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formalized, an incorrect spelling variant was "Crysomallon squamiferum". Chrysomallon squamiferum is the type species and the sole species within the genus Chrysomallon. The generic name Chrysomallon is from the Ancient Greek language, and means "golden haired", because pyrite (a compound occurring in its shell) is gol...	{ "page_id": 17367123, "source": null, "title": "Scaly-foot gastropod" }
province of hydrothermal vent systems sensu Rogers et al. (2012). The distance between sites is large, but the total distribution area is very small, less than 0.02 square kilometres (0.0077 sq mi). Peltospiridae snails are mainly known to live in Eastern Pacific vent fields. Nakamura et al. hypothesized that the occur...	{ "page_id": 17367123, "source": null, "title": "Scaly-foot gastropod" }
not homologous to a gastropod operculum. The sclerites of the scaly-foot gastropod are also not homologous to the sclerites found in chitons (Polyplacophora). It has been hypothesized that the sclerites of Cambrian halwaxiids such as Halkieria may potentially be more analogous to the sclerites of this snail than are th...	{ "page_id": 17367123, "source": null, "title": "Scaly-foot gastropod" }
test (12.06 MPa) than did the sclerite from the Kairei morphotype (6.54 MPa). In life, the external surfaces of sclerites host a diverse array of epibionts: Campylobacterota (formerly Epsilonproteobacteria) and Thermodesulfobacteriota (formerly part of Deltaproteobacteria). These bacteria probably provide their mineral...	{ "page_id": 17367123, "source": null, "title": "Scaly-foot gastropod" }
commonly found both in the shells of molluscs and in various corals. The color of the aragonite layer is milky white. Each shell layer appears to contribute to the effectiveness of the snail's defence in different ways. The middle organic layer appears to absorb mechanical strain and energy generated by a squeezing att...	{ "page_id": 17367123, "source": null, "title": "Scaly-foot gastropod" }
muscle is horseshoe-shaped and large, divided in two parts on the left and right, and connected by a narrower attachment. The mantle edge is thick but simple without any distinctive features. The mantle cavity is deep and reaches the posterior edge of the shell. The medial to left side of the cavity is dominated by a v...	{ "page_id": 17367123, "source": null, "title": "Scaly-foot gastropod" }
rectum does not penetrate the heart, but passes ventral to it. The anus is located on the right side of the snail, above the genital opening. In the excretory system, the nephridium is central, tending to the right side of the body, as a thin dark layer of glandular tissue. The nephridium is anterior and ventral of the...	{ "page_id": 17367123, "source": null, "title": "Scaly-foot gastropod" }
is unusually large for any animal proportionally. Based on the volume of the single auricle and ventricle, the heart complex represents approximately 4% of the body volume (for example, the heart of humans is 1.3% of the body volume). The ventricle is 0.64 mm long in juveniles with a shell length of 2.2 mm, and grows t...	{ "page_id": 17367123, "source": null, "title": "Scaly-foot gastropod" }
be the only species of Peltospiridae that has an enlarged oesophageal gland, but later it was discovered that both species of Gigantopelta also have an enlarged oesophageal gland. Chrysomallon and Gigantopelta are the only vent animals, except siboglinid tubeworms, that house endosymbionts within an enclosed part of th...	{ "page_id": 17367123, "source": null, "title": "Scaly-foot gastropod" }
and ovary are initially separate, but apparently fuse to a single duct, and emerge as a single genital opening on the right of the mantle cavity. The animal has no copulatory organ. It is hypothesized that the derived strategy of housing endosymbiotic microbes in an oesophageal gland, has been the catalyst for anatomic...	{ "page_id": 17367123, "source": null, "title": "Scaly-foot gastropod" }
taxa, including sea anemones Marianactis sp., crustaceans Austinograea rodriguezensis, Rimicaris kairei, Mirocaris indica, Munidopsis sp., Neolepadidae genus and sp., Eochionelasmus sp., bivalves Bathymodiolus marisindicus, gastropods Lepetodrilus sp., Pseudorimula sp., Eulepetopsis sp., Shinkailepas sp., and Alvinicon...	{ "page_id": 17367123, "source": null, "title": "Scaly-foot gastropod" }
n. sp. "Dragon", Peinaleopolynoe n. sp. "Dragon", Hesiolyra cf. bergi, Hesionidae sp. indet., Ophryotrocha n. sp. "F-038/1b", Prionospio cf. unilamellata, Ampharetidae sp. indet., mussels Bathymodiolus marisindicus, gastropods Gigantopelta aegis, Dracogyra subfuscus, Lirapex politus, Phymorhynchus n. sp. "SWIR", Lepeto...	{ "page_id": 17367123, "source": null, "title": "Scaly-foot gastropod" }
