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only in areas cold enough for these to form permanently. Typically snowmelt will peak in the spring and glacier melt in the summer, leading to pronounced flow maxima in rivers affected by them. The determining factor of the rate of melting of snow or glaciers is both air temperature and the duration of sunlight. In hig...	{ "page_id": 4400374, "title": "Surface runoff" }
saturation excess overland flow, saturated overland flow, or Dunne runoff. === Antecedent soil moisture === Soil retains a degree of moisture after a rainfall. This residual water moisture affects the soil's infiltration capacity. During the next rainfall event, the infiltration capacity will cause the soil to be satur...	{ "page_id": 4400374, "title": "Surface runoff" }
This pollutant load can reach various receiving waters such as streams, rivers, lakes, estuaries and oceans with resultant water chemistry changes to these water systems and their related ecosystems. As humans continue to alter the climate through the addition of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere, precipitation patter...	{ "page_id": 4400374, "title": "Surface runoff" }
soils that contain smaller particles generates turbidity and diminishes light transmission, which disrupts aquatic ecosystems. Entire sections of countries have been rendered unproductive by erosion. On the high central plateau of Madagascar, approximately ten percent of that country's land area, virtually the entire l...	{ "page_id": 4400374, "title": "Surface runoff" }
host; these alterations can lead to death, such as fish kills, or alter the balance of populations present. Other specific impacts are on animal mating, spawning, egg and larvae viability, juvenile survival and plant productivity. Some research shows surface runoff of pesticides, such as DDT, can alter the gender of fi...	{ "page_id": 4400374, "title": "Surface runoff" }
erosion. === Economic Issues === Surface run-off results in a significant amount of economic effects. Pine straws are cost effective ways of dealing with surface run-off. Moreover, Surface run-off can be reused through the growth of elephant mass. In Nigeria, elephant grass is considered to be an economical way in whic...	{ "page_id": 4400374, "title": "Surface runoff" }
areas Erosion controls for farms and construction sites Flood control and retrofit programs, such as green infrastructure Chemical use and handling controls in agriculture, landscape maintenance, industrial use, etc. Land use controls. Many world regulatory agencies have encouraged research on methods of minimizing tot...	{ "page_id": 4400374, "title": "Surface runoff" }
to reduce stream velocity and land use controls to minimize runoff. Chemical use and handling. Following enactment of the U.S. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) in 1976, and later the Water Quality Act of 1987, states and cities have become more vigilant in controlling the containment and storage of toxic c...	{ "page_id": 4400374, "title": "Surface runoff" }
with various water quality sampling methods. Measurements can be made using continuous automated water quality analysis instruments targeted on pollutants such as specific organic or inorganic chemicals, pH, turbidity, etc., or targeted on secondary indicators such as dissolved oxygen. Measurements can also be made in ...	{ "page_id": 4400374, "title": "Surface runoff" }
is otherwise difficult or impossible to obtain because it models the interactions among hydrologic variables (with different probability distributions), resulting in a population of values representing likely long-term outcomes from runoff processes and the potential effects of various mitigation measures. SELDM also p...	{ "page_id": 4400374, "title": "Surface runoff" }
designed to address water quality issues related to surface runoff and other pollution. See also the PA NutrientNet website designed for Pennsylvania's nutrient trading program. Bioretention as a low impact development method of treating surface runoff Liu, Yang (2009). "Automatic Calibration of a Rainfall-Runoff Model...	{ "page_id": 4400374, "title": "Surface runoff" }
The Leo Szilard Lectureship Award (originally called the Leo Szilard Award) is given annually by the American Physical Society (APS) for "outstanding accomplishments by physicists in promoting the use of physics for the benefit of society". It is given internationally in commemoration of physicist Leo Szilard. "In the ...	{ "page_id": 49947894, "title": "Leo Szilard Lectureship Award" }
