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Why Indian History is so less represented in /r/AskHistorians and /r/History | If it is to be, it's up to thee. | [
"In his Sanskiti ke Chaar Adhyay, he said that despite various cultures, languages and topography, India stands united, because \"however different we may be, our thoughts are one and the same\". 'Dinkar' made the understanding of historical perspectives much more direct by looking at the history of India's culture... |
how does the 3rd party doctrine not violate the 4th amendment? | The Third Party Doctrine has usually been justified on the basis that you have no reasonable privacy interest in information you're already passing off to other people. If you send a letter from to Johnny, the Post Office can't intercept it (without a warrant), but Johnny can give it to the police if he likes.
The problem with this idea, of course, is that we provide our information to others with a limited expectation of what they will do with it. Nor was the doctrine designed with the situation in mind where the government is getting a nearly live feed of *all* information, rather than making targeted requests. As more and more of our important "papers and effects" are on third-party private infrastructure, a change in interpretation or the law becomes necessary. | [
"The Fourth Amendment is often used to argue against the federal raids that occur in the homes of unlawful immigrants, sometimes resulting in illegal searches and seizes. The Fourth Amendment has been interpreted to signify that a warrant or probable cause is required in order to search a home, but this is not the ... |
how the society comes up with minimum alcoholic drinking age? is there any story from it somewhere? | In the US very few places had drinking ages until prohibition, when no one was legally allowed to drink. Once prohibition was repealed every state set their own drinking ages. Some chose low ages like 16, some chose 21 and everywhere inbetween. Most had them around 18 or 19.
During the 1980s there was a major movement called Mothers Against Drunk Drivers that lobbied very hard to establish a drinking age of 21. The US government wrote the law such that the States still have the right to set their drinking ages however they want but if it is lower than 21 they do not get federal funds for road maintenance.
No longer having seniors and recently graduated friends able to get high schoolers alcohol greatly reduced the number alcohol related medical issues (both crashes and poisonings). Some studies show it to be a drop of up to 60%. It also helped people 19-25 and reduced their incidents by 40%. | [
"There are multiple views on the drinking age and how it should be handled. Most people argue one of three views, whether it should stay 21, lower to 18, or raise to 25. Some people, such as sociology Professor David Hanson, suggest lowering it. Underage drinking is already common, but NHTSA spokeswoman Evelyn Avan... |
. why all cell phone cameras make the 'shutter sound' and there is no option to turn it off? | In some jurisdictions the shutter sound is a legal requirement to help prevent people from taking compromising pictures of unsuspecting persons without the victims knowing about it. | [
"One of the main drawbacks is the fake shutter sound that the camera emits when taking a photo, something that many reviewers noted that worsens the experience of taking photos, as the sound cannot be turned off.This fake shutter sound can be clearly heard when shooting at 1/10 s or slower, at faster speeds it is e... |
What "part" of an atom emits a photon? Does it come from "an" electron, or is it created somehow in the orbital cloud? Or maybe the nucleus? | Photons typically come from the energetic decay of an electron, but gamma rays can also be emitted from the nucleus. | [
"As a photon is absorbed by an atom, it excites the atom, elevating an electron to a higher energy level (one that is on average farther from the nucleus). When an electron in an excited molecule or atom descends to a lower energy level, it emits a photon of light at a frequency corresponding to the energy differen... |
What are the fastest accelerating things we have ever built? | In a 1950s underground nuclear test, a manhole cover, placed on top of the shaft that the bomb was in, accelerated to at least 66 km/s in less than a single frame from a high speed camera.
_URL_0_
XKCD talking about the manhole cover:
> A brief story:
> The official record for fastest manmade object is the Helios 2 probe, which reached about 70 km/s in a close swing around the Sun. But it’s possible the actual holder of that title is a two-ton metal manhole cover.
> The cover sat atop a shaft at an underground nuclear test site operated by Los Alamos as part of Operation Plumbbob. When the one-kiloton nuke went off below, the facility effectively became a nuclear potato cannon, giving the cap a gigantic kick. A high-speed camera trained on the lid caught only one frame of it moving upward before it vanished—which means it was moving at a minimum of 66 km/s. The cap was never found.
> 66 km/s is about six times escape velocity, but contrary to the linked blog’s speculation, it’s unlikely the cap ever reached space. Newton’s impact depth approximation suggests that it was either destroyed completely by impact with the air or slowed and fell back to Earth. | [
"The 25-foot-long landlocked human propulsion systems can cover the quarter mile in 4.4 seconds at up to 540 kilometres per hour. Mostly using a 4130 chrome moly chassis constructed in the USA. They weigh about 1000 kg which makes for a massive power to weight ratio. \n",
"On February 14, 2014, on the Kennedy Spa... |
can you explain the business model for professional sports like the nba and nfl? | NBA is technically owned by the teams. Teams earn by selling tickets and merchandise (jerseys etc) , so there is always an incentive to play well and win games. Successful teams will always have an easier time filling stadiums, selling Curry jerseys so on and so forth. NBA as a whole negotiates TV broadcast rights that bring in so much money that the salary cap goes up. There's also countless endorsement deals at every level which pads the bottom line. On a side note, there are smaller revenue streams like NBA TV, NBA branded stores and other licensing deals that allow the NBA a global reach.
The catch though is that not every team actually makes money. Especially holds true for the permanent dumpster fires. | [
"The most major of industries related to sports are the professional leagues that most of the other industries in the sporting world revolve around. The major American sports leagues are the first 5 in the list following and include football, basketball, hockey, baseball and soccer. Most players in these leagues ma... |
is there any data to support the notion that coffee is 'safer' than energy drinks? | I don't believe the question has much relevance.
What does a mid-morning coffee have to do with someone slamming down vodka-RedBulls or JaegerBombs all night so they can keep partying, or 12 year olds getting buzzed on sugar and caffeine at lunchtime?
Energy drinks are marketed and consumed in a totally different way to coffee. People don't choose one over the other. | [
"A 2017 review of clinical trials found that drinking coffee is generally safe within usual levels of intake and is more likely to improve health outcomes than to cause harm at doses of 3 or 4 cups of coffee daily. Exceptions include possible increased risk in women having bone fractures, and a possible increased r... |
why it is easier for me to drum my fingers from pinky to thumb rather than the other way around. | Because you lack coordination. | [
"Many drummers consider practicing this technique with brushes before moving on to stick exercises. This is because of the lack of bounce in the brush that incites greater discipline in the motion between the fingers and thumbs.\n",
"To get these faster rolls, percussionists (keyboard, snare and timpani) all ofte... |
how is sepp blatter still the president of fifa? | When was the last time the CEO of Bank of America/Target/Walmart got impeached?
It's a corporation, not a government. If he wants to stay President, unless he does something that puts him in jail, which he could still stay president, there's nothing forcing him to leave.
The whole FIFA thing is a crockpile of shit | [
"Amid a major corruption scandal at FIFA, incumbent Sepp Blatter was re-elected to a fifth term as FIFA President during the 65th FIFA Congress on 29 May 2015, defeating Prince Ali bin Hussein of Jordan. On 2 June, Blatter announced his intent to resign, remaining in office until an extraordinary FIFA Congress conv... |
why does moderate consumption of alcohol boost your immune system | For anyone to answer this you need to link the journal. Frpm what you have said I would guess that moderate levels of either alcohol or the products released into the blood stream on alcohol metabolism have an effect on microRNA expression, and the microRNA(s) expressed cause CD8 cell differentiation.
SO you don't know what microRNAs are? They are small (micro) pieces of RNA, which is a type of nucleic acid - you've heard of DNA? RNA is like DNA's speedy little cousin - it is a mobile copy of DNA.
RNAs are usually used for making proteins coded by DNA, and RNA is the go between - it travels from DNA in the secluded nucleus to a 'transit point' between the nucleus and the main body of the cell (cytoplasm), called the endoplasmic reticulum. This is where it is 'translated' from RNA into the building blocks of protein - amino acids.
HOWEVER.... microRNAs are not used for this at all. They are much smaller than protein-coding types of RNA, and float around affecting how much RNA is made and how many proteins are then made from that RNA. So basically they go around regulating protein expression.
In this context 'moderate ethanol consumption' causes the types of microRNAs to be made that cause a type of immune cell to differentiate (develop, or change in this case) into a mature immune cell that can fight viral diseases.
Antiviral cytokines are really simple - antiviral is the obvious - attacks viruses, and cytokines are simply cell (cyto) signalling molecules, which means that cells need them to send signals to make sure that the individual cell, and other cells in that organism know what they should be doing. So these 'antiviral cytokines' are released when a cell realises that the body is being attacked by a virus, and wants to start an immune response to kill those motherfuckers.
Hope I was helpful! | [
"Excessive alcohol intake is associated with an elevated risk of alcoholic liver disease (ALD), heart failure, some cancers, and accidental injury, and is a leading cause of preventable death in industrialized countries. However, extensive research has shown that moderate alcohol intake is associated with health be... |
Does blood clot when you die? | I'm also a bit confused by your initial question and description. Are you asking if blood clots after death or the inflammatory response that closes up wounds?
Fatal injuries would kill the animal by definition, and most likely the cause would be because of loss of blood, so no, the bleeding would not stop because the sustained injury is too great for the body to repair.
If the arrow or gunshot was very minimal, the animal's body should have no problem closing the wound and at most, would be left with scar tissue. Injuries sustained by the deer are usually too great for the immune response to handle, and would die from blood loss. If the deer does survive and does not bleed out, it will most likely die from a nasty infection.
In regards to what happens to the blood after death, it accumulates and sinks, since the heart is no longer pumping and gravity is the only force acting on it. The blood does indeed clot and becomes jelly like. This accumulation of clotted blood leads to bruises on where the blood settled, and it is something that is looked at in forensic science. | [
"Chronic IV access leaves a foreign body in the vascular system, and blood clots on this IV line are common. Death can result from pulmonary embolism wherein a clot that starts on the IV line breaks off and travels to the lungs, blocking blood flow. \n",
"Epidural bleeding is often rapid because it is usually fro... |
how do trade agreements work? | Without trade agreements:
- Country A and Country B both grow lots of wheat.
- In order to ensure their farmers are kept in work, both countries impose tariffs on imported wheat - if a baker wants to import wheat, he has to pay a tax which is (high) proportion of the cost of the wheat he's importing.
- This encourages bakers to use home-grown wheat, and keeps the local farmers in business
With trade agreements:
- Country A doesn't have the right climate for growing bananas. Country B *does* have the right climate.
- So country A says to Country B: "We'd like to cut the tariffs on bananas we import from you, and that will give extra work to your banana farmers. But what are you going to do in return for us?"
- Country B replies: "Well, our car manufacturing market is non-existent, so if you ensure that your people can import our bananas cheaply (i.e. with low tariffs), we'll ensure that our people can import your cars cheaply too, and keep all your factory workers in business."
In practice, there's a lot more to it than that. Because if you're going to import something in large quantities from another country, then there needs to be some agreement between the countries about the *quality* of the product. For example, if you wanted to import bananas from a country, then before you reduced the tariffs on bananas you might insist that the country passes a law that guarantees all bananas are disease-free and grown without using dangerous pesticides. | [
"A trade agreement (also known as trade pact) is a wide-ranging taxes, tariff and trade treaty that often includes investment guarantees. It exists when two or more countries agree on terms that helps them trade with each other. The most common trade agreements are of the preferential and free trade types are concl... |
Does continental drift affect tunnels and bridges? | Continental drift - and other kinds of ground motion - affect any piece of engineering that is built across places that move relative to each other.
High-value structures like pipelines are sometimes built to accommodate the deformation where they cross a fault line. The [Trans-Alaska Pipeline survived a M7.9 earthquake in 2002 that moved the ground under it some 20 feet](_URL_0_). Highways generally just accept that the right of way will be wrenched apart and the road will periodically need repaved. And of course other structures nearby (high-rises, bridges, etc) are built to survive the shaking that happens in an earthquake, but not usually to survive having the ground wrenched apart underneath the structure itself.
The good news is that all the British Isles are on the same continental plate as the rest of Europe; the plate boundary runs through Iceland and Jan Mayen. The Ireland-Scotland bridge the channel tunnel aren't likely to have this problem anytime soon, nor the bridges and tunnels between Denmark and Scandinavia.
This would be a concern if you built across an active plate boundary. But generally, if plates collide, you already have mountain ranges, volcanoes etc to worry about -- nobody is building bridges from India to China -- and if plates pull apart, the resulting ocean is already too wide to be bridgeable. | [
"Turbidity currents can sometimes result from submarine seismic instability, which is common with steep underwater slopes, and especially with submarine trench slopes of convergent plate margins, continental slopes and submarine canyons of passive margins. With an increasing continental shelf slope, current velocit... |
Is there any validity to the "one electron theory?" | In quantum electrodynamics, this is a possibility, because you just have the electron-electron-photon vertex. However, if you introduce the weak force, your electron can disappear into the electron-W boson-electron neutrino vertex. So... no. But it's a neat-as-all-hell idea that is a possibility in a simpler theory. | [
"A scientific theory which attempts to describe \"electrons\" is inherently abstract, as no one has ever observed an electron directly. Thus, the origin and content of the concept of \"electron\" is questionable. What does the word exactly signify? Ramsey and Lewis proposed that the meaning of the term \"electron\"... |
Tornadoes spin in opposing directions in respect to the hemisphere that they are on. Hypothetically speaking, what would happen if a tornado formed near the equator and crossed its plane? | The rotational direction of a tornado isn't as constrained as that of a hurricane or other large feature, because they rotate so quickly over such a small radius. Modern tornado-chasing with mobile Doppler radar has found that tornadoes in the same storm rotating in opposite directions are actually fairly common.
