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what exactly happens when i text/call someone with my cell phone? | When you make a **call**, your mobile transmits a signal to the nearest cell tower. The tower receives the signal and sends it to a switch board via cables. The switchboard either sends the signal to another board through land lines, or line-of-sight microwave transmitters mounted on the tower. The signal then goes to a switchboard nearest the receiver's phone and the then to a tower to be transmitted (if mobile) or the landline phone. If you are moving, your phone is handed off from cell to cell as needed. For a **Text** the process is essentially the same only the signals are different and it's a burst of information rather than a stream. Your phone is in constant contact with cell towers while it's on and a text is just piggy-backed on the original connector signal while a phone call is its own special frequency. | [
"Mobile phone services are prepaid. A person finding himself with inadequate prepaid time to make a call will ring up the intended recipient of the call and hang up immediately. The receiver of the call, hearing the phone ring once and seeing the number, understands himself to have been \"beeped\". Alternatively, i... |
How and why did [heavy] metal music come to so heavily adopt a dark/gothic/"satanic" aesthetic? | This is not the place to ask this question - I doubt there are many certified music historians here. You'd do better off at /r/metal or /r/truemetal or some place like that. [Here's a good FAQ](_URL_0_) that /r/truemetal links to.
That said, it came from the music's origins, really. Black Sabbath (commonly cited as the first heavy metal band) were looking for something to set them apart. Being the odd bunch of people that they were, some of them were already into occult stuff like Aleister Crowley (Bill Ward especially, if I recall) and Ozzy was willing to do anything for a shock. The story that the band has told many times is that they saw people going into a horror movie and they said "Hey, those people are paying money to be scared! Why don't we do that with music?" The first Black Sabbath record has dark/gothic/satanic themes on it and the genre spread out from there. The early popularity of Alice Cooper's shocking, dark vaudevillian antics also helped propagate that theme.
My sources / good sources for further information:
Metal: A Headbanger's Journal
Heavy: The Story of Metal.
Those are both good documentaries on heavy metal history and both address this topic. Both are available on Amazon Instant Video. Ozzy's autobiography talks about this too. If you'd like, I can point you in the direction of some books on metal history. | [
"20th-century rock music also had its Gothic side. Black Sabbath's 1970 debut album created a dark sound different from other bands at the time and has been called the first ever \"Goth-rock\" record. Themes from Gothic writers such as H. P. Lovecraft were also used among Gothic rock and heavy metal bands, especial... |
Why was Egypt such a lucrative province for the Romans and the Ottomans? | Well - there are three main ways to extract income from almost any part of the world; trade, taxation, and production.
1) Trade. Egypt was an incredibly nice region for trade because it was an easy route for goods like spices and ivory from India, Indochina, eastern Africa, etc. to find their way to the wealthy merchant markets of Europe which desired said goods. Control of Egypt (and to a near-equal extent the Levant to its north) gave the Romans, Ottomans, Mamluks, and other states an element of control over this trade.
2) Taxation. It doesn't look like much from space, but the Nile Valley/Delta is still one of the most fertile regions in the world - doubly so before the modern era. There was more than enough grain to supply a massive population which continued to grow. The population of Egypt was very dense, and all of these individuals could be taxed to collect money for the state.
3) Production. Egypt produced so much grain that large amounts of it was exported to both other parts of the empire and other parts of the world. Egypt also produced massive quantities of paper, which was considered luxurious for much of the early modern period. Additionally, the dense population of Egypt allowed for artisans to spring up whose crafts were often sold as trinkets in European markets.
| [
"Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire in 30 BC, following the defeat of Marc Antony and Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra VII by Octavian (later Emperor Augustus) in the Battle of Actium. The Romans relied heavily on grain shipments from Egypt, and the Roman army, under the control of a prefect appointed by the Empe... |
What did an "attractive" person look like in your particular time period? | Fidel Castro was something of a sex symbol in Cuba during the early 1960s, that is until it was discovered he had skinny legs which is a major turnoff in Cuba. | [
"During the Heian period, beauty was widely considered an important part of what made one a \"good\" person. In cosmetic terms, aristocratic men and women powdered their faces and blackened their teeth, the latter termed \"ohaguro\". The male courtly ideal included a faint mustache and thin goatee, while women's mo... |
[el5] oil prices versus gas prices | Add transportation. Add taxes. Add enough profit to pay rent on a gas station. Add wages. Add theft. Subtract a bit if it attracts people to a sufficiently profitable convenience store.
Net result: you'll pay more in higher tax states, in states farther from refineries, in areas with high rent, and in areas with high crime. | [
"The price of oil, or the oil price, generally refers to the spot price of a barrel of benchmark crude oil—a reference price for buyers and sellers of crude oil such as West Texas Intermediate (WTI), Brent ICE, Dubai Crude, OPEC Reference Basket, Tapis Crude, Bonny Light, Urals oil, Isthmus and Western Canadian Sel... |
Why do so many animals on the earth share the same basic internal/external organs? | Because every animal on Earth shares a common ancestor if you go back far enough. | [
"This idea is referred to as Cuvier's principle of correlation of parts, which states that all organs in an animal's body are deeply interdependent. Species' existence relies on the way in which these organs interact. For example, a species whose digestive tract is best suited to digesting flesh but whose body is b... |
if you are driving a car 60 mph off a cliff, will the hit the ground at the same time as someone who drives 20 mph off of the cliff at the exact same time? | Unless air resistance becomes a factor, yes. The car's horizontal and vertical movement can be calculated separately. The faster car will travel further overall, but they'll both get the same amount of time in the air.
If you want, you could test this by rolling rubber balls off the edge of a table at various speeds. | [
"BULLET::::- A car crash can result from hitting rocks, drains, barriers and bridge supports at any speed, or from passing through roadworks on the Mulholland Drive track at speeds greater than 50 mph. Travelling too far up a sloped wall on the aqueduct track at high speed results in the car flipping over.\n",
"R... |
why can the us government drone strike countries and people say nothing about it but striking syria is such a big deal? | We have permission to use drones both in Pakistan and Yemen (where the majority of drone strikes have occurred) as we help them root out some of the radical elements inside their country. I believe our mission in Pakistan is winding down, so there won't be as many in Pakistan. Furthermore, drone strikes aren't technically outlawed yet (if they ever do, Israel is going to be screwed), so using them isn't considered illegal like using chemical weapons.
BTW, there has been a lot of debate regarding the use of drones, so it's not like people don't talk about them. They do, but since there is nothing illegal about them as of this date, then there really isn't anything we can say until they are outlawed. | [
"Journalists and human rights organizations have been critical of US-led airstrikes and targeted killings by drones which have in some cases resulted in collateral damage of civilian populations. In early 2017, the U.S. faced criticism from some scholars, activists and media outlets for dropping 26,171 bombs on sev... |
When books first became widely available, were they considered addictive? | In "Corrupted the Morals of Many a Promising Youth"
In the 1790 book Memoirs of the Bloomsgrove Family, Reverend Enos Hitchcock wrote,
The free access which many young people have to romances, novels, and plays has poisoned the mind and corrupted the morals of many a promising youth; and prevented others from improving their minds in useful knowledge. Parents take care to feed their children with wholesome diet; and yet how unconcerned about the provision for the mind, whether they are furnished with salutary food, or with trash, chaff, or poison? | [
"The word 'addiction' has successfully been traced to the 17th century. During this time period, addiction was defined as being compelled to act out any number of bad habits. Persons abusing narcotics were called opium and morphine 'eaters.' 'Drunkard' referred to abusers of alcohol. Medical textbooks categorized t... |
what would be a military/warfare analogy to our immune system and its response to pathogens/antigens? | [George Carlin](_URL_0_) said it best, I think...
> Besides, what do you think you have an immune system for? It’s for killing germs. But it needs practice. It needs germs to practice on. So if you kill all the germs around you and live a completely sterile life, then when germs do come along, you’re not going to be prepared. And never mind ordinary germs, what are you gonna do when some super-virus comes along that turns your vital organs into liquid shit? I’ll tell you what you’re gonna do. You’re gonna get sick, you’re gonna die, and you’re gonna deserve it, because you’re fuckin’ weak, and you’ve got a fuckin’ weak immune system. Let me tell you a true story about immunization. When I was a little boy in New York City in the 1940s, we swam in the Hudson River. And it was filled with raw sewage. Okay? We swam in raw sewage! You know, to cool off.
> At that time the big fear was polio; thousands of kids died from polio every year. But you know somethin’? In my neighborhood no one ever got polio. No one. Ever! You know why? Because we swam in raw sewage! It strengthened our immune systems. The polio never had a prayer; we were tempered in raw shit! So, personally, I never take any special precautions against germs. I don’t shy away from people who sneeze and cough, I don’t wipe off the telephone, I don’t cover the toilet seat, and if I drop food on the floor, I pick it up and eat it. Even if I’m at a sidewalk café. In Calcutta. The poor section. On New Year’s morning during a soccer riot. And you know something? In spite of all of that so-called risky behavior, I never get infections. I just don’t get ’em, folks. I don’t get colds, I don’t get flu, and I don’t get food poisoning. And you know why? Because I have a good, strong immune system, and it gets a lot of practice.
> My immune system is equipped with the biological equivalent of fully automatic, military assault rifles with night vision and laser scopes. And we have recently acquired phosphorous grenades, cluster bombs, and anti-personnel fragmentation mines. So, when my white blood cells are on patrol, reconnoitering my blood stream, seeking out strangers and other undesirables, if they see any—any—suspicious-looking germs of any kind, they don’t fuck around. They whip out the weapons, wax the motherfucker, and deposit the unlucky fellow directly into my colon! Directly into my colon! There’s no nonsense. There’s no Miranda warning, there’s none of that three-strikes-and-you’re-out shit. First offense, BAM! Into the colon you go. And speaking of my colon, I want you to know I don’t automatically wash my hands every time I go to the bathroom. Can you deal with that? Sometimes I do, sometimes I don’t. You know when I wash my hands? When I shit on them! That’s the only time. And you know how often that happens? Tops—tops—two, three times a week. Tops! Maybe a little more frequently over the holidays. You know what I mean? | [
"The human body has many defense mechanisms against pathogens, one of which is humoral immunity. This defence mechanism produces antibodies (large glycoproteins) in response to an immune stimulus. Many cells of the immune system are required for this process, including lymphocytes (T-cells and B-cells) and antigen ... |
are machines at bettings shops truly rigged, or are they the same as any other casino game? | It's in their favor, they will make more money than it pays out. So even if someone wins 1000 bucks, they just made like 10,000 bucks. | [
"Modern electronic casino games contain often one or more random number generators which decide the outcome of a trial in the game. Even in modern slot machines, where mechanical reels seem to spin on the screen, the reels are actually spinning for entertainment value only. They eventually stop exactly where the ma... |
why was the t-mobile and sprint acquisition not okay and why is the comcast and time warner acquisition okay? | Well, there hasn't been a ruling yet, but here's a key reason:
In the other failed telecom mergers, those companies competed for the same customers. If AT & T had purchased T-Mobile, wireless customers would have had less choice in the marketplace.
But Comcast and Time Warner, in almost every case, do not compete for the same customers. Most Americans had exactly one choice for cable companies. For millions of them, that one choice is Comcast. For millions of others, that choice is Time Warner. After the merger, those customers will still have exactly one choice.
Choice-depriving mergers are generally only permitted when one of the companies can't survive without the buyout (Sprint and Nextel) or when two companies have fragmented a small market to the point where neither can survive without a merger (Sirius and XM). | [
"Had the purchase been completed, AT&T would have had a customer base of approximately 130 million users, making AT&T the largest wireless carrier in the United States. Regulators questioned the effects such a deal would have on both competitors and consumers, with critics stating the deal would likely increase pri... |
Do apes make music? | Hey, great question! The answer is a bit tricky because it depends one how you define music. Chimps have been recorded making sounds by hitting branches against tree trunks, [but because their "drumming" isn't usually on beat/rhythmic most scientists don't consider it true music](_URL_4_). There's not a whole lot of evidence of great apes closely related to humans producing true music (music that is "structurally even"), although it has been recorded (albeit rarely) in the form of rhythmic chimp drumming. It seems that drumming, at least, may be something chimps are capable of but not something they commonly do.
Gibbons have been recorded singing in a way that can "[elicit emotion from human listeners](_URL_3_)" Gibbons can even sing duets, and their specific intonations can signal things to other gibbons in the area [source](_URL_1_). This singing functions similar to language in humans -- it's very practical and used for communication, and it's made up of a small number of linguistic units (think letters of the alphabet) that can be assembled into "sentences". Gibbons have an earlier common ancestor with humans than most other great ape species though, so whether the gibbon's musical abilities are something they get from our shared common ancestor is debatable, since [most other species with the same common ancestor](_URL_5_) (gorillas, chimps, orangutans, etc) don't have this musical ability. Complex musical ability has evolved in many different species such as songbirds and whales, so it may have evolved separately in gibbons as well.