Barton, Roger Falcone, Daniel Kleppner, Frederick K. Lamb, Ming K. Lau, Harvey L. Lynch, David Moncton, David Montague, David E. Mosher, William Priedhorsky, Maury Tigner, David R. Vaughan 2006 Paul G. Richards 2007 James E. Hansen 2008 Anatoli Diyakov, Pavel Podvig 2009 Raymond Jeanloz 2010 Frank von Hippel 2011 John ...	{ "page_id": 49947894, "title": "Leo Szilard Lectureship Award" }
The Bitter Springs preservational mode is the preservation of microorganisms in silica, in shallow Precambrian waters. == Taphonomic processes == Silica is emplaced around the organisms very rapidly, before their cells can even collapse; the strong silica is able to withstand great pressures and preserves three-dimensi...	{ "page_id": 18228473, "title": "Bitter Springs type preservation" }
In fluid dynamics, a Carreau fluid is a type of generalized Newtonian fluid (named after Pierre Carreau) where viscosity, μ eff {\displaystyle \mu _{\operatorname {eff} }} , depends upon the shear rate, γ ˙ {\displaystyle {\dot {\gamma }}} , by the following equation: μ eff ( γ ˙ ) = μ inf + ( μ 0 − μ inf ) ( 1 + ( λ γ...	{ "page_id": 2041081, "title": "Carreau fluid" }
Newtonian fluid again with viscosity μ inf {\displaystyle \mu _{\operatorname {\inf } }} . == See also == Navier-Stokes equations Fluid Cross fluid Power-law fluid Generalized Newtonian fluid == References ==	{ "page_id": 2041081, "title": "Carreau fluid" }
Ethyl propionate is an organic compound with formula C2H5O2CCH2CH3. It is the ethyl ester of propionic acid. It is a colorless volatile liquid with a pineapple-like odor. Some fruits such as kiwis and strawberries contain ethyl propionate in small amounts. == Uses and reactions == It is also used in the production of s...	{ "page_id": 26879227, "title": "Ethyl propionate" }
Alexei "Alyosha" A. Efros (born 9 April 1975) is a Russian-American computer scientist and professor at University of California, Berkeley. He has contributed to the field of computer vision, and his work has been referenced in Wired, BBC News, The New York Times, and The New Yorker. == Early life and education == Efro...	{ "page_id": 54273277, "title": "Alexei A. Efros" }
Argyll Robertson pupils (AR pupils) are bilateral small pupils that reduce in size on a near object (i.e., they accommodate), but do not constrict when exposed to bright light (i.e., they do not react). They are a highly specific sign of neurosyphilis; however, Argyll Robertson pupils may also be a sign of diabetic neu...	{ "page_id": 730369, "title": "Argyll Robertson pupil" }
details of pupillary constriction (brisk vs. tonic) that are necessary to distinguish AR pupils from tonic pupils. Tonic pupils can occur in neurosyphilis. It is not known whether neurosyphilis itself (infection by Treponema pallidum) can cause tonic pupils, or whether tonic pupils in syphilis simply reflect a coexisti...	{ "page_id": 730369, "title": "Argyll Robertson pupil" }
for 10 to 14 days. If the patient is allergic to penicillin, they should undergo desensitization and then be treated. == History == Argyll Robertson pupils were named after Douglas Argyll Robertson (1837–1909), a Scottish ophthalmologist and surgeon who described the condition in the mid-1860s in the context of neurosy...	{ "page_id": 730369, "title": "Argyll Robertson pupil" }
In chemistry, the Gutmann–Beckett method is an experimental procedure used by chemists to assess the Lewis acidity of molecular species. Triethylphosphine oxide (Et3PO, TEPO) is used as a probe molecule and systems are evaluated by 31P-NMR spectroscopy. In 1975, Viktor Gutmann used 31P-NMR spectroscopy to parameterize ...	{ "page_id": 38282497, "title": "Gutmann–Beckett method" }
to its experimental convenience. == Application to boranes == Boron trihalides are archetypal Lewis acids and have AN values between 89 (BF3) and 115 (BI3). The Gutmann–Beckett method has been applied to fluoroarylboranes such as B(C6F5)3 (AN 82), and borenium cations, and its application to these and various other bor...	{ "page_id": 38282497, "title": "Gutmann–Beckett method" }
The Canadian Penning Trap Mass Spectrometer (CPT) is one of the major pieces of experimental equipment that is installed on the ATLAS superconducting heavy-ion linac facility at the Physics Division of the Argonne National Laboratory. It was developed and operated by physicist Guy Savard and a collaboration of other sc...	{ "page_id": 18097410, "title": "Canadian Penning Trap Mass Spectrometer" }