dispersal stage. The smallest C. squamiferum juvenile specimens ever collected had a shell length 2.2 mm. The results of statistical analyses revealed no genetic differentiation between the two populations in the Kairei and Solitaire fields, suggesting potential connectivity between the two vent fields. The Kairei popu...	{ "page_id": 17367123, "source": null, "title": "Scaly-foot gastropod" }
under a license to Germany (2015–2030), the Longqi Vent Field to China (2011–2026). As of 2017, no conservation measures are proposed or in place for any of the three sites. It has been listed as an endangered species in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species since July 4, 2019. == See also == Iron in biology == Notes...	{ "page_id": 17367123, "source": null, "title": "Scaly-foot gastropod" }
Important ecological areas (IEAs) are habitat areas which, either by themselves or in a network, contribute significantly to an ecosystem’s productivity, biodiversity, and resilience. Appropriate management of key ecological features delineates the management boundaries of an IEA. The identification and protection of I...	{ "page_id": 10485844, "source": null, "title": "Important ecological areas" }
This page consists of a list of wastewater treatment technologies: == See also == Agricultural wastewater treatment Industrial wastewater treatment List of solid waste treatment technologies Waste treatment technologies Water purification Sewage sludge treatment == References ==	{ "page_id": 5963858, "source": null, "title": "List of wastewater treatment technologies" }
Clinical chemistry (also known as chemical pathology, clinical biochemistry or medical biochemistry) is a division in medical laboratory sciences focusing on qualitative tests of important compounds, referred to as analytes or markers, in bodily fluids and tissues using analytical techniques and specialized instruments...	{ "page_id": 65622, "source": null, "title": "Clinical chemistry" }
efficiency in a timely manner. The type of test required dictates what type of sample is used. == Common Analytes == Some common analytes that clinical chemistry tests analyze include: == Panel tests == A physician may order many laboratory tests on one specimen, referred to as a test panel, when a single test cannot p...	{ "page_id": 65622, "source": null, "title": "Clinical chemistry" }
for the proper functions of nerve, muscle, blood clotting, and bone health. Changes in the calcium level can be signs of bone disease, muscle cramps/ spasms, thyroid disease, or other conditions. Glucose: This measures the blood sugar levels, which is a crucial energy for your body and brain. High glucose levels can be...	{ "page_id": 65622, "source": null, "title": "Clinical chemistry" }
commonly ordered blood chemistries (e.g., liver and kidney function tests). Special chemistry – elaborate techniques such as electrophoresis, and manual testing methods. Clinical endocrinology – the study of hormones, and diagnosis of endocrine disorders. Toxicology – the study of drugs of abuse and other chemicals. Th...	{ "page_id": 65622, "source": null, "title": "Clinical chemistry" }
A socially assistive robot (SAR) aids users through social engagement and support rather than through physical tasks and interactions. == Background == The field of socially assistive robotics emerged in the early 2000s, following the emergence of the field of social robots. In contrast to social robots, SARs aid users...	{ "page_id": 75038808, "source": null, "title": "Socially assistive robot" }
user performance and improvement resulting from the robot’s assistance and support. Unlike other branches of robotics, where effectiveness depends on the robot's physical task completion, SAR measures the success of the robot based on the user's progress and achievements. This evaluation is carried out using quantitati...	{ "page_id": 75038808, "source": null, "title": "Socially assistive robot" }
Fumiquinazolines are bio-active isolates of Aspergillus. == References == == Further reading == Cheng, Zhongbin; Lou, Lanlan; Liu, Dong; Li, Xiaodan; Proksch, Peter; Yin, Sheng; Lin, Wenhan (10 November 2016). "Versiquinazolines A–K, Fumiquinazoline-Type Alkaloids from the Gorgonian-Derived Fungus Aspergillus versicolo...	{ "page_id": 40763481, "source": null, "title": "Fumiquinazoline" }
A growing self-organizing map (GSOM) is a growing variant of a self-organizing map (SOM). The GSOM was developed to address the issue of identifying a suitable map size in the SOM. It starts with a minimal number of nodes (usually 4) and grows new nodes on the boundary based on a heuristic. By using the value called Sp...	{ "page_id": 30867546, "source": null, "title": "Growing self-organizing map" }
weight vectors respectively, q {\displaystyle q} is the position vector for nodes and N {\displaystyle \mathbb {N} } is the set of natural numbers. The weight vector adaptation is applied only to the neighborhood of the winner and the winner itself. The neighborhood is a set of neurons around the winner, but in the GSO...	{ "page_id": 30867546, "source": null, "title": "Growing self-organizing map" }