It's difficult to say exactly when the first of our ancestors began making music. The first direct ancestor of humans with the capacity to sing and control pitch would have been the [common ancestor of humans and neanderthals](_URL_0_). We can't tell exactly when music arose in this species because the anatomy that allows for true singing is the same that allows for language. Also, because early instruments were probably similar to the "instruments" chimps use, it's unlikely we'd be able to find informative archeological remains of instruments from the first hominid instrumentalists. There is a common hypothesis which states that the evolution of music and language go [hand in hand](_URL_2_), so perhaps the anatomy to speak and the anatomy to sing arose in the same species for a reason? | [
"The Apes (sometimes just Apes) are a noisy, guitarless garage rock foursome from Washington, D.C.. The band formed in 1999 with the lineup of singer Paul Weil, keyboard player Amanda Kleinman (an Arts College advisor by day), bassist Erick Jackson, and drummer Jeff Schmid. They released their first EP themselves, ... |
Mississippi didn't ratify the 13th Amendment (abolishing slavery) until 1995. Why did it take so long? | Article V of the Constitution governs the ratification of amendments. It requires three-quarters (not 100%) of the states to ratify an amendment in order for it to be adopted. So, by that measure, Kentucky and Mississippi were not necessary for the ratification of the 13th Amendment. Several other states which failed to ratify it before December 1865, when it was officially adopted, did so between 1865 and 1870. Kentucky and Mississippi never got around to it (they explicitly rejected it in 1865). Eventually, they decided to undo the oversight. | [
"BULLET::::- March 16 – Mississippi ratifies the Thirteenth Amendment, becoming the last state to approve the abolition of slavery. The amendment was nationally ratified in 1865. However it didn't make it official until 2013.\n",
"BULLET::::- 2013 – The U.S. state of Mississippi officially certifies the Thirteent... |
Were pirates (especially notable ones like blackbeard) genuinely honorable people who wanted to form a republic separate from the crown or were they just in it for the money? | Marcus Rediker, who wrote some of the most interesting history books on the topic of modern piracy, gives a non too obvious but still quite noticeable marxist view on the matter. You'll find his website here: [_URL_2_](_URL_2_)
# What's Marxist Historiography?
To begin with I feel that a single short paragraph or two on "marxist historiography" is needed here. I know some people talk about "cultural marxism" in the conspiracy theory discourse and I have to make sure that the two are not mixed up.
Marx had strong views on history and he saw it as the most important science of all because it could explain every social movement according to him. He recognized that there were patterns in history and that they would repeat themselves. That's how he tried to predict the fall of capitalism. Those patterns were rooted in economic realities and that's why he focused on how wealth was distributed among a population. It lead to the very fertile field of "historical materialism" studies. For a full generation, especially in France, historians focused all their efforts in looking at the economic paradigms of past societies and how it shifted long term. The overall conclusion was that an open rebellion or a revolution would often if not always start when wealth was not equally distributed. However, many argued this line of thinking couldn't encompass all periods. The intellectual tools to understand and decipher the industrial age and the flaws of capitalism couldn't relate, say, to the feudal economy. All in all, marxist historiography has been heavily criticized over time and though some still would die on that hill it's a dying paradigm within historic studies. Most researchers have moved on from historical materialism to the study of culture and mental representations. We see this shift within the subsequent generations of the French very influential *École des Annales*, from Braudel to Le Goff.
More on the topic here: [_URL_1_](_URL_1_)
# Why Did Pirates Indulge Into Piracy?
According to Markus Rediker, the great navy companies were very capitalistic enterprises. Well, he's definetely right on that! As he sees it the golden age of piracy saw the opposition of two kinds of terror. The conventional social order, upheld by merchant navy companies, saw the fear of God as the ultimate weapon. God was the one who granted kings their titles and people their social status, the social order was therefore to be respected or God would punish you. Private property was paramount. On the other hand, pirates sought to disrupt the social order and they relied on a more libertarian and equalist paradigm: captains were elected, loot were shared, people from every origin could get in, it worked as a pseudo meritocracy. They spread fear by living outside the moral code and social decency. They were of ill-repute, violent and bloody. Markus Rediker insists however that their violence was the natural response to the violent capitalism implemented by the colonial system and big merchant navy companies. People had to work extreme conditions for a sub-par salary, or they could be slaves, or they could be massacred and disrespected indegenous people. Meanwhile the rich had their very risky capitalist ventures being payed off with crazy benefits.
This interpretative 'system' certainly helps to better understand the situation but it has some limits. Rediker, in my opinion, idealizes pirates as freedom fighters. He says in one place that their violence was the natural answer to the crooked capitalism of the time but he acknowledges in another that pirates booted out Benjamin Hornigold as their captain because he was not aggressive enough (Hornigold refused to attack English ships). Rediker doesn't take into account stupidity or greed. His explanation holds up because he writes about the pre-industrial era but we couldn't apply the same logic to medieval high banditism for example. Why did rogue companies plunder and ravage the countryside during the Hundred Years' War as they elected their own captains and shared their plunder? It couldn't be the "natural response" against some vicious form of capitalism. At least I don't think so.
We could nuance Rediker's portraying of modern piracy with the [labelling theory](_URL_0_) and give it a more psychological touch. Why do people behave the way they do? Why would they chose to be criminals? When hanged in 1718, Thomas Morris bragged or wished he'd been one of the worst pest to have ever roamed the seas. It fits right into the labelling theory. Keep saying to someone that he's worth nothing or that he's a deviant criminal, he'll eventually not only believe it but also boast about it. This behaviour has been observed many times. It doesn't fit every psychological profiles but many people can react that way. It's even currently imperative for teachers or school educators to keep an eye on teenagers that could fall into that pattern.
No one could definetely argue that pirates were freedom fighters and nothing else but they certainly weren't in it only for the money. Too many risks were involved with that line of work. Most of the time you entered the navy because you were poor and desperate already. There was a very high mortality rate within the trade and fortunes were not easy to make. Blind hope, a poor wealth redistribution system and a lack of global education certainly helped people to choose that path in life despite the risks involved. The more we look at pirates, however, the more we have to consider them as individuals, each having their own reasons to launch a mutiny or to join an established rogue navy crew. I just want to conclude on the fact that the answer to your question may not be as black and white as you might think. | [
"Meanwhile, a band of notorious pirates—including Edward \"Blackbeard\" Thatch, Benjamin Hornigold, Mary Read (under the alias \"James Kidd\") and Charles Vane, among others—dream of a pirate utopia where man is free to live beyond the reach of kings and rulers. With Edward's help, they seize control of Nassau and ... |
why are speaker cones conical? | A cone, like an arch, has more strength than a flat surface. A flat speaker has a tendency to deflect/bend when in use, causing distortions and potentially mechanical issues (coil crashing into the magnet from twisting, for instance). Using a cone/parabolic shape allows the maximum stiffness with the least material.
You can make flat speakers, many of the "truck style" slim subwoofers are a flat diaphragm. However, in order to be stiff enough, they've made the diaphragm much thicker than usual, resulting in less efficient speakers.
The exception to the rule is a planar transducer, like a "ribbon tweeter" or "electrostatic loudspeaker". These essentially use a conductive membrane between two screens that are charged with electricity to attract or repel the diaphragm, instead of a cone supported by a surround/spider and moved by a coil in a magnetic gap. | [
"Today the descriptors \"cone\", \"conical hill\" or \"conical mountain\" are mainly used as morphological terms in geography for a steep-sided, isolated hill or mountain, because they are not always seen or described in connexion with volcanic processes.\n",
"A conical surface is generated by a line segment rota... |
Why isn't the atmosphere of Jupiter homogeneous? | Heavier gases tend to get to deeper layers, what you would expect with no activity is an equilibrium that doesn't have a homogeneous mixture, but heavier gases in deeper layers.
Jupiter's interior is still hot, while the outside is cooled by radiation (to space). In addition there is the "daily" cycle of sunlight. That leads to temperature gradients, and that leads to convection. Convection mixes up the different atmospheric layers in many individual cells and generates patterns in the atmosphere. There are many more things (interaction with the magnetic field, for example), but convection alone prevents an atmosphere in equilibrium. | [
"The atmosphere of Jupiter is classified into four layers, by increasing altitude: the troposphere, stratosphere, thermosphere and exosphere. Unlike the Earth's atmosphere, Jupiter's lacks a mesosphere. Jupiter does not have a solid surface, and the lowest atmospheric layer, the troposphere, smoothly transitions in... |
From medical standpoint, how do we dispose of organs and blood that can't be reused for science? | Well I never dealt directly with organs, but my PhD involved a lot of blood. To dispose of the blood, we poured it out into a container full of 10% bleach. We let this sit overnight to fully kill/break down all the different biological components and then flushed it down the drain with plenty of water.
Solid biohazardous waste (e.g. rat carcasses) were put into a special trash bag that marked them as a biohazard and then the bags were collected by a special trash service. I believe their eventual fate was incineration, but I don't know the details of that.
Hope that helps. | [
"When dealing with solid tissues, obtaining tissue for cell isolation may be more challenging. Surplus human tissue can sometimes be obtained at the time of planned surgery, for example specimens of right atrial appendage are often excised and discarded during open heart surgery such as coronary artery bypass surg... |
how do companies such as beezid actually work? it sounds way to good to be true | You pay like $1 per bid, but each bid is only a penny toward the value.
If you get in a bidding war with several people on an iPad that's worth $500 and it sells for $6.37, that's 637 bids @ $1 each that beezid gets.. so they make $137 and get to claim they sold an item for $6.37. | [
"Beezid has drawn criticism of its business model for requiring the purchase of bids to participate, and for not disclosing the cost of bidding in their advertisements. Only one person can win any given auction, while the website profits from the bids spent by all the losing participants. Even the winner pays the c... |
how are rockets mounted for a stationary test on the ground to prevent the rocket from flying away? | They use a mint condition just printed child support documents and place them between the ground and rocket. Non detachable and works like a charm infinitely.. | [
"The aft-crossing trajectory is an alternate flight path for a rocket. The rocket's rotation (induced by the deployment from the aircraft) is slowed by a small parachute attached to its tail, then ignited once the carrier aircraft has passed it. It is ignited before it is pointing fully vertically, however it will ... |
1st and 2nd order etc.. differential equations | First order differential equations contain only first derivatives of the variable. Second order equations contain second derivatives (and potentially first derivatives as well). The order, in general, corresponds to the highest derivative of the variable.
| [
"The differential equation () is said to be in Sturm–Liouville form or self-adjoint form. All second-order linear ordinary differential equations can be recast in the form on the left-hand side of () by multiplying both sides of the equation by an appropriate integrating factor (although the same is not true of sec... |
What were the principle medieval trade goods? If I was a merchant in medieval Europe, what would I most likely be trading in? | One of the major changes that happened in western Europe during the central middle ages is the transition from a "make your own" economy where people in rural areas would essentially make their own essential goods for living, from leather goods to clothing and metal goods, either made in their own home (spinning for example) or in their local community, to a "buy the essentials" economy where you would sell wool, hides and other raw materials produced on the farm and use the silver acquired to buy products already made, for example fabric or some finished clothing. The time not spent on making your own would then be spent on producing more, which in turn leads to growth in the agricultural production to feed and clothe a fast growing population.
Wool in its many forms would then be one of the major products handled by an average merchant. Some raw wool would be produced locally and traded in a local market, but depending on where you are in Europe wool may be coming from afar. By the end of the central middle ages England was a major producer of raw wool which was exported to the Flanders and other locations in continental Europe. In addition to raw wool, there would be a significant trade in the dye and mordent needed to color the wool. Woad, saffron and other coloring agents were both produced locally (again depending on where in Europe) and traded from other locations in Europe. Spain was a major producer of saffron used for dyeing clothes yellow, for example. Alum used for fixing the color was mined and refined in small quantities in parts of Europe, and the majority of it would come from mines in the Eastern Mediterranean. Many merchants were involved in the trade of these materials, and there were towns where the vast majority of merchants would be specializing in this type of trade for the fabric industry. And of course there is going to be the trade in the finished product. While some high end cloth would be exported to the east, the vast majority of the cloth produced and sold in Europe would be medium to low quality, perfectly satisfactory for the need of the bulk of a growing European population. Lighweight twill wool fabric was a specialty of Florence, for example, and regional and local markets would have been places to buy that and other fabric for the local population. | [
"BULLET::::- the conclusion that medieval merchant guilds allowed the rulers of trade centers to commit credibly to the security of foreign merchants by developing trade relations and securing merchants' property rights, based on the interpretation of historical evidence in light of a repeated-game model;\n",
"Du... |
What's the advantage of including 0 in the natural numbers? | The natural numbers still aren't a ring when you add 0, because there aren't additive inverses.
It's convenient to define 0 as part of the natural numbers in set theory, because it lets you define the natural numbers in a simpler way. It's convenient for computer science too, since it lets you say array indices are allowed to be natural numbers. | [
"The inclusion of 0 in the set of natural numbers is ambiguous and subject to individual definitions. In set theory and computer science, 0 is typically considered a natural number. In number theory, it usually is not. The ambiguity can be solved with the terms \"non-negative integers\", which includes 0, and \"pos... |
There was a notion during WWII that Rommel was the "good" German (not really ideologically a Nazi, possibly unaware of the Holocaust, died after a failed coup against Hitler). Is this still consistent with what we know of the man? | There are many books out there about Field Marshal Erwin Rommel. Many are about the man and his acts of heroism on the battlefield, and many in recent years have come out to assess his involvement and relationship with the Heer (Army) Officer lead Resistance, and with Operation Valkyrie (the July 20, 1944 failed plot to blow up Hitler, and for the Reserve Army to take control of Berlin). His death is ultimately attributed to him taking his own life, thus sparing his family and his name dishonor. But as you’ve stated, how much did Rommel know, and how involved was he in the July 20 plot?
As you’ve pointed out in your question, he is regarded as the “Good German”. During his tenure as the Afrika Korps commander his units never partook in the Holocaust, or any random acts of POW or civilian massacres. Rommel was the epitome of the consummate professional officer. Prior to the Nazification of the Wehrmacht (Military) after the July 20, 1944 Assassination Attempts, the German Army was strictly to not partake in any politics. They were simply to do their duty for their country and people – regardless of who lead the country. However, after the July 20 Plot, the German Army had to swear personal oaths to Hitler, and had to give the Nazi “Sieg Heil” Salute, rather than the Military Salute, and Nazi Political Officers were assigned to units and gave lectures on Nazism to the troops. As an aside, ironically, this is largely how the Red Army was prior to 1943, when Commosal and Political Officers were attached to units, and were instructed to look out for anti – Communist activity, and to teach the average Soviet soldier the history and political righteousness of Bolshevik Communism. So towards the end of the war it seems the German Military got far more political, whereas the Red Army became less political. So one needs to take all of that in to account. The German Army was founded on the Prussian Army ideals of being apolitical. A good obedient German soldier fought for his country, and his people, and not for any political movement. Rommel from what I have read was the personification of this Professional General Officer.
