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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozilla%20Messaging | Mozilla Messaging (abbreviated MoMo) was a wholly owned, for-profit subsidiary of the non-profit Mozilla Foundation. It was broadly tasked with aspects of the Mozilla Project that focused on interpersonal communications, such as instant messaging and e-mail. Its main focus was developing Mozilla Thunderbird, the e-mail client developed by the Mozilla Foundation.
It was spun off from the Mozilla project in 2007; on 4 April 2011, it was merged into the Mozilla Labs group of the Mozilla Corporation. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data%20communication | Data communication or digital communications, including data transmission and data reception, is the transfer and reception of data in the form of a digital bitstream or a digitized analog signal transmitted over a point-to-point or point-to-multipoint communication channel. Examples of such channels are copper wires, optical fibers, wireless communication using radio spectrum, storage media and computer buses. The data are represented as an electromagnetic signal, such as an electrical voltage, radiowave, microwave, or infrared signal.
Analog transmission is a method of conveying voice, data, image, signal or video information using a continuous signal which varies in amplitude, phase, or some other property in proportion to that of a variable. The messages are either represented by a sequence of pulses by means of a line code (baseband transmission), or by a limited set of continuously varying waveforms (passband transmission), using a digital modulation method. The passband modulation and corresponding demodulation is carried out by modem equipment. According to the most common definition of digital signal, both baseband and passband signals representing bit-streams are considered as digital transmission, while an alternative definition only considers the baseband signal as digital, and passband transmission of digital data as a form of digital-to-analog conversion.
Data transmitted may be digital messages originating from a data source, for example, a computer or a keyboard. It may also be an analog signal such as a phone call or a video signal, digitized into a bit-stream, for example, using pulse-code modulation or more advanced source coding schemes. This source coding and decoding is carried out by codec equipment.
Distinction between related subjects
Courses and textbooks in the field of data transmission as well as digital transmission and digital communications have similar content.
Digital transmission or data transmission traditionally belongs to t |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetylated%20distarch%20adipate | Acetylated distarch adipate (E1422) is a food additive of the thickening agent type, and more specifically a bulking agent. It is also used as a stabilizer. This is an additive belonging to the family of modified starches.
This is a starch that is treated with acetic anhydride and adipic acid anhydride to resist high temperatures.
No acceptable daily intake for human consumption has been determined.
See also
Dextrin (E1400)
Modified starch |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Email%20spam%20legislation%20by%20country | The following table represents laws in respective countries or jurisdictions which restrict the use of Email spam.
Note: Countries / Jurisdictions marked with red are listed in the Spamhaus' Worst Spam Origin Countries (March 2020).
See also
Email spam
Spamming
Coalition Against Unsolicited Commercial Email (CAUCE)
List of countries by number of Internet users |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California%20Environmental%20Resources%20Evaluation%20System | The California Environmental Resources Evaluation System (CERES) is a California Resources Agency program established to coordinate and provide access to a variety of environmental and geoinformation electronic data about California. The goal of CERES is to improve environmental analysis and planning by integrating natural and cultural resource information from multiple sources, then making it available on the World Wide Web. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory%20rank | A memory rank is a set of DRAM chips connected to the same chip select, which are therefore accessed simultaneously. In practice all DRAM chips share all of the other command and control signals, and only the chip select pins for each rank are separate (the data pins are shared across ranks).
Details
The term rank was created and defined by JEDEC, the memory industry standards group. On a DDR, DDR2, or DDR3 memory module, each rank has a 64-bit-wide data bus (72 bits wide on DIMMs that support ECC). The number of physical DRAMs depends on their individual widths. For example, a rank of ×8 (8-bit wide) DRAMs would consist of eight physical chips (nine if ECC is supported), but a rank of ×4 (4-bit wide) DRAMs would consist of 16 physical chips (18, if ECC is supported). Multiple ranks can coexist on a single DIMM. Modern DIMMs can for example feature one rank (single rank), two ranks (dual rank), four ranks (quad rank), or eight ranks (octal rank).
There is only a little difference between a dual rank UDIMM and two single-rank UDIMMs in the same memory channel, other than that the DRAMs reside on different PCBs. The electrical connections between the memory controller and the DRAMs are almost identical (with the possible exception of which chip selects go to which ranks). Increasing the number of ranks per DIMM is mainly intended to increase the memory density per channel. Too many ranks in the channel can cause excessive loading and decrease the speed of the channel. Also some memory controllers have a maximum supported number of ranks. DRAM load on the command/address (CA) bus can be reduced by using registered memory.
Predating the term rank (sometimes also called row) is the use of single-sided and double-sided modules, especially with SIMMs. While most often the number of sides used to carry RAM chips corresponded to the number of ranks, sometimes they did not. This could lead to confusion and technical issues.
Performance of multiple rank modules
There are |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ansible%20%28software%29 | Ansible is a suite of software tools that enables infrastructure as code. It is open-source and the suite includes software provisioning, configuration management, and application deployment functionality.
Originally written by Michael DeHaan and acquired by Red Hat in 2015, Ansible is designed to configure both Unix-like systems and Microsoft Windows. Ansible is agentless, relying on temporary remote connections via SSH or Windows Remote Management which allows PowerShell execution. The Ansible control node runs on most Unix-like systems that are able to run Python, including Windows with Windows Subsystem for Linux installed. System configuration is defined in part by using its own declarative language.
History
The term "ansible" was coined by Ursula K. Le Guin in her 1966 novel Rocannon's World, and refers to fictional instantaneous communication systems.
The Ansible tool was developed by Michael DeHaan, the author of the provisioning server application Cobbler and co-author of the Fedora Unified Network Controller (Func) framework for remote administration.
Ansible, Inc. (originally AnsibleWorks, Inc.) was the company founded in 2013 by DeHaan, Timothy Gerla, and Saïd Ziouani to commercially support and sponsor Ansible. Red Hat acquired Ansible in October 2015.
Ansible is included as part of the Fedora distribution of Linux, owned by Red Hat, and is also available for Red Hat Enterprise Linux, CentOS, openSUSE, SUSE Linux Enterprise, Debian, Ubuntu, Scientific Linux, and Oracle Linux via Extra Packages for Enterprise Linux, as well as for other operating systems.
Architecture
Overview
Ansible helps to manage multiple machines by selecting portions of Ansible's inventory stored in simple plain text files. The inventory is configurable, and target machine inventory can be sourced dynamically or from cloud-based sources in different formats (YAML, INI).
Sensitive data can be stored in encrypted files using Ansible Vault since 2014.
In contrast with other |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenomai | Xenomai is a real-time development software framework cooperating with the Linux kernel to provide pervasive, interface-agnostic, hard real-time computing support to user space application software seamlessly integrated into the Linux environment.
The Xenomai project was launched in August 2001. In 2003, it merged with the Real-Time Application Interface (RTAI) project to produce RTAI/fusion, a real-time free software platform for Linux on Xenomai's abstract real-time operating system (RTOS) core. Eventually, the RTAI/fusion effort became independent from RTAI in 2005 as the Xenomai project.
Xenomai is based on an abstract RTOS core, usable for building any kind of real-time interface, over a nucleus which exports a set of generic RTOS services. Any number of RTOS personalities called “skins” can then be built over the nucleus, providing their own specific interface to the applications, by using the services of a single generic core to implement it.
Xenomai vs. RTAI
Many differences exist between Xenomai and RTAI, though both projects share a few ideas and support the RTDM layer. The major differences derive from the goals the projects aim for, and from their respective implementation. While RTAI is focused on lowest technically feasible latencies, Xenomai also considers clean extensibility (RTOS skins), portability, and maintainability as very important goals. Xenomai's path towards Ingo Molnár's PREEMPT_RT support is another major difference compared to RTAI's objectives.
See also
Adaptive Domain Environment for Operating Systems (Adeos)
RTAI |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowdfunding%20in%20video%20games | Video game development has typically been funded by large publishing companies or are alternatively paid for mostly by the developers themselves as independent titles. Other funding may come from government incentives or from private funding.
Crowdfunding, where the players of the video games pay to back the development efforts of a game, has become a popular means of finding alternate investment routes. As a way of game monetization, the use of crowdfunding in video games has had a history for several years prior to 2012, but was not seen as viable and limited to small-scale games. The crowdfunding mechanism for video games received significant attention in February 2012 due to the success of Double Fine Adventure (later renamed as Broken Age), a point-and-click adventure game which raised more than $3 million through the Kickstarter service, greatly exceeding the initial $400,000 request and becoming the highest funded project through Kickstarter at that time. A further boost to the model was seen in July 2012 when the Ouya, a low-cost video game console to be built on the open Android system and designed to take advantage of the mobile video game trend, surpassed $8 million in funding. By mid-2016, more than $186 million has been pledged to video game-related projects through Kickstarter alone.
Less than half of video game crowd-funded projects successfully raise their target funds.
Crowdfunding
Crowdfunding is a means to raise money for a project by eliciting funds from potential users of the completed project. While no third party is required for crowdfunding to occur, web sites like Kickstarter have been created to act as an intermediate in the process: they create space for project creators to share their project, provide ways for users to pledge their funds, and then supply the pledged funds to the creators for those projects that are successfully funded.
Projects using the Kickstarter model generally create multiple tiers of support. A minimum pledge as |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Client%20hypervisor | In computing, a client hypervisor is a hypervisor that is designed for use on client computers such as laptops, desktops or workstations, rather than on a server. It is a technique of host virtualization which enables the parallel execution of multiple operating systems (or virtual machines) on shared hardware. These guest systems may be used for a wide variety of tasks normally performed by dedicated physical computer systems. Client hypervisors are included in cloud computing and IaaS (Infrastructure as a Service) designs. Some well-known client hypervisors are VMware Workstation, VirtualBox and VirtualPC. Client hypervisors are categorized in two types:
Type 1 (Bare metal): this type of client hypervisor runs directly on the host machine's hardware and serves as the host operating system, providing hardware access to guests via its own drivers. Also, it create a layer above the layer for allocate system resources to all installed virtual machines.
Type 2 (Virtualized): this type of client hypervisor operates inside the host operating system as a stand-alone application and invokes the master operating system for access to the physical computer's resources. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical%20resistivities%20of%20the%20elements%20%28data%20page%29 |
Electrical resistivity |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ternary%20relation | In mathematics, a ternary relation or triadic relation is a finitary relation in which the number of places in the relation is three. Ternary relations may also be referred to as 3-adic, 3-ary, 3-dimensional, or 3-place.
Just as a binary relation is formally defined as a set of pairs, i.e. a subset of the Cartesian product of some sets A and B, so a ternary relation is a set of triples, forming a subset of the Cartesian product of three sets A, B and C.
An example of a ternary relation in elementary geometry can be given on triples of points, where a triple is in the relation if the three points are collinear. Another geometric example can be obtained by considering triples consisting of two points and a line, where a triple is in the ternary relation if the two points determine (are incident with) the line.
Examples
Binary functions
A function in two variables, mapping two values from sets A and B, respectively, to a value in C associates to every pair (a,b) in an element f(a, b) in C. Therefore, its graph consists of pairs of the form . Such pairs in which the first element is itself a pair are often identified with triples. This makes the graph of f a ternary relation between A, B and C, consisting of all triples , satisfying , , and
Cyclic orders
Given any set A whose elements are arranged on a circle, one can define a ternary relation R on A, i.e. a subset of A3 = , by stipulating that holds if and only if the elements a, b and c are pairwise different and when going from a to c in a clockwise direction one passes through b. For example, if A = { } represents the hours on a clock face, then holds and does not hold.
Betweenness relations
Ternary equivalence relation
Congruence relation
The ordinary congruence of arithmetics
which holds for three integers a, b, and m if and only if m divides a − b, formally may be considered as a ternary relation. However, usually, this instead is considered as a family of binary relations between the a and |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California%20Coastal%20Conservancy | The California State Coastal Conservancy (CSCC, SCC) is a non-regulatory state agency in California established in 1976 to enhance coastal resources and public access to the coast. The CSCC is a department of the California Natural Resources Agency. The agency's work is conducted along the entirety of the California coast, including the interior San Francisco Bay and is responsible for the planning and coordination of federal land sales to acquire into state land as well as award grant funding for improvement projects. The Board of Directors for the agency is made up of seven members who are appointed by the Governor of California and approved by the California Legislature, members of the California State Assembly and California State Senate engage and provide oversight within their legislative capacity.
Goals
The agency's official goals are to:
Protect and improve coastal wetlands, streams, and watersheds
Improve access to coasts and shores by building trails and stairways and improving the availability of low cost accommodation including campgrounds and hostels
Work with local communities to revitalize urban watersheds
Assist in resolving complex land-use problems
Purchase and hold environmentally valuable coastal and bay lands
Protect Agricultural lands and support coastal agriculture
Accept donations and dedication of land and easements for public access, wildlife habitat, agriculture and open spaces
Since its establishment, the Conservancy has completed over 4,000 projects along the California coastline and San Francisco Bay, restored over 400,000 acres of coastal habitat, built hundreds of miles of new trail including the Bay Area Ridge Trail, Santa Ana Parkway Trail, and partnered on over 100 urban waterfront projects. The Conservancy has spent over $1.8 billion on projects. It works in partnership with other public agencies, nonprofit organizations and private landowners, employing 75 people and overseeing a current annual budget of 53 million dollars. Th |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middleware%20%28distributed%20applications%29 | Middleware in the context of distributed applications is software that provides services beyond those provided by the operating system to enable the various components of a distributed system to communicate and manage data. Middleware supports and simplifies complex distributed applications. It includes web servers, application servers, messaging and similar tools that support application development and delivery. Middleware is especially integral to modern information technology based on XML, SOAP, Web services, and service-oriented architecture.
Middleware often enables interoperability between applications that run on different operating systems, by supplying services so the application can exchange data in a standards-based way. Middleware sits "in the middle" between application software that may be working on different operating systems. It is similar to the middle layer of a three-tier single system architecture, except that it is stretched across multiple systems or applications. Examples include EAI software, telecommunications software, transaction monitors, and messaging-and-queueing software.
The distinction between operating system and middleware functionality is, to some extent, arbitrary. While core kernel functionality can only be provided by the operating system itself, some functionality previously provided by separately sold middleware is now integrated in operating systems. A typical example is the TCP/IP stack for telecommunications, nowadays included virtually in every operating system.
Definitions
Middleware is defined as software that provides a link between separate software applications. It is sometimes referred to as plumbing because it connects two applications and passes data between them. Middleware allows data contained in one database to be accessed through another. This makes it particularly useful for enterprise application integration and data integration tasks.
In more abstract terms, middleware is "The software layer that l |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discontinuous%20group | A discontinuous group is a mathematical concept relating to mappings in topological space.
Definition
Let be a topological space of points , and let , , be an open continuous representation of the topological group as a transitive group of homeomorphic mappings of on itself. The representation of the discrete subgroup in is called discontinuous, if no sequence () converges to a point in , as runs over distinct elements of . |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PAT%20%28model%20checker%29 | PAT (Process Analysis Toolkit) is a self-contained framework for composing, simulating and reasoning of concurrent, real-time systems and other possible domains. It includes user interfaces, model editor and animated simulator. PAT implements various model checking techniques catering for different properties such as freedom from deadlock and divergence, reachability, LTL properties with fairness assumptions, refinement checking and probabilistic model checking. To achieve good performance, advanced optimization techniques are implemented in PAT, e.g. partial order reduction, symmetry reduction, process counter abstraction. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rot-proof | Rot-proof or rot resistant is a condition of preservation or protection, by a process or treatment of materials used in industrial manufacturing or production to prevent biodegradation and chemical decomposition. Decomposition is a factor in which organic matter breaks down over time. It is commonly caused by fungus, mold or mildew.
There are natural conditions where the environment is inhospitable to animals, bacteria and fungus, for example in high altitude and the freezing subzero temperatures of the Arctic and Antarctic, which creates a similar suspension. The proofing of materials may also prevent dry rot and wet rot.
