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the Wright Brothers (d. 1963) - November 22 - November 24 - December 3 – Richard Pearse, New Zealand airplane pioneer (d. 1953) - December 24 – Sigrid Schauman, Finnish painter (d. 1979) - January 2 – Alexander Bain, Scottish |
inventor (b. 1811) - January 4 – Cornelius Vanderbilt, American entrepreneur (b. 1794) - January 20 – Dato Maharajalela Lela, Malay nationalist. - February 20 – Louis M. Goldsborough, United States Navy admiral (b. 1805) - March 1 – Antoni |
Patek, Polish watchmaker (b. 1811) - March 24 – Walter Bagehot, British businessman, essayist and journalist (b. 1826) - May 26 – Kido Takayoshi, Japanese statesman (b. 1833) - June 3 - June 22 – John R. Goldsborough, United States |
Navy commodore (b. 1809) - July 16 &ndash Samuel McLean, American congressman (b. 1826 - July 27 – John Frost, British Chartist leader (b. 1784) - August 8 – William Lovett, British Chartist leader (b. 1800) - August 29 – |
Brigham Young, American Mormon leader (b. 1801) - August 30 – Raphael Semmes, American and Confederate naval officer (b.1809) - September 2 – Constantine Kanaris, Greek politician (b. 1795) - September 3 – Adolphe Thiers, French historian and politician (b. |
1797) - September 5 – Crazy Horse, Oglala Sioux chief (b. 1849) - September 17 – William Fox Talbot, English photographer (b. 1800) - September 24 – Saigō Takamori, samurai (b. 1827) - October 3 – James Roosevelt Bayley, first |
Bishop of Newark, New Jersey, and the eighth Archbishop of Baltimore (b. 1814) - October 16 – Théodore Barrière, French dramatist (b. 1823) - October 29 – Nathan Bedford Forrest, American Confederate Civil War General - November 2 – Friedrich |
Graf von Wrangel, Prussian field marshal (b. 1784) - December 12 – José de Alencar, Brazilian novelist (b. 1829) - December 31 – Gustave Courbet, French painter (b. 1819) - Everett, Jason M., ed. (2006). "1877". The People's Chronology. Thomson |
Gale. Archived from the original on 27 May 2007. Retrieved 2007-05-26. - Bruce, Robert V. (1959). 1877: Year of Violence. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill. - Hanssen, Jens-Morten (2001-08-10). "Facts about Pillars of Society". Ibsen.net. Retrieved 2013-02-08. |
In library science, authority control is a process that organizes library catalog and bibliographic information by using a single, distinct name for each topic. These one-of-a-kind headings are applied consistently throughout the catalog, and work with other organizing data such as linkages and cross references. Each h... |
maintain the catalog and make it user-friendly for researchers. The word authority in authority control derives from its initial use in identifying authors, and does not have the usual meaning of authority as a power relationship, although both senses of the word authority are related etymologically. Cataloguers assign... |
used consistently, uniquely, and unambiguously to describe all references to that same subject, even if there are variations such as different spellings, pen names, or aliases. The unique header can guide users to all relevant information including related or collocated subjects. Authority records can be combined into ... |
linkages" to other files within them is the work of librarians and other information cataloguers. Accordingly, authority control is an example of controlled vocabulary and of bibliographic control. While in theory any piece of information is amenable to authority control such as personal and corporate names, uniform ti... |
the Library of Congress fulfill a function similar to authority records, although they are usually considered separately. As time passes, information changes, prompting needs for reorganization. According to one view, authority control is not about creating a perfect seamless system but rather it is an ongoing effort t... |
helping users find information. - Better researching. Authority control helps researchers get a handle on a specific subject with less wasted effort. A well-designed digital catalog/database enables a researcher to query a few words of an entry to bring up the already established term or phrase, thus improving accuracy... |
keyword searching using "and" or "not" or "or" or other Boolean operators on a web browser. It increases chances that a given search will return relevant items. - Consistency of records. - Organization and structure of information. - Efficiency for cataloguers. The process of authority control is not only of great help... |
help cataloguers organize information as well. Cataloguers can use authority records when trying to categorize new items, since they can see which records have already been catalogued and can therefore avoid unnecessary work. - Maximises library resources. - Easier to maintain the catalog. It enables cataloguers to det... |
do ongoing tasks such as automated clean-up. It helps creators and users of metadata. - Fewer errors. It can help catch errors caused by typos or misspellings which can sometimes accumulate over time, sometimes known as quality drift. For example, machines can catch misspellings such as "Elementary school techers" and ... |
subject Sometimes within a catalog there are different names or spellings for only one person or subject. This can bring confusion since researchers may miss some information. Authority control is used by cataloguers to collocate materials that logically belong together but which present themselves differently. Records... |
even when such versions are issued under different titles. With authority control, one unique preferred name represents all variations and will include different variations, spellings and misspellings, uppercase versus lowercase variants, differing dates, and so forth. For example, in Wikipedia, the subject of Princess... |