From what I have read, and from my own conclusions, Rommel knew of the plotters and resistance, but tried turning a blind eye to it. He kept it under wraps. He did not overtly partake in it. Although he personally was not a fan of Hitler’s, he was also the consummate professional Army Officer who was Apolitical. However, his being moved to France to command the defense of the Atlantic and Channel Coast, in some regards can be seen as promotion, but in other ways can be seen as being shelved. I know Rommel personally wanted to be given command of Italy (He was eying Field Marshal Kesselring’s positon. But Kesselring got the overall command on Italy), and the fighting there. He was a very offense driven General, much like the U.S.A.’s General George Patton, but instead was given his Field Marshal rank, but at the cost of being an Offensive commander, but rather a Defensive one. This denotes that Rommel pissed someone off at the top, but was given this command as a way to placate his supporters, and as a kind of second chance.
However, even as commander of Army Group B, Rommel still had to follow OKW (Military High Command) procedures; one of which was holding armored units in reserve near Paris, instead of stationing them closer to the Channel defenses – which Rommel was thoroughly against (and would ultimately be proven correct in June 1944). He was told to strengthen the Atlantic Wall Defenses, so he did the best he could in a limited time.
Anyway, I am going on a tangent (I mean who doesn’t like talking about Rommel?) the main theses to support the claim that Rommel was directly involved with the July 20 Plot is mostly circumstantial, but could be true. Rommel was closely associated with many of the high ranking officers involved in the conspiracy, including General Carl Heinrich von Stülpnagel (the German commander of Occupied France). Stülpnagel was an overt Francophile and was one of the forerunners of the Conspiracy, but in France and not directly connected to the Stauffenberg Conspirators (the ones who blew up Hitler in his Wolf’s Lair, and commanded the takeover of Berlin – all failing). He oversaw the Army’s takeover in Paris, and arrest of SS and Gestapo officials. However, when the plot to kill Hitler failed, Stülpnagel was ordered to release his prisoners. There are many other circumstantial ties that support the thesis that Rommel was overtly connected to the conspiracy against Hitler. Many officers after the war said that Rommel tried connecting them with other conspirators and wasn’t opposed to Hitler being removed, but feared that if he was killed it would intensify Nazi support and bring more suffering to the German people. Rommel wanted Hitler arrested and tried, but not killed.
Rommel was severely wounded a few days before the attempt on Hitler, when an allied plane strafed his car. Rommel returned to Germany to recover from his wounds and rest. Many of Rommel’s military opponents and detractors submitted various forms of evidence to the Gestapo and SS to prove that Rommel was involved with conspiracy. Over the course of a few months information, evidence and statements were gathered. Rommel was given two options, go to court (which he would have lost) or save his family and his honor and take his life. On October 14, 1944 SS forces surrounded Rommel’s home, and village. Rommel was taken by car to the outskirts of town, where he took his own life by biting in to a cyanide capsule.
Most of the evidence about Rommel’s support of the conspiracy against Hitler, which got him convicted, came from ardent Nazis sympathizers who for various reasons detested or we jealous of Rommel. Most of the post – War evidence to support Rommel’s involvement with the conspiracy came from his wife, his son, and other people that were close to him. In both cases, the sources were biased and had something to gain. So trying to look at the evidence impartial is difficult. There is no concrete evidence to suggest Rommel’s involvement, no sworn and signed statements by him, no planting of bombs, no arresting SS and Gestapo forces etc… but there is a ton of circumstantial evidence. So I agree with many Historians on the matter. I believe Rommel was aware of the Conspiracy, and gave it his blessing, but because of his careerist Army upbringing he tried to stay apolitical, even when he outright disagreed with Hitler and the Nazis. He did want to save German lives and wanted to bring a faster and more favorable end to the war (he even wrote a personal letter to Hitler requesting a partial surrender to the Western Allies, so that it could free up German units to fight the*real war*, the one against the Soviet Union), but he also had to remain professional and to a degree, loyal. I don’t think Rommel was outright involved with the daily plannings of the plot to kill Hitler, but he knew of them and turned a blind eye. In a way he was playing both sides, and straddling the fence. On one hand he hoped the plotters would succeed, but in case they did not succeed he did not want to get involved and get his hands dirty. In the end, at least for Rommel, his fait was tied to the Conspirators, and his death was a direct result of that.
| [
"At the same time, the Western Allies, and particularly the British, depicted Rommel as the \"good German\". His reputation for conducting a clean war was used in the interest of the West German rearmament and reconciliation between the former enemies—Britain and the United States on one side and the new Federal Re... |
why were old school superhero cartoons so cheesy? | They were aimed at younger audiences, and at the time the idea was that little kids wouldn't want to watch something with complex and deep dialogue and writing. Superheroes were considered just for little kids, and the idea of writing them so that the parents watching with their kids would also find something enjoyable in it hadn't caught on. You needed a generation of kids who grew up watching cartoons to become writers and producers for that to happen. | [
"Superheroes have been portrayed in animation since the early 1940s. Up until the late '90s animated cartoons have been the most common venue, right after comics, to depict superheroic adventures. Contrary to live action productions, they do not require expensive sets and special effects, although animation product... |
is there any way to find the curve of the earth using geometry, if so, how? | Early calculations used the sun and shadows to help calculate the curvature of the Earth. Eratosthenes did this calculation using the shadows cast by the sun to find the angle of the earth's curvature, then he used the distance between those points to estimate the circumference of the Earth. He was fairly close, he guessed it was 25,000 miles when it's actually 24,902 miles.
If the points aren't on the same line of longitude (North/South), then you can still do it. In Euclidean (flat) space, triangles have 180 degrees. On curved surfaces, this isn't always true. Draw a "triangle" on the surface on the earth with two points on the equator and one on the North Pole. The angle between the points on the Equator and the North Pole is 90 degrees (the equator and lines of longitude are perpendicular). Just those two angles will be 180, and we still need to add the angle at the North Pole. Knowing these points, we can know the relative sizes of the triangle in terms of the sphere. Plug in one of the side lengths and we can know the sphere's curvature. | [
"Knowing the points of intersection of a curve with a given line is frequently useful. The intersection with the axes of coordinates and the asymptotes are useful to draw the curve. Intersecting with a line parallel to the axes allows one to find at least a point in each branch of the curve. If an efficient root-fi... |
Can your fluid intelligence be increased/manipulated at all, or is it all genetic? | there is a good book called "the neuroscience of intelligence by Richard j haier that gives an answer. The way he puts it is that your intelligence is determined 80%by the environment and teaching, and 20% by your genetics when you are a child. By the time you reach age 18 or so, it reverses and becomes 80% genetic and 20% environment. | [
"Research on the effectiveness of interventions, and the degree to which fluid intelligence can be increased, especially after age 16, is somewhat controversial. Fluid intelligence is typically thought of as something more innate, and defined as immutable after maturity. One recent article however, demonstrates tha... |
if whisky needed a little water, wouldn't the distilleries add it? | Some people like whiskey with a drop of water, some people do not. It is personal taste. However if the whiskey manufactures were to add in the drop of water then there would no longer be a choice. It is easy to add a drop of water at a bar, it is impossible to remove it. | [
"Most new-make malt whisky is diluted to about 60% alcohol by volume (ABV) or so before it is placed in casks to mature (62.5% is specified as a maximum in U.S. law for making straight whisky). The aged spirit is then diluted with water to reduce it to bottling strength (typically 40-50% ABV). Since large amounts o... |
Chicago World's Fair | There's plenty of great stuff out there, but I'll just throw in a recommendation for Bill Cronon's [*Nature's Metropolis*](_URL_0_). A classic environmental history of Chicago -- what a book! | [
"The Chicago World's Fair occurred while Miller studied in St. Louis and it is believed that he attended the fair and saw the thousands of contemporary works that were on exhibit, including works by the artists of the emerging American Impressionist movement and the Tonalist School. During his five years at the Sch... |
how did every culture on the planet at some point in their ancient history invent the concept of teas? | Not every culture did. Some figured out that if you dip certain leaves in hot water, it tastes good, and some learned it from other cultures.
The concept of tea is relatively simple. It's not much of a stretch for every culture to figure it out on their own. | [
"Whether or not these legends have any basis in fact, tea has played a significant role in Asian culture for centuries as a staple beverage, a curative, and a status symbol. It is not surprising, therefore, that theories of its origin are often religious or royal in nature.\n",
"The concept of tea culture is refe... |
How many of an average human's genes are mutations? | As arumbar points out, the human mutation rate is now estimated at around 1.1*10^-8 mutations per base pair per generation. There are ~ 6 billion bases in a human genome, so that yields about 66 new mutations in every individual. Approximately 1.5% of the genome is coding sequence, so under the assumption that these mutations are distributed entirely at random (which is not an entirely air tight assumption, as we suspect that there may be some variation in mutation rate across the genome), then you're looking at about 1 genic point mutation per person per generation.
However, non-genic sequence is not useless. In fact, a large fraction of it is known to be involved in regulating gene expression, or non-coding RNAs, which likely have very important roles in the cell, but which we don't necessarily understand all that well. So it's not only the mutations in coding genes that matter.
Note that I'm only talking about point mutations (i.e. a single DNA base changes from a C to an A, or something like that). There are also going to be insertions, deletions and other rearrangements (and these are often responsible for certain genetic diseases), although I'm not aware of good estimates on rates of these sorts of mutations. | [
"There are several problems not seen in the above. First, mutations occur as random events. Second, the chance that any site in the genome varies is different from the next site, a very good example is the codons for amino acids, the first two nt in a codon may mutate at 1 per billion years, but the third nt may mu... |
How does inductive charging charge my phone without scrambling the data in it? | The data stored in a phone is not stored on magnetic media like a computers hard drive so the magnetic field doesn't have any affect on memory. Your phone uses flash memory which is not affected by the magnetic fields from an inductive charging mat. | [
"Wi-Charge claims to deliver power using focused beams of invisible infrared light. The system consists of a transmitter and a receiver. Transmitter connects to a standard power outlet and converts electricity into infrared laser beam. Receivers use a miniature photo-voltaic cell to convert transmitted light into e... |
developed nation, undeveloped nation, first world, third world: what information do these terms convey, and how do we use them correctly? | TECHNICALLY the first world are developed capitalist nations that were vaguely alligned with the US after ww2, basically anyone on the US side in the cold war, and the 2nd world are all those nations alligned with the USSR after ww2 i.e. communist nations. The 3rd world is anyone who remained neutral. Due to the nature of the conflict nearly every developed nation had "picked sides" so the 3rd world tends to refer to underdeveloped nations who simply had no stake in this game, however this leads to developed nations like ireland and finland to be technically 3rd world. | [
"From its origins, the term has been used to differentiate between countries that are considered developed and underdeveloped. Davis and Golden considered a country to be underdeveloped if over half its economically active males were employed in agriculture. The UNESCO report frequently used the terms \"developed\"... |
During WW2, did you have to be a British citizen to fight for the British Armed Forces? | Apologies, I might have answered my own question through research. For those curious:
> Some 10,000 men and women from Germany and Austria, Jews and other opponents of the Nazi regime, fought in British uniform. As "friendly enemy aliens" they could not be compelled to join up. All were volunteers, representing almost one in eight of the 78,000 German and Austrian nationals who fled to Britain before September 1939.
> The King's uniform did not confer British nationality. Those who wanted to make Britain their permanent home were granted passports only after the war. Hated and persecuted in their homeland and treated with suspicion in their adopted country, they lived out the war in a kind of limbo, uncertain as to what the future held. What drove them was an absolute detestation of Nazism.
[Source](_URL_0_)
> The compelling story of 10,000 Germans and Austrians who fled Nazi persecution and joined the British forces in the Second World War. Having escaped Nazi Germany with their lives, this was their chance to fight back. They served in all theatres of war, including dangerous operations behind enemy lines and the D-Day landings. Now they faced their former countrymen on the beaches of Normandy and the battlefields of Europe. But ‘Churchill’s refugee soldiers’ did not feel they were betraying the country of their birth. Rather, they felt that Germany had betrayed them. Some were hunted for special duties behind enemy lines with the Commandos, special Raiding Forces, SAS and SOE. Others were involved in the battles at sea, top secret intelligence duties, and elite infantry regiments. They fought, and many died, fighting on the front line for the country that had saved them from Hitler’s tyranny. With one or two exceptions, these refugees in uniform did not receive British nationality until 1946-47. At the end of the War, they returned in their thousands in British army uniform to Germany and Austria to begin the reconstruction of post-war Europe and the hunt for Nazi war criminals.
[Source](_URL_1_) | [
"When the United Kingdom declared war on Germany at the start of World War I, the Australian government followed without hesitation. This was considered to be expected by the Australian public, because of the very large number of British-born citizens and first generation Anglo-Australians at the time. By the end o... |
why do car dealerships (both foreign and domestic) fly huge american flags? | Trying to cash in on the patriotism of consumers. | [
"There is no single national flag airline; passenger airlines in the United States have always been privately owned. There are over 200 domestic passenger and cargo airlines and a number of international carriers. The major international carriers of the United States are Delta Air Lines, American Airlines, and Unit... |
what is a "haircut" in economic terms? | Close. It's when someone puts up collateral for a debt. It's a percentage subtraction from the total value of the collateral, based on the risk of the collateral holding its value. More stable collateral would have a smaller haircut. | [
"In mass media, as well as in economics texts, especially post-GFC, the term \"haircut\" has been used mostly to denote a reduction of the amount that will be repaid to creditors, or, in other words, a reduction in the face value of a troubled borrower's debts, as in \"to take a haircut\": to accept or receive less... |
what happens in the brain during those 10 seconds when you wake up and you don't even know who you are. | Think of your brain like a computer. When you turn a computer on, it doesn't start running right away. It has to boot up first, filling up various bits of the computer with the memory that makes it able to show you cat videos.