the N=Z line with particular emphasis on isotopes of interest to low-energy tests of the electroweak interaction and the rp-process. == See also == Gammasphere Helical Orbit Spectrometer (HELIOS) Mass Spectrometry Penning Trap RFQ Beam Coolers == References == == External links == ANL site	{ "page_id": 18097410, "title": "Canadian Penning Trap Mass Spectrometer" }
Europium is a chemical element; it has symbol Eu and atomic number 63. It is a silvery-white metal of the lanthanide series that reacts readily with air to form a dark oxide coating. Europium is the most chemically reactive, least dense, and softest of the lanthanides. It is soft enough to be cut with a knife. Europium...	{ "page_id": 9477, "title": "Europium" }
to 180 °C to form europium(III) oxide: 4 Eu + 3 O2 → 2 Eu2O3 Europium dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid to form pale pink solutions of [Eu(H2O)9]3+: 2 Eu + 3 H2SO4 + 18 H2O → 2 [Eu(H2O)9]3+ + 3 SO2−4 + 3 H2 ==== Eu(II) vs. Eu(III) ==== Although usually trivalent, europium readily forms divalent compounds. This ...	{ "page_id": 9477, "title": "Europium" }
in reasonable agreement with theoretical predictions. Besides the natural radioisotope 151Eu, 35 artificial radioisotopes have been characterized, the most stable being 150Eu with a half-life of 36.9 years, 152Eu with a half-life of 13.516 years, and 154Eu with a half-life of 8.593 years. All the remaining radioactive ...	{ "page_id": 9477, "title": "Europium" }
fissions. A larger amount of 154Eu is produced by neutron activation of a significant portion of the non-radioactive 153Eu; however, much of this is further converted to 155Eu. === Occurrence === Europium is not found in nature as a free element. Many minerals contain europium, with the most important sources being bas...	{ "page_id": 9477, "title": "Europium" }
is associated with the other rare-earth elements and is, therefore, mined together with them. Separation of the rare-earth elements occurs during later processing. Rare-earth elements are found in the minerals bastnäsite, loparite-(Ce), xenotime, and monazite in mineable quantities. Bastnäsite is a group of related flu...	{ "page_id": 9477, "title": "Europium" }
36 million tonnes of rare-earth element oxides, the largest known deposit. The mining operations at the Bayan Obo deposit made China the largest supplier of rare-earth elements in the 1990s. Only 0.2% of the rare-earth element content is europium. The second large source for rare-earth elements between 1965 and its clo...	{ "page_id": 9477, "title": "Europium" }
chalcogenides are europium(II) sulfide (EuS), europium(II) selenide (EuSe) and europium(II) telluride (EuTe): all three of these are black solids. Europium(II) sulfide is prepared by sulfiding the oxide at temperatures sufficiently high to decompose the Eu2O3: Eu2O3 + 3 H2S → 2 EuS + 3 H2O + S The main nitride of europ...	{ "page_id": 9477, "title": "Europium" }
phosphor, it was no longer necessary to mute the other colors, and a much brighter color TV picture was the result. Europium has continued to be in use in the TV industry ever since as well as in computer monitors. Californian bastnäsite now faces stiff competition from Bayan Obo, China, with an even "richer" europium ...	{ "page_id": 9477, "title": "Europium" }
altering the proportion or specific composition of the individual phosphors. This phosphor system is typically encountered in helical fluorescent light bulbs. Combining the same three classes is one way to make trichromatic systems in TV and computer screens, but as an additive, it can be particularly effective in impr...	{ "page_id": 9477, "title": "Europium" }
Anton Arcane is a supervillain appearing in American comic books by DC Comics. The character first appeared in Swamp Thing #2 (January 1973), and was created by writer Len Wein and artist Bernie Wrightson. He is the archenemy of Swamp Thing, the protagonist of the comics. == Fictional character biography == Arcane is a...	{ "page_id": 2303238, "title": "Anton Arcane" }
knowledge of creating synthetic organs and skin, from those he made his Un-Men with. He also possesses many arcane artifacts, as well as necromancy, which enables him to control the dead. In The New 52, Arcane is the avatar of the Rot, enabling him to manipulate rot, death, and decay to his will. == In other media == =...	{ "page_id": 2303238, "title": "Anton Arcane" }
The molecular formula C8H18O3 (molar mass: 162.229 g/mol) may refer to: DEG monobutyl ether Diethylene glycol diethyl ether Triethyl orthoacetate	{ "page_id": 26682630, "title": "C8H18O3" }