value of the winner (error value is the difference between the input vector and the weight vectors). When T E i > G T {\displaystyle TE_{i}>GT} (where T E i {\displaystyle TE_{i}} is the total error of node i {\displaystyle i} and G T {\displaystyle GT} is the growth threshold). Grow nodes if i is a boundary node. Dist...	{ "page_id": 30867546, "source": null, "title": "Growing self-organizing map" }
also == Self-organizing map Time Adaptive Self-Organizing Map Elastic map Artificial intelligence Machine learning Data mining Nonlinear dimensionality reduction	{ "page_id": 30867546, "source": null, "title": "Growing self-organizing map" }
In artificial intelligence, eager learning is a learning method in which the system tries to construct a general, input-independent target function during training of the system, as opposed to lazy learning, where generalization beyond the training data is delayed until a query is made to the system. The main advantage...	{ "page_id": 10747995, "source": null, "title": "Eager learning" }
== Best selling pharmaceuticals of U.S. market == The top 5 best selling pharmaceuticals 2015–2019. Sales in billion USD. == Best selling pharmaceuticals of 2017/18 == The top 16 best selling pharmaceuticals of 2017/18. == Largest selling pharmaceutical products of 2015 == Drugs with sales above $5 billion in 2015 incl...	{ "page_id": 12976220, "source": null, "title": "List of largest selling pharmaceutical products" }
The molecular formula C30H46NO7P (molar mass: 563.66 g/mol, exact mass: 563.3012 u) may refer to: Ceronapril, a phosphonate ACE inhibitor that was never marketed Fosinopril, an angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor	{ "page_id": 40960096, "source": null, "title": "C30H46NO7P" }
Danielle S. McNamara is an educational researcher known for her theoretical and empirical work with reading comprehension and the development of game-based literacy technologies. She is professor of psychology and senior research scientist at Arizona State University. She has previously held positions at University of ...	{ "page_id": 62193764, "source": null, "title": "Danielle S. McNamara" }
McNamara's Adaptive Literacy website. iSTART and Writing Pal are funded by the U.S. Department of Education through the Institute of Education Sciences. == Research == McNamara's research focuses on the development of intelligent tutoring systems that use game-based exercises to increase learner motivation when practic...	{ "page_id": 62193764, "source": null, "title": "Danielle S. McNamara" }
better? Interactions of text coherence, background knowledge, and levels of understanding in learning from text. Cognition and Instruction, 14(1), 1–43. McNamara, D.S., & Magliano, J. (2009). Toward a comprehensive model of comprehension. Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 51, 297–384. == References == == External ...	{ "page_id": 62193764, "source": null, "title": "Danielle S. McNamara" }
Exact diagonalization (ED) is a numerical technique used in physics to determine the eigenstates and energy eigenvalues of a quantum Hamiltonian. In this technique, a Hamiltonian for a discrete, finite system is expressed in matrix form and diagonalized using a computer. Exact diagonalization is only feasible for syste...	{ "page_id": 61341798, "source": null, "title": "Exact diagonalization" }
⟨ n \| A ( 0 ) \| m ⟩ ⟨ m \| B ( 0 ) \| n ⟩ e − i ( ϵ m − ϵ n ) t / ℏ . {\displaystyle G^{R}(t)=-{\frac {i\theta (t)}{Z}}\sum _{n,m}\left(e^{-\beta \epsilon _{n}}-e^{-\beta \epsilon _{m}}\right)\langle n\|A(0)\|m\rangle \langle m\|B(0)\|n\rangle e^{-i(\epsilon _{m}-\epsilon _{n})t/\hbar }.} Exact diagonalization can also be us...	{ "page_id": 61341798, "source": null, "title": "Exact diagonalization" }
techniques == Exact diagonalization is useful for extracting exact information about finite systems. However, often small systems are studied to gain insight into infinite lattice systems. If the diagonalized system is too small, its properties will not reflect the properties of the system in the thermodynamic limit, a...	{ "page_id": 61341798, "source": null, "title": "Exact diagonalization" }
The tetrad formalism is an approach to general relativity that generalizes the choice of basis for the tangent bundle from a coordinate basis to the less restrictive choice of a local basis, i.e. a locally defined set of four linearly independent vector fields called a tetrad or vierbein. It is a special case of the mo...	{ "page_id": 11141222, "source": null, "title": "Tetrad formalism" }
tetrad. Compared to a completely coordinate free notation, which is often conceptually clearer, it allows an easy and computationally explicit way to denote contractions. The significance of the tetradic formalism appear in the Einstein–Cartan formulation of general relativity. The tetradic formalism of the theory is m...	{ "page_id": 11141222, "source": null, "title": "Tetrad formalism" }
