text stringlengths 86 39.2k |
|---|
Over Sowing This is the establishment of a pasture legume in an existing grass pasture. The grass pasture is kept short until the pasture legume is well established. SSP fertilizer is applied at the rate of 200kg-400kg ha. The mixed stand pasture should be ready for light grazing 4-5 months after planting. MANAGEMENT OF PASTURES. I WeedingWeeds should be controlled as they cause the following;Reduce the lifespan of pastures. Compete with forage crops for nutrients, moisture and sunlight. Reduce the quality of the Herbage yield. Some may be poisonous to the animals e.g. Datura. They interfere with forage fertilization. Weed Control measures on pasturesTimely land preparation which ensures clean seedbed with less subsequent weed problem. Slashing. Application of selective herbicides e.g. 2,4-D. Uprooting the weeds if scattered. Ii Top Dressing. This is the application of plant nutrients after the pasture has established for the following reasons. To add replenish soil nutrients and ensure proper nutrient balance. To increase the herbage yieldTo improve the nutrient value of the crop. To enable the soil micro organisms to breakdown organic residues into available nutrientsTo correct or amend both physical and chemical properties such as soil structure and moisture holding capacity. N B The choice of topdressing fertilizer depends on the crop and soil nutrient status. -Inorganic fertilizers are better for top dressing materials than organic manures because they release their nutrients faster. -Pure grass pastures require large amounts of nitrogen and potassium. -Grass-legume pastures require phosphorous, potassium, calcium and sulphur for nitrogen fixation. Iii Topping. -This is the removal of the stemmy fibrous material left over after a period of pasture grazing. -The removal of such material stimulates fresh growth. -Topping should be done at the onset of the rains and should be followed by topdressing. -Topping is done through slashing, mowing or burning. Iv Reseeding. This is also called gapping and it s done when pasture is partially denuded or bare. Refilling the gaps does it. V Controlled Grazing. Some pastures are seriously affected by heavy grazing such that herbage production is low. Grazing has therefore to be controlled through tethering, strip grazing or paddocking. Vi Pest ControlJust like any other crop in the farm, pasture crops are also attacked by pests. |
Some pastures are seriously affected by heavy grazing such that herbage production is low. Grazing has therefore to be controlled through tethering, strip grazing or paddocking. Vi Pest ControlJust like any other crop in the farm, pasture crops are also attacked by pests. The most common pest is the mole which makes underground tunnels destroying roots of pasture crops hence killing them. These are controlled byUse of cats Biological method Rodenticides Chemical control Traps Physical mechanical method D PASTURE UTILIZATIONFORAGE QUALITYThe quality of forage declines with age. I.e. there is gradual decline in the amount of soluble sugars, starch, proteins, organic matter and digestibility with age. Crude fibre is not digestible in the normal enzymatic process but only through the activities of microbes in the rumen. Frequency of Defoliation. Defoliation refers to grazing in pastures and cutting for feed in fodder crops. Frequency of defoliation therefore refers to how often the forage stand is grazed or cut for feed. It s important to determine the proper defoliation frequency for a particular forage. Effects of Very Early Defoliation Less than Four weeks. The forage has very high moisture content 90 The forage has very high protein content on weight basis. Has very low Dry Matter content hence very low DM yield. It has high DM digestibility but low in digestible nutrients. Has low crude protein yield. Frequent early defoliation leads to a gradual weakening of the stand followed by empty patches, weed invasion and an eventual reduction in the productive life of the stand. Effects of Late Defoliation. More than Ten weekThe forage has high DM content hence high DM yieldHas high cellulose content hence it s woody and fibrous. It has high lignin, cutin, tannin and silica content which are all insoluble. It has low crude protein content. It has low leaf: ratioIt has low dry matter digestibilityNB during grazing, it s necessary to do paddocking for the following reasons. To control grazing and ensure sufficient re-growth before grazing is resumed. To ensure better forage utilization and less wastage by trampling, fouling and selective grazing. To facilitate conservation of excess pasture in form of hay or standing forage. To maintain a favourable grass-legume balance where applicable. |
To ensure better forage utilization and less wastage by trampling, fouling and selective grazing. To facilitate conservation of excess pasture in form of hay or standing forage. To maintain a favourable grass-legume balance where applicable. Carrying Capacity and Stocking RateCarrying capacity is the ability of the forage stand to maintain a particular number of livestock units per unit area. This depends on the herbage yield and the animals daily requirements. Stocking rate refers to the number of the animals maintained per unit area of land. In order to determine the carrying capacity and the proper stocking rate for a particular forage stand, dry matter DM yields per unit area per unit time and live weight of the animals to be fed are considered. ExampleA dairy animal consumes 2.5kg dry matter for every 100kg body weight per day. The amount consumed by a jersey weighing 400kg live weight per year would be2.5X 400 100 X 365 1000 3.65 tons DMA Guernsey weighing 450kg would consume2.5 X 450 100 X 365 1000 4.1 tons DMLikewise, an Ayrshire weighing 500kg live weight would consume,X 500 100 X 365 1000 4.65 tons DM. NB when the stocking rate is above the carrying capacity of the pasture, it is referred to as overstocking. And when it is below the carrying capacity it is referred to as under stocking. Some Recommended Stocking Rates on Different PasturesEffects of overstockingInsufficient regrowth period for the forage hence effects similar to those of very early defoliation. Overgrazing and loss of soil cover leading to soil erosion. Invasion of undesirable plant species especially weeds and shrubs. Intensity of defoliationThis refers to proportion of the herbage removed through grazing and that of the residual forage. Pastures should be grazed until about 70 of the aerial herbage is eaten up i.e. about 5cm is left. GRAZING SYSTEMSThere are three main grazing systemsRotational grazingContinuous grazingZero grazing1 Rotational GrazingThis refers to practice of allowing livestock to feed on a part of pasture for a period down to certain level before they are moved to the next. This gives time for pasture to properly regenerate. |
About 5cm is left. GRAZING SYSTEMSThere are three main grazing systemsRotational grazingContinuous grazingZero grazing1 Rotational GrazingThis refers to practice of allowing livestock to feed on a part of pasture for a period down to certain level before they are moved to the next. This gives time for pasture to properly regenerate. Advantages of Rotational GrazingLivestock make maximum use of pastureReduces the buildup of parasites and diseases. Animal waste is distributed evenly in all fields paddocks. Pasture area is given time to re-grow before its grazed on again. Excess pasture can be harvested for conservationIts possible to apply fertilizers in parts of the pastures are not in useIt facilitates reseeding and weeding. The methods of rotational grazing include paddocking, strip grazing and tethering. A PaddockingA paddock is a fenced portion of a pasture in which animals are restricted for grazing. Paddocking means grazing livestock in one paddock for a short period and then moving to another. The size of the paddocks depends on the carrying capacity of the pasture. There should be a watering point at each paddock. A water trough is placed between two paddocks so that animals can drink water from either paddock. Paddocking saves herding labour. However, it is very expensive to construct. B Strip Grazing-This is done by allowing livestock to graze on restricted portion of the pasture at a time then moving them to the next. -It s done on very high quality pastures. Electric fences can be used to enclose animals in a given strip of pasture. -Where animals are not many herding may be done to restrict them to stay within the strips. Temporary fences may also be used instead of the electric fences. -However, the system is quite expensive. C Tethering. -This involves tying the animal to a post with a rope such that it feeds within a restricted area. -The rope may also have a metal ring that slides along a strong wire supported by strong poles. 2 Continuous Grazing Herding In this type of grazing, the pasture is not allowed any resting period. This method can easily result in overgrazing if the stocking rate is not controlled. It s common in the semi-arid areas. |
2 Continuous Grazing Herding In this type of grazing, the pasture is not allowed any resting period. This method can easily result in overgrazing if the stocking rate is not controlled. It s common in the semi-arid areas. 3 Zero Grazing Stall Feeding -This is the practice of rearing animals in a permanent feeding enclosure known as the stall. Feed is cut and taken to the animals in the stalls. -They are also provided with plenty of clean water and mineral licks. AdvantagesThere is quick accumulation of manureAnimals make use of the feeds without wastageAnimals produce high yields due to less wastage of energy. It s easy to control diseases and parasitesIt requires little landIt allows higher stocking rateDisadvantagesHigh initial capital is requiredHigh management skills are neededNeed a lot of labourDiseases can easily spread. FODDER CROPS-These are forage crops which are grown, allowed to mature the cut and given to livestock as feed. Animals are not allowed to graze on them directly because they easily degenerate. -The fodder can also be conserved and sold if produced on large scale. -They include; Napier grass, Guatemala grass, Sorghum, Columbus grass, Sudan grass, Edible Cana, Kales, Kenya white clover, Marigolds Sugar beets , Lucerne, Desmodium and Agro-forestry trees and shrubs. 1.NAPIER GRASS. Penisetum purpereum There are two main varieties of Napier grass i.e. The French Cameroon and Bana Grass. French CameroonIt has thin stems and less hairyBana GrassHas thick stems and its hairy. A Ecological requirements. I Soils-Should be well drained though it does well in a variety of soils. Ii Rainfall- 750 mm p.a which should be well distributed. Iii Altitude. -Preferably 2100m above sea level. Iv Temperature-Optimum 24oC -29oCb Establishment and managementi Land preparation. Should be done early during the dry season. Furrows are made at a spacing of 90-100cm. Alternatively; holes can be dug at a spacing of 90cm x 50cm. 7-10 tons of well decomposed organic manure is applied. |
Furrows are made at a spacing of 90-100cm. Alternatively; holes can be dug at a spacing of 90cm x 50cm. 7-10 tons of well decomposed organic manure is applied. Ii Planting. Planting materials should be selected from desirable varieties of napier grass. Materials should come from healthy and mature plants. Stem cuttings or splits are used. Stem cuttings should have 2-3 nodes. -Stem cuttings should be placed in the furrows in a slopping manner. -NPK 20:20:0: should be applied at rate of 200kg ha. Iii Fertilizer applicationTopdressing with nitrogen and potassium fertilizers should be done about 6-8 weeks after planting. Iv Weed Control. Weeds should be removed as early as possible during the early stages of development. Methods of control include,Use of herbicides e.g. 2,4-DCultivationSlashingUp-rooting. V Defoliation. French Cameroon matures in about 3 months. There after it should be cut every 6-8 weeks. The grass should be about 1.2-1.5m high at the time of harvesting. Bana Grass grows up to 12 months without flowering. Defoliation should be done when there is high yield digestible matter. Vi Utilisation. Stems should be cut 2.5-5.0 cm abo0ve4 the soil surface to facilitate fast re-growth. A panga is used to cut. Excess napier is conserved as silage for future use. Cut forage is chopped into smaller pieces by use off a chaff cutter or a sharp panga. Vii production per unit area. Under good management, Napier grass gives a yield of up to 35 tons of dry matter DM per hectare per year. This contains 8-15 crude protein and this is enough to support 5 milking cows per year. 2. GUATEMALA GRASS Trypsacum laxum . It s a tall hardy, broad leafed grass with a vigorous growth. A Ecological Requirements. I Altitude-Up to 2000m above sea level. Ii Soils-Does well in a variety of soils. Iii Rainfall. -900mm p.a. That should be well distributed. |
NPK 20:20:20 is applied at the rate of 200kg ha during planting for proper root growth and development. Iii Fertilizer Application. CAN or ASN is top dressed at the rate of 125kg haiv Weed ControlField should be kept weed free. This is done by hand cultivation, slashing or use of selective herbicides. V Utilisation. Grass lasts in the field for 18 months. During this period, the grass is harvested several times. It regenerates after every cutting. Columbus grass should be left to dry for two days before feeding to the animals to avoid Prussic and Hydro cyanic acid poisoning. This poison is found in wet grass. Production Per Unit Area-20 tons per hectare of dry matter DM per year under in good management. 4.KALES Brassica spp They supply succulent nutritious stems and leaves for feeding livestock. A Ecological RequirementSoils should be loam or clayRainfall 1000mmAltitude prefer high altitude. B Establishment and Management. Seeds are planted in nurseries 6 weeks before the rains. Land should be prepared to a fine tilth. Holes are dug at a spacing of 1mx0.3m. Transplanting is done at the onset of rains. DSP fertilizer is applied at a rate of 150kg ha when transplanting. The field should be kept weed free. C UtilisationLeafy stems are cut, chopped and given to livestock. Kales should be fed to milking cows together with dry roughages since they are succulent. About 15kg of kale is needed by animal per day. It should be given to the milking cows after milking to avoid tainting the milk. D Production per unit areaKales produce 35-50 tons fresh weight per hectares per year. Kales are quite rich in protein. 5. EDIBLE CANNA. Cana edulis It s a fodder crop with broad shinny leaves which are used to feed livestock. A Ecological RequirementRainfall-should be adequateAltitude-1500-200m above sea levelSoils-should be fertileb Establishment and Management. Land is cleared, ploughed and the harrowed. Holes are dug at a spacing of 1m x 1m. |
A Ecological RequirementRainfall-should be adequateAltitude-1500-200m above sea levelSoils-should be fertileb Establishment and Management. Land is cleared, ploughed and the harrowed. Holes are dug at a spacing of 1m x 1m. Farmyard manure is mixed thoroughly in holes before planting. Rhizomes are planted at the onset of rains. Early weeding is done. Crop is top dressed 4 weeks after planting with nitrogenous fertilizer at the rate of 100kgN ha. C UtilisationEdible canna is cut and fed to livestock when fresh. Each lactating cow should be given 4-7kg of canna per day during the dry seasons. D Production per unit areaEdible canna produces about 100tons DM ha year6. SUGAR BEETS MARIGOLDS Beta vulgaris These are root fodder crops that are quite nutritious. A Ecological Requirements. Rainfall-more than 1000mmAltitude- should be highSoils should be well drained. B Establishment and ManagementThey are established through seeds. Seeds are planted in nurseries 6 weeks before the rains. Land is cleared, ploughed, and then harrowed to a medium tilth. Holes are dug 1.0m x 0.3m. DSP is applied at the rate of 150kg ha at planting time. The field should be kept weed free through cultivation, uprooting, slashing or by use of appropriate herbicides. Topdressing is done using CAN or ASN at the rate of 100kg ha. C Utilization. They are used for feeding livestock during the dry season at the rate of 22-27kg cow day. They are chopped into small pieces. They should be wilted first because their fresh leaves have oxalic acid which can be poisonous. D Production per unit area. Marigold produces between 30-40tons ha of herbage under good management. 7. KENYA WHITE CLOVER Trifolium semipilosum. It has slender spreading stems which produce roots and underground rhizomes. |
Leaves and branches are cut and given to the animals directly. Cutting should not be done until the shrubs are 3-4m in height. Shrubs are cut back to a height of 0.5m above the ground once per year and at the beginning of the rains. Green seeds pods produced are removed and fed to animals, as they are very rich in proteins. Other importances of shrubsImprove the soil through nitrogen fixation e.g. leucaenia and calliandraTheir roots hold soil particles together thus controlling soil erosion. Their fallen leaves decay adding organic matter into the soil. Some provide with wood fuel especially the tree speciesd Production. Under good management, the shrubs give a considerable herbage yield for the livestock especially the browsers. FORAGE CONSERVATIONIn Kenya, there is always excess forage during the long and short rains April to June and November to December and a shortage during the dry months of January to March and September to October. There is therefore the need to conserve the excess forage as its often wasted or not fully utilized. Reasons for conserving forage. To distribute available forage for animals throughout the year. To provide feed for the dry season. To ensure better and full utilization of available land. On a large scale, conserved forage can be sold as hay etcMethods of conservationHay-this is dried forage mainly pasture grasses and legumes e.g. desmodium and Rhodes grass. Silage-This is an-aerobically fermented forage mainly applicable to succulent fodders such as Napier grass, maize and sorghums. Standing forage- Growing forage can be set aside for dry season feed and applicable for both pasture and fodders. A HAY MAKINGHay refers to forage which has been dehydrated to about 15-20 moisture content. The forage should be cut when about 50 of plants have flowered. Steps followed in hay makingi The crop is cut when about 50 of the plants have floweredii The crop is spread out evenly on the ground to dry for 2-3 days. It should be dried under controlled conditions in order to retain its nutritive value and the original crop colour. Iii The hay is windrowed and the gathered or baled. Iv The bales of hay are then stored in a shed out of reach of rainwater and sunshine. |
It should be dried under controlled conditions in order to retain its nutritive value and the original crop colour. Iii The hay is windrowed and the gathered or baled. Iv The bales of hay are then stored in a shed out of reach of rainwater and sunshine. NB Rapid drying is recommended to ensure high quality hay. Slow drying results in oxidation of soluble carbohydrates hence poor quality. Prolonged exposure to sun results in the breakdown of chlorophyll and carotene. Factors determining the quality of hay. Forage species used. Stage of harvesting hence stem: leaf ratio. Length of the drying periodWeather condition during the drying processCondition of the storage structureB SILAGE MAKINGSilage is a fodder crop harvested while green and kept succulent by partial fermentation in a silo. A silo is the structure used for fermenting. The process of silage making is called ensiling. The objective of ensiling green forage is to preserve the material with minimum loss of nutrients. Advantages of silage makingMore nutrients are preservedIt has few field lossesIt is less dependent o n weather conditionsIt can be preserved for prolonged periods with minimum loss of nutrients. Once ensiled, there are no storage problems. It can be fed directly without liquid additives. Disadvantages of silage makingRequires skills and much attention. Labour intensive hence expensiveBulky to store and handleSusceptible to ensiling lossesMust be fed soon after removalMost farmers cannot spare sufficient forage for ensiling. Types of Silosi Trench SiloIt is the most popular and applicable to small-scale farmers. It s a rectangular trench on a slightly slopping ground to ensure proper drainage. Ii Clamp siloIt s constructed above the ground level in form of a trough with slanted sides for ease of compaction. Each side of the silo is made of a pair of timber walls. There is a gap between each pair of timber walls. Soil is put and compacted in these gaps. Between the two pairs of walls is the part where ensiling is done. A clamp may also be made of two stone walls and a cemented floor. Iii Bunker Tower siloA bunker silo is made of concrete under the ground and has vertical walls suitable for mechanical ensiling. A tower is a tall round metallic structure for mechanical ensiling. |
A clamp may also be made of two stone walls and a cemented floor. Iii Bunker Tower siloA bunker silo is made of concrete under the ground and has vertical walls suitable for mechanical ensiling. A tower is a tall round metallic structure for mechanical ensiling. Steps followed in silage makingSilo is prepared before harvesting crop. The shape and size of the silo depends on the amount of forage to be ensiled. The crop is cut at the appropriate stage and wilted for 6-12 hours to about 65-75 moisture content. The crop is chopped up and put into the silo compacting it every 10-12cm layer. Silo should be filled as rapidly as possible. The ensiled material should have a Ridge or humped in appearance when ensiling is completed. Temp in the silo should be checked regularly during the ensiling period. If the temperature is higher than 32.2oc water should be added and compaction reduced. If temperature is below 32.20c, compaction should be increased and dry materials or molasses added. The ensiled material is covered with a polythene sheet or a layer of dry grass to protect it from water and air. The silo is covered with a thick layer of soil maintaining the ridge appearance. A trench is then dug all round the silo to drain off rainwater. Principles of ConservationRapid ensiling and compaction reduces aerobic respiration in the ensiled material. When the silo is finally sealed, the oxygen is cut off and aerobic respiration gradually gives way to fermentation. This allows lactic acid bacteria Lactobacillus spp to increase very rapidly within the first three to four days after silo sealing. Lactic acid bacteria act on the readily available carbohydrates to produce lactic acid and some amounts of Acetic, Propionic, Formic and Succinic acids. Lactic acid reduces the pH of forage from 4 to 2 or below. Low pH inhibits further bacterial growth and preserves the silage. The ensiling process is complete in 2-3 weeks depending on the quantity of ensiled material and may be preserved for many years provided the silo is water and airtight. USES OF ADDITIVESMaize and other cereal crops do not need additives if they are harvested at the right stage. Soft dough stage . Other plants e.g. |
USES OF ADDITIVESMaize and other cereal crops do not need additives if they are harvested at the right stage. Soft dough stage . Other plants e.g. Napier grass and other grasses have low amounts of carbohydrates and often give poor quality silage. They therefore need additives of,Crushed grains at a rate of 100kg per ton of silage orMolasses at 20-40kg per ton of silage evenly distributed at the time of ensiling. Silage QualityThe relative proportions of organic acids in the silage is an indication of its quality. In good quality silage, the order of predominance should be; lactic, acetic, succinic and formic acids. Poor silage compaction leads to low temperature which results in excessive production of Butyric acid instead of Lactic acid. Good quality silage should be,Be from high quality forage cut at the proper stage of growth. Have 5-9 lactic acidHave a pH of 4.2 or below. Be free from moulds and bad odour such as ammonia and butyric acid. Be greenish to yellow in colour not brown or blackHave a fine texture with no sliminess. Silage lossesSurface spillage- up to 20 loss due to exposure and contact with soil. Seepage losses- extent of this loss increases with increase in herbage moisture. It can be up to 50 in very young and succulent forage. Gaseous losses- extended respiration results in loss of carbohydrates in form of carbon dioxide. The silo should be airtight. How to Calculate Silage Requirement in Dry MatterA cow requires 3kg of DM for every 100kg of body weight per day. Therefore a cow weighing 400kg will require 400 100 x 3 12kg of DM per day Since Silage has 40 DMThen for the cow to have 12kg DM it needs 12 40 x 100 30kg of silage per day. However, a cow should only get 50 of its daily Dm requirements from the silage. It should get the other 50 from pastures and other feeds. It should therefore get only 15kg of silage per day. If the silage is meant for the dry season, the farmer should estimate the length of the dry period. E.g. |
It should therefore get only 15kg of silage per day. If the silage is meant for the dry season, the farmer should estimate the length of the dry period. E.g. from January to March there are 90 days. Therefore, silage required for one cow for 90 days will be;90days x 15kg day 1350kg of silage 1.35 tons One hectare of Napier produces about 80 tonnes of forage harvested in five cuttings in the year. One cutting therefore yields80tons 5 cuttings 16 tonnes of forage. If 1ha produces 16 tonnes of forageThen x hectares produces 1.35 tonnes of silage1 ha-------------16 tonnesX ha-------------1.35 tonnesX 13.5 16 0.084 hectares 840m2 , approximately a space of 30mx30mSilage density is about 500kg m3. If a farmer has two cows, the amount needed is2cows x 15kg x 90 days 2700kgThe volume of the silo to accommodate 2700kg would be approximately 6m3The silo would therefore have the following dimensions. 2.7m length x 1.5m width x 1.5m depth or3m x 2m x 1m or4m x 1.5m x 1mC STANDING FORAGEThis is the cheapest, easiest and most commonly used method of fodder conservation. This implies deferring cutting of the forage for the dry season feed. It however produces herbage of low quality but it can be supplemented by addition of additives. The fodder or the legume should be cut, weeded, and top dressed in early November after which cutting is deferred until it is required. LIVESTOCK HEALTH IIIIntroduction. A disease is any alteration in the state of the animal or its organs which interferes with the proper performance of its functions. The visible signs of a disease are called symptoms. There are specific conditions that help in observing the disease symptoms. They include:Pulse rate and respiration rateTemperatureBody conditionVisible mucous membranesSkin of the animalDefecationUrinationFeeding habit. |