I don't believe that tornadoes are at all common close to the equator, but I would imagine that their direction of spin would similarly be in either direction, though they may split themselves more evenly across both directions since they experience no influence from the Earth's rotation at all. | [
"It has been thought in the past that tornadoes moved almost exclusively in a northeasterly direction. This is false, and a potentially deadly myth which can lead to a false sense of security, especially for unaware spotters or chasers. Although the majority of tornadoes move northeast, this is normally due to the ... |
Why does my vision blacken shortly when I get up after laying down for a while? | Orthostatic Hypotension. A drop in blood pressure because your vessels can't constrict fast enough to keep adequate blood pressure in your brain. | [
"If left untreated, exophthalmos can cause the eyelids to fail to close during sleep leading to corneal dryness and damage. Another possible complication is a form of redness or irritation called \"Superior limbic keratoconjunctivitis\", where the area above the cornea becomes inflamed as a result of increased fric... |
Were amphitheaters in Ancient Greece also used for purposes other than theater plays? | Not that we are aware of. But keep in mind that the spaces weren't entertainment spaces in the way we think of them now, but centers where religious festivals take place, which was the purpose of the plays to begin with. They weren't multipurpose type spaces like the Romans had later.
If you want to read more on this I highly recommend [*Theatre and Society in the Classical World* by Susan Cole](_URL_0_) | [
"There exist similarities between the theatres and amphitheatres of ancient Rome/Italy. They were constructed out of the same material, Roman concrete, and provided a place for the public to go and see numerous events throughout the Empire. However, they are two entirely different structures, with specific layouts ... |
what is the psychological reason candy companies make products containing different colors even if there is no change in flavour? | Variety and bright colors can attract the attention as well as convey flavor. Testing has shown that the color of food can convince people that it is a different flavor than what it actually is. Furthermore, people have an expectation that certain foods are a certain color. If they’re not it can be off putting. | [
"People associate certain colors with certain flavors, and the color of food can influence the perceived flavor in anything from candy to wine. Sometimes the aim is to simulate a color that is perceived by the consumer as natural, such as adding red coloring to glacé cherries (which would otherwise be beige), but s... |
Does muscle tissue differ significantly between mammals and reptiles? | From a histological point (looking at a slide), they look pretty much the same (the one major difference is if there are blood vessels supplying these muscles shown on the slide, since avian and reptilian blood looks very different from mammalian: they have nuclei in their red blood cells, for one). On a cellular level, all skeletal muscle is basically the same. What can differ is the fat content and the energy usage-- whether they rely mostly on glycolysis aka "fast twitch" aka white meat, or oxidative phosphorylation aka "slow twitch" aka red meat. These two factors differ between animals depending on their habits and muscular needs: do they stand around all day, bearing a lot of weight on their muscles (like a cow) or do they need to make a lot of quick movements (like a bird or a fish). | [
"The muscles and nerves are much simpler than those of most other animals, although more specialised than in other cnidarians, such as corals. Cells in the outer layer (epidermis) and the inner layer (gastrodermis) have microfilaments that group into contractile fibers. These fibers are not true muscles because the... |
either the universe continues indefinitely, or it has an edge somewhere, both boggle the mind to imagine, which is correct? | We may never actually know!
From our position in the universe, there is a distance away from us that is expanding away from us so quickly that no light (and thus no object) could possibly reach Earth. That distance defines the observable universe, and that is much smaller than the size of the universe itself.
This isn't just a "we can't see past this boundary right now", this is "it is physically impossible to reach this boundary from Earth... ever". So the takeaway is that it *literally* doesn't matter whether or not the universe is infinite beyond that point, because it will *never* affect us in any way. | [
"In due order a new cycle of the universe begins (\"palingenesis\"), reproducing the previous universe, and so on forever. Therefore, the same events play out again repeated endlessly. Since the universe always unfolds according to the best possible \"reason\", any succeeding world is likely to be identical to the ... |
How prevalent was aerial dogfighting after world war 2? | Korea had the infamous "MiG Alley" and included the first jet-to-jet kills, but the Vietnam war was more of the end of dogfighting as we know it (close combat, cannon kills.) The USAF switched to primarily missile tactics where a pilot would get a radar lock, fire his missiles from miles away, and leave the area. The F-4 Phantom was the first American pursuit/fighter aircraft since WWI to not have a cannon built in somehow because of this new change of doctrine. The MiG pilots opposing them (some Soviet, some Chinese, some Vietnamese) would often close within missile range and tangle with the opposing, virtually unarmed at this point, fighters. With a raising loss rate, a gun pod was added to the Phantoms and dogfighting training was added - the famous Top Gun school. Because of lessons learned in Vietnam, all modern USAF fighters/interceptors have a cannon for defensive and offensive purposes, while missile kills are still preferred.
With American air superiority being key to success, more strategic bombing and missile strikes on airfields allows for American fighters to not need to attempt dogfighting, as there are rarely any opposing forces in the air to dogfight. As glorified as it remains, dogfighting is becoming very uncommon. One of the last air-to-air kills by a US aircraft was when an F-15E Strike Eagle in ground support configuration bombed a Hind helicopter, as recounted [here](_URL_0_). | [
"Dogfighting became widespread in World War I. Aircraft were initially used as mobile observation vehicles, and early pilots gave little thought to aerial combat. The new airplanes proved their worth by spotting the hidden German advance on Paris in the second month of the war.\n",
"Immediately following the Span... |
Can capillary action be used to draw water 'uphill'? | I think the problem with your machine is that your capillaries are sucking the water that is in the upper end back in with the same force with they are pumping the water up in the first place. So getting a droplet to separate from the straw requires a stronger force than gravity else it wouldn't have been sucked up in the first place. | [
"Capillary action (sometimes capillarity, capillary motion, capillary effect, or wicking) is the ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without the assistance of, or even in opposition to, external forces like gravity. The effect can be seen in the drawing up of liquids between the hairs of a paint-brush, in ... |
Why did warfare change so drastically in the 20th century? | What stopped people from lining up shoulder to shoulder and shooting at the enemy? Machine guns. [Here's](_URL_0_) a quick example of how efficiently a mounted machine gun can sweep across an open field.
The "go out in the open and shoot each other" had been becoming more lethal over the course of the 19th century, as bullets and rifles improved, and by World War I, the major armies fielded bolt-action rifles capable of 20-30 rds/min, and accurate to half a mile or more (they actually had to redesign the original .30-06 cartridge because it was flying well beyond the Army's 1,000-yd firing ranges). These rifles, combined with machine guns, made running across open ground a very bad idea.
There were also improvements in artillery and mortars, making massed infantry very vulnerable to long-range fire, even when in a trench. I believe WWI was the first conflict to see more wounds caused by shrapnel than small arms. And don't forget about the other technologies that WWI saw for the first time, like airplanes, flamethrowers, and tanks. | [
"There are several reasons for the rise of total warfare in the 19th century. The main one is industrialization. As countries' capital and natural resources grew, it became clear that some forms of warfare demanded more resources than others. Consequently, the greater cost of warfare became evident. An industrializ... |
what kind of device or technique do radio stations use to get immediate access to almost every song and/or sound effect? | I don't remember the exact numbers, but nearly every radio station in America is owned by a couple companies. It's really, *really* not just a patchwork of independent stations like the old days.
So they have control over millions of listeners and are able to get direct access to content from the major labels as soon as possible. It's all digital these days, so I imagine they just have private FTP servers or some other way to download the new stuff and get told when new things are available. They definitely don't get sent actual CDs or anything by people signed to major record deals.
Spotify actually has to pay people to get to use their songs and negotiate terms of agreements, whereas radio stations can just get it all for free (besides the ASCAP and BMI licensing fees they pay once a year) and play what the home office has decided is "hot" today. It's led to an over-streamlining of popular music, where every top 40 station in every major city in America is on the exact same playlist, that didn't exist when every DJ had the freedom to control their own playlist.
As far as sound effects, promotional drops "Hey this is Usher and you're listening to..." and the like, those are usually paid for in some way by the company that owns the radio station, and there are services that just offer sound effects, news bits, and things like that to radio stations. | [
"The name of Radionomy is a contraction of two words: radio + \"autonomy\". Radionomy allows users to create their own online radio or listen to online radio, all created and programmed by users. Through a platform called \"RMO\", they can choose music, chronic and radio jingles or they wish to broadcast their radi... |
How and when did the population in Italy switch from Romans to Italians? | Over the course of a few hundred years, certain names tend to go out of favor and others into favor - and of course you constantly have foreign names being introduced, especially in times of invasion. But, as with all of the other Romance languages - the local dialect of Latin developed into its own language, Italian. Vincentius became Vincenzo, Flavius became Flavio, Julius became Julio, and so forth. The two names you gave as Roman names were not very common in Rome: Spartacus was likely a Romanized Thracian name and Romulus was coined in reverse, sort of, by adding the diminutive suffix (-ulus) to "Rome", to mean "little Rome".
The slow introduction of Christian names is another thing that had a huge effect there - with Giuseppe/José/Joseph and John/Jean/Johan/Iohannis etc being localized versions of Hebrew names found in the Bible. This is the origin of a huge number of names in every European language - maybe a majority.
I recommend that you try searching for names you're interested in on [Wiktionary](_URL_0_), which often lists the etymologies of these names. | [
"In the 1st and 2nd centuries, the vast majority (80–90%) of the empire's inhabitants were \"peregrini\". By 49 BC, all Italians were Roman citizens. Outside Italy, those provinces with the most intensive Roman colonisation over the approximately two centuries of Roman rule probably had a Roman citizen majority by ... |
Are smoke and ash composed of the same chemicals? | Typically ash contains the unburnt elements, with [wood ash](_URL_0_) this is mostly potassium, calcium, sulphur and iron sometimes.
Smoke on the other hand when it is visible is mainly water vapor, and partially burnt hydrocarbons. In a well controlled fire, it should be nearly clear until the water vapor condenses, and be mostly carbon dioxide.
Cigarettes are designed not to burn, so many different unburnt organic compounds are in the smoke, most of which would have completely combusted into CO2 and water had the tobacco been burnt in a fire. The main element of [smoke](_URL_2_) is unburnt carbon,
[Cigarette ash](_URL_1_) is still mostly Potassium and Calcium like wood ash. | [
"Smoke contains a wide variety of chemicals, many of them aggressive in nature. Examples are hydrochloric acid and hydrobromic acid, produced from halogen-containing plastics and fire retardants, hydrofluoric acid released by pyrolysis of fluorocarbon fire suppression agents, sulfuric acid from burning of sulfur-co... |
Is it possible for a PC monitoror to be adjusted to the prescription of a person with impaired vision? | No. You cannot correct vision by simply making the source blurrier, blurriness is additive, you lose information when you make something blurry that cannot be recovered.
Glasses and contact lenses don't work by making an image blurry, they work by distorting the image before it passes through the lens in your eye, the combined refraction of the two results in the image that is projected on the back of your eye being in focus.
It works like a telescope, a single lens can give you a weird blurry image, a second lens can be used to correct that blurriness to bring the focal length to the right point so that you get a focused image. If you point a telescope at a blurry image it doesn't matter what lenses you have in there, your best possible result is that blurry image. | [
"In many cases, frequent computer users suffer from computer vision syndrome, which is a degenerative eye problem which can result in severely reduced eyesight (Myopia), blurred vision, overall eye tiredness and even Glaucoma. Computer Eye Syndrome is an umbrella term for many problems but the causes of these probl... |
why does deleting system32 brick a computer? | System32 contains most of the Libraries and System files that the operating system needs to function.
Files like DLL's that contain functions called by various applications including the OS itself. Drivers to make hardware function, most of the built in Windows applications and utilities, control panel applets, the command processor, explorer (the windows GUI), and various other critical parts to the OS.
Deleting the system32 folder would be like ripping out half the engine in a car and wondering why it won't start. | [
"Beginning with the 1.0 version launch in mid-1998, a new process was added to the file deletion process known as “bleaching”. This file encryption process seeks out files with random characters in their names, destroys them and then permanently removes them from the computer’s hard drive. A custom cookie selection... |
How did the brain first evolve? | Cephalization is the term you are looking for- the congregation of sensory cells in a part of the body. This evolved because an animal that could sense it surrounds better was more likely to to reproduce and pass on its genes- Having a concentrated cluster of sensory cells in one area also opened the possibility for these cells to interact and thus perform more intricate and complicated sensory processing | [
"Prior to Greenough's work, the prevalent belief was that the structure of the brain was determined very early in life and did not change substantially other than to degenerate as a result of damage due to injury, illness, or aging. It was believed that synapses were formed early in brain development, and that once... |
What is the most profound cave depth in wich human paintings have been found? | Likely they were referring to [this recent discovery](_URL_0_) where the drawing are 1,000 ft underground.
Just because it take modern man hours to get to the site doesn't mean it did in prehistoric times. Changes in the cave system could have closed off entrances and reshaped caverns making it much more difficult to get to in modern times. | [
"Probably the most famous and deepest cave in the region is the Gouffre Berger cave. This cave includes the narrow shafts, descending into the Grand Galerie, which itself is home to very large and very old stalagmites. This particular system follows the slope of the limestone beds for , until it meets the flooded a... |
How did the Europeans discover/react to the Aurora Borealis? | Heya, I've taken a look at ancient/medieval accounts of the aurora here:
* [Were there ever religious pilgrimages to the northern lights?] (_URL_0_)
One thing that I didn't really hit on explicitly is the reminds that Europe, latitude-wise, is a lot farther north than at least Americans tend to think. It seems sighting the aurorae was pretty common among Romans and early medieval people, or at least, frequent enough not to cause massive alarm. | [
"As part of her research, Feynman made a critical discovery about the nature and cause of auroras. Using data collected by a NASA spacecraft known as Explorer 33, she demonstrated that the occurrence of auroras is a product of the interaction between the Earth's magnetosphere and the magnetic field of the solar win... |
How do four wheel steering cars turn at high speeds? | At high speeds, cornering as we usually define it (=significant direction change) never really happens, you could say that you adjust the direction rather than change it.
It is thus perfectly acceptable to slightly decrease the car's cornering abilities (rotating around its z-axis, or yaw) to favor a more stable and comfortable motion. And if for some reason you had to move fast or change directions several times in a row, it's preferable to have good stability.