at each point in the set. Dually, a vielbein (or tetrad in 4 dimensions) determines (and is determined by) a dual co-vielbein (co-tetrad) — a set of n {\displaystyle n} independent 1-forms. e a = e a μ d x μ {\displaystyle e^{a}=e^{a}{}_{\mu }dx^{\mu }} such that e a ( e b ) = e a μ e b μ = δ b a , {\displaystyle e^{a}...	{ "page_id": 11141222, "source": null, "title": "Tetrad formalism" }
of the Newman–Penrose formalism and the GHP formalism. == Relation to standard formalism == The standard formalism of differential geometry (and general relativity) consists of using the coordinate tetrad in the tetrad formalism. The coordinate tetrad is the canonical set of vectors associated with the coordinate chart...	{ "page_id": 11141222, "source": null, "title": "Tetrad formalism" }
in the standard formalism, as it is involved in every coordinate transformation (i.e., changing from one coordinate tetrad basis to another). Switching between multiple coordinate charts is necessary because, except in trivial cases, it is not possible for a single coordinate chart to cover the entire manifold. Changin...	{ "page_id": 11141222, "source": null, "title": "Tetrad formalism" }
{\displaystyle g_{\mu \nu }=g_{ab}e^{a}{}_{\mu }e^{b}{}_{\nu }} . Likewise expanding d x μ = e μ a e a {\displaystyle dx^{\mu }=e^{\mu }{}_{a}e^{a}} with respect to the general tetrad, we get g = g μ ν d x μ d x ν = g μ ν e μ a e ν b e a e b = g a b e a e b {\displaystyle \mathbf {g} =g_{\mu \nu }dx^{\mu }dx^{\nu }=g_{...	{ "page_id": 11141222, "source": null, "title": "Tetrad formalism" }
ν σ τ μ = d x μ ( ( ∇ σ ∇ τ − ∇ τ ∇ σ ) ∂ ν ) . {\displaystyle R_{\ \nu \sigma \tau }^{\mu }=dx^{\mu }\left((\nabla _{\sigma }\nabla _{\tau }-\nabla _{\tau }\nabla _{\sigma })\partial _{\nu }\right).} The naive "Greek to Latin" substitution of the latter expression R b c d a = e a ( ( ∇ c ∇ d − ∇ d ∇ c ) e b ) (wrong!)...	{ "page_id": 11141222, "source": null, "title": "Tetrad formalism" }
(or cotangent) manifold, the exponential map describes the corresponding geodesic of that tangent vector. Writing X ∈ T M {\displaystyle X\in TM} , the parallel transport of a differential corresponds to e − X d e X = d X − 1 2 ! [ X , d X ] + 1 3 ! [ X , [ X , d X ] ] − 1 4 ! [ X , [ X , [ X , d X ] ] ] + ⋯ {\displays...	{ "page_id": 11141222, "source": null, "title": "Tetrad formalism" }
n = 0 ∞ ( − 1 ) n M n ( n + 1 ) ! = ( I − e − M ) M − 1 . {\displaystyle W=\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {(-1)^{n}M^{n}}{(n+1)!}}=(I-e^{-M})M^{-1}.} Here, M {\displaystyle M} is a matrix whose matrix elements are M j k = X i f i j k {\displaystyle {M_{j}}^{k}=X^{i}{f_{ij}}^{k}} . The matrix W {\displaystyle W} is then th...	{ "page_id": 11141222, "source": null, "title": "Tetrad formalism" }
Stilbene may refer to one of the two stereoisomers of 1,2-diphenylethene: (E)-Stilbene (trans isomer) (Z)-Stilbene (cis isomer) == See also == Stilbenoids, a class of molecules found in plants 1,1-Diphenylethylene	{ "page_id": 17760360, "source": null, "title": "Stilbene" }
Ecosystem diversity deals with the variations in ecosystems within a geographical location and its overall impact on human existence and the environment. Ecosystem diversity addresses the combined characteristics of biotic properties which are living organisms (biodiversity) and abiotic properties such as nonliving thi...	{ "page_id": 524396, "source": null, "title": "Ecosystem diversity" }
Rainforests, coral reefs and deciduous forests all are formed as a result of evolutionary pressures. Even seemingly small evolutionary interactions can have large impacts on the diversity of the ecosystems throughout the world. One of the best studied cases of this is of the honeybee's interaction with angiosperms on e...	{ "page_id": 524396, "source": null, "title": "Ecosystem diversity" }
diversity of flora growth and create a unique ecosystem that is highly diverse and can provide a habitat and niche for many other organisms to thrive. Due to the evolutionary pressures of bees being located on six out of seven continents, there can be no denying the impact of pollinators on the ecosystem diversity. The...	{ "page_id": 524396, "source": null, "title": "Ecosystem diversity" }
Pyrolysis is a process involving the separation of covalent bonds in organic matter by thermal decomposition within an inert environment without oxygen. == Etymology == The word pyrolysis is coined from the Greek-derived elements pyro- (from Ancient Greek πῦρ : pûr - "fire, heat, fever") and lysis (λύσις : lúsis - "sep...	{ "page_id": 262252, "source": null, "title": "Pyrolysis" }
