling pathways are often found in tumor cells. Programmed cell death, or apoptosis, is important for removing damaged or unnecessary cells. The use of cellular signaling to organize the dismantling of a cell ensures that harmful molecules from the cytoplasm are not released into the spaces between cells, as they are in uncontrolled death, necrosis. Apoptosis also ensures the efficient recycling of the components of the dead cell. Termination of the cellular signaling cascade is very important so that the response to a signal is appropriate in both timing and intensity. Degradation of signaling molecules and dephosphorylation of phosphorylated intermediates of the pathway by phosphatases are two ways to terminate signals within the cell.
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Context: An ecosystem is a group of living things and their environment. The word ecosystem is short for “ecological system. ” Like any system, an ecosystem is a group of parts that work together. You can see examples of ecosystems in Figure below . The forest pictured is a big ecosystem. Besides trees, what living things do you think are part of the forest ecosystem? The dead tree stump in the same forest is a small ecosystem. It includes plants, mosses, and fungi. It also includes insects and worms.
Question: A group of living things and their environment is called what?
Answer:
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ecosystem
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Context: The gonads secrete sex hormones. The male gonads are called testes. They secrete the male sex hormone testosterone. The female gonads are called ovaries. They secrete the female sex hormone estrogen. Sex hormones are involved in the changes of puberty. They also control the production of gametes by the gonads.
Question: What kind of hormones are secreted by organs classified as gonads?
Answer:
|
sex hormones
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The gonads secrete sex hormones. The male gonads are called testes. They secrete
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Context: Noninfectious diseases can't be passed from one person to another. Instead, these types of diseases are caused by factors such as the environment, genetics, and lifestyle. Examples of inherited noninfectious conditions include cystic fibrosis and Down syndrome. If you're born with these conditions, you must learn how to manage the symptoms. Examples of conditions caused by environmental or lifestyle factors include heart disease and skin cancer. We can't change our genetic codes, but there are plenty of ways to prevent other noninfectious diseases. For example, cutting down on exposure to cigarette smoke and the sun's rays will prevent certain types of cancer.
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lifestyle
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Context: footprints, similar to those of modern humans, were found in Laetoli, Tanzania and dated to 3.6 million years ago. They showed that hominins at the time of Australopithecus were walking upright. There were a number of Australopithecus species, which are often referred to as australopiths. Australopithecus anamensis lived about 4.2 million years ago. More is known about another early species, Australopithecus afarensis, which lived between 3.9 and 2.9 million years ago. This species demonstrates a trend in human evolution: the reduction of the dentition and jaw in size. afarensis (Figure 29.42) had smaller canines and molars compared to apes, but these were larger than those of modern humans. Its brain size was 380–450 cubic centimeters, approximately the size of a modern chimpanzee brain. It also had prognathic jaws, which is a relatively longer jaw than that of modern humans. In the mid-1970s, the fossil of an adult female A. afarensis was found in the Afar region of Ethiopia and dated to 3.24 million years ago (Figure 29.43). The fossil, which is informally called “Lucy,” is significant because it was the most complete australopith fossil found, with 40 percent of the skeleton recovered.
Question: What was the informal female name given to the adult fossil found in ethiopia and thought to be over 3 million years old?
Answer:
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lucy
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Context: Cnidarians in the polyp form usually reproduce asexually. One type of asexual reproduction in polyps leads to the formation of new medusae. Medusae usually reproduce sexually with sperm and eggs. Fertilization forms a zygote. The zygote develops into a larva, and the larva develops into a polyp. There are many variations on this general life cycle. Obviously, species that exist only as polyps or medusae have a life cycle without the other form.
Question: What is the stage between a zygote and polyp?
Answer:
|
larva
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: Cells are found in all different types of environments, and these environments are constantly changing. For example, one-celled organisms, like bacteria, can be found on your skin, in the ground, or in all different types of water. Therefore, cells need a way to protect themselves. This job is done by the cell membrane, which is also known as the plasma membrane.
Question: Name a one-celled organism that can be found on your skin, in the ground, or in all different types of water.