The visible signs of a disease are called symptoms. There are specific conditions that help in observing the disease symptoms. They include:Pulse rate and respiration rateTemperatureBody conditionVisible mucous membranesSkin of the animalDefecationUrinationFeeding habit. AppetiteLevel of productionMicro-organisms such a protozoa, bacteria, virus and fungi, cause diseases. Poor nutrition, physical injuries, chemical poisoning and parasite infestation cause other diseases. Organisms such as ticks and tsetse fly only help in spreading disease-causing organisms and are referred to as vectors. Disease predisposing factorsThese are conditions inside or outside the animals body, which lead to the animal contracting a disease or injury. They include:Age of the animalSex of the animalColour of the animalChange of climate environmentHeredityEnvironmentOvercrowdingPhysiological conditions such as fatigue, weakness, pregnancy etc. Animals encountering sick animals. Terms used in livestock diseasesIncubation periodIt s the duration between the time of infection and the time the first symptoms show up. 2 MortalityThis is the likelihood of death occurring in case of a disease outbreak. It s expressed as a of the affected animals and those which die. 3 TreatmentIt s the application of physical and chemical means to an animal to help it recover from a disease or preventing it from getting a disease. There are two types of treatment. Preventive treatmentCurative treatmentPreventive treatmentThis involves administration of drugs to prevent the occurrence of a disease. This can be done through vaccination and administration of prophylactic drugs such as coccidiostats to prevent coccidiosis. The creation of immunity and resistance to diseases is under the preventive treatment. Curative treatmentA curative treatment tries to restore a sick animal to good health. This can be done through:Good feedingProvision of clean environmentNeutralizing the ill effects of the diseaseInducing repair to damaged tissuesRelieving discomfort or injury to the animalPreventing further spread of the disease. 4 ImmunityThis is the ability of an animal to resist the infection of a disease. There are two types of immunity natural and artificial immunities. A Natural ImmunityIt s the ability of an animal to maintain itself free from infection. It s the inborn immunity. It can further be divided into two. |
A Natural ImmunityIt s the ability of an animal to maintain itself free from infection. It s the inborn immunity. It can further be divided into two. Actively acquired immunity. This immunity is acquired when an animal suffers from a disease. Such an animal is able to defend itself from the same disease in future. Passively acquired immunity- this is passed through the mothers blood to the foetus or through milk colostrums. B Artificial immunityIt can also be divided into active and passiveCLASSIFICATION OF LIVESTOCK DISEASESLivestock diseases are classified into four major groups. Protozoan diseasesBacterial diseasesViral diseasesNutritional diseases1. PROTOZOAN DISEASESDiseases in this category include:East coast fever ECF AnaplasmosisCoccidiosisTrypanosomiasis Nagana i East Coast FeverAnimals attacked- mainly cattleCausal organism-Theirelia parva- a protozoan transmitted by the brown ear tick Rhipicephalus appendiculatus . The disease is also called Theireliosis its incubation period is 15 days. SymptomsSwollen lymph nodesHigh temp-feverExcess salivationLachrimation-a lot of tear productionDifficulties in breathing due to fluid accumulation in the lungs. CoughingSight impairmentHaemorrhages in the vulva and the mouth. Control and TreatmentTicks should be controlled through dipping, spraying or hand dressing regularly. Farm should be fenced to keep out strange animals and also to confine animals within. Treatment using appropriate drugs. Ii Anasplasmosis Gall sickness Animals attacked cattle, sheep, goats,Causal organism-Anaplasma marginale, a protozoan transmitted by the blue tick Boophilus decolaratus It can also be transmitted through contaminated surgical equipments, bleeding and hypodermic needles. The incubation period is 3-4 weeksSymptomsFeverConstipation-hard dungPaleness in the gums, eyes and lips. An indication of anaemia. Milk flow into the udder ceases. Control and TreatmentTick controlControl of biting insects e.g. mosquitoesInjection using antibioticsIron injection. |
Separate udder clothes should be used for each animal. Sharp objects should be removed from grazing and milking areas to prevent teat injuries. Open wounds on the teats should be treated immediately. Ii Fowl typhoidAnimals affected- poultryCausal organism- Bacterium called Salmonella gallinarumSymptomsBirds are depressedRespiratory distress and birds are dullDrooping wingsCombs and wattles become pale and shrunken due to anaemia. Greenish yellow diarrhoeaSudden deathControl and TreatmentAll infected birds should be killed and properly disposedPoultry house should be clean, dry and well ventilated. Regular vaccinationEggs for hatching and chicks should be obtained from reliable sources. Sulphur drugs mixed with water or mash are used for treatment. NB Furazolidone at the rate of 0.04 in mash for ten days treats the disease effectively. Iii Foot rot Foul - in- the - Foot Animals affected- all cloven animals e.g. cattle, goats, sheep most Serious . Causal organism- caused by the following bacteria-Fusiformis necrophorus and Fusiformis nodosusPredisposing factorsFilthy surroundings e.g. wet and muddy areas. Cracking of the hooves due to overgrowth. SymptomsAnimals foot become swollenPus and rotten smell come out of the hoofKneeling when grazing if front feet are affectedAnimals spend most of their time lying down when the hind feet are affectedEmaciation due to lack of feeding. Control and treatmentProvide clean environment i.e. avoid dampness and muddy conditionsPractice regular foot examination and hoof trimmingPractice a regular walk through a copper sulphate Blue vitriol footbath at 5-10 solution or Formalin at 2-5 solution. Wounds on the feet should be treated with antisepticsHealthy sheep should be moved to dry clean areas. Separate healthy animals from sick ones. Iv Contagious abortionIts also called Brucellosis or Bang s disease . NB This is a contagious and infectious disease. Causal organismCattle-Brucella abortus. Pigs- Brucella suis. |
NB This is a contagious and infectious disease. Causal organismCattle-Brucella abortus. Pigs- Brucella suis. Goats and sheep- Brucella malitensisMilk from an infected animal should not be drunk. SymptomsAbortion or a pre-mature birth of the youngDuring later stages of pregnancy if abortion occurs, placenta is retained. The cow may become barren while bulls have low libido and have inflamed testes. A yellowish brown, slimy, odourless discharge from the vulva may occur after abortion. ControlCulling infected animalsVaccination against the diseaseThe attendant should avoid contaminating his hands with the aborted foetusCleanliness to be observedA blood test should be carried out for all the breeding animals in order to detect the infected ones. Use of artificial insemination. NB There is no effective treatment. V ScoursAnimals affected- young one of cattle, pigs, sheep, and goats. Causal organism-A bacterium called Escherichia coli. Predisposing causesUnhygienic conditions in the house of the young onesOverfeeding the calf with milk or feeding it with very cold milkLack of colostrumsFeeding young ones at irregular intervalsAbsence of green fodder in the mothers diet which causes lack of vit ASymptomsWhite or yellowish diarrhoea in calvesFaeces have a pungent smellHigh tempAnimal becomes restlessLoss of appetiteSunken eyesUndigested milk and mucus with blood spots in faecesSudden death if no treatmentvi Black quarterThis is an acute disease, which is contagious. Animals affected- all ruminantsCausal organismBacteria called Clostridium chauvei, which enters the body through contaminated water and wounds. SymptomsLameness in animalsAffected parts of the body become swollen immediatelyHigh temperature-feverThe animal breathes heavily and fastThe animal is dull and losses appetiteThere is grunting and grinding of teethSudden deathBlood oozes from the anus and noseAnimal stops chewing the cudIf the cut muscles are cut they appear darkControlAffected animals may be treated with antibiotics e.g. penicillin, oxytetracycline and sulphathiazole. |
Animals affected- all ruminantsCausal organismBacteria called Clostridium chauvei, which enters the body through contaminated water and wounds. SymptomsLameness in animalsAffected parts of the body become swollen immediatelyHigh temperature-feverThe animal breathes heavily and fastThe animal is dull and losses appetiteThere is grunting and grinding of teethSudden deathBlood oozes from the anus and noseAnimal stops chewing the cudIf the cut muscles are cut they appear darkControlAffected animals may be treated with antibiotics e.g. penicillin, oxytetracycline and sulphathiazole. Vaccination using black quarter vaccineThe carcass should be buried deep or burnt completely. Vii AnthraxThis is an acute infectious and notifiable disease. Animals affected- cattle, sheep, goats, man, and wild animals. Causal organismBacteria called Bacillus anthracis. Animals get anthrax throughGrazing in infected pastures as the bacteria is found in the soil. Bites by insectsOpen woundsBone meal from infected animals. The bacterium is capable of forming spores outside the animal body. SymptomsExtensive bloating of the stomach after death. FeverBlood stains in the faeces and milkIn pigs the throat swells and this may cause death due to suffocationCarcasses of an anthrax attack lack rigor mortis i.e. the carcass is not stiff as in other animals. In the dead animal, a tar-like watery blood comes off the orifices e.g. nose, anus and mouth. Blood does not clot quickly. ControlTreatment of wounds. Giving large doses of anti-anthrax serum for curative treatmentThe carcass must not be openedVaccination using Blanthax in areas where the disease is prevalentImposing quarantine in case of disease outbreak. Dead animal must be disposed off properly by burning or deep burying. Viii PneumoniaThis is an infectious lung fever. Animals affected- calves, kid, lambs, piglets and poultry. Causal organismBacterium called Mycoplasma mycoides. Dust or worms in the lungs could cause the disease. |
Animals affected- calves, kid, lambs, piglets and poultry. Causal organismBacterium called Mycoplasma mycoides. Dust or worms in the lungs could cause the disease. Predisposing causesPoor ventilationLack of enough oxygenOvercrowdingAge- young animals are more prone to the diseaseEffects of diarrhoea and other illnessesDampness and chilliness. SymptomsThe animal becomes dull and reluctant to moveLoss of appetiteThere is a rough hair coatEmaciationAnimal breathes rapidlyAbnormal lung sounds i.e. bubblingIf the chest is pressed the animal starts coughingFluctuating temperaturesNasal mucous discharge. Control and treatmentYoung animals should be kept in warm pens. Use of antibioticsIsolating the infected animalsProper sanitation3. VIRAL DISEASESi RinderpestThis is a highly contagious and infectious disease. It s notifiable. Animals affected- cattle, sheep, goats, pigs and wild animals with cloven hoofs. Causal organism-VirusIncubation period- 3-8 daysSymptomsHigh temperatureStaring coatDischarges in the mouth and noseDiarrhoea and dysenteryMucous membranes of the mouth and nose become red and they develop ulcers. EmaciationGrinding of the teethDeath in 2-10 days after incubation. ControlVaccination annuallyCulling the infected animalsNotify the authorities in case of an outbreakQuarantine in case of the diseaseSeparate sick animals from healthy ones. Ii Foot and Mouth DiseaseIt is a highly contagious and infectious disease. It is notifiable. Animals affected- cattle sheep, goats, some wild animals. Causal organismVirus types A, C, and DThe virus can be transmitted by contaminated litter, feet, garbage and infected saliva. SymptomsSharp rise in temperature lasting only for a few hoursBlisters or wounds appear on the mouth and feet. The tongue, lips and gums are inflamed. |
Causal organismVirus types A, C, and DThe virus can be transmitted by contaminated litter, feet, garbage and infected saliva. SymptomsSharp rise in temperature lasting only for a few hoursBlisters or wounds appear on the mouth and feet. The tongue, lips and gums are inflamed. This makes eating difficultLameness due to lesions between the skin and hoofThere is profuse salivationVesicles may appear on teats and uddersThe animal becomes weak and thin very fastThere is drop in milk productionControlVaccination every six monthsQuarantine in case of outbreakCullingUse of disinfectants on wounds. Iii Newcastle DiseaseIt s a notifiable disease, very contagious and highly infectious disease. Animals affected- poultry especially three months to one year. Causal organismVirusSymptomsBirds have difficulty in breathingBeaks remain wide open and the necks are strainedThe bird is dullThe bird stands with eyes closed all the timeLoss of appetiteNasal discharges, which force the birds to shake heads to clear. Birds stagger in motionWatery yellow diarrhoeaThe birds have their beaks and wings downControlQuarantineCullingCleaning and disinfecting the houses before bringing in new stockVaccination during the first six weeks and two to three months lateriv Fowl poxAnimals affected- all poultryCausal organismVirusPredisposing factorsPresence of woundsPresence of mosquitoes, ticks, lice and other biting insects that spread the disease. SymptomsLesions on the combs and wattlesLesions on legs, vent, feet and under the wings. Lose of appetite hence emaciation and deathDifficulty in breathing and swallowing. A watery discharge from the eyes in the early stages of the diseaseThe bird become dullControlRemove all infected birds and kill themVaccinate remaining healthy birds. 4. NUTRITIONAL DISEASESi Milk FeverThis is a non infectious disease. Animals affected-cows, goats, and pigs that have recently given birth. CauseThis is due to loss of calcium and phosphorous through milk secretion. There is also an increase in the level of magnesium and sugar in the blood. |
Animals affected-cows, goats, and pigs that have recently given birth. CauseThis is due to loss of calcium and phosphorous through milk secretion. There is also an increase in the level of magnesium and sugar in the blood. SymptomsDullnessMuscular twitching causing the animal to trembleStaggering as the animal movesAnimal falls down and becomes unconsciousThe animal lies down on its side and the whole body stiffensBody functions such as urination, defecation and milk secretion stop. Sudden death if the animal is not treated immediatelyStomach contents are drawn into the mouthComplete loss of appetiteControli TreatmentIntravenous injection of soluble calcium salt in form of calcium borogluconate 60gms. Dissolved in 500cc of water that is boiled and cooledii Nursing careThe sick animal should be kept in a comfortable position. Fresh water should be given. Mechanical removal of urine speeds up recovery. PreventionPartial milking of cows with past cases of milk fever is done for the first ten daysProviding sufficient amounts of calcium and phosphorous in the dietHigh doses of vit D and parathyroid extractionsNB the animal suffering from milk fever should never be given medicine through the mouth because,It will not be able to swallow the medicineThe medicine may get into the lungs thereby promoting lung fever speeding up death. Ii BloatAnimals affected- mainly cattle and sheep. Goats may also be affectedCauses-Accumulation of gases as a result of food fermentation in the rumen. This is caused by:Obstruction of the oesophagus due to bulky food particles such as potatoes, carrots etcAbnormal pressure exerted on the oesophagus by a swelling in the wall of the chestIndigestion caused by accumulation of gases due to paralysis of the rumen and the valve at its entrance. This may be due to the animal eating poisonous herbs or due to sudden change of feeds especially soft green forage, which is taken in large quantities. E.g. Beans, cabbage leaves, lush grass Lucerne etcSymptomsThe left side of the abdomen is excessively distended. Death may occur within hours due to too much pressure exerted on blood vessels, lungs and heart. ControlFeed ruminants with dry roughage during the wet season. |
Beans, cabbage leaves, lush grass Lucerne etcSymptomsThe left side of the abdomen is excessively distended. Death may occur within hours due to too much pressure exerted on blood vessels, lungs and heart. ControlFeed ruminants with dry roughage during the wet season. TreatmentThis involves the release of accumulated gases through. Manual means. -. Exercising the animal and rubbing its abdomen with both handsSurgical means- this is though piercing the abdominal wall directly over the blown up part of the rumen using trocar and cannula. A stomach pump can also be used to eject the excess gases through the oesophagus. Chemical this can be done through,Drenching of the animal using suitable oils such as turpentine oil mixed with vegetable oilAdministering Epsom salt to clear the rumen contents. Drenching does this. Administration of methyl silicone as an injection directly into the rumen. This prevents the frothy type of bloat. Parturition in Goats kidding Gestation period is 150 days or 143-153 days. Nannies carrying twins kid a few days earlier. Put nannies in a dry place under a shade or shelter to prevent kids from wet, cold and exposure to intensive heat that can cause death of kids.. Keep nanny and another female to avoid nervousness at kidding time. Do not disturb the animal. Seek for professional help if mulpresentation occurs or kidding delays for 3 hours. If placenta is retained, move the goat out with the others for physical exercise. This activates expulsion. Kidding SignsUnder firms and teats enlarge. The muscles at either side of the tail slacken or relax. Restlessness; pawing the ground, rise up, lie down frequently. Separate itself from the rest of the flock. A clear discharge from the vulva. Parturition in Pigs farrowing Gestation period is 4 months or 113-117 days. Clear and disinfect the farrowing pen. Introduce dry warm beddings with a farrowing crate 7-10 days prior to farrowing. Drench the pig to control internal parasites. Clean the skin with soap and water to remove external parasites, remove oil exudates from their skin which reduce effectiveness of acaricides and to remove mud and dirt. Bring the sow to the farrowing pen 3 days to the expected date. |
More active in search of food and water and hive protection. Fairly resistant to diseases e.g. Acarive and American foul brood disease.. Vicious if manhandled. 2. European BeeCharacteristicsMore gentle and larger than African bee. Less active and vicious. Susceptible to bee diseases. The Bee ColonyA bee is a social insect that lives in a colonyThere are three types of bees in a colony. I.e. the queen, Drone and worker bee. The QueenOne queen in a colonyFunctions:Lay fertile eggs. Keeping the colony together by production of a pheromone queen substance for identification. The DroneAbout 300 in number in a colony. Functions:Fertilize the queen. Control temperature or cool the hive. I.e. by flapping their wide wings at a very high speed. N.B The drones are killed by worker bees after fertilizing the queen. C The worker bees-About 60,000 in number in a colony. Smallest and normally female bees. Functions;Feed queen, drones, and brood 9 young bees . Protect hive from intruders. Collect nectar, pollen, tree resins, gums and water. Build combs and seal the cracks and crevices in the hive. Make honey and bee wax. Life cycle of a beeFertilized queen move from one cell to another laying an egg in each. Eggs hatch after three days into larvae due to the warmth and temperature generated by the worker bees. Larvae are fed by the nurse bees on special honey. Each larva spins a cocoon and after 2 days moults into a pupa. Pupa become young bees after 10 days and emerges from the cocoon. Eggs, larvae and pupa form the brood. Siting the ApiaryApiary: Is a place where bees are kept. Factors considered on siting an Apiary:Availability of water: where water is not within 3 km radius, sugar solution or syrup is placed close to the hives. Availability of flowers: To provide nectar and pollen. A sheltered place: e.g. a forest to protect bees from sun and wind. Quiet place: Free from noise and other disturbances. Away from human beings and livestock: i.e. away from homesteads, pastures and busy roads. Bees sting. Away from human beings and livestock: i.e. |
Away from homesteads, pastures and busy roads. Bees sting. Away from human beings and livestock: i.e. Away from homesteads, pastures and busy roads. Bees sting. Types of bee hivesLog Hive; Made of log. Log is split into 2-the larger part is made into a trough- shaped structure. The smaller part floor board is removed after suspension during harvesting without damaging the combs and brood. DiagramBox hive: sown timber cut to a length of 1m. Diagram. The Langstroth hive; Like a box hive but separated into chambers for the brood and the honey. To separate brood and honey chambers, a queen excluder is placed between the two chambers. The top board acts as the roof and the bottom board as the floor. Kenya top Bar Hive KTBH ; moveable frame hive. Bees attach their combs on the top bars which can be removed for examination. Advantages of KTBHTop bar can be removed for inspection of combs and replaced. Honey combs can be removed without damaging the brood. Honey is of high quality since it is harvested without the brood. More wax is harvested as honey combs are not returned to the hive. The hive is easy to construct and repair. Hive is cheap to build and no expensive equipment is required to extract honey. A queen excluder is used in the centre of the hive to separate honey from the brood so as to further increase the honey quality. LIVECTOCK PRODUCTION III SELECTION AND BREEDING Reproduction and reproductive systemReproduction is the process by which off springs are reproduced. Sexual reproduction involves the union of the female and male gametes. Female gametes and the male gametes fuse to form the zygote. Fertilization takes place in the body of the female. Embryo formed develops inside the body of the mother where its fed and protected until the end of the gestation period. In poultry, however eggs are fertilized internally but the development of the chicks takes place outside during incubation. Reproduction in cattleMale reproductive system produces the male gametes called spermatozoa s, which are introduced into the female reproductive system. |
Embryo formed develops inside the body of the mother where its fed and protected until the end of the gestation period. In poultry, however eggs are fertilized internally but the development of the chicks takes place outside during incubation. Reproduction in cattleMale reproductive system produces the male gametes called spermatozoa s, which are introduced into the female reproductive system. The male reproductive systemIt s composed of the following:TestesEpididymisSperm ductsAccessory glands seminal vesicles and the prostate glands PenisTestesThey produce sperms and they hang outside loosely between the hind legs. Each testis is enclosed in a loose skin called scrotum. Scrotum regulates the temperature of the sperms so that they don t die. EpididymisThese are coiled tubes that store the spermsSperm ductsThey carry sperms to the urethra. Urethra also forms a part of he urinary system. Urethra expels the sperms through the penis. Urine and semen cannot be expelled at the same time due to presence of sphincter muscles which contract allowing either urine or sperms to pass. Accessory glandsProstate gland produces some fluid that neutralizes the acidic effects of the urine in the urethra hence preventing the death of the sperms. Seminal vesicles produce clear sticky fluid called semen. Semen carries the sperms out of the penis in fluid form. One ejaculation of sperms has many sperms but only one is required for fertilizationPenisIn bull, its long and muscular structure carried on the underside. It s surrounded by a sheath which is an extension of the skin. Penis introduces sperms into the vagina of the cow during mating. At the time of mating the penis protrudes outside the sheath. Female Reproductive systemIt s composed of:OvariesFallopian tubesUterusVagina and vulvaOvariesAre two located in the abdominal cavity near the kidneys, one on the right and one on the left... ovaries produce ova which is the female gamete. They also produce the female hormones. A hormone oestrogen is produced under the influence of another hormone called Follicle stimulating hormone FSH . Oestrogen is produced by the Graafian follicle located in the ovary. |
They also produce the female hormones. A hormone oestrogen is produced under the influence of another hormone called Follicle stimulating hormone FSH . Oestrogen is produced by the Graafian follicle located in the ovary. Oestrogen induces Oestrus which is the heat period so that the cow shows signs of heat. After every 21 days, the ovary releases a mature ovum and the cow comes on heat. Fallopian Tubes oviduct Ovum travels through the fallopian tubes to the uterus. The release and movement of the ovum down to the uterus is called ovulation. If mating is done at this time fertilization occurs. UterusThis is where fertilization takes place. The fertilized egg implants itself on to the walls of the uterus and develops into the foetus. Vagina and VulvaVulva is the external opening of the cow s reproductive system. It allows mating to take place so that the sperms are deposited into the vagina. The vagina acts as the birth canal-Pregnancy Gestation PeriodThis is the normal period between fertilization and the expulsion of the foetus through the vulva. The gestation period varies with different animals.e.gDuring pregnancy a hormone called progesterone is produced by the placenta to maintain pregnancy. After birth, the reproductive tract undergoes a period of healing Rest during which it s repaired and returns to normal. Parturition BirthThis is the act of giving birth. This is the time when the foetus is expelled through the birth canal. The following signs are expressed by a cow that is about to give birth. Distended udder which produces a thick milky fluid Colostrums Swollen vulva producing a thick mucus like dischargeGeneral restlessnessLoose and slackened pelvic girdleVisible pin bonesA water bag appears and bursts just before calvingAfter these signs are seen the animal parturates normally within 2-3 hours. The correct presentation is with the front feet first and the head resting between the feet. Any other presentation is called Malpresentation or Breech Presentation especially when the hind legs come out first. Reproduction in PoultryThe cock has no penis but a small opening near the vent through which sperms are emitted. It has testis within its body. Hens have an elongated oviduct necessary for the formation of the egg. |
Reproduction in PoultryThe cock has no penis but a small opening near the vent through which sperms are emitted. It has testis within its body. Hens have an elongated oviduct necessary for the formation of the egg. Fertilization takes place internally. During mating the hens cloaca vent protrudes so that the vent of the cock fits into it. The vent of a hen sucks the sperms which flow to the uterus through the oviduct of a hen. Reproductive system of the hen consists of the following. OvaryFunnel infundibulum MagnumUterusVaginaCloacaOvaryA hen has two ovaries and only the left one is functional. Eggs or ova are formed in the ovary. A hen has 3,500-4,000 ova. Each ovum is contained in a follicle. When the ovum or yolk is mature, its released from the ovary by the rupture of the follicle. It moves into the oviduct where its received by the funnel. FunnelIts 11.6cm long and fertilization takes place here. Chalazae are added to hold the yolkOvum stays here for about hourMagnumIt s 33cm long. Yolk moves down the magnum where thick albumen is added. It stays here for 3 hours. IsthmusIt s 10.6 cm long. Shell membranes are added. Water mineral salts and vitamins are also added. The egg takes about hour to move from this region. Uterus shell gland The region has calcium depositsShell is added round the eggEgg stays here for about 18-22Vagina 6.9 cm Egg is temporarily stored before it s laidCloacaThe egg moves out of the cloaca through the vent. Cloaca extends out to prevent the egg from breaking. NB whether fertilization takes place or not the egg will have to be formed. Fertilization doesn t take place the egg cannot hatch. The process of egg formation in a hen takes about 24-26 hours. Therefore, a hen is able to lay only one egg in a day. The components of an egg are obtained from the body reserves of a hen. |