When you wake up, it's kind of like your brain rebooting. | [
"BULLET::::- Studies show that individuals express a lack of blood flow to the brain upon awakening. Levels of cerebral blood flow (CBF) and cerebral blood flow velocities (CBFV) will take up to 30 minutes to increase and reach daytime levels. Studies using advanced imaging have shown that cerebral blood flow will ... |
How much has the Salinity of the Oceans decreased after the melting that has occurred during the ending of the Ice Ages? | Sea level during the ice age was 120m lower than today, or .12km. Total area of the oceans today is 361.9 million km\^2. Ignoring area difference between now and then, the volume of melted ice water is .12 x 361.9 or 43.4 million cubic km. The total ocean volume estimate is 1..35 billion cubic km. So the volume increased by 3% or so. | [
"As sea ice ages and thickens, the initial salinity of the ice decreases due to the rejection of brine over time [Fig. 2]. While the sea ice ages, desalinization occurs to such a degree that some multiyear ice has a salinity of less than 1 PSU. This occurs in three different ways:\n",
"The Arctic ocean has experi... |
why movies with good screenplays only have one or two writers, while the typical (and bad) blockbuster scripts often have up to three to four writers? | Because with more writers some movies tend to get written and rewritten, to the point that the story makes no sense anymore. An example would be [Prometheus](_URL_0_), which was passed repeatedly between two writers. Obviously a screenplay with one or two writers would be more "focused". Of course that does not always apply, but that's a pretty realistic scenario. | [
"Screenwriter Terry Rossio notes that there are always multiple film projects with similar subjects being developed in multiple studios while usually only one of them makes it into production in a given period of time, and therefore twin films are better regarded as exceptions. In one case, for the 1974 film \"The ... |
why do certain foods cause food comas, but not others? | When you eat a really big meal, of any type of food really, you'll probably feel tired and sluggish afterwards, the "food coma". This is due to your body diverting blood and energy to start digesting the large load of food. Your body will also release Insulin, a hormone that will help process and store the food for use by your body. Both these things can make you sleep and cause the feeling of food coma.
Now the reason why you might associate some foods with causing this, and not others, is a more interesting question. I would imagine that these foods tend to be foods that
* Are easily overeaten
* Are often overeaten due to ceremony (Thanksgiving, Christmas)
* Contain an unusual amount of carbs or protein
* Are eaten at somewhat unusual times for you
So examples might be the common Thanksgiving feast, which contains vast amounts of Turkey, stuffing, potatoes, eaten in unusually excessive quantities, and often at an unusual hour (like 2 pm?).
Another might be a blowout brunch, where you have pancakes with syrup, eggs, bacon, muffin etc. It's way more food than you'd usually have for breakfast, slightly later than usual (brunch is like 11-12), and it again contains a shockingly large amount of sugar which will spike your insulin. | [
"Sugar crashes are not to be confused with the after-effects of consuming large amounts of \"protein\", which produces fatigue akin to a sugar crash, but are instead the result of the body prioritising the digestion of ingested food.\n",
"In general, these nutritional disorders may be caused by malnutrition, such... |
Long ago when people lived in a place with many children and everyone slept and lived in the same room, where did the parents go to have sex? | This question was asked before. /u/vertexoflife provided a thorough answer:
_URL_0_
TLDR: they just had sex with the children present | [
"A group of children, all about the same age, shared a children's house and had a nanny who took care of their everyday needs. Each house had a dining hall, a classroom, bedrooms (3-4 children in each room), and a bathroom. Boys and girls took showers together during elementary school up to the sixth grade, and usu... |
Why is a tesseract depicted the way it is? | I don't know anything about Interstellar so I don't know if I'm missing some important sci-fi context, but as far as why a tesseract is often drawn as a cube-with-a-cube it's fairly straightforward.
Start with a point. This is your 0-cube.
To go up a dimension, add another 0-cube parallel to the first one and connect the corresponding endpoints. Most of that is pretty meaningless when we're really just talking about points in 1 dimension, so what I actually mean is just draw another point and connect them. Now you have a simple line segment. This is your 1-cube.
To go up a dimension, add another 1-cube parallel (as in parallel lines) to the first one and connect the corresponding endpoints. What I mean by corresponding is if your first line segment is AB, and the second is A'B' then connect A-A' and B-B' so that you end up with a square instead of two triangles. Now you have a square. This is your 2-cube.
To go up a dimension, add another 2-cube parallel (as in parallel planes) to the first one and connect the corresponding endpoints. You should have a standard 3 dimensional box, which is your 3-cube.
To go up a dimension, add another 3-cube parallel to the first one and connect the corresponding endpoints. What does "parallel" mean in 4 dimensions? We don't really know because we're trapped in 3-dimensions, so often the easiest way to draw it is simply to draw one cube inside the other so that the corners are easy to connect. But this isn't strictly necessary, you can also draw two boxes next to each other on the page or some other configuration so long as you connect the correct vertices to each other.
Angle and length will not be preserved, just like drawing a 3d box doesn't really preserve right angles or edge lengths (on the page), but that can't be helped. Anyway whatever you draw is your 4-cube, a tesseract.
This is obviously not any kind of formal proof but I get the impression you wanted more of an intuitive explanation that it wasn't just pulled out of somebody's ass so I hope this construction helps.
The wikipedia pages for [Tesseract](_URL_1_) and [Hypercube](_URL_0_) contain more (obviously) but in particular there are some animated .gifs of tesseracts which might help. | [
"The face of the general is unfinished, either because the sculptors awaited a model to work from, or they had produced the work speculatively with no specific commission. The general and his wife are also each shown twice on the lid frieze, together holding each other's hands at the centre, and singly at the ends,... |
why does the electronic staticy sound my tv (which is hooked up to my computer) makes change when i open programs, go full screen for videos or cycle through firefox windows? | does the cable connecting your pc and tv have a ferrite bead on it? _URL_0_
you are hearing 'noise' generated by the electronic circuits in your system leaking into the audio amplifier in the tv. when you ask the computer to do something different parts of the computer spring into action, the cpu, hd, ram, etc and they each demand a little more energy from the power supply to do their thing. this can generate fluctuations in the electronic noise radiating from the various components which is picked up and amplified by the audio amp much like how a radio works. | [
"Many televisions and monitors automatically degauss their picture tube when switched on, before an image is displayed. The high current surge that takes place during this automatic degauss is the cause of an audible \"thunk\" or loud hum, which can be heard (and felt) when televisions and CRT computer monitors are... |
if when a baby had jaundice, they can do phototherapy, why can’t jaundice in adult be treated the same way? | Jaundice in babies is caused by the babies immature liver not being able to handle the breakdown of fetal haemoglobin as it is replaced by adult haemoglobin. The breakdown of haemoglobin makes bilirubin which the liver attaches to other molecules so it can leave the body. Light helps breakdown bilirubin. Severe jaundice in babies is bad as it can cause brain damage called kernicterus.
In adults, jaundice usually happens because of liver failure or the abnormal breakdown of blood (hemolysis).
Thus in babies the cause for the jaundice and the reason the liver can't take it away are temporary. In adults they are less likely to be so, so you fix the cause instead and the jaundice itself doesn't have such severe consequences, the cause of it does. | [
"If the neonatal jaundice does not clear up with simple phototherapy, other causes such as biliary atresia, Progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis, bile duct paucity, Alagille syndrome, alpha 1-antitrypsin deficiency, and other pediatric liver diseases should be considered. The evaluation for these will incl... |
why do certain musical notes harmonize? | It's the relative position of the peaks and troughs of the wave form. If a second pitch has a waveform that will align a peak frequently, then the sound is considered pleasant. Two notes that are dissonant would have peaks that only aligned after a great number or cycles, which is why dissonant notes have different rates at which they "warble".
Not the most eloquent answer, but that's basically it. | [
"Therefore, the combination of notes with their specific intervals—a chord—creates harmony. For example, in a C chord, there are three notes: C, E, and G. The note C is the root. The notes E and G provide harmony, and in a G7 (G dominant 7th) chord, the root G with each subsequent note (in this case B, D and F) pro... |
pixel resolution, and the difference between 1080p, 2k, 4k, and 10-bit | 2K and 4K refer to resolutions higher than 1080. 4K is exactly 4x the resolution of 1080p at a resolution of 3840x2160.
2K is only slightly higher than 1080p but it is a different aspect ratio, a resolution of 2048×1080.
10-bit refers to the color space of the image and has nothing to do with resolution. Most consumer TVs display 8 bit color which is capable of 16 million colors. 10-bit color is capable of 68 billion colors. | [
"Occasionally, 1080p (Full HD or FHD) has been included into the 2K resolution definition. Although 1920x1080 could be considered as having a horizontal resolution of approximately 2,000 pixels, most media, including web content and books on video production, cinema references and definitions, define 1080p and 2K r... |
how can someone be acquitted of murdering someone, but still be found guilty in a civil suit? e.g. oj simpson. | To win a criminal case, it would have had to be proved *beyond a reasonable doubt* that OJ did it. To win the civil case, it just had to be proved that he did it more likely than not. | [
"In a rare judgement, the Supreme Court acquitted a death row victim who was found guilty and sentenced to death by a trial court and the High Court saying the prosecution has not proved the charge against him of murdering his wife and five daughters on the basis of evidence on record. “In our view, the circumstanc... |
why can't i eat or drink anything before surgery. | Doctor here typing on my phone, so excuse any typos
1)Nausea and vomiting and very common side effects, and it's way more convenient and pleasant for everyone if nothing comes out.
2) before I explain, it's important to realize that the esophagus and trachea are right next to each other, with only the epiglottis to cover the trachea when you swallow, ensuring that food and water go into the stomach. After the anesthesiologist sedates you and you drift off to sleep, a paralytic is given to you so that all of your muscles relax, making intubation easier. Unfortunately, this means that they have to breathe for you in the small time window in between injecting the paralytic, and actually intubating you. This process involves holding a mask over your mouth and nose, and pumping 100% oxygen to fully oxygenate your blood. This means that air is forced down the path of least resistance. Hopefully most of the air goes down the trachea and into your lungs, but it is unavoidable that some goes down the esophagus into the stomach. This means that as the anesthesiologist is trying to pump air into our lungs, your stomach is also slowly getting pumped full too. If the patient has anything in their stomach (even water), this stomach contents can easily reflux since the air is pushing things around. This reflux, aka vomit, comes up through the esophagus, but can't leave your mouth because you are lying down. Instead, the contents can only fall down the trachea into the lungs. This can cause a chemical pneumonitis is from there acidic stomach contents, or even worse, an aspiration pneumonia. Bad news bears.
EDIT: I am a urologist, meaning that I am a surgeon. A urologists scope of practice is huge, doing ANYTHING surgical involving the kidneys, ureter, bladder, and prostate, and all its connecting bits. We take care of all demographics, ranging from Pediatrics, oncology, fertility, robotics, stones, voiding dysfunction, neurourology, and trauma/reconstruction.
There has been interest expressed about an AMA, Would anyone really want an AMA regarding someone to operates on the Genitourinary system? | [
"Before the surgery begins, the surgeon will take multiple blood test, physically examine the patient, and the surgeon will also check the past medical records of the patient to make sure it is safe to conduct the surgical procedure. On top of that, the surgeon doctor will ask about the types of medications that ha... |
what happens when someone dies to access their password-secured accounts (e.g. checking account, email, financial portfolio)? |
I used to do wills/estates before moving to IT/IP, so here's how it works:
1. You can only use a Power of Attorney when the person is alive. Once they are deceased, a PoA is no longer valid and the attorney/executor must derive their authority from the Will.
1a. If the testator is still alive, the Power of Attorney for Property (or Medical Care; there's always two types of POA) presents proof of incapacity to the bank and is then given signing authority. John Doe has Power of Attorney for Bob Smith, so Doe can sign Smith's cheques for him, for example.
Banks are quite sensitive to fraud and elder abuse though, so it's not a quick process. Usually a letter from a lawyer is required to get things moving.
2. For an executor named in a Will to gain access to a bank account, the will must be probated through the courts, a notarized copy of the death certificate and will presented to the bank, and an "estate account" opened. After probate, the executor is then responsible for liquidating and distributing assets per the terms of the will.
3. For social media, etc.. it's sort of the same deal, except a lot more annoying. You can send the company a letter w/ proof of death and proof of appointment as executor, but their policy might be to just delete the account upon notice of death. IIRC Facebook and some phone companies used to do this with deceased Iraq/Afghanistan war vets.
What is recommended is creating a list of all social media accounts and passwords while still living and leave them with the power of attorney and will. | [
"There are several services that offer to keep multiple passwords, sending them to people of personal choice after death. Some of these send the customer an email from time to time, prompting to confirm that that person is still alive, and failure to respond to multiple emails makes the service provider to assume t... |
how does carbon dioxide make stuff taste better when it is supposed to be harmful? | Side note first: CO² **is** poisenous.
Our body is **ex**haling it as a waste product. We are just tolerating a certain amount of it (up to 4%...normallly it is around 0.04%)
Main question: CO² is added to conserve a product, since bacteria that use oxygen and dispose CO² are hampered if they live in a CO² rich environment.
But CO² is also working as an acid when dissolves it in water- and that changes the taste of things. Whether you like it or not is rather individual. | [
"Liquid carbon dioxide is a good solvent for many lipophilic organic compounds and is used to remove caffeine from coffee. Carbon dioxide has attracted attention in the pharmaceutical and other chemical processing industries as a less toxic alternative to more traditional solvents such as organochlorides. It is als... |
What was the situation with the papal-states during the creation of Italy | > Were they forced into it
They certainly were. Pius IX was the pontiff from 1846 until his death in 1878--basically the entirety of the process of Italian unification. At no point did he accept this process, and he resisted with armed force whenever possible. His armies were largely defeated in 1860-61, leaving only Rome under pontifical control. Rome finally fell in 1870, leaving the papacy in control of the Vatican (or what would later become the nation of Vatican City in 1929).
