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usually refers to those arts that rely essentially on line or tone rather than colour — i.e. drawing and the various forms of engraving. Some writers, however, exclude drawing from |
this definition, so that the term 'graphic art' is used to cover the various processes by which prints are created. In another sense, the term — sometimes shortened to 'graphics' |
— is used to cover the entire field of commercial printing, including text as well as illustrations. A painting done entirely in one colour, usually gray. Grisaille paintings were often |
intended to imitate sculpture. Italian political terms derived from the German Welf, a personal and thence family name of the dukes of Bavaria, and Waiblingen, the name of a castle |
of the Hohenstaufen dukes of Swabia apparently used as a battle cry. Presumably introduced into Italy 1198-1218, when partisans of the Emperor Otto IV (Welf) contested central Italy with supporters |
of Philip of Swabia and his' nephew Frederick II, the terms do not appear in the chronicles until the Emperor Frederick's conflict with the Papacy 1235-50, when Guelf meant a |
supporter of the Pope and Ghibelline a supporter of the Empire. From 1266 to 1268, when Naples was conquered by Charles of Anjou, brother of Louis IX, the French connection |
became the touchstone of Guelfism, and the chain of Guelf alliances stretching from Naples, through central Italy, to Provence and Paris, underwritten by the financial interests of the Tuscan bankers, |
became an abiding feature of European politics. The Italian expeditions of Henry of Luxemburg (1310-13) and Lewis of Bavaria (1327-29) spread the terms to northern Italy, with the Visconti of |
Milan and the della Scala of Verona emerging as the leading Ghibelline powers. Attempts by Guelf propagandists to claim their party as the upholder of liberty and their opponents as |
the protagonists of tyranny rarely coincide with the truth: power politics, then as now, generally overrode ideology in inter-state affairs. Factional struggles had existed within the Italian states from time |
immemorial, the parties taking a multitude of local names. In Florence, however, Guelf and Ghibelline were applied to the local factions which supposedly originated in a feud between the Buondelmonte |
and Amidei clans, c. 1216. In 1266-67 the Guelf party, which had recruited most of the merchant class, finally prevailed over the predominantly noble Ghibellines; after this, internal factions in |
Florence went under other names, like the Blacks and the Whites who contested for control of the commune between 1295 and 1302. Meanwhile the Parte Guelfa had become a corporate |
body whose wealth and moral authority as the guardian of political orthodoxy enabled it to play the part of a powerful pressure group through most of the 14th century. After |
the War of the Eight Saints, the influence of the Parte declined rapidly. Although its palace was rebuilt c. 1418-58 to the designs of Brunelleschi, it had no part in |
the conflicts surrounding the rise of the Medici régime. An association of the masters of a particular craft, trade or profession (painters, goldsmiths, surgeons, and so on) set up to |
protect its members' rights and interests. Such guilds existed in virtually every European city in the 16th century. The guild also monitored standards of work, acted as a court for |
those who brought their trade into disrepute, and provided assistance to members in need. Guilds were essentially associations of masters in particular crafts, trades, or professions. In Italy they go |
back a long way; there is documentary evidence of guilds in 6th century Naples. In origin they were clubs which observed religious festivals together and attended the funerals of their |
members, but in time they acquired other functions. Their economic function was to control standards and to enforce the guild's monopoly of particular activities in a particular territory. Their political |
function was to participate in the government of the city-state. In some cities, notably Florence in the 14th century, only guildsmen were eligible for civic office, thus excluding both noblemen |
(unless they swallowed their pride and joined, as some did), and unskilled workers like the woolcombers and dyers. In Florence in 1378 these groups demanded the right to form their |
own guilds, and there were similar movements of protest in Siena and Bologna. Guilds were also patrons of art, commissioning paintings for guildhalls, contributing to the fabric fund of cathedrals |
and collaborating on collective projects like the statues for Orsanmichele at Florence. The guilds were not equal. In Florence, the 7 'Greater Guilds', including such prestigious occupations as judges and |
bankers, outranked the 14 'Lesser Guilds', and in general the guild hierarchy was reflected in the order of precedence in processions. The great age of the guilds was the 13th |
and 14th centuries. The economic recession after 1348 meant fewer opportunities for journeymen to become masters, and greater hostility between master and man. The shift from trade to land in |
the 15th and 16th centuries meant a decline in the social standing of the crafts. In some towns, such as Brescia and Vicenza, guild membership actually became a disqualification instead |
