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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray%20diffraction%20computed%20tomography | X-ray diffraction computed tomography is an experimental technique that combines X-ray diffraction with the computed tomography data acquisition approach. X-ray diffraction (XRD) computed tomography (CT) was first introduced in 1987 by Harding et al. using a laboratory diffractometer and a monochromatic X-ray pencil beam. The first implementation of the technique at synchrotron facilities was performed in 1998 by Kleuker et al.
X-ray diffraction computed tomography can be divided into two main categories depending on how the XRD data are being treated, specifically the XRD data can be treated either as powder diffraction or single crystal diffraction data and this depends on the sample properties. If the sample contains small and randomly oriented crystals, then it generates smooth powder diffraction "rings" when using a 2D area detector. If the sample contains large crystals, then it generates "spotty" 2D diffraction patterns. The latter can be performed using also a letterbox, cone and parallel X-ray beam and yields 2D or 3D images corresponding to maps of the crystallites or "grains" present in the sample and their properties, such as stress or strain. There exist several variations of this approach including 3DXRD, X-ray diffraction contrast tomography (DCT) and high energy X-ray diffraction microscopy (HEDM)
X-ray diffraction computed tomography, often abbreviated as XRD-CT, typically refers to the technique invented by Harding et al. which assumes that the acquired data are powder diffraction data. For this reason, it has also been mentioned as powder diffraction computed tomography and diffraction scattering computed tomography (DSCT), however they both refer to the same method.
Data acquisition
XRD-CT employs a monochromatic pencil beam scanning approach and captures the diffraction signal in transmission geometry, producing a diffraction projection dataset. In this setup, the sample moves along an axis perpendicular to the beam's direction. It is illum |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lumbar%20vertebrae | The lumbar vertebrae are, in human anatomy, the five vertebrae between the rib cage and the pelvis. They are the largest segments of the vertebral column and are characterized by the absence of the foramen transversarium within the transverse process (since it is only found in the cervical region) and by the absence of facets on the sides of the body (as found only in the thoracic region). They are designated L1 to L5, starting at the top. The lumbar vertebrae help support the weight of the body, and permit movement.
Human anatomy
General characteristics
The adjacent figure depicts the general characteristics of the first through fourth lumbar vertebrae. The fifth vertebra contains certain peculiarities, which are detailed below.
As with other vertebrae, each lumbar vertebra consists of a vertebral body and a vertebral arch. The vertebral arch, consisting of a pair of pedicles and a pair of laminae, encloses the vertebral foramen (opening) and supports seven processes.
Body
The vertebral body of each lumbar vertebra is kidney shaped, wider from side to side than from front to back, and a little thicker in front than in back. It is flattened or slightly concave above and below, concave behind, and deeply constricted in front and at the sides.
Arch
The pedicles are very strong, directed backward from the upper part of the vertebral body; consequently, the inferior vertebral notches are of considerable depth. The pedicles change in morphology from the upper lumbar to the lower lumbar. They increase in sagittal width from 9 mm to up to 18 mm at L5. They increase in angulation in the axial plane from 10 degrees to 20 degrees by L5. The pedicle is sometimes used as a portal of entrance into the vertebral body for fixation with pedicle screws or for placement of bone cement as with kyphoplasty or vertebroplasty.
The laminae are broad, short, and strong. They form the posterior portion of the vertebral arch. In the upper lumbar region the lamina are taller than |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/37th%20meridian%20west | The meridian 37° west of Greenwich is a line of longitude that extends from the North Pole across the Arctic Ocean, Greenland, the Atlantic Ocean, South America, the Southern Ocean, and Antarctica to the South Pole.
The 37th meridian west forms a great circle with the 143rd meridian east.
From Pole to Pole
Starting at the North Pole and heading south to the South Pole, the 37th meridian west passes through:
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders"
! scope="col" width="120" | Co-ordinates
! scope="col" | Country, territory or sea
! scope="col" | Notes
|-
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" |
! scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" | Arctic Ocean
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" |
|-
|
! scope="row" |
| Roosevelt Land, Amundsen Land and the Ice sheet
|-
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" |
! scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" | Atlantic Ocean
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" |
|-valign="top"
|
! scope="row" |
| Rio Grande do Norte Paraíba — from Pernambuco — for about 4 km from Paraíba — from Pernambuco — from Alagoas — from Sergipe — from
|-
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" |
! scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" | Atlantic Ocean
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" |
|-valign="top"
|
! scope="row" |
| Island of South Georgia
|-valign="top"
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" |
! scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" | Atlantic Ocean
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" | Passing just east of Annenkov Island, (at )
|-
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" |
! scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" | Southern Ocean
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" |
|-valign="top"
|
! scope="row" | Antarctica
| Claimed by both (Argentine Antarctica) and (British Antarctic Territory)
|-
|}
See also
36th meridian west
38th meridian west
w037 meridian west |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1/4%20%2B%201/16%20%2B%201/64%20%2B%201/256%20%2B%20%E2%8B%AF | In mathematics, the infinite series is an example of one of the first infinite series to be summed in the history of mathematics; it was used by Archimedes circa 250–200 BC. As it is a geometric series with first term and common ratio , its sum is
Visual demonstrations
The series lends itself to some particularly simple visual demonstrations because a square and a triangle both divide into four similar pieces, each of which contains the area of the original.
In the figure on the left, if the large square is taken to have area 1, then the largest black square has area × = . Likewise, the second largest black square has area , and the third largest black square has area . The area taken up by all of the black squares together is therefore , and this is also the area taken up by the gray squares and the white squares. Since these three areas cover the unit square, the figure demonstrates that
Archimedes' own illustration, adapted at top, was slightly different, being closer to the equation
See below for details on Archimedes' interpretation.
The same geometric strategy also works for triangles, as in the figure on the right: if the large triangle has area 1, then the largest black triangle has area , and so on. The figure as a whole has a self-similarity between the large triangle and its upper sub-triangle. A related construction making the figure similar to all three of its corner pieces produces the Sierpiński triangle.
Proof by Archimedes
Archimedes encounters the series in his work Quadrature of the Parabola. He finds the area inside a parabola by the method of exhaustion, and he gets a series of triangles; each stage of the construction adds an area times the area of the previous stage. His desired result is that the total area is times the area of the first stage. To get there, he takes a break from parabolas to introduce an algebraic lemma:
Proposition 23. Given a series of areas , of which A is the greatest, and each is equal to four times th |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piledriver%20%28microarchitecture%29 | AMD Piledriver Family 15h is a microarchitecture developed by AMD as the second-generation successor to Bulldozer. It targets desktop, mobile and server markets. It is used for the AMD Accelerated Processing Unit (formerly Fusion), AMD FX, and the Opteron line of processors.
The changes over Bulldozer are incremental. Piledriver uses the same "module" design. Its main improvements are to branch prediction and FPU/integer scheduling, along with a switch to hard-edge flip-flops to improve power consumption. This resulted in clock speed gains of 8–10% and a performance increase of around 15% with similar power characteristics. FX-9590 is around 40% faster than Bulldozer-based FX-8150, mostly because of higher clock speed.
Products based on Piledriver were first released on 15 May 2012 with the AMD Accelerated Processing Unit (APU), code-named Trinity, series of mobile products. APUs aimed at desktops followed in early October 2012 with Piledriver-based FX-series CPUs released later in the month. Opteron server processors based upon Piledriver were announced in early December 2012.
Design
Piledriver includes improvements over the original Bulldozer microarchitecture:
Clustered Multi-Thread
Higher clock rates
Instructions per clock (IPC) improvements
Lower power consumption and temperatures
Turbo Core 3.0
Faster integrated memory controller (IMC)
Fixed hardware divider
Improved branch prediction and prefetching
Perceptron branch predictor
Improved floating-point and integer scheduling
Support for Advanced Vector Extensions (AVX) 1.1, FMA3, BMI1 and TBM
Larger L1 translation lookaside buffers (TLB) and L2 efficiency improvements
Switch to hard-edge flip-flops, allowing a decrease in power consumption
Cyclos resonant clock mesh (RCM) technology
17–220 W thermal design power (TDP)
Features
CPUs
APUs
APU features table
Processors
Desktop
The K suffix denotes an unlocked A-series processor. All FX-series processors are unlocked unless otherwise speci |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triploblasty | Triploblasty is a condition of the gastrula in which there are three primary germ layers: the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. Germ cells are set aside in the embryo at the blastula stage, and are incorporated into the gonads during organogenesis. The germ layers form during the gastrulation of the blastula. The term triploblast may refer to any egg cell in which the blastoderm splits into three layers.
All bilaterians, which are the animals with bilaterally symmetrical embryos, are triploblastic. Other animal taxa, namely the ctenophores, placozoans, and cnidarians, are diploblastic, which means that their embryos contain only two germ layers. Sponges are even less developmentally specialized, because they lack both true tissues and organs.
The earliest triploblasts are thought to have evolved from the diploblasts at some time during the proterozoic era, establishing themselves as a group prior to their diversification during the cambrian explosion.
See also |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA%20spike-in | An RNA spike-in is an RNA transcript of known sequence and quantity used to calibrate measurements in RNA hybridization assays, such as DNA microarray experiments, RT-qPCR, and RNA-Seq.
A spike-in is designed to bind to a DNA molecule with a matching sequence, known as a control probe. This process of specific binding is called hybridization. A known quantity of RNA spike-in is mixed with the experiment sample during preparation. The degree of hybridization between the spike-ins and the control probes is used to normalize the hybridization measurements of the sample RNA.
History
Nucleic acid hybridization assays have been used for decades to detect specific sequences of DNA or RNA, with a DNA microarray precursor used as early as 1965. In such assays, positive control oligonucleotides are necessary to provide a standard for comparison of target sequence concentration, and to check and correct for nonspecific binding; that is, incidental binding of the RNA to non-complementary DNA sequences. These controls became known as "spike-ins". With the advent of DNA microarray chips in the 1990s and the commercialization of high-throughput methods for sequencing and RNA detection assays, manufacturers of hybridization assay "kits" started to provide pre-developed spike-ins. In the case of gene expression assay microarrays or RNA sequencing (RNA-seq), RNA spike-ins are used.
Manufacturing
RNA spike-ins can be synthesized by any means of creating RNA synthetically, or by using cells to transcribe DNA to RNA in vivo (in cells). RNA can be produced in vitro (cell free) using RNA polymerase and DNA with the desired sequence. Large scale biotech manufacturers produce RNA synthetically via high-throughput techniques and provide solutions of RNA spike-ins at predetermined concentration. Bacteria containing DNA (usually on plasmids) for transcription to spike-ins are also commercially available. The purified RNA can be stored long-term in a buffered solution at low temperature.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Similarity%20learning | Similarity learning is an area of supervised machine learning in artificial intelligence. It is closely related to regression and classification, but the goal is to learn a similarity function that measures how similar or related two objects are. It has applications in ranking, in recommendation systems, visual identity tracking, face verification, and speaker verification.
Learning setup
There are four common setups for similarity and metric distance learning.
Regression similarity learning
In this setup, pairs of objects are given together with a measure of their similarity . The goal is to learn a function that approximates for every new labeled triplet example . This is typically achieved by minimizing a regularized loss .
Classification similarity learning
Given are pairs of similar objects and non similar objects . An equivalent formulation is that every pair is given together with a binary label that determines if the two objects are similar or not. The goal is again to learn a classifier that can decide if a new pair of objects is similar or not.
Ranking similarity learning
Given are triplets of objects whose relative similarity obey a predefined order: is known to be more similar to than to . The goal is to learn a function such that for any new triplet of objects , it obeys (contrastive learning). This setup assumes a weaker form of supervision than in regression, because instead of providing an exact measure of similarity, one only has to provide the relative order of similarity. For this reason, ranking-based similarity learning is easier to apply in real large-scale applications.
Locality sensitive hashing (LSH)
Hashes input items so that similar items map to the same "buckets" in memory with high probability (the number of buckets being much smaller than the universe of possible input items). It is often applied in nearest neighbor search on large-scale high-dimensional data, e.g., image databases, document collections, time-seri |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tableau%20de%20Concordance | The Tableau de Concordance was the main French diplomatic code used during World War I; the term also refers to any message sent using the code. It was a superenciphered four-digit code that was changed three times between 1 August 1914 and 15 January 1915.
The Tableau de Concordance is considered superenciphered because there is more than one step required to use it. First, each word in a message is replaced by four digits via a codebook. These four digits are divided into three groups (one digit, two digits, one digit) so that when the whole message has been translated into code, the four-digit sets can be put together so it looks like the entire message is made up of two-digit pairs. This is called a "Straddle Gimmick." Then, in turn, each of these two digit pairs (and the single digits at the beginning and end) are replaced by two letters. The letters are then combined with no spaces for the final ciphertext.
The manual for the Tableau de Concordance included the instruction that if there was not adequate time for completely enciphering the message, it should simply be sent in clear, because a partially enciphered message would have provided insight into the inner workings of the code.
Sources
The Codebreakers, by David Kahn, copyright 1967, 1996
France in World War I
Cryptography |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NLRP3 | NLR family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) (previously known as NACHT, LRR and PYD domains-containing protein 3 [NALP3] and cryopyrin), is a protein that in humans is encoded by the NLRP3 gene located on the long arm of chromosome 1.
NLRP3 is expressed predominantly in macrophages and as a component of the inflammasome, detects products of damaged cells such as extracellular ATP and crystalline uric acid. Activated NLRP3 in turn triggers an immune response. Mutations in the NLRP3 gene are associated with a number of organ specific autoimmune diseases.
Nomenclature
NACHT, LRR, and PYD are respectively acronyms for:
NACHT – NAIP (neuronal apoptosis inhibitor protein), C2TA [class 2 transcription activator, of the MHC, HET-E (heterokaryon incompatibility) and TP1 (telomerase-associated protein 1)
LRR – "leucine-rich repeat" and is synonymous with NLR, for or nucleotide-binding domain, leucine-rich repeat"
PYD – "PYRIN domain," after the pyrin proteins The NLRP3 gene name abbreviates "NLR family, pyrin domain containing 3," where NLR refers to "nucleotide-binding domain, leucine-rich repeat."
The NACHT, LRR and PYD domains-containing protein 3 is also called:
cold induced autoinflammatory syndrome 1 (CIAS1),
caterpiller-like receptor 1.1 (CLR1.1), and
PYRIN-containing APAF1-like protein 1 (PYPAF1).
Structure
This gene encodes a pyrin-like protein which contains a pyrin domain, a nucleotide-binding site (NBS) domain, and a leucine-rich repeat (LRR) motif. This protein interacts with pyrin domain (PYD) of apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a CARD (ASC). Proteins which contain the caspase recruitment domain, CARD, have been shown to be involved in inflammation and immune response.
Function
NLRP3 is a component of the innate immune system that functions as a pattern recognition receptor (PRR) that recognizes pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). NLRP3 belongs to the NOD-like receptor (NLR) subfamily of PRRs and NLRP3 together w |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline%20of%20software%20development | The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to software development:
Software development – development of a software product, which entails computer programming (process of writing and maintaining the source code), and encompasses a planned and structured process from the conception of the desired software to its final manifestation. Therefore, software development may include research, new development, prototyping, modification, reuse, re-engineering, maintenance, or any other activities that result in software products.
What type of thing is software development?
Software development can be described as all of the following:
Research and development
Vocation
Profession
Branches of software development
Software engineering
Computer programming
Video game development
Web development
Web application development
Mobile application development
History of software development
History of operating systems
History of programming languages
Software development participants
Software developer
Software engineer
Consulting software engineer
Computer programmer
Software publisher
Web developer
Software development problems
Shovelware
Software bloat
Software bug
Software project management
Software project management – art and science of planning and leading software projects. It is a sub-discipline of project management in which software projects are planned, monitored and controlled.
Software configuration management
Software development strategies
Offshore software R&D – provision of software development services by an external supplier positioned in a country that is geographically remote from the client enterprise; a type of offshore outsourcing.
Software development process
Software development process
Software release life cycle
Stages of development
Pre-alpha
Alpha release
Beta release
Closed beta
Open beta
Release candidate
Release
Release to manufacturing (RTM)
General availability releas |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/242%20%28number%29 | 242 (two hundred [and] forty-two) is the natural number following 241 and preceding 243.
242 is the smallest integer to start a run of four consecutive integers with the same number of divisors.
242 is a nontotient since there is no integer with 242 coprimes below it.
242 is a palindrome.
242 is the number of parallelogram polyominoes with 8 cells. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deinococcus%20indicus | Deinococcus indicus is a species of arsenic-resistant bacterium. It is Gram-negative, rod-shaped, non-motile, non-sporulating and red-pigmented, with type strain Wt/1aT (=MTCC 4913T =DSM 15307T). |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel%20Karlin | Samuel Karlin (June 8, 1924 – December 18, 2007) was an American mathematician at Stanford University in the late 20th century.
Education and career
Karlin was born in Janów, Poland and immigrated to Chicago as a child. Raised in an Orthodox Jewish household, Karlin became an atheist in his teenage years and remained an atheist for the rest of his life. Later in life he told his three children, who all became scientists, that walking down the street without a yarmulke on his head for the first time was a milestone in his life.