Also, don't forget that the rear wheels don't turn that much, if my memory is not too bad Renault applies 3.5° and porsche 2°, that's still closer to a usual car cornering behaviour than a crab ;) | [
"In this power steering system, the force steering the wheels comes from the car's high pressure hydraulic system and is always the same no matter what the road speed is. Turning the steering wheel moves the wheels simultaneously to a corresponding angle via a hydraulic cylinder. In order to give some artificial st... |
the constant controversy surrounding the canadian seal hunt. | They're fuzzy and cute. That is all. | [
"In March and April 2008, \"Farley Mowat\" was involved in controversy related to the 2008 Canadian commercial seal hunt. On 12 April 2008, Fisheries and Oceans Canada seized \"Farley Mowat\" in the Cabot Strait after the ship came near the seal hunt without an observation permit and two collisions with a coast gua... |
Similar to Feudal baronies, did Roman provinces ever fight eachother? | To avoid angering Medievalists, I'm going to define the warfare you are thinking of as "in which one subpolitical entity goes to war with another pursuing aims specific to the subpolitical entity, rather than broader national ones". For example, if Governor Roy Cooper of North Carolina marched on Charleston to declare South Carolina dissolved and incorporated into a Greater Carolinian Republic, this would "feudal warfare" as you are thinking of it. This can be in opposition to if Governor Cooper marched on Washington DC to declare himself President of the United States.
In short, the former only happened in very particular times and never with the aims of redrawing administrative boundaries, while the latter was more common (although not as common as is often said). In general, feudal warfare requires a very specific and specifically local orientation of politics, in that the military power and leadership of a region need to identify themselves with that region in particular--to continue the hypothetical, Governor Cooper would need to see the annexation of South Carolina as beneficial and people would need to go along with it. There also needs to be a significant decentralized, local component to administration--Cooper would need it as plausible that this annexation would stick.
These conditions did not exist in the Roman empire, or at least did not usually. The governors of the provincial administration and a significant portion of their subordinates were centrally appointed and sent out to the provinces from the imperial center at Rome. They were not necessarily *from* Rome--although many were--but Rome is where they derived their power, as opposed to deriving it from local ties. Likewise, administrative reorganizations, even if they were undertaken through the initiative of a governor, were done centrally. Perhaps most important was the social psychology of it all--the idea of the governor of Cappadocia invading Bithynia to increase the provincial boundaries would be absurd. For one, it wouldn't stick, but more importantly, this was a temporary post that lasted ten years at the longest. The political goal of a governor was not to increase the power of their administrative post, but rather to increase their own standing within the political world of the Roman center. Provincial power was a tool, not an end.
There is also the matter of the soldiers. They did have a certain regional identity--the German legions, for example, often acted as a political bloc, as did the British legions and the Asian legions. But this did not mean they identified themselves with the territory they were stationed in. It is hard to tell specifically, and probably varied by region (my information comes from North Africa, specifically Cherry's *Frontier and Society in Roman North Africa* which looks largely at marriage patterns) but the military tended to be somewhat socially isolated from the nearby non-colonial civilian populations. Furthermore, after Batavian Revolt in 69 CE it became policy too station soldiers far from their homelands--one of the classic examples is Flavius Cerialis and the Batavian cohort he commanded at Vindolanda fort along Hadrian's Wall. So not only would the leaders have no particular desire to engage in "feudal warfare", but neither would the soldiers.
What I am saying is not universally true, of course. During the Third Century Crisis, for example, the empire effectively split into three parts, the central provinces commanded from Rome, the northwest provinces commanded from Cologne, and the eastern provinces commanded from Palmyra. These three did engage in conflict that looks a bit feudal, even if it only lasted a couple decades. On a smaller scale, during this time the "bagaudae" appeared, a rather enigmatic term for combatants in Gaul or Spain. We don't really know who these were, and explanations have veered from peasant rebels to anti-imperialist insurgents to opportunistic bandits to local self defense forces to proto-feudal militia commanded by local powers. These might be an example, but again they are situated within a very specific context. Much later, the actual breakup of the empire in the west was a combination of Romano-Germanic armies conquering new territories and those territories breaking off of the imperial center. And finally, there were particular regions within the empire that resisted central control and engaged in periodic warfare with neighbors, but these were very unusual spaces.
So in short, Roman armies might fight on behalf of the Roman empire as a whole, but only very rarely on behalf of their particular province.
As always, I would recommend Greg Woolf's *Roman: An Empire's Story* as being perhaps the best single volume history of the Roman empire. | [
"In 105 B.C., two Roman forces were defeated by the Cimbri and Teutones in the Battle of Arausio. These forces were led by Servilius Caepio of a firmly ingrained Roman heritage and Mallius Maximus from a newer, aspiring family. The defeat is credited to a lack of coordination due to strife between them as Caepio re... |
I have always seen the Cossacks as a symbol of Russia, but between 1917 and 1933 the Soviet government followed a policy of "eliminate, exterminate, and deport" the Cossacks. Why did this happen? What would it have been like to be a Cossack at this time? | (1/2) The Cossacks are a uniquely interesting group, with a distinct history from the various other national and ethnic groups in the Russian Empire, Soviet Union, and modern Russian Federation. Cossacks began as an informal group, the word originally from a Turkic language meaning "free people" and first appearing in the 14th century, of nomadic people and serfs who had fled their masters estates and lived on the southern borders of the Russian State of Muscovy. Though a significant portion of the Cossacks had deliberately left the early Russian state they still held loyalty to Russia and especially to the figure of the Tsar, who was seen by peasants as a divine and benevolent father who guided the nation and would ultimately protect the Russian people from the threats of over-taxation, corrupt nobles, and foreign enemies that were more present in the minds of peasants than the palace intrigues and squabbles that actually occupied the Tsar in most periods of Russian history. As such, Cossacks spoke Russian, were overwhelmingly and fervently Orthodox Christian, and saw their allegiance as lying with the Tsar as a the representative of God on earth.
Expansion of Russian borders brought the Tsar's government into contact with the Cossacks and while at times there was hostility the Cossacks were generally incorporated into Russia as an autonomous group. Peasants who had fled were not returned to their masters' estates and Cossacks were given privileges not afforded to other groups in exchange for their loyalty and military service in Russian armies. The nomadic people of southern Russia who formed part of the Cossack origin had brought a storied tradition of horsemanship to Cossack culture, a tradition similar to that of the mongols and the nomadic people of Central Asia and the Caucasus. As such, Cossack units within the Tsar's forces were almost always cavalry units and were especially employed on the frontiers of the young empire as frontiersmen and scouts. In conventional battles, the power of Cossacks units was less than that of formally trained Russian cavalry squadrons but Cossacks nevertheless saw combat in many of Russia's wars of expansion against Ottoman forces in the south and against indigenous people to the east in Siberia.
Because of this unique origin and relationship to the Tsar and the Russian military Cossacks thought of themselves as Russian but in Moscow and later St. Petersburg they still held an exotic flair for the urban Russians in those cities - they were simultaneously compatriots and foreigners. Cossacks in modern day Ukraine were even more fiercely independent than those in southern Russia and held on to that independence and autonomy more resolutely. The Zaporozhian Host, a large group of Cossacks based west of the Dnieper river on the plains of central Ukraine, kept a delicate balance, fighting alternatively for the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Ottoman Empire, and the Tsar's Russia. The Zaporozhians joined in each of these alliances, always as a temporary measure, to protect their independence as best as they could. In 1648, Russia extended it's support to Bohdan Khmelnytsky, the current leader of the Zaporozhian Host, in a revolt that won the complete independence of much of Ukraine from Polish-Lithuanian dominion and the Ukrainian Cossacks came under the suzerainty of Russia though they enjoyed complete autonomy and would still fight against Russia with the Ottomans and Crimean Tatars. Under Peter the Great, Russia pursued war with Sweden to secure northern territory and then with Poland-Lithuania for western lands and the Zaporozhians were soon forced to chose as Russia surrounded them and had its eyes clearly set to the south for continued conquest. By 1733, the Ukrainian Cossacks had been incorporated into the Russian Empire and military as the Russian Cossacks had been and by the end of the 18th century they were granted lands in the new province of Novorossiya (southern Ukraine) and on along the Don river in southern Russia, just north of the Caucasus.
Integration did not mean complete submission - most famously in 1775 (Pugachev's Rebellion) and a handful of other times (Stenka Razin in 1671), Cossack leaders led peasant rebellions that sought to travel all the way to St. Petersburg, killing nobles and ultimately with the Tsar's head as their goal. Though this independent spirit brought some retribution onto the Cossacks they still generally enjoyed autonomy and now were adopting a new role as a kind of military police for the non-Russian areas of the Empire. In the 19th century, this became perhaps the most iconic image of the Cossack; mounted on a tremendous horse, tall, black leather boots, a black fleece hat, and a whip in hand to be used indiscriminately on the enemies of the Tsar (though these were becoming overwhelmingly internal enemies rather than external ones). This brings me (finally) to the first point that is directly related to your question; in the second half of the 19th century Cossacks became infamous for their brutal suppression of early socialist uprisings, especially among Polish and Jewish socialists who noted the particular cruelty with which Cossacks treated them. Cossack troops held a special animosity towards the Catholic Poles and Jews as oppressors of Orthodox Cossacks and "sellers of Christ," respectively. Cossacks put down socialist and other uprisings in Russian Poland, the Baltics, Belorussia, Ukraine, the Caucasus, and elsewhere, occasionally seeking some extrajudicial justice while Russian Tsarist troops looked the other way. The abortive 1905 Revolution and the resulting unrest through the years 1905-1908 saw the Cossacks sweep across Russia in their function as the Tsar's number one choice against disobedience and Cossack whips claimed the lives of many people, including people killed in anti-Jewish Pogroms that were tolerated or even supported by the central authorities. All this leads to the First World War where Cossacks served the Tsar with honor and distinction in great numbers until the November 1917 revolution.
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"The Cossacks were serfs who ran away from the Russian Czar and found refuge amongst free peoples of the North Caucasus. Initially they lived side by side with the North Caucasians, adopting their uniform – cherkesska, verta, Caucasian dagger, and papakha. When the Russian Empire expanded, the Russians had made a s... |
Are the experiences of handicapped people in the Third Reich comparable to other prosecuted groups? | To add a bit to /u/UWCG 's answer:
It is important to know that the already mentioned Law for the Prevention of Hereditary Diseased Offspring cast a very wide net in terms of who was to be its victim. It was part of the Nazi push to eliminate those from the gene pool who according to their eugenic and racial theories were a problem for the German racial body and therefore should not procreate. This included people whom we today would also recognize as handicapped and mentally-ill and some we wouldn't: The main victims of the law were persons born with a learning disability (in Nazi terms "Schwachsinn", which is commonly translated as "feeble-minded"); Schizophrenics; people with what we today call bi-polar disorder; hereditary epilepsy; Chorea Huntington; hereditary blindness; hereditary deafness; and alcoholism.
It's really important here to emphasize that while the Nazis might have called these diseases hereditary, they had a very limited understanding, comparatively, to how both these diseases and genetics worked – in some cases even so far, that they cared little for actual medical evidence of these diseases being indeed hereditary or advancing their knowledge of these diseases and potential treatment. Both the decision to introduce this law as well as the Health Boards that made the decisions on who was to be sterilized were politically, not medically driven. Very, very often, it was not medical status or indication that lead to sterilization but rather social strata: Most of the 400.000 victims of the Nazi sterilization program (during which 5000-600 women and 600 men died of complications from the operations) were not from families with money but rather from the lower classes of society. It wasn't just that they were handicapped; it's also that they were poor and handicapped. Another seldom mentioned group of victims of this also were the children of German women and black French soldiers conceived during the Rhineland occupation after WWI.
A certain pattern of this fashion also continued with the T4 killing program. Instituted in 1939 and run by Philipp Bouhler of the chancery of the Führer, the program targeted handicapped and mentally ill patients of various institutions and asylums in Germany to be killed in six centralized killing facilities (Hartheim, Sonnenstein, Brandenburg, Bernburg, Hadamar, Grafeneck). This too is a crucial point: The T4 killing program was intended to murder those who were in the care of institutions. As you can see from the linked propaganda below, the arguments were always that these people cost society too much for their care and so forth. Partly because of this logic and partly because of propaganda and public relations images, the Nazis did not kick down the doors of families with handicapped children to take them away and murder them, they murdered those who were in care in state- or privately-run institutions. This perpetuated the pattern mentioned above, meaning that families who could afford to care for their handicapped or mentally ill members at home faced comparatively little danger of having their relative killed.
With the T4 program underway in 1940 and 1941, more and more information leaked out due to a sometimes shockingly bad conduct by the bureaucracy of the program (some families receiving ashes twice e.g.) as well as because it was hard to hide six facilites with crematoria burning a lot of human bodies from the general public. Public opposition to the program began to form, strongly driven by the churches, especially the Catholics, and public protests began. Hitler was booed on stage on one occasion and the Nazi leadership realized that the centralized program could not be sustained in the face of the public turning against it. Which is why it was stopped in 1941.
However, a decentralized killing program continued in secret that mainly targeted children. By October 1941 when the program was officially "stopped" 70,000 people had been killed. From 1941 to 1945, a total of 200,000 people were killed, the vast majority of them children. What set this decentralized program apart from the T4 program before it was that now it was the T4 organization under Bouhler anymore who decided who was to kill and who was to stay alive based on their catalogue of criteria similar to those mentioned above with sterilization – now, it was solely up to the treating doctors, nurses, and other hospital and institution personnel to decided who was killed and who stayed alive. Basically every health care professional treating those with handicaps or mental illness now held the literal power of life and death. And they did use to a great extent as the numbers above show.
As for the post war situation:
Here, historians face the same challenges as in the case of other, lesser researched victim groups, namely that few of the victims came forward to tell their story and were subjected to continued discrimination and stigmatization after the war. Here even with the additional problem of the handicapped victims of the Nazi regime being for the greater part dead at the end of the war, having been subjected to the medical killing program.
While there are survivors of certain Nazi medical institutions, the commonly available literature makes no specific mention of survivors of the centralized medical killing program (stopped in 1941) with myself also believing that there really were none. Additionally, this problem is increased by mentally handicapped and children, which were the main victims of Nazi institutionalization after the centralized medical killing program had been stopped in 1941 leaving little trace in the historical record from their own perspective.