of a qualification for municipal office. The guilds lost their independence and became instruments of state control. In 16th century Venice, for example, they were made responsible for supplying oarsmen |
for the galleys of the state. Dutch painters who worked in The Hague between 1860 and 1900, producing renderings of local landscapes and the daily activities of local fisherman and |
farmers in the style of Realism. In this they extended the traditional focus on genre of the 17th-century Dutch masters with the fresh observation of their contemporary French counterparts, the |
Barbizon school. The group included Jozef Israëls; Hendrik Willem Mesdag; Jan Hendrik Weissenbruch; Jacob Maris, Matthijs Maris, and Willem Maris; Johannes Bosboom; and Anton Mauve. In a drawing, print or |
painting, a series of close parallel lines that create the effect of shadow, and therefore contour and three-dimensionality In crosshatching the lines overlap. the study of the meaning of emblems |
and coats of arms, with the rules governing their use. The heretical movements affecting Italy between the mid-12th and the mid-14th century had their main impact in an area covering |
the north-west of the peninsula and southern France: it is not possible to speak of distinct Italian and meridional French movements. The authentically Christian movements which were expelled from the |
Catholic Church must in the first instance be distinguished from Catharism, which represented an infiltration by the originally non-Christian dualist system of Manichaeanism; from the start, the Cathars were an |
anti-church. By contrast, the Waldensian, Spiritual and Joachimite movements appeared initially as vital manifestations of Catholicism; only after their condemnation by the ecclesiastical authorities do they seem to have developed |
notably eccentric doctrines and to have described themselves as the true Church in opposition to the institutional Church; they had a recognizable kinship with movements that remained within the pale |
of orthodoxy. These Christian heresies had in common an attachment to the ideal of apostolic poverty, which came to be seen by the ecclesiastical authorities as a challenge to the |
institutionalized Church. The Waldensians or Valdesi (not to be confused with Valdesiani, the followers of Juan de Valdes, d. 1541) took their origin from the Poor Men of Lyons, founded |
by Peter Valdes or Waldo in the 1170s. They were distinguished by a strong attachment to the Bible and a desire to imitate Christ's poverty. At first approved by the |
Papacy as an order of laymen, they were condemned in 1184. Likewise condemned was the rather similar Lombard movement of the Humiliati. One stream of these remained as an approved |
order within the Catholic Church, while others merged with the Waldensians. The Waldensians came to teach that the sacraments could be administered validly only by the pure, i.e: only by |
Waldensian superiors or perfecti practising evangelical poverty. Alone among the heretical sects existing in Italy they were organized as a church, and regarded themselves as forming, together with brethren north |
of the Alps, one great missionary community. They spread all over western and central Europe but in the long term they came to be largely confined to the Rhaetian and |
Cottian Alps (the Grisons and Savoy). The Italian Waldensians in the 16th century resisted absorption by Reformed Protestantism. The early Franciscans might be regarded as a movement, similar in character |
to the Poor Men of Lyons, which was won for the cause of Catholic orthodoxy. However, divisions within the order over the issue of poverty led to religious dissidence. The |
Spirituals held up the ideal of strict poverty as obligatory for Franciscans and, indeed, normative for churchmen; following the Papacy's recognition of the Franciscan order as a property-owning body in |
1322-23, their position became one of criticism of the institutional Church as such. Their heresies came to incorporate the millenarian doctrines of the 12th century abbot Joachim of Fiore. He |
had prophesied a coming age of the Holy Spirit ushered in by Spiritual monks; his heretical followers prophesied a new Spiritual gospel that would supersede the Bible. Joachimite Spiritualists came |
to see the pope, head of the 'carnal Church', as Antichrist. The main impact of the movement upon the laity was in southern France; in Italy it was an affair |
of various groups of fraticelli de paupere vita (little friars of the poor life), mainly in the south. A courtesan of ancient Greece. There may have been one or two |
hetaira called Lais in ancient Corinth. One was the model of the celebrated painter Apelles. prepared throne, Preparation of the Throne, ready throne or Throne of the Second Coming is |
the Christian version of the symbolic subject of the empty throne found in the art of the ancient world. In the Middle Byzantine period, from about 1000, it came to |
represent more specifically the throne prepared for the Second Coming of Christ, a meaning it has retained in Eastern Orthodox art to the present. Painting concerned with the representation of |
