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FORM ONE AGRICULTURE NOTESINTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTUREThe word Agriculture is derived from two Latin words Ager which means field and cultura that means cultivation. Therefore agriculture can be defined as field cultivation. Livestock are all the domesticated animals. Definition of agriculture:Agriculture is defined as the art and science of crop and livestock production. As an artInvolves use of learned skills and performing them manually by hand . E.g. Tilling of land. Construction of farm structures. Measuring distances. Machine operations. Harvesting of crops. Feeding and handling animals. Marketing of Agricultural produce. As a scienceIt involves experimentation and application of scientific knowledge e.g. in areas such as:Soil science pedology ---study of soil. Crop pathology Study of crop diseases. Entomology--- Study of insects and their control. Agricultural Engineering--- soil and water conservation and farm power. Genetics Plant and animal breeding. Production --- Are activities that increase the quality and quantity of something. Crop production activities include: land preparation, planting, fertilizer and manure application, weeding, pest control, disease control and harvesting. Livestock production activities include:Selection and breeding. Feeding. Rearing the young stock. Parasite and disease control. Housing. Obtaining products from animals. Branches of agricultureCrop production: e.g. Field crop farming, pomology, Floriculture, olericulture.etc. Livestock production: e.g. Apiculture, Poultry keeping, aquaculture.etc. Soil science. Agricultural Economics. Agricultural Engineering. Crop farming or Arable farming: Is the cultivation of crops on cultivated land. E.g. In pure stands monocropping or mixed stands intercropping . Include:Field crops: Are crops grown on large areas of land. Are either Annual crops like cereals and pulses or perennial crops e.g. coffee, tea, sisal, cane etc. Horticultural crops: Are perishable crops and are exported to earn foreign exchange. Include:Floriculture: Growing of flowers e.g. tuber rose, roses, and carnations. Olericulture: Growing of vegetables e.g. French beans, cabbages, tomatoes.etc.. Pomology: Growing of fruits e.g. avocado, mangoes and citrus. |
French beans, cabbages, tomatoes.etc.. Pomology: Growing of fruits e.g. avocado, mangoes and citrus. Livestock farming: Include:Pastoralism mammalian livestock farming . Is the rearing of farm animals on pastures. E.g. cattle, goats, pigs, sheep, camels and rabbits. Fish farming Aquaculture ; Is the rearing of fish in fish ponds. Fish is a cheap source of proteins. Bee keeping: Apiculture ; Is the rearing of bees in bee hives. Bees provide ; Honey and Wax, income, Medicine, pollination of flowers.etc. Poultry keeping; Is the rearing of birds for meat and eggs, manure, income. Etc. Include classes of birds such as chicken most common , Ducks, geese, Ostrich, pigeon and Turkeys etc. Agricultural Economics: Deals with utilization of scarce resources i.e. of land, labour, capital and management. It aims at maximizing output while minimizing costs. Agricultural Engineering; Deals with use and maintenance of farm tools and equipment, farm machinery and farm structures. FARMING SYSTEMSA farming system is an organization of the farm and all the enterprises in relation to each other. It can be extensive or intensive. Extensive systemCharacteristicsLarge tracts of land. Low capital investment per unit area. Low labour per unit area. Low yields per unit area. Intensive systemCharacteristicsSmall tracts of land. High capital per unit area. High labour investment per unit area. High yields per unit area. Extensive or intensive farming can be carried out on small or large scale of land. The scale of production depends on:Level of technology. Land availability. Capital availability. Skilled labour available. Large Scale FarmingCharacteristicsLarge tracts of land. Heavy capital investment. Skilled labour and qualified man power. High level of management. It s for commercial purpose. Low operation costs per unit of production since it makes use of economies of scale. Depends on efficient transport. Requires good market system. Most of the work is mechanized. Provides more employment. It includes plantation farming and Ranching. Plantation farming. CharacteristicsLarge tracts of land. Production of only one crop.e.g. |
Plantation farming. CharacteristicsLarge tracts of land. Production of only one crop.e.g. Tea plantations in Kiambu and Kericho, Coffee in Kiambu, Sugarcane in Muhoroni, Sisal in Mombasa, Pineapple in Thika. Ranching : Is the keeping of livestock beef animals in marginal range areas. It is an improved pastoral-nomadism because:Animals are enclosed in an area. Diseases are controlled. Pastures are improved. Supplementary feeds and water are provided. Pests and parasites are controlled. There is provision of extension staff. N.B The livestock carrying capacity is low because of limited pasture. Ranching is becoming more and more common in Kenya because of:High meat demand. High population pressure on high potential areas. Arable farming is becoming smaller. Small Scale FarmingCharacteristicsSmall piece of land. Use of improved technology. Production of crops and livestock is spread throughout the year. Goods are produced for subsistence or commercial purpose I,e sale of surplus goods.. Does not require heavy capital investment. AdvantagesLittle capital is required. Source of livelihood to small scale farmers. Methods of FarmingMixed FarmingThis is the growing of crops and rearing of animals on the same farm. AdvantagesIt is a method of diversification whereby should one enterprise fail, the farmer can benefit from the other. There is mutual benefit between the crops and livestock where crops provide feed for livestock and animals provide them with farm yard manure. There is maximum utilization of resources. DisadvantagesLabour intensive. High initial capital required. Farmer s attention is divided. Nomadic PastoralismPastoralism: This is the practice of rearing livestock on natural pastures. Nomadism: This is the practice of moving from one place to another. Pastoral nomadism is therefore the moving of animals from one place to another in search of pasture and water. This is common in the arid and semi-arid areas. Shifting CultivationFarming on a piece of land continuously until it is exhausted after which the farmer moves to a new more fertile land. It is applicable where;Land is abundantPopulation is sparseNumber of livestock per unit area is low. Land is communally owned. |
Shifting CultivationFarming on a piece of land continuously until it is exhausted after which the farmer moves to a new more fertile land. It is applicable where;Land is abundantPopulation is sparseNumber of livestock per unit area is low. Land is communally owned. Advantages of shifting cultivationIt has low capital requirementThere is no pests and diseases build-upSoil structure is maintainedNo land disputes as land ownership is not individualized. Disadvantages of shifting cultivationTotal yields per unit are is lowFarmers have no incentive to develop land and conserve water and soilA lot of time is wasted when the farmer is shifting and building structures. Not applicable in areas of high population density or where there is high population increase. Iv AgroforestryAgroforestry - Involves growing of trees and crops and keeping of animals on the same piece of land at the same time. Suitable tree species for agroforestryLeucaena leucocephalaGravillea robustaCalliandra catothrysusMangifera indicaSesbania sesbanLantana camaraCajanus cajanAdvantages of AgroforestrySaves labour since some operations can be done at once for both plants and treesGives higher combined yieldProvide wide variety of agricultural produceReduces the risks of total failureCrops benefit from nitrogen fixing trees. Trees help in holding the soil firmlySome trees act as livestock fodder. Provides a wider variety of agricultural produce. Disadvantages of AgroforestryMechanization is difficult. Use of pesticides and fertilizer may be difficult. Productivity may suffer because the skills for managing the different treesFACTORS INFLUENCING AGRICULTUREHUMAN FACTORS. They are factors in human beings or the way human beings do things. The following is a list of human factors that influence agricultural production. Levels of education and technologyThis is translated as the ability of a producer who is a farmer to apply appropriate methods and techniques in production using available resources for example, Farmer weighing livestock food to ensure efficiencyGood education level makes a farmer able to understand and translate technical language in farming. |
They are factors in human beings or the way human beings do things. The following is a list of human factors that influence agricultural production. Levels of education and technologyThis is translated as the ability of a producer who is a farmer to apply appropriate methods and techniques in production using available resources for example, Farmer weighing livestock food to ensure efficiencyGood education level makes a farmer able to understand and translate technical language in farming. Health of the farmersA healthy nation is a productive nationThe following are some of the diseases that contribute to lowering agricultural productivityMalaria,Tuberculosis,Typhoid,Pneumonia and HIV AIDSEffects of HIV AIDS on farmingLoss of skilled labourTime spent caring for the infectedMoney spent on treatmentState of economic developmentThe capital earned from economic activities such as farming is used to raise economic growth in the country. Transport and communication networkGood and efficient infrastructure is important for the smooth flow of farm produce from the farm to the consumer. The improvement of technology in communication has improved farmers access to important information from the research stations and other fellow farmersGovernment policy on agricultural input and produce taxationThe government of Kenya, through different ministries formulates guidelines to be followed by producers of different products. After the guidelines and proposals are legislated they become policiesAvailability of storage facilitiesCultural and religious beliefs. Local and International market forcesHuman Factors which improve productionGood health of the farmerAvailability of moneyHigh taxation on imported agricultural produceAvailability of ready market for agricultural produceAvailability of storage facilitiesLiberalized marketHuman Factors which lower productionRestrictive cultural and religious beliefsPoor road networkBIOTIC FACTORS. These are living organisms that affect agricultural production. Biotic factors influencing agriculture can be divided into the following classes. Crop pests: stalk borer damaging maize in the fieldDecomposers: Cause rotting of organic matter there by releasing nutrients for crop growth. They help in improving soil structure through incorporating organic matter into the soil. Nitrogen fixing Bacteria: Nitrogen fixing bacteria are found in root nodules of leguminous plants. Improve crop production through increasing soil nitrogen content which crops require for proper growth. Livestock parasites: suck blood and transmit diseases to animalsPollinators: Bee pollinating maize flower. Pollination in crop production increases yields and viability of seeds. Predators: Eagles can eat chicken, rabbits among other livestock. |
Livestock parasites: suck blood and transmit diseases to animalsPollinators: Bee pollinating maize flower. Pollination in crop production increases yields and viability of seeds. Predators: Eagles can eat chicken, rabbits among other livestock. Eagle can also eat insects and pests for example rats, moles and birds which destroy crops. Pathogens: Causes diseases in livestock and crops thereby lowering quality of produce. Increase cost of production when control measures are implemented. Introduce toxic substances into agricultural products thereby lowering the quality of the produce. Can cause death to crops and animals. Effects of Biotic Factors on Agricultural Production1. PestsFeed on crops thereby lowering quantity of agricultural produce. Feed on grains thereby affecting viability of the seedsAct as disease vectorsLower palatability of crop produceIncrease cost of production when control methods are appliedCreate entry points for disease causing organisms2. ParasitesIrritate livestockCauses anemia in livestockSome block alimentary canalLower rate of production in livestockIncrease cost of production when controlledSome lower quality of hides and skinsSome absorb food meant for the livestock thereby lowering the level of production. Some for example ticks transmit disease causing organisms. CLIMATIC FACTORS. Climatic factors include:RainfallPoor rainfall distribution results to wilting of cropsExcess rainfall can cause soil erosionExcess rainfall can result to crop failure due to flooding. The four aspects of rainfall which affect agricultural production include:-Rainfall AmountRainfall amount refers to quantity of rainfall received in a given area for a period of one year. Rainfall amount is measured using a rain gauge in millimeters per annum. The amount of rainfall determines the crops grown in an area. Rainfall distributionThis refers to the spread of rainfall over the year. Rainfall distribution is very poor in Kenya and therefore irrigation is necessary to supplement the short supply. Rainfall reliabilityThis refers to the certainty with which a given amount of rain is expected in a given place in the year. Rainfall IntensityThis refers to the strength with which rain falls; it is therefore measured in terms of amount per hour. Rainfall of low intensity is preferred as it improves water infiltration into the soil and causes less soil erosion. TemperatureTemperature is the coldness or hotness of a place. Temperature is measured in degrees Celsius using a thermometer. Temperature is influenced by altitude and topography. |
TemperatureTemperature is the coldness or hotness of a place. Temperature is measured in degrees Celsius using a thermometer. Temperature is influenced by altitude and topography. Temperature decreases with increase in altitude, such that for every 300 meters rise in altitude above sea level temperature decreases by1.7-2.2 degrees Celsius. Each crop has a temperature range within which it can grow referred to as the cardinal range of temperature. For crops to grow well and produce high yields, they require a narrow temperature range within the cardinal range referred to as optimum range of temperatureEffects of temperature on agricultureLow temperatureSlow growth rate. High incidences of disease such as CDB in coffee. Improvement of quality in crops such as tea and pyrethrum. High temperatureHigh evaporation rate hence wilting in crops. Hasten the rate of maturity due to increased growth rate. Improvement of quality in crops such as pineapples and oranges. Increase incidences of diseases such as leaf rust in coffee. Increased incidences of pest infestation such as aphids in vegetables. Effects of altitude on agricultureKenya is divided into three ecological zones which include;Low altitude zone o - 1500 meters above sea levelMedium altitude zone 1500 - 2500 meters above sea levelHigh altitude zone above 2500 meters above sea levelCrops perform differently when grown in each of these ecological zones and therefore each crop has its most suitable zone for maximum performance as illustrated below. WindWind refers to air in motion. Below is a list of effects of strong wind on agricultural production. Blowing and bringing rain bearing cloudsDestruction of farm structuresStrong wind may course lodging in weak plants. Wind erosion on bare landIncreases rate of moisture evaporationIncrease spread of pests and diseasesAgent of dispersal. Pollination in crops. LightLight is the source of energy which plants require for photosynthesis. During photosynthesis, plants manufacture food using water and carbon dioxide in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll. Aspects of light that influence agriculturei .Light intensity. This is the strength with which light hits the surface of the earth. Ii Light durationThis is the period of time the plants are exposed to light recorded using a Campbell sunshine recorderPhotoperiodismThis is the response of plants toward light duration. Long day plantsThese are plants which require more than 12 hours of lighting to flower and produce fruits or seeds e.g. |
This is the strength with which light hits the surface of the earth. Ii Light durationThis is the period of time the plants are exposed to light recorded using a Campbell sunshine recorderPhotoperiodismThis is the response of plants toward light duration. Long day plantsThese are plants which require more than 12 hours of lighting to flower and produce fruits or seeds e.g. some wheat varietiesShort day plantsThese are plants which require less than 12 hours of lighting to flower and produce e.g MaizeDay neutral plantsThese are plants which produce flowers regardless of the duration of lighting they have been exposed to e.g Tobacco. Iii Light wavelength:This refers to the type or quality of light. A wavelength is the distance between two corresponding points of a light wave. Chlorophyll absorbs certain wavelengths of light which are not present in artificial light unless it is ultra violet or infra red. NB Green houses can be used to control the temperature, relative humidity and light duration and intensity. Relative Humidity. This is the amount of water vapour held by air at a given temperature. At high humidity the rate of evaporation is low and vice versa. EDAPHIC SOIL FACTORSSoil is a mixture of weathered rock and decayed organic matter. It supports plant growth by providing anchorage nutrients and water. Topsoil covers most of the earth and it contains minerals, organic matter, air, water and living organisms. Soil FormationSoil is formed through the process of weathering. Weathering is the breakdown and alteration of the parent rock near the earth s surface. Parent rock is first broken into smaller fragments and eventually into individual constituent minerals. The individual minerals combine to form the soil. Weathering is a continuous process and it takes hundreds of years to form a centimeter of the soil. Weathering involves breakdown disintegration and building up synthesis . Weathering process is influenced by the following factors. Climate. Parent material. Topography. Living organisms. Time. Agents of The Weathering Process. Physical agents. In this case no chemical changes are involved. These include wind, water, moving ice and temperature. Strong winds carry materials which hit against each other and break into smaller fragments. Raindrops hit the ground with some force causing soil erosion. Moving ice causes rocks to disintegrate. High temperatures in the arid areas cause the rocks to at different rates. During the night, temperatures drop making the rock to contract. |
Moving ice causes rocks to disintegrate. High temperatures in the arid areas cause the rocks to at different rates. During the night, temperatures drop making the rock to contract. The rock surface contracts faster than the inside. This unequal contraction causes the rocks to disintegrate. In places with very low temperature, water gets into the cracks, freezes and becomes ice. As water turns into ice, it increases in volume pushing the rock apart hence disintegration. Biological agents. This involves living organisms. Large animals like elephants and cattle exert pressure on rocks as they move causing them to break. Mans activities such as mining, quarrying, road construction and earth moving breaks rocks into smaller fragments. Bacteria and fungi help in the breakdown of plant and animal tissues decomposition . These materials are incorporated into the soil. Termites and moles bring to the surface large quantities of fine materials. This promotes weathering by aerating lower layers of the rocks. Roots of plants force their way through rocks making them to disintegrate. They also produce acids during respiration which dissolves rock minerals. Decayed roots may mix with water forming organic acids which dissolves rock minerals. Chemical agents. This is the decay or decomposition of the rocks. It involves the following processes. Carbonation. As the rain falls through the atmosphere, it dissolves some Co2 forming weak carbonic acid. Over time this acid reacts with the rock minerals particularly calcium carbonate causing decomposition. Rain water carbon iv oxide Carbonic acid. Carbonic acid Limestone Calcium bicarbonateThe calcium bicarbonate formed in this reaction is soluble in water causing water to eventually dissolve the entire rock. Oxidation. Oxygen reacts with many elements found in rocks causing them to disintegrate. Solution. Hydrolysis. Hydration. Factors Influencing Soil FormationParent rock materialThis influences the physical and chemical properties of the soil such asThe texture of the soil e.g. granite gives coarse grained soil. Mineral composition of the soil e.g. rocks containing calcite, feldspar and ferro-magnesium minerals produce deep heavy soils rich in nutrients. The rate of soil formation e.g. limestone is easily weathered in warm humid regions and the carbonates are easily soluble. Since the parent material influences the physical and chemical properties of the soil, it therefore controls the type of vegetation in an area. ClimateHigh temperature speed up the rate of chemical reactions. |
Limestone is easily weathered in warm humid regions and the carbonates are easily soluble. Since the parent material influences the physical and chemical properties of the soil, it therefore controls the type of vegetation in an area. ClimateHigh temperature speed up the rate of chemical reactions. Wind acts as a transport agent and carries the weathered materials from one place to another. Where a lot of weathered materials are deposited, the soils are deep and rich in nutrients. Rainfall provides water which is an important reagent during the weathering process. A lot of rain may cause rocks to break hastening the weathering process. Topography Relief This is the shape of the land in relation to the underlying rock of the earth s surface. It may quicken or slow the weathering process. The slope affects the depth of the soil and kind of vegetation growing in an area. Soils found in flat land and low lying areas tend to be more fertile than those found on higher slopes. Such areas have deeper soils. On a steep slope, erosion is high and such areas have shallow soils. Living organisms Biotic factors The presence of the various agents of biological weathering speeds up the process of soil formation. Time. The process of soil formation is very slow and takes a lot of time. Deep mature soils are found where soil forming processes have taken place over a long period. If the parent material is resistant to weathering agents, more time is required for the soil to mature. Areas with severe soil erosion have a poorly differentiated soil profile. SOIL PROFILEThis is the vertical arrangement of the soil horizons layers . The horizons show soil layers at different stages of development. Soil forming processes are continuous and the soil develops in depth resulting in the formation of the distinct sequence of soil layers. The layers differ from each other in terms of colour, organic matter content, chemical composition, porosity, depth and the arrangement of soil particles. The horizons are;Superficial layer. It s a thin layer consisting of dead decaying and decayed organic matter covering the soil. Top soil Horizon A . It lies beneath the superficial layer. It contains a lot of humus hence it s darker than the other layers. It s well aerated and contains active living organisms. It s well drained and rich in plant nutrients. Most of the roots are found here. Sub soil Horizon B . Found beneath the top soil. More compacted and less aerated than top soil. |
Sub soil Horizon B . Found beneath the top soil. More compacted and less aerated than top soil. May contain an impermeable layer called the hard pan which may prevent drainage and root penetration. Minerals leached from top soil accumulate here hence this layer is referred to as the layer of accumulation. It has clay deposits. Substratum weathered rock Horizon C . Made up of partly weathered rocks. Has no humus. Hard and impermeable to water. Roots of big trees may reach this layer and draw water from it during the dry season. Parent rock Bed rock Horizon D . It s found beneath the weathered rock. Soil is formed from this rock. It may contain ponds of water. NB . Between any two bordering soil layers, there is a transitional zone whereby one layer gradually merges into the next one in the series. The soil profile influences agriculture in the following ways. Topsoil contains most of the soil nutrients, well aerated and has soil microorganisms. A well developed profile holds more moisture for plant use than a shallow one. Loosely packed subsoil allows easy root penetration, drainage and aeration. Nature and composition of the bedrock determines the mineral components of the whole soil. SOIL CONSTITUENTSMineral matter. The mineral composition of the parent rock determines the mineral constituents of the soil. The mineral matter makes the framework of the soil. It holds the roots firmly in the soil giving anchorage to plants. Between the particles are spaces which are filled with water and air. DiagramOrganic matter. When the dead materials rot, they are decomposed by bacteria and fungi to form the soil organic matter. Humus is dead organic matter which is in the state of continuous chemical decomposition, transformation and construction. Humus in the soil improves the soil structure. Humus contains plant nutrients such as sulphates, nitrates, phosphates, calcium, magnesium, potassium etc. Air. The soil contains all the gases such as nitrogen, oxygen, Co2 and the rare gases. Availability of air in the soil is influenced by the type of the soil and amount of water in the soil. Oxygen is needed by plants during respiration. It is also required by microorganisms in the soil during decomposition and nitrogen fixation. Excess Co2 in the soil is poisonous to plants and microorganisms. For best crop performance, a balance of soil water and soil air has to be maintained. Water. |