One of the major cases, which I'll use here to illustrate the situation and is somewhat representative for the post-war situation in Germany comes from Austria: Friedrich Zawrel was born in 1929 into a very poor Viennese family with an alcoholic father. Having displayed what the Nazis termed "asocial" behavior as a child and with a mother unable to feed him and his siblings, he was institutionalized in Vienna's Am Spiegelgrund hospital, a place where the Nazis killed about 800 children in the course of decentralized medical killing and conducted sadistic experiments on said children. Zawrel's main tormentor was a physician named Heinrich Gross, who was the main personal responsible for the sadistically experiments and the killing at Am Spiegelgrund.
Zawrel survived the war but without a school or professional degree and scared by his experience as a teen, he was unable to hold down a steady job and started to resort to petty criminal acts. In 1972, he and others broke into a supermarket to steal money and food for which he was arrested in 1974. After spending a year in detention awaiting trial, he was forced to see Austria's most prominent court psychiatrist at the time in order to determine if he was mentally fit to stand trial: Heinrich Gross, his former tormentor from Am Spiegelgrund.
Gross had evaded persecution after the war and had risen to prominence with the Austrian medical-judicial system, doling out psychiatric evaluation of patients along the lines of Nazi medical criteria. And so he did with Zawrel: He recommended incarceration in a mental facility for recidivists due to his "asocial character". A sentence, which meant life-long incarceration due to the fact that inmates of these facilities had to be declared cured or not a danger to society anymore; something which almost never happened and which Gross knew how to prevent in Zawrel's case.
It took until 1981 and an extensive media campaign to get Zawrel released and another 19 years to start a trial against Gross; a trial that in the end amounted in nothing due to Gross advanced dementia in 2000.
Friedrich Zawrel is one example of a survivor who suffered in very real terms under the consequences of having been a victim of Nazi Germany and being victimized again by his former tormentors who managed to build a good life for themselves. There are probably thousands if not hundred thousands similar examples out there less well known than Zawrels.
Sources:
* Burleigh, Michael (1995). Death and Deliverance: 'Euthanasia' in Germany 1900–1945.
* Friedlander, Henry (1995). The Origins of Nazi Genocide: From Euthanasia to the Final Solution.
* Klee, Ernst (1983). Euthanasie im NS-Staat. Die Vernichtung lebensunwerten Lebens.
* Bock, Gisela (1984). Zwangssterilisation im Nationalsozialismus. Studien zur Rassenpolitik und Geschlechterpolitik.
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"Margarete Hielscher (September 12, 1899 in Arnsdorf - April 13, 1985 in Stadtroda) was a German doctor, who was involved in Nazi crimes in the context of \"child euthanasia\". Margarete Hielscher propagated in 1930 a segregation of mentally handicapped people whom she described as \"hereditary inferiority\". Durin... |
How were Nazi sympathizers treated after the war in different countries, ie France, Poland etc? | In the Netherlands, to prevent large-scale lynchings and mob justice, special laws and [a court](_URL_0_) were instituted when part of the country was liberated to deal with collaborators. About 150.000 people were arrested (1.6 percent of the whole population), including 3500 fully innocent people. Because of the massive numbers, 90000 were probationary released. In the end, 14000 were sentenced. The death penalty, which had been abolished in the Netherlands, except for wartime, was temporary reinstated, and 145 people were sentenced to death. However, pardons were common and eventually 42 people were executed, including one woman. Although many death sentences were changed to life sentences, the last Dutch person sentenced for war crimes left prison in 1964.
In general the processes were fair, although there were complains that well connected, rich collaborators were able to get better deals.
Being overly helpful to the Germans was a reason about 6% of all policemen, and 1100 town mayors were fired after the war. Collaboration in deporting Jews, however, is rarely mentioned in the processes.
While the processes were mostly fair, there were some serious cases of mistreatment of suspects in custody. Suspects were kept in former German camps and guarded by untrained personnel. At first, the call for revenge was strong so news about abuses in the camps was ignored. Later, when Dutch press started to compare some of the worst excesses with Nazi behavior, things improved. But some of the collaborators in the camps were killed by guards without any legal consequences. | [
"UPA initially supported Nazi Germany which had in turn supported them with financing and weaponry before the start of World War II. Many served in the various RONA and SS units. Once they became disillusioned with the Nazi program, they independently began to target all non Ukrainians (Poles, Jews, Russians, among... |
Is there something like a Lagrangian point for a galaxy? | Short answer: any such situation would be unstable and we don't have the precision to measure it anyway.
The expansion of the universe happens outside of gravity wells, where objects are too far away to fall toward each other. Interactions between galaxies are a fuzzy thing, with tidal forces being quite important due to the large scale of galaxies. If you had two galaxies in a situation like the one you describe, they would exert tidal forces on each other, stretching each other and moving closer.
We can measure radial velocity-- the speed at which a galaxy is moving toward or away from us-- with a high degree of accuracy. Measuring distance is much more fraught with error, although we can often get a good distance measurement to within a few percent for galaxies in the local neighborhood. Measure transverse velocity, the apparent motion of a galaxy on the sky, is currently not feasible for anything outside the Local Group. | [
"In astronomy, Lagrangian points are five positions in the orbital plane of two large orbiting bodies where a small object affected only by gravity can maintain a stable position relative to the two large bodies. The first three Lagrangian points (L, L, L) lie along the line connecting the two large bodies, while t... |
why does ziti taste so different from spaghetti? | I can't really accurately answer this question, because it's *your* personal preference, and I can't explain that - just like I wouldn't expect anyone to know why I like the mango-flavored Odwalla drinks and not the strawberry-flavored ones. (Both are insanely delicious, but the mango one just really hits the spot, I don't know why!)
There is a difference in thickness, which could have something to do with it. Ziti have to hold their tube shape, whereas spaghetti are thin and made to flop about. There's probably a texture difference that your tongue appreciates, because of that. You may also have spaghetti often, and ziti not as often, which could make you favor the rarity of ziti. Ziti often have ridges as well, which helps the pasta hold sauce on its surface easier than the slippery surface of spaghetti, so you may feel you're getting more flavor per forkful than when eating spaghetti (though the ridging has little to no effect on chunky sauces, as far as I know - little ridges can't hold *that* much). There's a lot of different possibilities. | [
"It consists of spaghetti served with a sauce made from tomatoes, minced beef, garlic, wine and herbs; sometimes minced beef can be replaced by other minced meats. In this sense it is actually more similar to Neapolitan ragù from the south of Italy than the northern Bolognese version of ragù. Often accused of 'inau... |
What is the smallest theoretical size a transistor could be? | I'm not directly answering your question here but in the current generation of transistor there are more important research topics to be discussed than decreasing the size of the transistor. Like someone else posted in here, the technology node has meant nothing for many years. It has become more of a business related selling point than anything.
Currently, engineers worked to create multicore processors as a method of multitasking instead and using dead space (dark silicon) on the chip to dissipate heat but this technology has not yet been utilized well by those above us. In addition there needs to be research in topics that lower voltage requirements of the transistor so that they don't generate as much heat to begin with. (they currently operate at 170C or so) New technologies like NC-FETs (negative capacitance) which include ferroelectric materials in the gate stack to step up the voltage entering the channel, are needed for future improvements.
Looking at the current FinFETS, engineers have a lot of difficulty producing uniformly spaced transistors because the lithography cannot keep up with the size requirements. [Essentially, they layout the transistors by repeatedly making overlapping line patterns which is not as repeatable as we'd like.](_URL_0_)
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"In 2012 MIT researchers announced the smallest transistor ever built from a material other than silicon. The Metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) is 22 nanometers long. This is a promising accomplishment, but more work is needed to show that the reduced size results in improved electronic per... |
how do they craft a perfume, and then how do they decide whether its for men or women? whats the chemistry behind it? | To create a perfume you need to be able to extract or create a scent, create a medium to carry that scent, a method to apply that scent and to make sure it doesn't immediately dissipate.
Scents are usually essential oils. You can obtain or create essential oils from natural sources through methods like pressing, crushing, dissolving, distillation and so on. If you know exactly what chemicals create a scent, you can also create synthetic scents in a lab. In other words, you can quite literally take something like a pleasant flower and crush, dissolve, boil or otherwise extract the oils that carry its scent.
Essential oils are pretty powerful so you dilute them into a medium that will allow the user to spray or dab some onto their skin and make it stick. Usually alcohol. Alcohols evaporate fast so dabbing some on your skin won't leave a wet spot as the alcohol evaporates but leaves the scented oil.
As for what makes a male or female perfume, that's really just psychology, stereotypes and a whole lot of marketing.
Things like flowers, candy, cookies and other sweet things are often associated with women. And so their scents make a good basis for feminine products.
Men are often idealised as tough, rugged, hard-working, adventurous and so on. Lots of male scents try to invoke that with scents that are reminiscent of the ocean, mountains, woods. Sharp scents, spicy scents and so on.
If you look at perfume commercials you'll notice that advertising rarely describes the scent itself. They usually try to sell you an idealised image. Do you like this rugged man sailing his ship? Are you enticed by this cosmopolitan woman in her perfect gown? Now you can smell like them. | [
"The composition of a perfume typically begins with a \"brief\" by the perfumer's employer or an outside customer. The customers to the perfumer or their employers, are typically fashion houses or large corporations of various industries. The perfumer will then go through the process of blending multiple perfume mi... |
I have a vague understanding of the requirements of Imperial Chinese civil service exams, but I've never seen an actual answer translated into English. Could anyone point me to a translated exam answer and provide some context to explain why this answer was good or bad? | I asked a similar question a year ago [here](_URL_0_) which has some actual questions with English translations courtesy of /u/xingfenzhen. | [
"The imperial civil service examinations were designed as objective measures to evaluate the educational attainment and merit of the examinees, as part of the process by which to make selections and appointments to various offices within the structure of the government of the Chinese empire, or, sometimes, during p... |
During the World Wars, did the female nurses face the risk of sexual violence from soldier of their own countries? | There is certainly much that can be said for other nations, but having written previously on the Red Army, I'll repost what I have written on that topic as regards women in uniform and sexual relations. Not just rape and sexual violence, but also consensual relationships. It also isn't solely about nurses, although to be sure, nurses made up a large proportion of Soviet women in uniform, especially at and near the frontlines.
As you're likely aware, the Red Army was by far the most extensively integrated military of World War II, gender wise, but while they may have been willing to utilize women in positions, and to a degree, unseen with other countries such as the Axis, or the Western Allies, the integration was my no means without problems, both institutional and personal. I've addressed some aspects of this before - you can find discussion of the demobilization of female Red Army personnel [here](_URL_0_) - but sexual relations were of course a product of their presence that cannot be overlooked, and one which was certainly seen as problematic, not just due to nonconsensual incidents or coercisive relationships, but also those which were more mutual.
Let's start at the top first. While the women who served in combat positions - snipers, pilots, tankers, machine-gunners, etc. - are generally the best known, countless more worked in the rear, operating radios, driving vehicles, manning anti-aircraft installations, and filling the countless other support roles necessary to keep an army of millions in the field. While women, in limited capacities, were allowed in combat, more generally their utility was seen as freeing up a position to allow another man to carry a Mosin against the Hitlerites. These women, especially those who were young and attractive, were quick to come to the attention of male officers who would take them on as their mistresses, "compensated" with easy duties, or outright imaginary roles to simply keep them on the officer's staff. In a crude pun on the PPSh, officers' mistresses became known as PPZh, an abbreviation of "*pokhodno-polevye zheny*", translated as "mobile/marching field wives", and while being attached to a specific officer offered protection from the attentions or abuse of other, often sex deprived soldiers, behind their backs they were commonly denigrated as whores and sluts, a reputation that would carry on well past the end of the war, and come to be attached to the entire female component of the Red Army.
The practice of taking a "PPZh" was quite common in the officer corps, although seen as negative by the command, who of course were not immune to hypocrisy. Marshal G.K. Zhukov, Stalin's Deputy Commander, wrote harshly of the practice, while at the same time maintaining Lida (or Lidia) Zakharova as his mistress during the war, and his personal physician, although if confronted he would likely say that he didn't allow his attentions to Lida to distract from his duties, which was at the core of his criticism of officers who would prefer to cavort with women behind the lines rather than give military matters their attention. Even then, it could take quite extreme behavior before an officer was punished for flouting discipline. One such example from a report in 1943 was a Lt. Morosov who had cycled through four "PPZhs" in succession before eventually being demoted and kicked from the party, although only after 9 earlier reprimands, and in the end likely just as much for the abusive language he had used with party officials as for "cohabitation with subordinates." As the war progressed, more attention came to be paid on the practice by leadership, but it was never stamped out.
And while it should be said that it was an accommodation that some of the women were happy to agree to, or at least willingly acceded, it was exceedingly hard to put off the attentions of an interested officer, and as such some of these relationships absolutely were coercive in nature, with the women feeling there was little alternative. The aforementioned Morosov, when recruiting a new mistress, would demote any woman who refused, or else give them the absolute worst duties in the unit. These 'kept women', while on the one hand could enjoy special privileges and shielded from the worst experiences of the war, at the same time could be subject to the very authoritarian whims of their officer. Recollecting the war, Ilya Nemanov noted that his officer's mistress, a young woman by the name of Nina, was kept isolated from contact with others, Ilya nearly being shot after socializing with her once. Although enlisted men were quite resentful and disdainful, surely some of it was sour grapes at their own deprivation of companionship, and often the most critical voices of the 'PPZh' were women themselves, especially against those who would flaunt the privileges granted them, as the female soldiers felt that it degraded the position of all women in the service - an unfortunate truth, in perception at least, as will be touched on later. Those few 'PPZh' relationships which were perceived to be "genuine" might be allowed a pass, but they are the minority in most recollections.