scenes from the Bible, history (usually classical history), and classical literature. From the Renaissance to the 19th century it was considered the highest form of painting, its subjects considered morally |
elevating. a representation of the Virgin and Child in a fenced garden, sometimes accompanied by a group of female saints. The garden is a symbolic allusion to a phrase in |
the Song of Songs (4:12): 'A garden enclosed is my sister, my spouse'. group of American landscape painters, working from 1825 to 1875. The 19th-century romantic movements of England, Germany, |
and France were introduced to the United States by such writers as Washington Irving and James Fenimore Cooper. At the same time, American painters were studying in Rome, absorbing much |
of the romantic aesthetic of the European painters. Adapting the European ideas about nature to a growing pride in the beauty of their homeland, for the first time a number |
of American artists began to devote themselves to landscape painting instead of portraiture. First of the group of artists properly classified with the Hudson River school was Thomas Doughty; his |
tranquil works greatly influenced later artists of the school. Thomas Cole, whose dramatic and colourful landscapes are among the most impressive of the school, may be said to have been |
its leader during the group's most active years. Among the other important painters of the school are Asher B. Durand, J. F. Kensett, S. F. B. Morse, Henry Inman, Jasper |
Cropsey, Frederick E. Church, and, in his earlier work, George Inness. philosophical movement which started in Italy in the mid-14th century, and which drew on antiquity to make man the |
focal point. In humanism, the formative spiritual attitude of the Renaissance, the emancipation of man from God took place. It went hand in hand with a search for new insights |
into the spiritual and scientific workings of this world. The humanists paid particular attention to the rediscovery and nurture of the Greek and Latin languages and literature. To this day |
A Companion to Latin American History January 2008, Wiley-Blackwell This price is valid for United States. Change location to view local pricing and availability. This is a Print-on-Demand title. It |
will be printed specifically to fill your order. Please allow an additional 5-6 days delivery time. The book is not returnable. The Companion to Latin American History collects the work |
of leading experts in the field to create a single-source overview of the diverse history and current trends in the study of Latin America. - Presents a state-of-the-art overview of |
the history of Latin America - Written by the top international experts in the field - 28 chapters come together as a superlative single source of information for scholars and |
Henry Evans is a mute quadriplegic, having suffered a stroke when he was just 40 years old. Following extensive therapy, Henry regained the ability to move his head and use |
a finger, which allows him to operate computers. Last year, Henry caught a TV interview of Georgia Tech Professor Charlie Kemp showing research with the Willow Garage PR2 robot. Willow |
Garage and Professor Kemp were contacted by Henry shortly afterwards, and we have been collaborating since then. We are currently exploring ways for Henry to use a PR2 robot as |
his surrogate. Every day, people take for granted the simple act of scratching an itch. In Henry's case, 2-3 times every hour of every day he gets an itch he |
can't scratch. With the aid of a PR2, Henry was able to scratch an itch for himself for the first time in 10 years. While this is only a first |
step, it demonstrates how people with severe physical disabilities could use personal robots to gain independence. In another example, Henry recently used the PR2 to shave his cheek. We are |
actively researching ways for Henry and others to perform tasks like these on a daily basis. Currently, Henry uses a head tracker to operate a variety of experimental user interfaces. |
These interfaces allow him to directly move the robot's body, including its arms and head. They also let him invoke autonomous actions, such as navigating in a room and reaching |
out to a location. Robots that complement human abilities are extremely valuable, especially when they help us do things that we can't do by ourselves. Our goal is to get |
robots in homes to help people like Henry and Jane Evans. This is just the beginning. Leila Takayama Recognized by MIT Technology Review's TR35 Listing of the World's Top Young |
A California-based company is attempting to introduce expert crowdsourcing to oncology to try and ensure that each cancer patient gets the most appropriate treatment. Commons brings together leading physicians and scientists in each type of cancer to create an open-source wiki-style database that will catalogue the dif... |
based on the hypothesis that every patient's tumour is, to some extent, unique. Although most cancer drugs are tested individually in large-scale clinical trials, the majority of physicians (70 percent) prescribe cocktails of drugs based on their individual experience and particular genomic subtype of the cancer. By ca... |
