id stringlengths 24 24 | question stringlengths 1 270 | answer stringlengths 1 239 | documents listlengths 1 1 |
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5731c1260fdd8d15006c6503 | Besides sprectrum of activity and chemical structure, how can antibacterial antibiotics classified? | mechanism of action | [
"Antibiotics\n\nAntibacterial antibiotics are commonly classified based on their mechanism of action, chemical structure, or spectrum of activity. Most target bacterial functions or growth processes. Those that target the bacterial cell wall (penicillins and cephalosporins) or the cell membrane (polymyxins), or int... |
5731c1260fdd8d15006c6504 | What is another name used for bacterial cell wall? | penicillins and cephalosporins | [
"Antibiotics\n\nAntibacterial antibiotics are commonly classified based on their mechanism of action, chemical structure, or spectrum of activity. Most target bacterial functions or growth processes. Those that target the bacterial cell wall (penicillins and cephalosporins) or the cell membrane (polymyxins), or int... |
5731c1260fdd8d15006c6505 | whats another word for cell membrane? | polymyxins | [
"Antibiotics\n\nAntibacterial antibiotics are commonly classified based on their mechanism of action, chemical structure, or spectrum of activity. Most target bacterial functions or growth processes. Those that target the bacterial cell wall (penicillins and cephalosporins) or the cell membrane (polymyxins), or int... |
5731c1260fdd8d15006c6506 | How many new classes of antibacterial antibiotics was introduced in the late 2000's/ | four | [
"Antibiotics\n\nAntibacterial antibiotics are commonly classified based on their mechanism of action, chemical structure, or spectrum of activity. Most target bacterial functions or growth processes. Those that target the bacterial cell wall (penicillins and cephalosporins) or the cell membrane (polymyxins), or int... |
5733b4cf4776f419006610c9 | What three ways are antibiotics classified? | mechanism of action, chemical structure, or spectrum of activity | [
"Antibiotics\n\nAntibacterial antibiotics are commonly classified based on their mechanism of action, chemical structure, or spectrum of activity. Most target bacterial functions or growth processes. Those that target the bacterial cell wall (penicillins and cephalosporins) or the cell membrane (polymyxins), or int... |
5733b4cf4776f419006610ca | What do anitibiotics mostly target? | bacterial functions or growth processes | [
"Antibiotics\n\nAntibacterial antibiotics are commonly classified based on their mechanism of action, chemical structure, or spectrum of activity. Most target bacterial functions or growth processes. Those that target the bacterial cell wall (penicillins and cephalosporins) or the cell membrane (polymyxins), or int... |
5733b4cf4776f419006610cb | Which two types of antibiotics target the cell wall? | penicillins and cephalosporins | [
"Antibiotics\n\nAntibacterial antibiotics are commonly classified based on their mechanism of action, chemical structure, or spectrum of activity. Most target bacterial functions or growth processes. Those that target the bacterial cell wall (penicillins and cephalosporins) or the cell membrane (polymyxins), or int... |
5733b4cf4776f419006610cc | Which type of antibiotic goes after the cell membrane? | polymyxins | [
"Antibiotics\n\nAntibacterial antibiotics are commonly classified based on their mechanism of action, chemical structure, or spectrum of activity. Most target bacterial functions or growth processes. Those that target the bacterial cell wall (penicillins and cephalosporins) or the cell membrane (polymyxins), or int... |
5733b4cf4776f419006610cd | What 3 types go after protein synthesis? | (macrolides, lincosamides and tetracyclines | [
"Antibiotics\n\nAntibacterial antibiotics are commonly classified based on their mechanism of action, chemical structure, or spectrum of activity. Most target bacterial functions or growth processes. Those that target the bacterial cell wall (penicillins and cephalosporins) or the cell membrane (polymyxins), or int... |
5731c2fd0fdd8d15006c6515 | Besides semisytetic modifications, what advances in medicinal chemistry regarding antibacterials? | various natural compounds | [
"Antibiotics\n\nWith advances in medicinal chemistry, most modern antibacterials are semisynthetic modifications of various natural compounds. These include, for example, the beta-lactam antibiotics, which include the penicillins (produced by fungi in the genus Penicillium), the cephalosporins, and the carbapenems.... |
5731c2fd0fdd8d15006c6516 | What is the molecular weight loss of antibacterial compounds? | 2000 atomic mass units | [
"Antibiotics\n\nWith advances in medicinal chemistry, most modern antibacterials are semisynthetic modifications of various natural compounds. These include, for example, the beta-lactam antibiotics, which include the penicillins (produced by fungi in the genus Penicillium), the cephalosporins, and the carbapenems.... |
5731c2fd0fdd8d15006c6517 | What is included in the beta-lactam antibiotics? | penicillins | [
"Antibiotics\n\nWith advances in medicinal chemistry, most modern antibacterials are semisynthetic modifications of various natural compounds. These include, for example, the beta-lactam antibiotics, which include the penicillins (produced by fungi in the genus Penicillium), the cephalosporins, and the carbapenems.... |
5731c2fd0fdd8d15006c6518 | What is penicillins produced by? | fungi | [