For the common soldiers on the frontlines, life was quite different. Officially at least, sexual relations were entirely forbidden, but it was only explicit about relationships with civilians, and when it came to those between soldiers, guidance was far less clear (quite possibly as commanders didn't wish to jeopardize their own arrangements). In regions near the front, civilian women were deported if there was reason to believe they were sleeping with soldiers. That of course didn't stop men when they had the chance though. The diagnosis of a STI would result in harsh punishment (for a soldier. An officer, especially with connections, was quite immune), but in practical terms it just meant diseases like syphilis went untreated and could often run rampant. For the women serving in the frontline areas, theirs' was a precarious position that could run the gamut. For some at least, especially those small numbers who were combat troops, their mostly male units guarded them zealously, and within those close-knit groups, the women were often viewed as, if not asexual, at least little sisters ("sestry" or "sestrechka") or daughters ("dochery") to be protected, not sexual persued. In what official recognition existed of women's frontline roles in the Soviet historiography, this is the exclusive picture painted, and while not a lie, certainly the rosey ideal of gender relations at the front
Things were, of course, much more complicated than that idealized situation. Outside of the "PPZh" "mistresses", any number of circumstances happened. Within units, between the lower level soldiery, women might develop a relationship with a man in the unit. Between units, it was of course nigh impossible to stop fraternization of men with the all-woman units that might be posted in close proximity, although it of course could hamper the prospect of anything beyond a fleeting assignation. While some wanted something serious, many simply wanted a moment of intimacy, not something lasting, with such an uncertain future ahead of them anyways. Looking back on wartime 'romances', a physician (as an aside, some 40 percent of frontline doctors were female in the Red Army) Vera Ivanovna Malakhova poetically waxed *"Legitimate, illegitimate, it [earthly love] existed at the front, and it degraded people and elevated people and saved their lives."* Voluntary relationships often would be remembered fondly by veterans even if the romance didn't survive the war. Years after the war Malakhova happily remembered a fellow doctor with whom she was involved who, stationed together in Stalingrad, had swum the Volga to bring her a birthday present when she was recovering from injury in a hospital on the far side. He would, sadly, die during the war, passing away in her arms. For enlisted personnel though, however, any lasting relationship had to be kept if not hidden, at least subtle, as discovery would be grounds for transfer. Most commanders, at least, would turn a blind eye to a relationship that was not flaunted.
Even a woman in the frontlines might come to the attention of an officer looking for his next "PPZh", but relationships were not exclusively between male officers and their female subordinates. In some cases, female officers would start relationships with their male counterparts in a unit, on something of a more equal footing - although rarely truly equal in the chauvinistic environment of the Red Army - and no more immune to the accusations of dereliction of duty either. Although they didn't maintain 'kept men', it also ought to be noted that some women, especially younger officers, mirrored their male counterparts in some regards. Some, especially those not on the front who were able to maintain some sort of social functions, would pick up male soldiers, behavior which could result in being put before a 'court of honor', but a punishment which didn't stem such behavior. Reports by political officers chalked the behavior up to a desire to not "let go of their youth", frankly a perfectly understandable impulse in the wartime environment, where every day might be their last. Pregnancy was an always present concern, but while severely restricted, abortions were easy to obtain in the military hospitals - although some women likely were happy to get an excuse to be sent home, although Red Army policy was to retain pregnant women in rearline roles until they reached 7 months, to eek out as much utility as possible. | [
"Women were barred from serving in battle, but due to shortages of men, ATS members, as well as members of the other women's voluntary services, took over many support tasks, such as radar operators, forming part of the crews of anti-aircraft guns and military police. However, these roles were not without risk, and... |
How did the anti-war sentiment during Vietnam evolve into hatred for Vietnam veterans? | The idea that they got an extensive amount of hate isn't technically something that holds up in the face of facts. As I've discussed before [in threads regarding](_URL_1_) [the myth of veterans](_URL_2_) [being spat at](_URL_0_), most Vietnam protesters considered the soldiers to be victims and that the leadership was the real criminals. The real damage that was made to the veterans was mostly the fact that they felt out of touch with civilian life and that no one really *cared* for what they had to go through and experienced in the war. | [
"A persistent but unfounded criticism leveled against those who protested the United States's involvement in the Vietnam War is that protesters spat upon and otherwise derided returning soldiers, calling them \"baby-killers\", etc. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, years after the war in Vietnam ended, the pro... |
Did the civil war top generals ( Grant, Lee) ever participate in a face to face combat | u/Georgy_K_Zhukov wrote a few years ago about "[Which US presidents have killed someone directly?](_URL_0_)," which addresses the Grant side of your question. As a general throughout the Civil War, Grant would not have seen frontline combat there. During his prior service in the Mexican-American War, Grant appears to have commanded artillery, which while perhaps fatal is not the hand-to-hand combat you're asking about. | [
"Francis \"Frank\" Crawford Armstrong (November 22, 1835 – September 8, 1909) was a United States Army cavalry officer and later a brigadier general in the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War. He is also known for being the only Confederate general to fight on both sides during the Civil War.\n",
... |
What prevents full recovery of nerves after reattachment? | Just had a lecture on this!
That's actually only half true. In the Central Nervous System (Brain and Spinal Cord) supporting cells called Astrocytes form a scar in the cleanup of the damaged cell and prevents regrowth. In the Peripheral Nervous System (axon tracts leading to/from the Brain and Spinal Cord) however do not have these specialized supporting cells. If the Endoneural sheath of the axon in the PNS is still intact, the axon can regrow.
This is why if you break your neck you can become permanently paralyzed yet if you cut off your finger and have it reattached you can eventually control it once again!
Source: 1st year Medical Student | [
"The length and efficiency of recovery is depended on the regenerative process that may require 6 to 18 months. The length of the nerve and site of the injury influences the recovery time. To avoid tension during recovery (generally 10–14 days), minimizing movement of the nerve may reduce risk of further damage. Re... |
does niche have different meanings when pronounced nitch va kneesh? | It's not pronounced 'nitch'. It's always pronounced 'kneesh'.
It generally means 'a small space'. This can literally be a small space (a niche in the wall), or a figurative small space (a niche specialisation). | [
"For most English speakers, the name for the letter is pronounced as and spelled \"aitch\" or occasionally \"eitch\". The pronunciation and the associated spelling \"haitch\" is often considered to be h-adding and is considered nonstandard in England. It is, however, a feature of Hiberno-English, as well as scatter... |
what about the molecular structure of an object makes an item edible? | Our bodies have stomach acid to break down materials to smaller bits and specific enzymes to digest many common biological molecules, We can absorb certain bits from the food to use. What we can't use, or just didn't because of imperfect efficiency, gets deposited out the other end. Anything that has these molecules we need, can be broken up by our digestive system to move through it, and isn't otherwise hazardous is edible. There are things without anything that we can use, but nothing particularly hazardous, that just passes through the system, like many diet sodas and fake sugar (the point of fake sugar is that it tricks our taste buds into thinking it is high-energy sugar, but our bodies don't have the right things to absorb it).
So basically all the things you get from food have specific mechanisms to absorb it. | [
"Many natural products have very complex structures. The perceived complexity of a natural product is a qualitative matter, consisting of consideration of its molecular mass, the particular arrangements of substructures (functional groups, rings etc.) with respect to one another, the number and density of those fun... |
why couldn't a currency-less world where you barter for everything ever work? | "I need shoes."
" Ok what do you have to swap for them?"
"Umm I can paint, work the cash register, clean. Or do you want a TV?"
"Nah I don't need any of that stuff"
"Oh"
It would be far too complicated and difficult | [
"In economies with an unstable currency, barter and other alternate currency arrangements such as dollarization are common, and therefore when the 'official' money becomes scarce (or unusually unreliable), commerce can still continue (e.g., most recently in Zimbabwe). Since in such economies the central government ... |
do those himalayan salt lamps and the ocean air really have more negative ions? if so, what about them supposedly makes you feel better? | No. They look cool, and you can get a nice placebo effect from them, but that's about it. None of those "salt rooms" have any proven medicinal effect, either. | [
"Adaptation to saline environments by halophytes may take the form of salt tolerance or salt avoidance. Plants that avoid the effects of high salt even though they live in a saline environment may be referred to as facultative halophytes rather than 'true', or obligatory, halophytes.\n",
"A recent study suggests ... |
Is sleeping on the floor bad for your body? | You'll be fine without one, although, you will probably not sleep well since your body isn't used to it. | [
"Some treatments involve lifestyle changes, such as avoiding alcohol or muscle relaxants, losing weight, and quitting smoking. Many people benefit from sleeping at a 30-degree elevation of the upper body or higher, as if in a recliner. Doing so helps prevent the gravitational collapse of the airway. Lateral positio... |
what is actually happening when you hear interference from a mobile through a speaker of some sort? | Any time a radio device is heard on a speaker it is because the high-frequency carrier is being "filtered out" and instead the baseband frequencies (those that are audible to us) are being picked up and amplified by the audio circuit you are listening to.
In normal operation radio systems the carrier frequency is high enough for us humans never to notice whatever modulation is being applied to it. However in close proximity other wires and electronics can pick up this signal and remove the carrier leaving the audible bits for us to hear.
---
Imagine you have a lady singing in a high voice. But she's not just singing a single tone - but singing "WHOOP WHOOP WHOOP". The note she is signing is high - but imagine you have some sort of filter on her voice and all you hear is a gruff "WHOOP WHOOP WHOOP" being spoken. Similar kind of thing. | [
"Interference is the addition of two or more waves that results in a new wave pattern. Interference of sound waves can be observed when two loudspeakers transmit the same signal. At certain locations constructive interference occurs, doubling the local sound pressure. And at other locations destructive interference... |
when you read that flu has killed otherwise healthy people, what are the symptoms that actually take them out? are they drowning in lung fluid or exhaustion from coughing, or what? | A few ways. The flu can cause intense inflammation in your lungs and you can die from respiratory failure. That's the most direct way (along with heart or organ failure, also brought on by inflammation).
But the flu can kill you by making you susceptible to other bad stuff, too, because your body is weak and slow from trying to fight off the flu. In fact the most common way to die from the flu is to get it and then get pneumonia as a result. that's how the elderly usually go when it happens to them. | [
"Occasionally, influenza can cause severe illness including primary viral pneumonia or secondary bacterial pneumonia. The obvious symptom is trouble breathing. In addition, if a child (or presumably an adult) seems to be getting better and then relapses with a high fever, that is a danger sign since this relapse ca... |
what is the minimal theoretical speed at which a meteorite can enter the earth atmosphere? | 11.2 km/s
This is the escape velocity of the Earth. Anything not in a stable orbit which is traveling less than that would have fallen inwards towards the Earth. Anything new that enters Earth's gravitational sphere of influence will accelerate up to at least this speed before hitting the atmosphere | [
"Herschel, who was then Professor of Physics and Experimental Sciences at Durham College of Physical Science in Newcastle upon Tyne, rushed to Middlesbrough on hearing the news to supervise the recovery and examination of the meteorite. By experimentation, replicating the conditions of the impact, he determined the... |
state machine design pattern | What, specifically, are you asking about? Would you like to know what a finite state machine is? Or are you interested in designing your software to work like a finite state machine? Or are you asking about [this paper](_URL_0_)? | [
"The state pattern is a behavioral software design pattern that allows an object to alter its behavior when its internal state changes. This pattern is close to the concept of finite-state machines. The state pattern can be interpreted as a strategy pattern, which is able to switch a strategy through invocations of... |
How did Queen Elizabeth I View Separatists (Pilgrims)? | As far as I have read, a couple of Separatists (John Greenwood and Henry Barrowe) were executed in 1593 (near the end of Elizabeth I's reign) for advocating Separatism. After an intense crackdown, their followers fled to the Netherlands which eventually formed the basis of the Pilgrims of the Plymouth Colony.
Other than that, Separatists were numerically insignificant throughout Elizabeth I's reign because the bishops were pretty successful in convincing the Puritans that the Church of England was not unreformed. Still, there were those who seeked more reforms and they evolved their own forms of worship and disciplines though not intending to be divisive. Only towards the 1630s did the Puritans believe that the bishops had moved towards a different path that Separatism really did grow and became a bigger problem.
Elizabeth I and Religion 1558-1603 By Susan Doran
Access to History: Elizabeth I Meeting the Challenge: England 1541-1603 By John Warren | [
"Non-separatist Puritanism is described by author Everett Emerson as \"an effort to continue and complete the reformation of the Church of England\" which had begun under Henry VIII of England. Following the reformation, Queen Elizabeth chose a middle way for the English Church between the two extremes of Calvinism... |
when you have a drink on an airplane, and the plane banks, why does the liquid stay level with the plane and not level with the earth? | Okay little buddy. Let's try this. Next time we turn in our car tilt your glass until the water is level in that glass. That's the angle the plane is turning!
(I'm an airline pilot and a dad) | [
"An investigation by the Interstate Aviation Committee revealed that both pilots were intoxicated by alcohol and that the plane was \"far off course\". The final report identified as contributing factors a low level of crew discipline and inadequate supervision by the airline, the inaction by the crew following the... |
why does base ball have umpires and every other sport have referees? | couldn't tell you but baseball isn't the ONLY sport with umpires. Here in Australia we prefer to use the term umpire over referee so you have a basketball umpire, an AFL umpire, a cricket umpire. They're exactly the same thing anyway so why does it even matter? It's essentially aubergine vs. eggplant. | [
"The assistant referees' duties generally consist of judging when the ball has left the field of play – including which team is entitled to return the ball to play, judging when an offside offence has occurred, and advising the referee when an infringement of the Laws has occurred out of his or her view. These two ... |
why hasn't the u.s. been invaded in hundreds of years? | > "The Americans are truly a lucky people. They are bordered to the north and south by weak neighbors and to the east and west by fish." - Otto von Bismarck (attributed)
Simply put, geography. America's geostrategic position is superb. It is bordered by the Atlantic and the Pacific, oceans which even in the modern era it is hugely difficult to move troops across in quantity. Furthermore, it has generally been non-hostile (and in the modern era, even friendly!) to its neighbour Canada in the north and Mexico in the south. Add to this a vastly superior population from which to draw troops compared to either country, and resources, and America is effectively unassailable. | [
"The concept of an invasion of the United States relates to military theory and doctrine which address the feasibility and practicality of a foreign power attacking and successfully invading the United States of America. The United States has been physically invaded a few times, once during the War of 1812, once du... |
Is it really possible to waste electricity? | Imagine that you're getting your electricity from a hydro-electric power plant. In this case, the electricity going to your light bulb is generated by generators at the dam, which convert the rotational kinetic energy of the water turbines to electricity. The water turbines get THEIR energy by converting the gravitational potential energy of the water behind the dam to kinetic energy. The full chain is gravitational potential energy -- > kinetic energy of water in pipes -- > kinetic energy of spinning turbines -- > kinetic energy of spinning generators -- > electricity.