them with the large scale clinical trials and studies -- physicians might be able to more efficiently find the most appropriate treatment for their patients. Cancer Commons was set up by Jay "Marty" Tenenbaum -- a Silicon Valley entrepreneur and cancer survivor who founded a range of e-commerce companies including Comm... |
conduct a commercial internet transaction, in 1992. More recently he has focused on transforming healthcare, launching CollabRx, which uses computers to personalise cancer treatments and accelerate research (and which powers Cancer Commons). Tenenbaum argues that there are thousands of studies that are published each y... |
"trials" being conducted by doctors (some 30,000 oncologists in the US, where the program is limited to for the time being) who are experimenting with different cocktails of drugs on their patients. Without one central place to store and access these studies, scientific and clinical advancement in this field is being a... |
supply their data to the site, rather than hold out for a career-making article in a peer-reviewed journal. Tenenbaum is frustrated by how little data is shared between peers and hopes that Cancer Commons could mark the dawn of a new era of open-source science. Tenenbaum told Wired.co.uk: "There is lots of talking in f... |
in one place and expedite the process through which science turns into The first stage of Cancer Commons is to create a database where each different type of cancer has a "Molecular Disease Model" (MDM) -- an expert-curated reference node that catalogues the known molecular subtypes of a particular cancer, linked to re... |
Each is akin to a dynamic research paper that reflects the latest scientific, clinical and technological advancements. A rapid submission and dissemination process allows each MDM to be maintained online and continuously updated by cancer specialists and moderated by editors. The project is governed by an editorial boa... |
of Journal of the American Medical Association and of WebMD's online properties and e-Medicine -- include a former FDA Commissioner, a former editor of Science and a former president of the American Society of So far, only one model has been created, for melanoma. It incorporates 78,185 abstracts from research papers a... |
field. Some 11 expert editors have been assigned to that particular MDM, including Dr David Fisher, the head of the dermatology at Harvard Medical School and Dr Keith Flaherty, from the department of medicine at Harvard Medical School. Over the coming year the plan is to create MDMs for other cancers including lung, br... |
In order to harness the power of the MDM, CollabRx is developing apps that tap into the data to aid decision-making. For example, the "Targeted Therapy Finder" can be used by doctors to help identify genetic tests that map an individual tumour's unique characteristics, and then select potential treatments based on the ... |
of tests that'll help narrow down the particular subtype of cancer being dealt with (as categorised by the MDM), and therefore find out which treatments are the most promising. They can then find information about trials that are looking for patients with that particular subtype. The view is to develop further apps tha... |
then collaboratively analyse them to fine-tune the MDMs. Tenenbaum would also like to see patients report how they're responding to treatments. He tells Wired.co.uk: "Over time I'd like the results of lab tests to go directly into the database." He doesn't underestimate the enormity of the task, admitting that not all ... |
"almost certainly be incomplete and wrong in places". He adds: "We don't pretend that we are going to cure cancer. But we ought to be able to improve the outcomes for some patients." Tenenbaum wants to make applications that are so compelling to doctors that they'll have to use them to stay relevant in their fields. "I... |
Robb Godshaw, from Syynlabs, has created a haptic cube that gives you an impression of what the temperature will be like tomorrow. The cube, which Godshaw has named the Cryoscope, consists of an aluminium shell surrounding a Peltier element, heatsink, |
cooling fan and an LED, all controlled by an Arduino. The cube is heated to a "neutral" state of 30C, and then adjusted by the number of degrees that the next day's forecast differs from room temperature (23C). It takes |
into account wind chill and humidity to give an idea what the following day will "feel" like, rather than merely reflecting air temperature. So, for example, if the forecast for the next day is for 18C, once those factors are |
all taken into account, the cube's temperature will decrease five degrees from 30C to 25C, resulting in it being slightly cool to the touch. Godshaw describes it in the video above as a "haptic weathervane", adding: "Users enter their location |
into a web app. The cube then automatically adjusts to the forecasted temperature. By touching the Cryoscope, the user is able to feel tomorrow's air You can see the Cryoscope in action over on Godshaw's website. Updated 08:29 09/05/2012: Godshaw |
Odd Wisconsin Archive Today marks the 25th anniversary of the first AIDS diagnosis, a gruesome fact but one which, like every other, has a historical context. Epidemics have swept through human communities for about 10,000 years, and Wisconsin has had |
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