Answer:
|
bacteria
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: Like the cells of all eukaryotes, animal cells have a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles (see Figure below ). Unlike the cells of plants and fungi, animal cells lack a cell wall. This gives animal cells flexibility. It lets them take on different shapes so they can become specialized to do particular jobs. The human nerve cell shown in Figure below is a good example. Its shape suits its function of transmitting nerve impulses over long distances. A nerve cell would be unable to take this shape if it were surrounded by a rigid cell wall.
Question: Unlike the cells of plants and fungi, animal cells lack what?
Answer:
|
cell wall
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Context: Sublimation occurs when ice and snow change directly to water vapor. This also happens because of heat from the sun.
Question: When does sublimation occur?
Answer:
|
when the ice and snow change directly into water vapors
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When the temperature of the ice or snow is above the freezing point of water, sublimation occurs.
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context:
Question: Capillaries rejoin to form venules, which convey blood to what?
Answer:
|
veins
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: Not getting enough minerals can cause health problems. For example, too little calcium may cause osteoporosis. This is a disease in which bones become soft and break easily. Getting too much of some minerals can also cause health problems. Many people get too much sodium. Sodium is added to most packaged foods. People often add more sodium to their food by using table salt. Too much sodium causes high blood pressure in some people.
Question: What disease can too little calcium cause?
Answer:
|
osteoporosis
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The disease caused by too little calcium is osteoporosis.
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: Chemical reactions are described using chemical equations.
Question: How do we describe chemical reactions?
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chemical equations
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Chemical reactions are described using chemical equations.
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Context:
Question: In certain populations, some of the chromosomes have become what?
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Which populations are you referring to?
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Context: Human organ systems work together to carry out many of their functions. The skeletal and muscular systems are no exception.
Question: Groupings of related organs in the human body are referred to as "organ" what?
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The human body is composed of many different organs that work together to carry out many of their functions.
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: 4. Molecular crystals -- Molecular crystals typically consist of molecules at the lattice points of the crystal, held together by relatively weak intermolecular forces (see Figure below ). The intermolecular forces may be dispersion forces in the case of nonpolar crystals, or dipole-dipole forces in the case of polar crystals. Some molecular crystals, such as ice, have molecules held together by hydrogen bonds. When one of the noble gases is cooled and solidified, the lattice points are individual atoms rather than molecules. In all cases, the intermolecular forces holding the particles together are far weaker than either ionic or covalent bonds. As a result, the melting and boiling points of molecular crystals are much lower. Lacking ions or free electrons, molecular crystals are poor electrical conductors.
Question: What crystals consist of molecules at the lattice points of the crystal, held together by relatively weak intermolecular forces?
Answer:
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molecular crystals
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Context: Work is defined as the product of a force times the distance over which the force acts. The force and the distance must act along the same line; if the angle between them is not (or ) then you must use the component of force; hence the in the equation.
Question: What is defined as the product of a force times the distance over which the force acts?
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: Many plants also produce hormones and toxins to fight pathogens. For example, willow trees, like the one in Figure below , produce salicylic acid to kill bacteria. The same compound is used in many acne products for the same reason.
Question: What do willow trees produce to kill bacteria?
Answer:
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salicylic acid
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Willow trees produce salicylic acid to kill bacteria.
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: Biodiversity, Species Richness, and Relative Species Abundance Biodiversity describes a community’s biological complexity: it is measured by the number of different species (species richness) in a particular area and their relative abundance (species evenness). The area in question could be a habitat, a biome, or the entire biosphere. Species richness is the term that is used to describe the number of species living in a habitat or biome. Species richness varies across the globe (Figure 45.29). One factor in determining species richness is latitude, with the greatest species richness occurring in ecosystems near the equator, which often have warmer temperatures, large amounts of rainfall, and low seasonality. The lowest species richness occurs near the poles, which are much colder, drier, and thus less conducive to life in Geologic time (time since glaciations). The predictability of climate or productivity is also an important factor. Other factors influence species richness as well. For example, the study of island biogeography attempts to explain the relatively high species richness found in certain isolated island chains, including the Galápagos Islands that inspired the young Darwin. Relative species abundance is the number of individuals in a species relative to the total number of individuals in all species within a habitat, ecosystem, or biome. Foundation species often have the highest relative abundance of species.