The process of egg formation in a hen takes about 24-26 hours. Therefore, a hen is able to lay only one egg in a day. The components of an egg are obtained from the body reserves of a hen. SELECTIONSelection is a process of allowing certain animals to be the parents of the future generations while culling others. The animals retained in the herd have certain desirable characteristics which make them produce more. The selected animals males and females make up the Breeding stock. Breeding stock is used to produce offspring s with the same qualities or better than their parents. Breeding stock should therefore pass the good traits of quality to their offspring for better performance thus improving the livestock. Selection process repeated for many generations increases the Gene Frequency i.e. occurrence of the genes that carry desirable characteristics. Selection therefore increases the occurrences of desirable genes and reduces the undesirable genes. HeritabilityThis refers to the likelihood of a particular trait to be transmitted to the offspring. E.g. in dairy cattle the characteristics which are highly heritable include butter fat content, growth rate, and mortality rate at birth. A character like milk yield is lowly heritable. Such a character is environmental i.e. weakly inherited and selection will not improve it. The degree to selection affects a character depends on the following factors;heritability of the characterintensity within which selection is doneinterval between generations and kind of selection being practicedFactors to Consider When Selecting a Breeding StockAge - young animals should be selected because such animals have a longer productive life. Very old animals are low producers and poor breeders. Level of performance - only animals with the highest production level should be selected.. Performance is best determined by use of records. Performance of the relatives such as ancestors should be checked to ascertain whether the animal belongs to a high producing family. The ability of the parents to pass good qualities to their offspring s ii referred to as prepotency. Physical fitness animas selected should be free from ay physical defects such as limping, irregular number of teats, mono eyed and weak back line etc. Health Animals selected should be healthy. Sick animals do not breed well and those falling sick often are expensive to keep. Body conformation - Animals for breeding should be selected according to their proper body conformation. E.g. Dairy cows should be wedge shaped with a large udderAnimal behaviour Temperament Animals with undesirable behaviours e.g. |
Body conformation - Animals for breeding should be selected according to their proper body conformation. E.g. Dairy cows should be wedge shaped with a large udderAnimal behaviour Temperament Animals with undesirable behaviours e.g. cannibalism in poultry and aggressiveness in dairy cattle should be culled. Quality of Products animals that give products of high quality should be selected. E.g. in wool production breeds that produce fine, long elastic and pure white wool should be selected. Mothering ability Animals selected should have a natural instinct towards their young ones. This enables them to rear the young ones up to weaning. Adaptability Animals selected should be well adapted to the prevailing climatic conditions in the area. Prolificacy Animals selected should be highly prolific. I.e. have the ability to give birth to many off springs at a time. Methods of SelectionMass selectionThis is the choosing of animals for breeding on the basis of their own performance and the mating them at random. Offsprings of these animals are expected to show higher performance than the previous herd. This is because mass selection increases the occurrence of the desirable genes in a population. Progeny testingProgeny is the offspring resulting from selected parents. In this method a group of progenies are used to as an aid to increase the accuracy in the selection of the breeding stock. It s used when the character is expressed by one sex only. Progeny testing takes a long time for the results to be realized. E.g. it may take a bull 8-9 years before the progeny testing results are out. Contemporary comparisonThis method involves the comparison of the average production of the daughters of each bull with that of the other heifer referred to as Contemporaries in the herd. The method assumes that the differences between the herds of the same breed are non-genetic in origin. AdvantagesIt s possible to compare animals of different age groupsAccurate due to presence of comparisonEliminates differences brought about by environment since average performance of the herd is used. It s possible to make direct comparison of the bulls at different A.I Centers. BREEDINGSelection increases the gene frequency and ensures that the desirable genes are concentrated in the offspring thus performing better than the parents. Selection therefore doesn t introduce or create new genes in an animal but uses the existing ones. Breeding is the process of mating selected females and males to produce offsprings of the required characteristics. |
BREEDINGSelection increases the gene frequency and ensures that the desirable genes are concentrated in the offspring thus performing better than the parents. Selection therefore doesn t introduce or create new genes in an animal but uses the existing ones. Breeding is the process of mating selected females and males to produce offsprings of the required characteristics. Reasons for Breedingto expand the inherited potential of the animalTo introduce new genes to improve animals productivity. To produce animals those are resistant to diseases and other environmental hazards. To satisfy consumers taste e.g. tender meat, fast growth rate etc. Economic reasons; breeding animals with high growth rate means that these animals acquire market weight very fast. NB Genetic factors play a big role and therefore proper methods should be adopted. These genetic factors include;InheritanceThis is the genetic transmission of traits from the parents to the offsprings. These traits are carried by the male and female gametes. An animal s body has two types of cells, sex cells called the gametes and the somatic cells called the body cells. Sex cells have chromosomes that contain genes. ChromosomesThey carry gene which determine the specific characteristics in an individual animal. They exist in pairs in the nucleus of the body cells and are always constant in number. In the sex cells the genes are found in single units. I.e. GenesThese are very tiny units of inheritance carrying particular traits found in animals e.g. Body shape, disease resistance, prolificacy, colour etc. They are found in specific points in chromosomes called the gene loci locus . They look like beads on a string. DiagramGenes occurs in pairs on the chromosome called alleles. Alleles form allelomorphic genes. If the members of an allele have the same effect or quality, the character is said to be homozygous. If these genes have different effect that carries different qualities the resulting character will be heterozygous. Cell DivisionThe two types in animal multiply themselves through the process of cell division. Body cells somatic cells divide by a process called mitosis. In mitosis each parent cell produces two daughter cells having the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Sex cells- gametes divide and reproduce through a process called meiosis. The process results in four daughter cells having half the number of chromosomes as was in the parent cells. During fertilization when the sperm joins with the ovum each having half the number of chromosomes , the full chromosome number is restored. |
Sex cells- gametes divide and reproduce through a process called meiosis. The process results in four daughter cells having half the number of chromosomes as was in the parent cells. During fertilization when the sperm joins with the ovum each having half the number of chromosomes , the full chromosome number is restored. Terms used in BreedingDominant and Recessive TraitsDominant means to suppress the other. Recessive means suppressed or dominated by the other characters. If the dominant and the recessive traits are brought together, the offspring shows the dominant trait e.g. the gene for horns is dominant over the gene for hornless. Therefore if a polled bull hornless is mated with a horned cow, the offspring produced will be horned. Sometimes there is partial dominance incomplete dominance where the offspring do not resemble either parent exactly. Hybrid and Hybrid VigorAn animal is a hybrid if it possesses a dominant characteristic and the other one is recessive. If two hybrids are crossed, the offsprings will attain 75 dominance and 25 recessive ness. If two superior animals of different breeds are mated, the offspring that results is highly productive and has a higher growth rate and an improved body conformation. Such an animal has hybrid vigor or heterosis. Hybrid vigor is increased vigor and performance resulting from crossing two unrelated superior animals. The genes that produce vigor are dominant are while those that lack vigor are recessive. EpistasisIt s the combination of genes which individually could have been undesirable or inferior. This way, the effects of some recessive genes are masked such that they cannot be expressed. Breeding SystemsInbreedingOut breedingInbreedingThis is the mating of animals which are closely related to each other. Reasons for InbreedingTo increase the genetic uniformity in a herd increasing homozygosity. Fixing required characteristics in the new breeds. Increasing phenotypic uniformity. This helps to describe the external characteristics of a certain breed for example the colour of Friesians is black. Used to test whether an animal has high prepotency. To get proven sires i.e. males which have been confirmed and proven to have high qualities through backcrossing. Disadvantagesloss of hybrid vigorhigh rate of pre-natal mortalitymay lead to decline in fertility hence species extinctionSystems of InbreedingClose Breeding: this is the breeding of very closely related animals. |
To get proven sires i.e. males which have been confirmed and proven to have high qualities through backcrossing. Disadvantagesloss of hybrid vigorhigh rate of pre-natal mortalitymay lead to decline in fertility hence species extinctionSystems of InbreedingClose Breeding: this is the breeding of very closely related animals. I.e. sib mating- between brothers and sisters and parent-sib mating between parents and offsprings. Line Breeding- this is the mating of distantly related animals that share a common ancestor. E.g. Cousins and cousins, granddaughters versus grand sires etc. The system aims at preserving good qualities of superior ancestors. 2 Out BreedingThis is the mating of animals that are not related. Reasons for Out BreedingTo introduce new desirable genesTo exploit heterosis hybrid vigor . A cross breed performs better than the average of the two parentsTo establish a new breed or a grade animal. Systems of Out BreedingOut crossingCross breedingUpgrading grading up Out CrossingThis is the mating of unrelated animals but within the same breed e.g. serving a Friesian cow in Nakuru with semen from a Friesian bull in Britain. The system helps to overcome weaknesses obtained through inbreeding. It also maintains the characteristics of a pure breed such as colour. Cross BreedingThis is the mating of two animals from two different breeds. This creates hybrid vigor. The system helps to upgrade the local animals by crossing them with exotic ones especially for better milk production. Upgrading or grading upThis is where the female of low grade stock is mated with a pure bred sire. The offspring gets half of the sire s genes. Such an offspring is referred to as a Hygrade. The system is commonly used in A.I to improve local cattle for milk production. Mating in Livestocka Mating in CattleOestrus Heat Period A cow comes on heat every 21 days. The duration between one hate period and the next is called oestrus cycle. Heat period in a cow lasts for 18-30 hours. The cow should betaken for service 12-18 hors after showing the first heat signs for successful mating. |
The duration between one hate period and the next is called oestrus cycle. Heat period in a cow lasts for 18-30 hours. The cow should betaken for service 12-18 hors after showing the first heat signs for successful mating. Signs of HeatRestlessnessMounting others and stands still when mounted onRise in body temperatureMilk yield drops slightlyVulva swells and reddensClear slimy mucus from the vaginaBellowing and mooing frequently. B Mating in PigsSows stay on heat for 2-3 days. The best time to serve is the second day of the heat period. The sow is taken to the boar and allowed to stay there for at least 2 days. Signs of HeatRestlessnessFrequent urinationSwelling and reddening of the vulvaClear slimy mucus discharge from the vaginaFrequent mounting on othersResponds positively to the riding testc Mating in Rabbits. The does are ready for mating at 6-7 months of age. Heat signs are repeated after 14 days. Signs of heatRestlessnessFrequent urinationSwollen vulvaDoe throws itself on its sidesDoe tries to contact other rabbits in the next hutch by peepingThe doe rubs itself against the wall or any solid object. Methods of service in LivestockNatural matingArtificial Insemination A.I Embryo transplantNatural MatingThis is the use of a male to serve a female. It is commonly practiced in sheep, pigs, goats and poultry. It can also be used in cattle but AI is now commonly used. AdvantagesMore accurate. The male can detect when the female is on heat. Less laborious. There is no need of checking the animals for heat signs. Useful when the heat periods of females cannot be easily detect. DisadvantagesTransmission of breeding diseases. E.g. brucellosis and trichomoniasis. There is a high chance of inbreedingMales will need extra pasture to eat that would have been used by the females. Large males can injure small femalesA lot of semen is wasted since a single ejaculation produces semen that can serve several females. It s cumbersome and expensive to transport a bull from to serve cows. |
There is a high chance of inbreedingMales will need extra pasture to eat that would have been used by the females. Large males can injure small femalesA lot of semen is wasted since a single ejaculation produces semen that can serve several females. It s cumbersome and expensive to transport a bull from to serve cows. Bulls moved from one area to another may not perform efficiently due to new environmental conditions. CannotArtificial Insemination A.I This is the introduction of semen into the female s reproductive system by hand using syringes or tube. Semen is collected from a bull using an artificial vagina and a teaser cow. Semen collected is then diluted and used to inseminate many cows. Diluted semen is stored in deep frozen state in liquid nitrogen at -1930C. Special plastic straws called Payets are used to store semen for one insemination. Payets may have different colors indicating the breed for different bulls. Collection of SemenA teaser cow is restrained in a crush. A bull is brought to the teaser cow. When the bull mounts on the cow and directs the penis to the vulva, a person grabs the penis and directs it into an artificial vagina. Since there is warm water all around the artificial vagina, the bull will ejaculate and the semen is collected. Advantages of A.ISemen from one superior bull can be used to serve many cows. It controls the spread of and transmission of breeding diseases and parasites. Sires that are too heavy and that could injure cows only produce semen to serve the cows. Easy to control breeding i.e. one can time when to breed his animals. It is easy to control inbreeding. Reduces the expenses of keeping a bull on pastures and also on drugs. Small scale farmers who cannot afford to buy a superior bull can have the cows served at a low cost. It eliminate dangerous and aggressive bulls on the farmIt is easy to transport semen from one place to another. It is a useful research tool as it helps to study a very large number of offsprings from a single sire. DisadvantagesHarmful characteristics can be spread quickly by one bull to all the offsprings the bull sires. Skilled labour is requiredRequires more human labour than the natural methodLow chances of conception because semen can die due to storage problems and also due to wrong timing of the heat period. 3. |
DisadvantagesHarmful characteristics can be spread quickly by one bull to all the offsprings the bull sires. Skilled labour is requiredRequires more human labour than the natural methodLow chances of conception because semen can die due to storage problems and also due to wrong timing of the heat period. 3. Embryo TransplantIn this method eggs ova are harvested from a high quality female, fertilized in tubes and the embryos that develop are transplanted into foster mothers. The female animal that produces the ova is referred to as donor. The one that receives is called the recipient. The donor female is injected with hormones to stimulate production off more than the normal rate at ago. On superior female can produce many offsprings using this method. NB. Whereas A.I increases the number of offsprings sired by one bull, Embryo transplant increases the number of offsprings produced by one female. Advantages of Embryo TransplantPossible to implant embryo from a high quality female to a less superior female and obtain a high performing offspring. Stimulates milk production in females that were not ready to produce milk. A highly productive female can be spread over a large area to benefit many farmers. It is easier to transport embryos in test tubes than the whole animal. Embryos can be stored for long periods awaiting availability of a recipient female. DisadvantagesTechnology is expensiveRequires trained personnel to handleRequires special equipment for fertilization and storage of the embryos. Signs of parturition in:Cattle 270-285 days Pigs 4 months- 3months, 3 weeks, 3 days. RestlessnessVulva reddens and swellsUdder becomes full with a milky fluidSow builds a nest by collecting some bedding at the corner of the pen. Under normal circumstances, farrowing takes place within 4-6 hours of showing the above signs. Rabbits doe 29-33 days The doe starts building a nest by plucking off hair from her bellyLack of appetite i.e. no feeding. Parturition in rabbits is called Kindling. FISH FARMING AQUACULTURE This is the artificial rearing of fish in ponds. Importance of fish farmingCheap and good source of proteins. Can be practiced on limited land. Make fish available nearby when reared in ponds. Source of income to fish farmers. |
Can be practiced on limited land. Make fish available nearby when reared in ponds. Source of income to fish farmers. Species of fish farmed in KenyaFresh warm water fish 180c of water e.g. tilapia, carps, black bass, striped bass, cat fish, blue gill, Nile perch etc. Fresh cold water fish 10-150c water such as trout. Requirements for fish farmingWater supply should be free flowing to ensure oxygen supply. Slope of land gentle slope is suitable. In flat land there is no free flow of water. Soil clay soil is best as it does not allow seepage. Soil test procedureProcedure ATake a handful of wet soil. Knead in between fingers and roll into a ribbon. Throw it into the air and catch it. If the ribbon does not break, it is truly clay. Procedure BDig a hole 1m deep by 30cm wide. Fill it with water in the evening and leave overnight, and then fill again in the morning. Good soil should retain water up to the evening of the second day. Establishing a fish pondProcedureSite selection: should meet the following;Topography ie a place where water flows gently from the source. Soil should be clayWater should be available. Security. Site marking: use pegs to mark the channel from the river, the entrance and exit and channel to take water back to the river. Clearing the land. Digging the pond: dig up soil. Topsoil is separated from the other. Upper side is 0.5m deep and lower side is 1.5m deep. Construct the dyke. This is a wall constructed round the pond. Construct the fence round the pond. Constructing the Inlet, outlet and spillwayInlet: This canal or pipe at the entrance of the pond to bring in fresh water. It should be fitted with a screen to prevent entrance of undesirable fish species. Outlet: it is made at the deeper end of the pond. A screen is fitted at the mouth of the outlet to prevent fish swimming away. Spillway: this is channel to remove excess water back to the river. It is made at the top of the dyke at the lower side of the pond. It prevents water from overflowing on the dykes. NB Grass is planted on the dyke and land around it to stabilize the ground. This prevents dyke erosion. |
It prevents water from overflowing on the dykes. NB Grass is planted on the dyke and land around it to stabilize the ground. This prevents dyke erosion. The pond is fenced to keep off predators and unauthorized persons. Stocking the PondIntroduce fingerlings young-fish from hatcheries e.g. Sagana, Kiganjo, Kisumu fisheries, Bamburi etc. Transport them in oxygenated polythene bags, milk cans or drums. Provide clean water in the containers at 10 0C temperature. Take care not to injure the fingerlings. Ensure proper stocking space i.e. 5-10 fingerlings per 5m2. Feeding FishThey feed On planktonsGround nut cake, kitchen waste, slaughter house waste, leaves, grass and chicken manure. They should be given enough food. Excess foods pollute and rot the pond. Change of food should be gradual. Manure and fertilizer should be added to encourage growth of planktons. Cropping and Harvesting of FishCroppingThis is the removal of marketable size of fish from the pond. Methods used to catch fishBasketsSpears. Hook and line. Nets. DrainingAdvantages of using seine nets over hook and lineOnly marketable sizes of fish are caught. Fish are not injured in the mouth. Ensure large number of fish is cropped. HarvestingThis is the removal of all the fish from the pond by draining the pond. ProcedureThe inlet is closed stopping water inflow. Normal cropping is done using a sine net to remove all large fish. Outlet is opened to allow water to flow out. A scoop net is used to catch the fingerlings which are kept in holding pond. Water is completely drained for the pond to dry up. Maintenance of the pondRepairing the dyke or any structure on it. Cleaning the pond and remove foreign materials. Plant grass where necessary. Remove undesirable vegetation. Remove silt. Restock after 2-4 weeks by returning the fingerlings to the pond using a scoop net. Control predators. Fish PreservationPractices carried out on fish before preservationClean the fish to remove mud and worms. Remove scales and slime. Open the fish to remove the gut and intestines gutting . Clean the abdominal cavity thoroughly. Keep fish in open containers. Preservation methodsFreezing using deep freezers. Salting; use of salt solution or salt is rubbed. |
Keep fish in open containers. Preservation methodsFreezing using deep freezers. Salting; use of salt solution or salt is rubbed. Sun drying: fish are spread on a mat and exposed to strong sunlight. Smoking: they are subjected to a temperature of 700C in a smoking pit house where wood is used as fuel. NB Fish are transported to the market in refrigerated containers to prevent rotting. Fish are exported or sold locally. Appropriate Handling of Livestock During Routine ManagementCarefully avoid inflicting pain on the animals e.g. avoid physical beating. Use of structures when handling animals e.g. crushes, head yoke etc. Use tools for handling e.g. ropes, halters, lead-stick and bull rings appropriately. Use correct method of securing and casting the animalUse little force when casting animals to prevent bone fracturing. Administer drugs safely e.g. by mixing them with food and water e.g. cocciodiostats. Drench carefully for example do not raise the head too high as this could choke the animal. Test equipment for giving the drug to ensure they are working such as the drenching and bolus gun. When injecting, sterilize the equipment or use fresh needles per animal to avoid infection. When spraying, spray in open air during a wind free day to avoid wind drift to unintended places or animas inhaling the chemical. NB Remove dead animals or carcasses from the herd or flock and dispose off properly through burning and disinfect the area in contact with the carcass properly. Weeds and Weed ControlA weed: Any plant growing where it is not required and whose economic disadvantages outweigh the advantages. It is a plant out of place. Or a crop that volunteers to grow without having been planted self setter . Noxious weeds: Dangerous weeds whose cultivation is prohibited by law e.g. bhang. Weeds Identification and classificationIdentificationCommon name Vernacular Botanical nameClassificationBasis:Growth cycle. Plant morphology. Habitat. Growth cycleAnnual weeds: Complete their life cycle in the field within a period of one year or less e.g. Mexican marigold, Black jack, Pig weed, etc. Annual weeds are easily controlled especially before flowering. Biennial weeds: Complete their life cycle in two years. Achieve vegetative growth in the first year and produce seeds in the second year e.g. American wild carrot, spear thistle, ragwort etc. |
Biennial weeds: Complete their life cycle in two years. Achieve vegetative growth in the first year and produce seeds in the second year e.g. American wild carrot, spear thistle, ragwort etc. Perennial weeds: Take more than two years or seasons to complete their life cycle. Include: Sedges, Lantana, kikuyu grass, Wandering jew, couch grass, Sodom apple. Etc. Plant MorphologyNarrow Leaved weeds: Are grass weeds e.g. Couch, Spear, Setaria, eleusine etc. Grass weeds may be perennial or annual. Broad Leaved weeds: E.g. Black Jack, Oxalis, Lantana, Pig weeds, Devil s horse whip etc. May be annual or perennial. Competitive Ability of WeedsFactors Contributing to competitive ability of weeds:Produce large quantities of seeds. Remain viable in the soil for a long time awaiting conducive germination conditions. Some weed seeds are easily and successfully dispersed e.g. Fleabane conyza spp has developed structures used in wind dispersal. Ability to propagate vegetatively e.g. Couch grass and Wandering Jew. Elaborate and extensive rooting system. Ability to survive where there is limited nutrient supply. Short life cycle i.e. can complete their life cycle with restricted rain regime. Harmful Effects of weedsCompete with crops for nutrients, space, light, soil moisture therefore reduce crop yields. Parasitic to cultivated crops e.g. witch weed striga . Lower the quality of agricultural produce e.g. Mexican marigold gives an undesirable flavor to milk when dairy cows feed on it. Devil s horse whip, black Jack, Forget-me not, bristly fox toilet get attached to sheep wool thus lowering its quality. Some weeds are poisonous to man and livestock. E.g. Thorn apple ,Sodom apple when unripe Some act as alternate hosts for insect pests and others for diseases e.g. Black jack for Aphids, Subukia weed, Mallow, flower of the hour etc hosts cotton strainers. Oxalis, wild oats alternate rusts disease. Allelopathic: Produce poisonous substances that suppress the growth or germination of cultivated plants they contact e.g. Couch grass is allelopathic to Maize. Block irrigation channels i.e. make it difficult for water to flow freely in irrigated land. Affect fishing e.g. |