Erbium is a chemical element; it has symbol Er and atomic number 68. A silvery-white solid metal when artificially isolated, natural erbium is always found in chemical combination with other elements. It is a lanthanide, a rare-earth element, originally found in the gadolinite mine in Ytterby, Sweden, which is the sour...	{ "page_id": 9478, "title": "Erbium" }
of impurities present. Erbium does not play any known biological role, but is thought to be able to stimulate metabolism. Erbium is ferromagnetic below 19 K, antiferromagnetic between 19 and 80 K and paramagnetic above 80 K. Erbium can form propeller-shaped atomic clusters Er3N, where the distance between the erbium at...	{ "page_id": 9478, "title": "Erbium" }
with the most stable being 169Er with a half-life of 9.392 d, 172Er with a half-life of 49.3 h, 160Er with a half-life of 28.58 h, 165Er with a half-life of 10.36 h, and 171Er with a half-life of 7.516 h. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 3.5 h, and the majority of these have ...	{ "page_id": 9478, "title": "Erbium" }
other oxyacid salts of erbium. Erbium oxide is insoluble in water and slightly soluble in heated mineral acids. The pink-colored compound is used as a phosphor activator and to produce infrared-absorbing glass. === Halides === Erbium(III) fluoride is a pinkish powder that can be produced by reacting erbium(III) nitrate...	{ "page_id": 9478, "title": "Erbium" }
derived from the mineral gadolinite. He discovered that the sample contained at least two metal oxides in addition to pure yttria, which he named "erbia" and "terbia" after the village of Ytterby where the gadolinite had been found. Mosander was not certain of the purity of the oxides and later tests confirmed his unce...	{ "page_id": 9478, "title": "Erbium" }
become the principal global supplier of this element. In the high-yttrium versions of these ore concentrates, yttrium is about two-thirds of the total by weight, and erbia is about 4–5%. When the concentrate is dissolved in acid, the erbia liberates enough erbium ion to impart a distinct and characteristic pink color t...	{ "page_id": 9478, "title": "Erbium" }
and the efficient production of steam for laser enamel ablation in dentistry. Common applications of erbium lasers in dentistry include ceramic cosmetic dentistry and removal of brackets in orthodontic braces; such laser applications have been noted as more time-efficient than performing the same procedures with rotary...	{ "page_id": 9478, "title": "Erbium" }
and liver. Erbium is slightly toxic if ingested, but erbium compounds are generally not toxic. Ionic erbium behaves similar to ionic calcium, and can potentially bind to proteins such as calmodulin. When introduced into the body, nitrates of erbium, similar to other rare earth nitrates, increase triglyceride levels in ...	{ "page_id": 9478, "title": "Erbium" }
Einsteinium is a synthetic chemical element; it has symbol Es and atomic number 99 and is a member of the actinide series and the seventh transuranium element. Einsteinium was discovered as a component of the debris of the first hydrogen bomb explosion in 1952. Its most common isotope, einsteinium-253 (253Es; half-life...	{ "page_id": 9479, "title": "Einsteinium" }
in its pure form as einsteinium-253. Like all synthetic transuranium elements, isotopes of einsteinium are very radioactive and are considered highly dangerous to health on ingestion. == History == Einsteinium was first identified in December 1952 by Albert Ghiorso and co-workers at University of California, Berkeley i...	{ "page_id": 9479, "title": "Einsteinium" }
at 6.6 MeV. It was produced by the capture of 15 neutrons by uranium-238 nuclei followed by seven beta decays, and had a half-life of 20.5 days. Such multiple neutron absorption was made possible by the high neutron flux density during the detonation, so that newly generated heavy isotopes had plenty of available neutr...	{ "page_id": 9479, "title": "Einsteinium" }
99 253 → ( n , γ ) Es 99 254 → β − Fm 100 254 {\displaystyle {\ce {^{252}_{98}Cf ->[{\ce {(n,\gamma)}}] ^{253}_{98}Cf ->[\beta^-][17.81 {\ce {d}}] ^{253}_{99}Es ->[{\ce {(n,\gamma)}}] ^{254}_{99}Es ->[\beta^-] ^{254}_{100}Fm}}} These results were published in several articles in 1954 with the disclaimer that these were...	{ "page_id": 9479, "title": "Einsteinium" }
1955. The symbol for einsteinium was first given as "E" and later changed to "Es" by IUPAC. == Characteristics == === Physical === Einsteinium is a synthetic, silvery, radioactive metal. In the periodic table, it is located to the right of the actinide californium, to the left of the actinide fermium and below the lant...	{ "page_id": 9479, "title": "Einsteinium" }