Excess Co2 in the soil is poisonous to plants and microorganisms. For best crop performance, a balance of soil water and soil air has to be maintained. Water. Soil contains water. Soil water exists in three forms;Superfluous water. This is water occupying large air spaces macro pores . This water is loosely held by the soil and therefore easily lost. The water is readily available to plants but not useful because excess water in the soil brings about poor aeration. A lot of water in the soil causes leaching of nutrients. Capillary water. This is water occupying small pores microspores . It is held with grater force by soil particles. It is available to plants and acts as a solvent for plant nutrients. It is also referred to as available water. It leaves most of the macro pores empty allowing aeration of the soil. Hygroscopic water. This is water that forms a thin film around the soil particles. It is firmly held by soil particles making it not available to plants. Clay particles have a lot of hygroscopic water but sandy soils contain very little hygroscopic water because sandy particles have weaker forces. Importance of water to plantsA solvent for plant nutrients. Raw materials for photosynthesis. During transpiration plants lose a lot of water hence a cooling effect on them. Water makes plant cells turgid hence support. Living organisms biotic factors They are important in the soil in the process of decomposition. They are divided into ;Soil microorganismsThey include bacteria, fungi and protozoa. They help in decomposition process. Some bacteria e.g. Rhizobium spp helps in nitrogen fixation in legumes. Some microorganisms are harmful because they cause diseases. Soil macro organismsThey are larger organisms found in the soil such as moles, earthworms, termites, ants and plant roots. They burrow in the soil aerating the soil and making it loose.. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE SOILSoil structureThis refers to the physical appearance of soil according to how the individual soil particles are arranged, packed or aggregated. The soil structure type is determined by the general shape of the aggregates. Soil structure class is determined by the size of the aggregates. The soil structure grade is determined by the stability or cohesiveness of the aggregates. Types of soil structuresSingle grained structure. There is no aggregation at all. Particles are not cemented together. The particles are non-porous and spherical. |
There is no aggregation at all. Particles are not cemented together. The particles are non-porous and spherical. Mostly found in the top soil of sandy soils, arid climates and alkaline soils. Crumby soil structure. The aggregates are small, soft and porous irregular in shape. Aggregates are not closely fitted together. Granular soil structure. The aggregates have irregular shape called granules. Soil is very porous when wet. Structure is found in the topsoil of cultivated soils and in the subsoil of soils under grass or bush. Prismatic soil structure. Aggregate are arranged vertically. The vertical axis of each aggregate is longer than the horizontal axis. When the tops are rounded, they are said to be columnar and when they have flat ends they are prismatic. Platy soil structure. The aggregates are arranged on top of one another in thin horizontal plates. The structure has poor permeability, drainage and root penetration. Structure is mostly found in top horizon of soils in the forest and in clay soils. Blocky soil structure. Aggregates are arranged in rectangular blocks. Aggregates easily fit together along vertical edges. Importance of Soil Structure on Crop ProductionSoil structure influences:Soil aeration. Soil drainage and water holding capacity. Plants root penetrability and anchorage. Microbial activities in the soil. Circulation of gases in the soil. The following farming practices improve the soil structureApplication of inorganic manure into the soil. Tilling the land at the right moisture content. Crop rotation. Minimum tillage. Cover cropping. Mulching. Soil textureIt refers to the relative proportion of the various sizes of the mineral particles of soil. Also defined as the coarseness or fineness of the soil when felt between the fingers. Different soil particles have different sizes as shown below. Determination of Soil TextureThis can be done through;Mechanical analysis. Chemical analysis. Mechanical analysisApparatusGarden soil, sieves of different measured mesh diameter, containers and weighing balance. ProcedurePut a known amount of soil sample into a container. Crush the soil lumps without breaking the particles. Pass the soil through the sieve with the largest mesh diameter 2.00 mm and shake vigorously. Weigh the soil that remains on the sieve and record. |
Crush the soil lumps without breaking the particles. Pass the soil through the sieve with the largest mesh diameter 2.00 mm and shake vigorously. Weigh the soil that remains on the sieve and record. Repeat the process using other sieves with mesh diameters of 0.2mm, 0.02mm and 0.002mm always using the soil that passes through the previous sieve. ObservationSoil particles left on first sieve of mesh diameter 2.00mm are called gravel. From the second sieve of 0.20mm; coarse sand particles. From the third sieve 0.02 mm ; fine sand particles. From the fourth sieve 0.002 mm ; silt particles. All the particles that pass through the fourth sieve are clay particles. Importance of soil texture on crop productionInfluences soil fertility. Affects the organic matter content. Influences the drainage of the soil. Influences soil aeration. Influences water holding capacityInfluences the capillarity or movement of water in the soil. NB Based on texture, soil can be classified as;Sandy soil. 50-80 sand, 20-50 silt and clay and 0.1-3 organic matter . Are made up of largely sand particles coarse textured . Have large air spaces hence poor in water retention. Easy to till light soils Low fertility due to leaching of minerals. Easily eroded. Free draining. These soils can be improved by addition of organic matter and fertilizers. Silty loam 20-30 sand, 70-80 silt and clay and 0.1-4 organic matter . Fine texturedWell drainedGood water holding capacity. Moderately fertile and aerated. Area acidic to moderate pH. Clayey loam soils. 20-50 sand, 20-60 silt and clay and 0.1 - 6 organic matter . Poorly drained and aeratedFine texturedHigh capillarity and water holding capacity. Slightly acidic to slightly alkaline. Rich in plant nutrients. Difficult to work on when dry or wet. Are suitable for flood irrigation of crops like rice. Clayey soils. 40 clay content Made up of largely clay particles. Have small pore spaces hence good in moisture retention. Difficult to till heavy soils Poorly drained. |
40 clay content Made up of largely clay particles. Have small pore spaces hence good in moisture retention. Difficult to till heavy soils Poorly drained. Expand when wet, crack when dry. High capillarity. Rich in plant nutrients. Are suitable for flood irrigation. They can be improved by drainage. Loamy soils. 30-50 sand, 50-70 silt and clay and 0.1 - 4 organic matter . Moderately textured and drained. Slightly acidic. Do not erode easily. Easy to work on. Have a good water holding capacity. They are the most suitable for crop production since they contain good amounts of plant nutrients and organic matter. They can be improved further by planting cover crops to maintain fertility and by adding manures and fertilizers. Soil ColourThis depends on the mineral composition of the rock and the organic matter content. Soils containing a lot of iron are brownish, yellowish or reddish in colour. Soils with a lot of silica are white. Soils with a lot of humus are dark or grey. Soil colour influences the soil temperature. Dark soils absorb and retain more heat than light coloured soils. Relatively high temperatures in the soil enhance microbial activity. Soil pHThis refers to the acidity or alkalinity of the soil solution. It is determined by the concentration of hydrogen ions H or the hydroxyl ions H- in the soils solution. PH is measured using the pH scale which ranges from 1-14. A pH of less than 7 means that the soil solution is acidic. A pH of more than 7 means that the soil is alkaline. PH of 7 is neutral. As the hydroxyl ions in the soil increase, the soil becomes more alkaline and vice versa. Influence of Soil pH on Crop GrowthDetermines the type of crop to grown in a particular area. Affects the type of fertilizer to be used. Affects the availability of some nutrients e.g. at low pH phosphorous and molybdenum are less available while high pH makes manganese, potassium, iron, boron and zinc less available. Very acidic or very alkaline conditions affect activities of soil microorganisms. Modifying Soil pHThe following are applied to the soil in order to lower its pH Increase soil acidity Application of sulphur. Application of acidic fertilizers such as sulphate of ammonia. |
Very acidic or very alkaline conditions affect activities of soil microorganisms. Modifying Soil pHThe following are applied to the soil in order to lower its pH Increase soil acidity Application of sulphur. Application of acidic fertilizers such as sulphate of ammonia. In raising its pH increase alkalinity the following is done. Application of lime which is a basic compound which raises the soil pH after some time. Application of basic fertilizers. Agricultural EconomicsAgricultural economics is defined as an applied science that aims at maximizing output while minimizing costs, by combining the limited resources of land, capital, labour and management to produce goods and services for use by the society over a period of time. Basic Economic ConceptsScarcity. The factors of production such as land, capital, labour and management are scarce or limited. The farmer therefore must decide on how to allocate the few scarce resources to the many competing production needs. Preference and ChoiceSince the available resources are limited and production needs are many, a farmer has to make a choice of how to allocate these resources. A farmer therefore has to choose one or several enterprises from very many. The choice made is determined by factors such as needs of the society, farmer s preference and ecological conditions. Opportunity CostSince a choice has to be made from very many competing enterprises, some revenue has to be foregone. For example, a piece of land may be suitable for the production of maize and wheat. If a farmer chooses o grow maize, the returns that the farmer would have obtained from wheat is foregone. The foregone returns are called the opportunity cost. Opportunity cost is the revenue foregone from the best alternative. Farm RecordsThese are documents kept in the farm showing farm activities over a period of time. They should be neat, concise and complete showing actual amounts, weights, measurements or dates. Uses of farm records to a farmerHelp to determine the value of the farm determine assets and liabilities. Provide history of the farm. Assist in planning and budgeting in various fields. Helps to detect losses or theft in the farm. Assists when sharing losses or profits dividends for communal owned farms partnership. Help to settle disputes in the farm among heirs. Help to support insurance claim e.g. against fire and theft. Provide labour information like terminal benefits, NSSF due, Sacco dues for all employees. Help to compare the performance of different enterprises within a farm or other farms. |
Against fire and theft. Provide labour information like terminal benefits, NSSF due, Sacco dues for all employees. Help to compare the performance of different enterprises within a farm or other farms. Help in the assessment of income tax to avoid over or under taxation. Records help to show whether the farm business is making profit or losses. This information helps in obtaining credit. Types of Farm RecordsProduction RecordsThey show the total yield and the yield per unit of each enterprise such as the total number of litres of milk from the whole herd and from each cow. Inventory recordsThey show all the assets on the farm e.g. livestock, machinery, buildings, crops etc. They are divided into two;Consumable goods such as animal feeds, fertilizers, fuel, pesticides etc. Permanent goods such as machinery, farm tools and equipment, buildings etc. Consumable Goods InventoryPermanent goods InventoryField Operations RecordsThey show all the activities being carried in the field such as date of ploughing, planting, fertilizer used etc. They help to work out the cost of production for each field at the end of the season. Breeding RecordsThey are kept to show the breeding activities and programmes for various animals on the farm. There are different breeding records depending on the animals being reared. Feeding RecordsThey show the type and amounts of feeds used to feed the animals. Health RecordsThey show the health conditions of the animals. They show when actions such as vaccinations and deworming are to be done. They help in the selection of the breeding stock. They also help in calculating the cost of treatment. Marketing RecordsThey show the commodity, quantity, amount sold, date, rate per unit of the commodity, total value and where sold. Commodity Labour RecordsThey show the type of labour, date of employment, rate of payment, skilled and unskilled labour. They are divided into two;Muster Roll this checks the number of days worked for and therefore determine how much to be paid to a worker. This record shows the name of the worker, payroll number, days worked for, rate of payment, the amount of salary and signature. Muster Roll-Labour Utilisation Analysis. They show how labour is utilized on the farm and helps to determine labour allocation; labour requirement for the purpose of budgeting when labour is in peak demand or when to lay off unproductive labour. |
This record shows the name of the worker, payroll number, days worked for, rate of payment, the amount of salary and signature. Muster Roll-Labour Utilisation Analysis. They show how labour is utilized on the farm and helps to determine labour allocation; labour requirement for the purpose of budgeting when labour is in peak demand or when to lay off unproductive labour. CROP PRODUCTION 1LAND PREPARATIONLand preparation involves all the activities that make land suitable for planting such as ploughing digging-harrowing-ridging-rolling etcA piece of land that has been prepared for planting is called seedbed. In a seedbed the planting materials germinate and grow to maturity and are harvested from same place. IMPORTANCE OF LAND PREPARATION-To kill the weeds. -Encourage water infiltration into the soil. -To aerate the soil. -Incorporate manure and other organic matter into the soil. -To destroy stages of crop pests such as eggs, larvae, pupa or adults burying them, exposing them to the suns heat or predators and starving them. -To encourage root penetration into the soil. -To make subsequent operations possible e.g. planting, fertilizer application, rolling and ridging. OPERATIONS IN LAND PREPARATIONSThey include;Land clearing. Primary cultivation. Secondary cultivation. Tertiary operations. LAND CLEARINGThis is the removal of vegetation cover from the surface before tillage. This is done to prepare land for cultivation and as method of land reclamation. Land clearing is necessary under the following conditions. When opening up a virgin land. Where a stalk growing crop was previously planted such as maize. Where land was left fallow for long time. Where the interval between primary and secondary cultivation is long such that the land has reverted to the original virgin state. Methods of Land ClearingTree felling. Axes, pangas and power saws are used to cut down trees. Bulldozers and root rakers are used in felling trees on a large scale. Removal of stumps and trash later follows. Burning. The vegetation cover is set ablaze. The method should be discouraged as it destroys the soil organic matter, soil micro organisms and plant nutrients. Slashing. This is done to cut small bushes and grasses using slashers, pangas or tractor drawn mowers. Use of chemicals. Chemicals used to kill weeds are called herbicides. |
This is done to cut small bushes and grasses using slashers, pangas or tractor drawn mowers. Use of chemicals. Chemicals used to kill weeds are called herbicides. Primary CultivationThis follows land clearing,Small scale farmers use jembes or fork jembes during hand digging. In Large scale framing ploughing is done using mouldboard or disc plough. Other farmers use ox ploughs. Primary cultivation should be done before the onset of the rains. This ensures that all other subsequent operations are done in good time. Importance of Primary CultivationTo remove weeds. To bury organic matter for easy decomposition. To facilitate water infiltration and aeration. To destroy soil borne pests by exposing them to predators and the sun. To make planting easy. Methods of Primary CultivationHand digging. This is done by use of jembes, mattocks and fork jembes to cut and turn the soil slices. Mechanical cultivation. This is the use of tractor drawn implements such as mouldboard and disc ploughs. Subsoilers, cultivators and chisel ploughs are used to break the hard pan. Subsoiling is the process of cultivating the soil with the purpose of breaking up the hard pan. Hard pans may be formed due to continuous use of heavy machinery on the land. Importance of subsoilingBreaking up the hard pan hence improving drainage. Improving soil aeration. Bringing to the surface leached minerals. Improve root penetration. Use of an oxplough. This is the use of ploughs drawn by oxen, donkeys or camels. The method is faster and more efficient than hand cultivation. It s common in areas where land is fairly flat. The following aspects should be considered when carrying out primary cultivation. Time of CultivationLand should be prepared before the onset of the rains so as to;Give enough time for the weeds to dry up and decompose into organic matter. To allow CO2 and other gases to diffuse out of the soil while being replaced by oxygen. Give enough time for subsequent operations to be done hence giving way to early planting. Depth of CultivationThis is determined by;Type of crop to be planted. Shallow rooted crops do not deep cultivation. Deep rooted crops require deep cultivation. Type of the soil. Heavy soils are hard when dry making jembes and fork-jembes to dig shallowly. The implements available. Tractor drawn implements give deeper depth than hand operated tools. |
Heavy soils are hard when dry making jembes and fork-jembes to dig shallowly. The implements available. Tractor drawn implements give deeper depth than hand operated tools. Choice of the Correct ImplementsThis is determined by:Condition of the land. If the land has a lot of stones and stumps, a disc plough is preferred because it rolls over the obstacles without braking. Type of the tilth required. Very fine tilth requires different types of implements. Depth of cultivation. When deep cultivation is required heavy implements are used. Light implements are used when shallow cultivation is needed. Topography of the land. Tractor drawn implements cannot be used where the slope is very steep. Implements available. A farmer can only use what is locally available. Shape of the land. Some land shapes may not allow tractor drawn implements to be used efficiently e.g. where there are acute corners. Size of the land. Secondary CultivationThis follows primary tillage. This involves the refinement of the seedbed before planting. It is also referred to as harrowing. Small scale farmers can use pangas, jembes, fork-jembes, and garden rakes to break the soil clods and pulverize the soil. Large scale farmers use factors drawn harrows such as disc harrows, spike toothed harrows, spring tine harrows. IMPORTANCE OF SECONDARY CULTIVATIONTo remove any weeds that might have germinated immediately after primary cultivation. To break the soil clods into small pieces for easy planting. To level the field so as to obtain the uniform depth of planting. Incorporate organic matter into the soil in order to encourage decomposition before planting. Factors determining the number of times secondary cultivation is done. Size of the planting materials. Small seeds require a fine tilth than large seeds. Slope of the land. If the land is hilly, less number of secondary cultivations are preferred to discourage soil erosion. Moisture content of the soil. In dry soils less operations are preferred so as to conserve the soil moisture. Condition of the land after primary cultivation. If after primary cultivation, a lot of trash is left, more harrowing operations should be carried out so as to incorporate the trash into the soil. Tertiary OperationsThey are carried out to meet the needs of certain crops. They are conducted after land clearing, primary and secondary cultivations. |
If after primary cultivation, a lot of trash is left, more harrowing operations should be carried out so as to incorporate the trash into the soil. Tertiary OperationsThey are carried out to meet the needs of certain crops. They are conducted after land clearing, primary and secondary cultivations. They include;RidgingThis is the process of digging soil in a continuous line and heaping it on one side to form a ridge bund and a furrow. These ridges are used in planting crops such as Irish potatoes, cassava, groundnuts etc. Ridges facilitate tuber expansion and easy harvesting of the root crops. Furrows are made when planting sugarcane. They help to conserve soil and water. RollingThis is done to compact the soil which is loose or of fine tilth. This is done to prevent small seeds from being blown away by the wind and to prevent soil erosion. This also increase seed soil contact. Heavy rollers are used in large scale. LevelingThis is making the soil surface flat and uniform to promote easy germination of small seeded crops. Rolling ensures uniform germination of seeds. MINIMUM TILLAGEThis is the use of a combination of farming practices that disturb soil the least. These farming practices include;Application of herbicides in controlling weeds. Timing cultivation timely weeding of the previous crop. Mulching. Mulch prevents weeds from growing. Restricting cultivation to the area where seeds are to be planted. Weeds in the rest of the field are controlled by slashing. Establishing a cover crop on the field. Uprooting or slashing weeds in perennial crops. Reasons for carrying out minimum tillageReduce the cost of cultivation. By reducing the number of operations. To control soil erosion. To maintain soil structure. To conserve soil moisture. Continuous cultivation exposes the soil to sun s heat hence evaporation of soil moisture. To prevent root and underground structures disturbance. To prevent exposure of humus to adverse conditions such as sun s heat that cause volatilization of nitrogenSoil Fertility I: Organic Manures Soil Fertility: This is the ability of the soil to provide the crops with the required nutrients in proper proportions for high production. Characteristics of Fertile SoilsGood Depth: Deep soil gives plants greater volume to obtain nutrients and also provide anchorage. Good water holding capacity: This ensures that water is retained well for plant use. |
To prevent exposure of humus to adverse conditions such as sun s heat that cause volatilization of nitrogenSoil Fertility I: Organic Manures Soil Fertility: This is the ability of the soil to provide the crops with the required nutrients in proper proportions for high production. Characteristics of Fertile SoilsGood Depth: Deep soil gives plants greater volume to obtain nutrients and also provide anchorage. Good water holding capacity: This ensures that water is retained well for plant use. Proper drainage: Well drained soils are well aerated facilitating healthy root development. Correct soil pH. Different crops have different nutrient requirements. Adequate nutrient supply. It should supply the crops with the nutrients they require in adequate amounts. Free from excessive infestation of soil borne pests and diseases. How Soil Loses FertilityLeaching. Soluble minerals are carried to lower horizons beyond the reach of plant roots. Mono cropping. Growing one type of crop continuously for a long time leads to the exhaustion of certain minerals that the plant uses. Change of soil pH. Changes in the soil pH affect the activity of the soil microorganisms and the availability of certain soil nutrients. Use of some fertilizers can change the soil pH. Continuous cropping. Crops take up a lot of nutrients during their growth which are never returned to the soil. This makes the soil deficient of these plant nutrients. Burning of vegetation cover. This destroys the organic matter hence destruction of the soil structure. Soil erosion. When the fertile top soil is carried away, the soil loses its fertility. Accumulation of salts. This is as result of irregular rainfall and insufficient removal of salts from the soil especially in the arid and semi arid areas. Accumulation of salts is called salinisationMaintenance of Soil FertilityControl of soil erosion to enhance soil infiltration onto the soil and reduce surface run off. Weed control to prevent competition for nutrients. Water space and light with crops. It also reduces pests and diseases. Carrying out crop rotation, this helps to control accumulation of crop pests and diseases on the farm. It also helps to ensure maximum utilization of nutrients. Use of inorganic fertilizers helps to add nutrients to the soil e.g. CAN, DAP, Urea etc.. Use of organic manure helps to supply organic matter to the soil. Minimum tillage which helps to maintain soil structure and prevent soil erosion. |
CAN, DAP, Urea etc.. Use of organic manure helps to supply organic matter to the soil. Minimum tillage which helps to maintain soil structure and prevent soil erosion. Intercropping Mixed cropping of leguminous and non- leguminous crops fix nutrients and improve fertility. Proper drainage by breaking hard pans or creation of water channels this ensures proper aeration. Control of pH to almost neutral to ensure proper functioning of micro-organisms which help in decomposition of organic matter. Organic ManuresThey are obtained from plant and an animal remains after decomposition. Role Importance of Organic MatterImproves soil structure aeration, drainage absorption and retention. Improve water holding capacity of the soil. Increases soil fertility e.g. carbon nitrogen etc. It provides food and shelter to soil microorganisms. Help to keep PH of soil stable Buffers soil pH . Reduces toxicity of plant poisons that have build up in the soil as a result of continuous use of pesticides and fungicides etc. Humus gives soil dark appearance making the soil to absorb heat. This moderates soil temperature. Problems Associated with the use of Organic ManuresBulkiness they have low nutritive value per unit volume hence required in large volumes. Laborious in application and transportation this is due to their bulkiness. They spread diseases, pests and weeds i.e. if they are made from materials that are contaminated. Losses of Nutrients if they are poorly stored, soluble nutrients are easily leached and some become volatilized when exposed to the hot sun. If used when not fully decomposed the plant does not benefit from them. Types of Organic ManuresThey are of three types:Green Manure. Farm Yard Manure FYM Compost Manure. Green ManureIt is made of green plants which are left to grow until flowering and then are incorporated into the soil through ploughing. The crops used include; cowpeas, groundnuts, Lucerne, beans, sunflower etc. Characteristics of Plants used as Green ManureShould be leafy or highly vegetative. Should have high nitrogen content hence leguminous ones are preferred. Should have a fast growth. Must be capable of rotting quickly. Should be hardy i.e. Capable of growing in poor conditions. |