Question: In the field of biodiversity, "richness" and "abundance" are used to describe different what?
Answer:
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species
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: Upwelling takes place at some coastlines or along the Equator. Upwelling brings cool, nutrient-rich water to the surface.
Question: What takes place at some coastlines or along the equator and brings cool, nutrient-rich water to the surface?
Answer:
|
upwelling
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: Any organic material can be made into electricity. But some materials are better than others. Wastes can be used, like almond shells. Biomass power is a great use of wastes. It's hard to use wastes as a consistent large scale source of energy though.
Question: What kind of material that might otherwise go to a landfill can serve as the source of biomass power?
Answer:
|
organic waste
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: Some parasites live on the surface of their host. Others live inside their host. They may enter the host through a break in the skin or in food or water. For example, roundworms are parasites of mammals, including humans, cats, and dogs (see Figure below ). The worms produce huge numbers of eggs, which are passed in the host’s feces to the environment. Other individuals may be infected by swallowing the eggs in contaminated food or water.
Question: In what do a roundworm's eggs pass from host to the environment?
Answer:
|
feces
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: Irrigation can waste a lot of water. The type of irrigation shown in Figure below is the most wasteful. The water is sprayed into the air and then falls to the ground. But much of the water never reaches the crops. Instead, it evaporates in the air or runs off the fields. Irrigation water may cause other problems. The water may dissolve agricultural chemicals such as pesticides. When the water soaks into the ground, the dissolved chemicals do, too. They may enter groundwater or run off into rivers or lakes. Salts in irrigation water can also collect in the soil. The soil may get too salty for plants to grow.
Question: Irrigation can waste a lot of what natural resource?
Answer:
|
water
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Context: An electron is accelerated from rest through a potential difference of volts. It then enters a region traveling perpendicular to a magnetic field of . Calculate the velocity of the electron.
Question: An electron is accelerated from rest through a potential difference of what?
Answer:
|
volts
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Context: Venous Drainage of the Brain Circulation to the brain is both critical and complex (see Figure 20.37). Many smaller veins of the brain stem and the superficial veins of the cerebrum lead to larger vessels referred to as intracranial sinuses. These include the superior and inferior sagittal sinuses, straight sinus, cavernous sinuses, left and right sinuses, the petrosal sinuses, and the occipital sinuses. Ultimately, sinuses will lead back to either the inferior jugular vein or vertebral vein. Most of the veins on the superior surface of the cerebrum flow into the largest of the sinuses, the superior sagittal sinus. It is located midsagittally between the meningeal and periosteal layers of the dura mater within the falx cerebri and, at first glance in images or models, can be mistaken for the subarachnoid space. Most reabsorption of cerebrospinal fluid occurs via the chorionic villi (arachnoid granulations) into the superior sagittal sinus. Blood from most of the smaller vessels originating from the inferior cerebral veins flows into the great cerebral vein and into the straight sinus. Other cerebral veins and those from the eye socket flow into the cavernous sinus, which flows into the petrosal sinus and then into the internal jugular vein. The occipital sinus, sagittal sinus, and straight sinuses all flow into the left and right transverse sinuses near the lambdoid suture. The transverse sinuses in turn flow into the sigmoid sinuses that pass through the jugular foramen and into the internal jugular vein. The internal jugular vein flows parallel to the common carotid artery and is more or less its counterpart. It empties into the brachiocephalic vein. The veins draining the cervical vertebrae and the posterior surface of the skull, including some blood from the occipital sinus, flow into the vertebral veins. These parallel the vertebral arteries and travel through the transverse foramina of the cervical vertebrae. The vertebral veins also flow into the brachiocephalic veins. Table 20.13 summarizes the major veins of the brain.
Question: What is the largest of the sinuses?