"Antibiotics\n\nWith advances in medicinal chemistry, most modern antibacterials are semisynthetic modifications of various natural compounds. These include, for example, the beta-lactam antibiotics, which include the penicillins (produced by fungi in the genus Penicillium), the cephalosporins, and the carbapenems.... |
5733b6a2d058e614000b6122 | What are antibiotics in chemical terms? | semisynthetic modifications | [
"Antibiotics\n\nWith advances in medicinal chemistry, most modern antibacterials are semisynthetic modifications of various natural compounds. These include, for example, the beta-lactam antibiotics, which include the penicillins (produced by fungi in the genus Penicillium), the cephalosporins, and the carbapenems.... |
5733b6a2d058e614000b6123 | What type of antibiotics include penicilin? | beta-lactam antibiotics | [
"Antibiotics\n\nWith advances in medicinal chemistry, most modern antibacterials are semisynthetic modifications of various natural compounds. These include, for example, the beta-lactam antibiotics, which include the penicillins (produced by fungi in the genus Penicillium), the cephalosporins, and the carbapenems.... |
5733b6a2d058e614000b6124 | What are the type of antibiotics which are taken from still living things? | aminoglycosides | [
"Antibiotics\n\nWith advances in medicinal chemistry, most modern antibacterials are semisynthetic modifications of various natural compounds. These include, for example, the beta-lactam antibiotics, which include the penicillins (produced by fungi in the genus Penicillium), the cephalosporins, and the carbapenems.... |
5733b6a2d058e614000b6125 | How are the slufonamides,quinolones, and oxazolidinones created? | synthesis | [
"Antibiotics\n\nWith advances in medicinal chemistry, most modern antibacterials are semisynthetic modifications of various natural compounds. These include, for example, the beta-lactam antibiotics, which include the penicillins (produced by fungi in the genus Penicillium), the cephalosporins, and the carbapenems.... |
5731c593e17f3d14004223c5 | What does emergence of resistance reflect? | evolutionary processes | [
"Antibiotics\n\nThe emergence of resistance of bacteria to antibiotics is a common phenomenon. Emergence of resistance often reflects evolutionary processes that take place during antibiotic therapy. The antibiotic treatment may select for bacterial strains with physiologically or genetically enhanced capacity to s... |
5731c593e17f3d14004223c6 | What is the purpose of antibiotic treatment? | survive high doses of antibiotics | [
"Antibiotics\n\nThe emergence of resistance of bacteria to antibiotics is a common phenomenon. Emergence of resistance often reflects evolutionary processes that take place during antibiotic therapy. The antibiotic treatment may select for bacterial strains with physiologically or genetically enhanced capacity to s... |
5731c593e17f3d14004223c7 | When was antibacterial-resistance demonstrated? | 1943 | [
"Antibiotics\n\nThe emergence of resistance of bacteria to antibiotics is a common phenomenon. Emergence of resistance often reflects evolutionary processes that take place during antibiotic therapy. The antibiotic treatment may select for bacterial strains with physiologically or genetically enhanced capacity to s... |
5731c593e17f3d14004223c8 | Who made the demonstration in 1943? | Luria–Delbrück | [
"Antibiotics\n\nThe emergence of resistance of bacteria to antibiotics is a common phenomenon. Emergence of resistance often reflects evolutionary processes that take place during antibiotic therapy. The antibiotic treatment may select for bacterial strains with physiologically or genetically enhanced capacity to s... |
5733bc38d058e614000b6187 | What is a modern common occurence with antibiotics? | resistance of bacteria | [
"Antibiotics\n\nThe emergence of resistance of bacteria to antibiotics is a common phenomenon. Emergence of resistance often reflects evolutionary processes that take place during antibiotic therapy. The antibiotic treatment may select for bacterial strains with physiologically or genetically enhanced capacity to s... |
5733bc38d058e614000b6188 | What is resistance to antibiotics a cause of? | evolution | [
"Antibiotics\n\nThe emergence of resistance of bacteria to antibiotics is a common phenomenon. Emergence of resistance often reflects evolutionary processes that take place during antibiotic therapy. The antibiotic treatment may select for bacterial strains with physiologically or genetically enhanced capacity to s... |
5733bc38d058e614000b6189 | When was the Luria-Delbruck experiment? | 1943 | [
"Antibiotics\n\nThe emergence of resistance of bacteria to antibiotics is a common phenomenon. Emergence of resistance often reflects evolutionary processes that take place during antibiotic therapy. The antibiotic treatment may select for bacterial strains with physiologically or genetically enhanced capacity to s... |
5733bc38d058e614000b618a | Which two antibiotics that have high efficacy are much less useful now? | penicillin and erythromycin | [
"Antibiotics\n\nThe emergence of resistance of bacteria to antibiotics is a common phenomenon. Emergence of resistance often reflects evolutionary processes that take place during antibiotic therapy. The antibiotic treatment may select for bacterial strains with physiologically or genetically enhanced capacity to s... |
5731c904b9d445190005e551 | What is part of hje the make up of bacterial strains? | Intrinsic antibacterial resistance | [