Must be capable of rotting quickly. Should be hardy i.e. Capable of growing in poor conditions. Reasons Why Green Manure is not Commonly UsedMost crops used for green manure are food cropsTakes time for the manure to decompose delaying plantingMost of the nutrients are used up by micro-organisms in the process of decomposing the green manureGreen manure might use most of the soil moisture and leave very little for the next cropFarm Yard Manure FYM This is mixture of animal waste urine and dung and crop remains used as animal beddings. The quality of Farm Yard Manure is determined by the following factors. Type of the animal used Dung from fattening animals has a high level of nutrients than that from a dairy cow. Non ruminants such as hens and pigs give very rich dung in terms of nutrients. Type of food eaten - nutritious feedstuffs give manure with more nutrients. Type of litter used wood shavings and sawdust are slow to decompose and contain very little nutrients as compared to leguminous ones which give manure rich in nutrients. Method of storage for manure to retain its nutritive status, it must be stored in place with a leak proof roof and a concrete floor. Age of the farm yard manure well rotten manure is rich in nutrients and is easy to apply. Preparation of the farm Yard ManureProvide materials such as grass or wood shavings in the animal house to serve as bedding. Animals deposit their droppings and urine on the bedding and mix them by trampling. After some time Collect the used animal bedding litter and other rotten plant residues;Store collected materials under roof shed to prevent leaching and oxidization of nutrients;Turnover the materials regularly;Sprinkle water if dry;Leave the material to rot completely before useCompost ManureThis is a type of manure made from decomposed materials such as kitchen refuse, plant and animal remains. The following factors are considered when selecting the site for making compost manure. Well drained place this avoids waterlogging which may cause leaching of nutrients. Direction the prevailing wind this aims at preventing bad smells from being blown to the homestead. Size of the Farm the site should be centrally placed on the farm. Accessibility this makes transportation of the manure possible. |
Direction the prevailing wind this aims at preventing bad smells from being blown to the homestead. Size of the Farm the site should be centrally placed on the farm. Accessibility this makes transportation of the manure possible. Preparation of Compost ManureThere are two methods of preparing compost manure;Indore Method pit Method Four Heap System Stack Method . Indore Method pit Method A pit 1.2m long by 1.2m wide and 1.2m deep is made. Te materials to be composted are placed in layers in the following order;Fibrous materials such as maize stalks form the foundation. They are followed by a layer of grass, leaves or any kitchen refuse material. A layer of well rotten manure is then applied to provide nutrients for the microorganisms. A thin layer of wood ash is applied to improve the level of phosphorous and potassium in the manure. A layer of top soil is then added to introduce microorganisms that are required to decompose the organic materials.. The above sequence of layers is repeated until the pit is full. A layer of soil is added to cover the pit. During the dry season, the materials should be kept moist by adding water. Five pits are dug in series and materials filled as follows:Pits I, II, III and IV are filled with the materials as described above. After 3-4 weeks, the materials in pit IV are transferred to pit V, materials in pit III to IV, in pit II to pit III and in pit I to pit II. Process is repeated until the materials are well rotten then taken to the filed as compost manure. Four Heap System Stack Method In this method four heaps are used. The materials used are similar to those used in the pit method. ConstructionVegetation is cleared from the ground. Posts 2m high are fixed at a spacing of 1.2 by 1.2m forming the corners of the heap. Wood planks are fixed on the sides to form the walls and materials are arranged as in the Indore method. Materials are placed in the heaps labeled X and after 3-4 weeks they are transferred to pit Y. After another 3-4 weeks, the compost materials are transferred to pit Z where they stay for some 3-4 weeks before they become ready to be taken to the field. The manure should be turned occasionally to facilitate air circulation. |
Materials are placed in the heaps labeled X and after 3-4 weeks they are transferred to pit Y. After another 3-4 weeks, the compost materials are transferred to pit Z where they stay for some 3-4 weeks before they become ready to be taken to the field. The manure should be turned occasionally to facilitate air circulation. A stick is driven into the stack an angle to check the temperature. If the temperature inside is high, it is corrected by adding water. DiagramsWATER SUPPLY, IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGEWATER SUPPLYThe Hydrological CycleWater from the surface evaporates up the atmosphere, cools and condenses to form clouds. Saturated clouds fall down to the earth as precipitation in form of rain. This water returns back to the atmospheres through the process of evapo-transpiration. The circulation of water from the earth s surface to the atmosphere and back again is called theHydrological CycleSources of WaterThey include; surface water sources, underground water sources and rain. Surface water sourcesThey include;Rivers, streams and dams. LakesUnderground water sourcesThey include:Springs. Wells. Boreholes. Assignment. Make short notes on the various sources of surface and underground water. Rain water. This is collected from rooftops and stored in tanks. Ponds cal also be dug to collect the runoff. Rain water is very pure compared to the other sources. Water Collection and StorageDams. A dam is a barrier constructed to store water. Dams can be made of earth or concrete. Grass should be planted on the embankment to prevent soil erosion. Weirs. Weirs are used to raise the water level in a river to facilitate pumping. Water tanks. These are made of concrete, stone, metal sheets, plastic or rubber. They should be covered to prevent water contamination. Pumps and Pumping of WaterPumping is the lifting of water from one point to another by use of mechanical force. Types of water pumpsCentrifugal rotardynamic pumps. Piston reciprocating pumps. Semi-rotary pumps. Hydram. Conveyance of WaterThis is the process of moving water from one point source or storage point to where it will be used or stored. This can be done through;PipingIn this case water moves through pipes. |
Hydram. Conveyance of WaterThis is the process of moving water from one point source or storage point to where it will be used or stored. This can be done through;PipingIn this case water moves through pipes. Types and choices of pipesMetal pipesThese are expensive but durable. They also can withstand high pressure. Plastic pipesThey are cheap and easy to install. However they can burst under high water pressure, can break when exposed to the sun and can be gnawed by rodents such as moles. Hose pipesThey are either made of rubber or plastic. Rubber ones are more expensive and more durable than the plastic ones. Use of containersContainers such as jerry cans, drums and pots are used to draw water and are carried by various means such as bicycles and animals. Use of canalsWater is conveyed from a high point to a lower point along a slope especially for irrigation purposes. General Uses of Water on the FarmDomestic use cooking, drinking, washingCooling animalsRearing fishWatering irrigation plantsCleaning calf pens, milking shedsWatering livestock drinkingDiluting dissolving chemical used to control pests, parasites and weedsMixing concrete in constructionCooling and running machine enginesProcessing farm produce eg coffee hides, carrotsRecreation eg swimming poolsWATER TREATMENTImportance of Water TreatmentKill disease causing microorganisms. Remove chemical impurities such as excess fluoride. Remove bad smells and bad tastes. Remove sediments of solid particles such as soil and sand. Process of Water TreatmentStage I: Filtration of water intake. -. Water from Source River is made to pass through a series of sieves. -. Large particles of impurities are trapped by the sieves. -. Water then enters into the large pipe to be directed to the mixing chamber. Stage II:Softening of the waterWater circulates in the mixing chamber and doses of soda ash to soften the water. Stage III:Coagulation and sedimentationWater is passed through coagulation tank where fresh air enters to remove bad smell chloride of lime used. Water stays for 36 hours thus solid particles settle and bilharzias causing organisms killed. Alum is added to coagulate solid particles which settle at the bottom. Stage IV:FiltrationWater is passed through filtration tank with layers of sand and gravel to filter it. |
Water stays for 36 hours thus solid particles settle and bilharzias causing organisms killed. Alum is added to coagulate solid particles which settle at the bottom. Stage IV:FiltrationWater is passed through filtration tank with layers of sand and gravel to filter it. Water leaving the filtration tank is clean. Stage V:ChlorinationWater is passed through chlorination tank where chlorine is added. Micro-organisms in the water are killed by chlorine. Stage VI:Storage - The treated water is stored in large overhead tanks before distribution and use. DiagramWater Treatment by BoilingBoiling kills germs in water such as those causing bilharzias, cholera and typhoid. IRRIGATIONThis is the artificial application of water to the soil to supply crops with sufficient moisture for growth. It is usually practiced;In dry areas. During dry periods. In the growing of paddy rice. General importance s of Irrigation. Enable crop production during dry seasonReclaim arid and semi arid land for farmingSupplement rainfall in crop productionHelp provides enough water to crops that require a lot of water like riceCreates favourable temperature for proper plant growthEnable supply of fertilizer in irrigation waterMake possible to grow crops in special structures like green houseTypes of IrrigationFactors considered when choosing type of irrigation systemCapital availability- this determines the type of irrigation systems to be used. Drip and overhead irrigation systems require high capital for installation and maintenanceTopography- Surface irrigation requires flat areasWater availability- Surface irrigation requires a lot of water. Drip and overhead irrigation requires less waterThe type of soil- Surface irrigation is best suited for clay soils because they retain water for a long time. The type of crop value of the crop benefit analysis. Crop to be irrigated should be of high value to justify the irrigation costThe availability of clean water drip and overhead irrigation requires clean water to prevent blockage of the systemsSurface IrrigationWater is brought to the crop fields from the source by use of canals or furrows. The following method are used here; Flood Irrigation, Furrow Irrigation and Basin Irrigation. The following factors are considered when choosing the method to use in surface irrigation. Topography- Surface irrigation requires flat areasWater availability- Surface irrigation requires a lot of water. The type of soil- Surface irrigation is best suited for clay soils because they retain water for a long time. |
The following factors are considered when choosing the method to use in surface irrigation. Topography- Surface irrigation requires flat areasWater availability- Surface irrigation requires a lot of water. The type of soil- Surface irrigation is best suited for clay soils because they retain water for a long time. Flood IrrigationThe entire field is flooded with water. The method is cheap to establish and maintain but there is uneven distribution of water to crops and a lot of water is wasted. Furrow IrrigationIrrigation water flows from canals into furrows.. Furrows should be maintained by repairing when eroded or worn out, removing the weeds and silt. AdvantagesCheap to establish and maintain. Requires little skill to maintain. Reduces fungal diseases such as blight since there is no wetness on the leaves. DisadvantagesSoil erosion may occur. A lot of water is lost through evaporation and seepage. Basin IrrigationAn area enclosed by walls called embankments levees is flooded. The method is common in the rice growing areas. Such as Mwea Tebere, Ahero, Bunyala etc. Sub-Surface Irrigation and Drip Trickle IrrigationThis involves laying perforated pipes underground to allow water to pass out through tiny holes and wet the soil around the zones of the crop. AdvantagesMinimizes labour requirement especially in changing of water pipes. Minimizes possible theft of water pipes. Economizes on the use of water. Can be practiced on both sloppy and flat land. There is no soil erosion. No growth of weed between the rows. Water under low pressure can be used as long as it can flow along the pipes. Controls fungal diseases such as blight because water does not accumulate on the leaves. There is no need of constructing dykes, leveling or makingDisadvantagesExpensive to install. Pipes can be broken during weeding or land preparation. Nozzles can get blocked making irrigation inefficient hence the method requires clean water. Overhead Sprinkler IrrigationIn this case water is applied to the plants in form of spray using sprinklers or watering cans. The sprinklers and pipes used must be maintained as follows. Lubricating the rotating parts to reduce friction. Repairing any broken parts. Cleaning to unblock the nozzles. |
When there is water-logging, salts accumulate to toxic levels in the soil. Drainage removes such salts from the soil. Methods of drainageUse of open ditches channels furrows. Ditches are dug for water to flow by gravity lowering the water table. Use of underground pipesPerforated pipes are laid underground and water seeps into them, then flows to a water way. The pipes are made of plastic, metal steel or clay. French drainsDitches are dug and filed with stones and gravel and then covered with soil. Water from the surrounding area seeps into tem the flows to a water way. Cambered bedsRaised beds are constructed in combination with ditches in the poorly drained soil such as the black cotton soil. Mechanically pumpingIn the low lying areas where the other methods of drainage cannot be practiced, water is mechanically pumped out of the soil. Planting of TreesTrees such as eucalyptus can be planted in water logged areas as they lose a lot of water through transpiration. Water PollutionThis is the introduction of harmful substances into the water. Agricultural Practices that Pollute WaterUse of inorganic fertilizersFertilizers used get leached through the soil and are carried to water bodies. Use of pesticidesExcess pesticides seep into the soil and find their way to the water bodies causing pollution. Poor cultivation practices. These practices include:Over cultivation. This causes soil erosion hence siltation in water bodies. Overgrazing. This also causes soil erosion hence pollution in water bodies. Cultivation along the riverbanks. Also causes soil erosion hence siltation in water bodies. Methods of Preventing water PollutionSoil conservation measures to minimize soil erosion. Fencing of water sources to minimize pollution by animals. Enforcing integrated ways of controlling pest and weeds that do not use chemicals such organic farming. Planting vegetation along the river banks to avoid siltation. Using adequate storm control methods in the areas experiencing heavy rains. FARM TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT REVISION QUESTIONS1 The diagrams below are of farm tools and equipment. Study them and answer the questions that followi Identify the tools 1 mkii Give one functional difference between the tools above.1 mk2.The diagram below show farm equipment. Use them to answer the questions that follow. |
FARM TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT REVISION QUESTIONS1 The diagrams below are of farm tools and equipment. Study them and answer the questions that followi Identify the tools 1 mkii Give one functional difference between the tools above.1 mk2.The diagram below show farm equipment. Use them to answer the questions that follow. A Identify the equipments M and L. 1mk b State the functional difference between M and L. 2mks c State TWO common maintenance practices carried out on both M and L. 2mks 3.The diagram below shows a farm equipment study it and answers the questions that follow. A Identify the equipment. 1mk b Name the parts labeled. 2mks W; X ; Y; Z c What is the function of the part labelled Z. 1mk 4.Study the diagrams below and answer the questions that follow. A Identify the tools. A-B-C-D 2mks b State the correct use of each of the tools above. 2mks c Give two maintenance practices carried out on tool D for efficient use. 1mk 5 a Name four types of tools used in smoothing wood. 2mks b Give three reasons why farm tools and equipment should be well maintained. 11 2mk 6.Below is a diagram of farm equipment. Use it to answer the questions that follow. A Identify the equipment. Mk b State two reasons for your choice in a above 1mk b State the use of the equipment 1mk c Name the parts labelled G,E and F. 1 mks d Identify two draw backs in using this equipment compared to others that may be used for the same purpose. 2mks 7.Identify the farm tool and equipment illustrated in the diagram labeled k and L and give one use of each equipment. Equipment identityUse a K........................................................................................................... L............................................................................................................ b Give the care and maintenance of L 1mk8.Observe the tools X and Y illustrated below and answer the questions that follow:-a Identify the tools. X ; Y 2 mks b State one use of each of the following tools. X;Y 2 mks c State three maintenance practices carried out on tool X. 3 mks 9. |
Equipment identityUse a K........................................................................................................... L............................................................................................................ b Give the care and maintenance of L 1mk8.Observe the tools X and Y illustrated below and answer the questions that follow:-a Identify the tools. X ; Y 2 mks b State one use of each of the following tools. X;Y 2 mks c State three maintenance practices carried out on tool X. 3 mks 9. The diagram below illustrate a workshop toolIdentify the tool ...... 1mk Name the parts labeled S, T and U 3mks State the use of the tool 1mk 10.Study the diagrams of livestock production tools below and answer questions that follow. A Identify the tools E, F, G and H. 4mks b State two maintenance practice of the equipment E. 2mks 11.Below are diagrams of workshop tools. State the functions of tools. 4mks i ii iii iv b What is the name given to the metallic brush which is used to clean out wood chippings from tool i above. Study the diagrams of garden tools shown below and answer the question that follo i State two field conditions under which tool A would be more suitable for use in cropProduction 2mks ii Give the function of the tool labelled C. 1mk iii State two maintenance practices of the tool labelled B. 2mks 13.Study the diagrams below labeled P,Q,R and S representing some workshop tools and then answer the questions that follow. A identify the tools2mksToolNameP . Q R S b Give one use of tools P and R in the construction of a wooden feed trough.1mkP R . C How would the tool labelled Q be used in the construction of a calf pen? Mkd Give two maintenance practices carried out on tool S.1mk14.Study the diagram below of farm tools and equipment and answer questions that follow. I Identify tool M and N 1mk M .. |
1 mkd -Need two people to operate. 1-Not easy to carry about during operation. 11 x 2 2mk9. I Auger bit 1 x 1 1mk ii S shankT-Twist threadsU-Spur 3 x 1 3mks iii Making holes boring holes on the wood 1mk 12 i Conditions under which tool labeled A is usedHard ground soilsA stony fieldField with rhizomes stolons rootsA field with sticky soils 2x1 2mks ii Functions of the tool labeled CCutting pruning undesirable branches stems of trees fruits coffee Cutting pruning excessive vegetative parts 1x1 1mk iii Maintenance practices of tool labeled BClean remove soil trash after useStraighten the prongs if bendReplace the handle if brokenFix the handle firmly on the rake 2x1 2mks 13.a x 4 2 MKSUse of tools P and R in the construction of a wooden feed troughP-Measuring angles layout of angles measuring lengthsR- Cutting timber to make joints used for joinery work-Fine cutting sawing x1 1 2mkUse of Q in the construction of a calf penTo determine if the floor level the walls are vertical. X1 mkMaintenance practices on tool S-Sharpening the cutting edge-Removing the mushroom head x2 2mksi M- hack sawN- hand sawii Functional differences between M and N- hack saw M is used for cutting metal rods and plates while N hand saw is used for cutting wood timber 1x1 1mk iii maintenance practicestighten loose screws and nuts ref.bolt replace worn out bladeregular cleaninghang properly to avoid possible damagemaintain correct tension of the bladeOTHER REVISION QUESTIONSa . What is Agriculture? B . State the roles played by agriculture in national developmentd . I Briefly outline the problems that have hindered agricultural developmentin Kenya. |
B . State the roles played by agriculture in national developmentd . I Briefly outline the problems that have hindered agricultural developmentin Kenya. Ii Suggest ways in which these problems can be alleviateda i What are the characteristics of shifting cultivation? Ii State the problems associated with shifting cultivation. What is pastoralism? State the factors to consider in choosing a type of farmWhat is arable farming? I State the advantages of mixed farmingii State the limitations of mixed farmingi Give the types of farming practised by small scale farmersName the types of large scale farmingWhy does the Kenya government put a lot of emphasis on ranching? State the common features of ranching as a farming system:i State the advantages of plantation farmingState the disadvantages of plantations. State the major characteristics of plantation farming. A List the ecological factors affecting agriculture. Mention the aspects of rainfall which are important in crop productioni What is optimal temperature? Ii State the effects of high temperature on crop production. State the negative effects of wind to crops. A . I. Define the term soilii . Name the ways in which soil is important to growing plants. B . I State the factors which influence the soil forming processii . What biological agents influence the speed of the soil forming process? I Define the term soil Profileii How does soil profile influence plant growth? I List the constituents of a fertile soil. Ii What role do micro-organisms play in soil? I What is soil structure? Ii State the farming practices that improve soil structure. Iii Why is a good soil structure desireable for growing crops. I What is soil texture? State the properties of soil that are influenced by its texture. Give the types of soil based on texture. A State the advantages of using farm tools. List the factors that determine a farmer s choice of tools and equipment. I Why should tools and equipment to maintained well? Ii How should tools and equipment be maintained? List the safety precautions necessary for tools and equipmentName the categories of farm tools and equipment. A State the importance of land preparation. B i What is primary cultivation? Ii Which factors influence choice of tools for primary cultivation. I What is secondary cultivation? Ii Give reasons for secondary cultivation? I Define minimum tillageiii State reasons for practising minimum tillage. |
I What is secondary cultivation? Ii Give reasons for secondary cultivation? I Define minimum tillageiii State reasons for practising minimum tillage. Name the factors that determine the number of tillage operations during seedbed preparation. A List the sources of water on the farm. How is water conveyed from one point to another? I Name the types of water pipes. Iii What features are considered when buying plastic pipes? Name the types of water pumps to be used on the farm. I Why should water be treated before use? Ii State the methods of treating water on the farm. Iii How is water used on the farm? A i What is irrigation? Ii List the factors to consider in deciding to irrigate crops. B List the major types of irrigationa i What are the uses of farm recordsList types of records kept on mixed farms. List types of records kept by crop farmers. ,. Goat, pigs, bees, fish, donkey, camel10 b i Explain the role of livestock in human lifeii List factors that affect livestock industry in Kenya. C i List dairy breeds of cattleii State their characteristics. I Name beef cattle breeds. Ii What are the characteristics of beef cattle. Name the important rabbit breeds in Kenya. Name the major breeds of sheep in Kenya and indicate the purpose they are kept forName important goat breeds and their usesName important pig breeds kept in Kenya. I Give the meanings of exotic and to indigenous breeds. State the characteristics of exotic cattle that make them better suited to marginal areas than exotic cattle breeds. What are the advantages of keeping a Jersey cow instead of Friesian for production of milk? I State the general characteristics of exotic cattle breeds. Ii Give the characteristics of indigenous cattle11.Below is a diagram of a nursery for raising the seedlings. A State two advantages of having the part labeled J 2mks Nrk b State any 3 management practices that should be carried out on the nursery from the time seedlings emerge to the stage of transplanting 3mks Nrk12. A i What is soil fertility? State the characteristics of a fertile soil. How can a fertile soil loss its fertilityiv . State the ways of maintaining or improving soil fertilityi What are plant nutrients? |