Now, here's the part that's hard to notice in everyday life: the more current that gets drawn from those generators, the harder they are to turn. To keep them spinning at the same speed, the dam has to let water flow through the turbines at a faster rate.
That might sound a little crazy--I'm telling you that turning on a light in your kitchen makes the generator harder to turn? Yes, that's exactly what I'm telling you, and I can prove it. I have in front of me on my desk a stepper motor that I pulled out of an old printer. When I spin it, I feel some resistance. I've also got a pair of red LEDs. When I plug them into the motor connector and spin the motor, they light up (in intermittent flickers) . . . but also, *I can feel that the motor is harder to turn*. This is conservation of energy; to get more power *out* of the system in the form of light and heat (from electrical resistance losses), I *must* put more power *in*. The exact same thing is true of the power plant at the dam.
So in the hydroelectric case, you're not wasting electricity so much as you're wasting stored water. The water behind that dam is stored energy, and if you're using it to run your light bulb, it's depleting a little faster than it would if you weren't. The water used to power your light bulb can't be used to power something else, because you used it up. In a time of low rainfall, enough people leaving light bulbs on could mean that the dam runs out of stored water.
If your electricity is coming from a fossil fuel plant, then using more electricity means burning more fuel.
Things get fuzzier if you've got solar panels. | [
"A waste-to-energy plant is a waste management facility that combusts wastes to produce electricity. This type of power plant is sometimes called a trash-to-energy, municipal waste incineration, energy recovery, or resource recovery plant.\n",
"Electronic waste (e-waste) is a global problem; especially since many... |
How would the cosmos/physics change if space suddenly stopped expanding? | Microphysics, ie the laws that we observe here on Earth, would not change.
One interesting thing that would change is that cosmic structure would begin to grow again; density perturbations have trouble growing in an expanding universe, and even moreso in an accelerating expansion. Because of this, the rate of formation and growth of cosmic structure has gone way down - pretty much all cosmic structures formed a while ago, and no new ones to speak of are forming now.
If the expansion stopped, that picture would change, and cosmic structures (galaxies, clusters of galaxies, superclusters, etc) could form and grow again, like winter turning to spring.
| [
"Based on a huge amount of experimental observation and theoretical work, it is now believed that the reason for the observation is that \"space itself is expanding\", and that it expanded very rapidly within the first fraction of a second after the Big Bang. This kind of expansion is known as a \"\"metric\"\" expa... |
Why wasn't Washington DC's Southwest corner restored, after the Civil War? | By which you mean: why weren't Arlington & Alexandria reabsorbed into the District of Columbia after the civil war? | [
"Many of the buildings on the north side of Constitution Avenue apparently are built on top of the creek, including the Internal Revenue Service Building, part of which is built on wooden piers sunk into the wet ground along the creek course. The low-lying topography there contributed to the flooding of the Nationa... |
why do marvel movies (and other heavily cgi- and animation-based films) cost so much to produce? where do the hundreds of millions of dollars go to, exactly? | I work in film and have a VFX degree and here's how it goes:
1. About half the money, give or take, is for above the line talent. So you have your actors, directors, producers, ect. They get paid in a percentage or in absurdly high amounts for films. These people are also accommodate on set so production has to rent out luxury campers to house them for weeks or months at a time when on location. Then they need to hire drivers and trucks to move those campers. Top tier stars can make demands on top of that. I saw Jim Carrey's camper once and it had an entire astroturf lawn on top of it, with a picnic table, with a vase with flowers on it. Don't ask me why he wanted it, he just did. Those costs are in addition to percentages given to the talent directly, which can be millions each for an A list celebrity. If this is a movie like Infinity War you have multiple guys like RDJ and Cumberbach and like four guy named Chris who could carry a blockbuster on their own and want to be paid like it.
2. Actors who aren't the main cast still have to show up and get paid. Every random dude you see in the background is an actor who's in it to get paid. If you see a big crowd shot of like 500 people that means that's 500 people who had to show up, go through makeup and costumes, and be accommodated and then be paid.
3. What you have left over has to pay for production. At minimum it costs like thirty thousand dollars a day just to hire people to actually operate the cameras and set up lights and they usually work 12 hour days and have unions that demand good rates including overtime. This is a very basic cost for a minimum crew for a single day where you get maybe a few minutes of footage done. If you have those big 500 background days you need people to get people to manage those people. If you have complicated shots you need more people for that.
4. If you're out on location you need to pay the people who own that property. This can cost millions in and of itself if you need time and they know you have money. You also need to pay an entire team of people to show up and get the location ready, which means emptying out whatever furniture is there and replacing it with your own stuff you have to buy. These people are probably also working heavy overtime and have a union demanding pay accordingly. If you decide that isn't worth it then you need to get a studio and build the entire fake set from scratch, or pay a company to recreate it with CG, which isn't cheap either way.
5. This doesn't count the cost for pre and post production, which is two thirds of the process. You have writers, editors, storyboarders, previz, color grading, foley, and a dozen other departments that have to do work before or after the actual shoot. CG comes here in various phases and obviously isn't cheap. On a Marvel movie if you sit through all of the credits you'll usually see like 8 other companies contracted out to do this and that and if you actually follow through and look up those companies they have big impressive shot breakdowns of what they did and a crew of a hundred plus people who may or may not also be credited.
If you sit through the whole credits of a Marvel movie you probably have thousands of individual names and there are probably three digits worth of people who didn't even make that list. Those guys don't work for free. This shit ain't student film. | [
"As of the start of September 2015, films based on Marvel's properties represent the highest-grossing U.S. franchise, having grossed over $7.7 billion as part of a worldwide gross of over $18 billion. As of May 2019 the 'MCU' has grossed over $20 billion.\n",
"In April 2010, rumors circulated that Marvel was look... |
How can free will exist in the universe without breaking physics? | Guys, if you don't know the answer don't make one up. | [
"Therefore, we see at once that there cannot be any such thing as free-will; the very words are a contradiction, because will is what we know, and everything that we know is within our universe, and everything within our universe is moulded by conditions of time, space and causality. ... To acquire freedom we have ... |
Since the perceived gravitational force at the center of the Earth is nearly nothing, is the center of the Earth experiencing time flowing faster relative to the surface of the Earth? | There was [a paper](_URL_0_) recently that calculated this explicitly, it turns out the center of the Earth is about 2.5 years younger than the surface.
edit: [free pdf](_URL_1_) | [
"Because this reference frame rotates several times a minute rather than only once a day like the Earth, the Coriolis acceleration produced is many times larger and so easier to observe on small time and spatial scales than is the Coriolis acceleration caused by the rotation of the Earth.\n",
"An approximate valu... |
Why does caffeine dissolve preferentially in propan-1-ol over water? | Look at the structure of caffeine. It appears to be non-polar, indicating that it is more soluble in non-polar solvents (or weakly polar). n-Propanol is slightly polar (on one end) but it is mainly non-polar (on the rest of the molecule chain), meaning that it can dissolve the caffeine. Water is strongly polar, indicating that caffeine isn't really soluble.
Another example is a fatty acid chain. One end is polar, but as the chain gets longer it is less water soluble, as it becomes more non-polar. | [
"In method of action, the preparation is exactly identical to that of caffeine base as the citrate counter ion dissociates in water. Doses of caffeine citrate, due to the added weight of the citrate moiety, are understandably higher than with caffeine base, i.e., it takes a larger dose to get the same amount of caf... |
" why a gdp growth of 0.5% per year isn't good enough? | * Inflation is higher than 0.5%.
Real gross domestic product growth is negative.
* Population growth is higher than 0.5%.
The gdp per capita is shrinking.
* Other countries have higher gdp growth.
You are falling behind compared to other countries. | [
"The target of sustained 4% annual GDP growth is not universally accepted among economists. Even some of the authors of chapters in The 4% Solution disagree that such an accelerated growth rate is possible on a sustained basis in the United States. Robert E. Lucas, Jr., for example, is noted in an introductory chap... |
I am traveling from Hangzhou to Constantinople on the silk road in 1348. How long does it take me? What route do I take? What am I selling/trading? Is a journey such as mine even realistic? | hi! there's *lots* of room for more input here, but thought you might get something out of these posts that relate somewhat to the experience of traveling the silk road. I've omitted posts addressing *what* is traded - run a search on "silk road" to find more
* [Was the Silk Road a one-way street?](_URL_3_)
* [Were there inns along the Silk Road?](_URL_4_)
* [How long time did it take for a piece of silk to get from China to Rome via the Silk Road?](_URL_1_)
* [I am a merchant traveling along the Silk Road during the first century. What is life like for me and what kinds of things am I concerned about?](_URL_2_)
* [How dangerous were classical or medieval trade routes?](_URL_0_)
* [Why did the Silk Road travel through north Asia instead of South Asia and SE Asia or even by sea?](_URL_5_) | [
"BULLET::::- Marco Polo (\"c.\" 1254 – 8 January 1324), trader and explorer, one of the first Westerners to travel the Silk Road to China. While a prisoner in Genoa, he dictated in the tale of his travels known as \"Il Milione\" (\"The Travels of Marco Polo\").\n",
"BULLET::::- Hill, John E. (2015) \"Through the ... |
how money in digital form can have value | The exact same way that paper money has value.
If everyone agrees that the numbers are worth something, and will do work or provide goods for those numbers, then they have value. | [
"According to the Bank for International Settlements' November 2015 \"Digital currencies\" report, it is an asset represented in digital form and having some monetary characteristics. Digital currency can be denominated to a sovereign currency and issued by the issuer responsible to redeem digital money for cash. I... |
how do you refinance a car? (usa) | Just go talk to a loan officer at your bank and they will help you understand your options. If your current loan is from a different bank/lender, you will have to call them and have them send you a "10 day pay off".. which is just a statement of the amount your new loan would have to be in order to pay off the previous balance including interest for the next 10 days. | [
"Many U.S. states have enacted additional laws that apply specifically to the repossession of purchased and leased automobiles, and which are intended to afford additional consumer protections. Typical requirements include mandating that auto lenders provide consumers with opportunities to either \"reinstate\" or \... |
Why do the electron and proton have the same electric charge? | That's a good question that doesn't really have a good answer yet. According to some pretty high precision experiments, they really are exactly equal.
There is a proof by Paul Dirac (IMO one of the most brilliant physicists in history) that if even one [magnetic monopole](_URL_0_) exists anywhere in the universe, then all electric charge must be quantized. However, we've never discovered any magnetic monopoles, and it still doesn't explain why all particles (besides a few highly unstable baryons) should necessarily have +/-1 fundamental charge (rather than +/-2, +/-3, and so on). | [
"The charge on electrons and protons is opposite in sign, hence an amount of charge may be expressed as being either negative or positive. By convention, the charge carried by electrons is deemed negative, and that by protons positive, a custom that originated with the work of Benjamin Franklin. The amount of charg... |
why does america supply bad guys/enemies with weapons? | First things first: despite what you see in movies, the world doesn't easily divide into good guys and bad guys. No one thinks that they are the "bad guy"; only the other side views them as such.
Now, let's look at an easy historical comparison. The Soviet Union was an American ally during WWII, however as soon as that war ended, the Cold War started up between the US and the USSR. Do you think that the Soviet Union just woke up one morning after WWII ended and became "evil"?
The truth of the matter is that there was already political tension between the US and USSR, however during WWII, both nations *had a common enemy*. Despite their political differences, they were "on the same side" in the war against the Axis nations, though once that conflict ended, each nation shifted their global priorities and were now in opposition to one another.
This sort of thing doesn't only happen with superpowers. Bin Laden, for instance, opposed the Soviets in Afghanistan during the 1980s, and the US supported this by providing money and weapons through [Operation Cyclone] (_URL_0_) since we were still in the Cold War. The US and bin Laden had a common enemy: the Soviet Union. Yet after the Soviet War in Afghanistan ended, bin Laden then went on to form al Qaeda.
TL;DR: the enemy of my enemy is my friend | [
"Three American soldiers, Captain Chadwell, Lieutenant Junger and Sergeant Smith, are sent by Washington to recover the weaponry, or failing that to destroy them so they cannot be used against the army. They get help from a blond adventurer, Koran, a bounty hunter who carries a pink umbrella and quotes extensively ... |
what is nat? and why there are online games that are not using nat filter? | So NAT stands for Network Address Translation, its a technique for dealing with the fact that ISPs don't have enough internet addresses to give one to every device on the internet.
Instead they'll give a network address to your home router, then your home router will give a private (non-internet) address to all devices on your network.
The problem with this is from the internet's perspective all your devices have the same name.
When a message comes from the internet, the NAT (in your home router), needs to be able to figure out which device the message is for.
For "normal" messages like when you request a web-page, this is fairly easy as it can just remember who most recently requested a web-page from that server, and forward the packet onto that device.
However when you start doing "Peer to Peer" messaging this becomes harder. With P2P, you don't send messages to a server, but you send it to another user's device. Depending on how exactly the other device's home network router is setup this could be more difficult.
The three "NAT Types" in Destiny are basically the three different ways a home network could be configured.
1. Open - This means there is either no NAT on your home network, Or it might mean that your home network router has a more advanced NAT wich can be asked by the device to automatically forward the required messages properly ("port forwarding" or "UPnP".
2. Strict - Your home network has a basic NAT which blocks all incoming messages that aren't replies to requests that it has seen.
3. Moderate - This is a bit more complicated. There's a way to work around NAT by instead of just sending a message to the other user's address, directly (which will be blocked, as the NAT doesn't know which private address to forward) you arrange with the help of a real server for both of you to try to connect to each other simultaneously. This way both NATs think that an outgoing request message has been sent, so knows how to forward the "reply" back to the correct device. This is known as "hole punching" or "nat traversal". This works on certain routers but not all.
Know these behaviours explains why only certain types can connect to certain types.