Block irrigation channels i.e. make it difficult for water to flow freely in irrigated land. Affect fishing e.g. Salvinia and water hyacinth by blocking navigation and depriving fish and aquatic animals of oxygen dissolved in water. Lower quality of pastures e.g. tick berry suppress pasture undergrowth. Nut grass and Manyata grass reduce palatability of herbage and carrying capacity of pasture fields. Irritate workers thus reducing their efficiency e.g. Double thorn, stinging nettle, devil s horse whip etc. Benefits of weeds to farmersEdible to both man and livestock e.g. pig weed, wandering Jew, grass weeds etc. Medicinal effects e.g. Sodom apple, stinging nettle, sow thistle.etc. Act as soil cover, preventing soil capping due to impact of rain drops. Development of an impervious layer on the soil surface Add organic matter to the soil on decomposition. Leguminous weeds add nitrogen in the soil. Weed Control MethodsDictated by weather condition, type of weed, capital available and effects on the environment. Include;Mechanical weed control. Cultural weed control. Biological weed control. Legislative weed control. Chemical weed control. Mechanical weed controlInvolves:i Tillage cultivation Desiccate the weeds by exposing the roots to the air. Buries weeds thus killing them. Hand tools or tractor implements are used. Done during dry season to ensure better drying of weeds. Weeds are destroyed before they produce seeds to break their life cycle. Advantages of tillage in weed controlCheap and therefore good for small scale farmers. Allow infiltration of water thus minimize soil erosion. Earthing up is done during tillage which encourages root growth. Crop residue is incorporated in the soil during tillage. DisadvantagesPulverizes the soil thus destroying soil structure. Creates suitable conditions for weeds to germinate. Laborious and expensive in large scale. Leads to water loss, soil erosion and damage to crop roots. Does not effectively control perennial weeds. Ii Slashing mowing : Is the mechanical removal of shoots from weeds especially annual weeds when done repeatedly. Iii Uprooting: Done where weeds are scattered or where crops are too close to allow mechanical cultivation. Cultural weed controlAre crop husbandry practices carried out on the farm without use of chemicals. Include:i Mulching: smothers weeds thus preventing weed growth. |
Iii Uprooting: Done where weeds are scattered or where crops are too close to allow mechanical cultivation. Cultural weed controlAre crop husbandry practices carried out on the farm without use of chemicals. Include:i Mulching: smothers weeds thus preventing weed growth. Ii Cover cropping; Smother the weeds. Iii Crop rotation: Weeds associated with certain crops will not germinate or grow when rotated e.g. striga in cereal crops and sugar cane. Iv Use of clean planting materials: Prevent introduction of weeds into the farm. V Proper spacing: Creates little space for weed growth or form a canopy which suppresses weeds. Vi Clean seed bed: Starts off crops on clean bed to effectively compete with weeds. Vii Flooding: Discourages growth of all non aquatic weeds. Biological weed control:Is the use of living organisms to control weeds. Include:i Use of livestock: e.g. goats in coconut and cashew nut plantations. Ii Use of certain weed eating fish to control aquatic weeds. Iii Use of Moths to control cacti. Iv Beetles to control water hyacinth. AdvantagesCheap. Not poisonous or pollute the environment. Less laborious. Does not kill soil micro-organisms. Does not destroy soil structure. Legislative weed control:-Involves government laws and acts which prevent the introduction of noxious weeds in a country or the spreading of certain weeds from one part of the country to another. Imported materials such as seeds, food and clothes are tested to certify they are weed free. Limitations:Enforcement of laws is difficult. Only sample of materials are checked while the bulk of the material may have some weeds. Noxious weed law; requires noxious weeds to be destroyed or not cultivated e.g. bhang cannabis sativa . Chemical weed control:Herbicides are the chemicals used to control weeds. Ways in which herbicides work to kill the weeds. Inhibition of nitrogen metabolism: some interfere with nucleic acids D.N.A, R.N.A e.g. Atrazines which increase or reduce nitrogen metabolism. Glyphosate interfere with enzyme functions. Kill the cell: The herbicides penetrate the cell wall, destroy it and enter cell cytoplasm, killing the cell e.g. Diquate, dinosel and oils. These are contact herbicides. Causing abnormal tissue development: Include twisting, gall formation. |
Diquate, dinosel and oils. These are contact herbicides. Causing abnormal tissue development: Include twisting, gall formation. Some herbicides interfere with plant growth e.g. phenoxy acetic acids, benzoic acids, 2, 4-D and M.C.P.A. Inhibiting photosynthesis: Some herbicides interfere with chlorophyll formation e.g. Atrzines, Simazines, Duron, Linuron, and Uracils. Inhibiting Respiration: some herbicides block movement of materials from the site of manufacture to other areas. They therefore cause acute poisoning e.g. Dinozebs. Classification of herbicidesInclude:FormulationTime of application. Mode of actionEnvironmental factors. Selectivity. I FormulationIs the physical form of herbicides e.g. Liquids: are soluble in water or oils. Are highly concentrated or toxic e.g. dalapon, paraquat. Wettable powders: Finely ground particles. Form suspensions with water before application. A spreader is applied in the suspension to prevent flocculation. Constant agitation of the particles also avoids clustering. Include: atrazines, simazines and duron. Granules: Granule form. Control water weeds e.g. duron. Ii Time of application: when applied at different stages of weed growth, herbicides are effective. Include:Pre-emergence herbicides: Are applied soon after crop seeds have been sown but before they emerge. Kill the germinated weeds such that crops germinate in a weed-free environment. Include: atrazines and simazines. Post-emergence Herbicides: Are applied after crop germination or transplantation or at different stages of crop growth. Include; 2,4-D, M.C.P.A, paraquat, Glyphosate etc. Iii Mode of Action:Include:Contact Herbicides: Kill only the parts of the plant with which it comes into contact. Translocated Herbicides Systemic: Kill the whole plant even if it comes into contact with only a small part of it i.e. they are absorbed into the plant and translocated to all parts of the plant. Iv Environmental factors: Affect effectiveness of herbicides. Include:Wind: blow away splash wash to unintended places while decreasing chemical concentration to the intended places. Rain: Dilute or wash away the chemical to non-toxic levels. Leaches and reach herbicides to roots of deep rooted plants thus killing them. |
Include:Wind: blow away splash wash to unintended places while decreasing chemical concentration to the intended places. Rain: Dilute or wash away the chemical to non-toxic levels. Leaches and reach herbicides to roots of deep rooted plants thus killing them. Soil: some absorb and retain more herbicides than others and therefore require more doses to be effective. Light: Increase in light intensity increases the rate of light of light absorption and photosynthesis by plants hence increasing absorption and translocation of herbicides and therefore causing faster killing of plants. Some herbicides are decomposed by high light intensity hence become less effective. Temperature: increase translocation hence absorption of more herbicides and therefore death of plants. V SelectivityInclude:Selective. Non-selective herbicides. Selective herbicide: Injures one plant and allows the other to escape injury. Selectivity of herbicides depend on susceptibility and tolerance of each plant species. Non-selective herbicide: Injures all kinds of plants because it interferes with photosynthesis. Factors Affecting Selectivity and Effectiveness of HerbicidesStage of growth of the plant: young plants are more susceptible to herbicides action because of their high growth activity. Physiological metabolic factors: beans have a poor rate of translocation of 2,4-D. maize is able to neutralize the toxic levels of 2,4-D to less toxic 2,4-B. Herbicides characteristics: Herbicides which interfere with photosynthesis are non- selective. Concentration: Under high concentration herbicides kill all kinds of plants. Formulation: Oil formulations are more toxic to plants. Method of application; High selectivity is attained by placing the herbicide where the weed is and away from the crop. Plant morphology and Anatomy:Morphological and anatomical characteristics of weeds that affect selectivity:Leaf angle: Leaf angles which are inclined e.g. grasses are less susceptible as compared to horizontal angles such as dicots. Nature of leaf surface: Plants with thick and waxy cuticles and surfaces retain less herbicides e.g. cactus, wandering jew. Differential heights of the plants: Shorter weeds than crops or shorter crops than weeds, selectivity are attained e.g. spraying weeds under coffee bushes. Location of growing points: Dicots are more susceptible to herbicides because their growing points and terminal buds are more exposed than in grasses. |
Differential heights of the plants: Shorter weeds than crops or shorter crops than weeds, selectivity are attained e.g. spraying weeds under coffee bushes. Location of growing points: Dicots are more susceptible to herbicides because their growing points and terminal buds are more exposed than in grasses. Difference in rooting system: Shallow rooted plants are more susceptible to herbicides than deep rooted which require herbicides with long residue effect. Specialized structures: Plants with underground structures such as rhizomes and bulbs e.g. sedges and oxalis are not easily killed by herbicides. Safety Precautions in Use of ChemicalsRead manufacturer s instructions. Wear protective clothing e.g. overall, breathing masks, gloves, and boots. Avoid inhaling herbicide i.e. not spray against wind, not smoke and wear a breathing mask. Bath thoroughly after handling the chemical and not eat before bathing. Do not unblock blocked nozzles by blowing with the mouth. Avoid spraying against the wind not spray on windy days. Avoid spilling herbicides on pastures and fodder crops. Dispose of empty containers and left overs e.g. by burying them. Do not wash spraying equipment in water sources used by livestock and humans. Store chemicals out of reach of children and away from food. Wash equipment thoroughly. Advantages of using HerbicidesRequire less labour than mechanical cultivation. Adapted to control of bothersome weeds e.g. Couch grass and sedges. Does not disturb crop roots and underground structures. Makes control of weeds in certain crops easier e.g. wheat, burley, carrots. Efficient in both wet and dry soil conditions as compared to mechanical cultivation. Maintains soil structure. ,Convenient to use in certain crops e.g. sisal and sugarcane and weeds such as double thorn and stinging nettle which injure farmers. Cheaper than manual or mechanical cultivation on large scale farming . DisadvantagesRequire skilled labour in mixing and application. Poisonous to environment and the user. Some herbicides have long residue effects pollutes environment . Expensive Uneconomical in small scale. Revision questionsWhat is a weed? Name two poisonous weeds. State 5 harmful effects of weeds to farm crops. State 5 methods of controlling weeds. Give 5 factors that affect selectivity and effectiveness of herbicides. State 4 problems encountered when using herbicides in the farm. How does crop rotation control weeds? State three beneficial effects of weeds. |
State 4 problems encountered when using herbicides in the farm. How does crop rotation control weeds? State three beneficial effects of weeds. Classify herbicides. State 5 ways in which herbicides work to kill weeds. State 3 factors that determine the rate of herbicide application. A What name is given to the chemicals used to control weeds? B Explain the correct procedure for mixing gramoxone in a sprayer for weed control. 13. Explain any 4 factors contributing to the competitive ability of weeds. 14. State 3 characteristics of annual weeds. 15. State 4 effects of water hyacinth attack. 16. State 3 limitations of mechanical weed control method. 17. Explain any 4 cultural methods of weed control in a field of maize. 18. Describe the classification of herbicides on the basis of formulation. 19. A Name 4 biological agents used in weed control. B State 2 advantages of biological wed control. 20. State 3 factors which make herbicides cause crop injury or poor weed control. 21. State 4 factors to consider when choosing a method of weed control. GRAZING SYSTEMSThere are three main grazing systemsRotational grazingContinuous grazingZero grazing1 Rotational GrazingThis refers to practice of allowing livestock to feed on a part of pasture for a period down to certain level before they are moved to the next. This gives time for pasture to properly regenerate. Advantages of Rotational GrazingLivestock make maximum use of pastureReduces the build up of parasites and diseases. Animal waste is distributed evenly in all fields paddocks. Pasture area is given time to re-grow before its grazed on again. Excess pasture can be harvested for conservationIts possible to apply fertilizers in parts of the pastures are not in useIt facilitates reseeding and weeding. The methods of rotational grazing include paddocking, strip grazing and tethering. A PaddockingA paddock is a fenced portion of a pasture in which animals are restricted for grazing. Paddocking means grazing livestock in one paddock for a short period and then moving to another. The size of the paddocks depends on the carrying capacity of the pasture. There should be a watering point at each paddock. A water trough is placed between two paddocks so that animals can drink water from either paddock. Paddocking saves herding labour. |
There should be a watering point at each paddock. A water trough is placed between two paddocks so that animals can drink water from either paddock. Paddocking saves herding labour. However, it is very expensive to construct. B Strip GrazingDone by allowing livestock to graze on restricted portion of the pasture at a time then moving them to the next. It s done on very high quality pastures. Electric fences can be used to enclose animals in a given strip of pasture. Where animals are not many herding may be done to restrict them to stay within the strips. Temporary fences may also be used instead of the electric fences. However, the system is quite expensive. C Tethering-This involves tying the animal to a post with a rope such that it feeds within a restricted area. -The rope may also have a metal ring that slides along a strong wire supported by strong poles. 2 Continuous Grazing Herding In this type of grazing, the pasture is not allowed any resting period. This method can easily result in overgrazing if the stocking rate is not controlled. It s common in the semi-arid areas. 3 Zero Grazing Stall Feeding -This is the practice of rearing animals in a permanent feeding enclosure known as the stall. Feed is cut and taken to the animals in the stalls. -They are also provided with plenty of clean water and mineral licks. AdvantagesThere is quick accumulation of manureAnimals make use of the feeds without wastageAnimals produce high yields due to less wastage of energy. It s easy to control diseases and parasitesIt requires little landIt allows higher stocking rateDisadvantagesHigh initial capital is requiredHigh management skills are neededNeed a lot of labourDiseases can easily spread. REVISION QUIZUse of lethal temperature. Suffocation. This is used in the Cyprus bins where CO2 is introduced to suffocate pests. Flooding. This can be used c to control pests such as armyworms and cutworms. Moles can also be killed through flooding. Proper drying of the produce. This makes grains hard for pests to penetrate and discourages the3 growth of moulds. Grains should be dried up to a moisture content of 12 Physical destruction of pests. Hand picking and trapping can be used to control pests. Use of scarecrows. |
Grains should be dried up to a moisture content of 12 Physical destruction of pests. Hand picking and trapping can be used to control pests. Use of scarecrows. They scare large animals and birds out of the farm. Use of physical barriers. They include use of fences to control large animals and rat proofing in stores. Use of electromagnetic radiation. Some wavelengths of electromagnetic radiations can be used to deactivate enzymes in some insect pests. Some pests are attracted by certain wavelengths such as moths are attracted by ultra-violet rays and aphids by yellow light. Once attracted, heat or chemicals can then be used to destroy them. X-rays can also be used to control some storage pests. 3. Cultural Methods. This is the use of all the good farming practices to minimise and discourage pests from attacking the crops. Cultural practices do not eradicate or kill pets but alter the environment for pest s survival and discourage pest attack. These practices include the following. Tillage. This exposes soil borne pests to their natural enemies or exposes them to the hot sun, which kills them. Weed control. Some weeds act as alternative hosts to crop pests. Removal of such weeds reduces pest infestation. Early planting. This enables crops to establish earlier before pests multiply to large numbers. Burning of crop residue. This destroys pests and their eggs reducing further attack on the next crop. Crop rotation. This interferes with the life cycle of pests reducing their populationUse of clean planting materials. This ensures that no pests or their eggs are introduced into the field. Planting resistant crop varieties. E.g. goose necked sorghum reduces attack by birds. Closed season. This is where a particular crop is not grown for a season to control a particular pest such a not growing maize to control maize stalk bores. Crop nutrition application of fertilizer. This encourages vigorous and healthy growth of crops, which can tolerate and escape pest attack. Pruning. This discourages conditions, which may favour the breeding grounds of pests in crops. Timely harvesting. Crops can be harvested at the right time to avoid pest attack e.g. overripe fruits encourage attack by fruit flies. Proper spacing. This discourages quick spread of pests. Growing of trap crop. This is the growing of a crop to trap certain crop pests either before or at the same time with the main crop. Irrigation. Overhead irrigation controls aphids in cabbages. 4. Chemical Control. This involves the use of pesticides to control pests. |
4. Chemical Control. This involves the use of pesticides to control pests. Pesticides influence the pets in three ways. By direct poisoning. By inhaling. By ingesting. The pesticide used should beEfficientSelectiveCheapPersistentSafe to the user and the environment. Classification of PesticidesFormulation. E.g. soluble powders, wettable powders, fumigants, dust, liquids, granules, emulsions etc. Target pest. InsescticidesNematocidesRodenticides. Fungicides. Mode of action. They may be classified according to the way they function into the following. Stomach poisons. These only kill those pests, which consume the sprayed crop with the chemical, hence are selective. Systemic poisons. They are circulated to all parts of the pest once it has eaten the sprayed part of a plant. Contact poisons. They kill the pests when they are absorbed in the body through the skin or cuticle. They are not selective and may kill many beneficial organisms such as predators, pollinators, decomposers, birds etc. Suffocants. They kill by interfering with the breathing system after being inhaled. Anti-feedants. They inhibit feeding on insects and other pests thus starving them to death. Repellants. They keep the pest away from the plant. Factors affecting the Efficiency of PesticidesConcentration. Correct concentration should be used when diluting the pesticide, as it is the most effective. Timing of Application. They should be applied at the stage of development when the pest is most susceptible to the pesticide. Weather conditions at the Time of application. If the rain falls immediately after application of a pesticide, it may wash off or dilute the pesticide thereby reducing its effectiveness. Persistence. If a pesticide can remain effective for long, then the better. This ensures that more pests can be controlled. Advantages of Chemical ControlMethod is faster compared to other methods such as crop rotation, field hygiene etc. Most pesticides have rapid knock-down effect hence the method is more reliable and predictable. DisadvantagesExpensive. Most are not environmental friendly since they are toxic to man and livestockThey require care and skill when handling and applying them. Most are non-selective and therefore they kill useful insects such as pollinators and predators. Pests establish resistance to pesticides if they are used continuously against them. E.g. DDT. 5. |
E.g. DDT. 5. Biological Pest ControlThis involves the use of a living organism, which is a natural enemy of the pest. The method is environmental friendly but it can be very slow. Crop Diseases And Their ControlDiseaseIt is a condition that interferes, impairs or disturbs the normal performance of an organism. A disease is a deviation from good health. Harmful Effects of Crop DiseasesLowers crop yield. Poor quality products hence reduced market value. They cause food poisoning by producing toxic substances such as Aspergillus flavus in maize produces Afflatoxin; Ergot in wheat and barley causes nerve endings. Increase the cost of production. Classification of Plant DiseasesFungal diseasesViral diseasesBacterial diseasesNutritional diseases deficiency Other causes. 1. Fungal DiseasesThey are either parasitic or saprophytic. This gives rise to the following categories. Obligate parasitic fungi. They completely depend on other living organisms for food. They are found in plant parts such as leaves, roots, stems, fruits etc. Facultative parasitic fungi. They can live on both the living and dead tissues. Saprophytic fungi. They live as decomposers on dead decaying plant and animal remains. They are beneficial in nutrient recycling. Parasitic fungi are grouped into three:Those with all the mycelia vegetative part and the fruiting bodies on the surface of the host such as Erysiphe spp, which causes mildews. Those with the mycelia inside the plant tissues but the fruiting bodies on the surface of the host such asPhytophthora infestans. Late blight in tomatoes and potatoesPuccinia spp. Rusts. Ustillago spp. Headsmut. Those having the mycelia and fruiting bodies all inside the host. E.g. Fusarium spp causing Fusarium wilts. Examples of Fungal1.Late BlightCaused by Phytophthora infestans .the disease affects most members of the solanaceae family such as Irish potatoes and tomatoes. The fungi are parasitic and feeds by sending short hyphae called haustoria into the cells of the host. Haustoria absorb plant nutrients manufactured food from the plant cells resulting in the death of the cell. The fungi reproduce by spore formation, which are dispersed by wind and raindrops. |
The fungi are parasitic and feeds by sending short hyphae called haustoria into the cells of the host. Haustoria absorb plant nutrients manufactured food from the plant cells resulting in the death of the cell. The fungi reproduce by spore formation, which are dispersed by wind and raindrops. It spreads very quickly during warm moist conditions. SymptomsRapid drying of the leaves forming dry patches necrotic lesions on leaves and fruits. Affected fruits appear rotten and fall off prematurely. ControlSpraying with Bordeaux mixture and other copper based fungicides. 2. RustsCause Puccinia spp. They attack the leaves and stems of most cereal crops. P. Sorghi - sorghumP. graminis. MaizeSymptomsInfected leaves have red to brown pustules hence reduced photosynthetic are and low yields. Crops appear rusty. ControlSpraying with Bordeaux mixture and other copper based fungicides3. SmutsCause Ustillago spp. U. scitiminea sugar caneU. nuda - wheatU. maidis- Maize. This produces large number of black spores, which forms black masses on maize tassels and maize cob. ControlHot water treatment of the seeds. Use of certified seedsCrop rotation. Field hygiene e.g. rogueing and proper disposal of previous crop residue. 4. Coffee Berry Disease CBD Cause Colletotricum coffeanum. It attacks the flowers, leaves and berries. Flowers and leaves have dark brown spots. Spots on leaves develop along the margin and later spread to the rest of the leaf causing defoliation. The disease attacks both green and ripe berries. Attacked green berries fail to form beans and are hollow. Attacked ripe berries have sunken wounds and are difficult to pulp process. ControlSpraying with appropriate copper based fungicides. Open pruning. Resistant varieties e.g. Ruiru 11. Other Fungal DiseasesDamping off. Pythium spp. Powdery mildew. Root rots Armillaria spp. Downey mildew Peranospara spp. Early blight Alternaria spp. Anthracnose Colletotricum lindemuthianum2. Viral DiseasesAll viruses are parasitic and very small. They are only able to reproduce and multiply in living tissues. |
Anthracnose Colletotricum lindemuthianum2. Viral DiseasesAll viruses are parasitic and very small. They are only able to reproduce and multiply in living tissues. When outside living tissues, they form spores in cysts, which remain inactive until they get into a living tissue. They are therefore obligate parasites. Viral infections interfere with important life processes of plant such as photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration, and nitrogen utilisation. Symptoms of Viral infectionsLeaf chlorosis loss of chlorophyll. Leaf curling. Mosaics production of light green patches on leaves. Malformations distortions of plant parts e.g. galls swellings , small leaves etc. Rosetting production of abnormally short nodes hence stunting. NB Insect vectors such as aphids and mealy bug transmit viral diseases. Infected vegetative parts such as sugar cane cuttings also transmit viral diseases. Examples of Viral diseasesMaize streak. Formation of white yellow stripes on leaves parallel to midrib. Greening disease attacks leaves of citrus. Tristeza attacks citrus trees. The leaves fall off and there is dying of twigs. Cassava mosaic -Brown streak of cassavaPotato leaf rollTobaccoGroundnut rosette. Viral diseases are controlled by controlling the vectors. C. Bacterial DiseasesBacteria are facultative parasites. They are single celled and microscopic. Not all bacteria are harmful. Some are beneficial to man e.g. Rhizobium spp which is a nitrogen fixing bacteria. They may be transmitted through insects, wind, raindrop splashes, manures, seeds, irrigation water, cultivation implements and pruning knives. They enter plants through openings such as stomata, lenticels and wounds. Symptoms of Bacterial DiseasesWilting even when water is in adequate amount due to blockage of xylems. Cankers results into the death of plant tissues. Gall formation in the infected tissues. I Bacterial Blight of Coffee BBC Cause Pseudomonas syringe. Bacteria enter plant through wounds and natural openings. It s common in areas experiencing hailstorms. SymptomsDark necrotic lesions with water soaked margins on affected parts. Shoot die back. Cankers on mature bark and wood killing the whole plant. ControlSpraying chemical eg. |