"Antibiotics\n\nSeveral molecular mechanisms of antibacterial resistance exist. Intrinsic antibacterial resistance may be part of the genetic makeup of bacterial strains. For example, an antibiotic target may be absent from the bacterial genome. Acquired resistance results from a mutation in the bacterial chromosom... |
5731c904b9d445190005e552 | What can be absent from the bacterial genome? | antibiotic target | [
"Antibiotics\n\nSeveral molecular mechanisms of antibacterial resistance exist. Intrinsic antibacterial resistance may be part of the genetic makeup of bacterial strains. For example, an antibiotic target may be absent from the bacterial genome. Acquired resistance results from a mutation in the bacterial chromosom... |
5731c904b9d445190005e553 | When does the spread of antibacterial resistance frequently occurs/ | vertical transmission | [
"Antibiotics\n\nSeveral molecular mechanisms of antibacterial resistance exist. Intrinsic antibacterial resistance may be part of the genetic makeup of bacterial strains. For example, an antibiotic target may be absent from the bacterial genome. Acquired resistance results from a mutation in the bacterial chromosom... |
5731c904b9d445190005e554 | What is exchanged between between bacterial strains or species via plasmids that have this resistance? | antibacterial resistance genes | [
"Antibiotics\n\nSeveral molecular mechanisms of antibacterial resistance exist. Intrinsic antibacterial resistance may be part of the genetic makeup of bacterial strains. For example, an antibiotic target may be absent from the bacterial genome. Acquired resistance results from a mutation in the bacterial chromosom... |
5733c3f34776f419006611d4 | What does some resistance come from? | mutation | [
"Antibiotics\n\nSeveral molecular mechanisms of antibacterial resistance exist. Intrinsic antibacterial resistance may be part of the genetic makeup of bacterial strains. For example, an antibiotic target may be absent from the bacterial genome. Acquired resistance results from a mutation in the bacterial chromosom... |
5733c3f34776f419006611d5 | What method of spread can occur in antibacterial resistance? | vertical transmission of mutations | [
"Antibiotics\n\nSeveral molecular mechanisms of antibacterial resistance exist. Intrinsic antibacterial resistance may be part of the genetic makeup of bacterial strains. For example, an antibiotic target may be absent from the bacterial genome. Acquired resistance results from a mutation in the bacterial chromosom... |
5733c3f34776f419006611d6 | What do plasmids do in resistance? | carry several different resistance genes | [
"Antibiotics\n\nSeveral molecular mechanisms of antibacterial resistance exist. Intrinsic antibacterial resistance may be part of the genetic makeup of bacterial strains. For example, an antibiotic target may be absent from the bacterial genome. Acquired resistance results from a mutation in the bacterial chromosom... |
5733c4ca4776f419006611e4 | What are strains that are resistant to antibiotics called sometimes? | superbugs | [
"Antibiotics\n\nAntibacterial-resistant strains and species, sometimes referred to as \"superbugs\", now contribute to the emergence of diseases that were for a while well controlled. For example, emergent bacterial strains causing tuberculosis (TB) that are resistant to previously effective antibacterial treatment... |
5733c4ca4776f419006611e5 | What was a once almost controlled disease that is coming back do to resistance? | tuberculosis | [
"Antibiotics\n\nAntibacterial-resistant strains and species, sometimes referred to as \"superbugs\", now contribute to the emergence of diseases that were for a while well controlled. For example, emergent bacterial strains causing tuberculosis (TB) that are resistant to previously effective antibacterial treatment... |
5733c4ca4776f419006611e6 | How many new infections of resistant TB are reported per year? | half a million | [
"Antibiotics\n\nAntibacterial-resistant strains and species, sometimes referred to as \"superbugs\", now contribute to the emergence of diseases that were for a while well controlled. For example, emergent bacterial strains causing tuberculosis (TB) that are resistant to previously effective antibacterial treatment... |
5733c4ca4776f419006611e7 | What is the acronym used to describe resistant TB? | MDR-TB | [
"Antibiotics\n\nAntibacterial-resistant strains and species, sometimes referred to as \"superbugs\", now contribute to the emergence of diseases that were for a while well controlled. For example, emergent bacterial strains causing tuberculosis (TB) that are resistant to previously effective antibacterial treatment... |
5733c6d84776f41900661208 | What are the two biggest reasons for resistance? | Inappropriate antibiotic treatment and overuse | [
"Antibiotics\n\nInappropriate antibiotic treatment and overuse of antibiotics have contributed to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Self prescription of antibiotics is an example of misuse. Many antibiotics are frequently prescribed to treat symptoms or diseases that do not respond to antibiotics or t... |
5733c6d84776f41900661209 | What is a common method of misuse? | Self prescription | [
"Antibiotics\n\nInappropriate antibiotic treatment and overuse of antibiotics have contributed to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Self prescription of antibiotics is an example of misuse. Many antibiotics are frequently prescribed to treat symptoms or diseases that do not respond to antibiotics or t... |