State the characteristics of a fertile soil. How can a fertile soil loss its fertilityiv . State the ways of maintaining or improving soil fertilityi What are plant nutrients? Ii Name the major plant nutrients macro-nutrients State the roles and deficiency of the following nutrients in plants. I Nitrogen usesDeficiency. Excessive supplyPhosphorous used. DeficiencyPotassium uses. Deficiency. I What is soil sampling? List the methods of soil sampling. State the reasons for soil testing:Explain the procedure of soil sampling:State precautions necessary during soils samplingName the methods of detecting nutrient deficiency in crops:State the importance of soil PH to a crop:13 a i Differentiate between manure and fertilizer:List the common organic manuresb . I What is organic matter? State the importance of organic matterHow can organic matter be added to soil? C i Describe how to make farm Yard manure:ii State the factors determining quality of farm yard manureiii Give the advantages of using Farm Yard Manure over fertilizer:Give the disadvantages of using farm yard manured i State the factors to consider when citing a compost pit. Describe how to make compost manurei How is green manuring done on the farm? List the characteristics of green manure crops:What are the advantages of green manuring? 14a Classify fertilizers by nutrient content. B i Name the common nitrogenous fertilizers. State properties of nitrogenous fertilizers characteristics When are they applied and why at that time? C i Name the common phosphatic fertilizers:When are they applied and why at the time? I Name the common potassic fertilizersCharacteristics:i What is fertilizer application? List the methods of fertilizer application:What is top dressing? I Calculate the amount of K2O potassium chloride contained in 400 kg of a compound fertilizer 25:10:5 5kg of K2O is contained in 100kg of 25:10:5A farmer is to apply a compound fertilizer 20:30:10 on a vegetable plot measuring 5 metres long by 4 metres wide, at the rate of 200kg per hectare. Calculate the amount of the fertilizer the farmer would require for the plot. |
List the methods of fertilizer application:What is top dressing? I Calculate the amount of K2O potassium chloride contained in 400 kg of a compound fertilizer 25:10:5 5kg of K2O is contained in 100kg of 25:10:5A farmer is to apply a compound fertilizer 20:30:10 on a vegetable plot measuring 5 metres long by 4 metres wide, at the rate of 200kg per hectare. Calculate the amount of the fertilizer the farmer would require for the plot. Show your working What do the figures 20, 30 and 10 in the fertilizer stand forHow much of a fertilizer labeled 20:20:10 should be applied to a plot which requires 30 kg P2O5? 15. A i State the importance of the nitrogen cycleDescribe the nitrogen cycle:What happens to nitrogen in the soil? B i State the importance of carbon cycleDescribe the carbon cycleHow is carbon lost? How can carbon be restored to the atmosphere? 16. A i Define crop propagation. What are the methods of crop propagation? B i List the different methods of vegetative propagation:State advantages of vegetative propagation. State its disadvantages. I What are the advantages of seed propagationState the disadvantages of seed propagationi Give the advantages of early plantingState the factors to consider when selecting seeds or other planting materials for plantingWhat are the reasons for seed selection? What practices are carried out for seeds to ensure that they germinate? I List the methods of plantingState the advantages of row planting. State the factors which influence planting depth. What factors determine crop spacing? State the advantages of correct spacingWhy is correct plant population necessary? Name the treatments necessary on planting materials before planting? 17a What is a nursery? State the reasons for using a nursery. State the nurseries management practices. Explain the following nursery practices. I Pricking out. Hardening off. Rogueing. FORM TWO AGRICULTURE NOTESLIVESTOCK HEALTH II PARASITES Parasite- A living organism that lives in or on another organism and obtains nourishment from that organism without being useful to it in any way. -This host-parasite relationship is referred to as parasitism. -Parasitism is an association between two organism one a parasite and the other the host. |
-Tsetse flies give birth to larvae after the eggs hutch inside the body of the mother. -Larva forms the pupa, which later changes into an adult. -Tsetse flies bites mainly during the day. Harmful effects-They transmit Trypanosomiasis caused by a protozoan called trypanosome-Sucks out blood from the animal causing anaemia. -Cause damage on the skins and hides of animals making wounds which provide routes for secondary infection by pathogenic organisms. Control-Bush cleaning to destroy their breeding places. -Spraying their breeding places with insecticides. -Use of fly traps with impregnated nets. -Use of sterilizing agents e.g. radio isotopes on male flies and then releasing them. B.Keds melophagus orinus -Are sometimes referred to as sheep ticks. -They are hairy and wingless bloodsucking flies. Harmful effects-Cause irritation in heavy infestation. -Due to irritation, animal scratches itself thus damaging the wool. -Retarded growth in lambs. -. Anaemia. Control measures-Shearing the infected sheep and hand spraying them with appropriate chemicals eg pyrethrum, malathium, dieldrin etc-Routine sheep dipping. FleasThey are wingless but have strong legs adapted for leaping over long distances. -They suck blood as their mouth parts are adapted for penetrating the host s skin and sucking blood. -They pass through the following stages during development, egg- larvae- pupa- adult. Harmful effects-Cause irritation leading to scratching. -Stick fast in poultry causing wounds on the comb and wattles. -They cause anaemia. Control measures-Animals sleeping places should be kept clean. -Dusting animal hooks with appropriate insecticides. -Covering the stick fast fleas with petroleum to suffocate them. LiceThey are small wingless insects and can be divided into two groups. Biting lice mallophaga Sucking lice anoplura Biting lice-They are found on both the birds and mammals. -They have chewing mouthparts. -They complete their lifecycle between three to four weeks. Sucking lice-Have mouthparts reduced into styles for sucking blood. -They are found only on mammals. Harmful effects-Cause irritation to the animal hence, the animal is seen to rub itself against fixed objects. |
Sucking lice-Have mouthparts reduced into styles for sucking blood. -They are found only on mammals. Harmful effects-Cause irritation to the animal hence, the animal is seen to rub itself against fixed objects. -Heavy infestations cause loss of health in animals. -Since animals under attack do not feed very well, there is emaciation. -Loss of production in birds. -Anaemia and restless especially in poultry. Control measures-Spraying or dusting animals with appropriate insecticides. -Keeping animal houses clean. -Perches in poultry houses should be applied with insecticides eg 40 nicotine sulphate solution. -Dusting each bird with sodium fluoride for individual treatment. CLASS ARACHNIDA-This consists of the ticks, mites and spiders. -Ticks and mites belong to the order Acarina. -These do not undergo complete metamorphosis. -They have two body parts i.e. cephalothorax and the abdomen. -The adults have 4 pairs of legs. A Ticks. -Ticks rank as the single most important ectoparasites of livestock. -They cause injury and spread very dangerous diseases. -There are over 50 different species of ticks known. Harmful effects-Vectors of diseases e.g. ECF, Red water, Anaplasmosis. -Suck blood-causing anaemia to the host. -Cause wounds through their bites. -Cause irritation to the animal. -Their bites lower value of hides and skins. -Some ticks produce toxins that may be harmful to the host. THE LIFE CYCLE OF TICKS-Ticks usually pass through four main stages in their cycle i.e. -Egg-Larva six legs -Nymph Eight legs -Adult Eight legs -Different species of ticks need different number of hosts. -There are therefore three categories of ticks i.e. -One host ticks. -Two host ticks. -Three host ticks. ONE HOST TICKS-These ticks require one host to complete their lifecycle. -Eggs on the ground hatch into larvae. -Larvae climb onto the host, suck blood, become engorged and moult into nymphs. -Nymphs feed on the same host, become engorged and moult into adults. -Adults feed on the same host, mate and the females drop off to the ground to lay eggs. |
-Larvae climb onto the host, suck blood, become engorged and moult into nymphs. -Nymphs feed on the same host, become engorged and moult into adults. -Adults feed on the same host, mate and the females drop off to the ground to lay eggs. Examples of one-host ticks:-Blue tick Boophilus decoloratus -The Texas Fever tick Boophilus annalatus -The Cattle tick Boophilus microplus -The Tropical Horse tick Dermacentor nitens TWO HOST TICKS-This tick requires two hosts to complete their lifecycle. -The larvae and nymphs pass through their stages on the first host. -Eggs on the ground hatch into larvae, which climb on to the first host. -A larva attaches themselves to the host, feed on blood, become engorged and moult into nymphs. -. Nymphs feed on the same host become engorged and then drop to the ground to moult in adults. -Adults find a new host on which to feed. -They feed on the second host and mate. -Females drop off to the ground to lay eggs. Examples of two host ticks. -Red legged tick Rhipicephalus evertsi -The Brown tick Amblyomma maculatum -The African Bont-legged tick Hyalomma truncatum -Large Bont-legged tick Hyalomma rufipes THREE HOST TICKS-These ticks require three different hosts to enable them to complete their lifecycle. -Eggs hatch on the ground into larvae. -Larvae attaches itself to the first host, feed on blood, become engorged and drop off to the ground and moults into nymphs. -The nymphs look for a second host, feed on blood, become engorged and drop off to the ground and moult into adults. -Adults seek for the third host, climb, feed become engorged and mate. -Females drop off to the ground to lay eggs. Lifecycle of a three host tick. |
-Adults seek for the third host, climb, feed become engorged and mate. -Females drop off to the ground to lay eggs. Lifecycle of a three host tick. Examples:--Brown ear tick Rhipicephalus appendiculants -East African Bont tick Amblyomma variegatum -Bont tick Amblyomma herbraem -Gulf Coast tick Amblyomma maculatum -Yellow Dog tick Haemaphysalis leachii -Fowl tick Heamaphysalis hoodi -Brown Dog Tick Rhipicephalus sanguineous TICK CONTROL MEASURESi Natural Biological method. Ii Mechanical method. Iii Chemical method. 1. Natural Biological method. -This is the use of the tick s natural enemies which predate on the ticks. E.g. using predators such as birds to control ticks. N B Only a small number of ticks is controlled using this method. 2. Mechanical methodi Burning the infected pastures. -Burning destroys eggs, larvae, nymphs and adults. Ii Interfering with the ticks environmentThis is achieved by:--Ploughing pasture land .the eggs are exposed to the sun heat or are deeply buried. Iii By top dressing pasture using lime or dressing using acaricides. Iv Fencing off the pasture and farm. V Hand picking the ticks deticking vi Starving the ticks to death-This is achieved by practicing rotational grazing. -It interrupts the lifecycle of the ticks. 3. Chemical control method. This is done by application of acaricide. Properties of an effective acaricide-Has the ability to kill ticks. -Be harmless to both human and livestock. -Be stable. -Should remain effective after having been fouled with dung, mud or hair. Methods of acaricide application-Spraying regularly with the acaricide. -Dipping animals in plugs dips containing the acaricide. -Hand dressing using pyegrease. ENDOPARASITES INTERNAL PARASITES These are parasites which live within the body of the host animal e.g. |
-Dipping animals in plugs dips containing the acaricide. -Hand dressing using pyegrease. ENDOPARASITES INTERNAL PARASITES These are parasites which live within the body of the host animal e.g. tapeworms, Round worms, Fluke etcCategories of Endoparasites-Endoparasites are generally called helminthes-They fall under 2 phylai Platyhelminthes Flat worms -class-trematoda flukes -Cestoda tapeworms ii Nemathelminthes nematoda - Round worms. P LATYHELMINTHES-Are flatworms. -Body is symmetrical-Are hermaphroditic. A Tape worm Taenia spp -cestodes-Have two main parts ie-Has a head Scolex and a chain of segments called the strobila-Each segment is called a proglottis. -Scolex has suckers or hooks or both. Animals affected pigsCattleSheep. Goats. Donkey. Symptoms of attack-General emaciation-Rough or staring coat. -Scouring and sometimes constipation due to digestive disturbance. -. Pot-bellies especially in calves. -Oedematous swelling under the jaw. -Obstruction blockage of the intestines when tape worms are present in large nubers. -. Ploglottides present in faeces. -Anaemia. -Excessive appetite. N.B. Lifecycle of tape worm-Tape worms attack farm animals as intermediate hosts and man as final host. -There are two common species of tape wormBeef tape worm Taenia saginata Pork tape worm Taenia solium -Affected human beings drop Ploglottides full of eggs with faeces. -Eggs are picked by the right intermediate host either cattle or pigs while feeding. -After ingestion by the host intermediate , Eggs hutch in the intestines into embryos. -Embryos penetrate the intestinal wall and enter the blood system. -They first move to the liver and then to all body muscles of the animal where they become cysts. -Under cooked beef or pork from infected animals if eaten by man causes an infection. -In the human intestine cysts wall dissolve and the parasites attack themselves to the wall of the intestine. |
-They first move to the liver and then to all body muscles of the animal where they become cysts. -Under cooked beef or pork from infected animals if eaten by man causes an infection. -In the human intestine cysts wall dissolve and the parasites attack themselves to the wall of the intestine. -Here they develop into adult tapeworms. -These are passed out again in faeces. Control measures and treatment-Use of prophylactic drugs e.g. antihelminthes dewormers to kill parasites in animals. -Keep animal houses clean and disinfected. -Practice rotational grazing to starve the larvae cysts to death. -Keep the feeding and watering equipment clean. -Use of latrines by farm workers ie proper disposal of human faeces. -Proper meet inspection. -Proper cooking of meat. B Liver fluke Fascial spp Trematoda There are many species of flukes. -Two are the most common ones ieFasciola heptica sheep Fasciola gigantica cattle -Heavy infestation of flukes cause a condition called Fascioliasis. Symptoms-Emaciation-Indigestion in the animal. -Pot bellied condition. -Damage to liver tissue causing haemorrhage due to movement of flukes in the liver. -Anaemia due to sucking of blood. -Animals are dull and depressed. -Swollen and painful abdomen. -Recumbence precedes death. N.B. Fasciola has the following characteristics-Gray or gray-pink in colour-Flattened like leaf. -Have a conical projection at the anterior end. -Have a tapering body ending. Lifecycle:-Liver fluke use the fresh water snail as their intermediate host. -. They have sheep or cattle as their final host. -Adult flukes are found in the bile duct of the liver of the host animal. -Here they produce eggs which are passed into the alimentary canal through the bile duct. -Eggs are passed out through dung. -A fluke produces about 300-3500 eggs per day. -I the eggs falls into stagnant water that is warm, they hatch into a ciliated embryos called miracidia miracidium -On coming into contact with the intermediate host snail Limnea spp . It penetrates the snail tissue. |
-A fluke produces about 300-3500 eggs per day. -I the eggs falls into stagnant water that is warm, they hatch into a ciliated embryos called miracidia miracidium -On coming into contact with the intermediate host snail Limnea spp . It penetrates the snail tissue. -Once inside the snail tissues, miracidium process masses of cells called sporocysts-Sporocysts change into Redia. -Redia produces cercaria more out of snail-Cercaria change into metacercaria which is the infective stage of the fluke-The definite final host through grazing or drinking infected water takes Metacercaria. N.B. Metacercaria can survive in wet grass and in shady places or when withstand harsh conditions for a year. -Once swallowed by the host, cercaria penetrates walls of the intestine and hatch into adults. -Adults migrate to the liver where they grow, mature, mate and produce eggs. -The cycle starts all over again. Control measures1. Controlling the fresh water snail intermediate host thoughPhysically killing them. Chemically by use of CuSo4 Sodium pentachlorophenate etc which is added to stagnant water to kill the snails. Draining swampy areas leveling any depression that may hold water in the pastures. 2. Burning of the pastures during the dry seasons to kill cercaria3. Not grazing animals near marshy or waterlogged areas. 4. Routine drenching using antihelminthes e.g. NaSo4, hexachloroethane drugs. ROUNDWORMS NEMATODES Ascaris spp There are three common species of round wormsAscaris lumbricoides Cattle and sheep. A. suum Pigs. A. galli poultry. -Heavy infestation of these worms cause a condition called ascaridiosisSymptoms of Attack. -Anorexia Loss of appetite in heavy infestation -Staring coat stiff and dry -Dehydration and pale mucosa-Eggs and adults present in faeces. -Emaciation-Diarrhoea. -Anaemia. -Potbellies especially in young animals. LIFECYCLE OF A ROUNDWORM-The common roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides does not have intermediate hosts. |
-Anaemia. -Potbellies especially in young animals. LIFECYCLE OF A ROUNDWORM-The common roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides does not have intermediate hosts. -Eggs are laid in the alimentary canal of the host animal. -Eggs are passed out of the host with faeces. -Under favorable environmental conditions, eggs hatch into larvae which climbCROP PRODUCTION III NURSERY PRACTICES Seedbed. This is a piece of land large or small, which has been, prepared to receive seeds at planting or seedlings at transplanting. The crop will establish and grow to maturity here. Nursery bed. This is a special type of a seedbed prepared for raising seedling before transplanting. It should be 1m wide and of any convenient length. Seedling bed. This is a special type of a nursery bed used for raising seedlings, which have been removed from the nursery bed due to overcrowding before they are ready for transplanting. This is called pricking out. Importance of a Nursery in Crop PropagationIt facilitates the planting of small seeds that develop into strong seedlings that are easily transplanted. Routine management practices are easily and timely carried out in the nursery than in the main seedbed. It is possible to provide the ideal conditions for growth such as watering, fine tilth and shade to the plants. It facilitates the production of many seedlings in a small area. Ensures planting of only the healthy and vigorous growing seedlings. Excess seedlings can be sold earning income to the farmer. Seedlings raised in the nursery bed take a shorter time to mature than ones established directly. It reduces labour on the care of seedlings since the area is small. Site SelectionThe following factors should be considered when selecting a nursery site. Nearness to water source. For easy watering. Type of the soil. Soil should be well-drained, deep and fertile preferably sandy loam. Topography. Should be sited on a gentle slope to prevent flooding and erosion through run-off. Security. Should be well protected from theft and destruction by animals. Previous cropping. Avoid siting it on an area where the same crop species had been planted to avoid build up of pests and diseases. Well sheltered. Windbreaks are necessary to prevent strong winds, which can uproot the seedlings and cause excessive evaporation. |
Avoid siting it on an area where the same crop species had been planted to avoid build up of pests and diseases. Well sheltered. Windbreaks are necessary to prevent strong winds, which can uproot the seedlings and cause excessive evaporation. Categories of NurseriesVegetable crop nurseryTree nurseryVegetative propagation nurseries. Vegetable crop nurseriesMost vegetable crops have small seeds and are established through the nursery. A suitable nursery site is selected and marked out. Vegetation is cleared using slashers, pangas, mowers etc. Trash is removed and the site is dug or ploughed to remove all the perennial weeds. Various nursery beds are measured and divided leaving paths of 60cm in between the individual beds. In dry areas the nurseries are sunken in order to conserve moisture. Beds are harrowed to a fine tilth and Phosphatic fertilizer or well rotten manure is broadcasted. Leveling is done using garden rakes, which also removes trash. Shallow drills, 10-20cm apart are made and the seeds are drilled uniformly And then covered lightly with the soil. Tree nurseriesSelected site is prepared the same way as for the vegetables. Alternatively, the seeds are pre-germinated by soaking them in water for 24-48 hours. The seeds are then planted in polythene sleeves, which are half filled with soil. The sleeves facilitate transporting of the tree seedlings during transplanting. The polythene sleeves are arranged in rows under shade in the nursery site. Vegetative propagation nurseriesThese are used to raise some cuttings before they are transplanted to the main seedbed e.g. in tea. Correct rooting medium must be provided to facilitate rooting. A suitable site is elected, cleared and leveled. The nursery unit should measure 3.66m x 1.22m. Polythene sleeves measuring 7.5-10cm in diameter and 23-30cm long are filled with the rooting mixture. The rooting mixture is made of the subsoil, double super phosphate and Sulphate of potash. 1m3 of subsoil is mixed with 450-600gm of DSP. The sleeves are then placed in the unit. Each unit holds about 1200 sleeves. Preparing tea cuttingsStem cutting are obtained from;High yielding mother plants. High leaf quality plantA plant with the ability to adapt to a wide range of ecological conditions. |
Each unit holds about 1200 sleeves. Preparing tea cuttingsStem cutting are obtained from;High yielding mother plants. High leaf quality plantA plant with the ability to adapt to a wide range of ecological conditions. The selected mother plants are pruned and left to grow for six months unchecked. The shoots that grow within this period provide cuttings, which are obtained from the middle part. The brown hard bottom and the green soft part are discarded. The bottom part takes long to root while the upper soft part tends to rot if planted. A sharp knife is used to make slanting cuts above the axial bud. The cutting should be 2.5-4.0 cm long. Each cutting should have a leaf. The cuttings should be placed in water before they are planted to avoid dehydration. The sleeves are watered and then the cuttings inserted at the center of each sleeve. Leaf of the cutting should not touch the soil to avoid rotting. The sleeves should then be arranged in the vegetative propagation unit as shown below. Wooden hoops are erected over the sleeved cuttings and a polythene sheet is placed. The sleeves should be watered once every three weeks. Weeds appearing in the nursery unit should be uprooted. Nursery management PracticesMulching. This prevents excessive evaporation and moderates soil temperatures. It should however be removed on the fourth day or as soon as seedlings start emerging. Dry grass or straw from cereal crops can be used as mulch. Watering. Should be done regularly preferably morning and evening. Weed control. Weeds should be removed by uprooting. Pricking out. Where seedlings are overcrowded some should be removed and planted in a seedling bed. This reduces competition. Shading. Should be provided but dark conditions should be avoided to avoid the seedlings becoming etiolated or pale. Pest and disease control. Appropriate chemicals should be applied to control pests and diseases. This should however start during the nursery bed preparation stage where the soil is sterilized through heat treatment or use of chemicals such as furadan. Hardening off. This the practice of preparing the seedlings to adapt to the ecological conditions found in the seedbed. This can be done through;Gradual reduction of shade 2-3 weeks before transplanting. Reduction of watering. Partial lifting of the seedlings in some cases. GraftingThis is the practice of uniting two separate woody stems. |
Reduction of watering. Partial lifting of the seedlings in some cases. GraftingThis is the practice of uniting two separate woody stems. The part bearing the roots is called the rootstock while the part, which is grafted onto the rootstock, is known as the scion. Scion has buds, which develop into the future plant. The ability of the rootstock and the scion to form a successful union is referred to as compatibility. Only botanically closely related structures are compatible such as lemon and orange or lemon and tangerine. Methods of GraftingWhip or tongue grafting. In this case the diameter of the rootstock and the scion are the same. It is carried out when the diameter of the scion and rootstock is pencil thick. A slanting cut is made with a sterilized sharp knife on both the scion and rootstock. They are joined together and wrapped with grafting tape or polythene strip. Side grafting. It is done where the stock has a larger diameter than the scion. The scion is inserted into the side of the stock. Other methods of grafting include;Approach grafting. Bark grafting. Notch grafting. BuddingThis is the uniting of a vegetative bud scion to a seedling of another plant rootstock . The scion has only one bud and some bark with or without wood. The bud is inserted in a slit made on the bark of the stock. It is held tightly on the stock by tying with budding tape until it produces roots. Methods of BuddingT budding. A T-shaped incision is made onto the bark of the rootstock down to the wood. The incision is made 15-20cm above the ground using the budding knife. The bark is then raised and the bud is inserted by sliding it downwards under the lifted bark. The bud is then firmly tied. Materials such as adhesive tapes, rubber strips and polythene papers can be used for tying. The wrapping is removed about two weeks after budding to inspect the buds. If they are green they have been accepted by the stock. The stock is then cut a few centimeters above the union. The green bud develops to produce a shoot. When the shoot reaches about 25cm it is tied to a stake to prevent it from being blown by wind and get broken. |