> why didn't any catholic nations object?
Some did. For instance, Napoleon III stationed troops in Rome in the 1860's, partly to prop up the Papal States. Other nations had a number of people volunteer to serve the papacy in its military. However, the force of arms of the Italians was too much to bear. Napoleon III's troops stayed in Rome until 1870, and their presence was a deterrent because the nascent Italian state did not want to spark a war with its powerful French neighbor. This changed in 1870 with the beginning of the Franco-Prussian war, and due to a number of defeats Napoleon III withdrew his troops to attempt to help at home. Rome was left with only its small military, which gave only token resistance to the Italian attack. Rome was made the capital of Italy, and Pius IX declared himself a prisoner in the Vatican. At no point did he accept the situation, refusing to acknowledge Italian control (and since the papacy had been restored to its temporal power a number of times in the past this was not an entirely unreasonable position to take. Pius IX himself had been restored to Rome after the revolutions of 1848, for example). This restoration never happened, and "the Roman Question" lingered until the Lateran Accords were ratified in 1929. | [
"By 1861, much of the Papal States' territory had been conquered by the Kingdom of Italy. Only Lazio, including Rome, remained under the Pope's temporal control. In 1870, the Pope lost Lazio and Rome and had no physical territory at all, except the Basilica of St Peter and the papal residence and related buildings ... |
Is it true that near the time of their respective deaths, MLK and Malcolm X were slowly drifting towards each other's ideologies? | After reading Taylor Branch's epic trilogy *The King Era,* I don't recall anything about MLK sympathizing with black separatism or in any way abandoning non-violence. Rather, after the passage of the Civil Rights laws MLK was moving towards a broader agenda, including moving the civil rights fight into the north, eliminating poverty regardless of race, and openly opposing the Vietnam War. But he was as committed to non-violence as ever, even though there were many who considered MLK too passive. | [
"Malcolm X rose rapidly to become a minister and national spokesperson for the NOI. He is largely credited with the group's dramatic increase in membership between the early 1950s and early 1960s (from 500 to 25,000 by one estimate; from 1,200 to 50,000 or 75,000 by another). In March 1964, Malcolm X left the Natio... |
What was it like between Washington, DC and Richmond during the Civil War? Two capitals at war, but just down the road from each other. | I'm a bit confused by your third sentence. Are you suggesting that the area around/between the two capitals did not see much fighting? If so, I really couldn't disagree more. Northern Virginia was the great meatgrinder of the war, a relatively narrow strip of land between mountain and sea where the principal armies of the two republics - the Army of the Potomac and the Army of Northern Virginia - repeatedly clashed for more than three years, inflicting *hundreds of thousands* of casualties. The largest campaign of the war by number of men involved took place on the outskirts of Richmond - the Peninsula Campaign of 1862. First and Second Manassas/Bull Run, Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, the Wilderness, Spotsylvania, Cold Harbor, and the Siege of Petersburg were all major battles that took place roughly between the two capitals.
If I haven't answered your question, please feel free to clarify and I'll do my best to oblige. | [
"With less than 150 miles separating the two capital cities of Washington, D.C. and Richmond, Virginia, Northern Virginia found itself in the center of much of the conflict of the American Civil War. The area was the site of many battles and bloodshed. The Army of Northern Virginia was the primary army for the Conf... |
Did anyone who opposed interracial marriage claim that it would lead to homosexual marriage? | Not a direct answer, but one reason it was claimed miscongenation was wrong, was because it produced more effeminate off spring.
["....daily observation shows us that the offspring of these unnatural connections are generally sickly and effeminate, and that they are inferior in physical development and strength to the full blood of either race..." A Handbook of Politics for 1868](_URL_0_)
| [
"There is no evidence to suggest that homosexual sex was involved as part of the original practice of the law of adoption in the 19th century. However, beginning in the 1970s, some members of began to suggest that the leadership of the LDS Church should restore the law of adoption in order to allow same-sex couples... |
Marx expected that the Communist Revolution would have happened in an industrialized nation like the United States instead of a rural nation like Russia. Why did this never happen? | You may have already contemplated this, but just to begin with some additional precision, Marx envisioned a proletarian revolution, and not just a revolution *tout court*. Definitionally then, you won't see a proletarian revolution in a nation that hasn't industrialized and developed a proletarian class.
The reason that Marx envisioned a specifically proletarian revolution has to do with his understanding and analysis of society. For purposes of answering this question, one of the, if not the kernel, of Marx's analysis might be summed up by this passage from Volume III of Capital: "The specific economic form in which unpaid surplus labour is pumped out of the direct produces determines the relationship between those who dominate and those who are in subjection... Upon this [economic form], however, is founded the entire organisation of the economic community which grows up out of the production-relations themselves, and thereby at the same times its specific political form... [It is this economic form] which reveals the innermost secret, the hidden foundation of the entire social structure..."
To put it concisely, there is a primacy to the specific economic relations of a society that determines in part many other aspects of that society. Hence, you will often see (for instance, in The German Ideology) Marx discussing tribal, ancient, feudal, and capitalist societies as if this were a very natural way of categorizing societies. (I think it is, but some might disagree.)
In any case, it is through this specific categorization of societies that Marx believes allows us to understand how societies have transformed through the ages from one sort of system of economic relations to another. Certain economic relations solve certain problems, but also engender their own problems that become solved by different economic relations. G.E.M. de Ste. Croix gives such an analysis of the classical Greek and Roman world. In order for their economies to grow, more and more slaves had to be acquired, which required territorial expansion, but territorial expansion soon became far too costly, and so in order to acquire more slave labour, slaves were bred. This however meant a contradictory decrease in slave efficiency. In response, previously free men were increasingly exploited, turning the classical world from a slave society into a feudal society.
Under Marx's analysis, socialism is a specific response that is developed from the specific problems that a capitalist society engenders by being a capitalist society. As Engels writes on the specific matter of Russia and revolution: " it is an historical impossibility that a lower stage of economic development should solve the enigmas and conflicts which did not arise, and could not arise, until a far higher stage. All forms of gentile community which arose before commodity production and individual exchange have one thing in common with the future socialist society: that certain things, means of production, are subject to the common ownership and the common use of certain groups. This one shared feature does not, however, enable the lower form of society to engender out of itself the future socialist society, this final and most intrinsic product of capitalism. Any given economic formation has its own problems to solve, problems arising out of itself; to seek to solve those of another, utterly alien formation would be absolutely absurd. And this applies to the Russian commune no less than to the South Slav zádruga, the Indian gentile economy or any other savage or barbaric form of society characterised by the common ownership of the means of production."
Bibliography:
Here's a piece by Engels specifically on the issue of revolution in Russia. (_URL_1_)
Here's the famous opening to The German Ideology. (_URL_0_)
I had cited a passage from Volume 3 of Capital.
I also recommend The Class Struggle in the Ancient Greek World by G.E.M. de Ste. Croix which not only performs a very clear and precise, analytical expounding of Marx's theory, but applies it to the slave economies of the classical world. | [
"Many notable academics such as Karl Popper, David Prychitko, Robert C. Allen, and Francis Fukuyama argue that many of Marx's predictions have failed. Marx predicted that wages would tend to depreciate and that capitalist economies would suffer worsening economic crises leading to the ultimate overthrow of the capi... |
why do men run the 110 meter hurdles while women run only 100 meters? | Historically, the lengths of the hurdle events varied greatly for both men and women. The men's even settled into 10 hurdles and 110m, while the women did 8 over 80m.
In the 1960s, they experimented with increasing the number of hurdles in the women's event to 10, and experimented with various distances. They settled on 100m, which has been used since the 1968 Olympics.
Hurdlers have to match their pacing with the hurdles so they will them in stride. Likely 100m works better than 110m, as women tend to be shorter than men. | [
"The height of the low hurdles was 30 inches, otherwise referred to as 2 feet 6 inches or 76.2 centimetres. It is the same height women now run for their long hurdles, generally the 400 metres hurdles. The races were frequently run on a straightaway, necessitating tracks to be constructed with long \"chutes\" to ac... |
How can scientists determine the size of a species from only a few fossilized bones? | Size estimates of extinct species are difficult to produce, especially with limited fossil material. The best way to go about it is to compare the fossils to the bones of closely related extant (living) species, which is easy enough for most mammals but very difficult for something like a dinosaur.
In the case of a mammoth or saber-toothed cat, comparative anatomy using proxies like elephants and lions is the best method. However, extinct animals aren't exactly like-to-like to their modern relatives, so there's always error. Estimates of the extinct crocodylomorph *Deinosuchus* have varied wildly, trending smaller in recent years, though this is still up for debate. [Farlow et al. 2005](_URL_0_) correlated alligator body size with their femoral dimensions and used that to estimate extinct croc body size using fossil femurs.
[Ashkenazi et al. 2004](_URL_3_) did something similar, only with the pincers of freshwater crabs from a Pleistocene lake.
For animals like dinosaurs with no extant proxies, researchers will typically use more well-researched fossils as their basis of comparison. I found a few papers on estimating Theropod dinosaur body size, but as I'm not a dinosaur researcher I can't really speak to how these results have been accepted by that community. [Therrien and Hendersn 2007](_URL_4_) used skull length to estimate body size but found that skulls become longer in proportion to body length as size increases. They also concluded that small dinosaurs do not make good proxies for large dinosaurs, surprise surprise. [Christiansen and Farina 2004](_URL_1_) produced equations to estimate body mass of Theropods, but this one is outside my field and without a chance to actually read it in detail I can't offer much more of an explanation on it. It's certainly doing exactly what you're asking about though. [Christiansen and Farina 2003](_URL_5_) does something similar with ground sloths, using dimensions of the ulna to estimate total body size as well as their ecological niche (which is honestly way more in line with what my interests).
Basically, estimating body size is extremely difficult with fossil animals, and without extant relatives to use as proxies, it gets fuzzy very quickly. The best approaches will attempt to correlate dimensions of specific skeletal elements (like the skull, ulna, femur, or pincers) to the total body size.
Now to tackle the second part of your question.
An excavator can usually tell if fossil are from the same individual if the skeleton is articulated, meaning all the elements are in place as they would have been in the living animal. Many skeletons are *not* articulated due to all the things that happen after the animal dies: scavenging, weather, water, and just being underground for millions of years. We call this taphonomy, so understanding the taphonomic processes that have occurred at a site is very important for understanding the conditions of your fossils. In many sites, fossils become jumbled together and it's simply impossible to determine which individuals they come from.
Determining if multiple fossils come from different individuals of the same species though is another matter. Even deciding if two living animals are the same species is difficult. Biologists typically use something called the biological species concept, which (very simply) is the rule that individuals that can produce viable offspring together are the same species (except when they aren't). Paleontologists don't have the luxury of living organisms, so we mostly rely on the morphological species concept. Simply put, this is looking at similarities and differences between fossils to decide if they are similar enough to be the same species. Obviously this is reliant on the skill and knowledge of the researcher, and recent views have shifted towards a more quantitifiable approach using specific, observable features that are shared between two individuals or populations and no others, called synapomorphies (syn=shared, apo=derived or "unique"). Essentially, a researcher must be able to point to a set of specific synapomorphies in order to assert that a fossil really does belong to a certain species. Accordingly, they must be able to identify a specific set of apomorphies in order to name a new species, as well as demonstrate that other closely related species do not shared these features.
All to often though, researchers make assumptions about what species a fossil belongs to based on which species live in an area today. For example, a researcher studying snake fossils in Pleistocene Arizona may compile a list of snake species currently present in Arizona, and use these for their comparative anatomy identification process. The result is that researchers often fail to identify species that are present in areas where they are not expected, a snake fossil may look similar enough to another species to be identified to that species, but may not necessarily represent that species. The North American Quaternary Herpetofaunal Stability hypothesis was based on the notion that reptile and amphibian distributions had changed very little over the past several million years, but was likely influenced by bias introduced by poor identification methods by the researchers ([Bell et al. 2009](_URL_2_)). | [
"As there are thousands of fossils, mostly fragmentary, often consisting of single bones or isolated teeth with complete skulls and skeletons rare, this overview is not complete, but does show some of the most important finds. The fossils are arranged by approximate age as determined by radiometric dating and/or in... |
why in advanced physics can you only know a particles speed or location (but not both) | > Why in advanced physics can you only know a particles speed OR location (but not both)
So in physics this is called the [uncertainty principle](_URL_0_), and it stems from the fact that objects have both particle-like and wave-like properties.
Let's make an analogy. Imagine that you drop a stone into a lake, and ripples spread out from the point where you drop it. Now say that you want to know both the position and the wavelength of the ripples.
Well, the instant the stone enters the water, the position of the wave is obvious. It's right there! But you can't calculate a wavelength, because the ripples haven't spread out yet. If you wait a few seconds, you can easily measure the wavelength, but the position is now all spread out. You cannot measure both the position and the wavelength at the same time, because they don't *exist* at the same time.