Shoot die back. Cankers on mature bark and wood killing the whole plant. ControlSpraying chemical eg. Supanil, before, during and after the flowering periods especially during the wet weather. Bacterial wilt Pseudomonas solanacearum Attack potatoes, tomatoes and other solanaceae plantsAffected plants wilt even when the soil is moist. Leaves droop and plants eventually dieHigh temperature accompanied by wet conditions favour the disease. Black arm of cottonBlack rot of cabbageHalo blight of beansNutritional disordersWhen crops do not get enough nutrients, deficiency symptoms appear egYellowing of leavesDrying of leavesFalling of leaves, flowers and fruitsStunted growthDeath. E OTHER CAUSESFlooding. During flooding ammonia may be formed. Since ammonia is toxic, it has burning effect to plants. ChemicalToxic chemical compounds in the soil may be absorbed by the plants leading to death of the plant eg. Cyanides. Poor weather. Extreme day and night temperature may be injurious to the crop. Eg very cold temperature causes frost injury in tea. StressStressful conditions on the plant such as irregular watering may causes physiological disorders such as blossom end rot in tomatoes. Control of crop diseasesCultural methodsThis involves the use of crop husbandry practices that discourages the outbreak of diseases without the use of chemicals. They include;Planting resistant crop varieties that can withstand the effect of certain diseases without lowering the yields eg Ruiru II is a coffee variety resistant to CBD. Practicing proper spacing of crop. Overcrowding results to quick spread of diseases. Use of health planting materials. Some diseases are seed borne and can effectively be controlled by use of artificial seeds for planting. Practicing field hygiene eg burning of crop residue destroying infected plants etc. Drying of cereals and pulses to a moisture content of 12 13 before storage. This discourages attack by moulds fungi Heat treatments of some planting materials eg treating sugar cane cutting with water at 500c for 30 minutes control ratoon stunting disease effectively. Proper pruning of crop destroys the micro- climate that may have encouraged build up of diseases causing organisms. Chemical controlChemical control should be practised only when all other methods have proved to be ineffective and when it s economical. |
This discourages attack by moulds fungi Heat treatments of some planting materials eg treating sugar cane cutting with water at 500c for 30 minutes control ratoon stunting disease effectively. Proper pruning of crop destroys the micro- climate that may have encouraged build up of diseases causing organisms. Chemical controlChemical control should be practised only when all other methods have proved to be ineffective and when it s economical. Chemical control measures include:Seed dressingThis is the application of fungicides before planting seeds. The fungicides prevent attack on the planted seeds. SprayingThis is the application of chemical such as fungicides using a sprayer. Soil fumigation. This is the application of chemical fumigants in the soil. The chemical are usually in dust or granule form and are mixed with the soil to kill soil borne diseases causing organisms in the soil eg in the control of Bacterial wilt in potatoes. Advantage of chemicalsChemical act faster in controlling diseases. Effective Chemical requires less labour in application. Disadvantages of chemicalsExpensiveRequires skills in applicationToxic to humans and livestockPollutes environmentSome do not break down easilyc .Legislative methodThis involves imposing of regulations and laws in cases of diseases outbreaks to prevent the introduction and spreading of diseases. REVISION QUESTIONS1 Below is a diagram of a bird which is a crop pest. I Identify the bird mk ii State two ways by which the bird causes loss in crops. 1mk iii State four methods which are used to control the pest. 2mks 2. Study the diagram below and answer the questions that follow. A Identify the fungal disease indicated above b State the causal organism of the disease identified above 1mk c State two symptoms of the disease above lmk d State one control measure for the disease in the control field lmk 3.The diagram below shows a kale seedling attacked by a pest. |
1mk iii State four methods which are used to control the pest. 2mks 2. Study the diagram below and answer the questions that follow. A Identify the fungal disease indicated above b State the causal organism of the disease identified above 1mk c State two symptoms of the disease above lmk d State one control measure for the disease in the control field lmk 3.The diagram below shows a kale seedling attacked by a pest. A Identify the pest. 1mk b What damage does the pest cause to the crop? 1mk c State one method of controlling the pest. 1mk d Name two other insect pests other than the one identified in a above that attack kale in the field. 2mks 4.Describe the physical and cultural measures employed in the control of pests in crop production. 20 marks 5. Given the pest shown in the diagram belowName the barrier you would put on a grain store to control the pestApart from the use of barriers list four other physical methods of pest control in and out store. 2mks 6 a Identify farm storage pests shown below 1 mks b Name crop products attacked by each of the above pests 1 mks c Name one chemical control of the above pests mk 7. Define the following terms as used in crop pests and diseases; 2mks a Economic Injury Level. EIL b Integrated Pest Management IPM 8. Below is an illustration of a maize cob attacked by smut disease. Study: it carefully and answer thequestions that follow:a Beside w hat is visible on the maize cob. State two other symptoms of the disease. 2mks b State three control measures of the above disease. 3mks 9. Study the crop pest illustrated below. A Identify the crop pest. 1mk b State two effects of the above pest. 1mk c State three methods of controlling the pests. 3mks 10 Describe the methods of disease control in crops under the following headings. |
1mk b State two effects of the above pest. 1mk c State three methods of controlling the pests. 3mks 10 Describe the methods of disease control in crops under the following headings. Cultural methods 14 Marks Chemical methods 6 Marks 11 The diagram below represents crop pests a Identify the pest ... mk b Name Two crops that are attacked by the above pests 1mk c Give three control measures 1 mks ANSWERS1. I Identify-A-Weaver bird 1x mkii 2 ways bird causes damagei Eats grass2 Causes the grains to fall off3 Exposes maize cobs to rain leading to rotting4 Strips the leaves 2x 1mk 2. A Blight 1x mk b phytophthora infestans 1x1 1 mk - fruits rot and fall prematurely-Brown lesions on stems, leaves and fruits 2x 1 mk d Spraying using fungicides Bordeaux mixture lx1 mk 3.a -Cut worm . 1 x 1 1mk b Cuts the stem of seedlings 1 x 1 1mk c -Application of appropriate pesticide dust soil with aldrin and rake into soil. 1 x 1 1mk d i Aphidsii Sawfly. 2 x 1 2mks 4.Physical and cultural measures employed in control of pests in crop productionPhysical methodsPhysical destruction of pests which involve hand picking or trapping and killing them eg moles in the gardenFlooding-some pests like cut worms and army worms will be drawn if flooded. Flooding may be used to kill underground pests like molesProper drying of the produce-drying of grains make them hard for pests to break and penetrate hence discouraging the growth of mould. Grains should be dried to moisture content of about 11-13 moisture contentUse of electromagnetic radiation-certain wavelength of electromagnetic radiation like radioactive. |
I Identify-A-Weaver bird 1x mkii 2 ways bird causes damagei Eats grass2 Causes the grains to fall off3 Exposes maize cobs to rain leading to rotting4 Strips the leaves 2x 1mk 2. A Blight 1x mk b phytophthora infestans 1x1 1 mk - fruits rot and fall prematurely-Brown lesions on stems, leaves and fruits 2x 1 mk d Spraying using fungicides Bordeaux mixture lx1 mk 3.a -Cut worm . 1 x 1 1mk b Cuts the stem of seedlings 1 x 1 1mk c -Application of appropriate pesticide dust soil with aldrin and rake into soil. 1 x 1 1mk d i Aphidsii Sawfly. 2 x 1 2mks 4.Physical and cultural measures employed in control of pests in crop productionPhysical methodsPhysical destruction of pests which involve hand picking or trapping and killing them eg moles in the gardenFlooding-some pests like cut worms and army worms will be drawn if flooded. Flooding may be used to kill underground pests like molesProper drying of the produce-drying of grains make them hard for pests to break and penetrate hence discouraging the growth of mould. Grains should be dried to moisture content of about 11-13 moisture contentUse of electromagnetic radiation-certain wavelength of electromagnetic radiation like radioactive. Radiation may be used to deactivate enzymes in some insects and pestsUse of lethal temperature-this involves the use of extreme temperatures either too cold or too hot conditions to control pests by inhibiting their survival i.e. use of hot water to control pink ball wormUse of physical barriers-this include use of materials that prevent pests from getting to the crop i.e. rat guard metal plates on posts of raised granaries. |
Radiation may be used to deactivate enzymes in some insects and pestsUse of lethal temperature-this involves the use of extreme temperatures either too cold or too hot conditions to control pests by inhibiting their survival i.e. use of hot water to control pink ball wormUse of physical barriers-this include use of materials that prevent pests from getting to the crop i.e. rat guard metal plates on posts of raised granaries. Construction of fences around the field and trenches to control large animalsSuffocation-has been used in Hermetic Cyprus bins where build up of carbon iv oxide is used to suffocate pestsUse of scarecrows-are used in scaring large animals and birds out of the farmCultural methodClosed season-the period in which a susceptible crop is not grown in order to control a certain pest or group of pests. During this period crop residues are collected and disposed off to ensure destruction of the pest. Timely planting-early planting of crops are more likely to escape pest attack than late planted ones eg maize stalk borersTimely harvesting- some storage pests like grain weevils attack the crop while in the field therefore early harvesting will enable the crop escape the attackProper tillage- field cultivation will expose the pests which are soil borne like white grubs. The pest is exposed and scorched by the sun or eaten by birds and other predatorsPlanting resistant crop varieties-plant breeders have developed plants which have natural protective mechanisms against pest attack i.e Goose necked sorghum against birdsField hygiene- this means keeping the field free from any plant materials harbouring pests i.e. Rogueing and removal of crop residues from the fieldAlteration of environmental conditions-creations of certain micro-climate that is not conducive to some insects i.e. open pruning in coffee to discourage antestia bugs, mulching reduces thripsTrap cropping-a crop which is planted before or together with the main crop purposely for attracting away from the main crops. The pest is then killed by either spraying with chemicals, ploughing the crop or rogueing. Crop rotation-crops which are more preferred by a particular pest are rotated with those that are not or less preferred i.e. groundnuts and potatoes that control nematodes. This starves the pest to death. Destruction of alternative hosts-some weeds act as alternative host to crop pests. |
Groundnuts and potatoes that control nematodes. This starves the pest to death. Destruction of alternative hosts-some weeds act as alternative host to crop pests. The removal of such weeds reduces pest infestationCrop nutrition- application of fertilizers and manure makes the crops to grow strong and be able to resist and escape attack. Use of clean planting materials- this prevent introduction and spreading of crop pests. Seeds, suckers and crowns should be free from pestsProper spacing- proper spacing makes it difficult for pests to move from plants to plant while close spacing in groundnuts discourage AphidsUse of organic manure-FYM, compost manure has been found to discourage various pests ie eel wormsIrrigation-overhead irrigation is able to control Aphids in cabbages20x1 20 marks6. A Identify farm storage pests shown below. A Maize weevil b Bean weevil bean bruchid Flour weevil. B Name crop products attacked by each of the above pests. A Maize wheat barley sorghum grains; b Bean bonavist bean butter bean seeds; Maize wheat barley sorghum millet flour c Name one chemical control of the above pests. Use of actellic powder on dry grains and seeds of maize and beansRespectively primiphos-methy organophosphate. 1 2 mark it is the level at which the tolerance of a plant has been exceeded. 1mk It is the combination of many methods to effectively control pests. 1mk 8 a -Severe dwarfness-Increased tillering b -Planting resistant varieties-Use of certified seeds-Field hygiene-Crop rotation9 a -Maize weevil b -Makes tunnels beneath the seed coat-Make circular holes on the surface of the grain c -Dusting maize cob with malaltion-Fumigate maize with methyl bromide-Proper storage hygiene-Ensure grains are stored at correct moisture content10 a Cultural methods of crop disease control. Using healthy planting materials to prevent the crops from being infected by seed borne diseases. Practicing field hygiene such as a burning crop residue using clean implements, clean weeding to destroy micro-habitat for diseases. Proper seedbed preparation e.g. Control of root rot disease. |
Practicing field hygiene such as a burning crop residue using clean implements, clean weeding to destroy micro-habitat for diseases. Proper seedbed preparation e.g. Control of root rot disease. Proper spacing to control dumping off diseases especially in nursery bed. Heat treatment to control ratoon stunting disease in sugar cane. Proper drying of cereals and pulses for proper storage. Use of disease resistant varieties e.g. Ruiru II, Resistant to CBDAny 7, 1 for mentioning and 1 for explaining 7 x 2 14 marksb Chemical disease control in cropsThrough seed dressing application of fungicides on seeds before planting. Sol fumigation application of fumigants in soil to control soil borne diseases. Spraying application of fungicides insecticides. Any three 1 for mentioning and 1 for explaining 3 x 2 6 marksFORM FOUR AGRICULTURE NOTESLIVESTOCK PRODUCTION V POULTRY PRODUCTION IntroductionThe term poultry refers to all kinds of domestic birds kept for meat or eggs production. They include turkeys, ducks, geese, guinea fowls, chicken, ostriches and pigeons. The management of poultry aims at production of high quality eggs and meat to meet the ever increasing market demand. Selection and BreedingSmall scale farmers increase their flock by keeping breeds that go broody. However commercial poultry farmers buy day old chicks from recognized hatcheries such as Kenchic and Muguku. Hybrids are not recommended for breeding as their hybrid vigour would decline in their offspring and many do not go broody. Broodiness is the desire to sit on the eggs. The birds selected should have the following characteristics. YoungHealthyAble to go broodyProlificGood mothering ability. Commercial farmers should also consider the following. Whether the enterprise is for meat or egg productionAge, that is either day-old or at point of laying. Breed of birds in respect to egg colour and size of birds. Production, which is percentage laying or growth rate. NB . After the selection of the breeding stock, cocks are allowed to run with hens daily to ensure that all the eggs are fertilisedComposition of an EggThe parts of an egg include the following. The shellThe shell membraneAir spaceEgg white albumen ChalazaeYolk. |
NB . After the selection of the breeding stock, cocks are allowed to run with hens daily to ensure that all the eggs are fertilisedComposition of an EggThe parts of an egg include the following. The shellThe shell membraneAir spaceEgg white albumen ChalazaeYolk. The shellIt forms about 10-12 of the total egg content and is largely made up of calcium and phosphorous compounds which make it hard. It gives the egg its shape and provides protection to the inner contents of the egg. The egg shell is porous and allows gaseous exchange to take place. This makes it possible for the embryo to develop. Shell membraneThis forms the inner lining of the shell and makes about 1 of the egg content. It is formed of two separate membranes which closely adhere to each other. The two membranes separate at the broad end to form an air space air cell. The inner membrane is about 0.015mm thick and the outer one is about 0.05mm thick. The air in the air space is used by the developing embryo during incubation. Albumen Egg whiteThe albumen forms about 55-60 of the total egg content. It is a jelly like colourless fluid when fresh and turns white when cooked. It is divided into four major parts: chalazae and chalaziferous albumen, thin inner albumen, thick albumen and outer thin albumen. The albumen surrounds the yolk and serves as a food reserve to the developing embryo. It is mainly protein. ChalazaeThis forms about 3 of the albumen and it s a dense white mass floating all over the place within an egg. It has two twisted cords which hold the yolk in place at the centre of the egg. The two chalazae hold the yolk from both ends of the egg thus allowing the yolk to move the germinal disc always to the top position. This is important during incubation for the purpose of heat transfer to the developing embryo. If the chalazae are broken the yolk is displaced from its normal position. The YolkIt is divided into three major parts and forms about 33 of the total egg content. It is yellow in colour and spherical. Its main function is to supply for all the embryo requirements since it contains food reserves for the developing chick. |
The YolkIt is divided into three major parts and forms about 33 of the total egg content. It is yellow in colour and spherical. Its main function is to supply for all the embryo requirements since it contains food reserves for the developing chick. The yolk is rich in vitamins, fats, minerals and proteins. The three parts are:Germinal discPigmentsVitelline membrane. The germinal disc: this is formed from the ovary after fertilization and is always found at the top of the yolk as a small spot regardless of what position an egg is resting. The disc is joined to the centre of the yolk by a funnel shaped structure called the streak latebra. This allows maximum heat transfer to the developing embryo within the yolk. The egg pigments: The pigment contained in the yolk always comes from the food the bird eats and also from its body. This pigment is known as Xanthophylls and is responsible for the colour of the shell and that of the yolk yellow The vitelline membrane: the vitelline membrane surrounds the yolk and therefore gives the yolk its shape. If the egg is not properly stored, this membrane may break up causing the yolk to come out of it. Incubation of eggsThis refers to the embryonic development of a fertilized into a chick under correct conditions which will ensure that a chick is hatched from the egg. In chicken these conditions must be provided for 21 days while in turkeys and ducks this takes 28 days. Selection and Care of Eggs for IncubationEggs for incubation should have the following characteristics. Should be fertilizedMedium sized-55-60gm in weight. Lighter or heavier weight lowers hatchability. Have smooth shellOval in shapeFree of any cracks in the shellClean to ensure that the pores are openNot have abnormalities such as blood spots, meat spots or double yolkShould be fresh collected within one week and not more than 10 days. NB . The internal condition of the egg is examined through egg candling. Egg CandlingThis is the method used to check the freshness of an egg for physical abnormalities or likelihood of being hatched. It is done by passing a strong light through the egg in a dark room. The source of light may either be a torch, candle or electric bulb. |
Egg CandlingThis is the method used to check the freshness of an egg for physical abnormalities or likelihood of being hatched. It is done by passing a strong light through the egg in a dark room. The source of light may either be a torch, candle or electric bulb. Procedure of candlingThe egg is pace over a hole made on a card board box. A light under the box is then put on. The observer then looks at the egg against the light below. The following can be observed through egg candling. The size of the air spaceIf the egg is fertilised the germinal disc will be seen as a black spot . Whether the yolk has blood spots. Whether the shell has cracksWhether the egg shell is brokenWhether the shell is very porous. Incubated eggs are candled two or more times. First candling is done between the 5th and 7th to check for fertility. If they are fertile, blood veins are seen. If they are not they appear clear. The second candling is done on the 18th day to confirm the presence of the chick. An egg with a living embryo clearly shows a large section containing the embryo and a smaller section which is clear containing the air space. Methods of IncubationNatural incubationThis method involves the use of a broody hen to sit on the eggs. The hen provides the necessary conditions for incubation e.g. warmth, turning the eggs etc. The hen must sit on the eggs for 21 days for successful embryonic development. A hen normally shows some signs when it is about to go broody. Signs of Broodiness in PoultryProlonged moultingTendency to sit on the eggs after layingNumber of eggs laid are fewPlucking of feathers from the abdomen breast regionProduces a characteristic sound and becomes aggressive. Preparation and Management of Natural IncubationEnsure the hen is completely broody. I.e. shows the ability to sit on the eggs for long hours. The broodiness can also be induced by use of China clays. Prepare the nest in a secluded place of the poultry house. The nest can be a wooden box, karai, a woven basket or a carton box. The nesting box should be spacious to allowmovement of the hen. |
Prepare the nest in a secluded place of the poultry house. The nest can be a wooden box, karai, a woven basket or a carton box. The nesting box should be spacious to allowmovement of the hen. The nest should be lined with some nesting materials such as dry grass, sawdust or wood shavings to maintain warmth in the nest. Give an adequate number of eggs to the broody hen i.e.10-15eggs. A hen may not cover more than 15 eggs hence low hatchability. Set the eggs in the evening or night but not in the morning so that the chicks will start emerging on the evening or night of the 21st day. When the chicks start emerging in the morning, the hen will walk out with a few chicks and leave the un-hatched ones to die. Regularly dust the hen with appropriate pesticides so as to control external parasites such as fleas, mites etc. Allow the bird to occasionally move out to scratch and exercise. Feed the brooding hen daily and provide adequate clean water. NB . The hen should not be disturbed at all. Advantages of Natural IncubationLess skill is requiredIt is not labour intensive as there is no turning of the eggs and checking of temperatures. It s a cheap way of multiplying birds i.e. small scale farmers who cannot afford incubators can multiply their flocks using this method. Hatchability is very high compared to artificial incubation therefore reducing the risk margin. DisadvantagesOnly few chicks can be hatched at a time by one henEgg production is reduced when the birds go broody. It s only possible with breeds that go broody. The farmer cannot plan when to incubate. Diseases and parasites can easily be transmitted to the chicks from the hen if it is infected. 2. Artificial IncubationUnder this method all the conditions necessary for the hatching of the eggs are provided artificially by equipment called an incubator. Conditions Necessary for Artificial IncubationTemperature: Temperature should be maintained at 37.5oC 39.4oC. Lower or higher temperature would kill the developing embryo. Fresh Air Ventilation: There should be adequate fresh air circulating in the incubator. The fresh air is required by the developing embryos. Ventilation facilitates gaseous exchange and helps to control humidity. Relative Humidity: It should be about 60 . If it is too low, the embryos may lose moisture and die. |
Ventilation facilitates gaseous exchange and helps to control humidity. Relative Humidity: It should be about 60 . If it is too low, the embryos may lose moisture and die. Water is placed in a tray within the incubator to maintain the humidity. The damp cloth also assists in maintaining the relative humidity. High humidity lowers hatchability and leads to production of large chicks which look abnormal. It also results into dampness which predisposes the eggs to infections. Egg Turning: This is quite important in the management of an artificial incubator. This helps to avoid the germinal disc sticking onto the egg shell leading to the death of the embryo. Wrong turning of the egg may lead to breaking of the blood vessels. Turning should always be done along the axis of the eggs and each time in a different direction. Some incubators have automatic turning devices. Management of the IncubatorThe following should be observed for artificial incubation. The incubator should be cleaned and disinfected or fumigated before putting in the eggs. Eggs should be turned every 6-8 hours each day. However in the first 24 hours and the last three days they should not be turned. These are the critical stages of embryonic development. They should be turned around 180oC. Any egg found to be infertile on the 5th day should be removed. Remove any broken eggs. Maintain temperature within the set rangeAdd water as necessary to maintain the correct humidity. Advantages of Artificial IncubationIt s possible to plan when to have the chicks. Many chicks are hatched at onceIf management is good, there is no danger of infecting the chicks with diseases and parasites. The incubator is usually ready when required. Egg production is not affected by incubation as the hens do not go broody. DisadvantagesIncubator is expensive to buy hence has high capital investment. More labour intensive. More skills requiredHave high risks of damaging all the eggs if the requirements such as temperature or relative humidity are not strictly observed and controlled. Only viable in large scale hatcheries. Sources of ChicksFor success in the poultry enterprise, the following factors should be put into consideration. Reputation of the supplierThe type of chicks required in relation to size, breed, sex etcTime factor i.e. how long the chicks will take in transit from the hatchery to the farm. Very long hours of transportation cause stress to the chicks. |
Reputation of the supplierThe type of chicks required in relation to size, breed, sex etcTime factor i.e. how long the chicks will take in transit from the hatchery to the farm. Very long hours of transportation cause stress to the chicks. Arrangement should be made to feed the chicks on transit if the source is very far. The most reputable sources of chicks in Kenya are;Muguku Poultry Farm- Kikuyu. Lake Chicks Hatcheries KisumuKenchic Hatcheries Athi riverStockplan Hatcheries MombasaSigma Supplies NairobiKen Bird NairobiBrooding and Rearing of ChicksBrooding is the rearing of chicks from one day old to the time they are taken to the main house. Brooding is a very critical and difficult period in the management of birds. There are two methods used in brooding the chicks. Natural BroodingArtificial Brooding. Natural BroodingThis follows natural incubation. The hen is allowed to provide warmth and other requirements to the chicks. Feed and water should be provided for both the hen and the chicks. The hen stays with the chicks until they are old enough to feed themselves. AdvantagesIt is cheapIt is suitable for most small poultry farmers. It is less labour intensiveDisadvantagesOnly possible where the hens go broodyIt is not suitable for large scale production of birds. Lowers the egg production during the brooding period. Artificial BroodingThis refers to keeping of the chicks in a structure called a Brooder where food and other requirements are provided. Chicks remain in the brooder for 6-8 weeks. Requirements in an Artificial BrooderLitter: this should be in the form of wood shavings. This should be on the floor. It maintains warmth and absorbs moisture. Fresh air: holes for ventilation should be made on the walls of the brooder for gaseous exchange. The holes however should not allow draught into the brooder. Heat source: there should a wire guard round the heat source to prevent the chicks from being burnt. Correct temperature should be maintained at 32-35oC in the first week, 29-33oC in the second week and 26-300C in the third week. The heat sources include electric bulbs, charcoal burners, lantern, kerosene and gas burners. The heat source should be withdrawn gradually to avoid stress. |