Answer:
|
superior sagittal sinus
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Context: A migraine is a more severe type of headache. It occurs when blood vessels in the head dilate, or expand. This may be triggered by certain foods, bright lights, weather changes, or other factors. People with migraines may also have nausea or other symptoms. Fortunately, migraines can often be relieved with prescription drugs.
Question: When blood vessels in the head dilate, what kind of severe headache can occur?
Answer:
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migraine
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A migraine is a more severe type of headache. It occurs when blood vessels in the head dilate
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Context:
Question: Drip iirigation requires less water and reduces what?
Answer:
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salinization
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What is drip irrigation?
User: Drip irrigation is a method of water delivery to plants that
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Context: A chemical reaction is a process that changes some chemical substances into others. It involves breaking and forming chemical bonds. Types of chemical reactions include synthesis reactions and decomposition reactions.
Question: What is the name of the process that changes some chemical substances into others?
Answer:
|
chemical reaction
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Context: A type of work called expansion work (or pressure-volume work) occurs when a system pushes back the surroundings against a restraining pressure, or when the surroundings compress the system. An example of this occurs during the operation of an internal combustion engine. The reaction of gasoline and oxygen is exothermic. Some of this energy is given off as heat, and some does work pushing the piston in the cylinder. The substances involved in the reaction are the system, and the engine and the rest of the universe are the surroundings. The system loses energy by both heating and doing work on the surroundings, and its internal energy decreases. (The engine is able to keep the car moving because this process is repeated many times per second while the engine is running. ) We will consider how to determine the amount of work involved in a chemical or physical change in the chapter on thermodynamics.
Question: What type of work called occurs when a system pushes back the surroundings against a restraining pressure?
Answer:
|
expansion work
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Context:
Question: What occurs when there is little to no rain in a period of time?
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Context: The Golgi apparatus is usually made up of five to eight cup-shaped, membrane-covered stacks of discs called cisternae (singular, cisterna ), as shown in Figure below . Both plant and animal cells have a Golgi apparatus. A typical mammalian cell will have 40 to 80 of these stacks. While plant cells can have up to several hundred Golgi stacks scattered throughout the cytoplasm. In plants, the Golgi apparatus contains enzymes that synthesize some of the cell wall polysaccharides.
Question: Which organelle is made up of 5 to eight cup shaped, membrane covered stacks of discs known as cisternae?
Answer:
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golgi apparatus
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Context: Photography by Kat. Ferns are common in the understory of the tropical rainforest . CC BY 2.0.
Question: In a tropical rainforest, where are ferns common?
Answer:
|
understory
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Context: Resonance is the use of two or more Lewis structures to represent the covalent bonding in a molecule. One of the valid structures is referred to as a resonance structure. It is now understood that the true structure of a molecule which displays resonance is that of an average or a hybrid of all the resonance structures. In the case of the O 3 molecule, each of the covalent bonds between O atoms is best thought of as being “one and a half” bonds, as opposed to either a pure single bond or a pure double bond. This “half-bond” can be shown as a dotted line in both the Lewis structure and the molecular model (see Figure below ).
Question: What is the term for the use of two or more lewis structures to represent the covalent bonding in a molecule?
Answer:
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resonance
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: The intensity of an earthquake can be determined in many ways. The Mercalli Scale identifies the damage done and what people feel, the Richter Scale measures the height of the largest seismic wave, and the moment magnitude scale measures the total energy released by an earthquake.
Question: What measures the height of the largest seismic wave or earth quakes?
Answer:
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richter scale
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Context: An aquifer is a layer of saturated porous rock. It lies below the water table. An impermeable layer, such as clay, is below the aquifer.
Question: What is a layer of saturated porous rock?
Answer:
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an aquifer
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Context: Neurodevelopmental Disorders Neurodevelopmental disorders occur when the development of the nervous system is disturbed. There are several different classes of neurodevelopmental disorders. Some, like Down Syndrome, cause intellectual deficits. Others specifically affect communication, learning, or the motor system. Some disorders like autism spectrum disorder and attention deficit/ hyperactivity disorder have complex symptoms. Autism Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder. Its severity differs from person to person. Estimates for the prevalence of the disorder have changed rapidly in the past few decades. Current estimates suggest that one in 88 children will develop the disorder. ASD is four times more prevalent in males than females.