See also
Dust resistant
Fireproofing
Rustproofing
Thermal resistant
Toughness
Waterproofing
Chemical properties
Materials science |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism%20of%20Microsoft%20Windows | The various versions of Microsoft's desktop operating system, Windows, have received various criticisms since Microsoft's inception.
Data collection
Concerns were shown by advocates and other critics for Windows 10's privacy policies and its collection and use of customer data. Under the default "Express" settings, Windows 10 is configured to send various information to Microsoft and other parties, including the collection of user contacts, calendar data, and "associated input data" to personalize "speech, typing, and inking input", typing and inking data to improve recognition, allow apps to use a unique "advertising ID" for analytics and advertising personalization (functionality introduced by Windows 8.1) and allow apps to request the user's location data and send this data to Microsoft and "trusted partners" to improve location detection (Windows 8 had similar settings, except that location data collection did not include "trusted partners"). Users can opt out from most of this data collection, but telemetry data for error reporting and usage is also sent to Microsoft, and this cannot be disabled on non-Enterprise versions of Windows 10. The use of Cortana intelligent personal assistant also requires the collection of data "such as your device location, data from your calendar, the apps you use, data from your emails and text messages, who you call, your contacts and how often you interact with them on your device" to personalize its functionality.
Rock Paper Shotgun writer Alec Meer argued that Microsoft's intent for this data collection lacked transparency, stating that "there is no world in which 45 pages of policy documents and opt-out settings split across 13 different Settings screens and an external website constitutes 'real transparency'." ExtremeTech pointed out that, whilst previously campaigning against Google for similar data collection strategies, "[Microsoft] now hoovers up your data in ways that would make Google jealous." However, it was also |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malleability%20%28cryptography%29 | Malleability is a property of some cryptographic algorithms. An encryption algorithm is "malleable" if it is possible to transform a ciphertext into another ciphertext which decrypts to a related plaintext. That is, given an encryption of a plaintext , it is possible to generate another ciphertext which decrypts to , for a known function , without necessarily knowing or learning .
Malleability is often an undesirable property in a general-purpose cryptosystem, since it allows an attacker to modify the contents of a message. For example, suppose that a bank uses a stream cipher to hide its financial information, and a user sends an encrypted message containing, say, "." If an attacker can modify the message on the wire, and can guess the format of the unencrypted message, the attacker could change the amount of the transaction, or the recipient of the funds, e.g. "". Malleability does not refer to the attacker's ability to read the encrypted message. Both before and after tampering, the attacker cannot read the encrypted message.
On the other hand, some cryptosystems are malleable by design. In other words, in some circumstances it may be viewed as a feature that anyone can transform an encryption of into a valid encryption of (for some restricted class of functions ) without necessarily learning . Such schemes are known as homomorphic encryption schemes.
A cryptosystem may be semantically secure against chosen plaintext attacks or even non-adaptive chosen ciphertext attacks (CCA1) while still being malleable. However, security against adaptive chosen ciphertext attacks (CCA2) is equivalent to non-malleability.
Example malleable cryptosystems
In a stream cipher, the ciphertext is produced by taking the exclusive or of the plaintext and a pseudorandom stream based on a secret key , as . An adversary can construct an encryption of for any , as .
In the RSA cryptosystem, a plaintext is encrypted as , where is the public key. Given such a ciphertext, an adv |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Key%20generator | A key generator is a protocol or algorithm that is used in many cryptographic protocols to generate a sequence with many pseudo-random characteristics. This sequence is used as an encryption key at one end of communication, and as a decryption key at the other. One can implement a key generator in a system that aims to generate, distribute, and authenticate keys in a way that without the private key, one cannot access the information in the public end.
Examples of key generators include linear-feedback shift registers (LFSR) and the Solitaire (or Pontifex) cipher. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blossom | In botany, blossoms are the flowers of stone fruit trees (genus Prunus) and of some other plants with a similar appearance that flower profusely for a period of time in spring.
Colloquially, flowers of orange are referred to as such as well. Peach blossoms (including nectarine), most cherry blossoms, and some almond blossoms are usually pink. Plum blossoms, apple blossoms, orange blossoms, some cherry blossoms, and most almond blossoms are white.
Blossoms provide pollen to pollinators such as bees, and initiate cross-pollination necessary for the trees to reproduce by producing fruit.
Herbal use
The ancient Phoenicians used almond blossoms with honey and urine as a tonic, and sprinkled them into stews and gruels to give muscular strength. Crushed petals were also used as a poultice on skin spots and mixed with banana oil, for dry skin and sunburn.
In herbalism the crab apple was used as treatment for boils, abscesses, splinters, wounds, coughs, colds and a host of other ailments ranging from acne to kidney ailments. Many dishes made with apples and apple blossom are of medieval origin. In the spring, monks and physicians would gather the blossoms and preserve them in vinegar for drawing poultices and for bee stings and other insect bites. Descending from China and south east Asia, the earliest orange species moved westwards via the trade routes.
In 17th century Italy peach blossoms were made into a poultice for bruises, rashes, eczema, grazes and stings.
In ancient Greek medicine plum blossoms were used to treat bleeding gums, mouth ulcers and tighten loose teeth. Plum blossoms mixed with sage leaves and flowers were used in plum wine or plum brandy as a mouthwash to soothe sore throats and mouth ailments and sweeten bad breath.
Blossom festivals
is the Japanese traditional custom of enjoying the transient beauty of flowers; in this case almost always refer to those of the or, less frequently, trees.
In England, Wales and Northern Ireland the National |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odd%E2%80%93even%20sort | In computing, an odd–even sort or odd–even transposition sort (also known as brick sort or parity sort) is a relatively simple sorting algorithm, developed originally for use on parallel processors with local interconnections. It is a comparison sort related to bubble sort, with which it shares many characteristics. It functions by comparing all odd/even indexed pairs of adjacent elements in the list and, if a pair is in the wrong order (the first is larger than the second) the elements are switched. The next step repeats this for even/odd indexed pairs (of adjacent elements). Then it alternates between odd/even and even/odd steps until the list is sorted.
Sorting on processor arrays
On parallel processors, with one value per processor and only local left–right neighbor connections, the processors all concurrently do a compare–exchange operation with their neighbors, alternating between odd–even and even–odd pairings. This algorithm was originally presented, and shown to be efficient on such processors, by Habermann in 1972.
The algorithm extends efficiently to the case of multiple items per processor. In the Baudet–Stevenson odd–even merge-splitting algorithm, each processor sorts its own sublist at each step, using any efficient sort algorithm, and then performs a merge splitting, or transposition–merge, operation with its neighbor, with neighbor pairing alternating between odd–even and even–odd on each step.
Batcher's odd–even mergesort
A related but more efficient sort algorithm is the Batcher odd–even mergesort, using compare–exchange operations and perfect-shuffle operations.
Batcher's method is efficient on parallel processors with long-range connections.
Algorithm
The single-processor algorithm, like bubblesort, is simple but not very efficient. Here a zero-based index is assumed:
function oddEvenSort(list) {
function swap(list, i, j) {
var temp = list[i];
list[i] = list[j];
list[j] = temp;
}
var sorted = false;
while (!sorted |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cottaging | Cottaging is a gay slang term, originating from the United Kingdom, referring to anonymous sex between men in a public lavatory (a "cottage" or "tea-room"), or cruising for sexual partners with the intention of having sex elsewhere. The term has its roots in self-contained English toilet blocks resembling small cottages in their appearance; in the English cant language of Polari this became a double entendre by gay men referring to sexual encounters. See also gay beat in Australian English.
The word "cottage", usually meaning a small, cosy, countryside home, is documented as having been in use during the Victorian era to refer to a public toilet and by the 1960s its use in this sense had become an exclusively homosexual slang term. This usage is predominantly British, though the term is occasionally used with the same meaning in other parts of the world. Among gay men in the United States, lavatories used for this purpose are called tea rooms.
Locations
Cottages were and are located in places heavily used by many people such as bus stations, railway stations, airports and university campuses. Often, glory holes are drilled in the walls between cubicles in popular cottages. Foot signals—tapping a foot, sliding a foot slightly under the divider between stalls, attracting the attention of the occupant of the next stall—are used to signify that one wishes to connect with the person in the next cubicle. In some heavily used cottages, an etiquette develops and one person may function as a lookout to warn if non-cottagers are coming.
Since the 1980s, more individuals in authority have become more aware of the existence of cottages in places under their jurisdiction and have reduced the height of or even removed doors from the cubicles of popular cottages, or extended the walls between the cubicles to the floor to prevent foot signalling.
Cottages as meeting places
Before the gay liberation movement, many, if not most, gay and bisexual men at the time were closeted and |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital%20manifold | In mathematics, a digital manifold is a special kind of combinatorial manifold which is defined in digital space i.e. grid cell space. A combinatorial manifold is a kind of manifold which is a discretization of a manifold. It usually means a piecewise linear manifold made by simplicial complexes.
Concepts
Parallel-move is used to extend an i-cell to (i+1)-cell. In other words, if A and B are two i-cells
and A is a parallel-move of B, then {A,B} is an (i+1)-cell.
Therefore, k-cells can be defined recursively.
Basically, a connected set of grid points M can be viewed as a digital k-manifold if:
(1) any two k-cells are (k-1)-connected, (2) every (k-1)-cell has
only one or two parallel-moves, and (3) M does not contain any (k+1)-cells.
See also
Digital geometry
Digital topology
Topological data analysis
Topology
Discrete mathematics |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Phelippes | Thomas Phelippes (1556–1625), also known as Thomas Phillips was a linguist, who was employed as a forger and intelligence gatherer. He served mainly under Sir Francis Walsingham, in the time of Elizabeth I, and most notably deciphered the coded letters of Babington Plot conspirators.
Life and education
Little is known about Phelippes family background except that he was the son of a cloth merchant. Despite his humble origins, it is believed that he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1569 and graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in 1574. Phelippes was a linguist who could speak French, Italian, Spanish, Latin and German. His education helped him to master cipher skills and be an excellent cryptographer of high reputation. Therefore, he was employed by Sir Francis Walsingham, the principal secretary to Queen Elizabeth I.
The physical and intellectual stature of Phelippes was described as "a small, lean, yellow-haired, short-sighted man, with pock-marked face, an excellent linguist, and, above all, a person with a positive genius for deciphering letters."
Babington Plot
He is most remembered for his postscript to the "bloody letter" sent by Mary, Queen of Scots, to Anthony Babington regarding the Babington plot. When he sent Walsingham the letter proving Mary, Queen of Scots's complicity in the plot Phelippes had drawn a gallows on the envelope. According to historian Neville Williams, the notes were smuggled to Mary via empty barrels from a brewer in Burton upon Trent who supplied the house at Chartley Manor where she was being held prisoner in the custody of Sir Amias Paulet. Phelippes was kept busy with a backlog of correspondence requested by Her Majesty whose letters contained day to day matters as well as those of a more sensitive type. Walsingham had to wait a whole seven months before he got what he wanted. This postscript asked Babington for the names of the plotters involved in the planned assassination of Queen Elizabeth I, and hence Francis Walsingham |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recfiles | recfiles is a file format for human-editable, plain text databases.
Databases using this file format can be edited using any text editor. recfiles allow for basic relational database operations, typing, auto-incrementing, as well as a simple join operation.
Recutils is a collection of tools, like recfmt, recsel, and rec2csv used to work with recfile databases.
Various software libraries support the format.
Syntax
Data are stored in text files with empty lines separating records. Fields within a record are lines starting with their name and a colon; it is possible to wrap long entries. Multiple record types can be maintained in a single text file.
Example
# This is a recfile document.
%rec: Texts
%type: Year int
Author: Doug McIlroy
Year: 1964
Note: The Origin of Unix Pipes
Title: Unix Text Processing
Author: Dale Dougherty
Author: Tim O'Reilly
Year: 1987
Publisher: Hayden Books
Author: William Shakespeare
Title: Hamlet
Year: 1599
Year: 1600
Year: 1601
This example command would output the following three lines (of the two original entries, one having two authors):
$ recsel -e 'Year > "1900"' -p Author
Author: Doug McIlroy
Author: Dale Dougherty
Author: Tim O'Reilly
See also
asciidoc
TOML
org-mode |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain%E2%80%93body%20interaction | Brain–body interactions are patterns of neural activity in the central nervous system to coordinate the activity between the brain and body. The nervous system consists of central and peripheral nervous systems and coordinates the actions of an animal by transmitting signals to and from different parts of its body. The brain and spinal cord are interwoven with the body and interact with other organ systems through the somatic, autonomic and enteric nervous systems. Neural pathways regulate brain–body interactions and allow to sense and control its body and interact with the environment.
Types of interactions
Various types of brain–body interactions have been distinguished. For example, brain–gut interactions are biochemical signaling that takes place between the gastrointestinal tract and the central nervous system. Brain–heart interactions link cardiac physiology to activity in the central and peripheral nervous system and may explain how peripheral cardiovascular arousal can influence decision making and the regulation of social and emotional behaviours. Brain–muscle interactions involve both efferent nerve fibers that transmit action potentials to the muscles to generate muscle contractions and afferent nerve fibers that transmit somatosensory information back to the central nervous system.
Brain–body networks
Interactions between brain regions have been studied using functional connectivity analysis. Resting state fMRI has shown that brain activity in different brain areas are coupled and form brain networks that can be studied using graph theory. Brain–body interactions can be studied using a similar approach by estimating functional connectivity between brain activity and peripheral electrophysiology, for example between brain activity and ECG, EGG or EMG activity. Synchrony between slow pulse fluctuations (related to sympathetic activity) and brain fMRI signal has revealed a network of sensory brain regions that appear to be relevant for characterizing hu |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genoscope | The French National Sequencing Center (Genoscope) was created in 1996 in Évry, France. It has been involved in the sequencing of the human genome.
Details
The Genoscope is a member of the CEA, and employs around 130 people. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project%20Xanadu | Project Xanadu ( ) was the first hypertext project, founded in 1960 by Ted Nelson. Administrators of Project Xanadu have declared it superior to the World Wide Web, with the mission statement: "Today's popular software simulates paper. The World Wide Web (another imitation of paper) trivialises our original hypertext model with one-way ever-breaking links and no management of version or contents."
Wired magazine published an article entitled "The Curse of Xanadu", calling Project Xanadu "the longest-running vaporware story in the history of the computer industry". The first attempt at implementation began in 1960, but it was not until 1998 that an incomplete implementation was released. A version described as "a working deliverable", OpenXanadu, was made available in 2014.
History
Nelson's vision was for a "digital repository scheme for world-wide electronic publishing". Nelson states that the idea began in 1960, when he was a student at Harvard University. He proposed a machine-language program which would store and display documents, together with the ability to perform edits. This was different from a word processor (which was not invented yet) in that the functionality would have included visual comparisons of different versions of the document, a concept Nelson would later call "intercomparison".
On top of this basic idea, Nelson wanted to facilitate nonsequential writing, in which the reader could choose their own path through an electronic document. He built upon this idea in a paper to the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) in 1965, calling the new idea "zippered lists". These zippered lists would allow compound documents to be formed from pieces of other documents, a concept named transclusion. In 1967, while working for Harcourt, Brace, he named his project Xanadu, in honour of the poem "Kubla Khan" by Samuel Taylor Coleridge.
Nelson's talk at the ACM predicted many of the features of today's hypertext systems, but at the time, his ideas had li |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large%20set%20%28Ramsey%20theory%29 | In Ramsey theory, a set S of natural numbers is considered to be a large set if and only if Van der Waerden's theorem can be generalized to assert the existence of arithmetic progressions with common difference in S. That is, S is large if and only if every finite partition of the natural numbers has a cell containing arbitrarily long arithmetic progressions having common differences in S.
Examples
The natural numbers are large. This is precisely the assertion of Van der Waerden's theorem.
The even numbers are large.