hydrolysis). Pyrolysis produces solids (char), condensable liquids, (light and heavy oils and tar), and non-condensable gasses. Pyrolysis is different from gasification. In the chemical process industry, pyrolysis refers to a partial thermal degradation of carbonaceous materials that takes place in an inert (oxygen fre...	{ "page_id": 262252, "source": null, "title": "Pyrolysis" }
ancient Egyptians used the liquid fraction obtained from the pyrolysis of cedar wood, in their embalming process. The dry distillation of wood remained the major source of methanol into the early 20th century. Pyrolysis was instrumental in the discovery of many chemical substances, such as phosphorus from ammonium sodi...	{ "page_id": 262252, "source": null, "title": "Pyrolysis" }
like fats, waxes, and sugars, may melt and separate. Between 100 and 500 °C, many common organic molecules break down. Most sugars start decomposing at 160–180 °C. Cellulose, a major component of wood, paper, and cotton fabrics, decomposes at about 350 °C. Lignin, another major wood component, starts decomposing at abo...	{ "page_id": 262252, "source": null, "title": "Pyrolysis" }
potash. Phosphorus, from materials such as bone, phospholipids, and nucleic acids, usually remains as phosphates. == Safety challenges == Because pyrolysis takes place at high temperatures which exceed the autoignition temperature of the produced gases, an explosion risk exists if oxygen is present. To control the temp...	{ "page_id": 262252, "source": null, "title": "Pyrolysis" }
high temperatures. Consequently, pyrolysis is used to produce many kinds of carbon; these can be used for fuel, as reagents in steelmaking (coke), and as structural materials. Charcoal is a less smoky fuel than pyrolyzed wood. Some cities ban, or used to ban, wood fires; when residents only use charcoal (and similarly ...	{ "page_id": 262252, "source": null, "title": "Pyrolysis" }
is the residue of incomplete organic pyrolysis, e.g., from cooking fires. It is a key component of the terra preta soils associated with ancient indigenous communities of the Amazon basin. Terra preta is much sought by local farmers for its superior fertility and capacity to promote and retain an enhanced suite of bene...	{ "page_id": 262252, "source": null, "title": "Pyrolysis" }
and potentially other manures are also under evaluation. Some industrial byproducts are also suitable feedstock including paper sludge, distillers grain, and sewage sludge. In the biomass components, the pyrolysis of hemicellulose happens between 210 and 310 °C. The pyrolysis of cellulose starts from 300 to 315 °C and ...	{ "page_id": 262252, "source": null, "title": "Pyrolysis" }
a byproduct of the process). The industrial quality solid carbon can then be sold or landfilled and is not released into the atmosphere, avoiding emission of greenhouse gas (GHG) or ground water pollution from a landfill. In 2015, a company called Monolith Materials built a pilot plant in Redwood City, CA to study scal...	{ "page_id": 262252, "source": null, "title": "Pyrolysis" }
commence in 2022. "10 December 2021: Hazer Group (ASX: HZR) regret to advise that there has been a delay to the completion of the fabrication of the reactor for the Hazer Commercial Demonstration Project (CDP). This is expected to delay the planned commissioning of the Hazer CDP, with commissioning now expected to occu...	{ "page_id": 262252, "source": null, "title": "Pyrolysis" }
(1,112 °F) in the presence of steam; this is called steam cracking. The resulting ethylene is used to make antifreeze (ethylene glycol), PVC (via vinyl chloride), and many other polymers, such as polyethylene and polystyrene. === Semiconductors === The process of metalorganic vapour-phase epitaxy (MOCVD) entails pyroly...	{ "page_id": 262252, "source": null, "title": "Pyrolysis" }
$85 million large electronics recycling plant in the Port of Savannah. The project will focus on lower-value, plastics-heavy devices in the waste stream using multiple shredders and furnaces using pyrolysis technology. Waste from pyrolysis itself can also be used for useful products. For example, contaminant-rich reten...	{ "page_id": 262252, "source": null, "title": "Pyrolysis" }
a cold solvent trap and sorted by using chromatography. The third and final phase was analyzed using an online micro GC unit and those pyrolysates were gases. Two different types of experiments were conducted: one-stepwise pyrolysis and two-stepwise pyrolysis. One-stepwise pyrolysis consisted of a constant heating rate...	{ "page_id": 262252, "source": null, "title": "Pyrolysis" }
had four distinctive peaks at 87, 195, 265, and 306 °C whereas TSW had two major drop offs at 200 and 306 °C with one spike in between. The four peaks indicated that TLW contains more diverse types of additives than TSW. The residual mass percentage between TLW and TSW was further compared, where the residual mass in T...	{ "page_id": 262252, "source": null, "title": "Pyrolysis" }