5733c6d84776f4190066120a | What is an example of bad treatment causing resistance? | overuse of antibiotics | [
"Antibiotics\n\nInappropriate antibiotic treatment and overuse of antibiotics have contributed to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Self prescription of antibiotics is an example of misuse. Many antibiotics are frequently prescribed to treat symptoms or diseases that do not respond to antibiotics or t... |
5733c81c4776f4190066121c | What is a way of improperly using antibiotics for those traveling? | prophylactic antibiotics | [
"Antibiotics\n\nCommon forms of antibiotic misuse include excessive use of prophylactic antibiotics in travelers and failure of medical professionals to prescribe the correct dosage of antibiotics on the basis of the patient's weight and history of prior use. Other forms of misuse include failure to take the entire... |
5733c81c4776f4190066121d | What can happen if a doctor doesn't prescribe to a person's weight and prior use? | failure of medical professionals to prescribe the correct dosage | [
"Antibiotics\n\nCommon forms of antibiotic misuse include excessive use of prophylactic antibiotics in travelers and failure of medical professionals to prescribe the correct dosage of antibiotics on the basis of the patient's weight and history of prior use. Other forms of misuse include failure to take the entire... |
5733c81c4776f4190066121e | What are 3 other common forms of bad antibiotic practices? | failure to take the entire prescribed course of the antibiotic, incorrect dosage and administration, or failure to rest for sufficient recovery | [
"Antibiotics\n\nCommon forms of antibiotic misuse include excessive use of prophylactic antibiotics in travelers and failure of medical professionals to prescribe the correct dosage of antibiotics on the basis of the patient's weight and history of prior use. Other forms of misuse include failure to take the entire... |
5733c81c4776f4190066121f | What happens when a cold is treated with antibiotics? | Inappropriate antibiotic treatment | [
"Antibiotics\n\nCommon forms of antibiotic misuse include excessive use of prophylactic antibiotics in travelers and failure of medical professionals to prescribe the correct dosage of antibiotics on the basis of the patient's weight and history of prior use. Other forms of misuse include failure to take the entire... |
5733c81c4776f41900661220 | What do doctors usually do when a patient seems to want antibiotics even though they may not be right? | prescribe antibiotics | [
"Antibiotics\n\nCommon forms of antibiotic misuse include excessive use of prophylactic antibiotics in travelers and failure of medical professionals to prescribe the correct dosage of antibiotics on the basis of the patient's weight and history of prior use. Other forms of misuse include failure to take the entire... |
5733cb484776f41900661256 | What is the name of a US government agency tasked with trying to stop improper use of antibiotics? | US Interagency Task Force on Antimicrobial Resistance | [
"Antibiotics\n\nSeveral organizations concerned with antimicrobial resistance are lobbying to eliminate the unnecessary use of antibiotics. The issues of misuse and overuse of antibiotics have been addressed by the formation of the US Interagency Task Force on Antimicrobial Resistance. This task force aims to activ... |
5733cb484776f41900661257 | Which agencies control this task force? | US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the National Institutes of Health (NIH) | [
"Antibiotics\n\nSeveral organizations concerned with antimicrobial resistance are lobbying to eliminate the unnecessary use of antibiotics. The issues of misuse and overuse of antibiotics have been addressed by the formation of the US Interagency Task Force on Antimicrobial Resistance. This task force aims to activ... |
5733cb484776f41900661258 | When did the French start going after overuse of antibiotics? | 2002 | [
"Antibiotics\n\nSeveral organizations concerned with antimicrobial resistance are lobbying to eliminate the unnecessary use of antibiotics. The issues of misuse and overuse of antibiotics have been addressed by the formation of the US Interagency Task Force on Antimicrobial Resistance. This task force aims to activ... |
5733cd2bd058e614000b62b3 | When did the EU ban antibiotics for speeding up growth? | 2003 | [
"Antibiotics\n\nThe emergence of antibiotic resistance has prompted restrictions on their use in the UK in 1970 (Swann report 1969), and the EU has banned the use of antibiotics as growth-promotional agents since 2003. Moreover, several organizations (e.g., The American Society for Microbiology (ASM), American Publ... |
5733cd2bd058e614000b62b4 | What report caused the UK to worry about resistance? | Swann report 1969 | [
"Antibiotics\n\nThe emergence of antibiotic resistance has prompted restrictions on their use in the UK in 1970 (Swann report 1969), and the EU has banned the use of antibiotics as growth-promotional agents since 2003. Moreover, several organizations (e.g., The American Society for Microbiology (ASM), American Publ... |
5733cd2bd058e614000b62b5 | What 3 US organizations have called for the banning of antibiotics in the production of food animals? | American Society for Microbiology (ASM), American Public Health Association (APHA) and the American Medical Association (AMA) | [