Well, the same type of relationship applies to the position and momentum of subatomic particles. They are Fourier transforms of each other. So not only can you not know both the position and momentum at the same time, but the particles don't *have* a well-defined position and momentum at the same time. | [
"It is one thing to say that physical measurement of the first particle's momentum affects uncertainty in its \"own\" position, but to say that measuring the first particle's momentum affects the uncertainty in the position of the \"other\" is another thing altogether. Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen asked how can the... |
whatever happened to esperanto? | Esperanto is alive and well in the 21st Century with a lively community on the internet. The new course on language-learning site Duolingo is proving extremely popular, the Esperanto wikipedia has more articles than many natural language editions and social media are making it easier than ever for Esperanto users across the world to connect. Esperanto is significantly easier to learn than any natural language and can serve as a useful introduction to language learning. There was a very good Tedx Talk on this: _URL_0_
Far from being dead and buried, it may well be that Esperanto is an idea whose time has come. | [
"Though Esperanto itself has changed little since the publication of (\"Foundation of Esperanto\"), a number of reform projects have been proposed over the years, starting with Zamenhof's proposals in 1894 and in 1907. Several later constructed languages, such as Universal, were based on Esperanto.\n",
"In its fi... |
liberalism | More information might be needed. What's considered "liberal" varies somewhat from country to country. | [
"Classical liberalism is a political ideology and a branch of liberalism which advocates civil liberties under the rule of law with an emphasis on economic freedom. Closely related to economic liberalism, it developed in the early 19th century, building on ideas from the previous century as a response to urbanizati... |
if someone were farsighted in one eye and nearsighted in the other, wouldn't they just balance out? | You aren't viewing the farsighted lens' vision through the nearsighted lens, to correct the farsightedness, or vice versa.
You've got a farsighted (out of focus) image, and a near-sighted (out of focus) image. Two out of focus images. | [
"Single vision lenses correct for only one distance. If they correct for far distance, the person must accommodate to see clearly up close. If the person cannot accommodate, they may need a separate correction for near distances, or else use a multifocal lens (see below).\n",
"Many people with near-sightedness ca... |
Do infants need to learn how to walk, or do they just need to build up the muscles? | On my phone so not sure if this link is so great but it has to do with the time it takes for neuronal myelination to occur. The motor neurons are still developing the capacity to communicate with each other quickly enough. So there is cognitive learning, but there is a physiological development as well.
_URL_0_ | [
"Consider the problem all infants face learning to walk. They spontaneously recognize that walking is more efficient than crawling--an instrumental valuation of a desirable end. They learn to walk by repeatedly moving and balancing, judging the efficiency with which these means achieve their instrumental goal. When... |
Were Native American aware of the existence of other continents before 1492? | As you can see on [this map](_URL_2_), the Yup'ik live on both sides of the Bering Strait and made regular voyages between Siberia and Alaska until both the USA and the USSR banned such travel during the Cold War. The ban was temporarily lifted after the Cold War, but was quickly reinstated by Russia until last year.
In the mid to late 1600s, a Yazoo man named Moncacht-Apé criss-crossed North America; I wrote about his explorations [here](_URL_0_). While he was making his way up through the Pacific Northwest, he was told that if he continued onward, the land coast would take him northwest, then west, then he'd arrive at a narrow sea that cut the land in two. While not much was made about the land on the other side, that this waterway was described as dividing the land does imply knowledge of land beyond it. While Moncacht-Apé's explorations took place post-1492, it's certainly possible, if not likely, that the geographic knowledge he received while in the Pacific Northwest long predates his journey. Perhaps others who specialize in the region might know some more direct information concerning this.
At the time of Columbus' arrival the people of the Caribbean were certainly aware of North and South America and had at least intermittent trade contact with both. In fact, the peoples of the Caribbean trace their origins back to South America. When Columbus asked the Lucayans, the first people he encountered in the Bahamas (eight of whom he abducted to serve as interpreters), where the mainland was, what little they were able to communicate to the Spanish at the time indicated that they were pointing him in direction of South America, rather than North America. Considering that the Taino in Cuba regarded Florida as another island, albeit a large one, this probably isn't surprising. Among the scattered objects indicating continental trade and contact with the Caribbean are jade axes from Guatemala found in Antigua, a Taino axe found in Florida, a Taino spatula found in the Yucatan, and [Warao](_URL_1_) canoes found on Dominica. See Curet's *Islands at the Crossroads
Migration, Seafaring, and Interaction in the Caribbean* for more information on that front.
For more direct contact between North and South America, we can look to Central America. Chibchan peoples live in both Central America and Colombia, and from one of those - the Guna or Kuna - we get the term *Abya Yala*, the Fully Grown Land, as the name for the American continents (which they regard as a single landmass rather than two separate continents). At the time of Spanish contact, the Guna lived in Colombia, but have since settled in coastal Panama.
In ancient times, when Teotihuacan ruled central Mexico, there appears to have been trade between Mesoamerica and the northern South America, via maritime traders shipping out from Ecuador who brought spondylus shells north and, by 800 CE, also introduced Andean metallurgy to Mesoamerica. | [
"With the realization that the Americas represented regions of the Earth of which the Europeans were not aware earlier, there arose intense speculation over the question whether the natives of these lands were true humans or not. Together with that went a debate over the (mis)treatment of these natives by the Conqu... |
how do huge hotels like cesar's palace or the bellagio provide wifi for 1000's of rooms? | If you had a big garden and wanted to water all of your plants it would take too long to use one house, so you would split the hose to create multiple paths of water. And at the end of each house you wouldn't just let the water pour out in one steam, but put a sprinkler in it to distribute the spray. If your garden was big enough you might have a control center that limits the flow of some hoses to make sure all of the hoses keep pressure.
It's a similar idea to provide network access for thousands of people. The sprinklers are access points that work on radio frequencies to spread and distribute the connections. The access points (APs) are connected to cat-5 or cat-6 which is a type of cable that lets the network information flow through it like a hose does with water. The cables connect to a switch which is the control center that balances the network traffic to ensure everyone has a good connection. | [
"The rooms contain a sofa, a large TV with cable and international channels, a large bed with option to roll out a single bed from underneath, a large desk, a microwave, a refrigerator, a bathroom with bath and shower, and a separate toilet. The hotel also has wireless internet access in every room (for a small fee... |
What is impedance ? | It's a general term used to indicate the resistance to the passage of an influence through a material.
Thermal and acoustic impedance for example. If you get a junction where two materials of different impedance contact, you can get attenuation. So, for instance, acoustic insulation often consists of alternating hard and soft layers so the mismatches of impedance reduce the transmission.
In high frequency AC circuits impedance is the analogue of electrical resistance. For instance, an inductor has low DC resistance but significant AC impedance to the flow of varying signals. Matching impedances between connected devices maximises power transmission. | [
"The impedance is the complex ratio of the voltage to the current with both magnitude and phase at a particular frequency in an AC circuit. In this sense impedance is a measure of the ability of the capacitor to attenuate alternating currents and can be used like Ohms law\n",
"Impedance is the opposition by a sys... |
What speed and mass would an impactor have to be to break through the thinnest ice crust of an icy moon? | Props for the cool idea but ...
The first major problem is that when exposed to space liquid water flash freezes. So you can't impact and then mosey over with your sub afterwards because it would already be frozen over. Sub insertion would have follow very closely on the heels of the impact, meaning whatever the sub is contained in would have to be able to withstand the temperatures and pressures generated in the impact (which would be substantial).
Fist considering Europa: There is debate in the community as to how thick its crust is, but at thinnest it's ~few km thick ([see this section of the Wikipedia article](_URL_2_)). This means that in order to get to the ocean you'd have to make a crater at least ~3km deep and thus something like 9 or 15 km in diameter (using depth/diameter ratios of 1/3 and 1/5 respectively, [see here](_URL_1_))! Playing with the [Melosh's crater size calculator](_URL_0_), you could get that from a 300m rocky body impacting vertically at 60km/s (into solid ice: density of 1000km/m^3 and "competent rock or saturated soil"). **Edit**: Note that using this calculator is perhaps not totally appropriate because it assumes the target properties are as given to depths much greater than the crater depth, which is not true here.
Ganymede: Its ice shell will be much thicker than Europa's.
Enceladus: The nature of Enceladus' liquid water is still actively debated (in fact, some think liquid might not be strictly required). That said, most people seem to think that it only exists in pockets (and not a global ocean). Given the uncertainty in how far below the surface these pockets are and their likely relatively small size, you may well destroy the pockets of liquid, making them hard to study! :) (Sorry I don't have any numbers. As I said, this is a very active research area and thus any numbers I could quote are really uncertain.) | [
"A 1-kg object impacting at 10 km/s, for example, is probably capable of catastrophically breaking up a 1,000-kg spacecraft if it strikes a high-density element in the spacecraft. In such a breakup, numerous fragments larger than 1 kg would be created.\n",
"Using equations describing impact effects based on work ... |
Is there any truth to the claims that mass shooters are almost always on, or have been on, psychiatric medications? | Maybe. But the claim is rather uninteresting. There's at least two possible conclusions to be drawn if it is true:
1. Psychiatric treatment makes you shoot people.
2. People with psychiatric problems are more likely to shoot people.
The *implied* narrative is of course that psychiatric drugs make you go out shoot people. But that's probably not the most realistic option of the two. It's more likely that people with a psychical problem will go out shoot people, and that medication is *far* from perfect in treating problems.
So even if it's true? So what else is new? That suicidal people tends to commit suicide more often? | [
"BULLET::::2. Mental illness and its treatment (or the lack thereof) with psychiatric drugs. This is controversial. Many of the mass shooters in the U.S. suffered from mental illness, but the estimated number of mental illness cases has not increased as significantly as the number of mass shootings. Under 5% of vio... |
Is there any actual evidence that multiple dimensions and universes exist? | There is not.
The BICEP2 result from about a year ago seemed to imply that the universe had undergone such a rapid expansion in its early stages that there are sections of it that would never be able to see each other, which spawned some discussion about what this would imply and whether it was even scientifically justifiable to talk about universes we have no hope of detected. However, that result turned out to just be dust. | [
"Finally, the first two results each appeared to establish 11 dimensions, the third result appeared to specify the theory, and the last result explained why the observed universe appears to be four-dimensional.\n",
"If the universe is finite but unbounded, it is also possible that the universe is \"smaller\" than... |
how does a touch screen detect touches under glass? | It measures capacitance. Your finger is conductive. The "glass" is non-conductive. There is a layer of transparent conductor under the glass. Wherever your finger touches, a capacitor forms -- an area capable of holding an electric charge. By reading the capacitance of each area of the screen, it can determine where it is being touched. This is why non-conductive object such as styluses do not register as touches. | [
"Several technologies can be used to detect touch. Resistive and capacitive touchscreens have conductive materials embedded in the glass and detect the position of the touch by measuring changes in electric current. Infrared controllers project a grid of infrared beams inserted into the frame surrounding the monito... |
Did civilizations conquered by the Romans retain their culture? | For a long time, we believed that, in some form or another, that there was a process of conscious and guided Romanization - that is, a process that led to the conquered people (with the admitted exception of hellenic cultures) becoming, in effect Roman. They would adopt the Latin language and Roman customs, Roman dress, Roman forms of municipal and tribal administration, jurisdiction, luxuries and so on, which superseded their own culture.
This traditional teleological view of Romanization as the rightful and inevitable triumph of a superior culture over lesser ones, who only appeared as passive recipients, is no longer commonly accepted. Rather, when we look at the individual areas, we see a highly heterogenous picture of cultures interacting with each other in ways that are impossible to generalize over the whole Empire, so it really is impossible to answer your question with a confident yes or no. My answer would be a hesitating, conditional yes. When new territories became part of the Roman Empire, what Rome was primarily concerned with was:
* how can we organize tax collection
* how can we provide external and internal security for the newly conquered territories and the Empire in general
* who are the local leaders, and how can we make them do what we want
This meant, that for a large part of the population, not much would change immediately. Their leaders might have to learn Latin to communicate with their new masters (or continue speaking Greek), they might serve in the Roman auxiliaries and become citizens after 25 years, new settlers or traders might come to their lands, their gods might be called by new names (some by their old and new at the same time), their gods might be prayed to by the Romans now also, and so on. Other changes might be more drastic: laws might change, depending on the forms of local organization, land might be confiscated for new colonies, taxes/tributes might be very high. On the other hand, there were also increased opportunities, such as an unprecedented spatial mobility - a Syrian auxiliary might find himself settling down in Britannia or Germania after his service. Traders could rely on Roman infrastructure in a very large space. However, local culture might continue for quite some time. There is evidence for 'code-switching' behaviour, where members of the leading caste might adopt Roman manners, dress and so on when they were dealing with Roman officials, but switch back to tribal dress, language and culture in their own civitas.
An example would be Pannonia, which contained a mix of 'celtic', dacian and illyrian ethnicities. It had been commonly assumed that Pannonia had been thoroughly romanized by the end of the 1st century. From there, we have an astonishingly high number of statues on tombstones, which display the deceased, presumably as he or his descendants wanted to be viewed by others. Along with celtic names, we find a large number of women in tribal dresses, wearing ethnic accessoires such as certain hats, broches and rings, while the men often display themselves as *togati*, toga-wearing Roman citizens - some even alongside their wife wearing ethnic accessoires. On the other hand, they quite rapidly accepted the Roman burial customs, which were different from the earlier ones, and the inscription formulae alongside the Latin language (at least on the inscriptions). In some cases you can see the changes along generational lines, where a father with a celtic name would be buried by his son Marcus.
It is important in this regard not to think of Roman culture of something that was opposed to local culture. Becoming Roman did not mean no longer being a Boian, or Dacian, or Batavian or whatever.
In other areas, the picture might be different. For example, in Hispania and some central Italian regions, the local language and local inscription formulae remained in use long into the time of the Empire. If you are interested specifically in Gaul, a seminal work in that respect would be Greg Woolfs 1998 *Becoming Roman*, in which the whole idea of Romanization gets criticized quite a bit as well (in fact this is one of the most important works in the field still).
There were changes that affected the whole Empire, and the change to Empire itself largely affected the culture of all Roman territories. The constitutio antoniniana, which gave all inhabitants of the Empire Roman citizenship, was one Empire-wide event that wasn't without influence on culture.