Karlin earned his undergraduate degree from Illinois Institute of Technology; and then his doctorate in mathematics from Princeton University in 1947 (at the age of 22) under the supervision of Salomon Bochner. He was on the faculty of Caltech from 1948 to 1956, before becoming a professor of mathematics and statistics at Stanford.
Throughout his career, Karlin made fundamental contributions to the fields of mathematical economics, bioinformatics, game theory, evolutionary theory, biomolecular sequence analysis, and total positivity. Karlin authored ten books and more than 450 articles. He did extensive work in mathematical population genetics. In the early 1990s, Karlin and Stephen Altschul developed the Karlin-Altschul statistics, a basis for the highly used sequence similarity software program BLAST.
Honors and awards
Karlin was a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the National Academy of Sciences, and the American Philosophical Society. He won a Lester R. Ford Award in 1973. In 1989, President George H. W. Bush bestowed Karlin the National Medal of Science "for his broad and remarkable research in mathematical analysis, probability theory and mathematical statistics, and in the application of these ideas to mathematical economics, mechanics, and population genetics." He was elected to the 2002 class of Fellows of the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences.
Personal life
One of Karlin's sons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostate%20brachytherapy | Brachytherapy is a type of radiotherapy, or radiation treatment, offered to certain cancer patients. There are two types of brachytherapy – high dose-rate (HDR) and low dose-rate (LDR). LDR brachytherapy is the one most commonly used to treat prostate cancer. It may be referred to as 'seed implantation' or it may be called 'pinhole surgery'.
In LDR brachytherapy, tiny radioactive particles the size of a grain of rice (Figure 1) are implanted directly into, or very close to, the tumour. These particles are known as 'seeds', and they can be inserted linked together as strands, or individually. The seeds deliver high doses of radiation to the tumour without affecting the normal healthy tissues around it. The procedure is less damaging than conventional radiation therapy, where the radioactive beam is delivered from outside the body and must pass through other tissues before reaching the tumour.
In addition to seeds, a newer polymer-encapsulated LDR source is available. The source features 103Pd along the full length of the device which is contained using low-Z polymers. The polymer construction and linear radioactive distribution of this source creates a very homogenous dose distribution.
LDR prostate brachytherapy (seed or line source implantation) is a proven treatment for low to high risk localized prostate cancer (when the cancer is contained within the prostate). Under a general anaesthetic, the radioactive seeds are injected through fine needles directly into the prostate, so that the radiotherapy can destroy the cancer cells. The seeds are permanently implanted. They remain in place but gradually become inactive as the radioactivity decays naturally and safely over time. Unlike traditional surgery, LDR brachytherapy requires no incisions and is normally carried out as an outpatient (day case) procedure. Sometimes a single overnight stay in hospital is required. Patients usually recover quickly from LDR brachytherapy. Most men can return to work or normal dail |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dairy%20industry%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom | The dairy industry in the United Kingdom is the industry of dairy farming that takes place in the UK.
Production
In Europe, UK milk production is third after France & Germany and is around the tenth highest in the world. There are around 12,000 dairy farms in the UK.
Around 14 billion litres of milk are commercially produced in the UK each year.
Britain eats around 2000 tonnes of cheese a day.
Production sites
Buckinghamshire
Arla Aylesbury, produces 10% of the UK's milk, and the world's largest milk production site
Cornwall
Davidstow Creamery, Britain's largest cheese factory, producing Cathedral City cheddar cheese
Delivery
Only 3% of milk in the UK is delivered to the door. There was an 80% drop in deliveries when supermarkets began to sell their own milk en-masse. The largest commercial deliverer of milk in the UK has around 500,000 customers; there has been a recent upswing in demand for door deliveries.
Regulation
Production was regulated by the Milk Marketing Board until 1994; its processing division is now Dairy Crest. AHDB Dairy is a central resource for the UK dairy industry. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swallowtail%20%28flag%29 | In flag terminology, a swallowtail is either
a V-shaped cut in a flag that causes the flag to end in two points at the fly; or
any flag that has this V-shaped cut.
The name comes from the forked tail that is a common feature of the swallow species of birds.
Variants
Double-pointed
Common in the Nordic countries, this swallowtail flag contains a vertical section in the centre of the fly.
Swallowtail with tongue
Also common in the Nordic countries, the swallowtail flag contains a third tail (the "tongue") between the other two tails.
Triangular swallowtail
The triangular swallowtail is the shape of the flag of the American state of Ohio, as well as of some burgees, private signals and pennants of the International Code of Signals (ICS).
Guidon
A guidon is the general name given to a small swallowtail flag. Guidons are used to represent military units and are displayed on vehicles attached to a particular unit. In some countries (such as the United States), guidons do not necessarily have a swallow tail.
The military use of the guidon originated from the flags used by cavalry units in Europe. A variant of the guidon, the hussar cut, was used by German cavalry regiments. Instead of a straight V-shaped cut, the swallowtail in a hussar cut flag is curved.
Types of flags |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCII | ASCII ( ), abbreviated from American Standard Code for Information Interchange, is a character encoding standard for electronic communication. ASCII codes represent text in computers, telecommunications equipment, and other devices. Because of technical limitations of computer systems at the time it was invented, ASCII has just 128 code points, of which only 95 are , which severely limited its scope. Modern computer systems have evolved to use Unicode, which has millions of code points, but the first 128 of these are the same as the ASCII set.
The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) prefers the name US-ASCII for this character encoding.
ASCII is one of the IEEE milestones.
Overview
ASCII was developed from telegraph code. Its first commercial use was in the Teletype Model 33 and the Teletype Model 35 as a seven-bit teleprinter code promoted by Bell data services. Work on the ASCII standard began in May 1961, with the first meeting of the American Standards Association's (ASA) (now the American National Standards Institute or ANSI) X3.2 subcommittee. The first edition of the standard was published in 1963, underwent a major revision during 1967, and experienced its most recent update during 1986. Compared to earlier telegraph codes, the proposed Bell code and ASCII were both ordered for more convenient sorting (i.e., alphabetization) of lists and added features for devices other than teleprinters.
The use of ASCII format for Network Interchange was described in 1969. That document was formally elevated to an Internet Standard in 2015.
Originally based on the (modern) English alphabet, ASCII encodes 128 specified characters into seven-bit integers as shown by the ASCII chart in this article. Ninety-five of the encoded characters are printable: these include the digits 0 to 9, lowercase letters a to z, uppercase letters A to Z, and punctuation symbols. In addition, the original ASCII specification included 33 non-printing control codes which originated wit |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computed%20tomography%20of%20the%20abdomen%20and%20pelvis | Computed tomography of the abdomen and pelvis is an application of computed tomography (CT) and is a sensitive method for diagnosis of abdominal diseases. It is used frequently to determine stage of cancer and to follow progress. It is also a useful test to investigate acute abdominal pain (especially of the lower quadrants, whereas ultrasound is the preferred first line investigation for right upper quadrant pain). Renal stones, appendicitis, pancreatitis, diverticulitis, abdominal aortic aneurysm, and bowel obstruction are conditions that are readily diagnosed and assessed with CT. CT is also the first line for detecting solid organ injury after trauma.
Advantages
Multidetector CT (MDCT) can clearly delineate anatomic structures in the abdomen, which is critical in the diagnosis of internal diaphragmatic and other nonpalpable or unsuspected hernias. MDCT also offers clear detail of the abdominal wall allowing wall hernias to be identified accurately.
Contrast administration
Abdominal imaging is associated with many potential uses for the different phases of contrast CT. The majority of abdominal and pelvic CT’s can be performed using a single-phase, but the evaluation of some tumor types (hepatic/pancreatic/renal), the urinary collecting system, and trauma patients among others, may be best performed with multiple phases.
In discussing the numerous phases and indications for CT, best patient care requires individualized CT protocols based upon each patient’s specific symptoms, pathology, and underlying co-morbidities. Although labor intensive, this provides the highest likelihood of an accurate diagnosis with the lowest necessary radiation dose. The following discussion will provide a basic outline of current best practice, but not all clinical scenarios can be accounted for.
Contrast enhanced CT examinations can be acquired at a variety of specific time points after intravenous contrast injection (timing is dependent on the phase of contrast enhancement nee |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute%20of%20Solid%20State%20Chemistry%20and%20Mechanochemistry | Institute of Solid State Chemistry and Mechanochemistry of the Siberian Branch of the RAS () is a research institute in Novosibirsk, Russia. It was founded in 1944.
History
Institute of Solid State Chemistry and Mechanochemistry is one of the oldest scientific institutes in Siberia. It was founded in 1944 as the Chemical and Metallurgical Institute. Five years later, thanks to the institute, a ceramic pipe plant was launched in Dorogino. Later, the institute became part of the Siberian Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences.
In 1964, the scientific organization was renamed the Institute of Physicochemical Principles of Mineral Raw Materials Processing, and in 1980, it was renamed the Institute of Solid State Chemistry and Mineral Raw Materials Processing. In 1997, the institute was renamed the Institute of Solid State Chemistry and Mechanochemistry.
Activities
The main directions of scientific research are mechanochemistry of organic and inorganic substances, mineral and renewable raw materials, reactivity of solids, modification of new structures and materials, mechanisms of solid-phase transformations (including conditions of high pressures and temperatures, combustion and explosion), development of research methods for fast processes using synchrotron radiation etc.
Locations
The Institute is located in Tsentralny District (Frunze Street 13) and Akademgorodok.
Branches
Kemerovo Division of Institute of Solid State Chemistry and Mechanochemistry of the Siberian Branch of the RAS
External links
Институт химии твердого тела и механохимии СО РАН. ГПНТБ СО РАН.
Механохимия нас связала: ИХТТМ отмечает 75-й день рождения. Наука в Сибири.
Institute of Solid State Chemistry and Mechanochemistry of the Siberian Branch of the RAS. The SB RAS Portal.
Research institutes in Novosibirsk
Solid-state chemistry
Research institutes established in 1944
1944 establishments in the Soviet Union
Research institutes in the Soviet Union |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative%20luminescence | Negative luminescence is a physical phenomenon by which an electronic device emits less thermal radiation when an electric current is passed through it than it does in thermal equilibrium (current off). When viewed by a thermal camera, an operating negative luminescent device looks colder than its environment.
Physics
Negative luminescence is most readily observed in semiconductors. Incoming infrared radiation is absorbed in the material by the creation of an electron–hole pair. An electric field is used to remove the electrons and holes from the region before they have a chance to recombine and re-emit thermal radiation. This effect occurs most efficiently in regions of low charge carrier density.
Negative luminescence has also been observed in semiconductors in orthogonal electric and magnetic fields. In this case, the junction of a diode is not necessary and the effect can be observed in bulk material. A term that has been applied to this type of negative luminescence is galvanomagnetic luminescence.
Negative luminescence might appear to be a violation of Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation. This is not true, as the law only applies in thermal equilibrium.
Another term that has been used to describe negative luminescent devices is "Emissivity switch", as an electric current changes the effective emissivity.
History
This effect was first seen by Russian physicists in the 1960s in A.F.Ioffe Physicotechnical Institute, Leningrad, Russia. Subsequently, it was studied in semiconductors such as indium antimonide (InSb), germanium (Ge) and indium arsenide (InAs) by workers in West Germany, Ukraine (Institute of Semiconductor Physics, Kyiv), Japan (Chiba University) and the United States. It was first observed in the mid-infrared (3-5 µm wavelength) in the more convenient diode structures in InSb heterostructure diodes by workers at the Defence Research Agency, Great Malvern, UK (now QinetiQ). These British workers later demonstrated LWIR band (8-12 µm) negative |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative%20yeast%20nuclear%20code | The alternative yeast nuclear code (translation table 12) is a genetic code found in certain yeasts. However, other yeast, including Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida azyma, Candida diversa, Candida magnoliae, Candida rugopelliculosa, Yarrowia lipolytica, and Zygoascus hellenicus, definitely use the standard (nuclear) code.
The code
AAs = FFLLSSSSYY**CC*WLLLSPPPPHHQQRRRRIIIMTTTTNNKKSSRRVVVVAAAADDEEGGGG
Starts = -------------------M---------------M----------------------------
Base1 = TTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG
Base2 = TTTTCCCCAAAAGGGGTTTTCCCCAAAAGGGGTTTTCCCCAAAAGGGGTTTTCCCCAAAAGGGG
Base3 = TCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAG
Bases: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) and thymine (T) or uracil (U).
Amino acids: Alanine (Ala, A), Arginine (Arg, R), Asparagine (Asn, N), Aspartic acid (Asp, D), Cysteine (Cys, C), Glutamic acid (Glu, E), Glutamine (Gln, Q), Glycine (Gly, G), Histidine (His, H), Isoleucine (Ile, I), Leucine (Leu, L), Lysine (Lys, K), Methionine (Met, M), Phenylalanine (Phe, F), Proline (Pro, P), Serine (Ser, S), Threonine (Thr, T), Tryptophan (Trp, W), Tyrosine (Tyr, Y), Valine (Val, V).
Differences from the standard code
Alternative initiation codons
CAG may be used in Candida albicans.
Systematic range
Endomycetales (yeasts): Candida albicans, Candida cylindracea, Candida melibiosica, Candida parapsilosis, and Candida rugosa.
See also
List of genetic codes |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft%20Messenger%20service | Messenger (formerly MSN Messenger Service, .NET Messenger Service and Windows Live Messenger Service) was an instant messaging and presence system developed by Microsoft in 1999 for use with its MSN Messenger software. It was used by instant messaging clients including Windows 8, Windows Live Messenger, Microsoft Messenger for Mac, Outlook.com and Xbox Live. Third-party clients also connected to the service. It communicated using the Microsoft Notification Protocol, a proprietary instant messaging protocol. The service allowed anyone with a Microsoft account to sign in and communicate in real time with other people who were signed in as well.
On January 11, 2013, Microsoft announced that they were retiring the existing Messenger service globally (except for mainland China where Messenger will continue to be available) and replacing it with Skype. In April 2013, Microsoft merged the service into Skype network; existing users were able to sign into Skype with their existing accounts and access their contact list. As part of the merger, Skype instant messaging functionality is now running on the backbone of the former Messenger service.
Background
Despite multiple name changes to the service and its client software over the years, the Messenger service is often referred to colloquially as "MSN", due to the history of MSN Messenger. The service itself was known as MSN Messenger Service from 1999 to 2001, at which time, Microsoft changed its name to .NET Messenger Service and began offering clients that no longer carried the "MSN" name, such as the Windows Messenger client included with Windows XP, which was originally intended to be a streamlined version of MSN Messenger, free of advertisements and integrated into Windows.
Nevertheless, the company continued to offer more upgrades to MSN Messenger until the end of 2005, when all previous versions of MSN Messenger and Windows Messenger were superseded by a new program, Windows Live Messenger, as part of Microsoft's la |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TV%20Tropes | TV Tropes is a wiki website that collects and documents descriptions and examples of plot conventions and devices, which it refers to as tropes, within many creative works. Since its establishment in 2004, the site has shifted focus from covering various tropes to those in general media, toys, writings, and their associated fandoms, as well as some non-media subjects such as history, geography, and politics. The nature of the site as a provider of commentary on pop culture and fiction has attracted attention and criticism from several web personalities and blogs. Users of the TV Tropes community are called “Tropers”, and are mostly made up of 18-34 year olds.
From April 2008 until July 2012, TV Tropes published free content. In July 2012, TV Tropes modified its license to allow only non-commercial distribution of its content but continued to host the prior submissions under a new distribution license.
The TV Tropes website runs on its own wiki engine software, a very heavily modified version of PmWiki to the point where the PmWiki website lists it as "no longer using PmWiki in any way [except] in the URL" and "[using] no code". but is not open source. Before October 2010, it was possible to edit anonymously. Registration is now mandatory for all other activities besides viewing the website. It has two subwikis meant to categorize the more informal tropes (and held to less rigorous standards). Darth Wiki, named after Darth Vader from Star Wars as a play on "the dark side" of TV Tropes, is a resource for more criticism-based trope examples and sometimes highlighting "the dark side" of various works, and Sugar Wiki is about praising things and is meant to be "the sweet side" of TV Tropes (a Stormtrooper in pastel on the front page image is a pun on both subwikis). Occasionally, as a way to demonstrate the dual nature of certain works, there will be separate pages for works, such as the video game Eversion.
History
TV Tropes was founded in 2004 by a programmer unde |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unkana%20%28planthopper%29 | Unkana (Matsumura, 1935) is an invalid name for a genus of planthoppers in the family Delphacidae. The genus name Unkana was previously coined for a genus of skipper butterflies, so Matsumura's name is permanently unavailable and invalid under the rules of the ICZN.
Species
Unkana contains the following species.
U. arisana (Matsumura, 1935)
U. heitonis (Matsumura, 1935)
U. malayana (Matsumura, 1935)
U. nigrifacies (Matsumura, 1935)
U. n. hyalipennis (Matsumura, 1935)
U. sakaguchii (Matsumura, 1935)
U. taiwanella (Matsumura, 1935) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graham%20cracker%20crust | Graham cracker crust is a style of pie crust made from crushed graham crackers. Graham crackers are a sweet American cracker made from unbleached, whole wheat graham flour. The crust is usually flavored and stiffened with butter or vegetable oil and sometimes sugar. Graham cracker crust is a very common type of crust for cheesecakes and cream pies in America.