and Diana, Princess of Wales describe the same person; an authority record would choose one title as the preferred one for consistency. In an online library catalog, various entries might look like the following: - Diana. (1) - Diana, Princess of Wales. (1) - Diana, Princess of Wales, 1961–1997 (13) - Diana, Princess o... |
by different national libraries, possibly inviting confusion, but there are different approaches internationally to try to lessen the confusion. One international effort to prevent such confusion is the Virtual International Authority File which is a collaborative attempt to provide a single heading for a particular su... |
the United States Library of Congress. The idea is to create a single worldwide virtual authority file. For example, the German National Library's term for Princess Diana is Diana Wales, Prinzessin 1961-1997 while the United States Library of Congress prefers the term Diana, Princess of Wales, 1961-1997; other national... |
is VIAF ID: 107032638—that is, a common number representing all of these variations. Wikipedia prefers the term Diana, Princess of Wales, but at the bottom of Wikipedia's page about her, there are links to various international cataloguing efforts for reference purposes. Same name describes two different subjects Somet... |
a title which is identical to another title or to a collective uniform title. This, too, can cause confusion. Different authors can be distinguished correctly from each other by, for example, adding a middle initial to one of the names; in addition, other information can be added to one entry to clarify the subject, su... |
such as 1918–1965 when the person flourished, or a brief descriptive epithet. When cataloguers come across different subjects with similar or identical headings, they can disambiguate them using authority control. Authority records and files A customary way of enforcing authority control in a bibliographic catalog is t... |
the main catalog. This separate index is often referred to as an "authority file." It contains an indexable record of all decisions made by cataloguers in a given library (or—as is increasingly the case—cataloguing consortium), which cataloguers consult when making, or revising, decisions about headings. As a result, t... |
information discovered while researching the heading which may be useful. While authority files provide information about a particular subject, their primary function is not to provide information but to organize it. They contain enough information to establish that a given author or title is unique, but that is all; i... |
English-speaking world generally contain: - Headings show the preferred title chosen as the official and authorized version. It is important that the heading be unique; if there is a conflict with an identical heading, then one of the two will have to be chosen: Since the headings function as access points, making sure... |
is important. For example, the English novelist William Collins (1824–89), whose works include the Moonstone and The Woman in White is better known as Wilkie Collins. Cataloguers have to decide which name the public would most likely look under, and whether to use a see also reference to link alternative forms of an in... |
or title that might appear in the catalog and include: - see references are forms of the name or title that describe the subject but which have been passed over or deprecated in favor of the authorized heading form - see also references point to other forms of the name or title that are also authorized. These see also ... |
or later forms of a name or title. - Statement(s) of justification is a brief account made by the cataloguer about particular information sources used to determine both authorized and deprecated forms. Sometimes this means citing the title and publication date of the source, the location of the name or title on that so... |
For example, the Irish writer Brian O'Nolan, who lived from 1911 to 1966, wrote under many pen names such as Flann O'Brien and Myles na Gopaleen. Catalogers at the United States Library of Congress chose one form—"O'Brien, Flann, 1911–1966"—as the official heading. The example contains all three elements of a valid aut... |
name that the Library of Congress chose as authoritative. In theory, every record in the catalog that represents a work by this author should have this form of the name as its author heading. What follows immediately below the heading beginning with Na Gopaleen, Myles, 1911–1966 are the see references. These forms of t... |
transcriptions and not as headings. If a user queries the catalog under one of these variant forms of the author's name, he or she would receive the response: "See O’Brien, Flann, 1911–1966." There is an additional spelling variant of the Gopaleen name: "Na gCopaleen, Myles, 1911–1966" has an extra C inserted because t... |
which the capitalized C shows the correct root word while the preceding g indicates its pronunciation in context. So if a library user comes across this spelling variant, he or she will be led to the same author regardless. See also references, which point from one authorized heading to another authorized heading, are ... |
in name authority records for corporate bodies. The final four entries in this record beginning with His At Swim-Two-Birds ... 1939. constitute the justification for this particular form of the name: it appeared in this form on the 1939 edition of the author's novel At Swim-Two-Birds, whereas the author's other noms de... |
single authorized heading to represent all forms of a name is often difficult, sometimes arbitrary and on occasion politically sensitive. An alternative is the idea of access control, where variant forms of a name are related without the endorsement of one particular form. Authority control and cooperative cataloging B... |