point. The metal is trivalent and has a noticeably high volatility. In order to reduce the self-radiation damage, most measurements of solid einsteinium and its compounds are performed right after thermal annealing. Also, some compounds are studied under the atmosphere of the reductant gas, for example H2O+HCl for EsOC...	{ "page_id": 9479, "title": "Einsteinium" }
observed in many other actinides, including protactinium, uranium, neptunium, plutonium, curium and berkelium. Einsteinium(II) compounds can be obtained, for example, by reducing einsteinium(III) with samarium(II) chloride. === Isotopes === Eighteen isotopes and four nuclear isomers are known for einsteinium, with mass...	{ "page_id": 9479, "title": "Einsteinium" }
the lead author of the studies finding einsteinium and other short-lived actinides in Przybylski's Star, Vera F. Gopka, admitted that "the position of lines of the radioactive elements under search were simply visualized in synthetic spectrum as vertical markers because there are not any atomic data for these lines exc...	{ "page_id": 9479, "title": "Einsteinium" }
1974 and 1978. These quantities however refer to the integral amount in the target right after irradiation. Subsequent separation procedures reduced the amount of isotopically pure einsteinium roughly tenfold. === Laboratory synthesis === Heavy neutron irradiation of plutonium results in four major isotopes of einstein...	{ "page_id": 9479, "title": "Einsteinium" }
ORNL created about 200 nanograms of 254Es; allowing some chemical properties of the element to be studied for the first time. === Synthesis in nuclear explosions === The analysis of the debris at the 10-megaton Ivy Mike nuclear test was a part of long-term project. One of the goals was studying the efficiency of produc...	{ "page_id": 9479, "title": "Einsteinium" }
the explosions were spreading debris through melting and vaporizing the surrounding rocks at depths of 300–600 meters. Drilling to such depths to extract the products was both slow and inefficient in terms of collected volumes. Of the nine underground tests between 1962 and 1969, the last one was the most powerful and ...	{ "page_id": 9479, "title": "Einsteinium" }
were disappointingly low, these tests did provide significantly higher amounts of rare heavy isotopes than previously available in laboratories. === Separation === Separation procedure of einsteinium depends on the synthesis method. In the case of light-ion bombardment inside a cyclotron, the heavy ion target is attach...	{ "page_id": 9479, "title": "Einsteinium" }
as the mobile aqueous phase. The actinide elution sequence is reversed from that of the cation-exchange resin column. The einsteinium separated by this method has the advantage to be free of organic complexing agent, as compared to the separation using a resin column. === Preparation of the metal === Einsteinium is hig...	{ "page_id": 9479, "title": "Einsteinium" }
chlorine trifluoride (ClF3) or F2 gas at a pressure of 1–2 atmospheres and temperature 300–400°C. The EsF3 crystal structure is hexagonal, as in californium(III) fluoride (CfF3) where the Es3+ ions are 8-fold coordinated by fluorine ions in a bicapped trigonal prism arrangement. Es(III) chloride (EsCl3) can be prepared...	{ "page_id": 9479, "title": "Einsteinium" }
reducing the radiation damage so that the compounds did not disintegrate during the 20 minutes required for the measurements. The resulting luminescence from Es3+ was much too weak to be detected. This was explained by the unfavorable relative energies of the individual constituents of the compound that hindered effici...	{ "page_id": 9479, "title": "Einsteinium" }
254 + Ca 20 48 ⟶ Uue ∗ 119 302 ⟶ no atoms {\displaystyle {\ce {{^{254}_{99}Es}+{^{48}_{20}Ca}->{^{302}_{119}Uue^{\ast }}->no\ atoms}}} 254Es was used as the calibration marker in the chemical analysis spectrometer ("alpha-scattering surface analyzer") of the Surveyor 5 lunar probe. The large mass of this isotope reduce...	{ "page_id": 9479, "title": "Einsteinium" }
in radionuclide metabolism and dosimetry: Proceedings – contains several health related studies of einsteinium	{ "page_id": 9479, "title": "Einsteinium" }
Vitriol is the general chemical name encompassing a class of chemical compounds comprising sulfates of certain metals – originally, iron or copper. Those mineral substances were distinguished by their color, such as green vitriol for hydrated iron(II) sulfate and blue vitriol for hydrated copper(II) sulfate. These mate...	{ "page_id": 599305, "title": "Vitriol" }