Properties
Necessary conditions for largeness include:
If S is large, for any natural number n, S must contain at least one multiple (equivalently, infinitely many multiples) of n.
If is large, it is not the case that sk≥3sk-1 for k≥ 2.
Two sufficient conditions are:
If S contains n-cubes for arbitrarily large n, then S is large.
If where is a polynomial with and positive leading coefficient, then is large.
The first sufficient condition implies that if S is a thick set, then S is large.
Other facts about large sets include:
If S is large and F is finite, then S – F is large.
is large.
If S is large, is also large.
If is large, then for any , is large.
2-large and k-large sets
A set is k-large, for a natural number k > 0, when it meets the conditions for largeness when the restatement of van der Waerden's theorem is concerned only with k-colorings. Every set is either large or k-large for some maximal k. This follows from two important, albeit trivially true, facts:
k-largeness implies (k-1)-largeness for k>1
k-largeness for all k implies largeness.
It is unknown whether there are 2-large sets that are not also large sets. Brown, Graham, and Landman (1999) conjecture that no such sets exists.
See also
Partition of a set
Further reading
External links
Mathworld: van der Waerden's Theorem
Basic concepts in set theory
Ramsey theory
Theorems in discrete mathematics |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apicomplexan%20life%20cycle | Apicomplexans, a group of intracellular parasites, have life cycle stages that allow them to survive the wide variety of environments they are exposed to during their complex life cycle. Each stage in the life cycle of an apicomplexan organism is typified by a cellular variety with a distinct morphology and biochemistry.
Not all apicomplexa develop all the following cellular varieties and division methods. This presentation is intended as an outline of a hypothetical generalised apicomplexan organism.
Methods of asexual replication
Apicomplexans (sporozoans) replicate via ways of multiple fission (also known as schizogony). These ways include , and , although the latter is sometimes referred to as schizogony, despite its general meaning.
Merogony is an asexually reproductive process of apicomplexa. After infecting a host cell, a trophozoite (see glossary below) increases in size while repeatedly replicating its nucleus and other organelles. During this process, the organism is known as a or . Cytokinesis next subdivides the multinucleated schizont into numerous identical daughter cells called merozoites (see glossary below), which are released into the blood when the host cell ruptures. Organisms whose life cycles rely on this process include Theileria, Babesia, Plasmodium, and Toxoplasma gondii.
Sporogony is a type of sexual and asexual reproduction. It involves karyogamy, the formation of a zygote, which is followed by meiosis and multiple fission. This results in the production of sporozoites.
Other forms of replication include and .
Endodyogeny is a process of asexual reproduction, favoured by parasites such as Toxoplasma gondii. It involves an unusual process in which two daughter cells are produced inside a mother cell, which is then consumed by the offspring prior to their separation.
Endopolygeny is the division into several organisms at once by internal budding.
Glossary of cell types
Infectious stages
A (ancient Greek , seed + , animal) is th |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawking%E2%80%93Page%20phase%20transition | In quantum gravity, the Hawking–Page phase transition is phase transition between AdS black holes with radiation and thermal AdS.
Hawking and Page () showed that although AdS black holes can be in stable thermal equilibrium with radiation, they are not the preferred state below a certain critical temperature . At this temperature, there will be a first order phase transition where below , thermal AdS will become the dominant contribution to the partition function. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Park%20flyer | Park flyers are a class of small, primarily electric powered radio-controlled aircraft. The smallest class of park flyers are called micro planes and can be used in an enclosed area such as a gymnasium or a living room, while larger park flyers are used at park flyer sites. Models with low flying speed are more susceptible to wind and turbulence. Park flyers weigh no more than 2 pounds (0.91 kg), allowing park flyers to have a speed limit of less than half of the current wind speed.
Park flyers are a cost-effective and convenient way for beginners to get involved in the hobby of RC flight. Even after serious crash damage, the aircraft's components are still repairable. They may be flown in residential areas because of their modest size and silent operation. Clubs exist to assist newcomers and offer details on suitable takeoff spots.
Types of park flyers
Ready-to-fly (RTF) park flyers require no construction or installation. Users may need to perform basic assembling to fly the aircraft. Almost ready to fly (ARF) park flyers require construction and installation of different parts by the users.
Advanced electronic and material technologies have aided in the development of high-performance, park flyer sized “3D-flyers”, or fully aerobatic aircraft capable of extreme high g maneuvers and nose-up hovering.
A park flyer named the SQUIRT has been entitled as “America's park flyer” due to its high travelling distance of over 26,000 miles (41,842.94 km) within the United States of America and being flown by over 700 different pilots. This was known as the Wings Across America 2008 adventure.
Safety
Certain park flyers (especially small delta-wings) can fly at a dangerous speed, which might cause injuries to passers-by. A standard precaution is keeping an appropriate distance from the public. The Academy of Model Aeronautics recommends a minimum safe distance of at least 50 feet (15.24 m) from any spectators other than the pilot.
See also
RC Aircraft Kit Manufactur |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jo-Han | Jo-Han was a manufacturer of plastic scale promotional model cars and kits originally based in Detroit. The company was founded in 1947 by tool and die maker John Hanley a year before West Gallogly's competing company AMT was formed and about the same time as PMC. After changing ownership a few times, Jo-Han models were sporadically manufactured by Okey Spaulding in Covington, Kentucky, but apparently none have been offered for several years.
History
Originally called Ideal Models, Hanley's first products were mid-1950s model aircraft and other promotional items. Some of the early projects included scale model kitchen sets and a training model of Chrysler's fluid drive transmission. This awarded Hanley a contract to produce models for Chrysler.
During the 1950s, the U.S. automakers were commissioning models of their cars from suppliers that included AMT and Jo-Han. Automobile sales people realized that, as one slogan of the time put it, "the little ones sell the big ones". The promise of a free toy car for the kids would entice families into showrooms to view the latest car designs and take them for test drives.
Contracts with General Motors soon followed, and Jo-Han produced Pontiac models for the 1955 model year. Over time, Jo-Han became known more for Chrysler models, though Oldsmobile, Cadillac, Studebaker (often Larks), and American Motors were also well represented making Jo-Han a strong competitor to AMT and later to MPC. Oldsmobile and Cadillac models appeared through the 1960s and 1970s, including the 1962 Oldsmobile compact Cutlass F-85. Their last promotional model made was the 1979 Cadillac Coupe de Ville.
Eventually the company name was changed to Jo-Han Models because of the already existing Ideal Toy Company. The new name reflected the first two letters of the founder's first name and the first three letters of his last name. Similar to how AMT simultaneously used the SMP brand name, Jo-Han's 1955 Pontiac Star Chief two door and four door sedan p |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental%20Association%20of%20African%20Neurosurgical%20Societies | The Continental Association of African Neurosurgical Societies (CAANS) is the continental, non-governmental, learned society representing the neurosurgeons of African region. It is one of the 5 Continental Associations (AANS, AASNS, CAANS, EANS and FLANC) of the World Federation of Neurosurgical Societies (WFNS). |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosome%20scaffold | In biology, the chromosome scaffold is the backbone that supports the structure of the chromosomes. It is composed of a group of non-histone proteins that are essential in the structure and maintenance of eukaryotic chromosomes throughout the cell cycle. These scaffold proteins are responsible for the condensation of chromatin during mitosis.
Origin
In the late 1970s, Ulrich K. Laemmli and colleagues discovered a backbone structure in eukaryotic chromosomes after they depleted the histone proteins. This backbone was localized along the chromosome axis, and was termed the ‘chromosome scaffold’.
Proteins of the scaffold
In eukaryotic organisms, the DNA of each cell is organized into separated chromosomes, which are composed of chromatin, a mixture of DNA and many different groups of proteins. Among them, the structural proteins (that are not histones) bind the chromatin fiber around themselves forming a long, continuous axis or backbone that gives the chromosomes their shape. For this reason they are known as the ‘scaffold’ of chromosomes.
Three protein groups have been identified as the main components of the scaffold: DNA topoisomerase IIα, condensins, and the KIF4A kinesin. When these proteins are removed, the chromosome shape does not appear and the chromatin fibers spread out.
Topoisomerase IIα
The enzyme DNA topoisomerase IIα prominently appears along the chromosome axis as part of the scaffold. In mitosis, it is concentrated at the centromeres and the axis along the chromosome arms. It is thought that the protein has a role in untangling the DNA as the loops become more concentrated along the axis during the condensation of the chromosomes. The removal of this protein causes a dramatic loss of the chromosome structure in mitosis, and the cell cycle comes to a stop.
SMC family proteins
Condensin complexes, formed from the union of SMC2 and SMC4 (among other proteins), are responsible for the condensation of chromosomes. Condensin I regulates the timing o |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary%20educational%20psychology | Evolutionary educational psychology is the study of the relation between inherent folk knowledge and abilities and accompanying inferential and attributional biases as these influence academic learning in evolutionarily novel cultural contexts, such as schools and the industrial workplace. The fundamental premises and principles of this discipline are presented below.
Premises
The premises of evolutionary educational psychology state there are:
(a) aspects of mind and brain that have evolved to draw the individuals’ attention to and facilitate the processing of social (folk psychology), biological (folk biology), physical (folk physics) information patterns that facilitated survival or reproductive outcomes during human evolution (Cosmides & Tooby, 1994; Geary, 2005; Gelman, 1990; Pinker, 1997; Shepard, 1994; Simon, 1956);
(b) although plastic to some degree, these primary abilities are inherently constrained to the extent associated information patterns tended to be consistent across generations and within lifetimes (e.g., Caramazza & Shelton, 1998; Geary & Huffman, 2002);
(c) other aspects of mind and brain evolved to enable the mental generation of potential future social, ecological, or climatic conditions and enable rehearsal of behaviors to cope with variation in these conditions, and are now known as general fluid intelligence, or gF (including skill at everyday reasoning/problem solving; Chiappe & MacDonald, 2005; Geary, 2005; Mithen, 1996); and
(d) children are inherently motivated to learn in folk domains, with the associated attentional and behavioral biases resulting in experiences that automatically and implicitly flesh out and adapt these systems to local conditions (Gelman, 1990; Gelman & Williams, 1998; Gelman, 2003).
Principles
The principles of evolutionary educational psychology represent the foundational assumptions for an evolutionary educational psychology. The gist is knowledge and expertise that is useful in the cultural milieu or ecolo |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garcinia%20cowa | Garcinia cowa, commonly known as cowa fruit or cowa mangosteen is an evergreen plant with edible fruit native to Asia, India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Malaysia, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, and southwest China. The tree is harvested from the wild for its edible fruits and leaves, which are used locally. Flowers are yellow, male & female flowers are separated.
It is locally known as Kau Thekera (কাও থেকেৰা) in Assamese, Kowa in Bengali and Malayalam, Kau in Manipuri.
Uses
Culinary
The fruit can be eaten raw and has an acidic flavor. It is used in curries as a tamarind-like flavoring, as well as being used for making pickles. It can be made into slices and sun-dried as a way to preserve it. Its leaves can also be cooked and eaten.
Folk medicine
In Thailand Garcinia cowa has been used in the local folk medicine, the bark as an antipyretic and antimicrobial, the latex as an antipuretic, and the fruits and leaves to improve blood circulation, as an expectorant for coughs and indigestion, and a laxative. The roots are believed to relieve fevers, and in East India, sun-dried slices of the fruit have been used as a treatment for dysentery.
Anti-malarial
Studies have found that the bark contains five xanthones with anti-malarial properties in vitro against Plasmodium falciparum.
Dyes and resins
The bark is also used to produce a yellow dye for clothes. The gum resin is used in varnishes.
See also
Mangosteen
Garcinia pedunculata
Garcinia xanthochymus
Garcinia lanceifolia
Garcinia morella
Garcinia assamica
Garcinia dulcis |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teres%20major%20muscle | The teres major muscle is a muscle of the upper limb. It attaches to the scapula and the humerus and is one of the seven scapulohumeral muscles. It is a thick but somewhat flattened muscle.
The teres major muscle (from Latin teres, meaning "rounded") is positioned above the latissimus dorsi muscle and assists in the extension and medial rotation of the humerus. This muscle is commonly confused as a rotator cuff muscle, but it is not because it does not attach to the capsule of the shoulder joint, unlike the teres minor muscle for example.
Structure
The teres major muscle originates on the dorsal surface of the inferior angle and the lower part of the lateral border of the scapula.
The fibers of teres major insert into the medial lip of the intertubercular sulcus of the humerus.
Relations
The tendon, at its insertion, lies behind that of the latissimus dorsi, from which it is separated by a bursa, the two tendons being, however, united along their lower borders for a short distance. The fibers of these two muscles run parallel to each other, and both muscles insert at the crest of the lesser tubercle of the humerus (also described as the medial lip of the intertubercular sulcus).
Together with teres minor muscle, teres major muscle forms the axillary space, through which several important arteries and veins pass.
Innervation
Teres major is supplied primarily by the lower subscapular nerve and additionally by the thoracodorsal nerve (middle subscapular nerve). These are distal to the upper subscapular nerve. These three nerves branch off the posterior cord of the brachial plexus. The nerves that innervate teres major consist of fibers from spinal nerves C5-C8.
Function
The teres major is a medial rotator and adductor of the humerus and assists the latissimus dorsi in drawing the previously raised humerus downwards and backwards (extension, but not hyperextension). It also helps stabilise the humeral head in the glenoid cavity.
Injury
Isolated teres major inj |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthoretrovirinae | Orthoretrovirinae is a subfamily of viruses belonging to Retroviridae, a family of enveloped viruses that replicate in a host cell through the process of reverse transcription. The subfamily currently includes six genera, of which Lentivirus contains the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). These viruses cause a variety of tumors, malignancies and immune deficiency disease in humans, other mammals and birds. A few, like Simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), apparently cause no disease in their natural hosts. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed%20Denial%20of%20Secrets | Distributed Denial of Secrets, abbreviated DDoSecrets, is a non-profit whistleblower site for news leaks founded in 2018. Sometimes referred to as a successor to WikiLeaks, it came to international attention for its June 2020 publication of a large collection of internal police documents, known as BlueLeaks. The group has also published data on Russian oligarchs, fascist groups, shell companies, tax havens and banking in the Cayman Islands, as well as data scraped from Parler in January 2021 and from the February 2021 Gab leak. The group is also known for publishing emails from military officials, City Hall in Chicago and the Washington D.C. Metropolitan Police Department. , the site hosts dozens of terabytes of data from over 200 organizations.
The site is a frequent source for other news outlets. The site's leaks have resulted in or contributed to multiple government investigations, including the second impeachment of President Donald J. Trump. During the Russo-Ukrainian War, they were considered one of the best public repositories of all the Russian files leaked since the invasion began.
History
Distributed Denial of Secrets was founded by Emma Best, an American national security reporter known for filing prolific freedom of information requests, and another member of the group known as The Architect. According to Best, The Architect, who they already knew, approached them and expressed their desire to see a new platform for leaked and hacked materials, along with other relevant datasets. The Architect provided the initial technical expertise for the project. At its public launch in December 2018, the site held more than 1 terabyte of data from many of the highest-profile leaks. The site originally considered making all of the data public, but after feedback made some of it available only to journalists and researchers.
Best has served as a public face of the group, which lists its members. In February 2019, they told Columbia Journalism Review there were few |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shade%20tree | A shade tree is a large tree whose primary role is to provide shade in the surrounding environment due to its spreading canopy and crown, where it may give shelter from sunlight in the heat of the summer for people who seek recreational needs in urban parks and house yards, and thus, also protecting them from the sun's harmful UV rays and sunburns. Therefore, some shade trees may be grown specifically for the comfort of the population due to their convenient shelter.
Furthermore, shade trees are also effective in reducing the energy used in cooling homes.
Popular shade trees
Some of the most popular shade trees in temperate countries are oaks, plane trees, willows, birches, beeches, maples, ashes, lindens, and elms. In subtropical countries like Australia and India, figs are popular choices as shade trees. In tropical countries, trees such as some Erythrina and African tulip tree species are often planted as shade trees.