"Antibiotics\n\nThe emergence of antibiotic resistance has prompted restrictions on their use in the UK in 1970 (Swann report 1969), and the EU has banned the use of antibiotics as growth-promotional agents since 2003. Moreover, several organizations (e.g., The American Society for Microbiology (ASM), American Publ... |
5733cd2bd058e614000b62b6 | Name two US bills that want to ban antibiotics in food production? | S.742 and H.R. 2562 | [
"Antibiotics\n\nThe emergence of antibiotic resistance has prompted restrictions on their use in the UK in 1970 (Swann report 1969), and the EU has banned the use of antibiotics as growth-promotional agents since 2003. Moreover, several organizations (e.g., The American Society for Microbiology (ASM), American Publ... |
5733cd2bd058e614000b62b7 | What 3 medical associations supported the bills? | American Holistic Nurses' Association, the American Medical Association, and the American Public Health Association (APHA) | [
"Antibiotics\n\nThe emergence of antibiotic resistance has prompted restrictions on their use in the UK in 1970 (Swann report 1969), and the EU has banned the use of antibiotics as growth-promotional agents since 2003. Moreover, several organizations (e.g., The American Society for Microbiology (ASM), American Publ... |
5733d178d058e614000b6321 | What besides sick people are antibiotics used for? | animal husbandry | [
"Antibiotics\n\nThere has been extensive use of antibiotics in animal husbandry. In the United States, the question of emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains due to use of antibiotics in livestock was raised by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1977. In March 2012, the United States District... |
5733d178d058e614000b6322 | When was resistance first discussed as a problem in the raising of farm animals? | 1977 | [
"Antibiotics\n\nThere has been extensive use of antibiotics in animal husbandry. In the United States, the question of emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains due to use of antibiotics in livestock was raised by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1977. In March 2012, the United States District... |
5733d178d058e614000b6323 | When did a district court order the FDA to stop approving antibiotics in animals? | March 2012 | [
"Antibiotics\n\nThere has been extensive use of antibiotics in animal husbandry. In the United States, the question of emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains due to use of antibiotics in livestock was raised by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1977. In March 2012, the United States District... |
5733d2444776f419006612d8 | What methods did people use before antibiotics to treat infections? | medicinal folklore | [
"Antibiotics\n\nBefore the early 20th century, treatments for infections were based primarily on medicinal folklore. Mixtures with antimicrobial properties that were used in treatments of infections were described over 2000 years ago. Many ancient cultures, including the ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks, used s... |
5733d2444776f419006612d9 | When were some kinds of antimicrobials first used? | over 2000 years ago | [
"Antibiotics\n\nBefore the early 20th century, treatments for infections were based primarily on medicinal folklore. Mixtures with antimicrobial properties that were used in treatments of infections were described over 2000 years ago. Many ancient cultures, including the ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks, used s... |
5733d2444776f419006612da | What type of things did Egyptians and Greeks use? | mold and plant materials and extracts | [
"Antibiotics\n\nBefore the early 20th century, treatments for infections were based primarily on medicinal folklore. Mixtures with antimicrobial properties that were used in treatments of infections were described over 2000 years ago. Many ancient cultures, including the ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks, used s... |
5733d2444776f419006612db | What does antibiosis mean? | against life | [
"Antibiotics\n\nBefore the early 20th century, treatments for infections were based primarily on medicinal folklore. Mixtures with antimicrobial properties that were used in treatments of infections were described over 2000 years ago. Many ancient cultures, including the ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks, used s... |
5733d2444776f419006612dc | Who came up with the term antibiosis? | Jean Paul Vuillemin | [
"Antibiotics\n\nBefore the early 20th century, treatments for infections were based primarily on medicinal folklore. Mixtures with antimicrobial properties that were used in treatments of infections were described over 2000 years ago. Many ancient cultures, including the ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks, used s... |
5733d3334776f419006612e2 | What type of organism has been reported to have worked on infections? | mold | [
"Antibiotics\n\nThe effects of some types of mold on infection had been noticed many times over the course of history (see: History of penicillin). In 1928, Alexander Fleming noticed the same effect in a Petri dish, where a number of disease-causing bacteria were killed by a fungus of the genus Penicillium. Fleming... |
5733d3334776f419006612e3 | Who noticed in a lab the antibacterial characteristics of mold? | Alexander Fleming | [
"Antibiotics\n\nThe effects of some types of mold on infection had been noticed many times over the course of history (see: History of penicillin). In 1928, Alexander Fleming noticed the same effect in a Petri dish, where a number of disease-causing bacteria were killed by a fungus of the genus Penicillium. Fleming... |