There is currently a lively debate going on about how to frame the process that went on when new territories became part of the Roman Empire, with a lot of concepts being thrown around. A good, if by now a bit dated, summary is *Alföldy, G. (2005):* Die Romanisation - Grundbegriff oder Fehlgriff? Überlegungen zum gegenwärtigen Stand der Erforschung von Integrationsprozessen im Römischen Weltreich*, in: Visy, Z. (ed.): *Limes XIX. Proceedings of the XIXth international Congress of Roman Frontier Studies held in Pécs, Hungary, September 2003.* Pécs, p. 25-56.
I personally think that Romanization is still useful as an analytical category, however we have to widen our field of view when looking at the processes that occured in the contact between Rome and newly conquered/controlled territories. Perhaps it is also helpful not to view it judgmental as 'others becoming Roman', but rather as the socialization of people into a multiethnic, multinational Empire with a "rather astonishing cohesive capacity" (Peachin 2011, *The Oxford Handbook of Social Relations in the Roman World*, p. 12)
| [
"In the 5th century, the Iberian Peninsula (the Roman Hispania) was conquered by the Germanic Suebi and Visigoths. As they adopted the Roman civilization and language, however, these people contributed with some 500 \n",
"Prior to the Roman conquest, a large part of Western Europe had adopted the newly developed ... |
Is there any proof that some nunneries in the Middle Ages were actually brothels? | Basically, no. While medieval people were generally very skeptical of women's ability to not be oversexed little lustdemons, the beliefs that (1) celibacy was *basically* impossible and (2) nuns were being horribly exploited by the Church, tricked into practicing empty ritual instead of focusing on real salvation, are both inventions of the early modern era. Nuns, like other late medieval religious, did indeed receive plenty of criticism. However, while we hear stories of "priestwhores" and "monkwhores" who specialized in a particular clientele of randy clerics, most of the attacks against nuns involve financial waste. (Don't get me wrong--there's plenty of *that* particular accusation to go around.) Discussions of nuns and illicit sex generally involve questions about an ex-nun fleeing her convent--breaking her vows--because she is pregnant or in order to get pregnant/start a family. But no, in the Middle Ages, "Get thee to a nunnery" was not a euphemism in the Shakespearean sense.
That said, there are a couple of complicating factors. First, particularly in urban Italy, religious foundations did operate houses for wayward girls and women. This could included former (or "former") prostitutes. These communities ran basically along monastic lines, including a reduced version of the daily Hours (schedule of communal prayer). They are categorically *not* brothels; however, you can see a clear link between them and a red-light former (and in some cases, probably future) life.
The second is the thorny--and debated in scholarship--question of whether convents, specifically in England, owned brothels or owned the property on which brothels operated. The scattershot nature of medieval legal records, the tendency of brothels to change names from tax period to tax period, and the ambiguities of location in London's Southwark district, have led many really excellent medievalists to identify the monastic community of Stratford-at-Bow as the owners of a brothel called the Unicorn ("and maybe others"). Henry Kelly has recently argued this is a misnomer, that the "Unicorn" owned by the nuns was not a brothel during the time it can conclusively be placed in their community registry of property. I'm not sure there is enough evidence to draw a conclusion either way--Kelly's argument hinges on a couple of major gaps in the source record, but so does the other view. It seems to be a case of reading into the holes the view that one already holds. (Ecclesiastical-related ownership of brothels in late medieval London is not out of the question; evidence from literary fiction suggests popular opinion may well have associated nuns with the operation of brothels if not participation themselves).
It's possible that future research could turn up a case of a convent that was running a prostitution ring *with its own nuns*, but I honestly doubt it. Medieval convents *tended* to be either reform-minded and very very dedicated to a spiritual life of prayer and contemplation, or sort of a prestigious alternate career to marriage and marriage alliance-making for noble (especially princely-level) daughters. Plus, for every anticlericalism-tinged complaint about nuns in furs eating meat every day, the *vast* majority of stories of convent life in the later Middle Ages turns on financial *hardship*, especially as stricter claustration rules prevented more and more women's communities from engaging in productive (money-earning) labor. There's not a lot of room for convent-brothels in this paradigm. | [
"Many of London's Medieval brothels were located in the part of Southwark which fell under the jurisdiction of Winchester Palace, the residence of the Bishops of Winchester. In 1161 a parliament of Henry II introduced regulations allowing the Bishops to license brothels and prostitutes in the area, which became kno... |
why are airplane controls so god damnned complicated?? | In addition to all of the aeronautical controls, airplanes have many systems for lighting, radio, fuel controls, navigation, intercoms, oxygen and more. Plus, lots of these systems have backups and redundancies, all of which have to have controls. Many have different controls for left and right.
[Read more about airplane controls here](_URL_0_)
If you think about it, your car has a hell of a lot of controls as well, once you include radios, navigation (which may be on your phone), and all of the lights and things. | [
"Because this type of aircraft control (with loss of control surfaces) is difficult for humans to achieve, some researchers have attempted to integrate this control ability into the computers of fly-by-wire aircraft. Early attempts to add the ability to real airplanes were not very successful; the software was base... |
how is high salt intake "bad for you" if the japanese eat so much of it and have the life expectancy they do? | It isn't, unless you have an existing heart condition.
High-salt meals cause a short-term rise in blood pressure. For much of the late 20th century it was believed that long-term salt intake caused chronic high blood pressure. Chronic high blood pressure is known to cause health problems. But research in the last few years is showing that the link between salt intake and chronic high blood pressure was mistaken.
If you have heart problems, the short-term increase in BP can cause complications. But if you don't, there's nothing wrong with a high salt intake. | [
"Moreover, the traditional Japanese diet is very high in salt intake, and yet the Japanese have the highest life expectancy in the world, and low rates of cardiovascular disease. Shimazu and others note, \"we have found that the Japanese dietary pattern is associated with lower CVD mortality, despite the fact that ... |
When did turkeys and cranberries come to be associated with Thanksgiving? | William Bradford, second governor of Plymouth first records eating turkey's in 1621. They were not considered particularly special.
> They begane now to gather in ye small harvest they had, and to fitte up their houses and dwellings against winter, being all well recovered in health & strenght, and had all things in good plenty; for as some were thus imployed in affairs abroad, others were excersised in fishing, aboute codd, & bass, & other fish, of which yey tooke good store, of which every family had their portion. All ye som̅er ther was no wante. And now begane to come in store of foule, as winter aproached, of which this place did abound when they came first (but afterward decreased by degrees). And besids water foule, ther was great store of wild Turkies, of which they tooke many, besids venison, & c. Besids they had aboute a peck a meale a weeke to a person, or now since harvest, Indean corne to yt proportion. Which made many afterwards write so largly of their plenty hear to their freinds in England, which were not fained, but true reports.
[Full Text](_URL_0_)
Mourt's Relation describes the first thanksgiving as follows
> Our harvest being gotten in, our governor sent four men on fowling, that so we might after have a special manner rejoice together after we had gathered the fruit of our labors; they four in one day killed as much fowl, as with a little help beside, served the company almost a week, at which time amongst other recreations, we exercised our arms, many of the Indians coming amongst us, and among the rest their greatest King Massasoit, with some ninety men, whom for three days we entertained and feasted, and they went out and killed five deer, which they brought to the plantation and bestowed on our governor, and upon the captain, and others. And although it be not always so plentiful as it was at this time with us, yet by the goodness of God, we are so far from want that we often wish you partakers of our plenty.
[Full Text](_URL_1_)
When they came to be associated with feasting I don't know.
EDIT: Added Bradford's mention of turkeys. | [
"The use of the turkey in the US for Thanksgiving precedes Lincoln's nationalization of the holiday in 1863. Alexander Hamilton proclaimed that no \"Citizen of the United States should refrain from turkey on Thanksgiving Day,\" and Benjamin Franklin had high regard for the wild turkey as an American icon, but turke... |
Why does it seem like the Persian Empires get shafted in popular history and culture? The Parthians & Sassanids are barely mentioned, if at all in textbooks, even though they rivaled the Roman Empire. Is this Western bias, or are there a lack of sources? Even little old Carthage gets more love. | As a related question, how is Persian history taught in Iran? Do they focus a lot on the various Persian Empires? What about Iraq and Afghanistan? | [
"Rome and Sassanid Persia had been at war with one another for much of the first quarter of the seventh century. With both empires still feeling the effects of such a long series of battles, an Arab threat took advantage of the weakening empires. The Persians faced defeat west of the Euphrates in Qadisiyya in what ... |
Want to study a war where a country/state is in between two other countries/states. Historical examples? | France/Belgium/Germany seems relevant. Sandwiched between both major powers, Belgium was used by the Germans as a backdoor into France in both World Wars.
Is that helpful? In truth I'm a little confused as to what exactly your looking for. Could you elaborate a bit more? Perhaps if you give us some insight as to the purpose of your inquiry we could better help you. | [
"Nations and alliances are created, formed and destroyed in the course of the war and after, one of them is the Regimu Kingdom, a new state that incorporate the former nation of Ukraine, Poland, Slovack, Romania and Bulgaria, but in 87 GU (2087 AD) a nationalist revolt result in the fall of the monarchy and the cre... |
I have a newfound love for Ancient Roman politics. Any book suggestions from my beloved AskHistorians on this topic? (Non-fiction please!) | He might be a bit dated, but I really enjoyed Gruen's *Last Generation of the Roman Republic*. Exploded a lot of misconceptions I had about the period of the late Republic. | [
"Festus felt that the last four books on Rome's rising power \"outweighed the rest\", but later Roman historians largely disregarded the \"Origins\" because it eschewed consular dating and highlighted his own political career so heavily. Livy pointedly remarked that Cato was \"not the man to minimize his own achiev... |
can someone explain to me how the us government works? | I'll limit my explanation to the Federal government, but most state governments follow the same basic principles.
There are three branches of the government (which balance each other through a system of *checks and balances*) :
**EXECUTIVE**
* Simple Description: The President
* How do I get in?: Nation-wide election every 4 years.
* What do I do?: Act as the singular voice to represent all of America (Diplomacy, Military, etc.)
* How do I balance the Legislative Branch?: I can veto bills that passed in congress, requiring a 2/3 majority in both houses for bills to pass.
* How do I balance the Judicial Branch?: I nominate members of the Supreme Court.
**LEGISLATIVE**
* Simple Description: The Congress (consisting of the Senate and House of Representatives)
* How do I get in?: Vote from your district (part of your state) (6 years for senators, 2 years for representatives)
* What do I do?: Vote on new laws to govern the nation.
* How do I balance the Executive Branch?: Can *impeach* (remove from office) the president.
* How do I balance the Judicial Branch?: Have to accept nominations from the president.
**JUDICIAL**
* Simple Description: Supreme Court
* How do I get in?: Get nominated by the president, and accepted by congress. I have no term limit.
* What do I do?: Ensure that laws in the US do not violate the US Constitution.
* How do I balance the Executive Branch?: Can rule any presidential act unconstitutional.
* How do I balance the Judicial Branch?: Can rule any law passed by congress to be unconstitutional.
**SOURCES**
_URL_0_ | [
"As the primary government institution in the executive branch, the cabinet is ultimately responsible for the administration and management of various government agencies and departments. It is also the primary institution for the formulation of policies with regards to all areas of politics and governing. Legislat... |
When a ball is dropped towards the ground what is pictured as happening in the terms of General Relativity? | It travels in an inertial reference frame (as there's no proper acceleration). This involves traveling along a "straight line" in spacetime, which because of the distortion due to gravity forces some of the spacetime interval to be spacial as well. This is actually a bit hard to visualize and it stumps a lot of people new to GR. | [
"This imaginary experiment predicted that a cannonball dropped down a tunnel going straight through the centre of the Earth and out the other side would go past the centre and rise on the opposite surface to the same height from which it had first fallen on the other side, driven upwards past the centre by the grav... |
what is the military grade gps and why can't we receive its signals just like normal gps? | You are receiving the military signals. The US military disabled selective access in 2000, and ever since everyone on the planet has had the exact same GPS accuracy as the US military. Prior to 2000, the last few decimal points of the timecode were encrypted, so that only the US military could get full accuracy. | [
"When GPS was first being put into service, the US military was concerned about the possibility of enemy forces using the globally available GPS signals to guide their own weapon systems. Originally, the government thought the \"coarse acquisition\" (C/A) signal would give only about 100-meter accuracy, but with im... |
Ancient Explanations of Static? | This is one of our most frequently asked questions! Please see /u/hillsonghoods' excellent answer [here](_URL_0_). | [
"The notion of a static unchanging Form and its identity with Substance represents the metaphysical view that has come to be held as an assumption by the vast majority of the Western philosophical tradition since Plato and Aristotle, as it was something they agreed on. is called a form or a substance is not generat... |
how does smoke ward off mosquitos? | Mosquitoes (and gnats, for what it's worth) are super tiny little critters with super duper tiny little respiratory systems. Their little lungs (or equivalent, I'm not sure exactly what insects use to breathe) can't handle filtering out the smoke particles, so they stay away from it and seek a cleaner air source. This is also why you'll often see the internet recommend burning incense if you have a fruit fly problem in your home, it really doesn't take much to suffocate them to death.
Humans have this same aversion to smoke! I don't know may people who would willingly sit on the smokey end of a campfire. While humans won't die standing at the smokey end of a campfire (for most sets of circumstances), it's just plain easier to breathe the clean air and we move upwind. Mosquitoes do the same thing! | [
"There are other methods that an individual can use to protect themselves from mosquito bites. Limiting exposure to mosquitoes from dusk to dawn when the majority of mosquitoes are active and wearing long sleeves and long pants during the period mosquitoes are most active. Placing screens on windows and doors is a ... |
German colonialism in the 19th century? | Without you being more specific, I can't be entirely sure what you are after, but Sebastian Conrad's *German Colonialism: A Short History* (which does exist in English) is a good introduction to the topic, and the selected readings towards the end provides a good bibliography for a variety of topics he touches upon - it has been on our undergraduate reading list for European colonialism for a year or two now.