Species
These trees are commonly grown, and/or used, as shade trees due to their protuberant size:
American ash
American elm
American sycamore
Austrian oak
Brush box
Banyan tree
Black walnut
Blue Jacaranda
Camphor laurel
Cape Chestnut
Carob tree
Chinese elm
Coastal Coral Tree
European beech
Honey locust
Golden Ash
Golden rain tree
Holm oak
Hopea odorata
Hill's weeping fig
Indian horse-chestnut
Japanese elm
London plane
Moreton bay fig
Norway maple
Oriental plane
Palestine oak
Pepper tree
Port Jackson Fig
Red maple
Royal poinciana
Rough-barked apple
Scarlet oak
Scholar tree
Silver linden
Shumard oak
Small-leaved fig
Southern live oak
Swamp Spanish oak
Sweet gum
Sycamore fig
Sycamore maple
Sydney red gum
Tulipwood
White feather honeymyrtle
Yellow box
Planting
There are a few factors to consider when choosing a shade tree: deciduousness, coverage, longevity, and the ability of the roots to damage foundations. Shade trees can enhance the privacy of a garden, patio, or back yard, by obstructing the view of outsiders. A disadvantage is that in co |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculus%20of%20voting | Calculus of voting refers to any mathematical model which predicts voting behaviour by an electorate, including such features as participation rate. A calculus of voting represents a hypothesized decision-making process.
These models are used in political science in an attempt to capture the relative importance of various factors influencing an elector to vote (or not vote) in a particular way.
Example
One such model was proposed by Anthony Downs (1957) and is adapted by William H. Riker and Peter Ordeshook, in “A Theory of the Calculus of Voting” (Riker and Ordeshook 1968)
V = pB − C + D
where
V = the proxy for the probability that the voter will turn out
p = probability of vote “mattering”
B = “utility” benefit of voting--differential benefit of one candidate winning over the other
C = costs of voting (time/effort spent)
D = citizen duty, goodwill feeling, psychological and civic benefit of voting (this term is not included in Downs's original model)
A political science model based on rational choice used to explain why citizens do or do not vote.
The alternative equation is
V = pB + D > C
Where for voting to occur the (P)robability the vote will matter "times" the (B)enefit of one candidate winning over another combined with the feeling of civic (D)uty, must be greater than the (C)ost of voting |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy%20education | Astronomy education or astronomy education research (AER) refers both to the methods currently used to teach the science of astronomy and to an area of pedagogical research that seeks to improve those methods. Specifically, AER includes systematic techniques honed in science and physics education to understand what and how students learn about astronomy and determine how teachers can create more effective learning environments.
Education is important to astronomy as it impacts both the recruitment of future astronomers and the appreciation of astronomy by citizens and politicians who support astronomical research. Astronomy has been taught throughout much of recorded human history, and has practical application in timekeeping and navigation. Teaching astronomy contributes to an understanding of physics and the origin of the world around us, a shared cultural background, and a sense of wonder and exploration. It includes education of the general public through planetariums, books, and instructive presentations, plus programs and tools for amateur astronomy, and University-level degree programs for professional astronomers. Astronomy organizations provide educational functions and societies in about 100 nation states around the world.
In schools, particularly at the collegiate level, astronomy is aligned with physics and the two are often combined to form a Department of Physics and Astronomy. Some parts of astronomy education overlap with physics education, however, astronomy education has its own arenas, practitioners, journals, and research. This can be demonstrated in the identified 20-year lag between the emergence of AER and physics education research. The body of research in this field are available through electronic sources such as the Searchable Annotated Bibliography of Education Research (SABER) and the American Astronomical Society's database of the contents of their journal "Astronomy Education Review" (see link below).
The National Aeronautics and |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projective%20module | In mathematics, particularly in algebra, the class of projective modules enlarges the class of free modules (that is, modules with basis vectors) over a ring, by keeping some of the main properties of free modules. Various equivalent characterizations of these modules appear below.
Every free module is a projective module, but the converse fails to hold over some rings, such as Dedekind rings that are not principal ideal domains. However, every projective module is a free module if the ring is a principal ideal domain such as the integers, or a polynomial ring (this is the Quillen–Suslin theorem).
Projective modules were first introduced in 1956 in the influential book Homological Algebra by Henri Cartan and Samuel Eilenberg.
Definitions
Lifting property
The usual category theoretical definition is in terms of the property of lifting that carries over from free to projective modules: a module P is projective if and only if for every surjective module homomorphism and every module homomorphism , there exists a module homomorphism such that . (We don't require the lifting homomorphism h to be unique; this is not a universal property.)
The advantage of this definition of "projective" is that it can be carried out in categories more general than module categories: we don't need a notion of "free object". It can also be dualized, leading to injective modules. The lifting property may also be rephrased as every morphism from to factors through every epimorphism to . Thus, by definition, projective modules are precisely the projective objects in the category of R-modules.
Split-exact sequences
A module P is projective if and only if every short exact sequence of modules of the form
is a split exact sequence. That is, for every surjective module homomorphism there exists a section map, that is, a module homomorphism such that f h = idP . In that case, is a direct summand of B, h is an isomorphism from P to , and is a projection on the summand |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph%20Oesterl%C3%A9 | Joseph Oesterlé (born 1954) is a French mathematician who, along with David Masser, formulated the abc conjecture which has been called "the most important unsolved problem in diophantine analysis".
He is a member of Bourbaki. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell%20Studio | Dell's Studio brand is a range of laptops and desktops targeted in the mainstream consumer market. The computers sit above Dell's Inspiron and below the XPS consumer lines in terms of price and specifications. They differ from Dell's lower-end Inspiron models by offering slot-loading optical drives, media keys, more cover design options, faster processor options, HDMI and eSATA ports, LED-backlit screens and backlit keyboards.
At launch, the Studio was offered in three models: the Studio 15 and the Studio 17, named after their respective screen size in inches, and the Studio Hybrid, named for its usage of laptop components in the form of an ultra-small form factor desktop. If purchased online, many customizable colors, designs, and features were available, including a fingerprint scanner in some countries.
On July 29, 2008, Dell introduced the desktop counterpart to the Dell Studio Laptops, the Dell Studio Hybrid PC. A compact desktop legacy-free PC using laptop components, it contained the same slot-loading optical drive as the laptops with the range of connectivity (e.g., number of USB ports) expected of a desktop PC.
On September 24, 2009, Dell released Studio laptops with the option for a mobile Core i7 processor, although Pentium Dual-Core and Core 2 Duo options were also available as lower-end options.
On June 18, 2010, Dell's website stopped selling the Studio Hybrid.
As of May 2011, Dell has discontinued the Studio line of notebooks.
Laptops
Studio 14
A 14" laptop.
Studio 1450: Uses Intel Pentium and Core 2 Duo processors, DDR3 memory and standard Intel GMA X4500MHD integrated graphics.
Studio 1457: Uses Intel Core i7 quad-core processors, DDR3 memory and standard ATI Mobility Radeon HD 4530 graphics.
Studio 1458: Uses Intel Core i3/i5/i7 quad-core and dual-core processors, DDR3 memory and standard Intel HD Graphics or ATI Mobility Radeon HD 4530 or 5450.
Studio 14z
A thin-and-light 14" laptop. Lacks an optical drive.
Intel Pentium T4200 (2.0 GHz/8 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-linked%20cone-rod%20dystrophy%2C%20type%201 | X-linked cone-rod dystrophy, type 1 is a rare progressive genetic disorder of the vision which is characterized by progressive myopia, photophobia, abnormal color perception, lowered photopic electroretinigraphic response, and macular retinal pigment epithelium granularity. The severity of the symptoms is variable. Peripheral vision is unaffected in most of the cases. It is one of the three types of X-linked cone-rod dystrophy.
This condition is linked to mutations (c.2383G > T, p.E795X) in the RPGR gene, located in the Xp11.4 region of the X chromosome, and it is inherited in an X-linked dominant manner with full penetrance, because of this, it mostly affects males.
Prevalence is unknown, although usual cone-rod dystrophy has a prevalence of around 1-9 out of 40,000-100,000 live births. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bootstrap%20aggregating | Bootstrap aggregating, also called bagging (from bootstrap aggregating), is a machine learning ensemble meta-algorithm designed to improve the stability and accuracy of machine learning algorithms used in statistical classification and regression. It also reduces variance and helps to avoid overfitting. Although it is usually applied to decision tree methods, it can be used with any type of method. Bagging is a special case of the model averaging approach.
Description of the technique
Given a standard training set of size n, bagging generates m new training sets , each of size n′, by sampling from D uniformly and with replacement. By sampling with replacement, some observations may be repeated in each . If n′=n, then for large n the set is expected to have the fraction (1 - 1/e) (≈63.2%) of the unique examples of D, the rest being duplicates. This kind of sample is known as a bootstrap sample. Sampling with replacement ensures each bootstrap is independent from its peers, as it does not depend on previous chosen samples when sampling. Then, m models are fitted using the above m bootstrap samples and combined by averaging the output (for regression) or voting (for classification).
Bagging leads to "improvements for unstable procedures", which include, for example, artificial neural networks, classification and regression trees, and subset selection in linear regression. Bagging was shown to improve preimage learning. On the other hand, it can mildly degrade the performance of stable methods such as K-nearest neighbors.
Process of the algorithm
Key Terms
There are three types of datasets in bootstrap aggregating. These are the original, bootstrap, and out-of-bag datasets. Each section below will explain how each dataset is made except for the original dataset. The original dataset is whatever information is given.
Creating the bootstrap dataset
The bootstrap dataset is made by randomly picking objects from the original dataset. Also, it must be the same si |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20films%20about%20nuclear%20issues | This is a list of films about nuclear issues:
Documentary films
Ashes to Honey
The Atom Strikes!
The Atomic Cafe
Atomic Ed and the Black Hole
Atomic Power
The Bomb (2015)
Chernobyl Heart
Command and Control
Countdown to Zero
Dark Circle
The Day After Trinity
Deadly Deception: General Electric, Nuclear Weapons and Our Environment
Duck and Cover
Heavy Water: A Film for Chernobyl
First Strike
A Guide to Armageddon (Q.E.D. episode)
Hiroshima
If You Love This Planet
Into Eternity
Journey to the Safest Place on Earth
Last Best Chance
The Man Who Saved the World
The Mushroom Club
Nuclear Tipping Point
One World or None
Oppenheimer (film)
Our Friend the Atom
Pandora's Promise
Parmanu: The Story of Pokhran
Protect and Survive
Radio Bikini
Resan
The Return of Navajo Boy
Rokkasho Rhapsody
Silent Storm
Target Nevada
Trinity and Beyond: The Atomic Bomb Movie
Uranium – Twisting the Dragon's Tail
White Horse
White Light/Black Rain: The Destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster
War and Peace
The War Game (1966 BBC)
Dramatic films
A Boy and His Dog (1975) – the story of a boy and his talking dog in a post-apocalyptic world.
Amazing Grace and Chuck (1987) – a 12-year-old boy becomes anxious after seeing a Minuteman missile on a school field trip. He protests the existence of nuclear weapons by refusing to play baseball.
The Atomic Cafe (1982) – collection of the 1940s and 1950s United States government-issued propaganda films designed to reassure Americans that the atomic bomb was not a threat to their safety
The Atomic Kid (1954) – a man is in a house within the danger area of a nuclear bomb test area when the bomb is activated.
Atomic Twister (ABC, made-for-TV) – a film about a modern automated power plant in the path of a tornado which threatens the plant
Barefoot Gen – an anime film based on a manga series which depicts the terror of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima during World War II f |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissimilatory%20nitrate%20reduction%20to%20ammonium | Dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium (DNRA), also known as nitrate/nitrite ammonification, is the result of anaerobic respiration by chemoorganoheterotrophic microbes using nitrate (NO3−) as an electron acceptor for respiration. In anaerobic conditions microbes which undertake DNRA oxidise organic matter and use nitrate (rather than oxygen) as an electron acceptor, reducing it to nitrite, then ammonium (NO3−→NO2−→NH4+).
Dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium is more common in prokaryotes but may also occur in eukaryotic microorganisms. DNRA is a component of the terrestrial and oceanic nitrogen cycle. Unlike denitrification, it acts to conserve bioavailable nitrogen in the system, producing soluble ammonium rather than unreactive dinitrogen gas.
Background and process
Cellular process
Dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium is a two step process, reducing NO3− to NO2− then NO2− to NH4+, though the reaction may begin with NO2− directly. Each step is mediated by a different enzyme, the first step of dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium is usually mediated by a periplasmic nitrate reductase. The second step (respiratory NO2− reduction to NH4+) is mediated by cytochrome c nitrite reductase, occurring at the periplasmic membrane surface. Despite DNRA not producing N2O as an intermediate during nitrate reduction (as denitrification does) N2O may still be released as a byproduct, thus DNRA may also act as a sink of fixed, bioavailable nitrogen. DNRA's production of N2O may be enhanced at higher pH levels.
Denitrification
Dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium is similar to the process of denitrification, though NO2− is reduced farther to NH4+ rather than to N2, transferring eight electrons. Both denitrifiers and nitrate ammonifiers are competing for NO3− in the environment. Despite the redox potential of dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium being lower than denitrification and producing less Gibbs free energy, energy yield of denitr |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal%20regeneration | In telecommunications, signal regeneration is signal processing that restores a signal, recovering its original characteristics.
The signal may be electrical, as in a repeater on a T-carrier line, or optical, as in an OEO optical cross-connect.
The process is used when it is necessary to change the signal type in order to transmit it via different media. Once it comes back to the original medium the signal is usually required to be regenerated so as to bring it back to its original state.
See also
Fiber-optic communication#Regeneration |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MACS%20J0416.1-2403 | MACS J0416.1-2403 is a cluster of galaxies at a redshift of z=0.397 with a mass 160 trillion times the mass of the Sun inside . Its mass extends out to a radius of and was measured as 1.15 × 1015 solar masses. The system was discovered in images taken by the Hubble Space Telescope during the Massive Cluster Survey, MACS. This cluster causes gravitational lensing of distant galaxies producing multiple images. Based on the distribution of the multiple image copies, scientists have been able to deduce and map the distribution of dark matter. The images, released in 2014, were used in the Cluster Lensing And Supernova survey with Hubble (CLASH) to help scientists peer back in time at the early Universe and to discover the distribution of dark matter.
Gallery |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20flags%20with%20reverses%20that%20differ%20from%20the%20obverse | This article contains a list of flags for which the reverse (back ) is different from the obverse (front ).
It includes current as well as historic flags of both nations and national subdivisions such as provinces, states, territories, cities and other administrations (including a few that are not recognized by the United Nations or whose sovereignty is in dispute). When the flag is that of a nation, the Subdivision column is blank ( — ).
The list below does not include flags for which the reverse side is congruent (identical ) nor is it a mirror image of the obverse side (horizontally flipped ). Flag sides are usually mirror copy to satisfy manufacturing constraints. Identical flags are much less common and contain an element for which a simple mirror image would be problematic, such as text (e.g. The Flag of Saudi Arabia includes the shahada, an Islamic creed; The Flag of Iraq includes the Takbir) or a geographic feature (e.g. The Flag of the United Nations included an Azimuthal equidistant projection of the earth). Flags having a truly different designs on both their sides (two-sided ) differ from the norm. The only UN-recognized nation whose present-day flag officially contains a unique image on each side is Paraguay.
Not all impression of two-sided flags are de facto two-sided because of practical manufacturing constraints or, judging from how often it was disregarded in practice, some formal concern of heraldic nature.
As such it may very well be prescribed legally from the very beginning and ever ignored in practice by institutions of every type.
Many of those flags are reconstructions based on various degree of evidence.