5733d3334776f419006612e4 | What mold did Fleming notice had antibacterial properties? | penicillin | [
"Antibiotics\n\nThe effects of some types of mold on infection had been noticed many times over the course of history (see: History of penicillin). In 1928, Alexander Fleming noticed the same effect in a Petri dish, where a number of disease-causing bacteria were killed by a fungus of the genus Penicillium. Fleming... |
5733d3334776f419006612e5 | What did Fleming initially think a good use would be for it? | chemotherapy | [
"Antibiotics\n\nThe effects of some types of mold on infection had been noticed many times over the course of history (see: History of penicillin). In 1928, Alexander Fleming noticed the same effect in a Petri dish, where a number of disease-causing bacteria were killed by a fungus of the genus Penicillium. Fleming... |
5733d4364776f419006612f2 | What was the first available antibiotic? | Prontosil | [
"Antibiotics\n\nThe first sulfonamide and first commercially available antibacterial, Prontosil, was developed by a research team led by Gerhard Domagk in 1932 at the Bayer Laboratories of the IG Farben conglomerate in Germany. Domagk received the 1939 Nobel Prize for Medicine for his efforts. Prontosil had a relat... |
5733d4364776f419006612f3 | What company developed Prontosil? | IG Farben | [
"Antibiotics\n\nThe first sulfonamide and first commercially available antibacterial, Prontosil, was developed by a research team led by Gerhard Domagk in 1932 at the Bayer Laboratories of the IG Farben conglomerate in Germany. Domagk received the 1939 Nobel Prize for Medicine for his efforts. Prontosil had a relat... |
5733d4364776f419006612f4 | Who led the team that came up with Prontosil? | Gerhard Domagk | [
"Antibiotics\n\nThe first sulfonamide and first commercially available antibacterial, Prontosil, was developed by a research team led by Gerhard Domagk in 1932 at the Bayer Laboratories of the IG Farben conglomerate in Germany. Domagk received the 1939 Nobel Prize for Medicine for his efforts. Prontosil had a relat... |
5733d4364776f419006612f5 | What prize did Domagk get for his work? | 1939 Nobel Prize for Medicine | [
"Antibiotics\n\nThe first sulfonamide and first commercially available antibacterial, Prontosil, was developed by a research team led by Gerhard Domagk in 1932 at the Bayer Laboratories of the IG Farben conglomerate in Germany. Domagk received the 1939 Nobel Prize for Medicine for his efforts. Prontosil had a relat... |
5733d4c24776f41900661304 | What was the first antibiotic developed from nature? | tyrothricin | [
"Antibiotics\n\nIn 1939, coinciding with the start of World War II, Rene Dubos reported the discovery of the first naturally derived antibiotic, tyrothricin, a compound of 20% gramicidin and 80% tyrocidine, from B. brevis. It was one of the first commercially manufactured antibiotics universally and was very effect... |
5733d4c24776f41900661305 | When was tyrothricin created? | 1939 | [
"Antibiotics\n\nIn 1939, coinciding with the start of World War II, Rene Dubos reported the discovery of the first naturally derived antibiotic, tyrothricin, a compound of 20% gramicidin and 80% tyrocidine, from B. brevis. It was one of the first commercially manufactured antibiotics universally and was very effect... |
5733d4c24776f41900661306 | What also happened in 1939 besides tyrothricin? | start of World War II, | [
"Antibiotics\n\nIn 1939, coinciding with the start of World War II, Rene Dubos reported the discovery of the first naturally derived antibiotic, tyrothricin, a compound of 20% gramicidin and 80% tyrocidine, from B. brevis. It was one of the first commercially manufactured antibiotics universally and was very effect... |
5733d4c24776f41900661307 | Who discovered tyrothricin? | Rene Dubos | [
"Antibiotics\n\nIn 1939, coinciding with the start of World War II, Rene Dubos reported the discovery of the first naturally derived antibiotic, tyrothricin, a compound of 20% gramicidin and 80% tyrocidine, from B. brevis. It was one of the first commercially manufactured antibiotics universally and was very effect... |
5733d4c24776f41900661308 | What was tyrothricin used for during the war? | wounds and ulcers | [
"Antibiotics\n\nIn 1939, coinciding with the start of World War II, Rene Dubos reported the discovery of the first naturally derived antibiotic, tyrothricin, a compound of 20% gramicidin and 80% tyrocidine, from B. brevis. It was one of the first commercially manufactured antibiotics universally and was very effect... |
5733d5f24776f41900661314 | When was penicillin G first purified? | 1942 | [
"Antibiotics\n\nFlorey and Chain succeeded in purifying the first penicillin, penicillin G, in 1942, but it did not become widely available outside the Allied military before 1945. Later, Norman Heatley developed the back extraction technique for efficiently purifying penicillin in bulk. The chemical structure of p... |
5733d5f24776f41900661315 | When did penicillin G become available outside of military use? | 1945 | [
"Antibiotics\n\nFlorey and Chain succeeded in purifying the first penicillin, penicillin G, in 1942, but it did not become widely available outside the Allied military before 1945. Later, Norman Heatley developed the back extraction technique for efficiently purifying penicillin in bulk. The chemical structure of p... |