The stock is then cut a few centimeters above the union. The green bud develops to produce a shoot. When the shoot reaches about 25cm it is tied to a stake to prevent it from being blown by wind and get broken. The piece of rootstock above the union is now cut 1-2cm above the union. Top budding. This involves budding of young trees where the buds are inserted at the desired locations. This allows the production of different varieties of fruits on the same rootstock as long as they are of the same species. Patch budding. The bark with a bud is removed from the scion stem and inserted into a patch where the bark has been removed from the rootstock. The union is tied on top and bottom tightly. Importance of Grafting and BuddingPlants with desirable root characteristics such as disease resistance, vigorous root system, and resistance to nematode attack but with undesirable products may be used to produce desirable products. E.g. orange lemon graft. Grafting helps to repair damaged trees. They help to shorten the maturing age. Grafted mangoes take 3 years to mature while non-grafted ones may take up to 7 years. They facilitate the changing of the top of the tree from being undesirable to desirable. They help to propagate clones that cannot be propagated in any other way. They make it possible to grow more than one type of fruit or flower on the same plant. LayeringThis is the process by which a part of system is induced to produce roots while still attached to the mother plant. Once the roots have developed the stem is cut off and planted. Types of layeringMarcotting. Commonly known as aerial layering. It is done on hardwood stems that cannot bend easily to reach the ground. Some moist rooting medium is heaped around a section of the branch whose bark and cambial layer has been removed. The rooting medium is wrapped with a polythene sheet to hold the soil and maintain it moist. Auxins plant hormones accumulate at the point where the bark has been removed thereby inducing root development. Tip layering. The shoot bearing the terminal bud is bent to the ground and then covered with a layer of moist soil. Pegs are used to hold it in position. After roots develop the shoot is cut off from the mother plant and transplanted. Trench layering. The branch of a stem is bent, laid in trench and is then held in position by pegs. |
After roots develop the shoot is cut off from the mother plant and transplanted. Trench layering. The branch of a stem is bent, laid in trench and is then held in position by pegs. The trench is then covered with moist soil. The buds develop shoots that grow upwards. Roots develop at the base of each shoot. The shoots are then cut off from the mother plant and transplanted. Compound serpentive layering. The branch is bent several times and held in position by pegs. This produces several new rooted shoots fro the same branch. However the branch must be highly flexible to achieve this. Tissue culture for Crop ProductionThis is the generation of plants from plant tissues cells . This is a biotechnology, which is used to clone vegetatively propagated materials. Tissue culture produces many propagules or explants. Cells are obtained from the tips and they are provided with certain conditions such as the culture medium, correct light intensity, temperature and relative humidity. The following three stages are involved in tissue culture. Stage 1An asceptic culture is established. Cell division and enlargement is enhanced. Disinfectants such as alcohol, calcium or sodium hypochlorite, mercury chloride and antibiotics are used to eliminate any contamination. All the tools used must be sterilized to establish a clean culture. The culture medium should include inorganic materials, carbon and energy source sugar , vitamins, organic supplements and growth regulators hormones Stage 2This involves a series of sub culturing to rapidly multiply the propagules through somatic development of embryos to produce auxiliary buds and adventitious roots. The culture medium should contain substances that enhance development of plant organs. Stage 3This involves the preparation of the propagules for the establishment in the soil. This includes the following. Rooting of the regenerated plantlets. This is promoted by supplementing the medium with auxinsHardening the plantlets by inducing tolerance to moisture stress and attack by pathogens. Increasing the temperature and light intensity beyond those in the second stage can do this. Plantlets can also be exposed gradually to conditions similar to those in the field. Converting the plantlets from heterotropic mode of nutrition to autotropic mode. Importance of Tissue Culture in Crop ProductionIt is used in the mass production of propagules. Helps to establish pathogen free plants especially in the control of viral diseases. |
Converting the plantlets from heterotropic mode of nutrition to autotropic mode. Importance of Tissue Culture in Crop ProductionIt is used in the mass production of propagules. Helps to establish pathogen free plants especially in the control of viral diseases. It is fast and requires less space than the cultural methods of using cuttings, which require bigger space. DisadvantagesIt is expensive, as it requires specials structures. Requires high skilled manpower. Transplanting of Vegetable Crop SeedlingsSeedlings are ready for transplanting when they are a month old or they have 4-6 true leaves or about 10-15cm. The nursery is watered 3-4 hours before lifting the seedlings. This ensures that seedlings are lifted easily with a ball of soil around the roots minimizing root damage. Healthy and vigorously growing seedlings are selected and lifted using a garden trowel. Transplanting is done when the weather is cool preferably in the morning or evening. The seedling is planted in the same depth it was in the nursery. The lower leaves should not touch the soil. Firming is done to ensure proper root-soil contact. Light mulch is applied and the seedlings are watered regularly. Shading is done where necessary. Transplanting Tree SeedlingsHoles for planting trees are dug long before transplanting day. Topsoil is kept separate and is used for refilling the hole halfway. Transplanting should be done at the onset of rains. Seedlings should be well watered a day before transplanting. This makes the soil stick onto the roots. It also eases the removal of the polythene sleeves for seedlings raised in sleeves. Seedlings are placed at the center of the hole. A sharp knife is used to cut and remove the polythene sleeve. More soil is added and firmed gently around the plant until the hole is completely full. Seedlings should be planted at the same depth as they were in the nursery. Watering should be done and mulch provided. A temporary shade may be established to conserve moisture. Young seedlings should be protected from damage by animals for about one year. This can be done for individual trees or for an entire field. CROP PRODUCTION IV FIELD PRACTICES Field practices are operations carried out in the field to facilitate proper growth and optimum yield of the various crops grown. These operations should be timely for best crop performance. |
This can be done for individual trees or for an entire field. CROP PRODUCTION IV FIELD PRACTICES Field practices are operations carried out in the field to facilitate proper growth and optimum yield of the various crops grown. These operations should be timely for best crop performance. Crop RotationThis is the growing of different types of crops or crops of different families on the same piece of land in an orderly sequence. Land is subdivided into plots. Different crops are grown in each plot in a particular season. Crops are rotated in the following season. This is applicable when dealing with annual crops. Importance of Crop RotationMaximum utilization of nutrients. Different crops vary in terms of type of nutrient and depth of absorption. Maize absorbs a lot of nitrogen from the soil but low amount of potassium. Cassava needs a lot of potassium but little nitrogen. Therefore the two can be alternated for maximum nutrient utilization. Deep-rooted crops absorb nutrients from deep layers of the soil as compared to the shallow rooted ones. The two should be alternated. Control of weeds. Planting non-grass crops can help to control parasitic weeds such as witch weed striga weed , which are specific to grass family crops. Control of soil borne pests and disease build up. Some pests and diseases are crop specific. Alternating different crop families controls them. Soil fertility improvement. When leguminous crops are included in a rotational programme, they fix nitrogen thus improving soil fertility. Soil structure improvement. At the end of a rotation programme, a grass ley piece of land planted with grass is established. During this time there is little soil disturbance and roots bind the soil particles together improving the soil structure. Soil erosion control. When cover crops such as sweet potatoes are included, they reduce soil erosion. Factors Influencing Crop RotationThe following factors should be considered when designing a crop rotation programme. Crop root depth. Deep-rooted crops should be alternated with shallow rooted crops. Soil structure. A grass ley should be included in the rotation programme because the soil becomes loose after continued use. Pests and disease control. Crops from the same family should not follow each other as the same pests and diseases attack them. Weed control. Crops that are associated with certain weeds should be alternated with those that are not. Crops that are not easily weeded should be alternated with those that are easy to weed. Crop nutrient requirement. |
Crops that are associated with certain weeds should be alternated with those that are not. Crops that are not easily weeded should be alternated with those that are easy to weed. Crop nutrient requirement. Heavy or gross feeders crops requiring high amounts of nutrients should come first in a newly opened land, which is relatively fertile. Soil fertility. Leguminous crops should be included to improve soil fertility. Rotational ProgrammesThe order and the sequence in which crops follow each other should be identified. This should be done in consideration of the above factors. If the farm is divided into four or eight fields, then a four-course rotation works very well. ExamplesThree course rotation. First year-beans2nd year-maize3rd year-cassavaFour course Rotation - a. First year-yams2nd year-groundnuts or beans3rd year-maize or any cereal crop4th year-cassava or any root crop. Four course Rotation - b. 1st year-Irish potatoes. 2nd year-beans3rd year-maize4th year-sweet potatoes. Terms Used in Crop ProductionMono cropping. This is growing one type of crop on the farm. DisadvantagesPlant uses only the nutrients it requires leading to their exhaustion while other nutrients are left unused. May lead to pest and disease build up if one crop is grown continually. Inter cropping. This is growing of two or more crops in the same field at the same time. E.g. maize and beans, beans and potatoes, bananas and coffee etc. This offers better soil coverage thus smothering weeds and also controlling soil erosion. Mulching. This is the placement of materials such as banana leaves or polythene sheets on the ground next to the growing crop. The materials should not come into contact with the base of the crop to discourage pest attack. Importance advantages of MulchingSoil water conservation by reducing evaporation rate. Smothers weeds hence suppressing their growth. Soil temperature moderation by acting as an insulator. This ensures no much variations in soil temperature both at night and dayReduction of runoff speed thus preventing soil erosion. Organic materials decompose to release nutrients thus improving soil fertility. Organic materials decompose to form humus, which improves soil structure and water holding capacity of the soil. Disadvantages of MulchingIt is a fire risk. |
Organic materials decompose to release nutrients thus improving soil fertility. Organic materials decompose to form humus, which improves soil structure and water holding capacity of the soil. Disadvantages of MulchingIt is a fire risk. Provides a breeding ground for pests that are harmful to crops. Traps light showers of rainfall lowering the chances of the raindrops from reaching soil. Expensive to acquire, transport and apply. Types of Mulching MaterialsOrganic materials. They include sawdust, wood shavings, coffee pulp, dry grass, banana leaves, dry maize stalks and any other appropriate vegetation. Inorganic synthetic materials. They can be black, yellow or transparent polythene sheets. They are expensive and therefore used only in the highly profitable crops such as flowers and pineapple production by Del Monte Kenya Limited in Thika. Mixed cropping. This is the growing of two or more crops in the same field but in specific sections at the same time. Routine Field PracticesThinning. This is the removal or uprooting of excess seedlings to allow space for the remaining seedlings. Thinning should be done when the soil is wet to avoid destroying roots of the remaining seedlings. Thinning is done to obtain an optimum plant population in a given area. Gapping. This is the refilling or replacement of dead seedlings or empty spaces left by seeds that fail to germinate. This should be timely to avoid excessive shading of the newly planted seedlings. Gapping ensures optimum plant population. Rouging. This is the removal and destruction of the infected crops. This prevents the spread of the disease or pests. Rouging can control pests such as Maize stalk borers and bean fly. Rouging can also control Armillaria root rot in tea. Training. This is the practice of manipulating plants to grow in a desired direction and shape. This cane achieved through,Staking. This is supporting plants having weak stems using strong sticks e.g. in tomatoes, garden peas and some bean varieties. Propping. This is providing support to tall varieties of bananas and those with heavy bunches using forked Y- shaped stakes. Trellising. This is providing support of crops with vines using wire or sisal strings. The strings are held by poles at definite spacing e.g. in passion fruits. Earthing up. This is the placement of soil in form of a heap around the base of the plant. |
In passion fruits. Earthing up. This is the placement of soil in form of a heap around the base of the plant. Reasons for earthing upIn Irish and sweet potatoes to promote tuber formation. In tobacco it improves drainage around the crop. In maize it provides support hence preventing lodging. In groundnuts it promotes production of the seeds. Pruning. This is the removal of extra or unwanted parts of a plant. This could be due to overcrowding, breakage, pest and disease attack and unproductivity. Reasons For PruningTo train the crop to attain the required shape. Formative pruning in tea is aimed to encourage lateral growth. Capping in coffee is done to encourage growth of suckers which are later allowed to develop as stems. Control of cropping. Most fruit crops do bear biennially, that is overbearing in one season which is caused by unproportional ratio of vegetative and productive parts. Removal of extra vegetative parts maintains correct ratio. This ensures uniform bearing in all the seasons. To remove the diseased and unwanted plant parts. This remove extra suckers, leaves, branches, flowers or stems. To facilitate picking. Tea and coffee bushes are pruned in order to maintain a low plucking table and bearing head respectively. To ease spray penetration. Pruning opens bush making spray penetration effective. To control pests and diseases. Pruning destroys the breeding grounds for pests and disease causing organisms. In coffee Antesia bug and CBD are controlled through pruning which opens up the bush to light. Methods of PruningPinching out. This is the removal of the terminal buds. This is common in tomatoes where the terminal bud is pinched out. This practice is called capping in tea and coffee. Annual pruning. This is the removal of branches that have borne two crops and have undesirable growth characteristics. Dry, broken, too close or diseased branches are removed. Coppicing or pollarding. This is carried out in tree crops where branches are cut at specified points in order to achieve a desired shape. NB Care must be taken during pruning. Cut surfaces may act as entry points to disease causing organisms. Cut surface must be protected by application of paint or Stockholm tar to seal the wound and keep off vectors such as aphids. Tools Used in PruningPruning saw. For cutting hard branches and stems in coffee and citrus. Pruning knife. For cutting or pruning tea by use of strokes. Pruning shears. For trimming hedges. |
Pruning knife. For cutting or pruning tea by use of strokes. Pruning shears. For trimming hedges. Secateurs. Used for cutting or pruning soft branches in coffee and citrus. TEAPlucking Table Formation in TeaYoung tea is encouraged to produce a lot of lateral branches which in turn form the frame to establish a wide plucking table. Methods of frame formationFormative pruning method. Pegging method. Formative Pruning MethodThe plant is capped at different height to encourage lateral growth and discourage vertical growth. This method takes a long time to bring tea into bearing hence not commonly used. Pegging MethodA young tea plant is allowed to grow for one year to attain a height of 25-30cm. It is then cut back to 15cm above the ground. This encourages development of lateral branches. These branches are left to grow to 60-75cm high. They are forced to grow at an angle of 300 - 450 by use of pegs and the tips are nipped off. This stimulates the dormant buds to grow into shoots. The following ways can be used in pegging. Use of individual pegs. Each branch is held down by a single peg measuring about 50cm long. Many pegs are required and they are either metallic or wooden. Use of rings of pegs. A ring of 30cm diameter made out of thin sticks or a thick wire is used. It is placed on branches which are gently forced to bend to the sides of the bush at an angle of 30-450. Three pegs are then placed to hold it in position. The tips of the shoots are nipped off to encourage the growth of more shoots. Use of parallel sticks fitos pegs. Two parallel straight light fitos are placed on either side of a row of tea bushes. Pegs are used to hold the fitos down. Light sticks about 45cm long are placed under the parallel sticks to hold in position any branches that lie between the fitos. TippingThis is the cutting back of shoots to the desired table height that is 20cm above the pegging height. This involves the removal of three leaves and a bud from each shoot above the required height of the table. The initial height should be 50cm above the ground level. Two Y-shaped sticks 50cm in height and a long straight stick about 2 m long are used. The straight stick is placed on the Y-shaped sticks. |
The initial height should be 50cm above the ground level. Two Y-shaped sticks 50cm in height and a long straight stick about 2 m long are used. The straight stick is placed on the Y-shaped sticks. Tipping is done at 2-3 weeks intervals five times before the plucking table is properly formed. This process encourages formation of a uniform and a flat plucking table. Maintenance of the Plucking TableMaintenance pruning helps to prevent rise in the plucking height. This is done by cutting back the tea bush to 5cm above the previous pruning height after 2-5 years. Three months after maintenance pruning, tipping is done just like in the plucking table formation. After many such pruning s, the tea bushes are cut down to 45cm above the ground. This is called Rehabilitation change of cycle and it is done after every 40-50 years. Pruning Mature TreeThe following points are observed during pruning of tea. Side branches growing below the pruning height are not removed because this would reduce the spread of the bush reducing the yield. Outside edge of the bush should not be cut at a higher level than the centre to avoid a dish shaped frame. Bush should be pruned parallel to the slope using a measuring stick. Branches should be cut across in order to minimize the area of the wounds. Long slopping cuts increase die back and disease infection. Small branches and twigs on the frame are removed by hand. Branches should be placed on top of the frame to offer protection during the dry period. They should be removed at the start of the wet weather after the new shoots start to sprout. All the branches should be left to rot in the field as they contain a lot of nutrients and also act as mulch. Pruning knife must always be sharp to cut the branches and not to break them. After several pruning s, the tea is cut back to the original table. This is called change of cycle rehabilitation . COFFEEPruning in coffee is to regulate the quality and quantity of coffee berries. Reasons for pruning in CoffeeRegulate bearing. Unpruned coffee tends to bear biennially i.e. it produces a heavy crop one season and a light one in the next season. To remove old and unproductive branches. To make harvesting easy by regulating the height of trees. To open up the bush to allow better air circulation. This removes the microclimate suitable for pest and disease organisms thus controlling them. |
To make harvesting easy by regulating the height of trees. To open up the bush to allow better air circulation. This removes the microclimate suitable for pest and disease organisms thus controlling them. Facilitate spray penetration. There is economic use of chemicals. Systems of Pruning in CoffeeSingle stem system. Multiple stem systemSingle Stem PruningIn this case one permanent stem with a strong framework of primary branches is established. The main stem is capped at various heights as the bush grows. At each capping the best growing sucker is allowed to continue growing upwards. The first capping is done at 53cm, 2nd at 114cm and the final one at 168cm. The height of single stem bushes ranges from between 1.5-1.8m. In young trees, the initial crop is borne on the primary branches but as the bush matures, the crop is borne on secondary and tertiary branches successively. Annual pruning is done throughout the year but suckers are removed throughout the year. Single stem system allows easy picking and spraying and minimizes breakage of branches. It however requires skill in its establishment and takes time to bring bushes to bearing. Multiple Stem PruningTwo or three upright stem are maintained. There are two types of the multiple stem system i.e. capped multiple and non-capped multiple systemIn capped system, the main stem is capped at 38cm and 2-3 shoots are allowed to grow to a height 0f 1.5-1.8m. The bushes are thereafter maintained as in single stem system. In non-capped system, the main stem is capped at 38cm above the ground. Suckers are then allowed to grow. Two to three suckers are selected and left to grow. When the stems get old after 4-6 years, they are removed. The removal of the old stems is called changing of cycle. Annual pruning involves the removal of lateral branches that have borne two crops, those that are too close, dry or broken and any that are undesirable. Suckers should be removed as they appear. Advantages of non-capped multiple stem systemRequires less skill to establish. Easy to prune. Doesn t allow accumulation of CBD due to frequent removal old stems. DisadvantagesBreaking of stems and branches. Difficulty in gathering the berries from the top points. Difficulty in spraying the tall bushes. Rotting of stumps with age. |
Difficulty in gathering the berries from the top points. Difficulty in spraying the tall bushes. Rotting of stumps with age. CappingThis is cutting the main stem at height of 53cm when the young coffee plant is 69cm tall. One lateral is selected and later capped at 114cm when it grows to 130cm. The third capping is done at 168cm when the lateral branch reaches 183cn in height. At each capping only one upright branch is selected and allowed to develop. Capping is mainly done in single stem system. The tree is kept capped at 1.5-1.8m. De-suckering. This is the removal of suckers. Changing the cycle. It s the replacement of old stem by suckers. This occurs after 4-6 years. Cutting back in pyrethrum. This is the removal of the old stems down to the level of the top foliage at the end of the cropping year towards the end of the dry season. This increases production in the following season and minimizes incidences of bud disease. Banana Stool Management. This is involves the removal of extra suckers in the stool. 3-6 stem per stool are maintained. The suckers left should be at different stages of development; one sucker bearing, one half grown and the other one starting to grow. This ensures that they come into bearing at different times. Dry and diseased leaves should be removed using a sickle or panga to open up the stool. Crop protection. This involves the following;Weed control. Weeds are plants growing where they are not required. Potatoes growing in a wheat field are regarded as weeds. Some plants are however referred to as weeds regardless of where they are found such as black jack, couch grass, Sodom apple, wandering jew etc. Crop pest control. Pests are harmful to crops. They include insects, nematodes, rodents, thrips and mites. They reduce the quality and quantity of the crop products and should therefore be controlled. Crop disease control. A crop disease is any alteration in the state of a plant and functions of a plant or its parts. Diseases are caused by;Fungi. CBD, maize rust, coffee rust, smut in maize and sorghum etc. Bacteria. Tomato wilt, cabbage black rot, black arm of cotton etc. Virus. |
Bacteria. Tomato wilt, cabbage black rot, black arm of cotton etc. Virus. Ratoon stunting disease of sugarcane, rosette disease in groundnuts, cassava mosaic. Nutritional cause. Blossom end rot in tomatoes due to calcium deficiency. Physiological disorders. Frost injury in tea, coffee etc. Harvesting. This is the final operation in crop production that is carried out in the field. Harvesting should be timely to avoid loss in quality and quantity of the produce. Stage and Time of HarvestingTime of Harvesting is determined by the following factors. Market demand. Consumers preference is considered before harvesting. Maize is harvested either green or when the grains dry depending on market demand. Concentration of the required chemicals. In coffee the ripe berries are the ones harvested as they contain the required caffeine. In tea the two youngest leaves and the terminal bud are harvested as they give high quality tea. Purpose use of the crop. Maize for silage making should be harvested just before flowering while that for grain production should be harvested when the grains mature. Weather conditions. Most crops should be harvested during the dry season to avoid losses. Synchronisation of planting and harvesting time should therefore be donePrevailing market price and profit margins. In some crops harvesting can be deliberately delayed to await better market prices. Carrots and pears can be harvested late to realize higher profit margins. Methods of HarvestingThis depends on;Growth habit of the crop. Part being harvested. Scale of production. Precautions During HarvestingTiming should be correct. Weather should be dry to avoid rotting of the produce. Delayed harvesting should be avoided as most crops get spoilt in the farm. Store should be ready to receive the produce after it is harvested. Post Harvest PracticesThey are carried out on the crop after harvesting. They include the following. Threshing shelling. This is the act of removing maize from the cobs, beans from the pods or sorghum from the heads. This is done to facilitate subsequent cleaning and storage. It is normally the first operation done after harvesting. Drying. Grains are dried up to a moisture content of 12-13 . This prevents rotting and fungal attack of the grains while in store. Cleaning. This is done by winnowing in cereals to remove the chaff from the grains. Sorting and grading. The produce is sorted and graded according to quality. |