Graham cracker pie crusts are available as a mass-produced product in the United States, and typically consist of the prepared crust pressed into a disposable aluminum pie pan.
Variations use crushed cookies or Nilla wafers as substitutes for the graham crackers.
Origin
The invention of the graham cracker crust is credited to Monroe Boston Strause, who was known as the Pie King and also invented the chiffon pie. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recreational%20drug%20use%20in%20animals | Several non-human animal species are said to engage in apparent recreational drug use, that is, the intentional ingestion of psychoactive substances in their environment for pleasure, though claims of such behavior in the wild are often controversial. This is distinct from zoopharmacognosy, in which animals ingest or topically apply non-food substances for their health benefits, as a form of self-medication.
Alcohol
Elephants
South African legends, recorded as early as the 1830s by naturalist Adulphe Delegorgue, describe elephants seeking out the fermented fruit of the marula tree, and showing signs of intoxication, including increased aggression, after doing so. This behavior was controversially depicted in the 1974 documentary Animals Are Beautiful People: the crew of the film reportedly staged the scene, either by soaking the fruit in alcohol before allowing animals to eat it, or by simply injecting the animals with a veterinary anesthetic to elicit symptoms of intoxication. A 2005 study concluded that it is very unlikely that an elephant could eat enough of the fruit in a day to become drunk; the study instead attributed their aggression to the value of the trees as a food source. Yet it may be possible that another intoxicant is at play – elephants are also known to eat the bark of the tree, which often contains toxic beetle pupae.
Vervet monkeys
Some vervet monkeys in the Caribbean, particularly teenaged individuals, exhibit a preference for alcoholic beverages over non-alcoholic ones, a taste which likely developed due to the availability of fermented sugar cane juice from local plantations. On Saint Kitts, these monkeys often raid bars and tourist beaches for alcoholic drinks, and become visibly inebriated. The proportions of the monkey population that do not drink, that drink in moderation, and that drink to excess mirror those proportions in humans.
Others
Other species that have been reported to consume alcohol in the wild include Bohemian waxwings, |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-loop%20model | In game theory, an open-loop model is the one where players cannot observe the play of their opponents, as opposed to a closed-loop model, where all past play is common knowledge. The solution to an open-loop model is called "open-loop equilibrium".
Open loop models are more tractable, which is why they are sometimes preferred to closed-loop models even when the latter is a better description of reality. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master%20Chief%20%28Halo%29 | Master Chief is the protagonist in the Halo series of video games and related media. Also known as Master Chief Petty Officer John-117, the character first appeared in the 2001 video game Halo: Combat Evolved, a military science fiction first-person shooter that became a long-running game series. The character also appears in spin-off Halo media such as the 2012 film Halo 4: Forward Unto Dawn, the 2022 Halo television series, and several graphic novels and books.
The Master Chief is a towering supersoldier known as a "Spartan", trained from childhood for combat. The designers intended for players to be able to project their own intentions into the character, and thus reduced his voiced lines and concealed his appearance under his armor. In the video games, the character is voiced by former disc jockey Steve Downes, who based his performance on Bungie's description calling for a man of few words, similar to Clint Eastwood. In spin-off media, he is portrayed by different voice and physical actors, most notably Pablo Schreiber in the 2022 live-action Halo TV series.
The Master Chief has been seen as a mascot for Halo and the Xbox brand. The character has received a generally positive reception for his character design. While publications have praised how the narrative allows players to inhabit the character, others have criticized him as under characterized.
Character design
Art direction
When game studio Bungie began developing Halo: Combat Evolved (2001), the design of Master Chief was led by art director Marcus Lehto with support from artist Robert McLees. Shi Kai Wang was later hired as a concept artist, who created a sketch that became the basis for Master Chief. When the sketch was translated into a three-dimensional model, the team felt that it looked too slim and anime-inspired, and Lehto asked for a bulkier character design that felt more like a walking tank. The Chief's armor went through various changes, such as green tint, and the addition (and later |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EICA%20hypothesis | The evolution of increased competitive ability (EICA) hypothesis was first proposed by Bernd Blossey and Rolf Nötzold in 1995 as a way to explain the success of invasive, non-indigenous species (in particular, plants). Observing that:
there is usually a lag period between the time of introduction of an invasive species and the point at which it is considered invasive, and
invasive plants seem to be more virulent in habitats into which they have been introduced (as compared to their native habitats), the scientists presumed a sort of naturalization through modification for non-indigenous plants.
Because of a lack of native predation, the scientists reasoned, introduced plants are able to reallocate resources from defense mechanisms into growth and development. Introduced plants can thereby evolve to grow taller, produce more biomass, and yield more viable offspring than their native counterparts, according to the hypothesis.
Blossey and Nötzold tested their hypothesis on Lythrum salicaria (purple loosetrife) by potting seeds from plants growing in Ithaca, New York, U.S.A., and Lucelle, Switzerland. The seeds were allowed to germinate in a lab at Christian-Albrechts University in Kiel, northern Germany, and observed for two years. True to the predictions of the EICA Hypothesis, the plants derived from Ithaca produced significantly more biomass that the plants derived from Lucelle. The Lythrum salicaria plants derived from Ithaca also grew taller and were significantly less resistant to the root-feeding weevil present over its native range.
Significance
Unlike the notable ideas (concerning the success of invasive non-indigenous organisms) that preceded it, such as the enemy release hypothesis (ERH) and Charles Darwin's Habituation Hypothesis, the EICA hypothesis postulates that an invasive species is not as fit (in its introduced habitat) at its moment of introduction as it is at the time that it is considered invasive. As suggested by the name of the hypothesis ( |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilijas%20Farah | Ilijas Farah (born February 18, 1966, in Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia) is a Canadian-Serbian mathematician and a professor of mathematics at York University in Toronto and at the Mathematical Institute of Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Belgrade, Serbia. His research focuses on applications of logic to operator algebras.
Career
He received his BSc and MSc in 1988 and 1992 respectively from the Belgrade University and his PhD in 1997 from the University of Toronto. He is now a Research Chair in Logic and Operator Algebras at York University, Toronto. Before moving to York University he was an NSERC Postdoctoral Fellow, York University (1997–99), a Hill Assistant Professor at Rutgers University (1999–2000), and a professor at CUNY–Graduate center and College of Staten Island (2000–02).
Awards, distinctions, and recognitions
Sacks prize for the best doctorate in Mathematical Logic, 1997
Governor General's gold medal for one of the two best doctorates at the University of Toronto, 1998
The Canadian Association for Graduate Studies/University Microfilms International Distinguished Dissertation Award, for the best dissertation in engineering, medicine and the natural sciences in Canada, 1998.
Dean's award for outstanding research, York University, 2006.
Faculty Excellence in Research Award (Established Research Award), Faculty of Science, York University, 2017
Professor Farah was an invited speaker at the ICM, Seoul 2014, section on Logic and Foundations, where he presented his work on applications of logic to operator algebras.
Sources
External links
Ilijas Farah: Krajnja proširenja modela, MSc thesis, Belgrade university 1992.
Living people
Canadian mathematicians
Mathematical logicians
Set theorists
1966 births |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayesian%20quadrature | Bayesian quadrature
is a method for approximating intractable integration problems. It falls within the class of probabilistic numerical methods. Bayesian quadrature views numerical integration as a Bayesian inference task, where function evaluations are used to estimate the integral of that function. For this reason, it is sometimes also referred to as "Bayesian probabilistic numerical integration" or "Bayesian numerical integration". The name "Bayesian cubature" is also sometimes used when the integrand is multi-dimensional. A potential advantage of this approach is that it provides probabilistic uncertainty quantification for the value of the integral.
Bayesian quadrature
Numerical integration
Let be a function defined on a domain (where typically ).
In numerical integration, function evaluations at distinct locations in are used to estimate the integral of against a measure : i.e.
Given weights , a quadrature rule is an estimator of of the form
Bayesian quadrature consists of specifying a prior distribution over , conditioning this prior on to obtain a posterior distribution , then computing the implied posterior distribution on . The name "quadrature" comes from the fact that the posterior mean on sometimes takes the form of a quadrature rule whose weights are determined by the choice of prior.
Bayesian quadrature with Gaussian processes
The most common choice of prior distribution for is a Gaussian process as this permits conjugate inference to obtain a closed-form posterior distribution on . Suppose we have a Gaussian process with prior mean function and covariance function (or kernel function) . Then, the posterior distribution on is a Gaussian process with mean and kernel given by:
where , , and .
Furthermore, the posterior distribution on is a univariate Gaussian distribution with mean and variance given by
The function
is the kernel mean embedding of and denotes the integral of with respect to both inputs.
In parti |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imleria%20badia | Imleria badia, commonly known as the bay bolete, is an edible, pored mushroom found in Eurasia and North America, where it grows in coniferous or mixed woods on the ground or on decaying tree stumps, sometimes in prolific numbers. Both the common and scientific names refer to the bay- or chestnut-coloured cap, which is almost spherical in young specimens before broadening and flattening out to a diameter up to . On the cap underside are small yellowish pores that turn dull blue-grey when bruised. The smooth, cylindrical stipe, measuring long by thick, is coloured like the cap, but paler. Some varieties have been described from eastern North America, differing from the main type in both macroscopic and microscopic morphology.
First described scientifically by Elias Fries in 1818, the bay bolete was reclassified as Xerocomus badius in 1931, and it is still listed thus in several sources. Modern molecular phylogenetic studies show Xerocomus to be polyphyletic (not descended from a common ancestor), and the bay bolete is not particularly closely related to species in that genus. Often considered a poor relation of the cep (Boletus edulis), I. badia is nevertheless regarded as a choice edible mushroom by some authors, such as food expert Antonio Carluccio, and is sold in markets in Europe and central Mexico. Its mushrooms are less often infested by maggots than other boletes. Several European studies have demonstrated that the mushroom can bioaccumulate some trace metals from the soil, such as mercury, cobalt, and nickel. Additionally, the mushroom contains a pigment that concentrates radioactive caesium; specimens collected in Europe following the 1986 Chernobyl disaster contained several times more caesium-137 than those collected before the incident.
Taxonomy
The bay bolete was first named as Boletus castaneus ß badius (i.e. a subspecies of Boletus castaneus) by Elias Magnus Fries in 1818. Fries later renamed it as a variety of Boletus castaneus in 1828, before a |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baking%20powder%20submarine | A baking powder submarine is a plastic toy submarine that dives and surfaces with the addition of baking powder. Baking powder submarines are sometimes misidentified as "baking soda submarines"; however, baking soda alone dissolves but does not react when placed in water.
History
In 1953 Benjamin and Harry Hirsch, two brothers in a cosmetics company, discovered that carbon dioxide gas bubbles produced in wet baking powder as part of the chemical leavening process could be used to make a toy submarine dive up and down in fresh water.
They sold their idea to the Kellogg's breakfast cereal company in 1954. Buoyed by the popularity of the first American atomic submarine USS Nautilus commissioned in that year, a million plastic ship model prizes were produced by May. They were mailed out in return for a fee of 25 cents and one cereal boxtop. A smaller version was later produced to be used as a cereal box prize not requiring separate redemption by mail.
Principle of operation
Baking powder is placed into a compartment in the bottom of the toy which is sealed except for a small hole (or holes). The toy sinks when placed into water, but after a few seconds, enough water leaks in to react with the baking powder and produce carbon dioxide bubbles. The resulting foam creates just enough buoyancy in the toy for it to rise towards the surface of the water. When the toy surfaces, it capsizes, releasing the gas into the air. The toy sinks, beginning the reaction again and repeating the entire process.
The same principle of operation was later used for toy frogmen powered by baking powder in a small container on the foot of the figure. However, some other cereal prizes were cartesian divers, which operated on a different principle and did not require baking powder.
In popular culture
In the original novel and film Billy Liar, the title character's parents say they declared their love for him by buying him a box of corn flakes with a submarine inside.
In the Everybody Love |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennant%20number | In the Royal Navy and other navies of Europe and the Commonwealth of Nations, ships are identified by pennant number (an internationalisation of pendant number, which it was called before 1948). Historically, naval ships flew a flag that identified a flotilla or type of vessel. For example, the Royal Navy used a red burgee for torpedo boats and a pennant with an H for torpedo boat destroyers. Adding a number to the type-identifying flag uniquely identified each ship.
In the current system, a letter prefix, called a flag superior, identifies the type of ship, and numerical suffix, called a flag inferior, uniquely identifies an individual ship. Not all pennant numbers have a flag superior.
Royal Navy systems
The Royal Navy first used pennants to distinguish its ships in 1661 with a proclamation that all of his majesty's ships must fly a union pennant. This distinction was further strengthened by a proclamation in 1674 which forbade merchant vessels from flying any pennants.
The system of numbering pennants was adopted prior to the First World War to distinguish between ships with the same or similar names, to reduce the size and improve the security of communications, and to assist recognition when ships of the same class are together. Traditionally, a pennant number was reported with a full stop "." between the flag superior or inferior and the number, although this practice has gradually been dropped, and inter-war photos after about 1924 tend not to have the full stop painted on the hull. The system was used throughout the navies of the British Empire so that a ship could be transferred from one navy to another without changing its pennant number.
Pennant numbers were originally allocated by individual naval stations and when a ship changed station it would be allocated a new number. The Admiralty took the situation in hand and first compiled a "Naval Pendant List" in 1910, with ships grouped under the distinguishing flag of their type. In addition, ships of th |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YEATS%20domain | In molecular biology, the YEATS domain is a protein domain found in a variety of proteins from eukaryotic organisms. YEATS domain proteins are found in a variety of chromatin modification molecular complexes. Structurally the domain has an immunoglobulin like fold. The YEATS domain has shown to bind to acetyllysine protein modifications. In addition to lysine acetylation, the YEATS domain has shown to be a reader domain for various lysine acylations, with highest affinity for lysine crotonylation.
See also
Bromodomain |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jin%20Akiyama | Jin Akiyama (; born 1946) is a Japanese mathematician, known for his appearances on Japanese prime-time television (NHK) presenting magic tricks with mathematical explanations. He is director of the Mathematical Education Research Center at the Tokyo University of Science, and professor emeritus at Tokai University.
Akiyama studied mathematics at the Tokyo University of Science, where one of his mentors was Takashi Hamada.
He completed a graduate degree at Sophia University under the supervision of Mitio Nagumo, in differential equations, but soon shifted his interests to graph theory. He planned to take a position in Ghana, but
after conflict there caused it to be cancelled he joined the faculty at Nippon Ika University, and then moved to the U.S. for 1978 and 1979 to work with Frank Harary at the University of Michigan. In the 1990s, his interests shifted again, from graph theory to discrete geometry.
Akiyama is a founder of the Japan Conference on Discrete and Computational Geometry, Graphs, and Games (JCDCG3), the founding managing editor of Graphs and Combinatorics,
and the author of the books A Day's Adventure in Math Wonderland (with Mari-Jo Ruiz, World Scientific, 2008), Factors and Factorizations of Graphs (with Mikio Kano, Lecture Notes in Mathematics 2031, Springer, 2011), and Treks Into Intuitive Geometry: The World of Polygons and Polyhedra (with Kiyoko Matsunaga, Springer, 2015). He is also the namesake of a Nintendo DS game, Master Jin Jin's IQ Challenge.
Akiyama's lectures sometimes also include musical performances by him, on accordion or xylophone. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary%20of%20reconfigurable%20computing | This is a glossary of terms used in the field of Reconfigurable computing and reconfigurable computing systems, as opposed to the traditional Von Neumann architecture.
See also
Glossary of computer terms
Reconfigurable computing
Reconfigurable computing
Wikipedia glossaries using description lists |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed-point%20logic | In mathematical logic, fixed-point logics are extensions of classical predicate logic that have been introduced to express recursion. Their development has been motivated by descriptive complexity theory and their relationship to database query languages, in particular to Datalog.
Least fixed-point logic was first studied systematically by Yiannis N. Moschovakis in 1974, and it was introduced to computer scientists in 1979, when Alfred Aho and Jeffrey Ullman suggested fixed-point logic as an expressive database query language.
Partial fixed-point logic
For a relational signature X, FO[PFP](X) is the set of formulas formed from X using first-order connectives and predicates, second-order variables as well as a partial fixed point operator used to form formulas of the form , where is a second-order variable, a tuple of first-order variables, a tuple of terms and the lengths of and coincide with the arity of .
Let be an integer, be vectors of variables, be a second-order variable of arity , and let be an FO(PFP,X) function using and as variables. We can iteratively define such that and (meaning with substituted for the second-order variable ). Then, either there is a fixed point, or the list of s is cyclic.
is defined as the value of the fixed point of on if there is a fixed point, else as false. Since s are properties of arity , there are at most values for the s, so with a polynomial-space counter we can check if there is a loop or not.
It has been proven that on ordered finite structures, a property is expressible in FO(PFP,X) if and only if it lies in PSPACE.
Least fixed-point logic
Since the iterated predicates involved in calculating the partial fixed point are not in general monotone, the fixed-point may not always exist.
FO(LFP,X), least fixed-point logic, is the set of formulas in FO(PFP,X) where the partial fixed point is taken only over such formulas that only contain positive occurrences of (that is, occurrences preceded b |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4104 | 4104 (four thousand one hundred [and] four) is the natural number following 4103 and preceding 4105. It is the second positive integer which can be expressed as the sum of two positive cubes in two different ways. The first such number, 1729, is called the "Ramanujan–Hardy number".