the pyrolysis of TSW. Harmful chemicals were reduced in the CO2 environment due to CO formation causing tar to be reduced. One-stepwise pyrolysis was not that effective on activating CO2 on carbon rearrangement due to the high quantities of liquid pyrolysates (tar). Two-stepwise pyrolysis for the CO2 environment allowe...	{ "page_id": 262252, "source": null, "title": "Pyrolysis" }
cleaning chamber; the cleaning process takes 8 to 30 hours. Burn-Off Ovens, also known as Heat-Cleaning Ovens, are gas-fired and used in the painting, coatings, electric motors and plastics industries for removing organics from heavy and large metal parts. === Fine chemical synthesis === Pyrolysis is used in the produc...	{ "page_id": 262252, "source": null, "title": "Pyrolysis" }
hot surfaces. == PAHs generation == Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) can be generated from the pyrolysis of different solid waste fractions, such as hemicellulose, cellulose, lignin, pectin, starch, polyethylene (PE), polystyrene (PS), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET). PS, PVC, and ...	{ "page_id": 262252, "source": null, "title": "Pyrolysis" }
A molecular shuttle in supramolecular chemistry is a special type of molecular machine capable of shuttling molecules or ions from one location to another. This field is of relevance to nanotechnology in its quest for nanoscale electronic components and also to biology where many biochemical functions are based on mole...	{ "page_id": 12124272, "source": null, "title": "Molecular shuttle" }
Solid mechanics (also known as mechanics of solids) is the branch of continuum mechanics that studies the behavior of solid materials, especially their motion and deformation under the action of forces, temperature changes, phase changes, and other external or internal agents. Solid mechanics is fundamental for civil, ...	{ "page_id": 458866, "source": null, "title": "Solid mechanics" }
- dealing with mechanical systems highly sensitive to their given initial position thermomechanics - analyzing materials with models derived from principles of thermodynamics biomechanics - solid mechanics applied to biological materials e.g. bones, heart tissue geomechanics - solid mechanics applied to geological mate...	{ "page_id": 458866, "source": null, "title": "Solid mechanics" }
exhibit non-linear behavior. As new materials are used and old ones are pushed to their limits, non-linear material models are becoming more common. These are basic models that describe how a solid responds to an applied stress: Elasticity – When an applied stress is removed, the material returns to its undeformed stat...	{ "page_id": 458866, "source": null, "title": "Solid mechanics" }
1707–1783: Leonhard Euler developed the theory of buckling of columns 1826: Claude-Louis Navier published a treatise on the elastic behaviors of structures 1873: Carlo Alberto Castigliano presented his dissertation "Intorno ai sistemi elastici", which contains his theorem for computing displacement as partial derivativ...	{ "page_id": 458866, "source": null, "title": "Solid mechanics" }
1950. J. Lubliner, Plasticity Theory, Macmillan Publishing Company, 1990. J. Ignaczak, M. Ostoja-Starzewski, Thermoelasticity with Finite Wave Speeds, Oxford University Press, 2010. D. Bigoni, Nonlinear Solid Mechanics: Bifurcation Theory and Material Instability, Cambridge University Press, 2012. Y. C. Fung, Pin Tong ...	{ "page_id": 458866, "source": null, "title": "Solid mechanics" }
The constants listed here are known values of physical constants expressed in SI units; that is, physical quantities that are generally believed to be universal in nature and thus are independent of the unit system in which they are measured. Many of these are redundant, in the sense that they obey a known relationship...	{ "page_id": 3932275, "source": null, "title": "List of physical constants" }
of mathematical constants Mathematical constant Physical constant List of particles == Notes == == References ==	{ "page_id": 3932275, "source": null, "title": "List of physical constants" }
In general relativity, the Newtonian gauge is a perturbed form of the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker line element. The gauge freedom of general relativity is used to eliminate two scalar degrees of freedom of the metric, so that it can be written as: d s 2 = − ( 1 + 2 Φ ) d t 2 + a 2 ( t ) ( 1 − 2 Ψ ) δ a b d x a ...	{ "page_id": 3997813, "source": null, "title": "Newtonian gauge" }
except for the so-called B-modes of the cosmic microwave background polarization. The tensor perturbation is truly gauge independent, since it is the same in all gauges. In a universe without anisotropic stress (that is, where the stress–energy tensor is invariant under spatial rotations, or the three principal pressur...	{ "page_id": 3997813, "source": null, "title": "Newtonian gauge" }