5733d5f24776f41900661316 | Who came up with a way to quickly produce penicillin? | Norman Heatley | [
"Antibiotics\n\nFlorey and Chain succeeded in purifying the first penicillin, penicillin G, in 1942, but it did not become widely available outside the Allied military before 1945. Later, Norman Heatley developed the back extraction technique for efficiently purifying penicillin in bulk. The chemical structure of p... |
5733d5f24776f41900661317 | When was the chemical make-up of penicillin discovered? | 1945 | [
"Antibiotics\n\nFlorey and Chain succeeded in purifying the first penicillin, penicillin G, in 1942, but it did not become widely available outside the Allied military before 1945. Later, Norman Heatley developed the back extraction technique for efficiently purifying penicillin in bulk. The chemical structure of p... |
5733d5f24776f41900661318 | Who discovered the chemical structure of penicillin? | Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin | [
"Antibiotics\n\nFlorey and Chain succeeded in purifying the first penicillin, penicillin G, in 1942, but it did not become widely available outside the Allied military before 1945. Later, Norman Heatley developed the back extraction technique for efficiently purifying penicillin in bulk. The chemical structure of p... |
5733d670d058e614000b6379 | What do vaccines need to work? | immune modulation or augmentation | [
"Antibiotics\n\nVaccines rely on immune modulation or augmentation. Vaccination either excites or reinforces the immune competence of a host to ward off infection, leading to the activation of macrophages, the production of antibodies, inflammation, and other classic immune reactions. Antibacterial vaccines have be... |
5733d670d058e614000b637a | What type of vaccines have saved millions of lives? | Antibacterial vaccines | [
"Antibiotics\n\nVaccines rely on immune modulation or augmentation. Vaccination either excites or reinforces the immune competence of a host to ward off infection, leading to the activation of macrophages, the production of antibodies, inflammation, and other classic immune reactions. Antibacterial vaccines have be... |
5733d670d058e614000b637b | What types of vaccines have been phased out? | Vaccines made from attenuated whole cells or lysates | [
"Antibiotics\n\nVaccines rely on immune modulation or augmentation. Vaccination either excites or reinforces the immune competence of a host to ward off infection, leading to the activation of macrophages, the production of antibodies, inflammation, and other classic immune reactions. Antibacterial vaccines have be... |
5733d6e64776f41900661328 | What has been talked about to treat resistant bacteria? | Phage therapy | [
"Antibiotics\n\nPhage therapy is another option that is being looked into for treating resistant strains of bacteria. The way that researchers are doing this is by infecting pathogenic bacteria with their own viruses, more specifically, bacteriophages. Bacteriophages, also known simply as phages, are precisely bact... |
5733d6e64776f41900661329 | How have researchers been doing this? | infecting pathogenic bacteria | [
"Antibiotics\n\nPhage therapy is another option that is being looked into for treating resistant strains of bacteria. The way that researchers are doing this is by infecting pathogenic bacteria with their own viruses, more specifically, bacteriophages. Bacteriophages, also known simply as phages, are precisely bact... |
5733d6e64776f4190066132a | What is a worry of using phages? | phages will infect "good" bacteria | [
"Antibiotics\n\nPhage therapy is another option that is being looked into for treating resistant strains of bacteria. The way that researchers are doing this is by infecting pathogenic bacteria with their own viruses, more specifically, bacteriophages. Bacteriophages, also known simply as phages, are precisely bact... |
5733d88b4776f41900661344 | How many antibiotics have been created in the last 7 years? | 2 | [
"Antibiotics\n\nIn April 2013, the Infectious Disease Society of America (IDSA) reported that the weak antibiotic pipeline does not match bacteria's increasing ability to develop resistance. Since 2009, only 2 new antibiotics were approved in the United States. The number of new antibiotics approved for marketing p... |
5733d88b4776f41900661345 | How many are in the pipelin to fight GNB? | seven | [
"Antibiotics\n\nIn April 2013, the Infectious Disease Society of America (IDSA) reported that the weak antibiotic pipeline does not match bacteria's increasing ability to develop resistance. Since 2009, only 2 new antibiotics were approved in the United States. The number of new antibiotics approved for marketing p... |
5733d88b4776f41900661346 | What year did the Infectious Disease Society of America say that production of new antibiotics does not keep up with resistance? | 2013 | [
"Antibiotics\n\nIn April 2013, the Infectious Disease Society of America (IDSA) reported that the weak antibiotic pipeline does not match bacteria's increasing ability to develop resistance. Since 2009, only 2 new antibiotics were approved in the United States. The number of new antibiotics approved for marketing p... |
5733d91e4776f4190066134a | Who regulates antibiotic approval? | FDA | [
"Antibiotics\n\nPossible improvements include clarification of clinical trial regulations by FDA. Furthermore, appropriate economic incentives could persuade pharmaceutical companies to invest in this endeavor. Antibiotic Development to Advance Patient Treatment (ADAPT) Act aims to fast track the drug development t... |