Correct temperature should be maintained at 32-35oC in the first week, 29-33oC in the second week and 26-300C in the third week. The heat sources include electric bulbs, charcoal burners, lantern, kerosene and gas burners. The heat source should be withdrawn gradually to avoid stress. If it were withdrawn at once, the chicks would overcrowd at one point of the brooder resulting in deaths. A thermometer should be used to check the temperature. The behaviour of the chicks can also be used to tell whether the temperature is correct. When the chicks move away from the heat source then the temperature is too high, while overcrowding around the heat source means the temperature is too low. When the temperature is optimum the chicks are found evenly spread all over the brooder floor. The brooder should have sufficient lighting to allow the chicks to see water and food. Very bright light makes the chicks toes to shine hen toe pecking and also makes the chicks blind. Dim light is therefore recommended. Shape of the brooder. There should be no sharp corners in the brooder. Such corners would encourage overcrowding hence suffocation of the chicks. EquipmentFeeder: There should be sufficient feeders for the chicks. If the chicks overcrowd during feeding then more feeders should be made available. The feeders should be kept clean. During feeding the chicks should be given a feeding allowance of 1 inch per chick during week 1-2 and 2 inches per chick from weeks 3-6. The feeders should have a rotating bar to avoid the chicks contaminating the feed by stepping or defecating on the feed. Waterers: The waterers should also be made in such a way that the chicks do not defaecate or step into the water. They should be pointed at the top so that the chicks cannot perch. They should always be kept clean. During the first to second week the appropriate spacing for the waterers should be 0.2 inches per chick and 0.4 inches per chick from week 3 to week 8. Brooder and Brooder Managementa Preparation before the chicks arrives. The brooder should be made ready 2-3 days before arrival of the chicks. The brooder house should be washed and disinfected. Spread litter then cover it with newspapers. Newspapers help to prevent the chicks from eating the litter. Place water and feed equipment in the brooder house. Ensure they are clean. |
Newspapers help to prevent the chicks from eating the litter. Place water and feed equipment in the brooder house. Ensure they are clean. Place food in the feeders and water in the waterers. Provide heat source in the brooder. Check to ensure the heat source is functional. Turn on the heat source on the day of chicks arrival. B Day of arrival of chicks. Vaccinate them if they were not vaccinated in the hatchery. Remove any dead chicks and dispose off properly. C FeedingRemove the newspapers after the chicks have learnt to eat from the feed troughs. Provide chick mash till the eighth week. Chick mash has 20-22 DCP and vitamins A and D. it is highly digestible. Ensure the chicks are given adequate amounts of feeds at all times. In the sixth week introduce grit or sand to help in digestion. Also introduce roosts for the chicks to perch. In the seventh week, introduce growers mash. Start with growers mash mixed with chick mash at a ratio of 3:1 respectively. Gradually reduce the amount of chick mash as the amount of growers mash is increased. When the chicks are 8 weeks old, they are removed from the brooder. At the ninth week, chicks are fed on growers mash only and are now taken to the main poultry house. Clean the troughs and waterers daily. Provide adequate clean water daily. NB . On average a chick uses 1.5-2.2 kg of chick mash during the brooding period of 8 weeks. D Parasite and disease controlVaccinate chicks against Gumboro after 2 weeks, Newcastle, 3-4 weeks and fowl typhoid at 7 weeks of age. Dust chicks with appropriate pesticides such as pyrethrins to control external parasites e.g. mites, lice etc. Provide antibiotics mixed in chick mash or drinking water to protect against disease attacks e.g. coccidiostats are incorporated in drinking water to control coccidiosis. Isolate and treat sick chicksDispose off dead chicks properlyDisinfect the feeders and waterers. Provide a footbath at the entrance of the poultry house. E Other management practices. Debeaking should be done 8-10 days towards the end of the brooding period. Keep proper records of the feeding programme, treatment and the number of deaths of the chicks. |
E Other management practices. Debeaking should be done 8-10 days towards the end of the brooding period. Keep proper records of the feeding programme, treatment and the number of deaths of the chicks. Management of Growers 9th week-20th week i.e. point of lay From the 9th week the birds are referred to as growers or pullets. A FeedingFeed the growers on 115 grams of growers mash per bird per day. Growers mash contains 16-17 crude protein, vitamins and mineral salts. Supplement the growers mash with grains and greens. Hang the greens to provide exercise for the birds. Introduce layers mash from the 16th week and increase gradually. At the 12th week onwards soluble grit should be provided. This provides enough calcium which is necessary for hard egg shell formation. Provide clean water ad libitum. B Parasite and disease control. At the 18th week vaccinate against fowl pox. Give a booster vaccine against Newcastle disease at 20 weeks of age. Drench the birds regularly against internal parasites. Dust the birds with appropriate pesticides against pests such as fleas, mites and lice. Control predatorsClean and disinfect waterers and feeders daily. C Other management practices. Provide more floor space for the birds as compared to when they were in the brooder. Keep litter as dry as possible by turning it regularly or scattering grains on it to facilitate turning of the litter by the birds. NB. Birds start laying at 18-21 weeks of age depending on the breed. Light breeds begin to lay at 18-20 weeks, some hybrids start laying at 18 weeks while indigenous breeds begin to lay at 23-27 weeks. Feeding and Rearing of LayersProvide enough floor space, roosts, feeders, and waterersGive each hen about 120 grams of layers mash per day. The layers mash contains 14-16 DCP, Vitamins A, B, C and minerals. Provide clean water alwaysVaccinate every 6 months against Newcastle and fowl typhoidKeep the litter as dry as possible. Provide enough laying nests in the poultry house. Collect eggs twice, noon and eveningHang green leaves to keep the birds busy preventing cannibalismIncorporate grains at the rate of 65 grams per bird per day. |
Provide clean water alwaysVaccinate every 6 months against Newcastle and fowl typhoidKeep the litter as dry as possible. Provide enough laying nests in the poultry house. Collect eggs twice, noon and eveningHang green leaves to keep the birds busy preventing cannibalismIncorporate grains at the rate of 65 grams per bird per day. Cull non layers and cannibalsProvide soluble grit or oyster shells all times to ensure strong shelled eggs and efficient digestion. Feeding and Rearing of BroilersBroilers are referred to as table birds. They are kept for meat production. They exhibit high growth rate and have a very high feed conversion ration. They usually achieve a weight of 2kg in about 60 days. The following practices are carried out. FeedingChicks kept for broiler production are fed on broiler starter mash. The feed contains 20-24 DCP, vitamins and minerals essential for rapid growth. Provide adequate clean water alwaysFrom week 4-5 gradually introduce broiler follow on mash or pellets. It contains 18-20 DCP. It encourages development of lean meat i.e. discourages over fattening. The feed should be provided ad libitum. From 8th week up to slaughter the birds are given broiler finisher pellets. Parasite and disease controlDe-worm regularlyDust the birds to control external parasitesVaccinate against common disease e.g. Newcastle disease at 3rd-4th weeksIncorporate coccidiostats in the broilers pellets. Dispose off dead birds properly. C HousingBroilers are best managed under the deep litter system. Its floor space requirements are low, about one square foot per bird. The house should be well ventilated for efficient air circulation. Broilers should be kept in dimly lit houses to reduce their activity, ensuring that most of the feed taken in is used for growth. Rearing SystemsThe method of keeping poultry is referred to as rearing system. The choice of the system to use depends on the following factors. Land availabilityLabour availabilityCapitalSecurityMarketAvailability of appropriate equipmentTopography of the land to facilitate easy drainageKnowledge of the farmer. There are four main rearing systems i.e. |
The choice of the system to use depends on the following factors. Land availabilityLabour availabilityCapitalSecurityMarketAvailability of appropriate equipmentTopography of the land to facilitate easy drainageKnowledge of the farmer. There are four main rearing systems i.e. Free rangeFold systemDeep litterBattery cage system1 Free Range Extensive systemBirds are allowed to move freely in a fenced ground that has a house to provide shelter at night and during the rainy seasons. The laying nests are also put in the house. Feed and water troughs are placed outside but should be protected against rain. RequirementsLand. Should be adequate, well drained and with trees for shade. It should be fenced. About 100 birds should be kept in 1 acre. Runs. The land should be partitioned to allow rotation. This reduces diseases and parasite build up. The partitioned areas are called runs. House. The house should be movable or at the centre of the runs. AdvantagesCannibalism and egg eating are reduced as the birds are not overcrowded. Birds exercise hence good growthNo need to provide grit as the birds can pick it from the groundLess feed is used as the birds supplement with insects and grass. Manure is evenly spread in the runs hence vegetation regenerationIt requires low capital investmentLow labour requirement. DisadvantagesA lot of land is needed for the birdsBirds can be eaten by predators or stolenEggs get lost in the runsDirty eggsDifficulty in close supervision of individual birdsBreeding programme not easily followedIf the perimeter fence is not adequate the birds can damage crops on the farm. The range area may become contaminated with diseases and parasites2 Fold System Semi Intensive System. This is a system where birds freely eat vegetation but are confined in small houses called folds or arks. A fold system measures 3.5m long, 1.5m wide and 1.5m high. Such a fold can accommodate 10-15 birds. 1 3 of the fold is roofed to provide shelter and the rest is open but enclosed by chicken wire mesh. The unroofed part allows sunlight and is used for exercise and feeding on the grass. The folds should be moved to a new ground daily. This reduces pest and disease build up, provides fresh grass to the birds and avoids accumulation of droppings. |
The unroofed part allows sunlight and is used for exercise and feeding on the grass. The folds should be moved to a new ground daily. This reduces pest and disease build up, provides fresh grass to the birds and avoids accumulation of droppings. AdvantagesManure is uniformly spread in the fieldLess feeding costs since the birds supplement the feed with insects and grassThere is no need of fencingReduced pest and disease build up. DisadvantagesFolds don t last long due to too much handlingFew birds are kept per foldVery laboriousEgg production records per bird are difficult to keepThe returns per unit land are relatively low. 3 Deep Litter System. This is an intensive system. In this system, birds are confined within a big house. Requirements of a deep litter systemi SiteThe land should be well drained. Ii HouseShould be leak proofThe leeward side should be open from 60-90cm above the ground. This area should be covered with a wire mesh. The floor should have litter. The litter keeps the floor warm and absorbs moisture. Litter materials include crushed maize combs, coffee husks, sawdust, wood shavings etc. The litter should be 15-30cm deep. Litter should be turned regularly to mix the droppings. Grains should be thrown regularly on the litter for the birds to scratch for the grains thus turning the litter. The floor space requirement should be 1m2 per 2- 3 birds. Iii Feeders and WaterersThey should be enough and should always be cleaned daily to avoid any infections. Iv Roosts and PerchesRoosts are timber frames on which the birds perch for rest. They should about 30cm per bird and should be about 1-1.2m. They should be movable for easy removal of droppings and for easy cleaning. Diagramsv Laying NestsProvide laying nests in the poultry house. Requirements for laying nestsShould be dimly lit to discourage egg eatingLarge enough to accommodate the bird comfortably. Nests are of two types, individual type and communal type. Individual type should measure 25-30cm wide, 30-35cm high and 30-36cm long. |
Requirements for laying nestsShould be dimly lit to discourage egg eatingLarge enough to accommodate the bird comfortably. Nests are of two types, individual type and communal type. Individual type should measure 25-30cm wide, 30-35cm high and 30-36cm long. Communal nests can accommodate 50-60 birds and they measure 1.35m 1.5m long, 30cm wide and 35cm high on the front side and 75cm on the back side. It should have a door measuring 20x20 cm wide. Place dry clean beddingsAdvantages of the deep litter systemHigh stocking rateSystem can be used for rearing a breeding stockFast accumulation of manureBirds are safe from predators and thievesLess loss of eggsLow labour requirements once everything is in place. DisadvantagesThere is a likelihood of pest and disease accumulation in the litterCannibalism, egg eating, feather plucking and toe pecking are common. Individual egg production record is not possibleLitter may be difficult to find in some areasFeeders and waterers may be contaminated by litter if not properly placedEggs may become dirty if they are laid on the floor or if the laying nests are not clean. MILK AND MILKINGMilkWhite substance secreted in the mammary glands of female animals. It is secreted as food for their young ones. It is also processed into products such as butter, cheese and ghee. Composition of milkThe composition of milk varies from one animal to another as shown below. It contains proteins, carbohydrates lactose fats, minerals and water. Factors affecting the milk compositionAge of the animal; young animals produce milk with high butter fat content than old animals. Physiological Condition of the animal; under conditions such as extreme emaciation, the butter fat content significantly drops. Pregnant animals also produce milk low in butter fat content. Completeness of milking; the last milk to be drawn has the highest butter fat content. Also the milk drawn form animal in the evening has higher butterfat content as compared to that obtained in the morning. Stage of lactation and pregnancy; butterfat content, proteins and minerals in milk are usually higher at the middle of the lactation period and drop towards late gestation. |
Completeness of milking; the last milk to be drawn has the highest butter fat content. Also the milk drawn form animal in the evening has higher butterfat content as compared to that obtained in the morning. Stage of lactation and pregnancy; butterfat content, proteins and minerals in milk are usually higher at the middle of the lactation period and drop towards late gestation. Type of food eaten by the animal; animals eating a lot of roughages produce milk rich in fats, proteins and lactose than animals which is fed on a lot of grains. This is because roughages produce a lot of acetic acid a volatile fatty acid which is used as a source of energy in the mammary glands to synthesize milk . Breed differences; different breeds produce milk wit5h different percentage composition as shown below. Season of the year; fats increase during the cold season. The solids not fats decrease during the hot season. Other factors animals under treatment produce milk of variable composition depending on the drugs used. Animals suffering from mastitis have reduced lactose because the mastitis bacteria attack the milk sugars. Milk Secretion and Let-downThe structure of the mammary glandIt is the organ responsible for milk production in mammalian animals. It is composed of balloon shaped secretory cells called alveoli alveolus . The alveoli are surrounded by a dense network of blood capillaries. These alveoli are joined together by a capsule to form a lobule with a duct. The alveoli drain their content into the lobule. Several lobules are grouped together to form a lobe which is drained by the lactiferous duct. Many lobes form one quarter of the udder. Several lactiferous ducts drain into the gland cistern of the quarter. The quarters of the udder are anatomically separated and drain into separate te4at cisterns. Each teat has an opening called a teat orifice canal whose opening and closing is controlled by the a sphincter muscle. Milk secretionMilk is made from products of digestion such as blood sugar, amino acids and fatty acids. These nutrients are carried by blood into the alveoli where they are manufactured into lactose, casein and butter. Other milk components such as vitamins and minerals are also added to milk through filtration by the alveoli cells. Milk synthesis or lactogenesis is controlled by the hormone prolactin. |
These nutrients are carried by blood into the alveoli where they are manufactured into lactose, casein and butter. Other milk components such as vitamins and minerals are also added to milk through filtration by the alveoli cells. Milk synthesis or lactogenesis is controlled by the hormone prolactin. Low levels of oestrogen during late gestation period stimulate the secretion of the hormone prolactin by the pituitary gland. Prolactin activates milk secretion process in the mammary glands. Milk secreted is stored in the hollow cavities of the alveoli and within the lactiferous ducts. Some milk however drains into the gland cistern where it is stored until milking. Milk let downThis is the flow of milk from the upper region of the udder alveolar region to the lower part of the udder gland cistern and teat cistern . This process of milk let down is caused by the hormone oxytocin released by the pituitary gland. Oxytocin causes contraction of the muscle fibres surrounding the alveoli. This contraction forces milk into the gland and teat cisterns. However some external factors also influence the milk let down process. These are:Taking the cow into the milking shedSight or smell of food in the feed troughRattling sound of the bucketsSight of the milkmanMassaging or washing the udder with warm waterSight of the calf for cows used to suckling calvesSuckling by the calfNB. Milk let down lasts for about seven to eight minutes hence the person milking must be very fast in order to remove as much milk as possible. Proper stimulation of the udder when milking is therefore very necessary throughout the milking process. The secretion of adrenaline from the adrenal glands suppresses the effects of oxytocin. Adrenaline inhibits the supply of blood to the alveolar region causing relaxation of the muscles fibres thus there is no milk let down. Other factors that may contribute to inhibition of milk let down include;Excitement or frightening of the cow. HungerChange of milkmanChange of the milking scheduleEffects of the oestrusFeeling of painStrange surroundingsBefore milking the alveolar cells are turgid but after milking they appear long and thin. |
Adrenaline inhibits the supply of blood to the alveolar region causing relaxation of the muscles fibres thus there is no milk let down. Other factors that may contribute to inhibition of milk let down include;Excitement or frightening of the cow. HungerChange of milkmanChange of the milking scheduleEffects of the oestrusFeeling of painStrange surroundingsBefore milking the alveolar cells are turgid but after milking they appear long and thin. Clean milk productionCharacteristics of clean and high quality milkFree from disease causing organismsHas no hair, dirt or dustHas high keeping qualityHas a good flavourIts chemical composition is within the expected standardsEssentials of clean milk productionAvoid flavours in milk- bad flavours in milk are caused by feedstuffs and oxidation. Silage and feedstuffs such as Mexican marigold, onions and other fruit wastes can cause bad flavours in milk. Such feedstuffs should be given to the animals after and not before or during milking. Oxidation of milk fats occurs when milk has been exposed to the sun for a long time or if put in containers with traces of copper or iron giving it a bad flavour. Milk should therefore be protected from sunlight and should be stored in containers which are free from of traces of copper or iron. Healthy milking herd. Cows should be tested regularly for milk borne diseases such as tuberculosis and brucellosis. A strip cup should always be used to check for mastitis. Clean milking cows. The flanks, underline and the whole udder should be washed and dried thoroughly before each milking. Two towels should be used. One for cleaning the udder and the other one for drying. Any long hair on the udder and flanks should be clipped. Healthy and clean milkman. Any milkman suffering from contagious diseases should not handle milk or do the milking. The milkman should keep his finger nails short and should have his hair covered. He should preferably wear an overall when milking. Clean milking shed. The milking parlour should be kept clean. It should have a good drainage and easy to clean. It should be cleaned after every milking. Clean milking utensils. The milking utensils and equipment should be seamless and smooth to facilitate thorough cleaning. They should be washed with hot water and detergent. Keeping them in the sun during the day sterilises them. |
The milking utensils and equipment should be seamless and smooth to facilitate thorough cleaning. They should be washed with hot water and detergent. Keeping them in the sun during the day sterilises them. Milk filtration cooling and storage. Milk should be filtered and cooled to 50C after milking. Cooling slows down bacteria multiplication hence improved keeping quality. The milk should then be stored in a cool, dry and dust free room or delivered immediately to the market. Milking materials and equipmentUdder clothes towels. Two towels should be provided for each cow, one for washing and the other for drying. If the animals are many the towels are dipped in hot water or disinfected before they are used on another animal. Filtering pads. They are used for straining milk. Milking jelly. It is smeared on the teats after milking to prevent cracking. It should not be applied before or during milking. Warm water. For washing the udder before milking. It also stimulates the milk let down process. Milking pails bucket. Should be made of materials that are free of copper and iron traces. Strip cup. For detecting mastitis. Milk cans churns. Used to hold milk during storage and transportation. Should also be made of materials that are free of copper or iron on their surfaces. Other equipment. Cooling apparatus, milking stool and weighing scale. The milking procedureMilking can be done either by hand or machine depending on the scale of farming. The following are the stages in milking. Pre-milking procedure. Milking materials and equipment are made available and within reach of the milkman. The cow is restrained in the milking parlour and given food. The udder is washed, dried and mastitis is checked. Milking technique. The proper method or technique should be used to extract as much milk as possible. Procedure of proper milking. In hand milking the teat is grasped tightly at its base between the thumb and the forefinger and the other three fingers are closed in tightly applying the pressure from the top to the bottom forcing the milk to drain out. When the force is applied rhythmically, on the teat muscles, the orifice opens and milk is released. The base of the teat is held firmly to prevent the backflow of milk into the gland cistern. Teats should not be stripped or pulled with fingers. The following rules should be observed. |
The base of the teat is held firmly to prevent the backflow of milk into the gland cistern. Teats should not be stripped or pulled with fingers. The following rules should be observed. Milk quickly and evenly. The effect of oxytocin lasts for 5-8 minutes hence milking should be quick and efficient. Milk at regular times. Cows are usually milked twice a day at approximately 12 hours interval. Milking should be done the same time in the morning and evenings. High yielding cows may be milked thrice per day. Avoid use of wet hands. The milkman should dry his hands after cleaning the udder. Complete milking. All the milk should be removed during milking. Incomplete removal of milk leading to the cow drying off too soon and total milk yield per lactation is reduced. Post milking practicesThese include weighing, recording, straining, cooling and storing it, cleaning the utensils and washing the milking parlour. Dry Cow TherapyThis is the administration of antibiotics to an in-calf cow in its late gestation period to control mastitis during the drying off period. The antibiotic penicillin is infused into the under through the teat canal using a syringe. MILK PRODUCTSThey include the following;Homogenized and pasteurized milk. Homogenization is the process by which the fat globules in milk are broken down into smaller particles and are the distributed evenly in the milk. Pasteurization involves heating the milk and the cooling it suddenly. This destroys most of the harmful bacteria in the milk. Homogenized and pasteurized milk is prepared and packed by KCC, Brookside, Tuzo, Delamere Dairies and Egerton Dairies etc. This milk is marketed as whole milk. Ultra Heat Treated UHT Milk. This is milk which has been treated at a temperature between 130 and 1350C for one second and then immediately packed and cooled. This milk has a long shelf life without refrigeration. It is marketed as whole milk. Cream. This is the layer of fat on the surface of the milk. It is separated from the raw milk either mechanically by use of machine separator or by hands. The machine separator spins the milk rapidly so that the centrifugal force that is created separates the fat globules from the rest of the milk. Skim milk. This is milk without cream. |