Question: What happens when development of nervous system is disturbed?
Answer:
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neurodevelopmental disorders
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Context: Molecules are groups of atoms that behave as a single unit.
Question: What are groups of atoms that behave as a single unit called?
Answer:
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molecules
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Context: Severe thunderstorms have a lot of energy and strong winds. This allows them to produce tornadoes. A tornado is a funnel-shaped cloud of whirling high winds. You can see a tornado in Figure below . The funnel moves along the ground, destroying everything in its path. As it moves it loses energy. Before this happens it may have gone up to 25 kilometers (16 miles). Fortunately, tornadoes are narrow. They may be only 150 meters (500 feet) wide.
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Context: 17.4 The Thyroid Gland The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped organ located in the neck anterior to the trachea. Its hormones regulate basal metabolism, oxygen use, nutrient metabolism, the production of ATP, and calcium homeostasis. They also contribute to protein synthesis and the normal growth and development of body tissues, including maturation of the nervous system, and they increase the body’s sensitivity to catecholamines. The thyroid hormones triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) are produced and secreted by the thyroid gland in response to thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) from the anterior pituitary. Synthesis of the amino acid–derived T3 and T4 hormones requires iodine. Insufficient amounts of iodine in the diet can lead to goiter, cretinism, and many other disorders.
Question: What gland is a butterfly-shaped organ located in the neck anterior to the trachea?
Answer:
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thyroid gland
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Context: An electric generator is a device that changes kinetic energy to electrical energy through electromagnetic induction. A simple diagram of an electric generator is shown in Figure below . In a generator, some form of energy is applied to turn a shaft. This causes a coil of wire to rotate between opposite poles of a magnet. Because the coil is rotating in a magnetic field, electric current is generated in the wire. If the diagram in Figure below looks familiar to you, that’s because a generator is an electric motor in reverse. Look back at the electric motor in Figure above . If you were to mechanically turn the shaft of the motor (instead of using electromagnetism to turn it), the motor would generate electricity just like an electric generator. You can learn how to make a very simple electric generator by watching the video at the URL below. Making your own generator will help you understand how a generator works.
Question: What is a device that changes kinetic energy to electrical energy through electromagnetic induction?
Answer:
|
an electric generator
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Context: Figure 21.14 Vaccinations are designed to boost immunity to a virus to prevent infection. (credit: USACE Europe District).
Question: Vaccinations are designed to boost immunity to a virus to prevent this?
Answer:
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infection
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: Examples of Power Examples of power are limited only by the imagination, because there are as many types as there are forms of work and energy. (See Table 7.3 for some examples. ) Sunlight reaching Earth’s surface carries a maximum power of about 1.3 kilowatts per square meter (kW/m 2). A tiny fraction of this is retained by Earth over the long term. Our consumption rate of fossil fuels is far greater than the rate at which they are stored, so it is inevitable that they will be depleted. Power implies that energy is transferred, perhaps changing form. It is never possible to change one form completely into another without losing some of it as thermal energy. For example, a 60-W incandescent bulb converts only 5 W of electrical power to light, with 55 W dissipating into thermal energy. Furthermore, the typical electric power plant converts only 35 to 40% of its fuel into electricity. The remainder becomes a huge amount of thermal energy that must be dispersed as heat transfer, as rapidly as it is created. A coal-fired power 6 plant may produce 1000 megawatts; 1 megawatt (MW) is 10 W of electric power. But the power plant consumes chemical energy at a rate of about 2500 MW, creating heat transfer to the surroundings at a rate of 1500 MW. (See Figure 7.25.
Question: What does power imply is happening to energy?
Answer:
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being transferred
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: Friction is the force that opposes motion between any surfaces that are in contact. There are four types of friction: static, sliding, rolling, and fluid friction. Static, sliding, and rolling friction occur between solid surfaces. Fluid friction occurs in liquids and gases. All four types of friction are described below. You can see a video demonstration of the different types at this URL:.
Question: What 3 types of friction occur between solid surfaces?