It varies from species to species and is also influenced by factors such as;Degree of excitement. Age of the animal. Sex of the animal. Physiological status of the animal e.g. in pregnancy. Production level of the animals. Loss of weight, emaciation and sudden drop in production may signify ill health. Morphological conditions of the bodyThe morphological conditions may be observed in the following areas;The visible mucous membranes. In normal health, the mucous membranes should be pink in colour, moist, soft, smooth and well lubricated. In ill health they are bright red, pale, yellowish or bluish in colour. The skin and animals coat. Healthy animals have smooth, soft, warm and moist skin especially around the muzzle. Dry and staring coat, loss of hair, swellings on skin etc are signs of ill health. Predisposing Factors of Livestock DiseasesThese are conditions inside or outside the body of an animal which lead to the animal contracting a disease or an injury. They include the following;Species of the animal. Some diseases are confined to certain species e.g. Newcastle disease in poultry and swine fever in pigs. Breed of the animal. Some diseases are confined to certain breeds such as Hereford suffer from cancer of the eye and solar erythema affects only the large white pig breeds. Age of the animal. Some diseases are associated with certain age groups e.g. piglet s anaemia affects only piglets, lamb dysentery affect lambs and calf pneumonia affects calves. Sex of the animal. Some diseases affect a particular sex e.g. mastitis affects lactating female animals, orchitis affects males as it affects the testis. Colour of the animal. Black animals suffer more to heat stress. Animals with light pigmentation may suffer from disorders such as photosensitization when exposed to high light intensity such as the large white breed of pigs. CAUSES OF LIVESTOCK DISEASES a Nutritional cause b Physical causes c Chemical caused Living organismsNUTRITIONAL CAUSES:This may be due to:-Mineral imbalances- Mineral deficiency problems are more common in rapidly growing animalsThe deficiency of certain minerals in the diet of livestock can cause the following nutritional disorders. Anaemia in piglets due to lack of iron. Curled toe paralysis in poultry due to lack of calcium and phosphorous. |
CAUSES OF LIVESTOCK DISEASES a Nutritional cause b Physical causes c Chemical caused Living organismsNUTRITIONAL CAUSES:This may be due to:-Mineral imbalances- Mineral deficiency problems are more common in rapidly growing animalsThe deficiency of certain minerals in the diet of livestock can cause the following nutritional disorders. Anaemia in piglets due to lack of iron. Curled toe paralysis in poultry due to lack of calcium and phosphorous. Milk fever parturient paresis in lactating dairy animals due to lack of calcium. Development of goiter in young calves due to iodine deficiency. Enzootic ataxia or swayback in lambs due to lack of copper. Bovine ketosis or acetonaemia due to impaired metabolism of carbohydrates and volatile fatty acids. Osteomalacia due to lack of carbohydrates. B Amount of food eaten by an animal-Excess intake of lush pasture will cause bloat or Ruminal tympanyThis is a digestive disorder of ruminating animals caused by production of Excess gas Methane in the rumen during fermentation. Excess food eaten especially in animals with single stomach monogastrics can cause rapture of the stomach, diarrhoea or constipation. Low food intake or lack of food results in loss of weight, poor health and in extreme cases result in starvation and even death. Animals that lack proteins, carbohydrates, minerals and vitamins become emaciated, unproductive and occasionally suffer from diseases. Feeding animals on contaminated feeds cause death e.g. rotting grains may contain aflatoxin, which is very poisonous. PHYSICAL CAUSES-These include physical injuries to the body organs or parts such as-Sudden or violent physical force can result into fracture. CHEMICAL CAUSESIf an animal eats, swallows or inhales chemicals such as acids, insecticides, herbicides etc it can be poisoned. Poison is any substance, which interferes with the normal structure or the physical metabolism of an animal s body if it comes into contact with its internal body organs. Most chemicals cause irritation, corrosion and burning of tissues or interfere with body systems. Other chemicals may interfere with membrane permanently. Stings from certain insects in sensitive parts of the body can cause irritation to the animal and may also cause swelling. Some weeds in pasture are poisonous if eaten by animals e.g. |
E Use of antiseptics and disinfectants-Antiseptics are preparations containing germ killing agents and antibacterial drugs. They are used on the skin or in wounds. -Disinfectants are very concentrated germinal chemicals used to kill bacteria in buildings and in animal structures. APPROPRIATE METHODS OF HANDLING LIVESTOCKLivestock handling should be carried out in the most humane and technical way in order to avoid stress or injury to the animal. Reasons for handling animalsWhen administering any form of treatment to the animalWhen spraying or hand dressing the animal with chemicals to control external parasites. When inspecting the animal in case of any sings of ill health. When milking the animal. When performing certain routine management practices eg dehorning, castration, hoof trimming, vaccination etc. METHODS OF RESTRAINING THE ANIMALUse of crush. Use of ropes. Use of bullring and lead stick. Use of head yokeNB: In livestock health, the following activities call for handling of animals. Drenching-This is the oral administration of drugs to the animal. -The drug can be in solid or liquid form. -A drenching gun is used to administer liquid drugs through the mouth. -A bolus gun is for solid drugs. The animal should be restrained in a crush and the head is held close to the stocks man under the left armpit. The mouth is then opened with the left hand and the drugs pushed in with the drenching or bolus gun using the right hand. B InjectionThe drugs are injected into the muscles intramuscularly or into the veins intra-veins -Care should be taken to select the correct site of injection. C Mastitis control. -When performing this operation, the animal is restrained in a crush. -Complete milking is done after which antibiotics are infused into the teats. D Hand spraying. -The animal is restrained in a crush for this operation. -A stir-up pump or a knap sack sprayer is used to spray the acaricide onto the animal. -Proper attention should be given to all the sites preferred by ticks. LIVESTOCK HEALTH II PARASITES Parasite- A living organism that lives in or on another organism and obtains nourishment from that organism without being useful to it in any way. -This host-parasite relationship is referred to as parasitism. |
-Larva forms the pupa, which later changes into an adult. -Tsetse flies bites mainly during the day. Harmful effects-They transmit Trypanosomiasis caused by a protozoan called trypanosome-Sucks out blood from the animal causing anaemia. -Cause damage on the skins and hides of animals making wounds, which provide routes for secondary infection by pathogenic organisms. Control-Bush clearing to destroy their breeding places. -Spraying their breeding places with insecticides. -Use of fly traps with impregnated nets. -Use of sterilizing agents eg radio isotopes on male flies and then releasing them. B .Keds melophagus orinus -Are sometimes referred to as sheep ticks. -They are hairy and wingless bloodsucking flies. Harmful effects-Cause irritation in heavy infestation. -Due to irritation, animal scratches itself thus damaging the wool. -Retarded growth in lambs. -. Anaemia. Control measures-Shearing the infected sheep and hand spraying them with appropriate chemicals eg pyrethrum, malathium, dieldrin etc-Routine sheep dipping. C FleasThey are wingless but have strong legs adapted for leaping over long distances. -They suck blood, as their mouthparts are adapted for penetrating the host s skin and sucking blood. -They pass through the following stages during development, egg- larvae- pupa- adult. Harmful effects-Cause irritation leading to scratching. -Stick fast in poultry causing wounds on the comb and wattles. -They cause anaemia. Control measures-Animals sleeping places should be kept clean. -Dusting animal hooks with appropriate insecticides. -Covering the stick fast fleas with petroleum to suffocate them. D LiceThey are small wingless insects and can be divided into two groups. Biting lice mallophaga Sucking lice anoplura Biting lice-diagram-They are found on both the birds and mammals. -They have chewing mouthparts. -They complete their lifecycle between three to four weeks. Sucking lice-Have mouthparts reduced into styles for sucking blood. -They are found only on mammals. Harmful effects-Cause irritation to the animal hence, the animal is seen to rub itself against fixed objects. -Heavy infestations cause loss of health in animals. |
-They are found only on mammals. Harmful effects-Cause irritation to the animal hence, the animal is seen to rub itself against fixed objects. -Heavy infestations cause loss of health in animals. -Since animals under attack do not feed very well, there is emaciation. -Loss of production in birds. -Anaemia and restless especially in poultry. Control measures-Spraying or dusting animals with appropriate insecticides. -Keeping animal houses clean. -Perches in poultry houses should be applied with insecticides e.g. 40 nicotine sulphate solution. -Dusting each bird with sodium fluoride for individual treatment. CLASS ARACHNIDA-This consists of the ticks, mites and spiders. -Ticks and mites belong to the order Acarina. -These do not undergo complete metamorphosis. -They have two body parts i.e. cephalothorax and the abdomen. -The adults have 4 pairs of legs. A Ticks. -Ticks rank as the single most important ectoparasites of livestock. -They cause injury and spread very dangerous diseases. -There are over 50 different species of ticks known. Harmful effects. -Vectors of diseases e.g. ECF, Red water, Anaplasmosis. -Suck blood-causing anaemia to the host. -Cause wounds through their bites. -Cause irritation to the animal. -Their bites lower value of hides and skins. -Some ticks produce toxins that may be harmful to the host. THE LIFE CYCLE OF TICKS-Ticks usually pass through four main stages in their cycle i.e. -Egg-Larva six legs -Nymph Eight legs -Adult Eight legs -Different species of ticks need different number of hosts. -There are therefore three categories of ticks i.e. -One host ticks. -Two host ticks. -Three host ticks. ONE HOST TICKS-These ticks require one host to complete their lifecycle. -Eggs on the ground hatch into larvae. -Larvae climb onto the host, suck blood, become engorged and moult into nymphs. -Nymphs feed on the same host, become engorged and moult into adults. -Adults feed on the same host, mate and the females drop off to the ground to lay eggs. |
-Larvae climb onto the host, suck blood, become engorged and moult into nymphs. -Nymphs feed on the same host, become engorged and moult into adults. -Adults feed on the same host, mate and the females drop off to the ground to lay eggs. Examples of one-host ticks-Blue tick Boophilus decoloratus -The Texas Fever tick Boophilus annalatus -The Cattle tick Boophilus microplus -The Tropical Horse tick Dermacentor nitens TWO HOST TICKS-This tick requires two hosts to complete their lifecycle. -The larvae and nymphs pass through their stages on the first host. -Eggs on the ground hatch into larvae, which climb on to the first host. -A larva attaches themselves to the host, feed on blood, become engorged and moult into nymphs. -. Nymphs feed on the same host become engorged and then drop to the ground to moult in adults. -Adults find a new host on which to feed. -They feed on the second host and mate. -Females drop off to the ground to lay eggs. Examples of two host ticks-Red legged tick Rhipicephalus evertsi -The Brown tick Amblyomma maculatum -The African Bont-legged tick Hyalomma truncatum -Large Bont-legged tick Hyalomma rufipes THREE HOST TICKS-These ticks require three different hosts to enable them to complete their lifecycle. -Eggs hatch on the ground into larvae. -Larvae attaches itself to the first host, feed on blood, become engorged and drop off to the ground and moults into nymphs. -The nymphs look for a second host, feed on blood, become engorged and drop off to the ground and moult into adults. -Adults seek for the third host, climb, feed become engorged and mate. -Females drop off to the ground to lay eggs. |
-The nymphs look for a second host, feed on blood, become engorged and drop off to the ground and moult into adults. -Adults seek for the third host, climb, feed become engorged and mate. -Females drop off to the ground to lay eggs. Lifecycle of a three-host tickExamples:--Brown ear tick Rhipicephalus appendiculatus -East African Bont tick Amblyomma variegatum -Bont tick Amblyomma herbraeum -Gulf Coast tick Amblyomma maculatum -Yellow Dog tick Haemaphysalis leachii -Fowl tick Haemaphysalis hoodi -Brown Dog Tick Rhipicephalus sanguineous TICK CONTROL MEASURESi Natural Biological method. Ii Mechanical method. Iii Chemical method. 1.Natural Biological method. -This is the use of the tick s natural enemies, which predate on the ticks. E.g. using predators such as birds to control ticks. N B Only a small number of ticks is controlled using this method. 2.Mechanical methodi Burning the infected pastures. -Burning destroys eggs, larvae, nymphs and adults. Ii Interfering with the ticks environmentThis is achieved by:--Ploughing pasture land .the eggs are exposed to the sun heat or are deeply buried. Iii By top dressing pasture using lime or dressing using acaricides. Iv Fencing off the pasture and farm. V Hand picking the ticks deticking vi Starving the ticks to death-This is achieved by practicing rotational grazing. -It interrupts the lifecycle of the ticks. 3. Chemical control method. This is done by application of acaricide. Properties of an effective acaricide-Has the ability to kill ticks. -Be harmless to both human and livestock. -Be stable. -Should remain effective after having been fouled with dung, mud or hair. Methods of acaricide application-Spraying regularly with the acaricide. -Dipping animals in plugs dips containing the acaricide. -Hand dressing using pyegrease. ENDOPARASITES INTERNAL PARASITES These are parasites which live within the body of the host animal e.g. |
-Dipping animals in plugs dips containing the acaricide. -Hand dressing using pyegrease. ENDOPARASITES INTERNAL PARASITES These are parasites which live within the body of the host animal e.g. tapeworms, Round worms, Fluke etcCategories of Endoparasites-Endoparasites are generally called helminthes-They fall under 2 phylai Platyhelminthes Flat worms -class-trematoda flukes -Cestoda tapeworms ii Nemathelminthes nematoda - Round worms. PLATYHELMINTHES-Are flatworms. -Body is symmetrical-Are hermaphroditic. A Tape worm Taenia spp -cestodes-Have two main parts ie-Has a head Scolex and a chain of segments called the strobila-Each segment is called a proglottis. -Scolex has suckers or hooks or both. Animals affected pigsCattleSheep. Goats. Donkey. Symptoms of attack-General emaciation-Rough or staring coat. -Scouring and sometimes constipation due to digestive disturbance. -. Pot-bellies especially in calves. -Oedematous swelling under the jaw. -Obstruction blockage of the intestines when tapeworms are present in large nubers. -. Ploglottides present in faeces. -Anaemia. -Excessive appetite. NB Lifecycle of tapeworm-Tape worms attack farm animals as intermediate hosts and man as final host. -There are two common species of tapewormBeef tape worm Taenia saginata Pork tape worm Taenia solium -Affected human beings drop Ploglottides full of eggs with faeces. -Eggs are picked by the right intermediate host either cattle or pigs while feeding. -After ingestion by the host intermediate , Eggs hutch in the intestines into embryos. -Embryos penetrate the intestinal wall and enter the blood system. -They first move to the liver and then to all body muscles of the animal where they become cysts. -Under cooked beef or pork from infected animals if eaten by man causes an infection. |
-Embryos penetrate the intestinal wall and enter the blood system. -They first move to the liver and then to all body muscles of the animal where they become cysts. -Under cooked beef or pork from infected animals if eaten by man causes an infection. -In the human intestine cysts wall dissolve and the parasites attack themselves to the wall of the intestine. -Here they develop into adult tapeworms. -These are passed out again in faeces. Control measures and treatmentUse of prophylactic drugs e.g. antihelminthes dewormers to kill parasites in animals. Keep animal houses clean and disinfected. Practice rotational grazing to starve the larvae cysts to death. Keep the feeding and watering equipment clean. Use of latrines by farm workers ie proper disposal of human faeces. Proper meet inspection. Proper cooking of meat. B Liver fluke Fascial spp Trematoda There are many species of flukes. -Two are the most common ones ieFasciola heptica sheep Fasciola gigantica cattle -Heavy infestation of flukes causes a condition called Fascioliasis. Symptoms-Emaciation-Indigestion in the animal. -Pot bellied condition. -Damage to liver tissue causing haemorrhage due to movement of flukes in the liver. -Anaemia due to sucking of blood. -Animals are dull and depressed. -Swollen and painful abdomen. -Recumbence precedes death. NB Fasciola has the following characteristics-Gray or gray-pink in colour-Flattened like leaf. -Have a conical projection at the anterior end. -Have a tapering body ending. Lifecycle:-Liver fluke use the fresh water snail as their intermediate host. -. They have sheep or cattle as their final host. -Adult flukes are found in the bile duct of the liver of the host animal. -Here they produce eggs, which are passed into the alimentary canal through the bile duct. -Eggs are passed out through dung. -A fluke produces about 300-3500 eggs per day. -I the eggs falls into stagnant water that is warm, they hatch into a ciliated embryos called miracidia miracidium -On coming into contact with the intermediate host snail Limnea spp . It penetrates the snail tissue. |
-A fluke produces about 300-3500 eggs per day. -I the eggs falls into stagnant water that is warm, they hatch into a ciliated embryos called miracidia miracidium -On coming into contact with the intermediate host snail Limnea spp . It penetrates the snail tissue. -Once inside the snail tissues, miracidium process masses of cells called sporocysts-Sporocysts change into Redia. -Redia produces cercaria more out of snail-Cercaria change into metacercaria which is the infective stage of the fluke-The definite final host through grazing or drinking infected water takes Metacercaria. NB Metacercaria can survive in wet grass and in shady places or when withstand harsh conditions for a year. -Once swallowed by the host, cercaria penetrates walls of the intestine and hatch into adults. -Adults migrate to the liver where they grow, mature, mate and produce eggs. -The cycle starts all over again. Control measures1. Controlling the fresh water snail intermediate host thoughPhysically killing them. Chemically by use of CuSo4 Sodium pentachlorophenate etc which is added to stagnant water to kill the snails. Draining swampy areas leveling any depression that may hold water in the pastures. 2. Burning of the pastures during the dry seasons to kill cercaria3. Not grazing animals near marshy or waterlogged areas. 4. Routine drenching using antihelminthes e.g. NaSo4, hexachloroethane drugs. ROUNDWORMS NEMATODES Ascaris spp There are three common species of round wormsAscaris lumbricoides Cattle and sheep. A. suum Pigs. A. galli poultry. -Heavy infestation of these worms cause a condition called ascaridiosisSymptoms of Attack-Anorexia Loss of appetite in heavy infestation -Staring coat stiff and dry -Dehydration and pale mucosa-Eggs and adults present in faeces. -Emaciation-Diarrhoea. -Anaemia. -Potbellies especially in young animals. LIFECYCLE OF A ROUNDWORM-The common roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides does not have intermediate hosts. |
-Anaemia. -Potbellies especially in young animals. LIFECYCLE OF A ROUNDWORM-The common roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides does not have intermediate hosts. -Eggs are laid in the alimentary canal of the host animal. -Eggs are passed out of the host with faeces. -Under favorable environmental conditions, eggs hatch into larvae, which climb onto grass and are eaten by host animals. -Once ingested eggs hatch into young worms called juveniles, which migrate to the liver and lungs. They move up the trachea where they are coughed and swallowed with sputum to the intestines. Here they mature, mate and lay eggs. Eggs are passed out in faeces. -Some species such as hookworms penetrate the animal s skin directly. Control Measures. Rotational grazing. Drenching using appropriate antihelminths. Proper use of latrines by farm workers. Hygiene in the herd such removal of infected dung. Taking care not to contaminate any feed and forage. Principles of Controlling EndoparasitesFactors to Consider When Controlling Endoparasites. The flock and its environment. Control measures should be directed at the whole group together with their pastures and housing. Nutritional status of the animal. Good nutritional status of the animals increases the resistance of the animals to internal parasite infection. Pasture management and rotational grazing. Pastures should be given a resting period after grazing. Housing management. There should be adequate spacing of the animal. Clean bedding should be provided and manure should be removed frequently. Hygiene should be maintained on feeding and water troughs. Protection of the young. Since young animals are more susceptible than adults to worm infestation, they should be dewormed regularly. They should also graze ahead of the old stock. Prediction of an outbreak. The life cycle of each parasite should be known to make their control possible. Treatment. The following rules should be observed;Parasites or causal agents should be identified correctly. Best available drug should be used at the right dosage. Treatment should be done when the parasite is most susceptible to the drug. Ecological requirement of the parasite must be known. Methods of Drug AdministrationStrategic Treatment. Administration is regularly at the same time each year. All animals are treated to reduce pasture contamination. Tactical Treatment. When rainfall is irregular, rapid multiplication of worms may occur calling for an additional tactical treatment. |
All animals are treated to reduce pasture contamination. Tactical Treatment. When rainfall is irregular, rapid multiplication of worms may occur calling for an additional tactical treatment. This is done when climatic and nutritional conditions are abnormal. SOIL FERTILITY II INORGANIC FERTILIZERS ESSENTIAL ELEMENTSPlant nutrients occur in the soil in the form of soluble substances. The plants take these substances in different quantities depending on their roles in plant tissues. Essential ElementsThese are nutrients needed by plants for various uses. They are divided into two categories;Macro-nutrients are also referred to as major nutrients and are needed in large quantities. Micro-nutrients are also referred to as trace as trace or minor nutrients. They are needed by plants in small quantities but must be present. Macro-nutrientsThey include carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, sulphur, calcium and magnesium. N, P and K are referred to as fertilizer elements. Ca, Mg and S are referred to as liming elements. Role of macro-nutrients and their deficiency symptoms. 1. Nitrogen. N03-, NH4 Its sources are; artificial fertilizers, organic matter and atmospheric fixation by lightning and nitrogen fixing bacteria. Role of nitrogen in plantsChlorophyll formation making the plant succulent deep green in colour. Encourages vegetative growth especially in crops where leaves are harvested e.g. kales, Cabbages and pasture grasses. Protein formation and protoplasm of all living cells. Regulates the availability of phosphorous and potassium in plants. Increases the size of grain cereals and their protein content. Deficiency symptomsChlorosis or yellowing of the leaves. Production of anthocyanin pigment instead of chlorophyll in tomatoes causing purplish colour. Stunted growth where plants become dwarfed with extremely short roots. Premature leaf fall. Premature ripening of fruits. Production of light seeds. Effects of excess nitrogenScorching of the leaves. Delayed maturity. Excessive succulence in stems hence fall lodging. Loss of nitrogen from the soilSoil erosionLeachingVolatilizationCrop uptakeUsed by microorganisms. 2. Phosphorous. H2PO4, P2O5 It occurs in the soil either in organic or in inorganic forms. It is converted into phosphates by microorganisms, which can be absorbed by plants. |
Phosphorous. H2PO4, P2O5 It occurs in the soil either in organic or in inorganic forms. It is converted into phosphates by microorganisms, which can be absorbed by plants. Since phosphates are relatively soluble in water they are not easily leached. SourceOrganic manuresCommercial fertilizersPhosphate rocksRole of PhosphorousRoot development and nodules formationInfluences cell division. Strengthens plant stems preventing lodging. Hastens maturity of the crop, flowering, and fruit and seed formation. Plays an important role in metabolic processes such as respiration, protein, fat and carbohydrate formationDeficiency symptomsStunted growth. Delayed maturity. Increased production of anthocyanin pigment hence purple colour. Yield of grains, fruits and seed is lowered. Effects of excess PhosphorousIt leads to unavailability of iron, which is converted, into insoluble compounds, which cannot be absorbed by plants. Loss of phosphorous from the soilSoil erosionLeachingCrop removalFixation by iron and aluminium oxide. 3. Potassium. K , K2O SourcesCrop residue and organic manuresCommercial fertilizersPotassium bearing rocks e.g. mica and feldspar. Role of potassiumComponent of chlorophyll molecule. Plays important role in carbohydrate formation and translocation. Assists in the uptake of nitrates from the soil and balances the effect on phosphorous and nitrogen uptake by plants. Neutralizes organic acids in plants. Strengthens plant stalks increasing plant vigour and disease resistance. Symptoms of potassium deficiencyLeaf curlingChlorosisPremature leaf fallStunted growth. Leaves develop a burnt scorched appearance on the margin. Loss of potassium from the soilCrop removalLeachingSoil erosionFixation in the soil. 4. Calcium Ca . SourcesCrop residues and organic matter. Commercial fertilizers. Weathering of soil minerals. Agricultural lime such as dolomite and limestone. Role of Calcium in plantsProtein synthesis. Corrects soil PH increasing soil Cation Exchange Capacity CEC making more nutrients such as phosphorous and potassium more available. Improves the vigour and strength of straw. Helps in grain and seed formation. Improves the soil structure. Promotes bacteria activity in the soil. |