The machine separator spins the milk rapidly so that the centrifugal force that is created separates the fat globules from the rest of the milk. Skim milk. This is milk without cream. It is used in the manufacture of fat free milk powder. Butter. Butter is milk fat lacking non-fat solids and is obtained by churning cream in a churn. Butter contains 80 fat, 16-20 water and 1-1.5 non fat solids. Ghee. It s prepared by either heating cream or butter in order to remove moisture and non fat solids. Ghee contains 100 fat and is mainly used for cooking. Curd. It is prepared by leaving whole or skim milk unprotected to coagulate as a result of bacteria in the environment. Cheese. Cheese is consolidated curd. It obtained by compressing milk curd until the moisture is drained out. Cheese has an elastic texture. Acids, enzymes and salts are added to it. Powdered milk. This is milk prepared by drying the whole milk or skimmed milk and converting it into powder. Yoghurt. This is thickened flavoured milk. It is slightly acidic. The thickening is done by adding certain bacteria and food flavours to the milk. Other milk products include ice-cream and condensed milk. Marketing of MilkMilk in Kenya is mainly carried out through cooperative societies e.g. KCC, Tuzo, Brookside etc. The sale of milk in Kenya is regulated by the Kenya Dairy Board. Pricing is based on the quantity processed. Farmers also sell their fresh milk directly to consumers and other middlemen. Problems facing Dairy Farmers in Marketing MilkMilk is highly perishable and so needs cold storage facilities which most farmers cannot afford. Transportation problems. Certain milk producing areas are in accessible due to poor road network. This may delay milk delivery hence milk spoilage. Special containers are required for handling of milk some of which are expensive. Lack of market information on milk price and other existing marketing opportunities. Price fluctuationsDelayed payments to farmersMarketing of Beef CattleIn Kenya there are three channels through which Kenyan beef farmers can market their products. A Kenya Meat Commission KMC This is a statutory body mandated by the parliament to buy animals from the farmers, process and sell the meat products. The slaughter houses for KMC are located in Athi River, Ngong and Mombasa. B Livestock Marketing Division. |
A Kenya Meat Commission KMC This is a statutory body mandated by the parliament to buy animals from the farmers, process and sell the meat products. The slaughter houses for KMC are located in Athi River, Ngong and Mombasa. B Livestock Marketing Division. LMD This is a division in the Ministry of Livestock Development that is involved with the marketing of livestock especially those from arid and semi arid areas. The livestock division has built holding yards for the farmers to bring their animals for auction. C Local Slaughter HousesThese are specially constructed houses with all the slaughter facilities. Butchers buy animals either directly from farmers or from Livestock Marketing Division and take them to the slaughter houses for slaughter after which they sell meat to consumers through their butcheries. Price of meat is majorly dependent on market situations. PRODUCTION ECONOMICSThe country s income can be expressed through the following ways. Gross Domestic ProductGross National IncomePer Capita IncomeGross Domestic Product GNP This is the sum total of all the goods and the services produced by the residents of a country within a period of one year. The residents are either citizens or foreigners who have invested in that country. The foreigners however remit their income to their home countries hence there is income outflow. Gross National Income. GNI This is the sum total of all goods and services in monetary terms produced by the nationals of a given country within a year regardless of their country of operation. The nationals of a given country may invest or seek employment in foreign countries. These nationals remit their interests, profits and income to their home countries. There is therefore income inflow to their country. The difference between income inflow and income outflow added to the GDP gives the GNI Income inflow income outflow GDP GNIPer Capita IncomeThis is the average per head in a country. It is obtained by dividing the gross national income of a country by the country s total population. Per Capita Income GNITotal populationPer capita income is not a good measure of the economic well being of the people in a country due to the uneven distribution of the income. Contribution of Agriculture to National DevelopmentFood supplySource of income and capitalSource of raw materials to industriesMarket for industrial goodsCreation of employmentSource of revenue to governmentForeign exchange earner. |
It is obtained by dividing the gross national income of a country by the country s total population. Per Capita Income GNITotal populationPer capita income is not a good measure of the economic well being of the people in a country due to the uneven distribution of the income. Contribution of Agriculture to National DevelopmentFood supplySource of income and capitalSource of raw materials to industriesMarket for industrial goodsCreation of employmentSource of revenue to governmentForeign exchange earner. Factors of ProductionLandSolid part of the earth where capital can be placed. Land is scarce and is valued depending on the followingThe ability to produce crops and livestock. This is based on land productivity and not size. Land productivity is determined by the soil fertility and climatic conditions of an area. Land productivity can be improved by fertilizer application, irrigation, proper tillage, soil and water conservation etc. The space for construction of the farm buildings, agro-industries, urban centres and infrastructure. All these structures are important in agricultural production. Farmers can acquire land through the following methods. InheritanceBuyingLeasing from landlordsAllocation by the government through settlement schemes. Labour. This refers to the human physical and mental services employed in the production process. Labour is considered on the basis of the output of an individual and not on the number of people employed. The work output of labour is expressed in terms of the amount of the work done within a specified period e.g. man hours or man days. Types of labourFamily labourIt consists of the farmer and members of his family. The tasks are assigned according to the age and ability of the family members. Hired labour. Its labour employed outside the family. It can be permanent or casual. Casual labour is normally engaged at labour peaks e.g. during harvesting, planting weeding etc. Permanent labour is normally hired on monthly basis. How to Improve labour ProductivityTraining. Done formally through schools and colleges or informally through field days, agricultural shows, demonstration farms, workshops etc. Farm mechanization. Mechanization makes farm operations to be faster and efficient. Giving incentives and improving the terms and conditions of service. They include provision of housing, medical facilities, rewarding good workers and better remuneration. All these motivate labour to work hard and efficiently. Labour supervision. This improves efficiency and productivity of labour. Assigning tasks based on abilities and promoting specialization. |
Labour supervision. This improves efficiency and productivity of labour. Assigning tasks based on abilities and promoting specialization. This helps workers to know clearly their duties and responsibilities making them more efficient and accountable. CapitalThese are the assets that are essential in the production process. In agricultural production, capital includes tools and equipment, farm inputs, farm machines and money. Without capital all other factors of production will be of no importance. Types of CapitalLiquid capital. This is money and can be easily converted into other forms of capitalWorking capital. These are raw materials used for production. They are normally consumed completely in the production process e.g. Fertilizers, pesticides, fuel, feedstuffs etc. Fixed or durable capital. These are assets employed in the production process but are not used up completely in the process. Fixed assets only depreciate in value due to wear and tear and age. They include farm buildings, farm machinery, permanent crops etc. Sources of CapitalCredit facilities. Credit may be obtained from commercial banks, cooperatives, statutory boards eg. AFC, private organisations etc. Self savingsFree grantsInheritanceNB the higher the quality of the capital, the more the production. E.g. 10kg of hybrid seeds produce more yield than 10kg of ordinary seeds. Management. It s the process of planning and decision making in the organization of the other factors of production to minimize costs and maximize profit output. Functions of a managerShort term planningLong term planningInformation gatheringKeeping farm recordsImplementing farm management decisionsFinding ways of overcoming constraintsDetermining the production efficiency of his enterprise. Managerial Guideline QuestionsWhat to produce. This is determined by factors such as market demands, cultural values of thepeople, ecological factors and government policy. How much to produce. Determined by factors such as land, capital, labour force etc. How to produce. Determined by available techniques of production acquired through training andexperience. When to produce. Determined by the season when the crops or livestock perform well or whenthe market is available. For whom to produce. Determined by the demand and the price of the product. Qualities of a Good Farm ManagerFlexible in his decisions to adjust to the dynamic economic trends. Hardworking and time consciousKnowledgeable about agricultural principles such as practical farming skills, marketing and accounting. Responsible, dynamic, competent, ambitious and focused. |
Qualities of a Good Farm ManagerFlexible in his decisions to adjust to the dynamic economic trends. Hardworking and time consciousKnowledgeable about agricultural principles such as practical farming skills, marketing and accounting. Responsible, dynamic, competent, ambitious and focused. Ways of Promoting Farm Management SkillsTraining managersCarrying out research on farm managementTeaching agriculture in schools and forming 4k and YFCThe production FunctionThis is the physical relationship between inputs and products. It shows the quantity of output that may be expected from a give combination of inputs. Types of InputsVariable inputsFixed inputs. Variable InputsThey vary with the level of production. They include labour force, fertilizers, seeds, feeds, fuel, pesticides, livestock, drugs etc. Characteristics of variable inputsThey change in quantity required with the level of production. Are added to fixed inputs for productionTheir cost value depends on the kind and quantity used. Are usually allocated to specific enterprisesTheir cost Value is used to calculate the gross margins of various farm inputs. Fixed InputsThese do not vary with the level of production. They include farm machinery, permanent labour etc. Characteristics of Fixed InputsThey have fixed cost i.e. are constantThey do not vary with the level of production. Their costs are not normally allocated to specific enterprises or product. Input Output RelationshipsExample 1A farmer has a land fixed at one hectareSuppose the maize seed is varied from 0kg to 25kgThe maize yield will therefore vary with the respective seed rates as shown belowExample 2Suppose land and maize seed rate inputs are fixed at 1 ha and 25 kg respectively. The nitrogen fertilizer is applied at different rates. The following relationship is realized. Plot the a line graph of CAN input against Maize outputLand and seed rate are fixed at 1 hectare and 25 kg respectively. CAN fertiliser is varied at 20 kg unitsMaize yield increases as shown by the total product curveMarginal product is the additional return realised above the previous total product as a result of the marginal input. E.g. when 100kg of CAN fertiliser are used, the marginal product is 6 bags. I.e. 42-36 6Marginal inputs are additional inputs above the previous input. |
When 100kg of CAN fertiliser are used, the marginal product is 6 bags. I.e. 42-36 6Marginal inputs are additional inputs above the previous input. Types of production functionsIncreasing returns production functionConstant returns production functionDecreasing returns production functionIncreasing Returns Production FunctionIn this type of a function, each additional unit of input results in a larger increase in output than the preceding unit of input. This is a rare production in agriculture. It is usually experienced in the initial low levels of inputs application as in fertilizers, seedrate, and animal concentrates etc. ExampleEgg production from individual birds with varying amounts of layers mash. Draw a graph of amount of layers mash input against total egg production output Constant Returns Production FunctionIn this case, the output increases at the same rate for each additional unit of input. The returns are constant to the input factor. This function is very rare in agriculture due to presence of other factors that influence agriculture such as climate, human factors, pests and diseases. It is only common in industries. E.g. Production of loavesDraw a graph of input against output. The PF curve is a straight lineThe slope of the curve remains the sameThe marginal product is constant at 25Decreasing Returns Production FunctionEach additional unit of input results into a smaller increase in output than the preceding unit of input. It is the commonest type of production function in agriculture. It is common in areas like feeding livestock in order to increase their output, fertilizer application in crop production, feeding layers for egg production etc. ExampleMaize production in 90kg bags from varying amounts of NPK fertilizer applicationDraw a graph of input against outputNB Initially each additional unit of inputs leads to a larger increase in output than the preceding one. I.e.0-90 kg of NPK Thereafter, the increase is at a decreasing rate i.e. between 90-210kg of NPK input. At this point the law of diminishing returns starts to operate. Any further application of the NPK fertilizer results in a decline in output. Economic Laws and PrinciplesThey include:The law of diminishing returnsThe principle of substitutionThe principal of equi-marginal returnsThe principle of profit maximization1. |
At this point the law of diminishing returns starts to operate. Any further application of the NPK fertilizer results in a decline in output. Economic Laws and PrinciplesThey include:The law of diminishing returnsThe principle of substitutionThe principal of equi-marginal returnsThe principle of profit maximization1. The Law of Diminishing ReturnsIt states that if successive units of one input are added to fixed quantities of other inputs, a point is eventually reached when the additional marginal and average product output per additional unit of input will decline. NB NPK fertilizer is applied in units of 30 kg each. Therefore the average product is obtained by dividing the total product by the units of fertilizer used. Plot graphs of total product marginal product and average product on the same axisZones of a Production Function CurveThe law of diminishing returns helps the farmer to identify the most profitable point at which to produce. If perpendicular lines are drawn through the point where average product equals average product point where the two intersect , and through the point where the marginal curve intersects the horizontal axis MP 0 , the graph is divided into three zones. Zone IIn this zone the producer under utilizes the land resource and NPK fertilizer. Total product increases at an increasing rate until MP reaches the peak. It is not ideal for the farmer to limit production in this zone as the resources can still yield more. The zone is referred to as an irrational zone of productionZone IIThe producer uses the resources to the maximumTotal product increase at a decreasing rateZone stars where MP starts to decline and ends where MP 0. At this point the AP is at its maximum. Therefore AP reaches its maximum when it is equal to the MPIt is economical to produce in this zone. The zone is referred to as rational zone of production. Zone IIIMore application of NPK fertilizer results in the total product declining. Marginal product becomes negativeIt s uneconomical to operate in this zone. The zone is called irrational zone of production. 2. The Principle of SubstitutionThe principle of substitution state that, if the output is constant, it s profitable to substitute one input factor for another as long it is cheaper than the one being substituted. E.g. Milk production can be maintained constant by substituting dairy meal less expensive for dairy cube which are more expensive. |
AFC FC YAverage total cost ATC . This is the sum of average variable cost and average fixed costs. ATC AFC AVCMarginal cost MC . This is the extra cost incurred in the production of an additional unit of output. MC VC YWhere changeVC variable costY outputNB All the costs are defined in terms of units of output and not in terms of units of inputs. Ii The concept of Revenue. Revenue is the amount of money realized after the sale of the produce. Types of RevenueTotal Revenue TR . This is the total physical product multiplied by the unit price of the product. R Qy X Py where Q quantity, P price and y output factor. A farmer harvested 1000 90kg bags of wheat, if the price of a 90kg bag of wheat is Ksh 1500,Calculate his total revenue. Net Revenue NR . This is the difference between total revenue and the total costs of production. This is the profit. NR TR TC. Marginal Revenue MR . This is the extra income obtained from the sale of the additional unit of output. Concept of Profit MaximizationWhere the maximum revenue is obtained, then the profit is maximum at that point. In production the maximum profit is obtained where marginal revenue MR is equal to the marginal cost MC . At this point the net revenue is also at its maximum. ExampleIn a maize production project carried out over a period of eight seasons, a farmer used one hectare of land each time and applied various quantities of DSP fertilizer as shown in the table belowDSP fertilizer cost 280 - per 50kg bag. A 90kg bag of maize was selling at 200 -. From the table it is evident that,As more units of fertilizer are applied, the net revenue increases to reach the maximum of Ksh. 12,880 at 4 bags of fertilizer. At the level of 4 bags of fertilizer per hectare, the marginal revenue is almost equal to the marginal cost. This is the point of maximum profit. Farm planningThis involves setting objectives or goals and clearly stating and defining how to achieve them on the farm. The farm manager has to device a working programme that uses the limited resources in the most prudent way in order to maximize profit. Factors to consider in Drawing a Farm PlanSize of the farm. |
Farm planningThis involves setting objectives or goals and clearly stating and defining how to achieve them on the farm. The farm manager has to device a working programme that uses the limited resources in the most prudent way in order to maximize profit. Factors to consider in Drawing a Farm PlanSize of the farm. A large farm can hold many enterprises while on a small piece of land only few enterprises can be accommodated. Environmental factors. The climate, soil type and topography should be considered when making a farm plan. These determine the specific enterprise to be established on the farm. Topography determines where various enterprises should be located depending on the required drainage. The current trends in the labour market. This determines the availability of labour. The cost and requirement of the labour should be put into consideration. Farmer s objectives and preferences. The interests of the farmer should be put into consideration. A farmer may decide on what enterprises to keep. Possible production enterprises. Enterprises to be established are determined by environmental factors, size of the farm, market and price trends in the market. Existing market conditions and price trends. If there are no markets for a particular commodity, the farmer s will not produce it. Most farmers try to time their crops to mature when the prices are high. Availability and cost of farm inputs. Farmers prefer enterprises which are easily affordable and whose inputs are readily available. Government regulations and policy. There are certain government regulations which control the establishment of some enterprises. It is also prohibited to cultivate near the river banks. Security. Certain enterprises must be established near the homestead for security reasons. Communication and transport facilities. Some enterprises require good communication network. Steps in Making a Farm PlanDetermining the farm size by surveying and calculating out the acreage. Determining the environmental situation, i.e. Climate, soils and vegetation. This is done to ascertain the possible enterprise on that farm. Determining the farmer s objectives and preferences in order to eliminate undesired production possibilities. Developing a provisional tentative schedule by listing the selected enterprises and analyzing the types and costs of physical resources required. One enterprise or a combination of enterprises should be selected. Determining the technical feasibility practical able to be done of the farm to make it realistic taking into consideration other influences such as government policy. Determining the expected yields and returns of various enterprises. Determining the budget by translating the physical plan into monetary value. Developing a financial flow in order to ensure that it is consistent, workable and desirable. Implementing it. |
Determining the budget by translating the physical plan into monetary value. Developing a financial flow in order to ensure that it is consistent, workable and desirable. Implementing it. Observe and evaluate the plan in the course of implementation. NB . After planning is completed, all the factors of production are organized in such a way that the expected results are achieved. Farm BudgetingA farm budget is an estimate of the future expenses and income of a proposed farm plan. Budgeting is the process of estimating the results of a proposed farm plan. It is the translation of a physical plan into financial terms. Importance of BudgetingEnables the farmer to predict future returns hence helping him to plan ahead. Helps the farmer in decision making whereby a good budget helps the farmer to avoid over expenditure and impulse buying. Helps the farmer to avoid incurring losses by investing in less profitable enterprises. It ensures periodic analysis of the farm business. Acts as a record and can be used for future reference. It enables the farmers to secure loans from financial institutions such as A.F.C. and commercial banks. It highlights efficiency or weakness in the farm business. Types of Farm BudgetsPartial BudgetComplete Budget1. Partial BudgetIt is the simplest and shows the financial implications of proposed minor changes in the farm. For example, change in the size of dairy herd, change of size of land under a crop and change of production technique. A partial budget tries to address the following questions. What would happen if a farmer expanded an enterpriseWhat would happen if a farmer replaced one enterprise with anotherWhat would happen if a new technique is introduced on the farm such as changing from hand milking to dairy milking or rotational grazing to zero grazing? In partial budgeting one asks four guiding questions. What extra cost is the farmer going to incur as a result of the proposed change. What revenue is to be foregone as a result of the proposed change? What extra revenue is to be earned from the proposed change? What costs are to be saved if the change is effected? After getting the answers to these questions, the farmer is able to establish whether the proposed change will result in a gain or a loss. If the farmer is to gain the change is worthwhile but if he is to lose, the proposed change is discarded and other options are sought. |
What costs are to be saved if the change is effected? After getting the answers to these questions, the farmer is able to establish whether the proposed change will result in a gain or a loss. If the farmer is to gain the change is worthwhile but if he is to lose, the proposed change is discarded and other options are sought. ExampleMr Mrs X has 4 hectares of arable land,1.5 ha is under wheat0.5ha under maize0.3ha under fodder cropThe rest is either under improved grass ley or natural grassThe farmer wishes to know whether replacing 0.3 ha of maize with Irish potatoes the following season will be worthwhile. The fertilizer rate would have to be increased from 2 bags per ha for maize to 2.5 bags per ha for potatoes and an extra 40 man days of casual labour per ha. Average yields of maize and potatoes are 56 and 90 bags respectively. The prices are Ksh 1200 per a bag of maize and Ksh 300 per bag of potatoes. Seeds costs are Ksh 1350 per 10kg of maize seeds and Ksh 200 per 50 kg of potato seeds. D.A.P. fertilizer cost Ksh 1400 per 50 kg bag. Labour is paid at Ksh 150 per man day. He would require 10 bags of potato seeds and 1 bag of maize seeds to cover 0.3 of a hectare. Draw up the partial budget and indicate whether the proposed change is worthwhile. Partial Budget for Mr Mrs X s FarmTherefore extra revenue costs saved extra cost revenue foregone is10,290 18,290 -8,000 -8,000 indicate a loss and therefore the proposed change is not worthwhile. 2. Complete BudgetWhen proposed changes in the farm are major, or a new farm is being planned for, a complete budget is mandatory. Unlike the partial budget which only deals with variable inputs, a complete budget considers both variable and fixed costs. Guidelines to follow when carrying out complete BudgetingFormulation of the farming goals. The farmer states the reasons for setting up the farm business. Taking the farm inventory. Farm buildings, breeding stock, human labour, sources of power machinery and farm equipment are some of the things to include in the inventory i.e. all the assets in the farm. Planning for resources. |
Farm buildings, breeding stock, human labour, sources of power machinery and farm equipment are some of the things to include in the inventory i.e. all the assets in the farm. Planning for resources. This shows how the resources such as the land, labour and capital are utilized. Estimating production. From such enterprises such as crops, animals and other activities. Estimating the income and expenditure. Analyzing the input-output relationships that exist on the farmAnalyzing existing production weaknesses in the farm. Making a number of alternative farm plans and choosing one for adoption. Putting the best chosen plan into operation and supervising its implementation. An example of complete Budget for two hectares mixed farm. Gross margins are obtained by deducting the total variable costs from the total revenue of each enterprise. I.e. Gross Margin Total Revenue Total Variable costFixed costsLabour - one regular hired worker p.a.4,800.00Depreciation of poultry house built at 28,000 over 15 years150.00Cost of hand tools and equipment1,000.00Total fixed cost 5,950.00Farm profit Total Gross Margin total Fixed Cost 27,800.00 5,950.00 21,850.00Agricultural Support Services Available to the Farmer1. Extension and Training. This involves giving informal education to the farmers on production techniques. The Ministries of Agriculture and Livestock Development have extension officers who give these services to the farmers through seminars, short courses, field days, training and visits, demonstrations, chief s barazas etc. BAT Kenya Limited, Kenya Breweries Ltd, Church organizations and other N.G.O s also provide extension services. Artificial Insemination A.I ServicesVeterinary services. Veterinary officers help the farmers in treating and controlling livestock diseases and parasites. Farm input supplies. Some cooperatives and private companies supply farm inputs to the farmers. Kenya Farmers Association is an organisation involved in such activities. Banking. A farmer requires banking services. Farmers can open a current account or a savings account with banks. Current AccountIt s a bank account from which cheques are paid. Money in such an account does not earn interest. A Savings AccountThis account earns interest but cheques cannot be drawn on it. Advantages of using banking servicesThe farmer s money is safer in the bank. |