Answer:
|
static, sliding, rolling
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: Some materials are natural permanent magnets. The most magnetic material in nature is the mineral magnetite, also called lodestone (see Figure below ). The magnetic domains of magnetite naturally align with Earth’s axis. The picture on the left shows a chunk of magnetite attracting small bits of iron. The magnetite spoon compass shown on the right dates back about 2000 years and comes from China. The handle of the spoon always points north. Clearly, the magnetic properties of magnetite have been recognized for thousands of years.
Question: Also called lodestone, the mineral magnetite is the most powerful what?
Answer:
|
natural permanent magnet
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: Life Cycles of Algae: Zygotic Meiosis (A), Gametic Meiosis (B) and Sporic Meiosis (C). In life cycle A (left), diploid (2n) zygotes result from fertilization and then undergo meiosis to produce haploid (n) gametes. The gametes undergo mitosis and produce many additional copies of themselves. How are life cycles B and C different from life cycle A?.
Question: What do gametes undergo to produce many additional copies of themselves?
Answer:
|
mitosis
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: Loudness refers to how loud or soft a sound seems to a listener. The loudness of sound is determined, in turn, by the intensity of the sound waves. Intensity is a measure of the amount of energy in sound waves. The unit of intensity is the decibel (dB) .
Question: What is measured by the intensity of the sound waves?
Answer:
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loudness
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: [PCl 3][Cl 2] (0.135)(0.135) = = 0.021 0.87 [PCl 5] The equilibrium constant calculated from the equilibrium concentrations is equal to the value of Kc given in the problem (when rounded to the proper number of significant figures). Thus, the calculated equilibrium concentrations check. Kc =.
Question: Because of their reactivity, we do not find most representative metals as free elements where?
Answer:
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in nature
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: Superposition refers to the position of rock layers and their relative ages. Relative age means age in comparison with other rocks, either younger or older. The relative ages of rocks are important for understanding Earth’s history. New rock layers are always deposited on top of existing rock layers. Therefore, deeper layers must be older than layers closer to the surface. This is the law of superposition . You can see an example in Figure below .
Question: What is the position of rock layers and the relative ages called?
Answer:
|
superposition
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: The appendix is a tiny remnant of a once-larger organ. In a distant ancestor, it was needed to digest food. If your appendix becomes infected, a surgeon can remove it. You won’t miss it because it no longer has any purpose in the human body.
Question: What was the appendix used for in the past but is no longer needed for?
Answer:
|
digest food
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: Living in a large colony requires good communication. Ants communicate with chemicals called pheromones. For example, an ant deposits pheromones on the ground as it returns to the nest from a food source. It is marking the path so other ants can find the food. Honeybees communicate by doing a “waggle dance. ”.
Question: Pheromones enable what, which is vital for organisms like ants that live in a large community?
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Context: The cytosol is the jelly-like material in which the contents of the cell are suspended.
Question: What is the jelly-like material in which the contents of the cell are suspended?
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Context: Transmutation also occurs when a nucleus undergoes decay. An example of beta decay is the emission of an electron by a carbon-14 nucleus.
Question: An example of beta decay is the emission of an electron by a carbon-14 what?
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Context: In this lesson, you learned about chemical bonds in a water molecule. The bonds form between atoms of hydrogen and oxygen when they share electrons. This type of bond is an example of a covalent bond.
Question: How do you calculate the atomic mass of an element?
Answer:
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add the protons and neutrons together
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Context: Loud sounds can cause hearing loss by damaging hair cells in the inner ear. The louder the sounds are, the less exposure is needed to cause hearing loss.
Question: What is damaged in the inner ear by loud sounds that cause hearing loss?
Answer:
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Context: Connective tissue Bone remodeling and repair: bone has mineral structure, and develops tiny fractures, which, under stress, can lead to larger fractures. To combat this, bone is constantly replaced. Osteoclasts channel through existing bone, tear down and leave behind osteoblasts and lacuna, leaving osteocytes. Continually resets mineral structure of bone, and is preventative maintenance. When bone broken, callus forms in open ends, periosteum gives rise to new bone with calcium and new bone matrix, leaves irregular mend. Later, osteoblasts continue fixing over time and slowly removing imperfection.