4104 is the sum of 4096 + 8 (that is, 163 + 23), and also the sum of 3375 + 729 (that is, 153 + 93).
See also
Taxicab number
1729
External links
MathWorld: Hardy–Ramanujan Number
Integers |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Pierre%20Eckmann | Jean-Pierre Eckmann (born 27 January 1944) is a Swiss mathematical physicist in the department of theoretical physics at the University of Geneva and a pioneer of chaos theory and social network analysis.
Eckmann is the son of mathematician Beno Eckmann. He completed his PhD in 1970 under the supervision of Marcel Guenin at the University of Geneva. He has been a member of the Academia Europaea since 2001. In 2012, he became a fellow of the American Mathematical Society. He is also a member of the Göttingen Academy of Sciences and Humanities.
With Pierre Collet and Oscar Lanford, Eckmann was the first to find a rigorous mathematical argument for the universality of period-doubling bifurcations in dynamical systems, with scaling ratio given by the Feigenbaum constants. In a highly cited 1985 review paper with David Ruelle, he bridged the contributions of mathematicians and physicists to dynamical systems theory and ergodic theory, put the varied work on dimension-like notions in these fields on a firm mathematical footing, and formulated the Eckmann–Ruelle conjecture on the dimension of hyperbolic ergodic measures, "one of the main problems in the interface of dimension theory and dynamical systems". A proof of the conjecture was finally published 14 years later, in 1999. Eckmann has done additional mathematical work in very diverse fields such as statistical mechanics, partial differential equations, and graph theory.
His PhD students have included Viviane Baladi, Pierre Collet, and Martin Hairer. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeroelasticity | Aeroelasticity is the branch of physics and engineering studying the interactions between the inertial, elastic, and aerodynamic forces occurring while an elastic body is exposed to a fluid flow. The study of aeroelasticity may be broadly classified into two fields: static aeroelasticity dealing with the static or steady state response of an elastic body to a fluid flow, and dynamic aeroelasticity dealing with the body's dynamic (typically vibrational) response.
Aircraft are prone to aeroelastic effects because they need to be lightweight and withstand large aerodynamic loads. Aircraft are designed to avoid the following aeroelastic problems:
divergence where the aerodynamic forces increase the angle of attack of a wing which further increases the force;
control reversal where control activation produces an opposite aerodynamic moment that reduces, or in extreme cases, reverses the control effectiveness; and
flutter which is the uncontained vibration that can lead to the destruction of an aircraft.
Aeroelasticity problems can be prevented by adjusting the mass, stiffness or aerodynamics of structures which can be determined and verified through the use of calculations, ground vibration tests and flight flutter trials. Flutter of control surfaces is usually eliminated by the careful placement of mass balances.
The synthesis of aeroelasticity with thermodynamics is known as aerothermoelasticity, and its synthesis with control theory is known as aeroservoelasticity.
History
The second failure of Samuel Langley's prototype plane on the Potomac was attributed to aeroelastic effects (specifically, torsional divergence). An early scientific work on the subject was George Bryan's Theory of the Stability of a Rigid Aeroplane published in 1906. Problems with torsional divergence plagued aircraft in the First World War and were solved largely by trial-and-error and ad hoc stiffening of the wing. The first recorded and documented case of flutter in an aircraft was th |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KeePass | KeePass Password Safe is a free and open-source password manager primarily for Windows. It officially supports macOS and Linux operating systems through the use of Mono. Additionally, there are several unofficial ports for Windows Phone, Android, iOS, and BlackBerry devices, which normally work with the same copied or shared (remote) password database. KeePass stores usernames, passwords, and other fields, including free-form notes and file attachments, in an encrypted file. This file can be protected by any combination of a master password, a key file, and the current Windows account details. By default, the KeePass database is stored on a local file system (as opposed to cloud storage).
KeePass comes in two different variants: KeePass 1.x and KeePass 2.x. Although the 1.x variant is the former variant it is supported indefinitely: Dominik Reichl: "2.x isn't the successor of 1.x, and 1.x isn't dead". KeePass 2.x has a different software basis in C# instead of the former C++. Mainly communication features are extended in KeePass 2.x: authentication with the Windows user account, remote and shared database editing as well as many plugins allowing communication and authentication with different web browsers, databases and more.
KeePass 1.x and 2.x support a number of plugins, although 2.x allows more plugins. It has a password generator and synchronization function, supports two-factor authentication, and has a Secure Desktop mode. It can use a two-channel auto-type obfuscation feature to offer additional protection against keyloggers. KeePass can import from over 30 other most commonly used password managers.
A 2017 Consumer Reports article described KeePass as one of the four most widely used password managers (alongside 1Password, Dashlane and LastPass), being "popular among tech enthusiasts" and offering the same level of security as non-free competitors.
A 2019 Independent Security Evaluators study described KeePass as well as other widely used password mana |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copra | Copra (from Tamil: கொப்பரை, Kopparai ; ; Kannada: ಕೊಬ್ಬರಿ, Kobbari) is the dried, white flesh of the coconut from which coconut oil is extracted. Traditionally, the coconuts are sun-dried, especially for export, before the oil, also known as copra oil, is pressed out. The oil extracted from copra is rich in lauric acid, making it an important commodity in the preparation of lauryl alcohol, soaps, fatty acids, cosmetics, etc. and thus a lucrative product for many coconut-producing countries. The palatable oil cake, known as copra cake, obtained as a residue in the production of copra oil is used in animal feeds. The ground cake is known as coconut or copra meal.
Production
Copra has traditionally been grated and ground, then boiled in water to extract coconut oil. It was used by Pacific island cultures and became a valuable commercial product for merchants in the South Seas and South Asia in the 1860s. Nowadays, coconut oil (70%) is extracted by crushing copra; the by-product is known as copra cake or copra meal (30%).
The coconut cake which remains after the oil is extracted is 18–25% protein, but contains so much dietary fiber it cannot be eaten in large quantities by humans. Instead, it is normally fed to ruminants.
The production of copra – removing the shell, breaking it up, drying – is usually done where the coconut palms grow. Copra can be made by smoke drying, sun drying, or kiln drying. Hybrid solar drying systems can also be used for a continuous drying process. In a hybrid solar drying system, solar energy is utilized during daylight and energy from burning biomass is used when sunlight is not sufficient or during night. Sun drying requires little more than racks and sufficient sunlight. Halved nuts are drained of water, and left with the meat facing the sky; they can be washed to remove mold-creating contaminants. After two days the meat can be removed from the shell with ease, and the drying process is complete after three to five more days (up to s |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloroplast%20DNA | Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) is the DNA located in chloroplasts, which are photosynthetic organelles located within the cells of some eukaryotic organisms. Chloroplasts, like other types of plastid, contain a genome separate from that in the cell nucleus. The existence of chloroplast DNA was identified biochemically in 1959, and confirmed by electron microscopy in 1962. The discoveries that the chloroplast contains ribosomes and performs protein synthesis revealed that the chloroplast is genetically semi-autonomous. The first complete chloroplast genome sequences were published in 1986, Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco) by Sugiura and colleagues and Marchantia polymorpha (liverwort) by Ozeki et al. Since then, a great number of chloroplast DNAs from various species have been sequenced.
Molecular structure
Chloroplast DNAs are circular, and are typically 120,000–170,000 base pairs long. They can have a contour length of around 30–60 micrometers, and have a mass of about 80–130 million daltons.
Most chloroplasts have their entire chloroplast genome combined into a single large ring, though those of dinophyte algae are a notable exception—their genome is broken up into about forty small plasmids, each 2,000–10,000 base pairs long. Each minicircle contains one to three genes, but blank plasmids, with no coding DNA, have also been found.
Chloroplast DNA has long been thought to have a circular structure, but some evidence suggests that chloroplast DNA more commonly takes a linear shape. Over 95% of the chloroplast DNA in corn chloroplasts has been observed to be in branched linear form rather than individual circles.
Inverted repeats
Many chloroplast DNAs contain two inverted repeats, which separate a long single copy section (LSC) from a short single copy section (SSC).
The inverted repeats vary wildly in length, ranging from 4,000 to 25,000 base pairs long each. Inverted repeats in plants tend to be at the upper end of this range, each being 20,000–25,000 base pairs long.
T |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working%20mass | Working mass, also referred to as reaction mass, is a mass against which a system operates in order to produce acceleration.
In the case of a chemical rocket, for example, the reaction mass is the product of the burned fuel shot backwards to provide propulsion. All acceleration requires an exchange of momentum, which can be thought of as the "unit of movement". Momentum is related to mass and velocity, as given by the formula P = mv, where P is the momentum, m the mass, and v the velocity. The velocity of a body is easily changeable, but in most cases the mass is not, which makes it important.
Rockets and rocket-like reaction engines
In rockets, the total velocity change can be calculated (using the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation) as follows:
Where:
v = ship velocity.
u = exhaust velocity.
M = ship mass, not including the working mass.
m = total mass ejected from the ship (working mass).
The term working mass is used primarily in the aerospace field. In more "down to earth" examples the working mass is typically provided by the Earth, which contains so much momentum in comparison to most vehicles that the amount it gains or loses can be ignored. However, in the case of an aircraft the working mass is the air, and in the case of a rocket, it is the rocket fuel itself. Most rocket engines use light-weight fuels (liquid hydrogen, oxygen, or kerosene) accelerated to super-sonic speeds. However, ion engines often use heavier elements like xenon as the reaction mass, accelerated to much higher speeds using electric fields.
In many cases the working mass is separate from the energy used to accelerate it. In a car the engine provides power to the wheels, which then accelerates the Earth backward to make the car move forward. This is not the case for most rockets however, where the rocket propellant is the working mass, as well as the energy source. This means that rockets stop accelerating as soon as they run out of fuel, regardless of other power sources they may have |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harborth%27s%20conjecture | In mathematics, Harborth's conjecture states that every planar graph has a planar drawing in which every edge is a straight segment of integer length. This conjecture is named after Heiko Harborth, and (if true) would strengthen Fáry's theorem on the existence of straight-line drawings for every planar graph. For this reason, a drawing with integer edge lengths is also known as an integral Fáry embedding. Despite much subsequent research, Harborth's conjecture remains unsolved.
Special classes of graphs
Although Harborth's conjecture is not known to be true for all planar graphs, it has been proven for several special kinds of planar graph.
One class of graphs that have integral Fáry embeddings are the graphs that can be reduced to the empty graph by a sequence of operations of two types:
Removing a vertex of degree at most two.
Replacing a vertex of degree three by an edge between two of its neighbors. (If such an edge already exists, the degree three vertex can be removed without adding another edge between its neighbors.)
For such a graph, a rational Fáry embedding can be constructed incrementally by reversing this removal process, using the facts that the set of points that are at a rational distance from two given points are dense in the plane, and that if three points have rational distance between one pair and square-root-of-rational distance between the other two pairs, then the points at rational distances from all three are again dense in the plane. The distances in such an embedding can be made into integers by scaling the embedding by an appropriate factor. Based on this construction, the graphs known to have integral Fáry embeddings include the bipartite planar graphs, (2,1)-sparse planar graphs, planar graphs of treewidth at most 3, and graphs of degree at most four that either contain a diamond subgraph or are not 4-edge-connected.
In particular, the graphs that can be reduced to the empty graph by the removal only of vertices of degree at most two |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated%20Software%20for%20Imagers%20and%20Spectrometers | Integrated Software for Imagers and Spectrometers (Isis) is a specialized software package developed by the USGS to process images and spectra collected by current and past NASA planetary missions sent to Earth's Moon, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and other solar system bodies.
History
The history of ISIS began in 1971 at the United States Geological Survey (USGS) in Flagstaff, Arizona.
Isis was developed in 1989, primarily to support the Galileo NIMS instrument.
It contains standard image processing capabilities (such as image algebra, filters, statistics) for both 2D images and 3D data cubes, as well as mission-specific data processing capabilities and cartographic rendering functions.
Raster data format name
Family of related formats that are used by the USGS Planetary Cartography group to store and distribute planetary imagery data.
PDS, Planetary Data System
ISIS2, USGS Astrogeology Isis cube (Version 2)
ISIS3, USGS Astrogeology ISIS Cube (Version 3)
See also
Ames Stereo Pipeline |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De%20Moivre%27s%20law | De Moivre's Law is a survival model applied in actuarial science, named for Abraham de Moivre. It is a simple law of mortality based on a linear survival function.
Definition
De Moivre's law has a single
parameter called the ultimate age. Under de Moivre's
law, a newborn has probability of surviving at least x years given by the
survival function
In actuarial notation (x) denotes a status or life that has survived to age x, and T(x) is the future lifetime of (x) (T(x) is a random variable). The conditional probability that (x) survives to age x+t is Pr[T(0) ≥ x+t | T(0) ≥ x] = S(x+t) / S(x),
which is denoted by .
Under de Moivre's law, the conditional probability that a life aged x years survives
at least t more years is
and the future lifetime random variable T(x) therefore follows a uniform distribution on
.
The actuarial notation for conditional probability of failure is = Pr[0 ≤ T(x) ≤ t|T(0) ≥ x]. Under de Moivre's law, the probability that (x) fails to survive to age x+t is
The force of mortality (hazard rate or failure rate) is where f(x) is the probability density function. Under de Moivre's law, the force of mortality for a life aged x is
which has the property of an increasing failure rate with respect to age.
De Moivre's law is applied as a simple analytical law of mortality and the linear assumption is also applied as a model for interpolation for discrete survival models such as life tables.
History
De Moivre's law first appeared in his 1725 Annuities upon Lives, the earliest known example of an actuarial textbook. Despite the name now given to it, de Moivre himself did not consider his law (he called it a "hypothesis") to be a true description of the pattern of human mortality. Instead, he introduced it as a useful approximation when calculating the cost of annuities. In his text, de Moivre noted that " ... although the Notion of an equable Decrement of Life ... [does] not exactly agree with the Tables, yet that Notion may successfull |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dogs%20in%20Space%20%28TV%20series%29 | Dogs in Space is an animated action-adventure streaming television series created by Jeremiah Cortez and developed by Cortez, James Hamilton and Adam Henry for Netflix. Produced by GrizzlyJerr Productions and Netflix Animation, with animation purchased from Atomic Cartoons, the series premiered on November 18, 2021. The second and final season premiered on September 15, 2022.
Synopsis
In the not-so-distant future, genetically enhanced dogs are sent across the universe in search of a new home for the human race. It's a giant cosmic game of fetch, as the canines seek a planet that will save humanity and more importantly let them return to their beloved owners.
Voice cast
Crew of Pluto
Haley Joel Osment as Garbage, an impulsive corgi who serves as the main captain of the Pluto in Season 1 who is determined to find a new home for humanity. He briefly serves as a crew member of the team in Season 2 after being demoted in the end of that season. And eventually becoming co-captain with Stella at the end of the Season.
Oliver
Gracen Newton as Puppy Garbage
Sarah Chalke as Stella, a sensible Sheltie who serves as tactical officer of the Pluto until the end of Season 1, where she is later promoted to become captain of the Pluto at the end and later on in the rest of the Season.
Kimiko Glenn as Nomi, a shih tzu who serves as the brash, excitable pilot of the Pluto.
Sophie, a member of Jupiter
Sophie Jean Wu as Puppy Nomi
Chris Parnell as Ed, a Jack Russell terrier kleptomaniac who serves as an "ambassador" of the Pluto.
Dawson Griffen as Puppy Ed
David Lopez as Chonies, a chihuahua who is the Pluto'''s med/tech officer and a yes-man.
Dylan Alvarado as Puppy Chonies
William Jackson Harper as Loaf, a nervous bulldog surveillance officer who helps the crew from the M-Bark.
Debra Wilson as Kira, a laika who was sent to space by P.R.A.T.S in order to find humanity a new home to settle in and was stranded on an unknown planet until Garbage and his crew found her and |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elder%20financial%20abuse | Elder financial abuse is a type of elder abuse in which misappropriation of financial resources or abusive use of financial control, in the context of a relationship where there is an expectation of trust, causes harm to an older person.
The Older Americans Act of 2006 defines elder financial abuse, or financial exploitation, as “the fraudulent or otherwise illegal, unauthorized, or improper act or process of an individual, including a caregiver or fiduciary, that uses the resources of an older individual for monetary or personal benefit, profit, or gain, or that results in depriving an older individual of rightful access to, or use of, benefits, resources, belongings, or assets.”
Types
By family or caregivers
Family members and informal or paid caregivers have special access to seniors and thus are often in a position to inflict financial abuse through deception, coercion, misrepresentation, undue influence, or theft. Common abusive practices include:
Money or property is used without the senior's permission or taken from them, for example removal from their home and then use of the home by the abuser, or depositing income such as pension or benefit checks
The senior's signature is forged or identity is misappropriated for financial transactions
The senior is coerced or influenced to sign over deeds or wills, or caused to execute legal documents they do not understand
The abuser fraudulently obtains a power of attorney or guardianship
Money is borrowed from the senior and never repaid
Family members engaged in financial abuse of the elderly may include spouses, siblings, children, grandchildren or other relatives. They may engage in the activity because they feel justified, for instance, they are taking what they might later inherit or have a sense of "entitlement" due to a negative personal relationship with the older person, or that it is somehow the price of a promise of lifelong care. Or they may take money or property to prevent other family members |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PADICAT | PADICAT acronym for Patrimoni Digital de Catalunya, in Catalan; or Digital Heritage of Catalonia, in English, is the Web Archive of Catalonia.