Gravitational time dilation is a form of time dilation, an actual difference of elapsed time between two events, as measured by observers situated at varying distances from a gravitating mass. The lower the gravitational potential (the closer the clock is to the source of gravitation), the slower time passes, speeding ...	{ "page_id": 852089, "source": null, "title": "Gravitational time dilation" }
massive bodies (or at higher gravitational potentials) run more quickly, and clocks close to massive bodies (or at lower gravitational potentials) run more slowly. For example, considered over the total time-span of Earth (4.6 billion years), a clock set in a geostationary position at an altitude of 9,000 meters above ...	{ "page_id": 852089, "source": null, "title": "Gravitational time dilation" }
a Rindler's family of observers in a flat spacetime, the dependence would be g ( h ) = c 2 / ( H + h ) {\displaystyle g(h)=c^{2}/(H+h)} with constant H {\displaystyle H} , which yields T d ( h ) = e ln ⁡ ( H + h ) − ln ⁡ H = H + h H {\displaystyle T_{d}(h)=e^{\ln(H+h)-\ln H}={\tfrac {H+h}{H}}} . On the other hand, when...	{ "page_id": 852089, "source": null, "title": "Gravitational time dilation" }
clocks would tick at less than that rate), G {\displaystyle G} is the gravitational constant, M {\displaystyle M} is the mass of the object creating the gravitational field, r {\displaystyle r} is the radial coordinate of the observer within the gravitational field (this coordinate is analogous to the classical distanc...	{ "page_id": 852089, "source": null, "title": "Gravitational time dilation" }
features of gravitational time dilation == According to the general theory of relativity, gravitational time dilation is copresent with the existence of an accelerated reference frame. Additionally, all physical phenomena in similar circumstances undergo time dilation equally according to the equivalence principle used...	{ "page_id": 852089, "source": null, "title": "Gravitational time dilation" }
well is equal to the velocity time dilation for a speed that is needed to escape that gravitational well (given that the metric is of the form g = ( d t / T ( x ) ) 2 − g s p a c e {\displaystyle g=(dt/T(x))^{2}-g_{space}} , i. e. it is time invariant and there are no "movement" terms d x d t {\displaystyle dxdt} ). To...	{ "page_id": 852089, "source": null, "title": "Gravitational time dilation" }
due to height differences of less than one metre have been experimentally verified in the laboratory. Gravitational time dilation in the form of gravitational redshift has also been confirmed by the Pound–Rebka experiment and observations of the spectra of the white dwarf Sirius B. Gravitational time dilation has been ...	{ "page_id": 852089, "source": null, "title": "Gravitational time dilation" }
Computer Atlas of Surface Topography of Proteins (CASTp) aims to provide comprehensive and detailed quantitative characterization of topographic features of protein, is now updated to version 3.0. Since its release in 2006, the CASTp server has ≈45000 visits and fulfills ≈33000 calculation requests annually. CASTp has ...	{ "page_id": 39059578, "source": null, "title": "Computer Atlas of Surface Topography of Proteins" }
detailed delineation of all atoms participating in their formation, including the area and volume of pocket or void as well as measurement of numbers of mouth opening of a particular pocket ID by solvent accessible surface model (Richards' surface) and by molecular surface model (Connolly surface), all calculated analy...	{ "page_id": 39059578, "source": null, "title": "Computer Atlas of Surface Topography of Proteins" }
plays a role in many computational pharmacological methods. Based on existing results, most features important to predicting drug-binding were depended on size and shape of the binding pocket, with the chemical properties of secondary importance. The surface shape is also important for interactions between protein and ...	{ "page_id": 39059578, "source": null, "title": "Computer Atlas of Surface Topography of Proteins" }
3.0 == Pre-computed results for biological assemblies For a lot of proteins deposited in Protein Data Bank, the asymmetric unit might be different from biological unit, which would make the computational result biologically irrelevant. So the new CASTp 3.0 computed the topological features for biological assemblies, ov...	{ "page_id": 39059578, "source": null, "title": "Computer Atlas of Surface Topography of Proteins" }
Josef Herzig (25 September 1853 – 4 July 1924) was an Austrian chemist. Herzig was born in Sanok, Galicia, which at that time was part of Austria-Hungary. Herzig went to school in Breslau until 1874, started studying chemistry at the University of Vienna but joined August Wilhelm von Hofmann at the University of Berlin...	{ "page_id": 17367163, "source": null, "title": "Josef Herzig" }