Flags by nation
See also
Glossary of vexillology
Vexillology
Citations
reverse |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscillatory%20integral | In mathematical analysis an oscillatory integral is a type of distribution. Oscillatory integrals make rigorous many arguments that, on a naive level, appear to use divergent integrals. It is possible to represent approximate solution operators for many differential equations as oscillatory integrals.
Definition
An oscillatory integral is written formally as
where and are functions defined on with the following properties:
The function is real-valued, positive-homogeneous of degree 1, and infinitely differentiable away from . Also, we assume that does not have any critical points on the support of . Such a function, is usually called a phase function. In some contexts more general functions are considered and still referred to as phase functions.
The function belongs to one of the symbol classes for some . Intuitively, these symbol classes generalize the notion of positively homogeneous functions of degree . As with the phase function , in some cases the function is taken to be in more general, or just different, classes.
When , the formal integral defining converges for all , and there is no need for any further discussion of the definition of . However, when , the oscillatory integral is still defined as a distribution on , even though the integral may not converge. In this case the distribution is defined by using the fact that may be approximated by functions that have exponential decay in . One possible way to do this is by setting
where the limit is taken in the sense of tempered distributions. Using integration by parts, it is possible to show that this limit is well defined, and that there exists a differential operator such that the resulting distribution acting on any in the Schwartz space is given by
where this integral converges absolutely. The operator is not uniquely defined, but can be chosen in such a way that depends only on the phase function , the order of the symbol , and . In fact, given any integer , it is pos |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frink%20Medal | The Frink Medal for British Zoologists is awarded by the Zoological Society of London "For significant and original contributions by a professional zoologist to the development of zoology." It consists of a bronze plaque (76 by 83 millimetres), depicting a bison and carved by British sculptor Elisabeth Frink. The Frink Medal was instituted in 1973 and first presented in 1974.
Recipients
Source ZSL
See also
List of biology awards |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lanczos%20tensor | The Lanczos tensor or Lanczos potential is a rank 3 tensor in general relativity that generates the Weyl tensor. It was first introduced by Cornelius Lanczos in 1949. The theoretical importance of the Lanczos tensor is that it serves as the gauge field for the gravitational field in the same way that, by analogy, the electromagnetic four-potential generates the electromagnetic field.
Definition
The Lanczos tensor can be defined in a few different ways. The most common modern definition is through the Weyl–Lanczos equations, which demonstrate the generation of the Weyl tensor from the Lanczos tensor. These equations, presented below, were given by Takeno in 1964. The way that Lanczos introduced the tensor originally was as a Lagrange multiplier on constraint terms studied in the variational approach to general relativity. Under any definition, the Lanczos tensor H exhibits the following symmetries:
The Lanczos tensor always exists in four dimensions but does not generalize to higher dimensions. This highlights the specialness of four dimensions. Note further that the full Riemann tensor cannot in general be derived from derivatives of the Lanczos potential alone. The Einstein field equations must provide the Ricci tensor to complete the components of the Ricci decomposition.
The Curtright field has a gauge-transformation dynamics similar to that of Lanczos tensor. But Curtright field exists in arbitrary dimensions > 4D.
Weyl–Lanczos equations
The Weyl–Lanczos equations express the Weyl tensor entirely as derivatives of the Lanczos tensor:
where is the Weyl tensor, the semicolon denotes the covariant derivative, and the subscripted parentheses indicate symmetrization. Although the above equations can be used to define the Lanczos tensor, they also show that it is not unique but rather has gauge freedom under an affine group. If is an arbitrary vector field, then the Weyl–Lanczos equations are invariant under the gauge transformation
where the subsc |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HBV%20hydrology%20model | The HBV hydrology model, or Hydrologiska Byråns Vattenbalansavdelning model, is a computer simulation used to analyze river discharge and water pollution. Developed originally for use in Scandinavia, this hydrological transport model has also been applied in a large number of catchments on most continents.
Discharge modelling
This is the major application of HBV, and has gone through much refinement. It comprises the following routines:
Snow routine
Soil moisture routine
Response function
Routing routine
The HBV model is a lumped (or semi-distributed) bucket-type (or also called 'conceptual') catchment model that has relatively few model parameters and minimal forcing input requirements, usually the daily temperature and the daily precipitation.
First the snow is calculated after defining a threshold melting temperature (TT usually 0 °C) and a parameter CMELT that reflects the equivalent melted snow for the difference of temperature. The result is divided into a liquid part that is the surface runoff and a second part that infiltrates.
Second the soil moisture is calculated after defining an initial value and the field capacity (FC).
Third calculation of the actual Evapotranspiration (ETPa), first by using an external model (ex: Penman) for finding the potential ETP and then fitting the result to the temperatures and the permanent wilting point(PWP) of the catchment in question. A parameter C which reflects the increase in the ETP with the differences in temperatures ( Actual Temperature and Monthly mean Temperature).
The model considers the catchment as two reservoirs (S1 and S2) connected by a percolation flow, the inflow to the first reservoir is calculated as the surface runoff, which is what remains from the initial precipitations after calculating the infiltration and the evapotranspiration.
The outflow from the first reservoir is divided into two separate flows (Q1 and Q2) where Q1 represents the fast flow which is triggered after a certain threshold L |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred%20Enneper | Alfred Enneper (June 14, 1830, Barmen – March 24, 1885 Hanover) was a German mathematician. Enneper earned his PhD from the Georg-August-Universität Göttingen in 1856, under the supervision of Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet, for his dissertation about functions with complex arguments. After his habilitation in 1859 in Göttingen, he was from 1870 on Professor (Extraordinarius) at Göttingen.
He studied minimal surfaces and parametrized Enneper's minimal surfaces in 1864. A contemporary of Karl Weierstrass, the two created a whole class of parameterizations, the Enneper–Weierstrass parameterization. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explanatory%20gap | In the philosophy of mind and consciousness, the explanatory gap is the difficulty that physicalist philosophies have in explaining how physical properties give rise to the way things feel subjectively when they are experienced. It is a term introduced by philosopher Joseph Levine. In the 1983 paper in which he first used the term, he used as an example the sentence, "Pain is the firing of C fibers", pointing out that while it might be valid in a physiological sense, it does not help us to understand how pain feels.
The explanatory gap has vexed and intrigued philosophers and AI researchers alike for decades and caused considerable debate. Bridging this gap (that is, finding a satisfying mechanistic explanation for experience and qualia) is known as "the hard problem".
An example of a phenomenon in which there is no gap is a modern computer's behavior, which can be adequately explained by its physical components alone, such as its circuitry and software. In contrast, it is thought by many mind-body dualists (e.g. René Descartes, David Chalmers) that subjective conscious experience constitutes a separate effect that demands another cause that is either outside the physical world (dualism) or due to an as yet unknown physical phenomenon (see for instance quantum mind, indirect realism).
Proponents of dualism claim that the mind is substantially and qualitatively different from the brain and that the existence of something metaphysically extra-physical is required to "fill the gap". Similarly, some argue that there are further facts—facts that do not follow logically from the physical facts of the world—about conscious experience. For example, they argue that what it is like to experience seeing red does not follow logically from the physical facts of the world.
Implications
The nature of the explanatory gap is disputed. Some consider it to be simply a limit on our current explanatory ability. They argue that future findings in neuroscience or future work from phi |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common%20Programming%20Interface%20for%20Communications | Common Programming Interface for Communications (CPI-C) is an application programming interface (API) developed by IBM in 1987 to provide a platform-independent communications interface for the IBM Systems Application Architecture-based network, and to standardise programming access to SNA LU 6.2.
CPI-C was part of IBM Systems Application Architecture (SAA), an attempt to standardise APIs across all IBM platforms.
It was adopted in 1992 by X/Open as an open systems standard, identified as standard C210, and documented in X/Open Developers Specification: CPI-C.
See also
IBM Advanced Program-to-Program Communication |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphous%20solid | In condensed matter physics and materials science, an amorphous solid (or non-crystalline solid) is a solid that lacks the long-range order that is characteristic of a crystal. The terms "glass" and "glassy solid" are sometimes used synonymously with amorphous solid; however, these terms refer specifically to amorphous materials that undergo a glass transition. Examples of amorphous solids include glasses, metallic glasses, and certain types of plastics and polymers.
Etymology
The term comes from the Greek a ("without"), and morphé ("shape, form").
Structure
Amorphous materials have an internal structure consisting of interconnected structural blocks that can be similar to the basic structural units found in the corresponding crystalline phase of the same compound. Unlike in crystalline materials, however, no long-range order exists. Amorphous materials therefore cannot be defined by a finite unit cell. Statistical methods, such as the atomic density function and radial distribution function, are more useful in describing the structure of amorphous solids.
Although amorphous materials lack long range order, they exhibit localized order on small length scales. Localized order in amorphous materials can be categorized as short or medium range order. By convention, short range order extends only to the nearest neighbor shell, typically only 1-2 atomic spacings. Medium range order is then defined as the structural organization extending beyond the short range order, usually by 1-2 nm.
Fundamental properties of amorphous solids
Glass transition at high temperatures
The freezing from liquid state to amorphous solid - glass transition - is considered one of the very important and unsolved problems of physics.
Universal low-temperature properties of amorphous solids
At very low temperatures (below 1-10 K), large family of amorphous solids have various similar low-temperature properties.
Although there are various theoretical models, neither glass transition nor l |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clebsch%E2%80%93Gordan%20coefficients | In physics, the Clebsch–Gordan (CG) coefficients are numbers that arise in angular momentum coupling in quantum mechanics. They appear as the expansion coefficients of total angular momentum eigenstates in an uncoupled tensor product basis. In more mathematical terms, the CG coefficients are used in representation theory, particularly of compact Lie groups, to perform the explicit direct sum decomposition of the tensor product of two irreducible representations (i.e., a reducible representation into irreducible representations, in cases where the numbers and types of irreducible components are already known abstractly). The name derives from the German mathematicians Alfred Clebsch and Paul Gordan, who encountered an equivalent problem in invariant theory.
From a vector calculus perspective, the CG coefficients associated with the SO(3) group can be defined simply in terms of integrals of products of spherical harmonics and their complex conjugates. The addition of spins in quantum-mechanical terms can be read directly from this approach as spherical harmonics are eigenfunctions of total angular momentum and projection thereof onto an axis, and the integrals correspond to the Hilbert space inner product. From the formal definition of angular momentum, recursion relations for the Clebsch–Gordan coefficients can be found. There also exist complicated explicit formulas for their direct calculation.
The formulas below use Dirac's bra–ket notation and the Condon–Shortley phase convention is adopted.
Review of the angular momentum operators
Angular momentum operators are self-adjoint operators , , and that satisfy the commutation relations
where is the Levi-Civita symbol. Together the three operators define a vector operator, a rank one Cartesian tensor operator,
It is also known as a spherical vector, since it is also a spherical tensor operator. It is only for rank one that spherical tensor operators coincide with the Cartesian tensor operators.
By developing |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/32-bit%20computing | In computer architecture, 32-bit computing refers to computer systems with a processor, memory, and other major system components that operate on data in 32-bit units. Compared to smaller bit widths, 32-bit computers can perform large calculations more efficiently and process more data per clock cycle. Typical 32-bit personal computers also have a 32-bit address bus, permitting up to 4 GB of RAM to be accessed, far more than previous generations of system architecture allowed.
32-bit designs have been used since the earliest days of electronic computing, in experimental systems and then in large mainframe and minicomputer systems. The first hybrid 16/32-bit microprocessor, the Motorola 68000, was introduced in the late 1970s and used in systems such as the original Apple Macintosh. Fully 32-bit microprocessors such as the HP FOCUS, Motorola 68020 and Intel 80386 were launched in the early to mid 1980s and became dominant by the early 1990s. This generation of personal computers coincided with and enabled the first mass-adoption of the World Wide Web. While 32-bit architectures are still widely-used in specific applications, the PC and server market has moved on to 64 bits with x86-64 since the mid-2000s with installed memory often exceeding the 32-bit 4G RAM address limits on entry level computers. The latest generation of mobile phones have also switched to 64 bits.
Range for storing integers
A 32-bit register can store 232 different values. The range of integer values that can be stored in 32 bits depends on the integer representation used. With the two most common representations, the range is 0 through 4,294,967,295 (232 − 1) for representation as an (unsigned) binary number, and −2,147,483,648 (−231) through 2,147,483,647 (231 − 1) for representation as two's complement.
One important consequence is that a processor with 32-bit memory addresses can directly access at most 4 GiB of byte-addressable memory (though in practice the limit may be lower).
Technica |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium%20citrate | Sodium citrate may refer to any of the sodium salts of citric acid (though most commonly the third):
Monosodium citrate
Disodium citrate
Trisodium citrate
The three forms of salt are collectively known by the E number E331.
Applications
Food
Sodium citrates are used as acidity regulators in food and drinks, and also as emulsifiers for oils. They enable cheeses to melt without becoming greasy. It reduces the acidity of food as well.
Blood clotting inhibitor
Sodium citrate is used to prevent donated blood from clotting in storage. It is also used in a laboratory, before an operation, to determine whether a person's blood is too thick and might cause a blood clot, or if the blood is too thin to safely operate. Sodium citrate is used in medical contexts as an alkalinizing agent in place of sodium bicarbonate, to neutralize excess acid in the blood and urine.
Metabolic acidosis
It has applications for the treatment of metabolic acidosis and chronic kidney disease.
Ferrous nanoparticles
Along with oleic acid sodium citrate may be used in the synthesis of magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticle coatings. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RushTera | RushTera is software as a service, that provides accelerated upload/download, storage, sharing and management of large media files.
RushTera was first demonstrated in April 2012 at the NAB Show.
The product is marketed by the New York company Attend LLC, which was founded in 2008.
In 2012, RushTera was deployed on CloudSigma
, but has since been redeployed on private infrastructure provided by Unitas Global.
Attend's content ingest network, uses geographically distributed virtual machines
to eliminate latency and provide fast uploads and downloads of huge files.
RushTera became generally available in November 2012.
Since then RushTera has been used by Focus Features during post production on several major motion pictures including Academy Award winner Dallas Buyers Club, as well as Kill The Messenger, The World's End, Black Sea, and Admission.
Promax/BDA used RushTera as the submissions platform for its Hot Spots Showcase in both 2013 and 2014. Company CEO Chuck Stormon was interviewed in January 2013.
Attend LLC / RushTera was selected as an alternate finalist (13th of 6,932 applicants) in 43North, the largest business idea competition in the world. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O/OREOS | The O/OREOS (Organism/Organic Exposure to Orbital Stresses) is a NASA automated CubeSat nanosatellite laboratory approximately the size of a loaf of bread that contains two separate astrobiology experiments on board. Developed by the Small Spacecraft Division at NASA Ames Research Center, the spacecraft was successfully launched as a secondary payload on STP-S26 led by the Space Test Program of the United States Air Force on a Minotaur IV launch vehicle from Kodiak Island, Alaska on 20 November 2010, at 01:25:00 UTC.
Mission overview
The O/OREOS satellite is NASA's first CubeSat to demonstrate the capability to have two distinct, completely independent science experiments on an autonomous satellite. One experiment will test how microorganisms survive and adapt to the stresses of space; the other will monitor the stability of organic molecules in space.
The overall goal of the O/OREOS mission is to demonstrate the capability to do low-cost science experiments on autonomous nanosatellites in space in support of the 'Astrobiology Small Payloads' program under the Planetary Science Division of the Science Mission Directorate at NASA's Headquarters. NASA's Ames Small Spacecraft Division manages the O/OREOS mission while all operations will be conducted by staff and students from the Robotic Systems Laboratory at Santa Clara University. Scientists will apply the knowledge they gain while investigating the space environment and studying how exposure to space changes organisms to help to answer astrobiology's fundamental questions on the origin, evolution, and distribution of life.
The technology developed in this mission enables a new generation of light-weight, low-cost payloads suitable for future secondary payload opportunities —"piggyback rides"— to the Moon, Mars, and beyond, where they can address evolutionary questions, identify human exploration risks, and study planetary protection concerns.