Created in 2005 by the Biblioteca de Catalunya, the public institution responsible for collecting, preserving and distributing the bibliographic heritage, and the digital heritage by extension. Has the technological collaboration of the Center for Scientific and Academic Services of Catalonia, (CESCA) for preserving and giving access to old versions of web pages published on the Internet. The Biblioteca de Catalunya, as the responsible of PADICAT, is member of the International Internet Preservation Consortium (IIPC).
History
PADICAT was born in 2005 following the trend of other national libraries on web archives creation, and as an answer to the publication of the guidelines for the preservation of digital heritage by the UNESCO. There are many web archives running. The most famous began in 1996: the Swedish Kulturarw3; the Australian Pandora, and the most popular repository, Internet Archive.
The analysis of these and other projects, made way to the planning of PADICAT project, following the common trend around the world of a hybrid model of functioning, complementing the regular capture of a whole geographical domain (.cat domain in this case), with selective actions, and expand these coverage to different social events that generate an intense activity in the network (electoral campaigns, for instance) or with thematic packages (museums of Catalonia, Catalan folk-rock on the web, etc.). PADICAT complements all this with users contributions through the recommended webs.
In June 2005, the Biblioteca de Catalunya started the preliminary phase, of planning, in which a projects analysis was performed about existing resources, agents involved in production of web pages of Catalonia and legal issues that determine practices that want to do.
Based on parameters defined by the Biblioteca de Catalunya, on July 21, 2006, be |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fault%20injection | In computer science, fault injection is a testing technique for understanding how computing systems behave when stressed in unusual ways. This can be achieved using physical- or software-based means, or using a hybrid approach. Widely studied physical fault injections include the application of high voltages, extreme temperatures and electromagnetic pulses on electronic components, such as computer memory and central processing units. By exposing components to conditions beyond their intended operating limits, computing systems can be coerced into mis-executing instructions and corrupting critical data.
In software testing, fault injection is a technique for improving the coverage of a test by introducing faults to test code paths; in particular error handling code paths, that might otherwise rarely be followed. It is often used with stress testing and is widely considered to be an important part of developing robust software. Robustness testing (also known as syntax testing, fuzzing or fuzz testing) is a type of fault injection commonly used to test for vulnerabilities in communication interfaces such as protocols, command line parameters, or APIs.
The propagation of a fault through to an observable failure follows a well-defined cycle. When executed, a fault may cause an error, which is an invalid state within a system boundary. An error may cause further errors within the system boundary, therefore each new error acts as a fault, or it may propagate to the system boundary and be observable. When error states are observed at the system boundary they are termed failures. This mechanism is termed the fault-error-failure cycle and is a key mechanism in dependability.
History
The technique of fault injection dates back to the 1970s when it was first used to induce faults at a hardware level. This type of fault injection is called Hardware Implemented Fault Injection (HWIFI) and attempts to simulate hardware failures within a system. The first experiments in hardw |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/149th%20meridian%20east | The meridian 149° east of Greenwich is a line of longitude that extends from the North Pole across the Arctic Ocean, Asia, the Pacific Ocean, Australasia, the Southern Ocean, and Antarctica to the South Pole.
The 149th meridian east forms a great circle with the 31st meridian west.
From Pole to Pole
Starting at the North Pole and heading south to the South Pole, the 149th meridian east passes through:
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders"
! scope="col" width="125" | Co-ordinates
! scope="col" width="140" | Country, territory or sea
! scope="col" | Notes
|-
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" |
! scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" | Arctic Ocean
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" |
|-
|
! scope="row" |
| Sakha Republic — Bennett Island
|-
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" |
! scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" | East Siberian Sea
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" |
|-
|
! scope="row" |
| Sakha Republic — island of New Siberia
|-
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" |
! scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" | East Siberian Sea
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" |
|-valign="top"
|
! scope="row" |
| Sakha Republic Magadan Oblast — from
|-
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" |
! scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" | Sea of Okhotsk
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" | Taui Bay
|-
|
! scope="row" |
| Magadan Oblast — Spafaryev Island
|-valign="top"
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" |
! scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" | Sea of Okhotsk
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" | Passing just east of Iturup in the Kuril Islands (at ), administered by (Sakhalin Oblast), but claimed by (Hokkaidō Prefecture)
|-valign="top"
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" |
! scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" | Pacific Ocean
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" | Passing just west of the island of Narage, (at ) Passing just west of the island of Unea, (at )
|-valign="top"
|
! scope="row" |
| Island of New Britain Arawe Islands — from
|-
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" |
! scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6; |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance%20engineering | Performance engineering encompasses the techniques applied during a systems development life cycle to ensure the non-functional requirements for performance (such as throughput, latency, or memory usage) will be met. It may be alternatively referred to as systems performance engineering within systems engineering, and software performance engineering or application performance engineering within software engineering.
As the connection between application success and business success continues to gain recognition, particularly in the mobile space, application performance engineering has taken on a preventive and perfective role within the software development life cycle. As such, the term is typically used to describe the processes, people and technologies required to effectively test non-functional requirements, ensure adherence to service levels and optimize application performance prior to deployment.
The term performance engineering encompasses more than just the software and supporting infrastructure, and as such the term performance engineering is preferable from a macro view. Adherence to the non-functional requirements is also validated post-deployment by monitoring the production systems. This is part of IT service management (see also ITIL).
Performance engineering has become a separate discipline at a number of large corporations, with tasking separate but parallel to systems engineering. It is pervasive, involving people from multiple organizational units; but predominantly within the information technology organization.
Performance engineering objectives
Increase business revenue by ensuring the system can process transactions within the requisite timeframe
Eliminate system failure requiring scrapping and writing off the system development effort due to performance objective failure
Eliminate late system deployment due to performance issues
Eliminate avoidable system rework due to performance issues
Eliminate avoidable system tuning efforts
Avoid a |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dehydrocurvularin | Dehydrocurvularin is an antimicrobial made by Penicillium. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated%20Computer-Aided%20Manufacturing | Integrated Computer-Aided Manufacturing (ICAM) is a US Air Force program that develops tools, techniques, and processes to support manufacturing integration. It influenced the computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) project efforts of many companies.
The ICAM program was founded in 1976 and initiative managed by the US Air Force at Wright-Patterson as a part of their technology modernization efforts. The program initiated the development a series of standards for modeling and analysis in management and business improvement, called Integrated Definitions, short IDEFs.
Overview
The USAF ICAM program was founded in 1976 at the US Air Force Materials Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Ohio by Dennis E. Wisnosky and Dan L. Shunk and others. In the mid-1970s Joseph Harrington had assisted Wisnosky and Shunk in designing the ICAM program and had broadened the concept of CIM to include the entire manufacturing company. Harrington considered manufacturing a "monolithic function".
The ICAM program was visionary in showing that a new approach was necessary to achieve integration in manufacturing firms. Wisnosky and Shunk developed a "wheel" to illustrate the architecture of their ICAM project and to show the various elements that had to work together. Wisnosky and Shunk were among the first to understand the web of interdependencies needed for integration. Their work represents the first major step in shifting the focus of manufacturing from a series of sequential operations to parallel processing.
The ICAM program has spent over $100 million to develop tools, techniques, and processes to support manufacturing integration. The Air Force's ICAM program recognizes the role of data as central to any integration effort. Data must be common and shareable across functions. The concept still remains ahead of its time, because most major companies did not seriously begin to attack the data architecture challenge until well into t |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frailty%20index | The frailty index (FI) can be used to measure the health status of older individuals; it serves as a proxy measure of aging and vulnerability to poor outcomes.
FI was developed by Dr. Kenneth Rockwood and Dr. Arnold Mitnitski at Dalhousie University in Canada.
FI is defined as the proportion of deficits present in an individual out of the total number of age-related health variables considered. A frailty index can be created in most secondary data sources related to health by utilizing health deficits that are routinely collected in health assessments. These deficits include diseases, signs and symptoms, laboratory abnormalities, cognitive impairments, and disabilities in activities of daily living.
Frailty Index (FI) = (number of health deficits present) ÷ (number of health deficits measured)
For example, a person with 20 of 40 deficits collected has an FI score of 20/40 = 0.5; whilst for someone with 10 deficits, the FI score is 10/40 = 0.25. The FI takes advantage of the high redundancy in the human organism. This is why it is replicable across different databases even when different items and different numbers of items are used. The standard procedure for creating a frailty index are found in an open-access publication.
There are several frailty indices, including a clinical deficits frailty index (FI-CD) and a biomarker-based frailty index (FI-B).
See also
Disability
Physiological functional capacity |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather%20Underground%20%28weather%20service%29 | Weather Underground is a commercial weather service providing real-time weather information over the Internet. Weather Underground provides weather reports for most major cities around the world on its Web site, as well as local weather reports for newspapers and third-party sites. Its information comes from the National Weather Service (NWS), and over 250,000 personal weather stations (PWS). The site is available in many languages, and customers can access an ad-free version of the site with additional features for an annual fee. Weather Underground is owned by The Weather Company, a subsidiary of IBM.
History
The company is based in San Francisco, California and was founded in 1995 as an offshoot of the University of Michigan internet weather database. The name is a reference to the 1960s radical left-wing militant organization the Weather Underground, which also originated at the University of Michigan.
Jeff Masters, a doctoral candidate in meteorology at the University of Michigan working under the direction of Professor Perry Samson, wrote a menu-based Telnet interface in 1991 that displayed real-time weather information around the world. In 1993, they recruited Alan Steremberg and initiated a project to bring Internet weather into K–12 classrooms. Weather Underground president Alan Steremberg wrote "Blue Skies" for the project, a graphical Mac Gopher client, which won several awards. When the Mosaic Web browser appeared, this provided a natural transition from "Blue Skies" to the Web.
In 1995 Weather Underground Inc. became a commercial entity separate from the university. It has grown to provide weather for print sources, in addition to its online presence. In 2005, Weather Underground became the weather provider for the Associated Press; Weather Underground also provides weather reports for some newspapers, including the San Francisco Chronicle and the Google search engine. Alan Steremberg also worked on the early development of the Google search engine |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citrus%20medica%20%C3%97%20aurantium | Citrus medica × aurantium may refer to one of several hybrids between a citron and sour orange:
Bizzaria, a graft hybrid between a Florentine citron and sour orange
Lemon, Citrus limon, any of the various commercially prominent citron-sour orange hybrids
Pompia, Citrus medica var. tuberosa, a hybrid between a Diamante citron and a sour orange
Rhobs el Arsa, a hybrid between a Diamante citron or common poncire citron and a sour orange |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aflatoxin%20total%20synthesis | Aflatoxin total synthesis concerns the total synthesis of a group of organic compounds called aflatoxins. These compounds occur naturally in several fungi. As with other chemical compound targets in organic chemistry, the organic synthesis of aflatoxins serves various purposes. Traditionally it served to prove the structure of a complex biocompound in addition to evidence obtained from spectroscopy. It also demonstrates new concepts in organic chemistry (reagents, reaction types) and opens the way to molecular derivatives not found in nature. And for practical purposes, a synthetic biocompound is a commercial alternative to isolating the compound from natural resources. Aflatoxins in particular add another dimension because it is suspected that they have been mass-produced in the past from biological sources as part of a biological weapons program.
The synthesis of racemic aflatoxin B1 has been reported by Buechi et al. in 1967 and that of racemic aflatoxin B2 by Roberts et al. in 1968 The group of Barry Trost of Stanford University is responsible for the enantioselective total synthesis of (+)-Aflatoxin B1 and B2a in 2003. In 2005 the group of E. J. Corey of Harvard University presented the enantioselective synthesis of Aflatoxin B2.
Aflatoxin B2 synthesis
The total synthesis of Aflatoxin B2 is a multistep sequence that begins with a [2+3]cycloaddition between the quinone 1 and the 2,3-Dihydrofuran. This reaction is catalyzed by a CBS catalyst and is enantioselective. The next step is the orthoformylation of reaction product 2 in a Duff reaction. The hydroxyl group in 3 is esterified with triflic anhydride which adds a triflate protecting group. This step enables a Grignard reaction of the aldehyde group in 4 with methylmagnesiumbromide to the alcohol 5 which is then oxidized with the Dess-Martin periodinane to the ketone 6. A Baeyer-Villiger oxidation converts the ketone to an ester (7) and a reduction with Raney nickel converts the ester into an alcohol and |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network%20Device%20Control%20Protocol | Network Device Control Protocol (NDCP) was designed by Laurent Grumbach who at the time was an engineer with Harris Broadcast. Previous to that he had worked for Louth Automation which was acquired by Harris. NDCP was designed to be a network based protocol instead of the traditional serial connection protocols to Broadcast devices. NDCP was an XML compliant protocol and loosely based on the concepts of SOAP. The intent was that vendors would standardize their Broadcast devices on a single protocol instead of each vendor offering proprietary protocols for their devices. The use of a network based protocol would also allow the devices to be remote from the controlling application and not limited by the connection length of an RS422 serial line.
External links
Harris Corporation Launches New, Network-Based Automation Protocol for Controlling Broadcast Audio and Video Devices
RDD 38:2016 - SMPTE Registered Disclosure Docs - Networked Device Control Protocol — Message Data Structure and Method of Communication
Network protocols |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histone-modifying%20enzymes | Histone-modifying enzymes are enzymes involved in the modification of histone substrates after protein translation and affect cellular processes including gene expression. To safely store the eukaryotic genome, DNA is wrapped around four core histone proteins (H3, H4, H2A, H2B), which then join to form nucleosomes. These nucleosomes further fold together into highly condensed chromatin, which renders the organism's genetic material far less accessible to the factors required for gene transcription, DNA replication, recombination and repair. Subsequently, eukaryotic organisms have developed intricate mechanisms to overcome this repressive barrier imposed by the chromatin through histone modification, a type of post-translational modification which typically involves covalently attaching certain groups to histone residues. Once added to the histone, these groups (directly or indirectly) elicit either a loose and open histone conformation, euchromatin, or a tight and closed histone conformation, heterochromatin. Euchromatin marks active transcription and gene expression, as the light packing of histones in this way allows entry for proteins involved in the transcription process. As such, the tightly packed heterochromatin marks the absence of current gene expression.
While there exist several distinct post-translational modifications for histones, the four most common histone modifications include acetylation, methylation, phosphorylation and ubiquitination. Histone-modifying enzymes that induce a modification (e.g., add a functional group) are dubbed writers, while enzymes that revert modifications are dubbed erasers. Furthermore, there are many uncommon histone modifications including O-GlcNAcylation, sumoylation, ADP-ribosylation, citrullination and proline isomerization. For a detailed example of histone modifications in transcription regulation see RNA polymerase control by chromatin structure and table "Examples of histone modifications in transcriptional regula |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washburn%27s%20equation | In physics, Washburn's equation describes capillary flow in a bundle of parallel cylindrical tubes; it is extended with some issues also to imbibition into porous materials. The equation is named after Edward Wight Washburn; also known as Lucas–Washburn equation, considering that Richard Lucas wrote a similar paper three years earlier, or the Bell-Cameron-Lucas-Washburn equation, considering J.M. Bell and F.K. Cameron's discovery of the form of the equation in 1906.
Derivation
In its most general form the Lucas Washburn equation describes the penetration length () of a liquid into a capillary pore or tube with time as , where is a simplified diffusion coefficient. This relationship, which holds true for a variety of situations, captures the essence of Lucas and Washburn's equation and shows that capillary penetration and fluid transport through porous structures exhibit diffusive behaviour akin to that which occurs in numerous physical and chemical systems. The diffusion coefficient is governed by the geometry of the capillary as well as the properties of the penetrating fluid.
A liquid having a dynamic viscosity and surface tension will penetrate a distance into the capillary whose pore radius is following the relationship:
Where is the contact angle between the penetrating liquid and the solid (tube wall).
Washburn's equation is also used commonly to determine the contact angle of a liquid to a powder using a force tensiometer.
In the case of porous materials, many issues have been raised both about the physical meaning of the calculated pore radius and the real possibility to use this equation for the calculation of the contact angle of the solid.
The equation is derived for capillary flow in a cylindrical tube in the absence of a gravitational field, but is sufficiently accurate in many cases when the capillary force is still significantly greater than the gravitational force.
In his paper from 1921 Washburn applies Poiseuille's Law for fluid mo |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-level%20cell | In electronics, a multi-level cell (MLC) is a memory cell capable of storing more than a single bit of information, compared to a single-level cell (SLC), which can store only one bit per memory cell. A memory cell typically consists of a single floating-gate MOSFET (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor), thus multi-level cells reduce the number of MOSFETs required to store the same amount of data as single-level cells.