Money in such an account does not earn interest. A Savings AccountThis account earns interest but cheques cannot be drawn on it. Advantages of using banking servicesThe farmer s money is safer in the bank. Cheques can be used as evidence of payment in case of a dispute. Writing a cheque is easier than counting huge sums of money. Farmers with bank accounts can get overdrafts where current account holders are allowed to withdraw more money than what is in the account or loans. The bank gives advice to farmers on how to use the credit given for maximum results. A banker s statement acts as an evidence of a farmer s financial worthiness when he wants to acquire or lease some property. Credit. Since capital is a limited resource, farmers can overcome this limitation by borrowing capital. Borrowed capital is called credit or loan. The farmers pay it back with an interest. The loan is given against such collateral as land title deed, buildings and machinery. Types of CreditShort term Credit. Given as working capital such as seeds, fertilizer and feeds. It s repayable within one year. AFC gives farmers short term credit. Medium term Credit. Repayable within 5 years and is used for farm development projects such as fencing, buying machinery, soil and water conservation and buying livestock. Long term credit. Repayable within a period of 15 years. It s used for improvement of projects such as soil conservation, building and construction, establishing permanent crops etc. Credit can be termed as soft or hard. Hard loan is given against security such as machinery and land while soft is given with little or no security. Sources of Agricultural creditCooperative societies. They give credit to farmers. Their interest rate is lower than that of commercial banks. Crop boards. Some crop boards give credit to farmers and recover their money through deduction made on farmers pay out. E.g. Pyrethrum Board of Kenya and the National Irrigation Board. Commercial banks. They advance short term to medium term loans to farmers which are paid back with an interest that is slightly higher. Agricultural Finance Corporation. They give short term to long term credit to farmers. Their interest rates are low. Settlement Fund Trustees. They lend short term to long term credit to new settlers in settlement schemes. Others. Hire purchase companies, individuals, insurance companies and traders. Agricultural Research. The main objectives of agricultural research are;Improve crop and livestock production techniques. Develop improved varieties of crops and livestock. |
Agricultural Research. The main objectives of agricultural research are;Improve crop and livestock production techniques. Develop improved varieties of crops and livestock. Improve pastures and fodder quality. Develop techniques of controlling diseases and parasites. Determine suitable ecological zones for various crops. Coordinate research work being done throughout the country to avoid any duplication. Examples of agricultural research stations in Kenya. Coffee Research Station in Ruiru. -. CoffeeKenya Agricultural Research Institute KARI at Muguga - Agronomy, plant pathology, entomology, forestry etc. Kenya Agricultural Research Institute KARI at Kitale. Maize and pasture crops. National Plant Breeding Station at Njoro. Wheat, barley, sunflower etc. Pyrethrum Research Station at Molo. PyrethrumHorticultural Research Station at Thika. Fruits, cut flowers, pulses etcNational Sugar Research Station at Kibos. Tea Research Foundation at Kericho. Dryland farming Research Station at Katumani in Machakos. Plant breeding pest management, animal nutrition. National Agricultural Laboratories at Kabete entomology and soil testing. Sunflower Research Station at Wanguru near Embu. International Centre for Insect Physiology and Ecology ICIPE at Nairobi and Mbita. Western Agricultural Research Station in Kakamega which deals with research of on sweet potatoes, cassava and small ruminants. National Animal Husbandry Research station at Naivasha. -. Livestock breeding and managementVeterinary Research Station at kabete. Coast Agricultural Research Station at Mtwapa which conducts research on maize and sugarcane. Cotton Research Station at Kibos Kisumu. Embu Research Station. Medium altitude maize varieties. International livestock Research Institute ILRI in Nairobi. Marketing. The following are some organizations that market farmers produce. National Cereal and Produce Board. NCPB maize, wheat and pulses e.g groundnuts, beans, green grams etc. Kenya Cooperative Creameries. KCC milkKenya Planters Cooperative Union KPCU - CoffeePyrethrum Board of Kenya. PyrethrumTractor Hire Service. This involves hiring of tractors and implements by farmers who don t have them. The following offer these services. Government Tractor Hire Service. This is under the Ministry of Agriculture. Farmers hire implements and tractor if they do not have them. |
Government Tractor Hire Service. This is under the Ministry of Agriculture. Farmers hire implements and tractor if they do not have them. These services are available in almost all districts. The service is relatively cheap but farmers rarely get the services when they need them because of high demand. Private Contractors. These are either individual contractors or companies who offer these services to farmers. They move from one part of the country to another in search of farmers who would need their services. For example in December to March, there are many contractors in Rift Valley. In August and September, they move to short rain areas. These contractors however charge more than the government but they are more readily available. Individual Farmers. Some farmers have tractors for their own personal use. When they have finished ploughing their own land, they let them out for hire. Their charges are negotiable. Others. Some cooperative societies own tractors, which they let out for hire to their members. Cooperatives are cheaper than other hire services. Advantages of Tractor Hire Services. Farmers who can t afford to buy a tractor can get access to tractor services. Farmers don t incur the costs of servicing and maintenance of the tractor and implements. The services are more efficient than hand tools, which is the other alternative. Disadvantages of Tractor Hire Services. They are not available to most farmers when they need it. Private contractors and individual farmers may overcharge farmers. Risks and Uncertainties in FramingUncertainty. It is the imperfect knowledge about future events or outcome due to the uncontrollable variables such as weather changes, pest and disease out breaks and fluctuations in commodity prices. Risk. This is the divergence between the expected and actual outcome. There is always a difference between what a farmer would predict and the actual outcome. Types of risks and UncertaintiesFluctuation in commodity prices. Physical yield uncertainty. The farmer is unsure of what to actually expect. Ownership uncertainty. Farmer may lose the produce through theft, change in government policy, fire, death etc. Disease and pest outbreaks. Sickness and injury uncertainty. The farmer or member of his family or employee is affected and loses the ability to work due to sickness or injury. New production technique uncertainty. The farmer may be uncertain whether new technique is as effective as the previous one. Obsolescence. A farmer may invest in machinery, which may become outdated obsolete within a short time. Natural catastrophies. |
Obsolescence. A farmer may invest in machinery, which may become outdated obsolete within a short time. Natural catastrophies. Things like earthquakes, floods, drought, storms and strong winds may destroy crops and kill animals. Ways of Adjusting To Uncertainty. Diversification. This involves having several and different enterprises on the farm so that should one fail, the farmer does not suffer total loss. Flexibility in production methods. Farmers may design their enterprises in such a way that, should there be a need to change from one enterprise to another, they can do so with minimal expenses. For example livestock buildings should be designed in such a way that they can be modified to accommodate any type of animal as need arise. Input rationing. Farmers may apply fewer inputs than the optimum required for an enterprise to reduce more loses in case of any unexpected variable. Additional inputs can be used in enterprises with better chances of giving more returns. Insurance. Insuring the enterprises guarantees farmers compensation in the event of loss. This covers losses due to crop failure, death of livestock, theft, fire, and accidents in farm machinery. Contracting. Farmers may enter into contracts with consumers to supply specified goods for a certain period of time at an agreed price. E.g Tobacco farmers with BAT Kenya Ltd., barley farmers with EABL. Pig farmers with Farmers Choice etc. AdvantagesThis ensures a constant, fixed market for their produce. Should prices fall, the farmer gains as he continues to supply the produce at the contracted price. DisadvantagesContract prices are usually lower than the average market prices hence farmers get lower incomes in the long run. Should market prices rise, the farmer would not benefit as their price is already agreed on. Selecting more certain enterprises. A farmer should try to select an enterprise that earns a steady income though less profitable than choosing one that has a high variation income realization. Adopting modern production methods. They include, irrigation, spraying crops against pests and diseases, vaccinating animals against diseases etc. Government role in minimizing risks and UncertaintyWeather forecasting. This helps farmers to prepare land and plant at the right time. Research and extension. Subsidizing of input prices. Market regulation. This protects the farmer from exploitation. AGRICULTURAL MARKETING AND ORGANISATIONSMarket and MarketingMarket:Is an institution for exchange of goods and services. |
Standardization: Establishing uniformity in quality and quantity of products. Purpose: increase buyers satisfaction, establish criteria for inspection, ensure safety and avoid exploitation of consumers. Packaging: comes after processing. Purposes:Enables handling of produce. Makes marketing more efficient. Prevent physical deterioration, theft, tampering, adulteration and substitution. Offer easy labeling. Measurement. Attachment of sales description and instructions. Promote sales or advertise. Collecting market information or market research:Provide knowledge of supply and demand. Determine where and when to sell. Determine quality of commodity neededDetermine prices in alternative markets. Selling: Presentation of produce to consumers. Involves advertising, displaying of the produce in the market and bargaining for fair prices. Do not overcharge or under charge. Financing: Capital is required from buying raw produce to final sale of finished goods. Bearing of risks uncertainties: Include destruction by fire, theft, physical deterioration in quality, fluctuation of prices and change in tastes e.g. by transferring them to insurance companies. Marketing Organizations and AgenciesDescribe various agents and organizations that are involved in the marketing of coffee 10 mks These are bodies which facilitate the marketing process. Include:Wholesalers; Buy goods from producers , processors or manufacturers in bulk and sell to retailers and other merchants and consumers in relatively large or small lots. Have transport facilities. Have large storage depots. Bear marketing risks. Speculate on goods moved to the market. Arbitrage:- Buy when and where prices are low and sell when where prices are high. Retailers: Buy in bulk from wholesalers or processors and sell to consumers in small quantities. Itinerant traders middlemen: Are middlemen who buy in small bits, assemble, transport and sell to town markets. Packers and Processors: Are industries which change the form of produce e.g. Unga limited, B.A.T, Delmonte and sugar companies. Commission Agents: Are middlemen who act on behalf of the other businessmen for a fee or a commission. Do not own any commodity. Broker Agents: act on behalf of the sellers or do not actually handle the goods but have a good knowledge supplies of the same i.e. requirements and prices. Co-operative societies and unions: Help farmers to market their produce locally and internationally e.g. k.c.c. Reduce market costs for small scale farmers. Marketing Boards: Assists in the production of agricultural commodities. |
K.c.c. Reduce market costs for small scale farmers. Marketing Boards: Assists in the production of agricultural commodities. Also store, sell, buy, and collect agricultural commodities. Auctioneers: Concentrate buyers and sellers at a particular place and time where they negotiate on purchases and sales. Take a commission on sales. Special Characteristics of Agricultural ProductsBulky: Occupy large weight and volume. Perishable: Cannot stay long without suffering loss and deterioration in qualityProblems in marketing agricultural productsDescribe the problems encountered by farmers when marketing agricultural produce e.g. tomatoes 10 mks Perishability: e.g. fruits, vegetables, milk, meat etc go bad very quickly. PreventionStore under refrigeration. Sell immediately. Process into other forms. Can or dehydrate e.g. fruits, vegetables. Prevention is expensive hence increase marketing costs. Seasonality: Products are only available in plenty at harvest periods. This affects market prices and creates storage problems. Supply is inelastic due to long waiting periods. There is uncertainty on price expectation. Bulkiness: Products weigh heavily, occupy large space and have low value per unit weight. This poses problems on storage, transportation and increases price of produce beyond buyers ability. Storage: Construction of storage facilities is expensive thus increasing the cost of marketing. Poor transport system: poor roads in rural areas and inadequate means of transport. Farmers fail to take produce to the market. Perishable products get spoiled. Change in market demand: The long time lag between the decision to produce and the actual availability of the product changes the consumers taste and preferences affecting demand and price. Limited elasticity of demand Inelastic demand: Sometimes there is more quantity supplied which may lead to low demand and therefore low price for the produce i.e. excess supply that leads to low demand and low price. Lack of market information: This is due to low state of knowledge. This makes the production not to be in close conformity with market demand. Middlemen exploit them by buying produce at very low prices and sell at high profit margin. Changes of supply Inelastic supply: Sometimes there is overproduction or under production of goods. This leads to fluctuation of market prices. Efficiency in marketing How to increase profitsMinimize total costs of the whole process. Timeliness of the product assembly and delivery. Maintenance of the product quality. Price theoryPrice: Is the amount of money paid in exchange of good or service. |
Timeliness of the product assembly and delivery. Maintenance of the product quality. Price theoryPrice: Is the amount of money paid in exchange of good or service. -Is affected by demand, supply and the quality of good or service. The law of demand and supply:Demand: Quantity of goods or services consumers are willing and able to buy at each specific price in a given market at a given time. Demand is low when the price of goods is high and vice versa. Relationship between demand and priceTerms used in demandWant- Desire to have a good. Demand- Ability to purchase that good at a given price. Utility- Property of a product that makes it satisfies a want desire . Effective demand: type of demand which involves payment for the required goods and is determined by one s income. Law of demand: The quantity of a good or service demanded varies inversely with the price, or the higher the price, the less the quantity demanded and the lower the price, the more the quantity demanded. Demand schedule: List of quantities a given population will buy at different prices. Individual demand: A list of quantities or products that a person will purchase at various prices. Total demand: total of individual demands of a product. Demand is mainly determined by price but sometimes it can change if the price is constant due to other factors. Change of demand at a constant price. Factors influencing demand for a commodityPopulation: A change in the number of consumers in a market influences the total demand for goods and services. If population increases, the demand for a given good or service at a given price increases and vice versa. Income: Consumers with a higher income buy more than those with low. As income rise, demand for some foods like meat, butter, rice, grape fruit etc rice. Preference and taste: Demand changes with changes in tastes and preferences by consumers. Prices of related goods: Demand of a commodity increases if there is an increase in the price of a substitute e.g. Margarine demand increases if the price of butter increases. Advertisement: Promotes the sale of a commodity thereby increasing its demand because customers become aware of the existence of the commodity. Beliefs, customs and taboo: Influence total demand for a given good or service e.g. pork among Muslims. Price expectation: If in future the prices of a certain commodity are likely to go up, then the demand of that commodity increases currently or vice versa. Level of taxation: Increase in taxes increases the prices of certain goods and fewer people can afford them. |
The number of uses a product can be put to: Commodities with several uses have elastic demand. Time lag: If the use of a commodity can be postponed to another day the it has elastic demand e.g. cement for construction. Time span: There is greater Ed in the long run because adjustments can be made while a smaller Ed in the short run since it is difficult to vary some factors. Proportion: Commodities with large proportions of total expenditures e.g. animal feeds and fertilizers have elastic demand while those with very small proportion have inelastic demand. SupplyIs the quantity of goods or services which producers or sellers are willing to sell at each specified price in a given market and time. Law of supply: As the price of goods and services increase, the corresponding quantity of goods and services offered for sale increases and vice versa. The relationship between price and supplyChange of supply at constant pricesSupply schedule: --Is a list of quantities of an item that will be produced or sold at all probable prices. A supply schedule for meat:Factors influencing supply of a commodityNumber of sellers in the market: Many sellers increase the supply of goods and services. Prices of related goods: Supply is low if the price of a related good is higher e.g. If the bread price increases its supply is higher but supply of cakes decreases. Price expectation: supply is low now if in future the supply is expected to rise. Technology: Lead to increase of production of goods. Weather: Increase in production of goods when the weather is favorable. Government policy taxation : Increases in tax of inputs, increase price of commodities produced, thus the farmers drop the production of the produce. Change in prices: Increase in price lead to increase in supply of the good because of the high profit earned. Cost of production: If the cost of fertilizers and seeds is low, farmers supply more of this, in turn increase the yields. Increase in supply of associated goods: increase the supply of the other good e.g. increase in meat supply increase in hides and skins. Transportation system: Improved and efficient transport system, increase delivery and supply of farm produce. Elasticity of supply E.S Is the degree of responsiveness of supply to changes in price. ES change in quantity supplied change in priceExample: If the price of millet changes from ksh. 10 to ksh. 12 per kg. Resulting to a change of supply from 400kg to 600 kg, calculate the elasticity of supply. |
10 to ksh. 12 per kg. Resulting to a change of supply from 400kg to 600 kg, calculate the elasticity of supply. Change in supply 600-400 x100 400 200x100 400 50 change in price 12-10x100 10 2x100 10 20 E.S change in quantity supplied change in price 50 20 2.5Types of E.SElastic if more than 1Inelastic if less than 1Unitary if equal to 1Determination of market priceWhen price is high P2, supply is high Q4 but demand is low Q2. When price is too lowP1, the supply is also lowQ1, but the demand is high Q3. P1 has to be raised for the suppliers to sell more goods and P2 has to lower to satisfy the demand. The resultant price P, where quantity of goods supplied is equal to the quantity of goods demanded is known as equilibrium or market price. No competition of suppliers and consumers. Both parties are satisfied. This situation only exists in a free market. Price control:Government gives subsidies by reducing the cost of production of inputs. Government fixes the prices of related goods. Agricultural OrganisationsAgricultural organization is any body which promotes agricultural activities. Include:Co-operative societies: Is an organization of people who have joined together voluntarily with a common purpose for a mutual economic benefit. Types of co-operative societiesi Farmers or producer: Formed by farmers with limited capital to viably stand by their own. They buy large lands and each farmer is paid dividends per his shares. Ii Consumer: sell farm inputs to farmers. Buy inputs in bulk and sell at lower prices to farmers. Iii Marketing; Formed by small scale farmers to market their produce collectively. This reduces costs. Iv Savings and credit: Give loans to farmers. Formation of co-operatives:Steps followed:A minimum of 10 adults are required. Interested people form an interim committee. Name is decided. Members draw up a constitution. They work with the local co-operative officer. Seek for registration with the commissioner for co-operatives. |
Members draw up a constitution. They work with the local co-operative officer. Seek for registration with the commissioner for co-operatives. Principles of co-operatives:Open membership: Joining is voluntary after paying membership fee regardless of race, religion, sex, education and political inclination so long as are adults with a sound mind. Equal rights: one man one vote operates. Principle of share limit; Members buy shares up to a specific maximum limit to avoid domination by one member. Interest on shares: Money accruing capital provides dividends on basis of share contribution. Withdrawal from membership: Members withdraw voluntarily. Loyalty: Members are faithful and loyal to their co-operative e.g. Members must sell their produce through their co-operative. Education: Members are educated to be knowledgeable on relevant skills and conversant with co-operative affairs. Co-operative principle; the co-operatives should join co-operative movements at primary, district, national and international levels. Non-profit motive: Co-operatives are essentially non profit making organizations. This objective improves the living standards of members. Functions of co-operative societies:Marketing or selling farmers produce. Negotiate for fair prices for inputs and produce. Keep records of co-operative activities and inform members accordingly. Pay dividends to members. Give loans credit in kind to members. Educate members on relevant co-operative matters. Provide distribute inputs at subsidized prices. Some process inputs. Provide extension and machinery services. Some provide banking services to members. Some invest money on behalf of farmers. Advice members on new and better methods of production. Agricultural parastatal bodies: Are bodies established by acts of parliament. Include: boards, commissions, authorities and corporations. National irrigation board. Develop and improve irrigation projects e.g. mwea tembere,Ahero, west kano, perkerra etc. National Cereals and Produce Board:FunctionsRegulate and control production and storage of cereals and pulses. Buy and store cereals. Advice the minister on production, importation and exportation of produce. The Kenya sisal boardFunctionsPromote sisal production. Regulate production, grading and marketing. Register sisal producers. License sisal factories. Examine export to ensure and maintain high quality. Re-bale sisal. Coffee Board of Kenya. FunctionsLicense coffee producers and processors. Carry out research on production and processing. Negotiate for fair prices and quotas. Market parchment coffee. Pyrethrum Board of KenyaFunctionsAdvice farmers. |
Negotiate for fair prices and quotas. Market parchment coffee. Pyrethrum Board of KenyaFunctionsAdvice farmers. Manage pyrethrum nurseries. Process pyrethrum in factories. Market processed products. Buy pyrethrum from farmers. Research to obtain best cultivars through selection and breeding. Cotton Board of Kenya. FunctionsPlan, monitor, regulate cotton growing and ginning. License and control cotton ginneries. Regulate and control quality of raw cotton. Regulate export and import of cotton lint seed. Regulate and control seed supply and quality. Promote research, production and processing. Provide and co-ordinate training for industry sectors. Kenya Sugar Authority. FunctionsAdvise on development of sugarcane production for manufacture of white sugar. Advise on rules and regulations for development of sugarcane in industries. Formulate and advice on sugarcane prices. Advice on research. Develop and implement cane testing services and quality. Advise on processing. Register producers. Ensure availability of statistics. Advise on utilization of sugarcane produce. Horticultural Crops Development Authority. FunctionsOffer advisory services. Collect produce from farmers. Sort and grade produce. Market produce locally and abroad. Agricultural Finance Corporation. FunctionsProvide credit at reasonable interest rates. Provide technical services to farmers e.g. on borrowed capital. Ensure loan repayment. Agricultural Development Corporation. FunctionsRun and operate state farms.. Raise high quality livestock which are sold as breeding stock. Bulk planting materials. Promote agricultural production. K.Kenya meat Commission. FunctionsBuy cattle from beef farms. Slaughter beef. Grade carcasses. Market beef locally and overseas. Other Farmers organizationsKenya National farmers UnionFunctions:Bargain for fair prices of produce. Ensure supply of farm inputs. Bargain for reasonable and affordable prices of farm inputs. Provide better infrastructure. Provide loan. Control pests and diseases. Market produce locally and abroad. Offer technical services. Represent farmers in international federation of agricultural producers. Publish a monthly magazine Farmers Voice . Agricultural Society of Kenya. Functions:Hold competitive agricultural shows and exhibitions. Encourage breeding and importation of pure breeds. Encourage and assists in official milk recording scheme. Organize the running of YFC. Organize national ploughing contest. Publish Kenya stud book. Publish monthly journal Kenya Farmer. Award bursaries for local and overseas studies tours for its members. |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.