Spacecraft overview
Continuing Ames' development of triple-cube nan |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open%20Mobile%20Terminal%20Platform | The Open Mobile Terminal Platform (OMTP) was a forum created by mobile network operators to discuss standards with manufacturers of mobile phones and other mobile devices. During its lifetime, the OMTP included manufacturers such as Huawei, LG Electronics, Motorola, Nokia, Samsung and Sony Ericsson.
Membership
OMTP was originally set up by leading mobile operators. At the time it transitioned into the Wholesale Applications Community at the end of June 2010, there were nine full members: AT&T, Deutsche Telekom AG, KT, Orange, Smart Communications, Telecom Italia, Telefónica, Telenor and Vodafone. OMTP also had the support of two sponsors, Ericsson and Nokia.
Activities
OMTP recommendations have hugely helped to standardise mobile operator terminal requirements, and its work has gone towards helping to defragment and deoptionalise operators' recommendations. OMTP's focus was on gathering and driving mobile terminal requirements, and publishing their findings in their Recommendations. OMTP was technology neutral, with its recommendations intended for deployment across the range of technology platforms, operating systems (OS) and middleware layers.
OMTP is perhaps best known for its work in the field of mobile security, but its work encompassed the full range of mobile device capabilities. OMTP published recommendations in 2007 and early 2008 on areas such as Positioning Enablers, Advanced Device Management, IMS and Mobile VoIP. Later, the Advanced Trusted Environment: OMTP TR1 and its supporting document, 'Security Threats on Embedded Consumer Devices' were released, with the endorsement of the UK Home Secretary, Jacqui Smith.
OMTP also published requirements document addressing support for advanced SIM cards. This document defines also advanced profiles for Smart Card Web Server, High Speed Protocol, Mobile TV and Contactless.
OMTP has also made significant progress in getting support for the use of micro-USB as a standard connector for data and power. A full |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonocar | Phonocar is an Italian Company, founded in Reggio Emilia, Italy, in 1972. Phonocar started with the production of wooden car-radio consoles and gradually specialized in car hi-fi speakers, amplifiers, audio-video equipment, security systems and related accessories. Phonocar products are distributed under her trademarks Phonocar, Sec, Mlife and Galileo.
History
At the time Phonocar started with the production of car hi-fi products, the idea of having good in-car quality music had not yet grown popular in Italy. As time went by, Phonocar’s initial accessories enterprise started extending over new fields, i.e. the design and production of car speakers and amplifiers which were bound to become part of the Italian and even European milestones of technological innovations.
In 1972, Phonocar manufactured the first wooden car-radio console, complete with speaker and accessories.
In 1976, Phonocar created her first car hi-fi Speakers; in 1978, her first car amplifier, the well-known Power Box.
In 1981, Phonocar introduced a radical change in the car hi-fi concept, by creating the wooden rear panels allowing for the installation of large speakers for the car rear.
In 1983, Phonocar came with a series of micro-tweeter of reduced installation dimensions.
In 1989, it was the turn of a special Amplifier with an integrated ventilation fan providing for constant temperature conditions. Two years later, Phonocar created two completely new products, i.e. an active electronic crossover and an 8-channel amplifier with electronic crossover, both with setting possibility from the driver’s seat.
The Phonocar-exclusive fixation system, for newly developed tweeters, fitting uneven installation surfaces and offering the orientation possibility towards the listeners, date back to 2001.
In 2004, Phonocar introduced its speaker series PRO-TECH equipped with a new glass-fibre HCF-membrane (High-Compression-Fibre) ensuring low distortion and vast Band-pass figures.
In |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2-amino-4-hydroxy-6-hydroxymethyldihydropteridine%20diphosphokinase | In enzymology, a 2-amino-4-hydroxy-6-hydroxymethyldihydropteridine diphosphokinase () is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction
ATP + 2-amino-4-hydroxy-6-hydroxymethyl-7,8-dihydropteridine AMP + (2-amino-4-hydroxy-7,8-dihydropteridin-6-yl)methyl diphosphate
Thus, the two substrates of this enzyme are ATP and 2-amino-4-hydroxy-6-hydroxymethyl-7,8-dihydropteridine, whereas its two products are AMP and (2-amino-4-hydroxy-7,8-dihydropteridin-6-yl)methyl diphosphate.
This enzyme belongs to the family of transferases, specifically those transferring two phosphorus-containing groups (diphosphotransferases). The systematic name of this enzyme class is ATP:2-amino-4-hydroxy-6-hydroxymethyl-7,8-dihydropteridine 6'-diphosphotransferase. Other names in common use include 2-amino-4-hydroxy-6-hydroxymethyldihydropteridine pyrophosphokinase, H2-pteridine-CH2OH pyrophosphokinase, 7,8-dihydroxymethylpterin-pyrophosphokinase, HPPK, 7,8-dihydro-6-hydroxymethylpterin pyrophosphokinase, and hydroxymethyldihydropteridine pyrophosphokinase. This enzyme participates in folate biosynthesis.
This enzyme catalyses the first step in a three-step pathway leading to 7,8 dihydrofolate. Bacterial HPPK (gene folK or sulD) is a protein of 160 to 270 amino acids. In the lower eukaryote Pneumocystis carinii, HPPK is the central domain of a multifunctional folate synthesis enzyme (gene fas).
Structural studies
As of late 2007, 23 structures have been solved for this class of enzymes, with PDB accession codes , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , and . |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow%20focusing | Flow focusing in fluid dynamics is a technology whose aim is the production of drops or bubbles by straightforward hydrodynamic means. The output is a dispersed liquid or gas, frequently in the form of a fine aerosol or an emulsion. No other driving force is required, apart from traditional pumping, a key difference with other comparable technologies, such as electrospray (where an electric field is needed). Both flow focusing and electrospray working in their most extensively used regime produce high quality sprays composed by homogeneous and well-controlled-size droplets. Flow focusing was invented by Prof. Alfonso M. Gañan-Calvo (who now teaches at ETSI in Seville) in 1994, patented in 1996, and published for the first time in 1998.
Mechanism
The basic principle consists of a continuous phase fluid (focusing or sheath fluid) flanking or surrounding the dispersed phase (focused or core fluid), so as to give rise to droplet or bubble break-off in the vicinity of an orifice through which both fluids are extruded. The principle may be extended to two or more coaxial fluids; gases and liquids may be combined; and, depending on the geometry of the feed tube and orifices, the flow pattern may be cylindrical or planar. Both cylindrical and planar flow focusing have led to a variety of developments (see also the works of Peter Walzal).
A flow focusing device consists of a pressure chamber pressurized with a continuous focusing fluid supply. Inside, one or more focused fluids are injected through a capillary feed tube whose extremity opens up in front of a small orifice, linking the pressure chamber with the exterior ambient. The focusing fluid stream moulds the fluid meniscus into a cusp giving rise to a steady micro or nano-jet exiting the chamber through the orifice; the jet size is much smaller than the exit orifice, thus precluding any contact (which may lead to unwanted deposition or reaction). Capillary instability breaks up the steady jet into homogeneous droplet |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadband%20viscoelastic%20spectroscopy | Broadband viscoelastic spectroscopy (BVS) is a technique for studying viscoelastic solids in both bending and torsion. It provides the ability to measure viscoelastic behavior over eleven decades (orders of magnitude) of time and frequency: from 10−6 to 105 Hz. BVS is typically either used to investigate viscoelastic properties isothermally over a large frequency range or as a function of temperature at a single frequency. It is capable of measuring mechanical properties directly over these frequency and temperature ranges; as such, it does not require time-temperature superposition or the assumption that material properties obey an Arrhenius-type temperature dependence. As a result, it can be used for heterogeneous and anisotropic specimens for which these assumptions do not apply. BVS is often used for the determination of attenuation coefficients, dynamic moduli, and especially damping ratios.
BVS was developed primarily to overcome shortcomings in the functional ranges of other viscoelastic characterization techniques. For example, resonant ultrasound spectroscopy (RUS), another popular technique for studying viscoelastic solids, experiences difficulty in determining a material's parameters below its resonant frequency. Furthermore, BVS is less sensitive to sample preparation than RUS.
History
BVS was first developed by C. P. Chen and R. S. Lakes in 1989 in order to address the shortcomings of existing laboratory techniques for studying viscoelastic materials. It was later refined by M. Brodt et al. to improve the rigidity and resolution of the apparatus, which were sources of error in the original design. First used to study poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), it has since seen applications in determining the properties of bone, capacitor dielectrics, high damping metals, and other such viscoelastic materials.
Design
The BVS apparatus consists of a specimen surrounded by Helmholtz coils and isolated from external vibrations by a framework constructed from in |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared%20sensing%20in%20snakes | The ability to sense infrared thermal radiation evolved independently in two different groups of snakes, one consisting of the families Boidae (boas) and Pythonidae (pythons), the other of the family Crotalinae (pit vipers). What is commonly called a pit organ allows these animals to essentially "see" radiant heat at wavelengths between 5 and 30 μm. The more advanced infrared sense of pit vipers allows these animals to strike prey accurately even in the absence of light, and detect warm objects from several meters away. It was previously thought that the organs evolved primarily as prey detectors, but recent evidence suggests that it may also be used in thermoregulation and predator detection, making it a more general-purpose sensory organ than was supposed.
Phylogeny and evolution
The facial pit underwent parallel evolution in pitvipers and some boas and pythons. It evolved once in pitvipers and multiple times in boas and pythons. The electrophysiology of the structure is similar between the two lineages, but they differ in gross structural anatomy. Most superficially, pitvipers possess one large pit organ on either side of the head, between the eye and the nostril (loreal pits), while boas and pythons have three or more comparatively smaller pits lining the upper and sometimes the lower lip, in or between the scales (labial pits). Those of the pitvipers are the more advanced, having a suspended sensory membrane as opposed to a simple pit structure.
Anatomy
In pit vipers, the heat pit consists of a deep pocket in the rostrum with a membrane stretched across it. Behind the membrane, an air-filled chamber provides air contact on either side of the membrane. The pit membrane is highly vascular and heavily innervated with numerous heat-sensitive receptors formed from terminal masses of the trigeminal nerve (terminal nerve masses, or TNMs). The receptors are therefore not discrete cells, but a part of the trigeminal nerve itself. The labial pit found in boas and pytho |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragon%27s%20head%20and%20wind%20chime | The dragon's head and wind chime is an elaborate type of gilt bronze Korean wind chime and Korean dragon sculpture of later Silla / early Goryeo art, probably serving as a roof end tile figure on a Korean Buddhist temple or Korean palace. There are two similar near-complete examples, at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, and at Leeum, Samsung Museum of Art in Seoul, which is designated National Treasure No. 781.
Belonging to the 10th century AD, this work would originally have been attached to a corner rafter of a royal palace building or a Buddhist temple hall. The artifact, made of guilt bronze consists of two major parts: the lower wind chime and upper rafter finial with the shape of a dragon head. The dragon head contains various intricate designs and its eyes, closed mouth, horns, ears and elaborate scales convey the fierceness of the mythical creature. A hook in the upper part of the chime might have used to hang the chime in the rafter, as loops can be seen in the chin of the dragon head. The lower part of the wind chime contains decorative panels of a circular platform with lotus motifs in either side. A swastika symbol can be observed in the middle of the platform. This is considered as an ancient symbol related with Buddha. As the dragon is considered as a symbol of protection and fierceness in Asian tradition, it is speculated that this chime would have attached as a roof end tile figure to a royal palace or a Buddhist temple hall. Dragon finials are significant in Korean art. The dragon face resembles that at Godal Temple, which is dated to 975.
Introduction
Korean peninsula has a long history of art. The Korean pottery shows advanced techniques and elaborate jewelry has been found buried in ancient Korean tombs. From 7th to 17th century AD, metal crafting was developed and fine metal works can be observed. Also Korean porcelain and painting was developed with its distinctive style. This Rafter finial in the shape of a dragon's head and |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20attachment%20theory | Attachment theory, originating in the work of John Bowlby, is a psychological, evolutionary and ethological theory that provides a descriptive and explanatory framework for understanding interpersonal relationships between human beings.
In order to formulate a comprehensive theory of the nature of early attachments, Bowlby explored a range of fields including evolution by natural selection, object relations theory (psychoanalysis), control systems theory, evolutionary biology and the fields of ethology and cognitive psychology. There were some preliminary papers from 1958 onwards but the full theory is published in the trilogy Attachment and Loss, 1969- 82. Although in the early days Bowlby was criticised by academic psychologists and ostracised by the psychoanalytic community, attachment theory has become the dominant approach to understanding early social development and given rise to a great surge of empirical research into the formation of children's close relationships.
Brief description of theory
In infants, behavior associated with attachment is primarily a process of proximity seeking to an identified attachment figure in situations of perceived distress or alarm, for the purpose of survival. Infants become attached to adults who are sensitive and responsive in social interactions with the infant, and who remain as consistent caregivers for some months during the period from about six months to two years of age. During the later part of this period, children begin to use attachment figures (familiar people) as a secure base to explore from and return to. Parental responses lead to the development of patterns of attachment which in turn lead to 'internal working models' which will guide the individual's feelings, thoughts, and expectations in later relationships. Separation anxiety or grief following serious loss are normal and natural responses in an attached infant.
The human infant is considered by attachment theorists to have a need for a secure relati |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlas%20of%20Genetics%20and%20Cytogenetics%20in%20Oncology%20and%20Haematology | The Atlas of Genetics and Cytogenetics in Oncology and Haematology, created in 1997 by Jean-Loup Huret (with bioinformatics by Philippe Dessen) is a collection of resources on genes, chromosomes anomalies, leukemias, solid tumours, and cancer-prone diseases. The project is accessible through Internet and is made of encyclopedic-style files, as well as traditional overviews, links towards websites and databases devoted to cancer and/or genetics, case reports in haematology. It also encompasses teaching items in various languages.
Starting first from cytogenetics in the nineteens, the Atlas now combines different types of knowledge in a single web site: genes and their function, cell biology (ex: Apoptosis), pathological data, diseases and their clinical implications, cytogenetics, but also medical genetics, with hereditary disorders associated with an increased risk of cancer. This gives a wider and more global view of cancer genetics, while these data are usually dispersed. It includes a large iconography of about 35,000 images. Dan van Dyke said "This is one stop shopping that unifies cancer genetics information", and Lidia Larizza said that the Atlas was an "interdisciplinary resource". Felix Mitelman said "This systematic collection of cytogenetic and genetic aberrations (…) the molecular outcome (…) and the clinical consequences (….) has grown into a truly monumental encyclopedic work of great importance"; Janet Rowley said: "In the future I will undoubtedly rely on your Website rather than trying to keep up with the literature myself"
The Atlas is part of the genome project and participates in research on cancer epidemiology. The Atlas is accessed by: 1- researchers in cytogenetics, molecular biology, cell biology; 2- clinicians, haematologists, cytogeneticists, pathologists, from the university hospitals, indeed, but also from general hospitals where the Atlas is one of the rare free resources. Junior doctors in haematology or oncology, are also most recepti |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myotacovirus | Myotacovirus is a subgenus of viruses in the genus Alphacoronavirus, consisting of a single species, Myotis ricketti alphacoronavirus Sax-2011. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mir-601%20microRNA%20precursor%20family | In molecular biology mir-601 microRNA is a short RNA molecule. MicroRNAs function to regulate the expression levels of other genes by several mechanisms.
Molecular pathway regulation
miR-601 has been found to affect a number of different cell signalling pathways, more specifically bringing about downregulation of Fas-induced apoptosis and NF-kappa B signalling. There is additionally upregulation of the actin cytoskeleton and increased negative regulation of translational initiation by miR-601. The importance of NF-kappa B in tumour cell proliferation and enhanced survival means that miR-601 mimics may hold a lot of promise for prevention or treatment of carcinogenesis.
miR-602 has further been linked to the development and progression of gastric cancer, with levels significantly upregulated compared with normal gastric tissue.