Triple-level cells (TLC) and quad-level cells (QLC) are versions of MLC memory, which can store three and four bits per cell respectively. The name "multi-level cell" is sometimes used specifically to refer to the "two-level cell". Overall, the memories are named as follows:
Single-level cell or SLC (1 bit per cell)
Multi-level cell or MLC (2 bits per cell), alternatively double-level cell or DLC
Triple-level cell or TLC (3 bits per cell) or 3-Bit MLC
Quad-level cell or QLC (4 bits per cell)
Penta-level cell or PLC (5 bits per cell) – currently in development
Notice that this nomenclature can be misleading, since an "n-level cell" in fact uses 2n levels of charge to store n bits (see below).
Typically, as the "level" count increases, performance (speed and reliability) and consumer cost decrease; however, this correlation can vary between manufacturers.
Examples of MLC memories are MLC NAND flash, MLC PCM (phase-change memory), etc. For example, in SLC NAND flash technology, each cell can exist in one of the two states, storing one bit of information per cell. Most MLC NAND flash memory has four possible states per cell, so it can store two bits of information per cell. This reduces the amount of margin separating the states and results in the possibility of more errors. Multi-level cells that are designed for low error rates are sometimes called enterprise MLC (eMLC).
New technologies, such as multi-level cells and 3D Flash, and increased production volumes will continue to bring prices down.
Single-level cell
Flash memory s |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primer%20dimer | A primer dimer (PD) is a potential by-product in the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), a common biotechnological method. As its name implies, a PD consists of two primer molecules that have attached (hybridized) to each other because of strings of complementary bases in the primers. As a result, the DNA polymerase amplifies the PD, leading to competition for PCR reagents, thus potentially inhibiting amplification of the DNA sequence targeted for PCR amplification. In quantitative PCR, PDs may interfere with accurate quantification.
Mechanism of formation
A primer dimer is formed and amplified in three steps. In the first step, two primers anneal at their respective 3' ends (step I in the figure). If this construct is stable enough, the DNA polymerase will bind and extend the primers according to the complementary sequence (step II in the figure). An important factor contributing to the stability of the construct in step I is a high GC-content at the 3' ends and length of the overlap. The third step occurs in the next cycle, when a single strand of the product of step II is used as a template to which fresh primers anneal leading to synthesis of more PD product.
Detection
Primer dimers may be visible after gel electrophoresis of the PCR product. PDs in ethidium bromide-stained gels are typically seen as a 30-50 base-pair (bp) band or smear of moderate to high intensity and distinguishable from the band of the target sequence, which is typically longer than 50 bp.
In quantitative PCR, PDs may be detected by melting curve analysis with intercalating dyes, such as SYBR Green I, a nonspecific dye for detection of double-stranded DNA. Because they usually consist of short sequences, the PDs denature at lower temperature than the target sequence and hence can be distinguished by their melting-curve characteristics.
Preventing primer-dimer formation
One approach to prevent PDs consists of physical-chemical optimization of the PCR system, i.e. changing the concentrations |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryeh%20Dvoretzky | Aryeh (Arie) Dvoretzky (, ; May 3, 1916 – May 8, 2008) was a Ukrainian-born Israeli mathematician, the winner of the 1973 Israel Prize in Mathematics. He is best known for his work in functional analysis, statistics and probability. He was the eighth president of the Weizmann Institute of Science.
Biography
Aryeh Dvoretzky was born in Khorol, Imperial Russia (now Ukraine). His family immigrated to Palestine in 1922. He graduated from the Hebrew Reali School in Haifa in 1933, and received his Ph.D. at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in 1941. His advisor was Michael Fekete. He continued working in Jerusalem, becoming a full professor in 1951, the first graduate of the Hebrew University to achieve this distinction.
Dvoretzky's son Gideon was killed in the 1973 Yom Kippur War.
Academic career
Dvoretzky had visiting appointments at a number of universities, including Collège de France, Columbia University, Purdue University, Stanford University, and the University of California, Berkeley. He also visited twice the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton (in 1948–1950 and in 1957–1958).
In 1975, he founded the Institute for Advanced Studies of Jerusalem based on the Princeton IAS model. Dvoretzky was the Dean of the Faculty of Sciences (1955–1956) and Vice President of the Hebrew University (1959–1961). He was elected president of the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities (1974–1980) and became the eighth president of the Weizmann Institute of Science (1986–1989). He was awarded an honorary doctorate from Tel Aviv University in 1996. Dvoretzky's students included Branko Grünbaum and Joram Lindenstrauss.
Business and civic career
In 1960, he became the head of Rafael, the weapons development authority. He later became the chief scientist for the Israel Ministry of Defense.
Awards and recognition
In 1998, received the Solomon Bublick Award of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. In 1973, he was awarded Israel Prize in Mathematics. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigorous%20coupled-wave%20analysis | Rigorous coupled-wave analysis (RCWA) is a semi-analytical method in computational electromagnetics that is most typically applied to solve scattering from periodic dielectric structures. It is a Fourier-space method so devices and fields are represented as a sum of spatial harmonics.
Floquet's theorem
The method is based on Floquet's theorem that the solutions of periodic differential equations can be expanded with Floquet functions (or sometimes referred as a Bloch wave, especially in the solid-state physics community). A device is divided into layers that are each uniform in the z direction. A staircase approximation is needed for curved devices with properties such as dielectric permittivity graded along the z-direction. The electromagnetic modes in each layer are calculated and analytically propagated through the layers. The overall problem is solved by matching boundary conditions at each of the interfaces between the layers using a technique like scattering matrices. To solve for the electromagnetic modes, which are decided by the wave vector of the incident plane wave, in periodic dielectric medium, Maxwell's equations (in partial differential form) as well as the boundary conditions are expanded by the Floquet functions and turned into infinitely large algebraic equations. With the cutting off of higher order Floquet functions, depending on the accuracy and convergence speed one needs, the infinitely large algebraic equations become finite and thus solvable by computers.
Fourier factorization
Being a Fourier-space method it suffers several drawbacks. Gibbs phenomenon is particularly severe for devices with high dielectric contrast. Truncating the number of spatial harmonics can also slow convergence and techniques like fast Fourier factorization (FFF) should be used. FFF is straightforward to implement for 1D gratings, but the community is still working on a straightforward approach for crossed grating devices. The difficulty with FFF in crossed |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Price%20of%20Magik | The Price of Magik is the third game in the Time and Magik trilogy.
Gameplay
Sequel to the previous game; Myglar the Magician, guardian of the Crystal, has become insane and is draining its energy for his own use; he must be defeated before it is exhausted.
Reception
John Sweeney for Page 6 said "this adventure is excellent value for money. Congratulations on another great game, Level 9."
Amtix said "No doubt the game will be another smashing success. It's just a pity that all their imagination seemed to be exhausted in well hidden ideas and nothing was left to beef up the plot or flavour the atmosphere."
Keith Campbell for Commodore User said "as with all Level 9 games, one can only say, 'Their best yet!'"
Rob Steel for The Games Machine said "There is nothing to bind the adventure together, it is simply a number of rooms containing unexciting creatures, clues to one of the 18 spells or nothing of interest."
Sinclair User, review of The Price of Magik: "... further proof of Level 9's position as the leading UK adventure house... Everything in The Price of Magik is for the best - plot, parser, graphics, and above all the execution of the game."
Reviews
Aktueller Software Markt (German)
MSX Gids (Dutch)
Computer and Video Games - Jul, 1986
Sinclair User - Jul, 1986
Crash! - Jul, 1986
Zzap! - Jul, 1986 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reform%20mathematics | Reform mathematics is an approach to mathematics education, particularly in North America. It is based on principles explained in 1989 by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM). The NCTM document Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics (CESSM) set forth a vision for K–12 (ages 5–18) mathematics education in the United States and Canada. The CESSM recommendations were adopted by many local- and federal-level education agencies during the 1990s. In 2000, the NCTM revised its CESSM with the publication of Principles and Standards for School Mathematics (PSSM). Like those in the first publication, the updated recommendations became the basis for many states' mathematics standards, and the method in textbooks developed by many federally-funded projects. The CESSM de-emphasised manual arithmetic in favor of students developing their own conceptual thinking and problem solving. The PSSM presents a more balanced view, but still has the same emphases.
Mathematics instruction in this style has been labeled standards-based mathematics or reform mathematics.
Principles and standards
Mathematics education reform built up momentum in the early 1980s, as educators reacted to the "new math" of the 1960s and 1970s. The work of Piaget and other developmental psychologists had shifted the focus of mathematics educators from mathematics content to how children best learn mathematics. The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics summarized the state of current research with the publication of Curriculum and Evaluation Standards in 1989 and Principles and Standards for School Mathematics in 2000, bringing definition to the reform movement in North America.
Reform mathematics curricula challenge students to make sense of new mathematical ideas through explorations and projects, often in real-world contexts. Reform texts emphasize written and verbal communication, working in cooperative groups, and making connections between concepts and between r |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surjunctive%20group | In mathematics, a surjunctive group is a group such that every injective cellular automaton with the group elements as its cells is also surjective. Surjunctive groups were introduced by . It is unknown whether every group is surjunctive.
Definition
A cellular automaton consists of a regular system of cells, each containing a symbol from a finite alphabet, together with a uniform rule called a transition function for updating all cells simultaneously based on the values of neighboring cells. Most commonly the cells are arranged in the form of a line or a higher-dimensional integer grid, but other arrangements of cells are also possible. What is required of the cells is that they form a structure in which every cell "looks the same as" every other cell: there is a symmetry of both the arrangement of cells and the rule set that takes any cell to any other cell. Mathematically, this can be formalized by the notion of a group, a set of elements together with an associative and invertible binary operation. The elements of the group can be used as the cells of an automaton, with symmetries generated by the group operation. For instance, a one-dimensional line of cells can be described in this way as the additive group of the integers, and the higher-dimensional integer grids can be described as the free abelian groups.
The collection of all possible states of a cellular automaton over a group can be described as the functions that map each group element to one of the symbols in the alphabet.
As a finite set, the alphabet has a discrete topology, and the collection of states can be given the product topology (called a prodiscrete topology because it is the product of discrete topologies).
To be the transition function of a cellular automaton, a function from states to states must be a continuous function for this topology, and must also be equivariant with the group action, meaning that shifting the cells prior to applying the transition function produces the same resul |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%20Strother%20Moore | J Strother Moore (his first name is the alphabetic character "J" – not an abbreviated "J.") is a computer scientist. He is a co-developer of the Boyer–Moore string-search algorithm, Boyer–Moore majority vote algorithm, and the Boyer–Moore automated theorem prover, Nqthm. He made pioneering contributions to structure sharing including the piece table data structure and early logic programming. An example of the workings of the Boyer–Moore string search algorithm is given in Moore's website. Moore received his Bachelor of Science (BS) in mathematics at Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1970 and his Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in computational logic at the University of Edinburgh in Scotland in 1973.
In addition, Moore is a co-author of the ACL2 automated theorem prover and its predecessors including Nqthm, for which he received, with Robert S. Boyer and Matt Kaufmann, the 2005 ACM Software System Award. He and others used ACL2 to prove the correctness of the floating point division operations of the AMD K5 microprocessor in the wake of the Pentium FDIV bug.
For his contributions to automated deduction, Moore received the 1999 Herbrand Award with Robert S. Boyer, and in 2006 he was inducted as a Fellow in the Association for Computing Machinery. Moore was elected a member of the National Academy of Engineering in 2007 for contributions to automated reasoning about computing systems. He is also a Fellow of the AAAI. He was elected a Corresponding Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 2015.
He is currently the Admiral B.R. Inman Centennial Chair in Computing Theory at The University of Texas at Austin, and was chair of the Department of Computer Science from 2001–2009.
Before joining the Department of Computer Sciences as the chair, he formed a company, Computational Logic Inc., along with others including his close friend at the University of Texas at Austin and one of the highly regarded professors in the field of automated reasoning, Robert S. Boyer. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bochner%27s%20theorem | In mathematics, Bochner's theorem (named for Salomon Bochner) characterizes the Fourier transform of a positive finite Borel measure on the real line. More generally in harmonic analysis, Bochner's theorem asserts that under Fourier transform a continuous positive-definite function on a locally compact abelian group corresponds to a finite positive measure on the Pontryagin dual group. The case of sequences was first established by Gustav Herglotz (see also the related Herglotz representation theorem.)
The theorem for locally compact abelian groups
Bochner's theorem for a locally compact abelian group G, with dual group , says the following:
Theorem For any normalized continuous positive-definite function f on G (normalization here means that f is 1 at the unit of G), there exists a unique probability measure μ on such that
i.e. f is the Fourier transform of a unique probability measure μ on . Conversely, the Fourier transform of a probability measure on is necessarily a normalized continuous positive-definite function f on G. This is in fact a one-to-one correspondence.
The Gelfand–Fourier transform is an isomorphism between the group C*-algebra C*(G) and C0(Ĝ). The theorem is essentially the dual statement for states of the two abelian C*-algebras.
The proof of the theorem passes through vector states on strongly continuous unitary representations of G (the proof in fact shows that every normalized continuous positive-definite function must be of this form).
Given a normalized continuous positive-definite function f on G, one can construct a strongly continuous unitary representation of G in a natural way: Let F0(G) be the family of complex-valued functions on G with finite support, i.e. h(g) = 0 for all but finitely many g. The positive-definite kernel K(g1, g2) = f(g1 − g2) induces a (possibly degenerate) inner product on F0(G). Quotiening out degeneracy and taking the completion gives a Hilbert space
whose typical element is an equivalence cl |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allotype%20%28immunology%29 | The word allotype comes from two Greek roots, allo meaning 'other or differing from the norm' and typos meaning 'mark'. In immunology, allotype is an immunoglobulin variation (in addition to isotypic variation) that can be found among antibody classes and is manifested by heterogeneity of immunoglobulins present in a single vertebrate species. The structure of immunoglobulin polypeptide chain is dictated and controlled by number of genes encoded in the germ line. However, these genes, as it was discovered by serologic and chemical methods, could be highly polymorphic. This polymorphism is subsequently projected to the overall amino acid structure of antibody chains. Polymorphic epitopes can be present on immunoglobulin constant regions on both heavy and light chains, differing between individuals or ethnic groups and in some cases may pose as immunogenic determinants. Exposure of individuals to a non-self allotype might elicit an anti- allotype response and became cause of problems for example in a patient after transfusion of blood or in a pregnant woman. However, it is important to mention that not all variations in immunoglobulin amino acid sequence pose as a determinant responsible for immune response. Some of these allotypic determinants may be present at places that are not well exposed and therefore can be hardly serologically discriminated. In other cases, variation in one isotype can be compensated by the presence of this determinant on another antibody isotype in one individual. This means that divergent allotype of heavy chain of IgG antibody may be balanced by presence of this allotype on heavy chain of for example IgA antibody and therefore is called isoallotypic variant. Especially large number of polymorphisms were discovered in IgG antibody subclasses. Which were practically used in forensic medicine and in paternity testing, before replaced by modern day DNA fingerprinting.
Definition and organisation of allotypes in humans
Human allotypes nomencl |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axial%20skeleton | The axial skeleton is the part of the skeleton that consists of the bones of the head and trunk of a vertebrate. In the human skeleton, it consists of 80 bones and is composed of six parts; the skull (22 bones), also the ossicles of the middle ear, the hyoid bone, the rib cage, sternum and the vertebral column. The axial skeleton together with the appendicular skeleton form the complete skeleton. Another definition of axial skeleton is the bones including the vertebrae, sacrum, coccyx, skull, ribs, and sternum.
Structure
Flat bones house the brain and other vital organs. This article mainly deals with the axial skeletons of humans; however, it is important to understand the evolutionary lineage of the axial skeleton. The human axial skeleton consists of 81 different bones. It is the medial core of the body and connects the pelvis to the body, where the appendix skeleton attaches. As the skeleton grows older the bones get weaker with the exception of the skull. The skull remains strong to protect the brain from injury.
In humans, the axial skeleton serves to protect the brain, spinal cord, heart, and lungs. It also serves as the attachment site for muscles that move the head, neck, and back, and for muscles that act across the shoulder and hip joints to move their corresponding limbs.
Human Skull
The human skull consists of the cranium and the facial bones. The cranium holds and protects the brain in a large space called the cranial vault. The cranium is formed from eight plate-shaped bones which fit together at meeting points (joints) called sutures. In addition there are 14 facial bones which form the lower front part of the skull. Together the 22 bones that compose the skull form additional, smaller spaces besides the cranial vault, such as the cavities for the eyes, the internal ear, the nose, and the mouth. The most important facial bones include the jaw or mandible, the upper jaw or maxilla, the zygomatic or cheek bone, and the nasal bone.
Humans are b |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Infrastructure%20Protection%20Plan | The National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) is a document called for by Homeland Security Presidential Directive 7, which aims to unify Critical Infrastructure and Key Resource (CIKR) protection efforts across the country. The latest version of the plan was produced in 2013 The NIPP's goals are to protect critical infrastructure and key resources and ensure resiliency. It is generally considered unwieldy and not an actual plan to be carried out in an emergency, but it is useful as a mechanism for developing coordination between government and the private sector. The NIPP is based on the model laid out in the 1998 Presidential Decision Directive-63, which identified critical sectors of the economy and tasked relevant government agencies to work with them on sharing information and on strengthening responses to attack.
The NIPP is structured to create partnerships between Government Coordinating Councils (GCC) from the public sector and Sector Coordinating Councils (SCC) from the private sector for the eighteen sectors DHS has identified as critical.