was termed "oil of vitriol" by medieval European alchemists because it was prepared by roasting "green vitriol" (iron(II) sulfate) in an iron retort. The first vague allusions to it appear in the works of Vincent of Beauvais, in the Compositum de Compositis ascribed to Saint Albertus Magnus, and in pseudo-Geber's Summa...	{ "page_id": 599305, "title": "Vitriol" }
Marilyn A. Walker is an American computer scientist. She is professor of computer science and head of the Natural Language and Dialogue Systems Lab at the University of California, Santa Cruz (UCSC). Her research includes work on computational models of dialogue interaction and conversational agents, analysis of affect...	{ "page_id": 47326475, "title": "Marilyn Walker" }
800 times. At UCSC, her lab focuses on computational modeling of dialogue and user-generated content in social media such as weblogs, including spoken dialogue systems and interactive stories. She leads the Athena team, selected as one of the contenders of Alexa Prize Challenge 3, with seven lab members competing in th...	{ "page_id": 47326475, "title": "Marilyn Walker" }
The Uptake of Hexose Phosphates (Uhp) is a protein system found in bacteria. It is a type of two-component sensory transduction pathway which helps bacteria react to their environment. == Protein components == The uhp system is composed of UhpA, UhpB, UhpC, and UhpT. UhpB and UhpC are both transmembrane proteins which ...	{ "page_id": 30876940, "title": "Hexose phosphate uptake" }
Schrödinger's Kittens and the Search for Reality is a 1995 book by John Gribbin, in which the author attempts to explain the mysteries of modern quantum mechanics in a popular-scientific way. It is a sequel to his earlier book, In Search of Schrödinger's Cat (1984). In his epilogue, Gribbin touches on what were then th...	{ "page_id": 533770, "title": "Schrödinger's Kittens and the Search for Reality" }
An intellectual property (IP) infringement is the infringement or violation of an intellectual property right. There are several types of intellectual property rights, such as copyrights, patents, trademarks, industrial designs, plant breeders rights and trade secrets. Therefore, an intellectual property infringement m...	{ "page_id": 15607054, "title": "Intellectual property infringement" }
The Bovine Genome Database is an integrated database for the bovine genome. == See also == Bovine genome == References == == External links == http://BovineGenome.org	{ "page_id": 30352655, "title": "Bovine genome database" }
The speed prior is a complexity measure similar to Kolmogorov complexity, except that it is based on computation speed as well as program length. The speed prior complexity of a program is its size in bits plus the logarithm of the maximum time we are willing to run it to get a prediction. When compared to traditional ...	{ "page_id": 402703, "title": "Speed prior" }
Chemically induced dimerization (CID) is a biological mechanism in which two proteins bind only in the presence of a certain small molecule, enzyme or other dimerizing agent. Genetically engineered CID systems are used in biological research to control protein localization, to manipulate signalling pathways and to indu...	{ "page_id": 37102865, "title": "Chemically induced dimerization" }
Chapman–Enskog theory provides a framework in which equations of hydrodynamics for a gas can be derived from the Boltzmann equation. The technique justifies the otherwise phenomenological constitutive relations appearing in hydrodynamical descriptions such as the Navier–Stokes equations. In doing so, expressions for va...	{ "page_id": 24388881, "title": "Chapman–Enskog theory" }
space and time, and holds if the dimensionless parameter γ ≡ r c 3 n {\displaystyle \gamma \equiv r_{\mathrm {c} }^{3}n} is small, where r c {\displaystyle r_{\mathrm {c} }} is the range of interparticle interactions and n {\displaystyle n} is the number density. In addition to this assumption, Chapman–Enskog theory al...	{ "page_id": 24388881, "title": "Chapman–Enskog theory" }
The primary goal of Chapman–Enskog theory is to systematically obtain generalizations of the Euler equations which incorporate dissipation. This is achieved by expressing deviations from local equilibrium as a perturbative series in Knudsen number Kn {\displaystyle {\text{Kn}}} , which is small if τ f ≪ τ ext {\display...	{ "page_id": 24388881, "title": "Chapman–Enskog theory" }