However, if you want something more focused, just ask away and I will try to help | [
"The German Colonial Society () (DKG) was a German organisation formed on 19 December 1887 to promote German colonialism. The Society was formed through the merger of the (; established in 1882 in Frankfurt) and the Society for German Colonization (; established in 1884). The Society was headquartered in Berlin.\n"... |
How many plants and how big of a dome would a person need to live in a sealed, indefinitely life sustaining ecosystem? | Are you at all familiar with the biosphere-2 experiment? You might find it interesting how vexing the balance of plant:animal proved to be. In effect it was a lot more complex than just how many plants are necessary to produce enough oxygen, since there are other factors involved that cause variation in photosynthesis, and there were other unknowns with regards to other sources of carbon dioxide production and oxygen consumption.
_URL_0_ | [
"These single celled algae are from 2 mm to 200 mm long. They live on substrates in shallow warm marine waters, usually less than 20 meters deep. They are very large cells. They are able to attain these sizes without numerous internal cell wells because they build calcium carbonate shells around themselves.\n",
"... |
is there any discernible benefit to shampoos instruction to "lather, rise, repeat if needed" or is it just a ploy to get you to use twice as much shampoo? | It depends on your type of hair. If you have short hair, or thin hair, you can probably get away with a single wash and be fine. On the other hand, if your hair is long or thick, then it's probably best to wash your hair in two steps using half the amount of shampoo you normally would use on each step. | [
"One reason is concern about the effect of ingredients typically found in commercial hair care products. Shampoo typically contains chemical additives such as sodium lauryl sulfate and sodium laureth sulfate, which can irritate sensitive skin or if not thoroughly rinsed. Such chemical additives are also believed by... |
Were communists slightly more tolerated in the United States during the period of WW2 when we were openly allies with Russia? | Follow up question. Was there ever a time when communists were notable political players in the US? | [
"The subsequent wartime alliance between the United States and the Soviet Union brought the American Communist Party newfound credibility. During the war, membership in the party reached a peak of 50,000. As World War II drew to a close, perceptions changed again, with communism increasingly becoming a focus of Ame... |
how does harmonizing work? | Each musical note has an associated frequency. When played with other notes, the sound waves may either augment each other or disrupt each other. Harmonization typically works by playing multiple notes that augment each other, causing their sound waves to create a fuller sound.
The underlying mechanics are in the mathematics of the sound waves. Integer multiples of one frequency may frequently match up with another. [Wiki has some nice diagrams](_URL_0_) showing this.
Since it's tied to the note, it is the same for singing and for instruments. | [
"A harmonizer is a type of sophisticated pitch shifter that combines the altered pitch with the original pitch to create a two note harmony based on the original pitch, or even with some pedals, three note harmony. Some hamonizers are able to create chorus-like effects by adding very tiny shifts in pitch.br \n",
... |
what exactly do we need to start colonizing mars? | First, we need to find reliable ways to recycle everything we use in a sealed environment. We've done some good research in this area, but we've got a lot of work to do. For major things like O2 or water, we're pretty good, but reliably getting food out there is going to be a challenge. We'll have to be able to either grow our own food, or accept constant resupply missions from earth.
Second, we need a good way to shield ourselves from radiation. The Apollo astronauts soaked up a bit on their trips to the moon, but visitors to Mars are going to get a whole lot more. Overcoming that is the key to keeping our colonists cancer free.
Third, we need a reliable way to get mass to the colony. Right now, everything we use in space has to be launched on a rocket, at a cost of $10K+ per POUND to get it to Mars. Either that cost has to fall dramatically, or we have to start finding resources already outside of the Earth's gravity well.
Fourth, in the long term, we have to start making Mars more habitable, which involves building up the Martian atmosphere and maintaining it as the solar winds strip it off of Mars. | [
"Mars colonization is advocated by several non-governmental groups for a range of reasons and with varied proposals. One of the oldest groups is the Mars Society who promote a NASA program to accomplish human exploration of Mars and have set up Mars analog research stations in Canada and the United States. Mars to ... |
Can we figure out the properties of a material just by knowing how it is atomically structured? | There is a lot that can be determined by the structure of an element or material, but it is not a one-stop-shop for all properties. I can only speak to mechanical properties, as I do not have a background in optics. Knowing the structure of a material generally tells about the mechanisms that will result in deformation or failure, but it cannot tell us the quantitative strength and ductility.
For example, different crystalline arrangements of atoms will have different sets of planes that slip past eachother during deformation. However, knowing a certain crystalline structure does not tell us about the strength of atomic bonds as they stretch and break during deformation, and it also does not tell us the kinetics of diffusion for a specific atom or molecule. Parameters like these are usually specific to a certain crystalline arrangement, but they are not obtained by knowing the crystalline structure.
I understand that you are asking about elements specifically - but it is unusual to produce or use a material that is only made up of a single element. They are studied, but most materials are at least made up of two elements. Also, if you are interested in more about the basics of material structure-and-property relationships, I recommend you start by looking up the materials science tetrahedron. | [
"As mentioned above, structure is one of the most important components of the field of materials science. Materials science examines the structure of materials from the atomic scale, all the way up to the macro scale. Characterization is the way materials scientists examine the structure of a material. This involve... |
How do ISS astronauts prevent pathogen transfer? | NASA uses a [pre-launch quarantine] (_URL_0_) to ensure that no one in space is sick in the first place. In addition all food and water is sanitized before it is stored.
| [
"Meanwhile, Mission Control managers determined that the ISS would not need an avoidance maneuver to avoid a piece of orbital debris. Updated tracking information showed that the ISS and the debris would not pass close enough the following day to require any action.\n",
"Researchers in 2018 reported, after detect... |
- semantics | It's rather hard to explain but it's about meaning of things. So two words, efsef and cat. Cat has semantics whereas efsef. When you hear cat, you know it means the 4 legged, disinterested in everything animal. Whereas efsef has no meaning. You can't attach it to anything.
Another example is Semantic satiation. You know when you repeat a word a lot of times and it looks weird and kind of loses its meaning? That's Semantic satiation. | [
"In computer science, the term \"semantics\" refers to the meaning of language constructs, as opposed to their form (syntax). According to Euzenat, semantics \"provides the rules for interpreting the syntax which do not provide the meaning directly but constrains the possible interpretations of what is declared.\" ... |
what makes older games (specifically games like fallout: new vegas) so incompatible with current operating systems like windows 10? | Libraries, Registry Keys and Screen Resolution would be the main offenders, also, OS changes a lot from a version to another, it's more noticiable if you are more of and advanced user (support engineer, computer programmer and stuff like this). System and CPU architecture (x64 and x32) are also a huge factor for older games. | [
"Although remakes typically aim to adapt a game from a more limited platform to a more advanced one, a rising interest in older platforms has inspired some to do the opposite, adapting modern games to the standards of older platforms, sometimes even implementing them on obsolete hardware platforms, either physical ... |
what would be the best possible thing to do when your phone gets completely submerged in water, and why? | 1. Take out the battery.
2. Bury the phone in a bowl of rice (uncooked, obviously) overnight.
Removing the battery reduces the probability of something shorting out because of the water.
The rice will absorb moisture from the phone, and dry it out much more quickly and thoroughly than air-drying.
No guarantees, but your warranty is now void now because of moisture damage, so it's worth a try. | [
"BULLET::::- Underwater communication: Divers cannot talk underwater unless they are wearing a full-face mask and electronic communications equipment, but they can communicate basic and emergency information using hand signals, light signals, and rope signals, and more complex messages can be written on waterproof ... |
Is there any record of Joseph Stalin ever expressing any remorse for his executions, repressions, or for the death of his son Yakov? | I'm going to recommend you (or anyone else interested in this topic) read [*Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar* by Simon Sebag Montefiore](_URL_0_).
The word "remorse" does not appear in that book.
However, "sorrow" does show up on page 525 of the 2007 edition:
> "Yet Stalin talked about their acquaintances murdered during the thirties 'with the calm detachment of a historian, showing neither sorrow nor rage, just a light humour.' Once he wandered up to one of his marshals who had been arrested and released: 'I heard you were recently in confinement?'
> 'Yes, Comrade Stalin, I was, but they figured out my case and released me. But how many good and remarkable people perished there.'
> 'Yes,' mused Stalin thoughtfully, 'we've lost a lot of good and remarkable people.' Then he walked out of the room into the garden. The courtiers turned on the Marshal. 'What did you say to Comrade Stalin?' demanded Malenkov who always behaved like the school prefect. 'Why?' Then Stalin reappeared holding a bouquet of roses which he presented to the Marshal as a weird sort of apology."
You ask about Yakov in particular, and that's referenced in the first two pages of the 40th chapter:
> "After the war, a Georgian confidant plucked up the courage to ask Stalin if the Paulus offer was a myth.
> "He 'hung his head,' answering 'in a sad, piercing voice': 'Not a myth ... just think how many sons ended in camps! Who would swap them for Paulus? Were they worse than Yakov? I had to refuse ... what would they have said of me, our millions of Party fathers, if having forgotten about them, I had agreed to swapping Yakov? No, I had no right ...' Then he again showed the struggle between the nervy, angry, tormented man within and the persona he had become: 'Otherwise I'd no longer be "Stalin."' He added: 'I so pitied Yasha!'" | [
"With the exception of Vladimir Milyutin (who died in prison in 1937) and Stalin himself, all of the members of Lenin's original cabinet who had not succumbed to death from natural causes before the purge were executed.\n",
"Romain Rolland and others wrote to Stalin seeking clemency for Bukharin, but all the lead... |
romney and bain capital | Romney used to work for a company called Bain Capital. They are a private equity firm. Bain's makes money by buying companies in failure, and fixing them up and then reselling them. House flipping for the fortune 500 is an oversimplification.
Bain usual technique (which is common for the industry) was intead of trying an fixing the distress company, is to sell off the most profitable chunks and ditch the rest. If Bain bought your company, there was a good chance the assets (land, buildings, bank accounts, patents, equipment) would be sold off and you would get a pink slip. Thus, many accuse Bain of vulture capitalism, or profiting off of destroying companies rather than helping them. Bain, and others, sometimes will actually help failing companies, but this is usually more expensive than gutting it so Bain will go wherever there is more profit.
Mitt claims to be a job creator due to his business experience, and this makes him look more like a job destroyer.
What is surprising is that it is republicans attacking him for this when everyone though it would the only the democrats.
Edit: Romney ties to spin this like he was a good capitalist, job creator, citing that "I created 100,000 jobs while at Bain." But he has produced little in the way of proof and won't release his tax returns for those years. It may be true he created that many jobs, but he also may have ended far more.
Whether this is a good thing or a bad thing depends on your views of the capitalist system and the role for private equity firms in the economy. If you see Romney as good then you probably want him to bring his Bain magic and if you see Romney as bad then this is another corporate shill come to dismantle the American dream to turn a quick buck. As Jon Stewart puts it "Romney looks like the guy who fired your dad." | [
"In 1984, Romney left Bain & Company to co-found and lead the spin-off private equity investment firm, Bain Capital. He had initially refrained from accepting Bill Bain's offer to head the new venture, until Bain rearranged the terms in a complicated partnership structure so that there was no financial or professio... |
why does chicken separate into little strings when you tear it? | Most Meat is muscle tissue. Muscle is made of strands of tissue that work together to do whatever that muscle is. That's being broken apart when you cut it, and that's what you're seeing. | [
"Chicken is also sold in dismembered pieces. Pieces may include quarters, or fourths of the chicken. A chicken is typically cut into two leg quarters and two breast quarters. Each quarter contains two of the commonly available pieces of chicken. A leg quarter contains the thigh, drumstick and a portion of the back;... |
how do some teenagers or young adults get volunteer work in south america or africa? | Often, such volunteer work are mission trips organized by their church, funded by the congregants. | [
"In 2008, Anderson co-founded South African Youth Education for Sustainability (SAYes), which helps in empowering marginalised young people in South Africa through youth mentoring. The nonprofit organization provides youth leaving children's homes with guidance that enables them to develop their skills, further the... |
sociopaths, how do they work? | You know how some people are born without eyesight, and we call them blind? They don't see anything, you can imagine what it's like to be blind by closing your eyes and never, ever opening them. And a deaf person was born without hearing, like if you stuck your fingers in your ears and never took them out?
A sociopath is a person who was born without a conscience. They are born to never know the difference between right and wrong. You know how you feel when you know you've done something bad? A sociopath doesn't feel that feeling. They simply don't have the ability to feel bad about things they do wrong, just like a blind person can't see. | [
"Organizational psychopaths generally appear to be intelligent, sincere, powerful, charming, witty, and entertaining communicators. They quickly assess what people want to hear and then create stories that fit those expectations. They will con people into doing their work for them, take credit for other people's wo... |
Will it ever be possible for North and South Korea to exist as one, unified country? | I think this question is stretching the concept of "history", maybe /r/Asksocialscience is a better fit.
anyway, [here's a background article on the costs of potential reunification](_URL_1_), drawing parallels with Germany (we're still not completely over it - for example, tehre still are income inequalities between East and West).
I assume you read the [relevant wiki article](_URL_0_) and checked out its sources? | [
"North Korea suggests the One country, two systems formula to bring about Korean unification, through a confederation of two systems within one country. China has also promoted the idea; the difference between North Korea's motivation and China's is that North Korea seeks to maintain two separate governments, while... |
why characters on shows have to hide apple logos on their laptops | If you're not paying for advertising you don't get it for free. And it also works the other way. Apple may not want to be associated with their show. It's just easier all around to not have any logos of anyone other than official sponsors. | [
"In 1977, Janoff worked for Regis McKenna as an art director and was tasked to design the logo for Steve Jobs of Apple Computer, creating an apple with a bite out of it, included so that people did not mistake the apple for a cherry or another fruit. The colored stripes in the logo were to indicate that Apple machi... |
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