Sector Specific Agencies
United States Department of Agriculture
United States Department of Defense
United States Department of Energy
United States Department of Health and Human Services
United States Department of the Interior
United States Department of the Treasury
United States Environmental Protection Agency
United States Department of Homeland Security
Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency
Transportation Security Administration
United States Coast Guard
United States Immigration and Customs Enforcement
Federal Protective Service
Sector Coordinating Councils
Agriculture and Food
Defense Industrial Base
Energy
Public Health and Healthcare
Financial Services
Water and Wastewater Systems
Chemical
Commercial Facilities
Dams
Emergency Services
Nuclear Reactors, Materials, and Waste
Information Technology
Communications
Postal and Shipping
Transportation Systems
Gove |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derivation%20of%20the%20Navier%E2%80%93Stokes%20equations | The intent of this article is to highlight the important points of the derivation of the Navier–Stokes equations as well as its application and formulation for different families of fluids.
Basic assumptions
The Navier–Stokes equations are based on the assumption that the fluid, at the scale of interest, is a continuum – a continuous substance rather than discrete particles. Another necessary assumption is that all the fields of interest including pressure, flow velocity, density, and temperature are at least weakly differentiable.
The equations are derived from the basic principles of continuity of mass, conservation of momentum, and conservation of energy. Sometimes it is necessary to consider a finite arbitrary volume, called a control volume, over which these principles can be applied. This finite volume is denoted by and its bounding surface . The control volume can remain fixed in space or can move with the fluid.
The material derivative
Changes in properties of a moving fluid can be measured in two different ways. One can measure a given property by either carrying out the measurement on a fixed point in space as particles of the fluid pass by, or by following a parcel of fluid along its streamline. The derivative of a field with respect to a fixed position in space is called the Eulerian derivative, while the derivative following a moving parcel is called the advective or material (or Lagrangian) derivative.
The material derivative is defined as the nonlinear operator:
where is the flow velocity. The first term on the right-hand side of the equation is the ordinary Eulerian derivative (the derivative on a fixed reference frame, representing changes at a point with respect to time) whereas the second term represents changes of a quantity with respect to position (see advection). This "special" derivative is in fact the ordinary derivative of a function of many variables along a path following the fluid motion; it may be derived through application of |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lone%20pair | In chemistry, a lone pair refers to a pair of valence electrons that are not shared with another atom in a covalent bond and is sometimes called an unshared pair or non-bonding pair. Lone pairs are found in the outermost electron shell of atoms. They can be identified by using a Lewis structure. Electron pairs are therefore considered lone pairs if two electrons are paired but are not used in chemical bonding. Thus, the number of electrons in lone pairs plus the number of electrons in bonds equals the number of valence electrons around an atom.
Lone pair is a concept used in valence shell electron pair repulsion theory (VSEPR theory) which explains the shapes of molecules. They are also referred to in the chemistry of Lewis acids and bases. However, not all non-bonding pairs of electrons are considered by chemists to be lone pairs. Examples are the transition metals where the non-bonding pairs do not influence molecular geometry and are said to be stereochemically inactive. In molecular orbital theory (fully delocalized canonical orbitals or localized in some form), the concept of a lone pair is less distinct, as the correspondence between an orbital and components of a Lewis structure is often not straightforward. Nevertheless, occupied non-bonding orbitals (or orbitals of mostly nonbonding character) are frequently identified as lone pairs.
A single lone pair can be found with atoms in the nitrogen group, such as nitrogen in ammonia. Two lone pairs can be found with atoms in the chalcogen group, such as oxygen in water. The halogens can carry three lone pairs, such as in hydrogen chloride.
In VSEPR theory the electron pairs on the oxygen atom in water form the vertices of a tetrahedron with the lone pairs on two of the four vertices. The H–O–H bond angle is 104.5°, less than the 109° predicted for a tetrahedral angle, and this can be explained by a repulsive interaction between the lone pairs.
Various computational criteria for the presence of lone pairs have |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/625%20lines | 625-line (or CCIR 625/50) is a late 1940s European analog standard-definition television resolution standard. It consists of a 625-line raster, with 576 lines carrying the visible image at 25 interlaced frames per second. It was eventually adopted by countries using 50 Hz utility frequency as regular TV broadcasts resumed after World War II. With the introduction of color television in the 1960s, it became associated with the PAL and SECAM analog color systems.
A similar 525-line system was adopted by countries using 60 Hz utility frequency (like the US). Other systems, like 375-line, 405-line, 441-line, 455-line and 819-line existed, but became outdated or had limited adoption.
The modern standard-definition digital video resolution 576i is equivalent and can be used to digitize an analogue 625-line TV signal, or to generate a 625-line compatible analog signal.
History
At the CCIR Stockholm Conference in July 1948 a first 625-line system with a 8 MHz channel bandwidth was proposed by the Soviet Union, based on 1946-48 studies by Mark Iosifovich Krivosheev. This was initially known as the I.B.T.O. 625-line system.
At a CCIR Geneva meeting in July 1950, Dr. Gerber (a Swiss engineer), proposed a modified 625-line system using a 7 MHz channel bandwidth - informally known as the "Gerber Standard". The system was based on work by Telefunken and Walter Bruch, and was supported by Belgium, Denmark, Italy, Netherlands, Sweden and Switzerland.
At a CCIR Geneva meeting in May 1951, the existing VHF broadcast standards were standardized. The older 405-line system was designated CCIR System A, the Gerber Standard was designated System B, the Belgian variant System C and the I.B.T.O. standard System D.
In the 1960s, with the introduction of UHF broadcasts, new 625-line standards were adopted, again with slightly different broadcast parameters, leading to the creation of Systems G, H, I, K and L.
Analog broadcast 625-line television standards
The following Internationa |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subtropical%20front | A subtropical front is a surface water mass boundary or front, which is a narrow zone of transition between air masses of contrasting density, air masses of different temperatures or different water vapour concentrates.
It is also characterized by an unforeseen change in wind direction, and speed across its surface between water systems, which are based on temperature and salinity. The subtropical separates the more saline subtropical waters from the fresher sub-Antarctic waters.
Subtropical frontal zone
A subtropical frontal zone (STFZ) is a large seasonal cycle located on the eastern side of basins. It is made up of fronts of multiple weak sea surface temperature (SST), aligned northwest–southeast, spread over a large latitudinal span. On the far eastern side of basins, the subtropical frontal zone becomes narrower and temperature gradients stronger, but still much weaker than across the dynamical subtropical frontal zone.
A dynamical frontal zone sits at the southern limit of the saline subtropical waters on the western sides of basins. There are no water mass boundaries or fronts in correlation with the sea surface temperature at the subtropical frontal zone at the surface or beneath.
The structure of a subtropical frontal zone results in the formation of a positive wind stress curl, which is the shear stress exerted by wind on the surface of water. The areas of most positive wind stress curl are characterized by very weak sea surface temperature incline, and are likely consistent to regions of mode water.
Northern subtropical front
The Northern subtropical front is found in the Pacific Ocean between 25° and 30° north latitude.
North Atlantic subtropical fronts
The North Atlantic subtropical fronts possess the characteristics of seasonal variability. Highest front occurrences are during early spring in the western region. Less front probability occurs in late spring to early summer in the eastern region. The strengths of the fronts differ with seasons, buil |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trace%20element |
A trace element is a chemical element of a minute quantity, a trace amount, especially used in referring to a micronutrient, but is also used to refer to minor elements in the composition of a rock, or other chemical substance.
In nutrition, trace elements are classified into two groups: essential trace elements, and non-essential trace elements. Essential trace elements are needed for many physiological and biochemical processes in both plants and animals. Not only do trace elements play a role in biological processes but they also serve as catalysts to engage in redox – oxidation and reduction mechanisms. Trace elements of some heavy metals have a biological role as essential micronutrients.
Types
The two types of trace element in biochemistry are classed as essential or non-essential.
Essential trace elements
An essential trace element is a dietary element, a mineral that is only needed in minute quantities for the proper growth, development, and physiology of the organism. The essential trace elements are those that are required to perform vital metabolic activities in organisms. Essential trace elements in human nutrition, and other animals include iron (Fe) (hemoglobin), copper (Cu) (respiratory pigments), cobalt (Co) (Vitamin B12), iodine, manganese (Mn) and zinc (Zn) (enzymes). Although they are essential, they become toxic at high concentrations.
Non-essential trace elements
Non-essential trace elements include silver (Ag), arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), and tin (Sn), and have no known biological function, with toxic effects even at low concentration.
The structural components of cells and tissues that are required in the diet in gram quantities daily are known as bulk elements.
See also
Antinutrient
Bowen's Kale
Geotraces
List of micronutrients |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphaedra%20eupalus | Euphaedra eupalus, the western blue-banded forester, is a butterfly in the family Nymphalidae. It is found in Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana and Togo.
The habitat consists of wet forests. Adults are attracted to fallen fruit.
Description
Upperside: antennae black, lighter at the tips. Head black. Thorax and abdomen dark brown. Anterior wings dark red brown, tipped with white; but next to the shoulders of a purplish hue, with a dark yellow streak near the tips, extending obliquely from the anterior towards the external edge. Posterior wings also red brown; but towards the middle and shoulders of a purplish blue, which they reflect more or less according to the position they are held in.
Under side: palpi and breast yellow. Anterior wings olive brown, tipped with white; but along the external edges of a hazel colour, and near the shoulders having three round black spots on each. Posterior wings similar to the anterior, being of a brown olive, variegated, and clouded, with three small spots placed near the shoulders, as in the superior ones. All the wings are a little dentated (tooth like).
Wingspan a little over inches (90 mm).
Seitz E. eupalus F. is quite similar above to Euphaedra harpalyce but differs beneath in both wings or at least the hindwing having in the middle a curved transverse row of free white spots, usually bordered with black proximally. Sierra Leone to the Congo. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasse%20diagram | In order theory, a Hasse diagram (; ) is a type of mathematical diagram used to represent a finite partially ordered set, in the form of a drawing of its transitive reduction. Concretely, for a partially ordered set one represents each element of as a vertex in the plane and draws a line segment or curve that goes upward from one vertex to another vertex whenever covers (that is, whenever , and there is no distinct from and with ). These curves may cross each other but must not touch any vertices other than their endpoints. Such a diagram, with labeled vertices, uniquely determines its partial order.
Hasse diagrams are named after Helmut Hasse (1898–1979); according to Garrett Birkhoff, they are so called because of the effective use Hasse made of them. However, Hasse was not the first to use these diagrams. One example that predates Hasse can be found in . Although Hasse diagrams were originally devised as a technique for making drawings of partially ordered sets by hand, they have more recently been created automatically using graph drawing techniques.
The phrase "Hasse diagram" may also refer to the transitive reduction as an abstract directed acyclic graph, independently of any drawing of that graph, but this usage is eschewed here.
Diagram design
Although Hasse diagrams are simple, as well as intuitive, tools for dealing with finite posets, it turns out to be rather difficult to draw "good" diagrams. The reason is that, in general, there are many different possible ways to draw a Hasse diagram for a given poset. The simple technique of just starting with the minimal elements of an order and then drawing greater elements incrementally often produces quite poor results: symmetries and internal structure of the order are easily lost.
The following example demonstrates the issue. Consider the power set of a 4-element set ordered by inclusion . Below are four different Hasse diagrams for this partial order. Each subset has a node labelled with a binar |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vibrational%20analysis%20with%20scanning%20probe%20microscopy | The technique of vibrational analysis with scanning probe microscopy allows probing vibrational properties of materials at the submicrometer scale, and even of individual molecules. This is accomplished by integrating scanning probe microscopy (SPM) and vibrational spectroscopy (Raman scattering or/and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, FTIR). This combination allows for much higher spatial resolution than can be achieved with conventional Raman/FTIR instrumentation. The technique is also nondestructive, requires non-extensive sample preparation, and provides more contrast such as intensity contrast, polarization contrast and wavelength contrast, as well as providing specific chemical information and topography images simultaneously.
History
Raman-NSOM
Near-field scanning optical microscopy (NSOM) was described in 1984, and used in many applications since then. The combination of Raman scattering and NSOM techniques was first realized in 1995, when it was used for imaging a Rb-doped KTP crystal at a spatial resolution of 250 nm.
NSOM employs two different methods for data collection and analysis: the fiber tip aperture approach and the apertureless metal tip approach. NSOM with aperture probes has a smaller aperture that can increase the spatial resolution of NSOM; however, the transmission of light to the sample and the collection efficiency of the scattered/emitted light is also diminished. The apertureless near-field scanning microscopy (ANSOM) was developed in the 1990s. ANSOM employs a metalized tip instead of an optical fiber probe. The performance of the ANSOM strongly depends on the electric field enhancement factor of the metalized tip. This technique is based on surface plasmon resonance (SPR) which is the precursor of tip-enhanced Raman scattering (TERS) and surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS).
In 1997, Martin and Girard demonstrated theoretically that electric field under a metallic or dielectric tip (belonging to NSOM apertureless techniq |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roof%20of%20fourth%20ventricle | The roof of fourth ventricle is the dorsal surface of the fourth ventricle.
It corresponds to the ventral surface of the cerebellum.
The upper portion of the roof is formed by the cerebellum.
The roof of ventricle is diamond shaped and can be divided into superior and inferior parts.
The superior part or cranial part is formed by superior cerebellar peduncles and superior medullary velum.
Additional images |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet%20Fibre%20Channel%20Protocol | Internet Fibre Channel Protocol (iFCP) is a gateway-to-gateway network protocol standard that provides Fibre Channel fabric functionality to Fibre Channel devices over an IP network. It is officially ratified by the Internet Engineering Task Force. Its most common forms are in 1 Gbit/s, 2 Gbit/s, 4 Gbit/s, 8 Gbit/s, and 10 Gbit/s.
Technical overview
The iFCP protocol enables the implementation of Fibre Channel functionality over an IP network, within which the Fibre Channel switching and routing infrastructure is replaced by IP components and technology. Congestion control, error detection and recovery are provided through the use of TCP (Transmission Control Protocol). The primary objective of iFCP is to allow existing Fibre Channel devices to be networked and interconnected over an IP based network at wire speeds.
The method of address translation defined and the protocol permit Fibre Channel storage devices and host adapters to be attached to an IP-based fabric using transparent gateways.
The iFCP protocol layer's main function is to transport Fibre Channel frame images between Fibre Channel ports attached both locally and remotely. iFCP encapsulates and routes the fibre channel frames that make up each Fibre Channel information unit via a predetermined TCP connection for transport across the IP network when transporting frames to a remote Fibre Channel port.
See also
Fibre Channel over Ethernet (FCoE)
Fibre Channel over IP (FCIP)
Internet SCSI (iSCSI) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalai%E2%80%93Smorodinsky%20bargaining%20solution | The Kalai–Smorodinsky (KS) bargaining solution is a solution to the Bargaining problem. It was suggested by Ehud Kalai and Meir Smorodinsky, as an alternative to Nash's bargaining solution suggested 25 years earlier. The main difference between the two solutions is that the Nash solution satisfies independence of irrelevant alternatives while the KS solution satisfies monotonicity.
Setting
A two-person bargain problem consists of a pair :
A feasible agreements set . This is a closed convex subset of . Each element of represents a possible agreement between the players. The coordinates of an agreement are the utilities of the players if this agreement is implemented. The assumption that is convex makes sense, for example, when it is possible to combine agreements by randomization.
A disagreement point , where and are the respective payoffs to player 1 and player 2 when the bargaining terminates without an agreement.
It is assumed that the problem is nontrivial, i.e, the agreements in are better for both parties than the disagreement.
A bargaining solution is a function that takes a bargaining problem and returns a point in its feasible agreements set, .
Requirements from bargaining solutions
The Nash and KS solutions both agree on the following three requirements:
Pareto optimality is a necessary condition. For every bargaining problem, the returned agreement must be Pareto-efficient.
Symmetry is also necessary. The names of the players should not matter: if player 1 and player 2 switch their utilities, then the agreement should be switched accordingly.
Invariant to positive affine transformations also seems like a necessary condition: if the utility function of one or more players is transformed by a linear function, then the agreement should also be transformed by the same linear function. This makes sense if we assume that the utility functions are only representations of a preference relation, and do not have a real numeric meaning.
In additio |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Unknown%20%28hypertext%20novel%29 | The Unknown (also known as The Unknown: The Original Great American Hypertext Novel ) is a web-based hypertext novel written by William Gillespie, Scott Rettberg and Dirk Stratton with Frank Marquardt. It won the 1999 Trace/Alt-X International Hypertext Contest. The name The Unknown was used to refer to both the work and its authors.
Plot
The Unknown is a sprawling hypertext novel about a fictional book tour the four authors are on to promote the Unknown Anthology.
Kristin Krauth describes it as "a satire on publishing and promotion as well as a tough and funny look at the nature of creating hypertext". Brad Quinn describes the plot as "an adventure novel about a book tour for a book that doesn't exist, and it has all kinds of ridiculous behavior, drug abuse and famous people who would probably be shocked and none too happy to find out that they are in the novel."