For chemical reactions, the iron oxide cycle (Fe3O4/FeO) is the original two-step thermochemical cycle proposed for use for hydrogen production. It is based on the reduction and subsequent oxidation of iron ions, particularly the reduction and oxidation between Fe3+ and Fe2+. The ferrites, or iron oxide, begins in the ...	{ "page_id": 20775036, "source": null, "title": "Iron oxide cycle" }
aluminum oxide, rather than simply decomposing. The reactions take place via the following two reactions: { M II Fe 2 III O 4 + 3 Al 2 O 3 ⟶ M II Al 2 III O 4 + 2 Fe II Al 2 III O 4 + 1 2 O 2 ( Reduction ) M II Al 2 III O 4 + 2 Fe II Al 2 III O 4 + H 2 O ⟶ M II Fe 2 III O 4 + 3 Al 2 O 3 + H 2 ( Oxidation ) {\displaysty...	{ "page_id": 20775036, "source": null, "title": "Iron oxide cycle" }
Offline learning is a machine learning training approach in which a model is trained on a fixed dataset that is not updated during the learning process. This dataset is collected beforehand, and the learning typically occurs in a batch mode (i.e., the model is updated using batches of data, rather than a single input-o...	{ "page_id": 10748030, "source": null, "title": "Offline learning" }
The transformer is a deep learning architecture that was developed by researchers at Google and is based on the multi-head attention mechanism, which was proposed in the 2017 paper "Attention Is All You Need". Text is converted to numerical representations called tokens, and each token is converted into a vector via lo...	{ "page_id": 61603971, "source": null, "title": "Transformer (deep learning architecture)" }
was the use of an attention mechanism which used neurons that multiply the outputs of other neurons, so-called multiplicative units. Neural networks using multiplicative units were later called sigma-pi networks or higher-order networks. LSTM became the standard architecture for long sequence modelling until the 2017 p...	{ "page_id": 61603971, "source": null, "title": "Transformer (deep learning architecture)" }
state vector is accessible only after the last word of the source text was processed. Although in theory such a vector retains the information about the whole original sentence, in practice the information is poorly preserved. This is because the input is processed sequentially by one recurrent network into a fixed-siz...	{ "page_id": 61603971, "source": null, "title": "Transformer (deep learning architecture)" }
than LSTMs. One of its authors, Jakob Uszkoreit, suspected that attention without recurrence is sufficient for language translation, thus the title "attention is all you need". That hypothesis was against conventional wisdom at the time, and even his father Hans Uszkoreit, a well-known computational linguist, was skept...	{ "page_id": 61603971, "source": null, "title": "Transformer (deep learning architecture)" }
a boom around large language models. Since 2020, Transformers have been applied in modalities beyond text, including the vision transformer, speech recognition, robotics, and multimodal. The vision transformer, in turn, stimulated new developments in convolutional neural networks. Image and video generators like DALL-E...	{ "page_id": 61603971, "source": null, "title": "Transformer (deep learning architecture)" }
be judged "not acceptable", because even though it is syntactically well-formed, it is improbable in ordinary human usage: The course is jumping well. Note that while each of these tasks is trivial or obvious for human native speakers of the language (or languages), they have typically proved challenging for previous g...	{ "page_id": 61603971, "source": null, "title": "Transformer (deep learning architecture)" }
for the task is still typically the same. The T5 series of models are trained by prefixLM tasks. Note that "masked" as in "masked language modelling" is not "masked" as in "masked attention", and "prefixLM" (prefix language modeling) is not "prefixLM" (prefix language model). == Architecture == All transformers have th...	{ "page_id": 61603971, "source": null, "title": "Transformer (deep learning architecture)" }
written as "[UNK]" for "unknown". Some commonly used tokenizers are byte pair encoding, WordPiece, and SentencePiece. === Embedding === Each token is converted into an embedding vector via a lookup table. Equivalently stated, it multiplies a one-hot representation of the token by an embedding matrix M {\displaystyle M}...	{ "page_id": 61603971, "source": null, "title": "Transformer (deep learning architecture)" }
vector representation of the relative positions of tokens within a sequence: it provides the transformer model with information about where the words are in the input sequence. This shall induce a bias towards the order of the input sequence, so that, for example, the input sequence "man bites dog" is processed differe...	{ "page_id": 61603971, "source": null, "title": "Transformer (deep learning architecture)" }

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