Helps in grain and seed formation. Improves the soil structure. Promotes bacteria activity in the soil. Deficiency symptomsBlossom end rot in tomatoesStunted growthDying back of plant tips. Young leaves remain closed. Loss of calciumCrop removalLeachingSoil erosion. 5. Magnesium Mg 2 . SourcesCrop residues and organic manuresCommercial fertilizersAgricultural limeWeathering of soil minerals. Role of magnesiumSynthesis of oil in crops such as Soya beans and groundnuts. Forms part of the chlorophyll. Promotes the growth of soil bacteria and enhances the nitrogen fixation power of the legumes. Activates the production and transport of carbohydrates and proteins in the growing plant. Deficiency symptomsInter-venial Chlorosis of the leaves where the parts between the veins become yellow. Leaves turn purple then brown and eventually die. Leaves curve upwards along the margin. Stalks become weak and the plant develops long branched roots. 6. Sulphur SO42- . SourcesCommercial fertilizers. Soil minerals containing Sulphide such as gypsum and pyrites. Atmospheric sulphur from industries through rainwater. Role of sulphurFormation of proteins and plant hormones. Formation and activation of certain Co-enzymes such as coenzyme A. Influences plant physiological processes such as protein synthesis, chlorophyll formation, carbohydrate metabolism and nitrogen fixation. Deficiency symptomsStunted growthPoor nodulation in legumesLeaf Chlorosis hence anthocyanin pigment production. Thin stems and delayed maturity. Carbon, Oxygen and HydrogenThey are derived from the atmosphere and soil water. The three are raw material for photosynthesis in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll. Oxygen is also needed for respiration to produce energy. Micro NutrientsThey are also referred to as trace or minor elements. They are required in small quantities but they are essential for proper growth and development of plants. They include iron, manganese, copper boron, molybdenum and chlorine. Role of micronutrients and their deficiency symptomsCopper, iron and molybdenum help enzymes that are involved in oxidation and reduction processes in plants. Copper is involved in the utilization of iron and in respiration. Iron is needed in the synthesis of proteins in the chloroplasts. |
Role of micronutrients and their deficiency symptomsCopper, iron and molybdenum help enzymes that are involved in oxidation and reduction processes in plants. Copper is involved in the utilization of iron and in respiration. Iron is needed in the synthesis of proteins in the chloroplasts. Molybdenum is necessary for nitrogen fixation to take place by the help of symbiotic and non-biotic bacteria. It is also necessary for the synthesis of amino acids and proteins in plants. Boron is involved in the translocation of sugars in plants and in the absorption of water. Zinc is involved in the formation of some growth hormones and is also involved in the reproduction process of some plants. Inorganic Fertilizers. These are artificially processed compounds, which are added to the soil to improve its fertility. A. Classification of inorganic fertilizersThey are classified according to;Nutrients contained. -Straight containing only one macro-nutrient-Compound containing more than one macro-nutrient. Mode of application. Time of application. -Soil applied when planting-Top dressing after crop emergenceEffects on the soil pH. -Acidic-Neutral-Basic. I Straight fertilizerThey contain only one macro-nutrient which could be N, P or K. they are named according to the element contained. Nitrogenous fertilizers. They contain nitrogen as the primary macronutrient. They include Calcium Ammonium Nitrate CAN , Ammonium Sulphate Nitrate ASN Sulphate of Ammonia SA and Urea. Phosphatic fertilizers. Contain phosphorous. They include Single Super Phosphate SSP , DSP, and TSP. Potassic fertilizers. Contain potassium. They include Potassium Chloride or Murate of Potash KCl and Potassium Sulphate or Sulphate of Potash K2SO4 ii Compound or Mixed or Complex fertilizersThey contain two or more primary macronutrients. If it contains two of the primary macronutrients it is referred to as an incomplete compound fertilizer. Examples DAP 18:46:0 20-20-0 etc. If it contains the three N P K it is referred to as a complete compound fertilizer. Examples are 20-10-10, 25-5-5 5s, 17-17-17 and 15-15-15. |
Examples DAP 18:46:0 20-20-0 etc. If it contains the three N P K it is referred to as a complete compound fertilizer. Examples are 20-10-10, 25-5-5 5s, 17-17-17 and 15-15-15. B. Properties and Identification of Fertilizersi Nitrogenous FertilizersThey have the following properties. Highly soluble in water. Most are highly corrosive and therefore should not be handled with bare hands. They also corrode metal surfaces such as iron and tin. Are highly volatile. Under hot conditions they change into gaseous form and escape into the atmosphere. They should therefore be applied to moist soils to avoid volatilization. They are hygroscopic and therefore absorb water from the atmosphere causing the granules to stick together or cake. They should therefore be stored under dry conditions. They are easily leached and should therefore be applied to already established crops. They have a scorching effect and should therefore not be brought into contact with any part of the plant. They have a short residual effect and should therefore be applied frequently. Properties of Individual Nitrogenous FertilizersSulphate of Ammonia NH4 2SO4. Physical appearance, white crystals, has acidic effect, contains 20-21 N. its highly volatile and slow acting. Ammonium Sulphate Nitrate ASN NH4NO3 NH4 2SO4. Its less acidic, granules appear yellow orange or brownish in colour, contains 26 N. its both quick and slow acting and highly corrosive. Calcium Ammonium Nitrate CAN NH4NO3 CaCO3. It s neutral in nature and highly hygroscopic. It has grayish granules and not corrosive. It contains 21 N. Urea CO NH2 2. Has 45-46 N. occurs as small whitish granules. It is easily leached or volatilized. It is rarely used except in crops with a high absorption capacity such as sugarcane. Ii Phosphatic FertilizersThey have the following properties. Has low solubility and immobile. However they may combine with ions of aluminium fixing phosphorous into unavailable forms to the plants. |
Ii Phosphatic FertilizersThey have the following properties. Has low solubility and immobile. However they may combine with ions of aluminium fixing phosphorous into unavailable forms to the plants. They should therefore be place next to the roots so that plants can utilize them before phosphorous becomes fixed. Have a slight scorching effect and should be mixed thoroughly with the soil to minimize the scorching effect. Are not easily leached and therefore are applied during planting time. They have a residual effect and hence benefit subsequent crops. They are not very hygroscopic and therefore easy to store. Properties of Individual Phosphatic FertilizersSingle Super Phosphate SSP . It has 20-21 Phosphorous penta-oxide P2O5 . Induces negligible acidity and its water-soluble. It s in the form of white creamy granules. Double and Triple Super Phosphate DSP and TSP . They contain 43-52 P2O5 and occur in form of grayish granules smaller than those of CAN. It induces negligible acidity in the soil. Iii Potassic FertilizersCharacteristicsModerate scorching effectMore soluble in water than Phosphatic ones but less than nitrogenous ones. Most East African soils have adequate potassium and should therefore be applied only where soil test show its deficient. Properties of Individual Potassic FertilizersPotassium Chloride KCL . It is also referred to as Muriate of potash. It contains 50 K2O. It induces negligible acidity to the soil. It is hygroscopic. It occurs in the form of creamish or light coloured granules. Potassium Sulphate K2SO4 . It has 50 K2O. Reacting Muriate of potash with sulphuric acid makes it. It induces negligible acidity to the soil. It is also referred to as Sulphate of potash. Iv Compound or Mixed Fertilizers-Are made by mixing two or more straight fertilizers. Their nutrient content is expressed in two ways. Fertilizer grade. This indicates the guarantee of minimum content as a of N:P2O5:K2O in the fertilizer for example 10-20-0, 17-17-17 etc. Fertilizer ratio. This is the relative expressed as a ratio of the NPK present. |
This indicates the guarantee of minimum content as a of N:P2O5:K2O in the fertilizer for example 10-20-0, 17-17-17 etc. Fertilizer ratio. This is the relative expressed as a ratio of the NPK present. For example, 10-20-0 will be 1:2:1 and 17:17:17 will be 1:1:1. Properties of Individual Compound FertilizersDiammonium Phosphate DAP NH4 2PO4 18; 46;0. It is moderately acidic because of the ammonium content. It is applied at planting time and contains both phosphorus and nitrogen. Nitrophos 20;20;0. Moderately acidic and contains both N and P. Monoammonium Phosphate MAP 11;48;0. Its moderately acidic and has same properties as DAP. Others 23;23;0, 17;17;17, 20;10;10 and 25-5-5 5SFertilizer ApplicationPhosphatic fertilizers are applied during planting time while nitrogenous ones are applied after crop emergence. In maize nitrogenous fertilizers are applied when the crop is 45-60cm or knee high. This application of fertilizers after the emergence of crops is referred to as top dressing. Methods of fertilizer applicationBroadcasting. This is the random scattering of fertilizers on the ground for plant use. This is applicable with the Potassic and nitrogenous fertilizers. Broadcasting should be done when the soil is moist. This is done manually or by the use of broadcasting machines. Shallow cultivation should be done after broadcasting to prevent loss through volatilization. Placement method. This is the application of the fertilizer in the planting holes or drills. The fertilizer should be thoroughly mixed with the soil before placing the seeds. This method is recommended when applying Phosphatic fertilizers. Side Dressing. This is the placement of nitrogenous fertilizer at the side of the crop being top-dressed. Side dressing can be done in two ways;Band application. Placement of fertilizer along a band in between the rows of growing crops. Ring application. This is the placement of fertilizer around the individual crop just beneath the edge of the canopy. Drip. The fertilizer is dissolved and applied to individual plants through perforated pipes or bottles. |
Carbon occurs in the atmosphere as carbon dioxide and constitutes 0.03 of air by volume. Ways in which carbon is removed from the atmospherePhotosynthesis. Green plants use CO2 from the atmosphere during photosynthesis. Carbon Dioxide water-----------Glucose OxygenThe glucose formed is used by plants to provide energy and the excess is stored in storage structures such as grains and tubers. As rainwater passes through the atmosphere, it reacts with carbon dioxide to from weak carbonic acid. This reduces the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere. Ways in which Carbon is returned to the AtmosphereDecomposition. Once living organisms die, they decay releasing CO2 into the atmosphere. Respiration. During aerobic respiration oxygen is used to oxidize carbohydrates releasing energy, carbon dioxide and water. The Carbon dioxide is released to the atmosphere. Glucose Oxygen--------- Energy carbon waterDioxideCombustion. When carbon-containing materials such as wood and petroleum burn, carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere. Importance of the carbon CycleMaintains the volume of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Ensures constant supply of CO2 for plant use. Ensures a balance between CO2 and O2 to prevent the buildup of CO2 to toxic levels. The Nitrogen CycleThese are the series of changes which nitrogen undergoes between the atmosphere, water, soil and living organisms. Nitrogen gas makes up to 78 of atmospheric air by volume; however it is not available to plants in this free gas form. Ways in which Nitrogen is removed from the atmosphereNitrogen fixation by lightning. Atmospheric nitrogen combines with oxygen to form nitric oxide during lightning. Nitric oxide is easily oxidized to form nitrogen dioxide as shown below. N2 O2 -------- 2NONitrogen Oxygen Nitric Oxide2NO O2----------2NO2Nitric oxide OxygenNitrogen DioxideThe nitrogen dioxide formed dissolves in water to form two acids, nitrous acid and nitric acid. 2NO2 H2O ------------ HNO2 HNO3Nitrogen water Nitrous acidNitric acidDioxideNitrous acid is a weak acid and is quickly oxidized to form nitric acid. 2HNO2 O2--------2HNO3Nitrous acidOxygenNitric acid. |
N2 O2 -------- 2NONitrogen Oxygen Nitric Oxide2NO O2----------2NO2Nitric oxide OxygenNitrogen DioxideThe nitrogen dioxide formed dissolves in water to form two acids, nitrous acid and nitric acid. 2NO2 H2O ------------ HNO2 HNO3Nitrogen water Nitrous acidNitric acidDioxideNitrous acid is a weak acid and is quickly oxidized to form nitric acid. 2HNO2 O2--------2HNO3Nitrous acidOxygenNitric acid. In the soil nitric acid is ionized to form nitrate ions NO3 , which is now available to the plants. Nitrogen fixation by Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria. This is divided into symbiotic and non-symbiotic nitrogen fixation. Symbiotic fixation is carried out by Rhizobium bacteria found in the root nodules of legumes such as beans, peas, Lucerne, groundnuts etc. Free-living bacteria found in the soil carry out non-symbiotic nitrogen fixation. These bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates into the soil. Azotobacter and clostridium are good examples. N2---------------------------NO3 absorbed by plants . Nitrification. This is the process by which ammonium compounds are converted into nitrites and nitrates by the action of Nitrobacter and Nitrosomonas bacteria. The Harber-Bosch Process. This results in the formation of ammonia. N2 3H2-----------2NH3Nitrogen HydrogenAmmoniaThe ammonia produced is reacted with sulphuric acid or nitric acid to produce Sulphate of ammonia and ammonium nitrate fertilizers respectively. Ammonium nitrate can then be mixed with calcium carbonate to produce CAN. Ways in which Nitrogen is returned to the AtmosphereDenitrification. This is the conversion of nitrate ions NO3- to nitrogen gas N2 and ammonium ions NH4- into ammonia gas NH3 , which escapes into the atmosphere. This is common in waterlogged soils and in very compacted soils. Denitrifying bacteria does this. Combustion. Burning vegetation causes the conversion of nitrogenous compounds into nitrogen dioxide and ammonia, which escapes into the atmosphere. Volatilisation. |
Combustion. Burning vegetation causes the conversion of nitrogenous compounds into nitrogen dioxide and ammonia, which escapes into the atmosphere. Volatilisation. Sometimes ammonium compounds in the soil sublime to form ammonia gas, which escapes to the atmosphere. Importance of the Nitrogen cycleEnsures the availability of nitrogenous compounds in the soil for plant use. Ensures the survival of the anaerobic microorganisms such as clostridium, which use nitrogen gas. Soil samplingThis refers to obtaining a small quantity of soil that is representative in all aspects of the entire farm. Soil sampling methodsTraverse method. Four corners of the field are identified and sampling is done diagonally. Zigzag method. Locations are arranged in such a way that they are in a zigzag formSoil sampling ProcedureClear the vegetation over the site. Dig out the soil at depths of 15-25cm for crop-land and 5cm for pasture land. Place the dug out soil in clean container. Repeat the above steps in different parts of the field, preferably 15-20 spots. Mix thoroughly soil from all the spots. The soil is crushed and dried. Take a sub-sample composite sample from the mixture and send to National Agricultural Laboratory for analysis. The composite sample should have the following details before being taken to the laboratory;Name and address of the farmer. Field numberDate of sampling. Sites to avoid during the samplingDead furrows and ditchesNear manure heapsSwampsRecently fertilized soilsAnt hillsUnder big treesNear fence lines or footpathsBetween slopes and bottom-land. Soil TestingThis is the analyzing of the soil samples to determine the ability of the soil to supply the essential elements. Importance of soil testingTo determine the value of the soil hence determine the crop to grow. To determine the nutrient content hence find out the type of fertiliser to apply. To determine whether it is necessary to modify the soil pH for a crop. Soil pH potential hydrogen This refers to hydrogen ion H concentration in the soil. It is also referred to as the soil reaction. Soil pH measures the acidity or alkalinity of the soil solution. Soil acidity is caused by the H ions while soil alkalinity is caused by the hydroxyl ions OH- . |
It is also referred to as the soil reaction. Soil pH measures the acidity or alkalinity of the soil solution. Soil acidity is caused by the H ions while soil alkalinity is caused by the hydroxyl ions OH- . The pH scale ranges from 1-14 with 7 being neutral; pH below 7 is acidic and pH above 7 is termed as basic or alkaline. These numbers are negative logarithms or powers. For example at pH 5 the amount of H concentration is 10-5. Most nutrients are available at neutral pH e.g. phosphates are available at pH 6.5-7.5. Low soil pH lowers the availability of phosphorous as phosphates become fixed by iron and aluminium. Molybdenum is also unavailable at low pH. Too high pH makes manganese, potassium, boron, iron and zinc less available. Testing Soil pHUse of the pH meter. Use of colour indicator dyes. Importance of Soil pH to CropsDetermines the type of crop to be grown in an area. For example, tea prefers acidic soils while barley is affected by low pH. Influences the incidences of soil borne pests. E.g. Pests such as nematodes are more serious in acidic soils than in neutral soils. It determines the availability or absence of nutrients. Influences the activity of soil microorganisms. E.g. low soil pH favours fungi and discourages bacteria. Therefore bacterial diseases such as potato scab caused by Aceptomyces scabies are common in high pH soils while fungal diseases such as club root caused by Plasmodiaphora brassicae are common in low pH soils. Influences the physical and chemical characteristics of the soil. REVISION QUESTIONS1.a Describe the production of tomatoes under the following sub headings. |
Therefore bacterial diseases such as potato scab caused by Aceptomyces scabies are common in high pH soils while fungal diseases such as club root caused by Plasmodiaphora brassicae are common in low pH soils. Influences the physical and chemical characteristics of the soil. REVISION QUESTIONS1.a Describe the production of tomatoes under the following sub headings. I Ecological requirements 3mks ii Nursery establishment 4mks iii Planting 3mks iv Pest control 3mks v Disease control 3mks vi Marketing.4 mks2.Mention four categories of vegetables based on the part used as food. 4mks 3.a Describe the field production of Onions Aleum Cepa under the following sub topics;i Ecological requirements 3mks ii Varieties 2mks iii planting 4mks iv Field management practices 4mks v Harvesting 4mks b Name Three diseases of cabbages 3mks 4Name any 4 management practices done in carrot production. 4 mks 5.Describe the establishment of cabbage seedlings under the following sub-heading:- a Establishment of the nursery 7mks b Management of seedlings in the nursery 6mks c Transplanting of seedlings 7mks 6.Give four reasons for staking tomatoes 4mks 7.Give 4 effects of excess nitrogen in tomatoes. 4 mks 8.State 3 causes of blossom end rot in tomatoes. 3 mks 9.Give 4 reasons for staking in tomatoes. 4 mks 10Name 3 fresh market and 3 processing tomato varieties. 3 mks 11Name the early maturing cabbage varieties. 3mks 12.Why is it not advisable to apply manure in carrot production? 1 mk 13.Name the two main categories of carrots and give an example in each case. 2 mks MARKING SCHEMES1. A Production of tomatoesi Ecological requirements-Warm climate with a temp ranging 15 250C , 200C- 250C during day and 150C 170C at night. |
4 mks 8.State 3 causes of blossom end rot in tomatoes. 3 mks 9.Give 4 reasons for staking in tomatoes. 4 mks 10Name 3 fresh market and 3 processing tomato varieties. 3 mks 11Name the early maturing cabbage varieties. 3mks 12.Why is it not advisable to apply manure in carrot production? 1 mk 13.Name the two main categories of carrots and give an example in each case. 2 mks MARKING SCHEMES1. A Production of tomatoesi Ecological requirements-Warm climate with a temp ranging 15 250C , 200C- 250C during day and 150C 170C at night. Altitude 0 2100m above sea level- Soil should be deep- Well drained- PH 5 7.5- Rainfall 760 1300 mm year p.a- Well distributed throughout the growing period 1 2mk for each correct answer x 6 3mks ii Nursery establishment and management. -The nursery should be sited on a gently sloping land. -A nursery of width 1m is prepared and soil raised to 15cm. -The bed should be prepared to a fine tilth-Planting furrows or drills are made at 10 15cm apart using a stick of pencil thickness. -Seeds are planted thinly along the furrows and covered lightly with the soil and firmed. -A light mulch cover is placed on the bed and watering done. 1mk each for any 4 points iii Planting-Planted at well prepared seedbed with deep soils free from weeds-Spacing 60cm x 60cm single row or 60cm x 60cm x 90 cm double row planting -200kg of DAP per hectare is used for planting-10 tons of farm yard compost manure per hectare-Nematocide should be applied on planting time to control nematodes. -Seedlings should be watered before transplanting-Transplant in the evening or during a cloudy day-Mulch the seedlings after transplanting mk for any 6 correct points iv Pest control. |
-A light mulch cover is placed on the bed and watering done. 1mk each for any 4 points iii Planting-Planted at well prepared seedbed with deep soils free from weeds-Spacing 60cm x 60cm single row or 60cm x 60cm x 90 cm double row planting -200kg of DAP per hectare is used for planting-10 tons of farm yard compost manure per hectare-Nematocide should be applied on planting time to control nematodes. -Seedlings should be watered before transplanting-Transplant in the evening or during a cloudy day-Mulch the seedlings after transplanting mk for any 6 correct points iv Pest control. -cut wormAmerican bollworm 1mk -The adult moth lay eggs on young tomato fruits-When they hatch the larvae bore into the fruits and feed on themControl-Routine spraying of tomatoes with recommended pesticide eg. Karate, AmbushNematodes 1mk -Can be controlled by crop rotation-Fumigation of the soil using furadanv Disease controli Bacterial wilt 1mk for mention Control- Crop rotation-Uprooting and burning the affected plants 1mk each for any 2 correct points -Blossom end rot . 1mk for mention of any one disease Cause-Too much Nitrogen in the early stages of growth- Irregular watering- Calcium deficiencyControl- Regular watering- Apply sufficient amount of calcium add CAN - Top dressing with the right amount of Nitrogen 1mk each for any 2 e Marketing- Sort and grade them- Pack in wooden boxes- Sold to consumers directly- Sold to green grocers - Sold to canning factories- Fresh market tomatoes should have a reddish colour- For canning should be left to ripen2. Categories of vegetables based on the part used as flood. |
Karate, AmbushNematodes 1mk -Can be controlled by crop rotation-Fumigation of the soil using furadanv Disease controli Bacterial wilt 1mk for mention Control- Crop rotation-Uprooting and burning the affected plants 1mk each for any 2 correct points -Blossom end rot . 1mk for mention of any one disease Cause-Too much Nitrogen in the early stages of growth- Irregular watering- Calcium deficiencyControl- Regular watering- Apply sufficient amount of calcium add CAN - Top dressing with the right amount of Nitrogen 1mk each for any 2 e Marketing- Sort and grade them- Pack in wooden boxes- Sold to consumers directly- Sold to green grocers - Sold to canning factories- Fresh market tomatoes should have a reddish colour- For canning should be left to ripen2. Categories of vegetables based on the part used as flood. -. Leaf vegetables- Root vegetables- Stem vegetables- Pod vegetables- Flower vegetables- Fruit vegetables3.a i Altitude 2,100m above the sea levelRainfall 1,000mm per yearfairly long period for ripeningirrigated during dry spellSoil fertile and well drained - Ph 6.0 7.0 3mks ii Varieties red creoleTropicana hybridWhite creole 2mks iii Planting Can be sown directly or started off in a nursery bed. 250kg Dsp used during plantingRows for direct planting should be 30cm apart. Seeds drilled and covered with light soil or transplanted at 8cm apart within the row. Deep planting should be avoided as it inhibits bulb expansion. 1x4 4mks iv - Thinning- Weeding- Top dressing- Pest and disease control 1x4 4mks v Harvesting- ready for harvesting after 5 months from planting. -. Tops broken or bent at the neck when leaves start drying. This hastens withering of the stem- bulbs are dug and left to dry in a shade of a few days. |
1x4 4mks iv - Thinning- Weeding- Top dressing- Pest and disease control 1x4 4mks v Harvesting- ready for harvesting after 5 months from planting. -. Tops broken or bent at the neck when leaves start drying. This hastens withering of the stem- bulbs are dug and left to dry in a shade of a few days. Turning should be done daily during drying- dry onions should be stored in slatted wooden crates- regular inspection to discard spoilt ones should be done 1x4 4mks b - Damping off- black rot- downy mildew 1x3 3mks 4Thinning, weeding, topdressing and pest control. 5. A Choose a suitable nursery site, considering accessibility and source of waterDig and prepare the chosen site to a desirable tilthRemove roots of previous plants and stones from the siteMake raised or sunken nursery beds depending on soil moisture0 measuring 1m wide and any convenient lengthPlant seeds by drilling at a spacing of 15cm by 3cm deepApply fertilizer phosphatic or manureCover the seeds to a depth of about 1 cmErect a shade or apply some mulch on the nurseryWater the nursery thoroughly. 7 well described pts 7mks b Remove the mulch if it was applied and erect shade if it wasn t erected above the nurseryWater the nursery at least twice a day preferably early mornings and late eveningsRemove weeds that may have come upThin young seedlings if they are overcrowded. |