Performances
The Unknown was not only a story about a book tour, the authors performed the hypertext at many different events. One of the first performances was at a Brown University event called "Technology Platforms for 21st Century Literature" (TP21CL). A journalist writing about the event for PC Magazine noted that "A group of authors gave a reading of a funny hypertext novel called "The Unknown," which had different tracks you move among." Writing for the MIT Technology Review, Nick Montfort describes the authors performing in suits, and beginning the reading by reading a fictionalised account of travelling to the reading they are actually at. Montfort writes: "The different authors rotate through three roles. One reads, one works the mouse, and one dings a bell to alert the audience to each hypertext link. Audience members interact by calling out when they want to click on a link."
An article in the Los Angeles Times about a reading they did in 2000 quotes Dirk Stratton: "With the traditional reading, you have the silent audience: attentive, rapt, staring up at the genius author waiting for enl |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invertible%20matrix | In linear algebra, an -by- square matrix is called invertible (also nonsingular, nondegenerate or —rarely used— regular), if there exists an -by- square matrix such thatwhere denotes the -by- identity matrix and the multiplication used is ordinary matrix multiplication. If this is the case, then the matrix is uniquely determined by , and is called the (multiplicative) inverse of , denoted by . Matrix inversion is the process of finding the matrix that satisfies the prior equation for a given invertible matrix .
Over a field, a square matrix that is not invertible is called singular or degenerate. A square matrix with entries in a field is singular if and only if its determinant is zero. Singular matrices are rare in the sense that if a square matrix's entries are randomly selected from any bounded region on the number line or complex plane, the probability that the matrix is singular is 0, that is, it will "almost never" be singular. Non-square matrices, i.e. -by- matrices for which , do not have an inverse. However, in some cases such a matrix may have a left inverse or right inverse. If is -by- and the rank of is equal to , (), then has a left inverse, an -by- matrix such that . If has rank (), then it has a right inverse, an -by- matrix such that .
While the most common case is that of matrices over the real or complex numbers, all these definitions can be given for matrices over any algebraic structure equipped with addition and multiplication (i.e. rings). However, in the case of a ring being commutative, the condition for a square matrix to be invertible is that its determinant is invertible in the ring, which in general is a stricter requirement than it being nonzero. For a noncommutative ring, the usual determinant is not defined. The conditions for existence of left-inverse or right-inverse are more complicated, since a notion of rank does not exist over rings.
The set of invertible matrices together with the operation of matrix multiplica |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endocast | An endocast is the internal cast of a hollow object, often referring to the cranial vault in the study of brain development in humans and other organisms. Endocasts can be artificially made for examining the properties of a hollow, inaccessible space, or they may occur naturally through fossilization.
Cranial endocasts
Artificial casts
Endocasts of the inside of the neurocranium (braincase) are often made in paleoanthropology to study brain structures and hemispheric specialization in extinct human ancestors. While an endocast can not directly reveal brain structure, it can allow scientists to gauge the size of areas of the brain situated close to the surface, notably Wernicke's and Broca's areas, responsible for interpreting and producing speech.
Traditionally, the casting material is some form of rubber or rubber-like material. The openings to the brain cavity, except for the foramen magnum, are closed, and the liquid rubber is slushed around in the empty cranial vault and then left to set. The resulting hollow sphere can then be drained of air like a balloon and pulled out through the foramen magnum. Rubber endocasts like these were the standard practice until the end of the 20th century and are still used in some fields. However, scientists are increasingly utilizing computerized tomography scanning technology to create digital endocasts in order to avoid risking damage to valuable specimens.
Natural endocasts
Natural cranial endocasts are also known. The famous Taung Child, the first Australopithecus found, consists of a natural endocast connected to the facial portion of the skull. It was the shape of the brain that allowed Raymond Dart to conclude that the fossil was that of a human relative rather than an extinct ape.
Mammal endocasts are particularly useful, as they resemble the fresh brain with the dura mater in place. Such "fossil brains" are known from several hundred different mammal species. More than a hundred natural casts of the cranial vaul |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backus%E2%80%93Naur%20form | In computer science, Backus–Naur form () or Backus normal form (BNF) is a metasyntax notation for context-free grammars, often used to describe the syntax of languages used in computing, such as computer programming languages, document formats, instruction sets and communication protocols. It is applied wherever exact descriptions of languages are needed: for instance, in official language specifications, in manuals, and in textbooks on programming language theory.
Many extensions and variants of the original Backus–Naur notation are used; some are exactly defined, including extended Backus–Naur form (EBNF) and augmented Backus–Naur form (ABNF).
Overview
A BNF specification is a set of derivation rules, written as
<symbol> ::= __expression__
where:
<symbol> is a nonterminal variable that is always enclosed between the pair <>.
means that the symbol on the left must be replaced with the expression on the right.
__expression__ consists of one or more sequences of either terminal or nonterminal symbols where each sequence is separated by a vertical bar "|" indicating a choice, the whole being a possible substitution for the symbol on the left.
Example
As an example, consider this possible BNF for a U.S. postal address:
<postal-address> ::= <name-part> <street-address> <zip-part>
<name-part> ::= <personal-part> <last-name> <opt-suffix-part> <EOL> | <personal-part> <name-part>
<personal-part> ::= <initial> "." | <first-name>
<street-address> ::= <house-num> <street-name> <opt-apt-num> <EOL>
<zip-part> ::= <town-name> "," <state-code> <ZIP-code> <EOL>
<opt-suffix-part> ::= "Sr." | "Jr." | <roman-numeral> | ""
<opt-apt-num> ::= <apt-num> | ""
This translates into English as:
A postal address consists of a name-part, followed by a street-address part, followed by a zip-code part.
A name-part consists of either: a personal-part followed by a last name followed by an optional suffix (Jr., Sr., or dynastic number) and end-of-line, or a p |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyclonal%20B%20cell%20response | Polyclonal B cell response is a natural mode of immune response exhibited by the adaptive immune system of mammals. It ensures that a single antigen is recognized and attacked through its overlapping parts, called epitopes, by multiple clones of B cell.
In the course of normal immune response, parts of pathogens (e.g. bacteria) are recognized by the immune system as foreign (non-self), and eliminated or effectively neutralized to reduce their potential damage. Such a recognizable substance is called an antigen. The immune system may respond in multiple ways to an antigen; a key feature of this response is the production of antibodies by B cells (or B lymphocytes) involving an arm of the immune system known as humoral immunity. The antibodies are soluble and do not require direct cell-to-cell contact between the pathogen and the B-cell to function.
Antigens can be large and complex substances, and any single antibody can only bind to a small, specific area on the antigen. Consequently, an effective immune response often involves the production of many different antibodies by many different B cells against the same antigen. Hence the term "polyclonal", which derives from the words poly, meaning many, and clones from Greek klōn, meaning sprout or twig; a clone is a group of cells arising from a common "mother" cell. The antibodies thus produced in a polyclonal response are known as polyclonal antibodies. The heterogeneous polyclonal antibodies are distinct from monoclonal antibody molecules, which are identical and react against a single epitope only, i.e., are more specific.
Although the polyclonal response confers advantages on the immune system, in particular, greater probability of reacting against pathogens, it also increases chances of developing certain autoimmune diseases resulting from the reaction of the immune system against native molecules produced within the host.
Humoral response to infection
Diseases which can be transmitted from one organism to |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OPNET | OPNET Technologies, Inc. was a software business that provided performance management for computer networks and applications.
The company was founded in 1986 and went public in 2000. In October 2012, OPNET was acquired by Riverbed Technology, for about $1 billion US dollars.
Corporate history
"OPNET" was Alain Cohen's (co-founder, CTO & President) graduate project for a networking course while he was at MIT. OPNET stood for Optimized Network Engineering Tools. Alain, along with brother Marc (co-founder, CEO & Chairman) and classmate Steven Baraniuk, decided to commercialize the software. The company's first product was OPNET Modeler, a software tool for computer network modeling and simulation.
Since becoming a public company in August 2000, OPNET executed the following acquisitions:
March 2001: NetMaker Division of Make Systems
January 2002: WDM NetDesign B.V.B.A
October 2004: Altaworks Corporation
October 2007: substantially all of the assets of Network Physics, Inc.
August 2010: DSAuditor product line from Embarcadero Technologies
May 2012: Clarus Systems, Inc.
As an independent company, OPNET grew profitably throughout its history. SEC filings are available with further information about its IPO, annual reports, and quarterly reports.
OPNET Solutions (prior to acquisition by Riverbed)
Application performance management, see AppTransaction Xpert in Comparison of packet analyzers
Network performance management
Network Simulator
Notes
External links
OPNET's website
Companies formerly listed on the Nasdaq
Companies established in 1986
Networking software companies
Networking hardware companies
1986 establishments in Maryland
Defunct computer companies of the United States
Defunct software companies of the United States |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne-Maree%20Pearse | Anne-Maree Pearse is an Australian cytogeneticist who is credited with the theory that some cancer cells can be transmissible between individuals. This is known as the Allograft Theory. Her work has focussed on devil facial tumour disease (DFTD), a contagious cancer that affects Tasmanian devils. For this she has won multiple awards, including the 2012 Prince Hitachi Prize for Comparative Oncology.
Education
Pearse graduated from the University of Sydney in 1972 before starting an MSc at the University of Tasmania in 1976. During her Masters she worked on the flea, Uropsylla tasmanica, which is a flea that infects quolls and Tasmanian devils. She was unable to complete her PhD due to symptoms of progressive and severe degenerative disc disease.
Career
Pearse worked in the Cytogenetics Laboratory at the Royal Hobart Hospital, Tasmania for seventeen years where she worked on human leukemia but also continued studying quolls. During this period she published work on cancer in quolls. She initially retired from scientific work, establishing a flower farm, before returning to science to work on DFTD. She joined the Save the Tasmanian Devil program at the Department of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and Environment, Tasmanian Government, in 2004 after hearing about the disease on the radio.
In 2006, Pearse and her colleague Swift published a paper on their findings on DFTD in Nature. In their report they studied tumours from eleven Tasmanian devils. They observed that the tumours had major chromosomal abnormalities and these abnormalities were the same between individual animals. This led them to conclude that the tumour cells in different animals were of the same clonal origin. As a result, they proposed the hypothesis that "the disease is transmitted by allograft, whereby an infectious cell line is passed directly between the animals through bites they inflict on one another.".
Since then, other scientists have added further evidence to the Allograft Theory of |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaction%20norm | In ecology and genetics, a reaction norm, also called a norm of reaction, describes the pattern of phenotypic expression of a single genotype across a range of environments. One use of reaction norms is in describing how different species—especially related species—respond to varying environments. But differing genotypes within a single species may also show differing reaction norms relative to a particular phenotypic trait and environment variable. For every genotype, phenotypic trait, and environmental variable, a different reaction norm can exist; in other words, an enormous complexity can exist in the interrelationships between genetic and environmental factors in determining traits. The concept was introduced by Richard Woltereck in 1909.
A monoclonal example
Scientifically analyzing norms of reaction in natural populations can be very difficult, simply because natural populations of sexually reproductive organisms usually do not have cleanly separated or superficially identifiable genetic distinctions. However, seed crops produced by humans are often engineered to contain specific genes, and in some cases seed stocks consist of clones. Accordingly, distinct seed lines present ideal examples of differentiated norms of reaction. In fact, agricultural companies market seeds for use in particular environments based on exactly this.
Suppose the seed line A contains an allele a, and a seed line B of the same crop species contains an allele b, for the same gene. With these controlled genetic groups, we might cultivate each variety (genotype) in a range of environments. This range might be either natural or controlled variations in environment. For example, an individual plant might receive either more or less water during its growth cycle, or the average temperature the plants are exposed to might vary across a range.
A simplification of the norm of reaction might state that seed line A is good for "high water conditions" while a seed line B is good for |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian%20Reiher | Christian Reiher (born 19 April 1984 in Starnberg) is a German mathematician. He is the fifth most successful participant in the history of the International Mathematical Olympiad, having won four gold medals in the years 2000 to 2003 and a bronze medal in 1999.
Just after finishing his Abitur, he proved Kemnitz's conjecture, an important problem in the theory of zero-sums. He went on to earn his Diplom in mathematics from the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich.
Reiher received his Dr. rer. nat. from the University of Rostock under supervision of in February 2010 (Thesis: A proof of the theorem according to which every prime number possesses property B) and works now at the University of Hamburg.
Selected publications
.
External links
1984 births
Living people
People from Starnberg
21st-century German mathematicians
Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich alumni
University of Rostock alumni
International Mathematical Olympiad participants |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peptidomimetic | A peptidomimetic is a small protein-like chain designed to mimic a peptide. They typically arise either from modification of an existing peptide, or by designing similar systems that mimic peptides, such as peptoids and β-peptides. Irrespective of the approach, the altered chemical structure is designed to advantageously adjust the molecular properties such as stability or biological activity. This can have a role in the development of drug-like compounds from existing peptides. Peptidomimetics can be prepared by cyclization of linear peptides or coupling of stable unnatural amino acids. These modifications involve changes to the peptide that will not occur naturally (such as altered backbones and the incorporation of nonnatural amino acids). Unnatural amino acids can be generated from their native analogs via modifications such as amine alkylation, side chain substitution, structural bond extension cyclization, and isosteric replacements within the amino acid backbone. Based on their similarity with the precursor peptide, peptidomimetics can be grouped into four classes (A – D) where A features the most and D the least similarities. Classes A and B involve peptide-like scaffolds, while classes C and D include small molecules (Figure 1).
Uses of Peptidomimetics
The use of peptides as drugs has some disadvantages because of their bioavailability and biostability. Rapid degradation, poor oral availability, difficult transportation through cell membranes, nonselective receptor binding, and challenging multistep preparation are the major limitations of peptides as active pharmaceutical ingredients. Therefore, small protein-like chains called peptidomimetics could be designed and used to mimic native analogs and conceivably exhibit better pharmacological properties. Many peptidomimetics are utilized as FDA-approved drugs, such as Romidepsin (Istodax), Atazanavir (Reyataz), Saquinavir (Invirase), Oktreotid (Sandostatin), Lanreotide (Somatuline), Plecanatide (Trulance) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified%20Media%20Interface | The UMI (Unified Media Interface) interconnect is the link between an AMD Accelerated Processing Unit (APU) and the FCH (Fusion Controller Hub). It is similar to Intel's DMI. The Fusion Controller Hub is similar to the Southbridge of earlier chipsets. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas%20Reischek | Andreas Reischek (15 September 1845 – 3 April 1902) was an Austrian taxidermist, naturalist, ornithologist and grave robber notable for his extensive natural history collecting expeditions throughout New Zealand as well as being notorious for acts of grave robbing there. He added materially to the understanding of the biology and distribution of the New Zealand avifauna.
Early years
Reischek was born in Linz, Austria. After attending school for a few years he worked as an apprentice to a baker and developed a strong interest in natural history, also becoming skilled in taxidermy. He saw war service in Tyrol in 1866 during the Third Italian War of Independence and also served as a gamekeeper and guide before working as a taxidermist in Vienna. He married Adelheid Hawlicek on 5 May 1875.
New Zealand
In 1877 Reischek was chosen by Ferdinand von Hochstetter to travel to New Zealand for two years to help set up displays at the Canterbury Museum in Christchurch, then under the directorship of Julius von Haast.
Much of Reischek's early work in New Zealand centred on the museums in Christchurch, Auckland (where he was employed between 1880 and 1888) and Whanganui but, after his initial two-year contract was completed, he made several extended collecting expeditions over the next ten years, covering most of New Zealand and its sub-Antarctic islands, collecting biological and ethnographical specimens, including Māori skulls and mummified cadavers robbed from burial sites. On his expeditions he was constantly accompanied by his dog "Caesar", who saved his life on more than one occasion.
Reischek collected not only for museums and private collectors, but primarily for himself. His ornithological collecting has been subsequently criticised for such reckless actions as shooting 150 specimens of the rare stitchbird on Little Barrier Island at a time when it had become extinct everywhere else. He was strong, physically fit and a good linguist, becoming fluent in both Engli |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recognition%20sequence | A recognition sequence is a DNA sequence to which a structural motif of a DNA-binding domain exhibits binding specificity. Recognition sequences are palindromes.
The transcription factor Sp1 for example, binds the sequences 5'-(G/T)GGGCGG(G/A)(G/A)(C/T)-3', where (G/T) indicates that the domain will bind a guanine or thymine at this position.
The restriction endonuclease PstI recognizes, binds, and cleaves the sequence 5'-CTGCAG-3'.
A recognition sequence is different from a recognition site. A given recognition sequence can occur one or more times, or not at all, on a specific DNA fragment. A recognition site is specified by the position of the site. For example, there are two PstI recognition sites in the following DNA sequence fragment, starting at base 9 and 31 respectively. A recognition sequence is a specific sequence, usually very short (less than 10 bases). Depending on the degree of specificity of the protein, a DNA-binding protein can bind to more than one specific sequence. For PstI, which has a single sequence specificity, it is 5'-CTGCAG-3'. It is always the same whether at the first recognition site or the second in the following example sequence. For Sp1, which has multiple (16) sequence specificity as shown above, the two recognition sites in the following example sequence fragment are at 18 and 32, and their respective recognition sequences are 5'-GGGGCGGAGC-3' and 5'-TGGGCGGAAC-3'.
5'-AACGTTAGCTGCAGTCGGGGCGGAGCTAGGCTGCAGGAATTGGGCGGAACCT-3'
See also
DNA-binding domain
Transcription factor#Classes, for more examples |
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