the same as saying the Knudsen number is small. Thus, the appropriate form for the Chapman–Enskog expansion is f = f ( 0 ) + ε f ( 1 ) + ε 2 f ( 2 ) + ⋯ . {\displaystyle f=f^{(0)}+\varepsilon f^{(1)}+\varepsilon ^{2}f^{(2)}+\cdots \ .} Solutions that can be formally expanded in this way are known as normal solutions to...	{ "page_id": 24388881, "title": "Chapman–Enskog theory" }
t ) ) 3 / 2 exp ⁡ [ − m \| v − v 0 ′ ( r , t ) \| 2 2 k B T ′ ( r , t ) ] . {\displaystyle f^{(0)}=n'(\mathbf {r} ,t)\left({\frac {m}{2\pi k_{\text{B}}T'(\mathbf {r} ,t)}}\right)^{3/2}\exp \left[-{\frac {m\left\|\mathbf {v} -\mathbf {v} '_{0}(\mathbf {r} ,t)\right\|^{2}}{2k_{\text{B}}T'(\mathbf {r} ,t)}}\right].} for some ...	{ "page_id": 24388881, "title": "Chapman–Enskog theory" }
) {\displaystyle f^{(0)}} , each f ( n ) {\displaystyle f^{(n)}} also contains arbitrary functions of r {\displaystyle \mathbf {r} } and t {\displaystyle t} whose relation to the physical hydrodynamic fields is a priori unknown. One of the key simplifying assumptions of Chapman–Enskog theory is to assume that these oth...	{ "page_id": 24388881, "title": "Chapman–Enskog theory" }
of whether they span the complete set of normal solutions to the Boltzmann equation, i.e. do not represent an artificial restriction of the original expansion in ε {\displaystyle \varepsilon } . One of the key technical achievements of Chapman–Enskog theory is to answer both of these questions in the positive. Thus, at...	{ "page_id": 24388881, "title": "Chapman–Enskog theory" }
λ ∇ T , {\displaystyle \mathbf {q} =-\lambda \nabla T,} and the momentum-flux tensor σ = m ∫ ( v − v 0 ) ( v − v 0 ) T f ( r , v , t ) d v {\textstyle \mathbf {\sigma } =m\int (\mathbf {v} -\mathbf {v} _{0})(\mathbf {v} -\mathbf {v} _{0})^{\mathsf {T}}f(\mathbf {r} ,\mathbf {v} ,t)\,d\mathbf {v} } is that of a Newtonia...	{ "page_id": 24388881, "title": "Chapman–Enskog theory" }
+ 2 3 k B n ( σ : ∇ v 0 + ∇ ⋅ q ) = 0. {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\frac {\partial n}{\partial t}}+\nabla \cdot \left(n\mathbf {v} _{0}\right)&=0\\{\frac {\partial \mathbf {v} _{0}}{\partial t}}+\mathbf {v} _{0}\cdot \nabla \mathbf {v} _{0}-{\frac {\mathbf {F} }{m}}+{\frac {1}{n}}\nabla \cdot \mathbf {\sigma } &=0\...	{ "page_id": 24388881, "title": "Chapman–Enskog theory" }
12.9} , shows reasonable agreement with the experimentally observed scaling for helium. For more complex gases the agreement is not as good, most likely due to the neglect of attractive forces. Indeed, the Lennard-Jones model, which does incorporate attractions, can be brought into closer agreement with experiment (alb...	{ "page_id": 24388881, "title": "Chapman–Enskog theory" }
is reasonable agreement between theory and experiment. == Extensions == The basic principles of Chapman–Enskog theory can be extended to more diverse physical models, including gas mixtures and molecules with internal degrees of freedom. In the high-density regime, the theory can be adapted to account for collisional t...	{ "page_id": 24388881, "title": "Chapman–Enskog theory" }
derivation of RET followed several previous attempt at the same, but which gave results that were shown to be inconsistent with irreversible thermodynamics. The starting point for developing the RET is a modified form of the Boltzmann Equation for the s {\displaystyle s} -particle velocity distribution function, ( ∂ ∂ ...	{ "page_id": 24388881, "title": "Chapman–Enskog theory" }
_{ij}\mathbf {k} } , where k {\displaystyle \mathbf {k} } is the unit vector along the line connecting the two particles centre of mass. Another significant difference comes from the introduction of the factors g i j {\displaystyle g_{ij}} , which represent the enhanced probability of collisions due to excluded volume....	{ "page_id": 24388881, "title": "Chapman–Enskog theory" }
the transport coefficients: viscosity, thermal conductivity, diffusion and thermal diffusion, RET provides expressions that exactly reduce to those obtained from classical Chapman–Enskog theory in the limit of infinite dilution. However, RET predicts a density dependence of the thermal conductivity, which can be expres...	{ "page_id": 24388881, "title": "Chapman–Enskog theory" }
coefficient, S T = D T D , ( ∂ S T ∂ n ) T ≠ 0 , {\displaystyle S_{T}={\frac {D_{T}}{D}},\quad \left({\frac {\partial S_{T}}{\partial n}}\right)_{T}\neq 0,} while classical Chapman–Enskog theory predicts that the Soret coefficient, like the viscosity and thermal conductivity, is independent of density. ==== Application...	{ "page_id": 24388881, "title": "Chapman–Enskog theory" }
the Kinetic Theory of Gases", in Flügge, S. (ed.), Encyclopedia of Physics, vol. XII, Springer-Verlag, pp. 205–294	{ "page_id": 24388881, "title": "Chapman–Enskog theory" }