Question: Osteoclasts and osteoblasts play key roles in repair of what?
Answer:
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bone
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Context: Subarctic climates are found between 60° and 70° north latitude. Much of Canada and Alaska have this type of climate. Summers are cool and short. Winters are very cold and long. Little precipitation falls, and most of it falls during the summer. Conifer forests grow in this climate ( Figure below ).
Question: Exemplified by canada and alaska, what kind of climate has cool, short summers and long, cold winters, little precipitation, and abundant conifers?
Answer:
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subarctic climate
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Context: When zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid, the reaction bubbles vigorously as hydrogen gas is produced. The production of a gas is also an indication that a chemical reaction is occurring.
Question: What branch of biology focuses on heredity?
Answer:
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genetics
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Context: There are many layers of rock in the Earth's surface. Newer layers form on top of the older layers; the deepest rock layers are the oldest. Therefore, you can tell how old a fossil is by observing in which layer of rock it was found. The fossils and the order in which fossils appear is called the fossil record . The fossil record provides evidence for when organisms lived on Earth, how species evolved, and how some species have gone extinct. Geologists use a method called radiometric dating to determine the exact age of rocks and fossils in each layer of rock. This technique, which is possible because radioactive materials decay at a known rate, measures how much of the radioactive materials in each rock layer have broken down ( Figure below ).
Question: Fossils themselves and the order in which they appear in are generally collectively called what?
Answer:
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fossil record
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Context: Encephalitis is a brain infection most often caused by viruses. The immune system tries to fight off a brain infection, just as it tries to fight off other infections. But sometimes this can do more harm than good. The immune system’s response may cause swelling in the brain. With no room to expand, the brain pushes against the skull. This may injure the brain and even cause death. Medicines can help fight some viral infections of the brain, but not all infections.
Question: What is most often the cause of encephalitis?
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viruses
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: The global biosphere, which includes all areas that contain life, from the sea to the atmosphere.
Question: The global biosphere includes all areas of what?
Answer:
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life
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The global biosphere includes all areas of the Earth, from the sea to the atmosphere.
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: Cells are the basic building blocks of life. They are like tiny factories where virtually all life processes take place. Some living things, like the bacteria in Figure above , consist of just one cell. They are called single-celled organisms. You can see other single-celled organisms in Figure 2.2. Some living things are composed of a few to many trillions of cells. They are called multicellular organisms. Your body is composed of trillions of cells.
Question: What do we consider the basic building blocks of life?
Answer:
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cells
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: Chemoautotrophs are cells that break down inorganic molecules to supply energy for the cell, and use carbon dioxide as a carbon source. Chemoautotrophs include prokaryotes that break down hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S the “rotten egg” smelling gas), and ammonia (NH 4 ). Nitrosomonas , a species of soil bacterium, oxidizes NH 4 + to nitrite (NO 2 - ). This reaction releases energy that the bacteria use. Many chemoautotrophs also live in extreme environments such as deep sea vents.
Question: What are the cells that break down inorganic molecules to supply energy for the cell, and use carbon dioxide as a carbon source?
Answer:
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chemoautotrophs
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: Gymnosperms are vascular plants that produce seeds in cones. Examples include conifers such as pine and spruce trees. The gymnosperm life cycle has a very dominant sporophyte generation. Both gametophytes and the next generation’s new sporophytes develop on the sporophyte parent plant. Figure below is a diagram of a gymnosperm life cycle.
Question: What are vascular plants that produce seeds in cones called?
Answer:
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gymnosperms
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Vascular plants that produce seeds in cones are called gymnosperms.
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The following are context and question about them. Each context is followed by a question and answer to a given question.
Context: Fog ( Figure below ) is a cloud on the ground. Fog forms when humid air near the ground cools below its dew point. Each type of fog forms in a different way.
Question: What is formed when humid air near the ground cools below its dew point?
Answer:
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fog
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What type of fog forms when humid air near the ground cools below its dew point?
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