Any NAT type can connect to a "Open" device, because as far as the internet net is concerned the NAT doesn't get in the way and they can treat it like a real server.
"Moderate" devices can use the hole punching technique to connect to other "Moderate" devices, and can also do the same with "Open" devices (although the hole punching only needs to be done for one side in this case).
"Strict" devices can only connect outward, and aren't able to do the "hole punching", so they can only connect to "Open devices" and can't receive incoming connections.
Finally, you ask why doesn't this apply to all games? The reason is that some games do P2P matchmaking, where one of the player's XBox/Playstation actually becomes the server and hosts the game.
Other games have centralised servers that everyone connects to. The latter situations works better as "real" servers are all "Open" (they have no NAT) and anyone can connect to them. But this means the game company must pay to host the server. Whereas P2P is more flaky, but cheaper to run. | [
"NATS is an open-source messaging system (sometimes called message-oriented middleware). The NATS server is written in the Go programming language. Client libraries to interface with the server are available for dozens of major programming languages. The core design principles of NATS are performance, scalability, ... |
Was there any pre-internet equivalent of an "internet troll"? (Serious question) | You could argue that radio [shock jocks](_URL_2_) at times fall into this category when they perform certain pranks. Also, the tabloid press could fit the description when they intentionally spread false or misleading stories. The [Weekly World News](_URL_5_) fits this description nicely. Orson Wells' [War of the Worlds](_URL_1_) broadcast could be seen as qualifying (depending on whether or not you believe disruption was his real motive - he was always pretty coy on that), but his [imitators](_URL_0_), (particularly Paez and Alcaraz who literally caused riots in Quito in 1949) were definitely out to fool people. People have also fabricated "evidence" for the [Cottingly Fairies](_URL_4_), the Loch Ness Monster, and Bigfoot in the past as well.
On the "disrupting discussions" side, you could look to known [broadcast signal intrusions](_URL_3_), which usually involve hijacking a satellite video feed. There have been a few pranks (the Max Headroom incident in the Wikipedia article) but some had political motives (Playboy channel and the actions by Polish Solidarity movement).
It's perhaps not surprising that the "false stories" events all of these occur in the era of mass media while "disruption" is confined to the era of broadcasting. For a false story to be worth an elaborate hoax, you need a large audience. For the disruption angle, you need that audience in real time. While I am sure there must have been plenty of examples that predate either periods (i.e. heckling a speaker at a public lecture or spreading a rumor/legend around the village one knew was false), they just don't don't have the same payoff. Today the Internet makes that payoff even greater, thus giving so much more motivation to so many people that we need an actual word for these folks: "Trolls" | [
"The idea of internet trolls gained popularity in the 1990s, though its meaning shifted in 2011. Whereas it once denoted provocation, it is a term now widely used to signify the abuse and misuse of the Internet. Trolling comes in various forms, and can be dissected into abuse trolling, entertainment trolling, class... |
Animals wake up and execute actions immediately, why do humans take significant time to do the same? | I find your question interesting, but I disagree with your hypothesis. Having been around various animals throughout my life both in domestic settings and in the wild, my observations have been that animals have a very similar reaction to the state between sleep and consciousness. Animals upon waking are known to yawn and stretch when they're about to sleep or have just awoken. | [
"BULLET::::- Pendulum: animals are prevented from entering into REM sleep by allowing them to sleep for only brief periods of time. This is accomplished by an apparatus that moves the animals' cages backwards and forwards in a pendular motion. At the extremes of the motion, the animals experience postural imbalance... |
why do charging chords stop working? | The metal cables inside the plastic/rubber wear out. These are the conductors that carry the electrical signal. The are arranged in a little bundle inside the casing. They become frayed or broken, especially at the junctions where they connect to the USB or lightning tip. When enough of the metal is damaged, the current no longer flows through enough or at all to supply power.
Vacuum cables and other appliances are made with heavy duty casing and conductors. They are reinforced at the junctions. Manufacturers do this because a vacuum cord is bound to be tugged on, tripped over, and abused. They have to design for this abuse. If they made vacuums cords the same strength as phone chargers, they would not last a day. | [
"In flux braking the increased current means increased losses inside the motor. The braking power is therefore also increased although the braking power delivered to the frequency converter is not increased. The increased current generates increased losses in motor resistances. The higher the resistance value the h... |
why do male professional soccer players pretend to be injured a lot while female professional soccer players seem to continue playing through actual injuries? | When millions of dollars are on the line, its worth it to flop a little bit to get the calls you want.
For women, not so much money, so theres no point in selling a call to be called a whiny flopping bitch for no profit | [
"The league has received many complaints from players in regards to safety. Since the uniforms cover very little skin, the players are very susceptible to injury. Ex-lingerie football player Nikki Johnson was one of the many players that experienced injuries in her time in the league. Those injuries included injuri... |
Do we have the technical ability to implement accountable and secure voting in elections via the internet? What challenges have kept this from happening so far? | We have billions of financial transactions taking place every day over the internet. I don't see why would implementing an online voting system be very difficult. | [
"The use of the Internet in elections is a fairly recent concept and as with any new technology it will undergo a certain amount of scrutiny until people can fully trust it and implement it into worldwide elections. Critics of online voting argued that online voting isn't secure enough and thus creates a large amou... |
why is gossiping so intriguing? | Gossip actually serves an evolutionary function of you subscribe to evolutionary psychology.
Here's some more info: _URL_0_
To summarize though, primates spend a lot of time grooming each other, gossip is purported to be the linguistic expression of grooming. We tend to judge and evaluate each other through gossiping, sharing opinions and passing grades on the behaviour and lives of others. In this way, we arrive at a social consensus for what may be considered acceptable behaviour. | [
"Gossip also gives information about social norms and guidelines for behavior. Gossip usually comments on how appropriate a behavior was, and the mere act of repeating it signifies its importance. In this sense, gossip is effective regardless of whether it is positive or negative Some theorists have proposed that g... |
why does it get windy? | wow fucking awesome, i always think it was from the earth spinning lol | [
"It is nearly always windy. During summer a high-pressure ridge lies to the south, causing persistent winds from the southeast or southwest at speeds exceeding almost half the time. During autumn and winter, the ridge moves north, increasing atmospheric pressure over the islands and creating variable winds. Winter ... |
why does a baseball team have a manager instead of a head coach? | Managers don’t come up with defensive plays and don’t coach pitchers or batters. They have coached under them that do that.
Managers decide who is playing, what the batting lineup will be, and who is pitching. They also make substitutions throughout the game. | [
"In general, Major League Baseball teams will have one person specifically assigned to each coaching position described above. However, minor league and amateur teams typically have coaches fulfill multiple responsibilities. A typical minor league/amateur team coaching structure will have a manager, a pitching coac... |
the stuff about relative time in the movie interstellar. | It has to do with the other planet's proximity to a black hole. In this case gravitational time dilation (as opposed to time dilation when someone is moving very quickly).
Basically, if I'm here on earth and you were on that other planet in Interstellar, and we were both holding a clock and I could see your clock, it would appear to move very very slow to me because you're in an extremely strong gravity well.
| [
"The Timekeeper (also known as From Time to Time and Un Voyage à Travers le Temps) was a 1992 Circle-Vision 360° film that was presented at three Disney parks around the world. It was the first Circle-Vision show that was arranged and filmed with an actual plot and not just visions of landscapes, and the first to u... |
Ocean water is much colder far below the surface where sunlight cant reach it. Why? Why doesn't the sun (and volcanic activity) continually heat the ocean? Are there natural heat sinks? | That cold water came from somewhere cold. Specifically, the Arctic or Antarctic.
The ocean is constantly circulating: water gets cooled near the poles, which causes it to sink and flow at depth toward the equator, forming a cold layer beneath the warm sun-heated water near the surface. You're absolutely right that it will gradually mix with warm surface water (and be heated by geothermal activity), gradually warming up. As it warms it rises to to the surface, moves back toward the poles, and cools and sinks again to complete the cycle.
This pattern of circulation is called the [thermohaline circulation](_URL_0_), sometimes referred to as a [global conveyor belt](_URL_1_). The actual circulation is much more complicated than a simple out-and-back loop, and winds, tidal action, and geothermal activity are all important driving forces, but the water two miles down in the Pacific Ocean is cold because it was last in contact with the atmosphere thousands of years ago off the coast of Greenland! | [
"Most of the heat energy of sunlight is absorbed in the first few centimeters at the ocean's surface, which heats during the day and cools at night as heat energy is lost to space by radiation. Waves mix the water near the surface layer and distribute heat to deeper water such that the temperature may be relatively... |
why are solar powered desalination plants not widely used? | We currently don't have the technology to make desalination plants that are cheap and effective. It takes a lot of energy to treat water, and solar energy isn't quite sufficient yet. We need better solar panels, and to make construction of solar panels to become cheaper.
It'll likely happen in time, but not for at least another decade. | [
"Solar-powered RO desalination is common in demonstration plants due to the modularity and scalability of both photovoltaic (PV) and RO systems. A detailed economic analysis and a thorough optimisation strategy of PV powered RO desalination were carried out with favorable results reported. Economic and reliability ... |
why can thinking be so fluid and coherrant while actually trying to talk can be a disfunctional mess? | There is also the fact that you cannot express your thoughts exactly as you "think" them using language. The mental activity in your brain is "translated" into the more generic categories of language so you lose the detail and the intricate movement that was going on inside your brain. But there is no other way to communicate outside of language so we must accept that loss of precision. Derrida wrote that language was an act of mourning...we regret the loss of meaning but accept that loss to get things done. | [
"BULLET::::1. One reason Warburton discusses is that people are prone to wishful thinking. People can believe an assertion and espouse it as truth in the face of overwhelming evidence and facts to the contrary, simply because they wish that things were so.\n",
"Dialogue is really aimed at going into the whole tho... |
Why is there such a large Irish ethnic group in the United States? There are 33 million people with Irish ethnicity in the US, whilst the population of Ireland is only 4.5 million. Why did so many Immigrate and leave their homeland? | Those Irish Americans are the offspring of some 6-8 million immigrants since around 1750. The biggest surges of emigration occurred in 1815-55. Initially this was driven by economic decline following the end of the Napoleonic wars. At first these were mostly Protestant dissenters. More Catholic emigration began in the 1830s and the Famine created a flood of emigrants; a significantly poorer group than before.
Ireland was not a dynamic economy and if a young man or woman wanted to prosper and marry but was not in line to inherit a farm or business there was not much opportunity during economic downturns.
Why did they choose the USA? It offered opportunity, considerable freedom and was English speaking. Poorer people migrated to the industrial cities of Britain. There typical emigrant to the US had poor prospects at home but could afford passage.
Once a strong Irish community was established various "pull" factors were added such as having friends or family already in place or positive stories about the US taken from letters home.
By the late nineteenth century, a culture of emigration had been established which lasts today. Although emigration is seen as a problem, it is understood as a normal response to bad times. | [
"Irish immigration to the United States during the Great Famine in Ireland was substantial and had a lasting impact on the economy of the United States. In 1990, 44 million Americans claimed Irish ethnicity. Many of these citizens can trace their ancestry to the Great Famine from 1845-1852 when 300 Irish would dise... |
forex reserves. | > I don't need US Dollars or Japanese Yen to buy stuff from overseas.
That''s because your bank account doesn't contain only South Sudanese Pounds.
South Sudan is a newly-formed country (it broke away from Sudan in 2011 after years of bitter civil war). Its currency, the South Sudan Pound, is largely worthless outside of the country, due to the fact that South Sudan has no real economy to speak of (as a quick but shocking example, consider that there are only 150 miles of paved roads in the entire country -- and it's about the size of Texas!)
So for any business in South Sudan wishing to buy goods from other countries, they need a currency that's accepted. | [
"Foreign-exchange reserves (also called Forex reserves) are, in a strict sense, \"only\" the foreign-currency deposits held by national central banks and monetary authorities (\"See\" List of countries by foreign-exchange reserves (excluding gold)). However, in popular usage and in the list below, it also includes ... |
how cups and other plastic items change color in response to temperature change. | I've used color changing printing inks and had it explained to me this way. I'm assuming the technology is the same for cast plastics.
You know how when you fry up bacon the fat left in the pan is clear, but when it cools & gets hard it turns opaque white? By mixing different types of fats they come up with one that melts at the desired temperature, then they tint it with a color. When the fat melts it's clear, and when it hardens it is the tinted color.
They take the fat and put it inside microscopic beads so that the fat won't mix with the plastic when it melts. (The process is called micro-encapsulation. I have no idea how it's done but it's also how they make scratch-and-sniff stuff.) So if the fat is tinted red, encapsulated, then the beads mixed in a clear plastic it would go from red to clear when heated. If a red fat beads were put in a yellow plastic it would make an orange item that turned yellow when heated and back to orange when it cools.
The process only works one way - it will go from color to clear when heated but it can't go from color to clear when cooled. | [
"Substances that can change color due to a change in temperature are called thermochromes. There are two known types of thermochromes: liquid crystals (used in mood rings) and leuco dyes (used in Hypercolor T-shirts).\n",
"Thermotropic chiral LCs whose pitch varies strongly with temperature can be used as crude l... |
Could the Titanic passengers have simply disembarked onto the iceberg itself to wait for rescue? | The iceberg identified has no flat space for people to stand and was left far behind before the ship came to a standstill.
_URL_0_ | [
"When the ship sank, Abbott was swept away from the deck into the water. She tried to clasp her sons, but to no avail. Having given up finding them, and at risk of hypothermia in the freezing water, she was able to reach Collapsible Boat A, which was washed off \"Titanic\" at 2:15 AM. Hours went by before Fifth Off... |
in a medium-sized company with computerized accounting systems, why does it take so long to prepare w-2s and get them out? | the deadline is Jan 31st. there's no reason to send them out early.
so if it's a mature payroll department, and they know it takes them 2 weeks to do it, there's no reason to start them Jan 1st because they got other things to do. | [
"Imagine that time was slowed down so that any processes that occur after entering your purchase invoice take over 5 minutes to run. With a modular accounting system the three initial lines of your invoice are placed onto the purchase ledger, wait five minutes, the software creates an additional line in the general... |
ncaa sports where does the money go? | At most schools, there are revenue generating sports, and non revenue generating sports (not sure if these are the correct terms or not). Revenue generating sports are those that bring in more though ticket sales, tv contracts, and other means, than they cost the school to operate (coaches, facilities, scholarships, etc...). At most schools, this would be football and basketball, and maybe baseball, hockey, etc... depending on the city and school.