5733d91e4776f4190066134b | What could help to spur pharmaceuticals to make new antibiotics? | economic incentives | [
"Antibiotics\n\nPossible improvements include clarification of clinical trial regulations by FDA. Furthermore, appropriate economic incentives could persuade pharmaceutical companies to invest in this endeavor. Antibiotic Development to Advance Patient Treatment (ADAPT) Act aims to fast track the drug development t... |
5733d91e4776f4190066134c | What are resistant bacteria called in the media? | superbugs | [
"Antibiotics\n\nPossible improvements include clarification of clinical trial regulations by FDA. Furthermore, appropriate economic incentives could persuade pharmaceutical companies to invest in this endeavor. Antibiotic Development to Advance Patient Treatment (ADAPT) Act aims to fast track the drug development t... |
5733d91e4776f4190066134d | Who is a director at the Pew Charitable Trusts? | Allan Coukell, | [
"Antibiotics\n\nPossible improvements include clarification of clinical trial regulations by FDA. Furthermore, appropriate economic incentives could persuade pharmaceutical companies to invest in this endeavor. Antibiotic Development to Advance Patient Treatment (ADAPT) Act aims to fast track the drug development t... |
573019dc947a6a140053d0ee | Who are Windows main operating system competitors? | Android and iOS | [
"Windows_8\n\nWindows 8 introduced major changes to the operating system's platform and user interface to improve its user experience on tablets, where Windows was now competing with mobile operating systems, including Android and iOS. In particular, these changes included a touch-optimized Windows shell based on M... |
573019dc947a6a140053d0ef | What new security features does Windows 8 have? | built-in antivirus software, integration with Microsoft SmartScreen phishing filtering service and support for UEFI Secure Boot | [
"Windows_8\n\nWindows 8 introduced major changes to the operating system's platform and user interface to improve its user experience on tablets, where Windows was now competing with mobile operating systems, including Android and iOS. In particular, these changes included a touch-optimized Windows shell based on M... |
573019dc947a6a140053d0f0 | What USB version is Windows 8 compatible with? | 3.0 | [
"Windows_8\n\nWindows 8 introduced major changes to the operating system's platform and user interface to improve its user experience on tablets, where Windows was now competing with mobile operating systems, including Android and iOS. In particular, these changes included a touch-optimized Windows shell based on M... |
573019dc947a6a140053d0f1 | What can be found on the Start screen? | displays programs and dynamically updated content on a grid of tiles | [
"Windows_8\n\nWindows 8 introduced major changes to the operating system's platform and user interface to improve its user experience on tablets, where Windows was now competing with mobile operating systems, including Android and iOS. In particular, these changes included a touch-optimized Windows shell based on M... |
573019dc947a6a140053d0f2 | What services does the Windows Store provide? | an online store for downloading and purchasing new software | [
"Windows_8\n\nWindows 8 introduced major changes to the operating system's platform and user interface to improve its user experience on tablets, where Windows was now competing with mobile operating systems, including Android and iOS. In particular, these changes included a touch-optimized Windows shell based on M... |
57301aafb2c2fd140056887f | What about Windows 8 was well received? | its performance improvements, security enhancements, and improved support for touchscreen devices | [
"Windows_8\n\nWindows 8 was released to a mixed critical reception. Although reaction towards its performance improvements, security enhancements, and improved support for touchscreen devices was positive, the new user interface of the operating system was widely criticized for being potentially confusing and diffi... |
57301aafb2c2fd1400568880 | What were the perceived problems with the new Windows 8 user interface? | being potentially confusing and difficult to learn | [
"Windows_8\n\nWindows 8 was released to a mixed critical reception. Although reaction towards its performance improvements, security enhancements, and improved support for touchscreen devices was positive, the new user interface of the operating system was widely criticized for being potentially confusing and diffi... |
57301aafb2c2fd1400568881 | How many Windows 8 licenses were purchased by January 2013? | 60 million | [
"Windows_8\n\nWindows 8 was released to a mixed critical reception. Although reaction towards its performance improvements, security enhancements, and improved support for touchscreen devices was positive, the new user interface of the operating system was widely criticized for being potentially confusing and diffi... |
57301b71a23a5019007fcd77 | When did Microsoft start creating Windows 8? | before Windows 7 had shipped in 2009 | [
"Windows_8\n\nWindows 8 development started before Windows 7 had shipped in 2009. At the Consumer Electronics Show in January 2011, it was announced that the next version of Windows would add support for ARM system-on-chips alongside the existing x86 processors produced by vendors, especially AMD and Intel. Windows... |
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