See also
MicroRNA |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharyngeal%20apparatus | The pharyngeal apparatus is an embryological structure.
It consists of:
pharyngeal grooves (from ectoderm)
pharyngeal arches (from mesoderm)
pharyngeal pouches (from endoderm)
and related membranes. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientists%20for%20Global%20Responsibility | Scientists for Global Responsibility (SGR) in the United Kingdom promotes the ethical practice and use of science, design and technology. SGR is affiliated to the International Network of Engineers and Scientists for Global Responsibility (INES). It is an independent UK-based membership organisation of hundreds of natural scientists, social scientists, engineers, IT professionals and architects. In 2017 its partner organization ICAN (International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons) won the Nobel Peace Prize. ICAN have promoted a Kurzgesagt YouTube video endorsed by the International Committee of the Red Cross and Crescent (ICRC) showing the consequences of a single atomic weapon exploded over a city.
SGR's work is focused on four main issues: security and disarmament; climate change and energy, including nuclear power; who controls science and technology?; emerging technologies. The main areas of concern are arms and arms control, including military involvement in UK universities; effect of excessive greenhouse gas emissions on climate; the nature of war and reducing barbarity; topsoil and water shortages resulting from modern agricultural methods; depletion of species of fish due to over-fishing; continual spread of nuclear weapons, and reduction of occurrence of serious nuclear accidents.
In 2019 SGR launched the journal Responsible Science. SGR evaluates the risk of new science and new technological solutions to older science-based problems and threats, while recognizing the enormous contribution science, design and technology has made to civilisation and human well-being.
SGR promotes science, design and technology that contribute to peace, social justice and environmental sustainability.
See also
Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament
Scientists against Nuclear Arms, a forerunner of SGR |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lou%20van%20den%20Dries | Laurentius Petrus Dignus "Lou" van den Dries (born May 26, 1951) is a Dutch mathematician working in model theory. He is a professor emeritus of mathematics at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign.
Education
Van den Dries began his undergraduate studies in 1969 at Utrecht University, and in 1978 completed his PhD there under the supervision of Dirk van Dalen with a dissertation entitled Model Theory of Fields.
Career and research
Van den Dries was a member of the Institute for Advanced Study in the 1982–1983 academic year. He joined the faculty of the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign in 1986 and became a professor in its Center for Advanced Study in 1998. In 2021, van den Dries retired and became a professor emeritus.
Van den Dries is most known for his seminal work in o-minimality, but he has also made contributions to the model theory of -adic fields, valued fields, and finite fields, and to the study of transseries. With Alex Wilkie, he improved Gromov's theorem on groups of polynomial growth using nonstandard methods.
Van den Dries was an invited speaker at the International Congress of Mathematicians in 1990 and 2018, and delivered the Tarski Lectures at the University of California, Berkeley in 2017.
Awards and honours
Van den Dries has been a corresponding member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences since 1993. He was awarded the Shoenfield Prize from the Association for Symbolic Logic in 2016 for his chapter "Lectures on the Model Theory of Valued Fields" in Model Theory in Algebra, Analysis and Arithmetic, edited by Dugald Macpherson and Carlo Toffalori. Van den Dries was jointly awarded the 2018 Karp Prize with Matthias Aschenbrenner and Joris van der Hoeven "for their work in model theory, especially on asymptotic differential algebra and the model theory of transseries".
Ethics training
Since 2004, employees of the state of Illinois, including University of Illinois faculty, are required by the State Officials an |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conditional%20mutual%20information | In probability theory, particularly information theory, the conditional mutual information is, in its most basic form, the expected value of the mutual information of two random variables given the value of a third.
Definition
For random variables , , and with support sets , and , we define the conditional mutual information as
This may be written in terms of the expectation operator: .
Thus is the expected (with respect to ) Kullback–Leibler divergence from the conditional joint distribution to the product of the conditional marginals and . Compare with the definition of mutual information.
In terms of PMFs for discrete distributions
For discrete random variables , , and with support sets , and , the conditional mutual information is as follows
where the marginal, joint, and/or conditional probability mass functions are denoted by with the appropriate subscript. This can be simplified as
In terms of PDFs for continuous distributions
For (absolutely) continuous random variables , , and with support sets , and , the conditional mutual information is as follows
where the marginal, joint, and/or conditional probability density functions are denoted by with the appropriate subscript. This can be simplified as
Some identities
Alternatively, we may write in terms of joint and conditional entropies as
This can be rewritten to show its relationship to mutual information
usually rearranged as the chain rule for mutual information
or
Another equivalent form of the above is
Another equivalent form of the conditional mutual information is
Like mutual information, conditional mutual information can be expressed as a Kullback–Leibler divergence:
Or as an expected value of simpler Kullback–Leibler divergences:
,
.
More general definition
A more general definition of conditional mutual information, applicable to random variables with continuous or other arbitrary distributions, will depend on the concept of regular conditional probability.
Let be a pr |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FLiNaK | FLiNaK is the name of the ternary eutectic alkaline metal fluoride salt mixture LiF-NaF-KF (46.5-11.5-42 mol %). It has a melting point of 454 °C and a boiling point of 1570 °C. It is used as electrolyte for the electroplating of refractory metals and compounds like titanium, tantalum, hafnium, zirconium and their borides. FLiNaK also could see potential use as a coolant in the very high temperature reactor, a type of nuclear reactor.
Coolant
FLiNaK salt was researched heavily during the late 1950s by Oak Ridge National Laboratory as potential candidate for a coolant in the molten salt reactor because of its low melting point, its high heat capacity, and its chemical stability at high temperatures. Ultimately, its sister salt, FLiBe, was chosen as the solvent salt for the molten salt reactor due to a more desirable nuclear cross section. FLiNaK still gathers interest as an intermediate coolant for a high-temperature molten salt reactor where it could transfer heat without being in the presence of the fuel.
Chemistry
Fluoride salts, like all salts, cause corrosion in most metals and alloys. FliNak is different from FLiBe in the sense that is a basic melt—or it has an excess of fluorine ions. As FLiNak melts, all three components are alkali fluorides and therefore disassociate into positive and negative ions. The concentration of molten fluorine ions are able to corrode any metallic structures if it is energetically favorable. This is in contrast to FLiBe, which in a 66-34 mol% mixture will be a chemically neutral mix, as fluorine ions from LiF are donated to BeF2 to create the tetrafluoroberyllate ion BeF42−.
See also
Molten salt reactor
FLiBe
Fluoride volatility |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filling%20area%20conjecture | In differential geometry, Mikhail Gromov's filling area conjecture asserts that the hemisphere has minimum area among the orientable surfaces that fill a closed curve of given length without introducing shortcuts between its points.
Definitions and statement of the conjecture
Every smooth surface or curve in Euclidean space is a metric space, in which the (intrinsic) distance between two points of is defined as the infimum of the lengths of the curves that go from to along . For example, on a closed curve of length , for each point of the curve there is a unique other point of the curve (called the antipodal of ) at distance from .
A compact surface fills a closed curve if its border (also called boundary, denoted ) is the curve . The filling is said to be isometric if for any two points of the boundary curve , the distance between them along is the same (not less) than the distance along the boundary. In other words, to fill a curve isometrically is to fill it without introducing shortcuts.
Question: How small can be the area of a surface that isometrically fills its boundary curve, of given length?
For example, in three-dimensional Euclidean space, the circle
(of length 2) is filled by the flat disk
which is not an isometric filling, because any straight chord along it is a shortcut. In contrast, the hemisphere
is an isometric filling of the same circle , which has twice the area of the flat disk. Is this the minimum possible area?
The surface can be imagined as made of a flexible but non-stretchable material, that allows it to be moved around and bended in Euclidean space. None of these transformations modifies the area of the surface nor the length of the curves drawn on it, which are the magnitudes relevant to the problem. The surface can be removed from Euclidean space altogether, obtaining a Riemannian surface, which is an abstract smooth surface with a Riemannian metric that encodes the lengths and area. Reciprocally, according to t |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-focusing | Self-focusing is a non-linear optical process induced by the change in refractive index of materials exposed to intense electromagnetic radiation. A medium whose refractive index increases with the electric field intensity acts as a focusing lens for an electromagnetic wave characterized by an initial transverse intensity gradient, as in a laser beam. The peak intensity of the self-focused region keeps increasing as the wave travels through the medium, until defocusing effects or medium damage interrupt this process. Self-focusing of light was discovered by Gurgen Askaryan.
Self-focusing is often observed when radiation generated by femtosecond lasers propagates through many solids, liquids and gases. Depending on the type of material and on the intensity of the radiation, several mechanisms produce variations in the refractive index which result in self-focusing: the main cases are Kerr-induced self-focusing and plasma self-focusing.
Kerr-induced self-focusing
Kerr-induced self-focusing was first predicted in the 1960s and experimentally verified by studying the interaction of ruby lasers with glasses and liquids. Its origin lies in the optical Kerr effect, a non-linear process which arises in media exposed to intense electromagnetic radiation, and which produces a variation of the refractive index as described by the formula , where n0 and n2 are the linear and non-linear components of the refractive index, and I is the intensity of the radiation. Since n2 is positive in most materials, the refractive index becomes larger in the areas where the intensity is higher, usually at the centre of a beam, creating a focusing density profile which potentially leads to the collapse of a beam on itself. Self-focusing beams have been found to naturally evolve into a Townes profile regardless of their initial shape.
Self-focusing occurs if the radiation power is greater than the critical power
,
where λ is the radiation wavelength in vacuum and α is a constant which |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String-net%20liquid | In condensed matter physics, a string-net is an extended object whose collective behavior has been proposed as a physical mechanism for topological order by Michael A. Levin and Xiao-Gang Wen. A particular string-net model may involve only closed loops; or networks of oriented, labeled strings obeying branching rules given by some gauge group; or still more general networks.
Overview
The string-net model is claimed to show the derivation of photons, electrons, and U(1) gauge charge, small (relative to the Planck mass) but nonzero masses, and suggestions that the leptons, quarks, and gluons can be modeled in the same way. In other words, string-net condensation provides a unified origin for photons and electrons (or gauge bosons and fermions). It can be viewed as an origin of light and electron (or gauge interactions and Fermi statistics).
However, their model does not account for the chiral coupling between the fermions and the SU(2) gauge bosons in the standard model.
For strings labeled by the positive integers, string-nets are the spin networks studied in loop quantum gravity. This has led to the proposal by Levin and Wen, and Smolin, Markopoulou and Konopka that loop quantum gravity's spin networks can give rise to the standard model of particle physics through this mechanism, along with fermi statistics and gauge interactions. To date, a rigorous derivation from LQG's spin networks to Levin and Wen's spin lattice has yet to be done, but the project to do so is called quantum graphity, and in a more recent paper, Tomasz Konopka, Fotini Markopoulou, Simone Severini argued that there are some similarities to spin networks (but not necessarily an exact equivalence) that gives rise to U(1) gauge charge and electrons in the string net mechanism.
Herbertsmithite may be an example of string-net matter.
Examples
Z2 spin liquid
Z2 spin liquid obtained using slave-particle approach may be the first theoretical example of string-net liquid.
The toric code
The toric |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Residual%20%28numerical%20analysis%29 | Loosely speaking, a residual is the error in a result. To be precise, suppose we want to find x such that
Given an approximation x0 of x, the residual is
that is, "what is left of the right hand side" after subtracting f(x0)" (thus, the name "residual": what is left, the rest). On the other hand, the error is
If the exact value of x is not known, the residual can be computed, whereas the error cannot.
Residual of the approximation of a function
Similar terminology is used dealing with differential, integral and functional equations. For the approximation of the solution of the equation
the residual can either be the function
,
or can be said to be the maximum of the norm of this difference
over the domain , where the function is expected to approximate the solution ,
or some integral of a function of the difference, for example:
In many cases, the smallness of the residual means that the approximation is close to the solution, i.e.,
In these cases, the initial equation is considered as well-posed; and the residual can be considered as a measure of deviation of the approximation from the exact solution.
Use of residuals
When one does not know the exact solution, one may look for the approximation with small residual.
Residuals appear in many areas in mathematics, including iterative solvers such as the generalized minimal residual method, which seeks solutions to equations by systematically minimizing the residual. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montel%27s%20theorem | In complex analysis, an area of mathematics, Montel's theorem refers to one of two theorems about families of holomorphic functions. These are named after French mathematician Paul Montel, and give conditions under which a family of holomorphic functions is normal.
Locally uniformly bounded families are normal
The first, and simpler, version of the theorem states that a family of holomorphic functions defined on an open subset of the complex numbers is normal if and only if it is locally uniformly bounded.
This theorem has the following formally stronger corollary. Suppose that
is a family of
meromorphic functions on an open set . If is such that
is not normal at , and is a neighborhood of , then is dense
in the complex plane.
Functions omitting two values
The stronger version of Montel's Theorem (occasionally referred to as the Fundamental Normality Test) states that a family of holomorphic functions, all of which omit the same two values is normal.
Necessity
The conditions in the above theorems are sufficient, but not necessary for normality. Indeed,
the family is normal, but does not omit any complex value.
Proofs
The first version of Montel's theorem is a direct consequence of Marty's Theorem (which
states that a family is normal if and only if the spherical derivatives are locally bounded)
and Cauchy's integral formula.
This theorem has also been called the Stieltjes–Osgood theorem, after Thomas Joannes Stieltjes and William Fogg Osgood.
The Corollary stated above is deduced as follows. Suppose that all the functions in omit the same neighborhood of the point . By postcomposing with the map we obtain a uniformly bounded family, which is normal by the first version of the theorem.
The second version of Montel's theorem can be deduced from the first by using the fact that there exists a holomorphic universal covering from the unit disk to the twice punctured plane . (Such a covering is given by the elliptic modular function).
This version of |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical%20oddity | A medical oddity is an unusual predicament or event which takes place in a medical context. Some examples of medical oddities might include: "lost and found" surgical instruments (in the body), grotesquely oversized tumors, (human) male pregnancy, rare or "orphan" illnesses, rare allergies (such as to water), strange births (extra or missing organs), and bizarre syndromes (such as Capgras delusion).
Medical oddities can also include unusual discoveries in purchased food, such as finding a severed finger or thumb in a hamburger.
Medical oddities are also known as medical curiosities. While not strictly paranormal, they are classically Fortean.
See also
Cabinet of curiosities
Further reading
Books
Gould, George Milbry, Anomalies and Curiosities of Medicine, W. B. Saunders, ©1896, Philadelphia, LC Control Number: 07028696
Jones, Kenneth Lyons, Smith's Recognizable Patterns of Human Malformation, Saunders, ©1997, Philadelphia, LC Control Number: 96016722,
Periodicals
Fortean Times
Forteana |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanita%20pseudoporphyria | Amanita pseudoporphyria, also known as Hongo's false death cap, is a species of agaric fungus from the genus Amanita that grows solitarily or gregarious in coniferous forests. Originally described from Japan, it is now also known in Northern India, Thailand, and Nepal. It is quite a common species in southern China and is sold in free markets, along with the similar mushroom, Amanita manginiana. It differs only slightly by having more abundant inflated cells of its volva, and its ellipsoid to broad ellipsoid spores.
Toxicity
A. pseudoporphyria has been known to be poisonous.
Nephrotoxin poisoning in 66-year-old man
There has been a case of nephrotoxin poisoning, including delayed onset acute kidney failure associated with the ingestion of this mushroom in a 66-year-old man with diabetes. Effects occurred similar to that of the intoxication symptoms associated with the North American species Amanita smithiana and the Mediterranean Amanita proxima. Kidney biopsy of the patient showed acute tubular necrosis with glomerular minor abnormalities. Treatment included a three-week period of haemodialysis, after which the patient fully recovered from the acute kidney failure in two months.