This hastens withering of the stem- bulbs are dug and left to dry in a shade of a few days. Turning should be done daily during drying- dry onions should be stored in slatted wooden crates- regular inspection to discard spoilt ones should be done 1x4 4mks b - Damping off- black rot- downy mildew 1x3 3mks 4Thinning, weeding, topdressing and pest control. 5. A Choose a suitable nursery site, considering accessibility and source of waterDig and prepare the chosen site to a desirable tilthRemove roots of previous plants and stones from the siteMake raised or sunken nursery beds depending on soil moisture0 measuring 1m wide and any convenient lengthPlant seeds by drilling at a spacing of 15cm by 3cm deepApply fertilizer phosphatic or manureCover the seeds to a depth of about 1 cmErect a shade or apply some mulch on the nurseryWater the nursery thoroughly. 7 well described pts 7mks b Remove the mulch if it was applied and erect shade if it wasn t erected above the nurseryWater the nursery at least twice a day preferably early mornings and late eveningsRemove weeds that may have come upThin young seedlings if they are overcrowded. Plant them in a seedling bedControl pests and diseases when the symptoms of attack are noticedHarden off the seedlings by removing shade gradually and reducing frequency of watering 6 pts well described 6mks c Water the nursery thoroughly before transplantingPrepare the field seedbed to a suitable tilth before transplanting is dueTransplant seedlings when 6 10cm high; selecting the healthy and discarding the weak onesTransplant during cloudy day or during late afternoonPlant seedlings in the field to the same depth 10cm they were in the nursery space at 60cm x 60cm or 60cm x 90cmLift each seedling from nursery with a ball lump of soil to avoid damage to the rootsWater the field well before it receives the seedlingsApply a handful of FYM mixed with some phosphatic fertilizer in each hole Well described 7 pts scores 7mks 6. |
Turning should be done daily during drying- dry onions should be stored in slatted wooden crates- regular inspection to discard spoilt ones should be done 1x4 4mks b - Damping off- black rot- downy mildew 1x3 3mks 4Thinning, weeding, topdressing and pest control. 5. A Choose a suitable nursery site, considering accessibility and source of waterDig and prepare the chosen site to a desirable tilthRemove roots of previous plants and stones from the siteMake raised or sunken nursery beds depending on soil moisture0 measuring 1m wide and any convenient lengthPlant seeds by drilling at a spacing of 15cm by 3cm deepApply fertilizer phosphatic or manureCover the seeds to a depth of about 1 cmErect a shade or apply some mulch on the nurseryWater the nursery thoroughly. 7 well described pts 7mks b Remove the mulch if it was applied and erect shade if it wasn t erected above the nurseryWater the nursery at least twice a day preferably early mornings and late eveningsRemove weeds that may have come upThin young seedlings if they are overcrowded. Plant them in a seedling bedControl pests and diseases when the symptoms of attack are noticedHarden off the seedlings by removing shade gradually and reducing frequency of watering 6 pts well described 6mks c Water the nursery thoroughly before transplantingPrepare the field seedbed to a suitable tilth before transplanting is dueTransplant seedlings when 6 10cm high; selecting the healthy and discarding the weak onesTransplant during cloudy day or during late afternoonPlant seedlings in the field to the same depth 10cm they were in the nursery space at 60cm x 60cm or 60cm x 90cmLift each seedling from nursery with a ball lump of soil to avoid damage to the rootsWater the field well before it receives the seedlingsApply a handful of FYM mixed with some phosphatic fertilizer in each hole Well described 7 pts scores 7mks 6. Prevent attack by soil borne pestsFacilitate spraying and harvestingControl soil borne diseasesFor the production of clean fruits 1x4 4mks 7.Prolonged maturity; cracking of fruits b4 maturity; blossom end rot; excess vegetative growth. |
5. A Choose a suitable nursery site, considering accessibility and source of waterDig and prepare the chosen site to a desirable tilthRemove roots of previous plants and stones from the siteMake raised or sunken nursery beds depending on soil moisture0 measuring 1m wide and any convenient lengthPlant seeds by drilling at a spacing of 15cm by 3cm deepApply fertilizer phosphatic or manureCover the seeds to a depth of about 1 cmErect a shade or apply some mulch on the nurseryWater the nursery thoroughly. 7 well described pts 7mks b Remove the mulch if it was applied and erect shade if it wasn t erected above the nurseryWater the nursery at least twice a day preferably early mornings and late eveningsRemove weeds that may have come upThin young seedlings if they are overcrowded. Plant them in a seedling bedControl pests and diseases when the symptoms of attack are noticedHarden off the seedlings by removing shade gradually and reducing frequency of watering 6 pts well described 6mks c Water the nursery thoroughly before transplantingPrepare the field seedbed to a suitable tilth before transplanting is dueTransplant seedlings when 6 10cm high; selecting the healthy and discarding the weak onesTransplant during cloudy day or during late afternoonPlant seedlings in the field to the same depth 10cm they were in the nursery space at 60cm x 60cm or 60cm x 90cmLift each seedling from nursery with a ball lump of soil to avoid damage to the rootsWater the field well before it receives the seedlingsApply a handful of FYM mixed with some phosphatic fertilizer in each hole Well described 7 pts scores 7mks 6. Prevent attack by soil borne pestsFacilitate spraying and harvestingControl soil borne diseasesFor the production of clean fruits 1x4 4mks 7.Prolonged maturity; cracking of fruits b4 maturity; blossom end rot; excess vegetative growth. 8.Too much nitrogen in early stage; irregular watering; calcium deficiency in young fruits. 9Production of clean fruits; facilitate spraying and harvesting; avoid infestation by soil borne pests; control disease incidences such as blight. |
Prevent attack by soil borne pestsFacilitate spraying and harvestingControl soil borne diseasesFor the production of clean fruits 1x4 4mks 7.Prolonged maturity; cracking of fruits b4 maturity; blossom end rot; excess vegetative growth. 8.Too much nitrogen in early stage; irregular watering; calcium deficiency in young fruits. 9Production of clean fruits; facilitate spraying and harvesting; avoid infestation by soil borne pests; control disease incidences such as blight. 10Fresh market money maker, hot set, super marmande, ponde rosa, marglobe. Processing primabel, cal J, seinz, Kenya beauty. 11.Brunswick, sugar loaf, early jersey, mukuki, Copenhagen market, golden acres, Gloria etc. 12.Encourages forking. 13.-Fresh market chantenary-Canning - NantesFORM THREE AGRICULTURE NOTESCROP PRODUCTION IV FIELD PRACTICES II There are many food crops grown in Kenya. These crops require different environmental conditions and are therefore found in different ecological zones in the country. Crops such as maize, beans and rice are grown as staple food crops. Other like millet, sorghum, cassava and sweet potatoes are mostly grown for food security. Examples of food crops grown in KenyaMAIZE Zea Mays -It is the staple food in most areas in Kenya. Maize is also a livestock food and produces oil and starch when processed in industries. Ecological RequirementsAltitude-2200m above sea levelTemperature-mediumRainfall-mediumMaize is drought tolerant during the early stages of growth but must have enough rain during silking stage. Soil-maize prefers fertile alluvial or loam soils since maize cannot tolerate water logging. Soil pH should be neutral to alkaline. Maize VarietiesFew pure varieties exist because farmers tend to grow the Hybrids and Composites, which are more productive. The Kenya Flat Complex is an example of the few pure varieties. It is however low yielding. Hybrids are bred by crossing two pure lines or varieties under conditions of controlled pollination. Composites are bred by growing a number of varieties together under uncontrolled pollination i.e. there is free inter pollination. The hybrids and composites are produced for specific altitudes in the country. E.g. |
There is free inter pollination. The hybrids and composites are produced for specific altitudes in the country. E.g. Kitale Hybrids-614, 622, 625, 626, 627 and 628 are grown in medium to high altitude zones. Embu Hybrids-511 513 are best for medium altitude zones. Katumani Composites- for lower altitude zonesCoast Hybrids- Pwani Hybrid 1and Pwani Hybrid 4 for Coast Province. Others Double cob DH01 DH02Selection and preparation of planting materialsKenya Seed Company contracts specific farmers to grow maize for seeds. The maize is harvested and treated using Thiram-dindane to prevent post attack. Its then sold to farmers as seeds. Farmers should buy fresh seeds every planting season to escape the problem of reduced hybrid vigor. Land PreparationLand should be prepared early to allow the previous crop incorporated into the soil to rot. Disc or mould board ploughs are used to plough. Harrowing is done to obtain a fine tilth. Continuous cropping of maize should be avoided. It should be rotated with other crops such as beans, cotton, tobacco, Irish potatoes or groundnuts. Field Operationsa Planting-Should be done early so that the crop can utilize the available moisture. Dry planting should be practiced in areas with short rainy seasons. Early planting increases yields and reduces attack by stalk borers. Seeds are planted shallowly in moist soils-2.5cm and deeply in dry soils-10cm. Spacing is 20-30cm x 75-90cm where one or two seeds are placed per hole. However, spacing depends on the ecological conditions and the variety to be planted. Small-scale farmers use hands to plant while tractor drawn planters are used on large scale. B Fertilizer Application. 100-150kg or DSP or DAP per hectare is applied during planting. Top dressing is done when the crop is about 45cm high where 200kg of ASN or CAN is applied per hectare. Top dressing can be done twice i.e. first when 45cm high and second one just before selling. C Weed Control. Weeds should be controlled to reduce competition for moisture and nutrients. Two to three weeding are required during the growing period of the crop. Hand weeding is the commonest herbicides can also be used e.g. |
-Proper drying of the grains reduces chances of the grains rotting and minimizes the extent of insect damage. Marketing-Farmers sell their maize grains through the National Cereals and Produce Board. -Local trading in green and dry maize is also common. II FINGER MILLET Eleusine coranaca Finger millet has small seeds which dry out quickly and insects cannot fit inside them. It s an important cereal crop in Western Kenya and Uganda. Ecological Requirements-Rainfall-about 900mm annually. Millet can tolerate drought in the early stages of growth but after the first month it requires a good supply of moisture. -Altitude-0-2400m above sea level. -Soils-should be fertile and well drained. Varieties-Ultra lupin-5.18 OATS. Both are high yielding and resistant to lodging and blast. Selection and Preparation of Planting Materials-Harvested grains are sun dried, threshed, winnowed and then stored for use as seeds-Certified seeds can also be bought from the Kenya seed Company. Land Preparation-Seedbed should be thoroughly prepared to obtain a fine tilth since the seeds are very tiny. -Weed control is also very difficult in millet hence thorough seedbed preparation reduces weed competition. Field Operationsa Planting-Should be done as early as possible in the season. The earlier it is sown the higher the yields. -Planting is usually done broadcasting hand. -If planted by rows, the furrows should be 30cm apart and the plants should be thinned to 5 cm apart within the rows. B Weed Control. -This is done manually because finger millet is very close and jembe cannot be used. -Thorough seedbed preparation reduces the labour required for weeding-The most common weeds are the Eleusine africana and Eleusine indica wild finger millet . They are difficult to distinguish from the crop in the early stages of growth. C Fertiliser application. -125kg of Sulphate of Ammonia is applied when the crop is 15cm high. D Pest and Disease Controli Pests-Finger millet is rarely destroyed by pests in the store because of the small size of the grains. -Major pests in the field are the birds and are controlled by scaring them. |
-125kg of Sulphate of Ammonia is applied when the crop is 15cm high. D Pest and Disease Controli Pests-Finger millet is rarely destroyed by pests in the store because of the small size of the grains. -Major pests in the field are the birds and are controlled by scaring them. Ii Diseases-Most serious disease is the head blast caused by a fungus called Pericularia oryzae-The disease is common under hot and humid conditions e.g. in Western Kenya. -The disease cause brown spots with grey centres on the leaves and the stems just below the inflorescence. Control-Planting resistant varieties. Harvesting-Hand knives are used for cutting individual heads. Heads are then dried, threshed and winnowed. Yields-1650kg hectare can be obtained with good management practices. Storage and Marketing-Grains are dried and stored in bags. -Mainly it s grown for subsistence and only a little is sold in local markets. III BULRUSH MILLET Pennisetum typhoides It s one of the small cereal crops cultivated in lower parts of Meru, Kirinyaga and Embu districts. Also cultivated in Kerio valley and parts of Machakos. Ecological RequirementsRainfall-500-600mm p.a. Bulrush millet is drought resistant and takes a short time to mature. Altitude-1200m above sea level hence warm climate. Soils-should be well drained. VarietiesSevere 26 19, 17, 26 9, 6A, 2A and 3A. Land PreparationLand should be prepared early to give the soil enough time to settle and form a firm seedbed. A fine seedbed is required since the seeds are tiny. Field Operationsa Planting-Planting is commonly done by broadcasting followed by a shallow cultivation before the onset of the rains. -Spacing should be 60cm x 15cm where rows are used. B WeedingThe field should be maintained weed free until tillering occurs. Hand weeding is commonly done. C Fertiliser Application. Sulphate of Ammonia can be applied at the rate of 200kg hectare when the crop is 30cm high. |
-Use of insecticides. -Proper disposal of crop residue remains after harvesting. B DiseasesSorghum is attacked by both leaf and inflorescence diseases. Examples of leaf diseases-Leaf blight Helminthosporium turcicum. -Anthracnose Colletotricum graminicola -Sooty stripe Ramulispora sorghi General control-Growing resistant varieties. Examples of inflorescence diseasesLoose smut Sphacelotheca cruenta Head smut Sphacelotheca reiliana General controlSeed dressing. Harvesting-Sorghum is ready for harvesting 3-4 months after planting. -Heads are cut off using a sharp knife after which they are sun dried. -Dried sorghum is then threshed, winnowed and stored. Yields-500-1500kg hectare and up to 3000kg under good husbandry. -Sorghum can be rattooned for one or two seasons. Marketing-Crop is marketed through the National Cereals and Produce Board. -Private buyers also purchase sorghum directly from farmers. V BEANS Phaseolus vulgaris -Are used to provide with proteins. They are grown for the dry seeds or for the green pods. Beans can be intercropped with other crops like maize and cassava. -Beans are annual legumes with varying growth habits. E.g. some varieties are determinate bush type non-spreading and others are indeterminate type spreading type -Beans are about 99 self-pollinated. Ecological RequirementsSoil-Should be well drained and rich in organic manure. Beans do not tolerate waterlogged soils. -The soil should be moist. Rainfall-Should be moderate. Heavy rainfall is destructive at the flowering stage. Rain should be present during harvesting time, as this would cause rotting and sprouting of the beans. Beans for green pods are produced under irrigation. Varieties-Varieties for production of dry bean seedsRose coco, GLP 2 Mwezi moja GLP 1004 Canadian wonder GLP 24 K 74WairimuMexican 142 developed in Tanzania. It is suitable for canning, drought resistant, rust resistant, early maturing and high yielding. |
Beans for green pods are produced under irrigation. Varieties-Varieties for production of dry bean seedsRose coco, GLP 2 Mwezi moja GLP 1004 Canadian wonder GLP 24 K 74WairimuMexican 142 developed in Tanzania. It is suitable for canning, drought resistant, rust resistant, early maturing and high yielding. -Varieties for green pods production. French Beans Long tomSaxaMaster pieceMonel. Selection and Preparation of Planting Materials-Beans are established from seeds. The seeds should be dried before they are planted. Damaged and wrinkled seeds should be discarded during seed selection. Selected seeds should be dressed with appropriate chemicals to control soil borne pests. Seeds should be inoculated with the right strain of Rhizobium. Field OperationsPlanting-Beans should be planted at the onset of rains. 2-3 seeds are placed per hole at a spacing of 30cm x 15cm. DAP fertilizer should be applied at a rate of 200kg hectare along the furrows before planting. The seed rate is 50-60kg ha. B Weeding-The field should be kept weed free by shallow weeding. Weeding should be done before flowering to avoid knocking down the flowers. Weeding is done when it is dry to avoid spreading diseases. C Irrigation. -Beans for green pod production are grown during the dry months. They therefore need about 50mm of water per week. This is supplied through overhead irrigation or furrow system of irrigation. D Pest and Disease control. I Pests-They include aphids, American bollworm, bean fly, spotted borer, golden ring moth etc. ControlSpraying with insecticides such as Dieldrin, Dimethoate, Diazinon, and Formathion etc. Ii Diseases. -They include Bean rust, Anthracnose, Halo blight and angular leaf spot. Bacterial Halo blight. Caused by a bacteria called Pseudomonas phaseolicolaDisease causes brown water soaked lesions on the pods. Each brown spot is surrounded by a yellow band or halo . The disease is seed borne and can be spread by rain, which could splash the bacteria on to the healthy plant parts. Control-Planting healthy seeds. |
Each brown spot is surrounded by a yellow band or halo . The disease is seed borne and can be spread by rain, which could splash the bacteria on to the healthy plant parts. Control-Planting healthy seeds. -Rogueing-Crop rotation-Spraying with copper oxychloride. Anthracnose. Disease is caused by a fungus called Colletotricum lindemuthianum. It causes brown lesions on pods and stems and brown spots on leaves. Control-Growing resistant varieties e.g. K74 and Wairimu. -Use of clean seeds. -Seed dressing with Captan-destroying infected crop residues. -Spraying with Benomyl, Copper fungicide or Mancozeb during the wet season. HarvestingBeans for seeds are harvested by uprooting the dry plants. Uprooted beans are gathered on tarpaulins canvas, mats or sacks to allow them to dry further before threshing. When the plants are dry enough, they are beaten with sticks to remove the seeds from the pods. The stems and the pods are removed before winnowing. Sorting should be done after winnowing to remove damaged seeds. Dry clean seeds are treated with appropriate pesticide and packed in bags. Marketing-Is done through NCPBYields-2600kg ha under good managementFor the green beans French beans , harvesting of the pods starts about 9 weeks after planting and continues for about two months. Pods should be packed immediately after picking to avoid shrivelling. Yields-4-5 tones ha under good management. RICE Oryza sativa -Rice is a cereal crop and is used as a staple food in some parts of Kenya. -It is grown at Mwea Tebere irrigation schemes in Kirinyaga district, Ahero irrigation scheme in Nyando district and Bura irrigation scheme in Tana River district and Yala swamp in Siaya district. -Mwea is the largest rice-growing project in Kenya with over 5,600 hectares. Land Preparation-Rice growing fields are levelled and bunds constructed around them for controlling water. -Tractor drawn rotavators are used to work the flooded fields before transplanting. Field OperationsWater control. The level of water is increased from the very low level of about 5cm at planting time gradually to a height of 15cm by the time the seedlings are fully grown. |
-Tractor drawn rotavators are used to work the flooded fields before transplanting. Field OperationsWater control. The level of water is increased from the very low level of about 5cm at planting time gradually to a height of 15cm by the time the seedlings are fully grown. Water should be allowed to flow slowly through the fields. Fertilizer ApplicationSulphate of Ammonia should be applied at a rate of 25kg per each nursery unit measuring 18.5cm x 18.5cm before sowing. DSP fertilizer is broadcasted in the field at a rate of 125kg ha before transplanting and 125kg ha 40 days after transplanting. Weed Control. Flooding easily controls weeds. Uprooting can be done on the few weeds that persist. Herbicides can be used e.g. Butachlor and Propanil. HARVESTING OF VARIOUS INDUSTRIAL CROPSFORAGE CROPSThese are plants, which grow naturally or are planted by man and are used as livestock feed. PASTURESA pasture is the land on which the forage crops are grazed on directly. Aspects of pasturePasture classificationPasture establishmentPasture managementPasture utilization. PASTURE CLASSIFICATIONPasture can be classified in three main ways. According to the pasture standAccording to pasture establishmentAccording to the Ecological zones. I Classification on Basis of Pasture Stands. The pasture may be either pure stand or mixed stand. Pure stand pastures have either grass or legumes on them. In mixed pastures, grasses and legumes are grown together. Ii Classification based on Establishment. Under this category, pastures are classified as Natural and Artificial. Natural pastures. These are grasses and legumes grow naturally and extensively for both domestic and wild animals. Over 80 of Kenyan pastures are natural. They are mainly mixed stand pastures. Artificial pastures. These are pasture grasses and legumes planted by man purposely for livestock feeds. Mostly they are of high quality. Iii Classification on the basis of Altitude zones Under this category, pastures can be classified as:High altitude pastures grasses legumes Medium altitude pasturesLow altitude pastures. High Altitude PasturesThey are found at high altitudes of 25500m above sea level and above. |
Green leaf desmodiumDesmodium intortum. SiratroMacroptilium atropurpureumStyloStylosanthes guiyanensisLow Altitude PasturesThese are pastures found in marginal areas of Kenya below 1500m above sea level which receive little rainfall. In such areas, indigenous livestock such as camels, donkeys, cattle, sheep and goats are kept. Examples of grass pastures in this zone include:Common Name Botanical NameAfrican fox tail Cenchrus ciliarisMaasai love grass Eragrostis superbaLikoni guinea Panicum maximumMakarikari grass Panicum coloratumRed oat grass Themeda triandraHyparrhenia thatch grass Hyparrhenia rufaGiant star grass Cynodon plectostadynsBothriochloa Bothriochloa insulpaPara grass Branchiaria muticaAndropogon Andropogon sppCymbogon Digitaria decumbeusExamples of legumes found in this zone. Common Name Botanical NameStylo Stylosanthes searbraGlycine Glycine wightiiCentroCenrosema pubescensOTHER PASTURE CROPSWeed GrassesCommon NameBotanical NameCouch grassDigitaria scalarumNut sedgesCyperus speciesSporobolusSporobolus spp. Fodder shrubsLeucaeniaLeucaenia leucocephalaAtriplexAtriplex spp. PASTURE ESTABLISHMENTPasture can be established by use of seeds, rhizomes or splits. I Selection of Planting Materials. Planting materials selected should be;Of high nutritive value. Adapted to the prevailing environmental conditions. Fast growing in order to give a good ground cover which will help to control soil erosion. Able to give high herbage yield per unit area. Ii Land Preparation. Land should be ploughed and harrowed to a fine tilth. Land preparation should be done during the dry season before the onset of the rains. Iii Seed RatesRecommended seed rate for pasture grasses is 1.5-2.0kg ha of pure germinating seeds. The seeds are produced by Kenya Seed Company. |
Land preparation should be done during the dry season before the onset of the rains. Iii Seed RatesRecommended seed rate for pasture grasses is 1.5-2.0kg ha of pure germinating seeds. The seeds are produced by Kenya Seed Company. And are sold in two lotsHigh quality seeds with 13-25 pure germinating seeds. PGS Standard quality seeds with 12.5 PGS. Legume seed rate depends on the seed size i.e. 2-3kg ha for medium sized seeds e.g. Desmodium and Lucerne and 2kg ha for tiny seeds e.g. clovers. Iv Fertilizer Application. SSP fertilizer is applied at a rate of 200kg ha for grasses and legume mixturesFor pure grasses, NPK 20:20:0 at a rate of 200kg ha is recommended. V Legume Seed InoculationThis is the addition of effective Rhizobia to leguminous seeds before planting to promote nitrogen fixation. This is done in areas where soil is deficient of nitrogen. Some Rhizobia strains are naturally found in the soil at pH 5.5-8.0 with adequate calcium, phosphorous, potassium and rainfall. Examples of Rhizobium strains. CropRhizobium SpeciesLucerneRhizobium meliotiCloversRhizobium trifoliBeansRhizobium phaseoli. Vi Sowing. Since most seeds are small, they should be covered lightly after broadcasting. The following are the methods of sowing. Direct sowingUnder sowingOver sowing. Direct Sowing. This is the establishment the pasture in a clean seed bed where no other crops are growingUnder Sowing This is the establishment of a pasture under a cover crop usually maize. Maize is planted and weeded 2-3 weeks after the onset of the rains. Pasture seeds are broadcasted with the recommended amount of fertilizer. No further weeding is done Maize is harvested early to expose the young seedlings to sunlight. Over Sowing This is the establishment of a pasture legume in an existing grass pasture. The grass pasture is kept short until the pasture legume is well established. SSP fertilizer is applied at the rate of 200kg-400kg ha. |
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