MOCADI is a Monte Carlo simulation program used to calculate the transport of charged particle beams--as well as fragmentation and fission products from nuclear reactions in target materials--through ion optical systems described by transfer matrices (including up to third order Taylor expansion coefficients) and throu...	{ "page_id": 23667987, "title": "MOCADI" }
Viral neuronal tracing is the use of a virus to trace neural pathways, providing a self-replicating tracer. Viruses have the advantage of self-replication over molecular tracers but can also spread too quickly and cause degradation of neural tissue. Viruses that can infect the nervous system, called neurotropic viruses...	{ "page_id": 33826069, "title": "Viral neuronal tracing" }
the case of the rabies virus or certain strains of herpes viruses. In tracing studies, this step occurs artificially, typically through the use of a syringe. The next stage of the viral life cycle is called viral replication. During this stage, the virus takes over the host cell's machinery to cause the cell to create ...	{ "page_id": 33826069, "title": "Viral neuronal tracing" }
offer unique insight into how the brain and its periphery are connected. Viruses are introduced into neuronal tissue in many different ways. There are two major methods to introduce tracers into the target tissues. Pressure injection requires the tracer, in liquid form, to be injected directly into the cell. This is th...	{ "page_id": 33826069, "title": "Viral neuronal tracing" }
enzymes back and forth between the cell body, or soma and the axon terminal, or synapse. Viruses can be transported in one of two directions: either anterograde (from soma to synapse), or retrograde (from synapse to soma). Neurons naturally transport proteins, neurotransmitters, and other macromolecules via these cellu...	{ "page_id": 33826069, "title": "Viral neuronal tracing" }
=== As viruses propagate through the nervous system, the viral tracers infect neurons and ultimately destroy them. As such, the timing of tracer studies must be precise to allow adequate propagation before neural death occurs, causing large-scale harm to the body. It has been difficult to find viruses perfectly suited ...	{ "page_id": 33826069, "title": "Viral neuronal tracing" }
Chromatin Interaction Analysis by Paired-End Tag Sequencing (ChIA-PET or ChIA-PETS) is a technique that incorporates chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP)-based enrichment, chromatin proximity ligation, Paired-End Tags, and High-throughput sequencing to determine de novo long-range chromatin interactions genome-wide. Ge...	{ "page_id": 26289430, "title": "ChIA-PET" }
accurate characterization of chromatin interactions. Unlike 3C which is a locus-specific interaction profiling method, alternative methods such as Hi-C have been established to profile interactions genome wide. Despite whole genome profiling methods for both TFBS and long range interactions, combining approaches with t...	{ "page_id": 26289430, "title": "ChIA-PET" }
used to cross-link the DNA-protein complexes. Sonication is used to break-up the chromatin and also to reduce non-specific interactions. A specific antibody of choice is used to enrich protein-of-interest–bound chromatin fragments. ChIP material bound by the antibody are used to construct the ChIA-PET. Figure 1. Biotin...	{ "page_id": 26289430, "title": "ChIA-PET" }
estimated background noise. Filtering of repetitive DNA (affects non-specific binding) Satellite regions and binding sites present in regions with severe structural variations are removed. ChIP enrichment count The numbers of self-ligation and inter-ligation PETs (within + 250 bp window) are reported at each site. The ...	{ "page_id": 26289430, "title": "ChIA-PET" }
the anchoring center in a tight sub-compartment, which could increase the local concentration of regulatory proteins for enhanced transcriptional activation. This mechanism might also enhance transcription efficiency, allowing RNA pol II to cycle the tight circular gene templates. The large interaction loops are more l...	{ "page_id": 26289430, "title": "ChIA-PET" }
ChIA-PET to identify individual proteins in a complex would require guess work and multiple experiments to identify each interacting protein. This would be a costly and time-consuming endeavour. ChIA-PET is limited by the quality, purity, and specificity of the antibodies used (Fullwood et al., 2009). ChIA-PET is depen...	{ "page_id": 26289430, "title": "ChIA-PET" }

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