The non generating sports are those that cost the school more money than they bring, this is often track and field, swimming, and other Olympic type sports, but may include soccer, baseball, or others at certain schools.
Now, most schools use the money they get from the Revenue generating sports, to fund the rest of the academic department. This is especially important at state schools. Most athletic departments at state sponsored schools have to operate separately from the rest of the college, and can't take money from the general budget (Private schools aren't bound by that rule). So, if the football team has bad years, and fan attendance drops, the team may have to cut non revenue generating sports. This recently happened at Maryland. They had to cut 7 programs (Men’s and women’s swimming; men’s tennis; women’s water polo; acrobatics and tumbling, cross-country and indoor track and field) due to a combination of miss management and low revenue from it's "big" sports.
When these schools athletic dept's run out of money, they have to raise more. Historically, they've gone after boosters, trying to get them to donate more money. But, if the schools having a lot of down years, that can be a hard sell. Recently, schools have been jumping ship to other conferences, to try to get a part of the TV revenue. ESPN, Fox, NBC, etc... pay athletic conferences to broadcast their games. The conference in tern divide the money between the members schools.
Now, as I said, private schools have other options. For example, if Stanford has a few down years, the school can chose to dip into it's multi billion dollar endowment and keep programs afloat if necessary. I have a feeling a few of the rich private schools have done this recently in order to hire top tier coaches. Northwestern, Duke, Vanderbilt, Stanford and Notre Dame (all top 25 academic universities) all went to bowl games this year... Obviously, someone's been throwing money around.
The same thing happens with the NCAA. The NCAA hots the basketball championship, and make a lot of money. What does it do with that cash? It funds the championships for sports that aren't profitable. | [
"According to the NCAA it receives most of its annual revenue from two sources: Division I Men's Basketball television and marketing rights, and championships ticket sales. According to the NCAA, \"that money is distributed in more than a dozen ways – almost all of which directly support NCAA schools, conferences a... |
does there exist a "now" at long distances? | Tehcnically speaking 'now' doesn't exist for short distances either, but the effect is of course more pronounced over large distances. Time passes differently for all observers depending on their acceleration, speed relative to each other and the gravitational field they are in. Speaking about a right now just doesn't make physical sense especially when we are talking about galaxies which are particularly far away. | [
"\"Long Ago and Far Away\" is a song written by James Taylor and first released on his 1971 album \"Mud Slide Slim and the Blue Horizon\". It was the follow up single to \"You've Got a Friend\" and became a Top 40 hit in the U.S. and a Top 20 hit in Canada, and made the Top 10 on the Adult Contemporary chart in the... |
What are the Assyrians and the Babylonians connection to the Akkadians? | **Historical overview**
The many city-states of lower Mesopotamia were first unified in the Akkadian period under Sargon the Great (ca. 2340 BCE). The capital of the state was Akkade/Agade, which has not yet been located. For the first time, the language of administration was Akkadian rather than Sumerian. The Akkadian empire lasted a little less than 200 years before it collapsed; modern consensus is that climatic changes and drought played a key role in ending both the Akkadian empire and the contemporary Old Kingdom in Egypt.
Lower Mesopotamia was soon reunified during the Third Dynasty of Ur or Ur III period. It is sometimes known as the Neo-Sumerian period because Sumerian was again used as the language of administration, but Sumerian was still being gradually replaced by Akkadian in everyday speech. The Ur III period lasted for ~100 years and is by far the best documented time period in Mesopotamian history, particularly due to the enormous number of Ur III economic texts. With the end of the Ur III period came the death of Sumerian as a spoken language, though it continued in use as a literary language for nearly two more millennia.
During the Ur III period, texts increasingly mention Amorites (written MAR.TU in Sumerian), Semitic-speaking peoples who infiltrated Mesopotamia from the west, originating in the region of Jebel Bishri in modern Syria. The Ur III kings built a "wall" (in reality a chain of forts) to monitor the movements of the Amorites, but eventually the Amorites seized power in Babylon, Mari, and other important Middle Bronze Age cities (see below).
With the collapse of the Ur III state came political disintegration, a situation that continued for the next two hundred years. Small kingdoms gradually coalesced around powerful centers like Babylon, Larsa, Ešnunna, and (in Syria) Qatna, Mari, and Aleppo. Under Hammurabi, Babylon gradually conquered most of these kingdoms, and Hammurabi installed local officials to control his conquered territory. This time period is therefore called the Old Babylonian period.
The major city of the Assyrians was Aššur in Upper Mesopotamia. Excavations reveal that the site was occupied in the Akkadian period and would have been subject first to the Akkadian kings and then the Ur III kings. (For more information, see the Met Museum's website for a free PDF of [Assyrian Origins: Discoveries at Ashur on the Tigris](_URL_0_)). After the collapse of the Ur III state, Aššur flourished in the Old Assyrian period (ca. 1975-1775 BCE). The Old Assyrian period is best known for its trade network in which merchants from Aššur traveled to Anatolia via donkey caravans to exchange textiles for gold and silver. Many Assyrians eventually settled down in Anatolia, married Anatolian women, and produced children.
The situation became more complex at the end of the Old Assyrian and Old Babylonian periods. In Babylonia, the Kassites swept down into Babylonia from the Zagros after the Hittites sacked Babylon in 1595 BCE. Although Kassite is not related to Akkadian, the Kassites used Akkadian for administration, and the period is called the Middle Babylonian period. The rule of the Kassites was fatally weakened by an Elamite incursion in 1158 BCE, when Shutruk-Naḫḫunte sacked several Babylonian cities. Babylonia was thereafter dominated by Assyria, first in the Middle Assyrian period and then under direct Assyrian control in the Neo-Assyrian period. Babylon regained independence upon the collapse of the Neo-Assyrian empire, and the Neo-Babylonian empire (626-539 BCE) was Babylonia's last period of native rule before it fell under the sway of the Achaemenid and Seleucid empires.
In Upper Mesopotamia, Assyria was dominated by Mitanni, a Hurrian state centered at its unlocated capital Waššukanni. Mitanni was the preeminent power of its time and grappled with Egypt for control of the Levant. Eventually, however, the Hittite king Suppiluliuma I conquered Mitanni, which marked the rise of both the Hittite empire and the beginning of the Middle Assyrian period (1390-1076 BCE), which disintegrated in the turmoil that marked the end of the Late Bronze Age. Assyria was only momentarily weakened by the collapse, however, and it soon rose to even greater glory in the Neo-Assyrian period (911-609 BCE).
**So who were these people?**
Akkadians originated as a group of Semitic-speaking people that migrated from Arabia to Mesopotamia in the Early Dynastic period. They quickly intermingled with the Sumerians, and Sumerian has many Akkadian loanwords. The Babylonians rose to power as an Amorite dynasty, Semitic-speaking groups arriving from the west, and later incorporated Kassites and other migrant groups. The Assyrians, yet another Semitic-speaking group, seem to have originated as nomadic pastoralists native to Upper Mesopotamia who settled and constructed Aššur, but their empire grew to incorporate much of the Near East, and Neo-Assyrian cities like Nineveh and Aššur were very diverse places, with communities of people from Egypt, Carchemish, and other cities and regions. In my opinion, it is not very helpful to think of "Akkadians," "Assyrians," and "Babylonians" as distinct groups of people. The Akkadian empire, Old Babylonian Mesopotamia, Kassite Babylonia, the Neo-Babylonian empire, the Middle Assyrian empire, and especially the Neo-Assyrian empire -- all were multiethnic states that incorporated a variety of ethnic groups, religions, and languages.
Linguistically, (Old) Akkadian gave rise to Old Babylonian and Old Assyrian, and these evolved in parallel chains of development (Old Babylonian, Middle Babylonian, Neo-Babylonian, and Late Babylonian in the south and Old Assyrian, Middle Assyrian, and Neo-Assyrian in the north). Although we refer to both Babylonian and Assyrian as Akkadian, there are important differences between the dialects.
> The Assyrians seem to have an early King list which did not consist of the Akkadian kings (the tent kings), how does this fit in the picture?
The Assyrians had rulers of their own which were subject to the Akkadian and Ur III kings. Later Assyrian kings traced their lineage back to these rulers. | [
"Unlike the East Semitic Akkadian-speaking Akkadians, Assyrians and Babylonians, whose ancestors had been established in Mesopotamia since at least the 30th century BCE, the Chaldeans were not a native Mesopotamian people, but were late 10th or early 9th century BCE West Semitic Levantine migrants to the southeaste... |
what's the difference between common law marriage and "regular" marriage? | Better to r/ask_lawyers about this. | [
"The term \"common-law marriage\" is often used incorrectly to describe various types of couple relationships, such as cohabitation (whether or not registered), or other legally formalized relations. Although these interpersonal relationships are often called \"common-law marriage\" they differ from \"true\" common... |
There are Langrangian Points in the Sun-Earth system. Are there L-points in Milky Way-Sun system? | Lagrange points appear as solutions to the [restricted three-body problem](_URL_1_), in which there are two massive objects and a third object whose mass is too small to affect the other two. It's only useful when all the other objects in the universe are small or far enough away to be ignored.
The Milky Way has [a few hundred billion](_URL_0_) stars, all of which are gravitationally interacting with each other. You can't simplify it to a three-body problem. | [
"In astronomy, Lagrangian points are five positions in the orbital plane of two large orbiting bodies where a small object affected only by gravity can maintain a stable position relative to the two large bodies. The first three Lagrangian points (L, L, L) lie along the line connecting the two large bodies, while t... |
Why did ancient civilizations first thrive around the Middle East and not spread to other parts of the world more quickly such as Europe? | Favorable geography is the best answer.
What we have is three very early civilizations, before all others - Mesopotamia, Egypt and the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC). These all had in common the following geographical features, in order of importance:
Rich river valley(s)
sandwiched by arid plains
Mountains separating them further
Now, one by one:
1. Mesopotamia
began to develop cities and civilization around 4000BCE. Tigris and Euphrates rivers were incredibly rich and the irrigation channels that the sumerians dug were directly related to their civic planning. These city-based people were concurrent with smaller groups all around the rich fertile crescent area, and the elements of civilization radiated outward. However, this was limited in scope on land, as the Zagros mountains to the east, and the mountains of greece on the west made further land-diffusion slower.
This really helps us understand why the first major 'greek' civilization was based on the islands, having its source in the early levantine traders. In fact, the mediterranean was the center of civilization's diffusion continuously for several thousand years. If we continue the progression of civilization down to the first great empire of the region, Persia - we see an interesting phenomenon - much repeated in history - a peripheral people, in this case the Persians storm the major plains of civilization, and take over a much wider region than the initial civilizations could even imagine controlling.
2. Egypt
The Nile has the most obvious obstacles, being totally locked down by desert. But there were important openings to waterways in the delta and at the red sea. Nonetheless, cultural diffusion was limited to the south and west particularly. The sahara being a substantial obstacle to cultural diffusion. This also explains why the later Bantu expansions first moved south, not north and east.
3. Indus Valley
Same geographical story here - deserts and mountains blocking wider movement.
The harrappan peoples seem to have had sea links to mesopotamia, so they were not isolated (none of these three were isolated) - but again, on land there were limits.
I would argue that these geographical limits were absolutely essential to the development of the civilizations in question - the deserts and mountains encouraged denser populations in the river valleys that would not be useful in other places.
Lastly I will say this: from the first cultivation of grains to the first cities we have somewhere between 4000-5000 years. So this process of neolithic development was extremely slow. The slowest 'revolution' in history in fact! So if we actually look at this in an organized manner we see this:
First crops (in the middle east and china) - roughly 11-10,000 BP - first cities - roughly 6,000-4,000 BP - spread to rest of ~~world~~ *Afro-Eurasia*- roughly 3-2,000 BP - so we can see that the spread of civilization/cropping to the rest of the world was actually much faster than the initial shift from neolithic to first civilization.
For this kind of grand view presentation of history - I really like David Christian's *Maps of Time*.
EDIT: afro-eurasia instead of "world". my bad.
| [
"Home to the Cradle of Civilization, the Middle East—interchangeable with the Near East—has seen many of the world's oldest cultures and civilizations. This history started from the earliest human settlements, continuing through several major pre- and post-Islamic Empires through to the nation-states of the Middle ... |
Are there any gross evolutionary pressures still acting on the human species? | Yes I agree and would say that the video is misleading. These should thoroughly answer your question:
_URL_0_
_URL_3_
_URL_1_
Also, something easier to read: _URL_2_ | [
"The hypothesis is sometimes also applied to humans as apex predators that produce top-down effects on lower trophic levels. However, it fails to recognize bottom-up effects that anthropogenic land transformations can have on landscapes on which primary producers, prey species, and mesopredators dwell. Possible bot... |
what is an ideological rhetoric and why is it important? | It has to do with forming your own opinion about everything that surrounds you, based on ideologies claimed by famous thinkers and philosophers. In other words, it is basically a form of identity you must have in order to be a complete rational individual aware of his own existence, and also aware of being part of a society. | [
"BULLET::::- Ideological criticism – critics engage rhetoric as it suggests the beliefs, values, assumptions, and interpretations held by the rhetor or the larger culture. Ideological criticism also treats ideology as an artifact of discourse, one that is embedded in key terms (called \"ideographs\") as well as mat... |
How long does it take massive particles to reach Earth from the Sun? | Well, obviously it depends how fast they're going. According to the Wikipedia article on solar wind, they have an energy of about 1000-10000 electron volts. For protons, this puts them below 0.3% the speed of light (so over 40 hours travel), and 40 times as fast for electrons. | [
"Sunlight takes about 8.3 minutes to reach Earth from the surface of the Sun. A photon starting at the center of the Sun and changing direction every time it encounters a charged particle would take between 10,000 and 170,000 years to get to the surface.\n",
"In the present day, a rapidly moving object is detecte... |
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