Dried mushrooms bought online
Scientists conducted an analysis on several commercially produced processed food items containing mushrooms, including a bag of what was claimed to be dried "porcini mushrooms", which was bought online. After DNA analysis, it was confirmed the bag contained A. pseudoporphyria, as well as Tylopilus microsporus, Caloboletus yunnanensis and Retiboletus fuscus. Several customers have left reviews of this product, writing about their experience with the mushrooms. They have described the mushrooms as having "an extremely bitter flavor with a bad aftertaste", and some claimed that they were "poisoned" and had “never been so sick in my life”. One customer even said that “the package I rec’d included a mashed cigarette butt”. In July 2019, the scientists reached |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthecology | Anthecology, or pollination biology, is the study of pollination as well as the relationships between flowers and their pollinators. Floral biology is a bigger field that includes these studies. Most flowering plants, or angiosperms, are pollinated by animals, and especially by insects. The major flower-frequenting insect taxa include beetles, flies, wasps, bees, ants, thrips, butterflies, and moths. Insects carry out pollination when visiting flowers to obtain nectar or pollen, to prey on other species, or when pseudo-copulating with insect-mimicking flowers such as orchids. Pollination-related interactions between plants and insects are considered mutualistic, and the relationships between plants and their pollinators have likely led to increased diversity of both angiosperms and the animals that pollinate them.
Anthecology brings together many disciplines, such as botany, horticulture, entomology, and ecology.
History
Anthecology began as a descriptive science relying on observation, and more recently has come to rely upon quantitative and experimental studies.
By the 17th century, the sexual nature of plant reproduction was recognized following the work of Nehemiah Grew and the experiments of Rudolf Jakob Camerarius, who showed that pistillate plants need both male and female organs for reproduction. Tulips and maize were popular subjects of study during this time. In 1735, Carl Linnaeus developed a "sexual system" of the classification of seed plants. In the mid-to-late 18th century, Joseph Gottlieb Kölreuter demonstrated that pollen must be transferred from stamen to stigma for reproduction to occur, and also clarified the distinction between nectar and honey.
In the late 18th century, Christian Konrad Sprengel showed evidence that flowers attract insects and reward them with nectar. Following the emergence of the Darwinian theory of evolution in the late 19th century, scientists became keen to the selective advantage of cross-pollination. In an 1873 book |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q-derivative | In mathematics, in the area of combinatorics and quantum calculus, the q-derivative, or Jackson derivative, is a q-analog of the ordinary derivative, introduced by Frank Hilton Jackson. It is the inverse of Jackson's q-integration. For other forms of q-derivative, see .
Definition
The q-derivative of a function f(x) is defined as
It is also often written as . The q-derivative is also known as the Jackson derivative.
Formally, in terms of Lagrange's shift operator in logarithmic variables, it amounts to the operator
which goes to the plain derivative, as .
It is manifestly linear,
It has a product rule analogous to the ordinary derivative product rule, with two equivalent forms
Similarly, it satisfies a quotient rule,
There is also a rule similar to the chain rule for ordinary derivatives. Let . Then
The eigenfunction of the q-derivative is the q-exponential eq(x).
Relationship to ordinary derivatives
Q-differentiation resembles ordinary differentiation, with curious differences. For example, the q-derivative of the monomial is:
where is the q-bracket of n. Note that so the ordinary derivative is regained in this limit.
The n-th q-derivative of a function may be given as:
provided that the ordinary n-th derivative of f exists at x = 0. Here, is the q-Pochhammer symbol, and is the q-factorial. If is analytic we can apply the Taylor formula to the definition of to get
A q-analog of the Taylor expansion of a function about zero follows:
Higher order q-derivatives
The following representation for higher order -derivatives is known:
is the -binomial coefficient. By changing the order of summation as , we obtain the next formula:
Higher order -derivatives are used to -Taylor formula and the -Rodrigues' formula (the formula used to construct -orthogonal polynomials).
Generalizations
Post Quantum Calculus
Post quantum calculus is a generalization of the theory of quantum calculus, and it uses the following operator:
Hahn difference
Wolfgang Hahn i |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Webb%20%28naturalist%29 | William Webb (1834?–1897) was a collector and trader of plants and animals, active in the region around King George Sound in Southwest Australia.
Biography
William Webb was born sometime around 1834 in Staffordshire, England, and emigrated to Albany, Western Australia in 1862.
He is thought to have partnered with another collector of the region, George Maxwell, and advertised his series in local newspapers.
His activity in distributing specimens to scientific collection continued into the 1890s, continuing the business after Maxwell's death in 1880. He died in 1897.
Works
Amongst the specimens provided by Webb is the 1874 collection of Potorous platyops, the last of a small marsupial species named moda, a series of five animals forwarded and held at the Macleay Museum in Sydney.
The botanist Ferdinand von Mueller notes the purchase of algae from a Mr Webb, assumed to be this individual, as the trader but not collector of the series found at Israelite Bay. He is mentioned by J. C. Hassell as collecting in his company at Mount Manypeaks and the Torbay region west of Albany, at Nornalup, and elsewhere. Hassell gives a record of hearing the noisy scrub bird, Atrichornis clamosus, a rare and elusive species with a piercing and unmistakable call. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascicle%20%28botany%29 | In botany, a fascicle is a bundle of leaves or flowers growing crowded together; alternatively the term might refer to the vascular tissues that supply such an organ with nutrients. However, vascular tissues may occur in fascicles even when the organs they supply are not fascicled.
Etymology of fascicle and related terms
The term fascicle and its derived terms such as fasciculation are from the Latin fasciculus, the diminutive of fascis, a bundle. Accordingly, such words occur in many forms and contexts wherever they are convenient for descriptive purposes. A fascicle may be leaves or flowers on a short shoot where the nodes of a shoot are crowded without clear internodes, such as in species of Pinus or Rhigozum. However, bundled fibres, nerves or bristles as in tissues or the glochid fascicles of Opuntia may have little or nothing to do with branch morphology.
In pines
Leaf fascicles are present in all pines, and the number of adult leaves (needles) per fascicle is an important character for identification of pine species and genera. Most species have fascicles of 2 to 5 needles; only occasional species typically have as few as one or as many as six leaves to the fascicle.
Variation is high between species, low within them. For example, Pinus flexilis (limber pine), has fascicles of 5 needles. This pine is a member of the white pine group, Pinus subgenus Strobus, section Strobus. In all members of the group the fascicles nearly all have five needles and the sheath at the base of the fascicle is deciduous.
The fascicle sheath is another character that is important for identification. Among North American pines the sheath is persistent in all so-called hard pines and deciduous in all so-called soft pines. Thus, the fascicle sheath and number of needles can be used to identify valuable timber pines in all seasons and many years before they are mature enough to produce cones. These two characters readily distinguish the major groups of pines (see Pinus clas |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luminosity | Luminosity is an absolute measure of radiated electromagnetic power (light), the radiant power emitted by a light-emitting object over time. In astronomy, luminosity is the total amount of electromagnetic energy emitted per unit of time by a star, galaxy, or other astronomical objects.
In SI units, luminosity is measured in joules per second, or watts. In astronomy, values for luminosity are often given in the terms of the luminosity of the Sun, L⊙. Luminosity can also be given in terms of the astronomical magnitude system: the absolute bolometric magnitude (Mbol) of an object is a logarithmic measure of its total energy emission rate, while absolute magnitude is a logarithmic measure of the luminosity within some specific wavelength range or filter band.
In contrast, the term brightness in astronomy is generally used to refer to an object's apparent brightness: that is, how bright an object appears to an observer. Apparent brightness depends on both the luminosity of the object and the distance between the object and observer, and also on any absorption of light along the path from object to observer. Apparent magnitude is a logarithmic measure of apparent brightness. The distance determined by luminosity measures can be somewhat ambiguous, and is thus sometimes called the luminosity distance.
Measurement
When not qualified, the term "luminosity" means bolometric luminosity, which is measured either in the SI units, watts, or in terms of solar luminosities (). A bolometer is the instrument used to measure radiant energy over a wide band by absorption and measurement of heating. A star also radiates neutrinos, which carry off some energy (about 2% in the case of the Sun), contributing to the star's total luminosity. The IAU has defined a nominal solar luminosity of to promote publication of consistent and comparable values in units of the solar luminosity.
While bolometers do exist, they cannot be used to measure even the apparent brightness of a star becaus |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ROT13 | ROT13 ("rotate by 13 places", sometimes hyphenated ROT-13) is a simple letter substitution cipher that replaces a letter with the 13th letter after it in the latin alphabet. ROT13 is a special case of the Caesar cipher which was developed in ancient Rome.
Because there are 26 letters (2×13) in the basic Latin alphabet, ROT13 is its own inverse; that is, to undo ROT13, the same algorithm is applied, so the same action can be used for encoding and decoding. The algorithm provides virtually no cryptographic security, and is often cited as a canonical example of weak encryption.
ROT13 is used in online forums as a means of hiding spoilers, punchlines, puzzle solutions, and offensive materials from the casual glance. ROT13 has inspired a variety of letter and word games online, and is frequently mentioned in newsgroup conversations.
Description
Applying ROT13 to a piece of text merely requires examining its alphabetic characters and replacing each one by the letter 13 places further along in the alphabet, wrapping back to the beginning if necessary.
A becomes N, B becomes O, and so on up to M, which becomes Z, then the sequence continues at the beginning of the alphabet: N becomes A, O becomes B, and so on to Z, which becomes M. Only those letters which occur in the English alphabet are affected; numbers, symbols, punctuation, whitespace, and all other characters are left unchanged. Because there are 26 letters in the English alphabet and 26 = 2 × 13, the ROT13 function is its own inverse:
for any basic Latin-alphabet text x.
In other words, two successive applications of ROT13 restore the original text (in mathematics, this is sometimes called an involution; in cryptography, a reciprocal cipher).
The transformation can be done using a lookup table, such as the following:
For example, in the following joke, the punchline has been obscured by ROT13:
Why did the chicken cross the road?
Gb trg gb gur bgure fvqr!
Transforming the entire text via ROT13 form, the ans |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louise%20Hay%20%28mathematician%29 | Louise Hay (June 14, 1935 – October 28, 1989) was a French-born American mathematician. Her work focused on recursively enumerable sets and computational complexity theory, which was influential with both Soviet and US mathematicians in the 1970s. When she was appointed head of the mathematics department at the University of Illinois at Chicago, she was the only woman to head a math department at a major research university in her era.
Biography
Louise Schmir was born in Metz, Lorraine, France, on 14 June 1935 to Marjem (née Szafran) and Samuel Szmir. Her mother died in 1938. Of Polish-Jewish heritage, the family fled the Nazis, moving to Switzerland in 1944 and then moving again to New York City, in 1946, where they Anglicized their surname to Schmir. She attended William Howard Taft High School in the Bronx and won a Westinghouse Science Talent Search award during her senior year. Graduating as valedictorian of her high school, Schmir enrolled in Swarthmore College.
In 1955, at the end of her junior year, she married John Hay, and then completed her BA in mathematics in 1956. She began her master's studies at Cornell University, where her husband was studying and when he transferred to Oberlin College, she followed him there. Though she completed her work on mathematical logic at Oberlin, her master's degree was awarded by Cornell in 1959. Her master's thesis was entitled "An Axiomatization of the Infinitely Many-Valued Predicate Calculus." She taught for a year at Oberlin and then worked at the Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory in Buffalo, New York.
When her husband relocated to Boston, she followed him there and worked at Mount Holyoke College for three years. In 1963, after the birth of her first son, she returned to Cornell to work on her doctorate. Twin sons were born to the couple in 1964. She was awarded a PhD in 1965; her doctorate thesis was on co-simple isols and was an advance in the Dekker-Myhil-Nerode theory on recursive equivalence types. In 1966 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data%20preservation | Data preservation is the act of conserving and maintaining both the safety and integrity of data. Preservation is done through formal activities that are governed by policies, regulations and strategies directed towards protecting and prolonging the existence and authenticity of data and its metadata. Data can be described as the elements or units in which knowledge and information is created,
and metadata are the summarizing subsets of the elements of data; or the data about the data. The main goal of data preservation is to protect data from being lost or destroyed and to contribute to the reuse and progression of the data.
History
Most historical data collected over time has been lost or destroyed. War and natural disasters combined with the lack of materials and necessary practices to preserve and protect data has caused this. Usually, only the most important data sets were saved, such as government records and statistics, legal contracts and economic transactions. Scientific research and doctoral theses data have mostly been destroyed from improper storage and lack of data preservation awareness and execution. Over time, data preservation has evolved and has generated importance and awareness. We now have many different ways to preserve data and many different important organizations involved in doing so.
The first digital data preservation storage solutions appeared in the 1950s, which were usually flat or hierarchically structured. While there were still issues with these solutions, it made storing data much cheaper, and more easily accessible. In the 1970s relational databases as well as spreadsheets appeared. Relational data bases structure data into tables using structured query languages which made them more efficient than the preceding storage solutions, and spreadsheets hold high volumes of numeric data which can be applied to these relational databases to produce derivative data. More recently, non-relational (non-structured query language) databa |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Derbyshire | John Derbyshire (born 3 June 1945) is a British-born American white supremacist political commentator, writer, journalist and computer programmer. He was noted for being one of the last paleoconservatives in the National Review, until he was fired in 2012 for writing an article for Taki's Magazine that was widely viewed as racist. Since 2012 he has written for white nationalist website VDARE.
In the article that caused his firing, Derbyshire suggested that white and Asian parents should talk to their children about the threats posed to their safety by black people. He also recommended that parents tell their children not to live in predominantly black communities. He included the line "If planning a trip to a beach or amusement park at some date, find out whether it is likely to be swamped with blacks on that date."
He has also written for the New English Review. His columns cover political-cultural topics, including immigration, China, history, mathematics, and race. Derbyshire's 1996 novel Seeing Calvin Coolidge in a Dream was a New York Times "Notable Book of the Year". His 2004 non-fiction book Prime Obsession won the Mathematical Association of America's inaugural Euler Book Prize. A political book, We Are Doomed: Reclaiming Conservative Pessimism, was released in September 2009.
Early life
Derbyshire attended the Northampton School for Boys and graduated from University College London, of the University of London, where he studied mathematics. Before turning to writing full-time, he worked on Wall Street as a computer programmer.
Career
National Review
Derbyshire worked as a writer at National Review until he was terminated in 2012 because of an article published in Taki's Magazine that was widely perceived as racist.
Derbyshire began writing for the far-right website VDARE in May 2012. In his first column for the website, Derbyshire wrote "White supremacy, in the sense of a society in which key decisions are made by white Europeans, is one of the bett |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy%20Citations%20Database | The Energy Citations Database (ECD) was created in 2001 in order to make scientific literature citations, and electronic documents, publicly accessible from U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), and its predecessor agencies, at no cost to the user. This database also contains all the unclassified materials from Energy Research Abstracts. Classified materials are not available to the public. ECD does include the unclassified, unlimited distribution scientific and technical reports from the Department of Energy and its predecessor agencies, the Atomic Energy Commission and the Energy Research and Development Administration. The database is usually updated twice per week.
ECD provides free access to over 2.6 million science research citations with continued growth through regular updates. There are over 221,000 electronic documents, primarily from 1943 forward, available via the database. Citations and documents are made publicly available by the Regional Federal Depository Libraries. These institutions maintain and make available DOE research literature, providing access to non‑electronic documents prior to 1994, and electronic access to more recent documents.
ECD was created and developed by DOE's Office of Scientific and Technical Information with the science-attentive citizen in mind. It contains energy and energy‑related scientific and technical information collected by the DOE and its predecessor agencies.
Scope
Topics, or subjects, and Department of Energy disciplines of interest in Energy Citations Database (ECD) are wide-ranging. Scientific and technical research encompass chemistry, physics, materials, environmental science, geology, engineering, mathematics, climatology, oceanography, computer science, and related disciplines. It includes bibliographic citations to report scientific literature, conference papers, journal articles, books, dissertations, and patents.
Stated capabilities
Bibliographic citations for scientific and technical information dati |
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