library's authority files was generally carried out by individual cataloging departments within each library—that is, if such cataloguing was done at all. This often resulted in substantial disagreement between different libraries over which form of a given name was considered authoritative. As long as a library's cata... |
way libraries go about cataloging their materials, catalogers began moving toward the establishment of cooperative consortia, such as OCLC and RLIN in the United States, in which cataloging departments from libraries all over the world contributed their records to, and took their records from, a shared database. This d... |
primary organization for maintaining cataloging standards with respect to authority work operates under the aegis of the Library of Congress, and is known as the Name Authority Cooperative Program, or NACO Authority. There are various standards using different acronyms. - ISAAR (CPF) – International Standard Archival A... |
standards for authority records in machine-readable format. - Metadata Authority Description Schema (MADS), an XML schema for an authority element set that may be used to provide metadata about agents (people, organizations), events, and terms (topics, geographics, genres, etc.). - Encoded Archival Context, an XML sche... |
Ontology (information science) - Simple Knowledge Organization System (SKOS) for representation of thesauri, classification schemes, taxonomies, subject-heading systems, or any other type of structured controlled vocabulary. - Universal Authority File (Gemeinsame Normdatei or GND), authority file by the German National... |
Contributor ID), a nonproprietary alphanumeric code to uniquely identify scientific and other academic authors. Authors - including Wikipedia editors - may obtain an ORCID by signing up at orcid.org. - Block, Rick J. 1999. “Authority Control: What It Is and Why It Matters.”, accessed March 30, 2006 - "Why Does a Librar... |
2012. - "Authority Control at the NMSU Library". New Mexico State University. November 25, 2012. - "Authority Control in the Card Environment". government of Vermont. November 25, 2012. Retrieved November 25, 2012. - Kathleen L. Wells of the University of Southern Mississippi Libraries (November 25, 2012). "Got Authori... |
7, 2012. Retrieved 2012-12-07. "... Note: root words for both author and authority are words such as auctor or autor and autorite from the 13th century. -- author (n) c.1300, autor "father," from O.Fr. auctor, acteor "author, originator, creator, instigator (12c., Mod.Fr. auteur), from L. auctorem (nom. auctor) ... -- ... |
auctorité "authority, prestige, right, permission, dignity, gravity; the Scriptures" (12c.; Mod.Fr. autorité), ... (see author). ..." - "authority (control)". Memidex. December 7, 2012. Retrieved 2012-12-07. "Etymology ... autorite "book or quotation that settles an argument", from Old French auctorité..." - "authority... |
decision, power, from auctor First Known Use: 13th century..." - "Cataloguing authority control policy". National Library of Australia. November 25, 2012. "The primary purpose of authority control is to assist the catalogue user in locating items of interest." - "Authority Control at LTI". LTI. November 25, 2012. - "br... |
WorkFlows August 2001". Rutgers University. November 25, 2012. "Why Authority Control?" - Burger, Robert H. Authority Work: the Creation, Use, Maintenance and Evaluation of Authority Records and Files. Littleton, Colo. : Libraries Unlimited, 1985 - Clack, Doris Hargrett. Authority Control: Principles, Applications, and... |
2002. - Calhoun, Karen (June 1998). "A Bird's Eye View of Authority Control in Cataloging". Cornell University Library. Retrieved November 25, 2012. - Virtual International Authority File records for Princess Diana, retrieved March 12, 2013 - Note: this is the article title as of March 12, 2013 - Mason, Moya K (Novembe... |
Introduction to Cataloguing and Classification (8th ed.), Littleton, CO: Libraries Unlimited. - Authorities files, Library of Congress; the original record has been abbreviated for clarity. - Calhoun, Karen, A Bird's Eye View of Authority Control in Cataloging, Cornell University Library. - Note: See Linda Barnhart's A... |
||This article needs additional citations for verification. (April 2008)| A blackboard (UK English) or chalkboard (US English) is a reuseable writing surface on which text or drawings are made with sticks of calcium sulfate or calcium carbonate, known, when used for this purpose, as chalk. Blackboards were originally m... |
smooth, thin sheets of black or dark grey slate stone. Modern versions are often green because the color is considered easier on the eyes. A blackboard can simply be a piece of board painted with matte dark paint (usually black or dark green). A more modern variation consists of a |
coiled sheet of plastic drawn across two parallel rollers, which can be scrolled to create additional writing space while saving what has been written. The highest grade blackboards are made of a rougher version porcelain enamelled steel (black, green, blue or sometimes other colours). Porcelain is very hard wearing an... |
blackboards made of porcelain usually last 10–20 years in intensive use. Lecture theatres may contain a number of blackboards in a grid arrangement. The lecturer then moves boards into reach for writing and then move them out of reach, allowing a large amount of material to be shown simultaneously. The |
chalk marks can be easily wiped off with a damp cloth, a sponge or a special blackboard eraser consisting of a block of wood covered by a felt pad. However, chalk marks made on some types of wet blackboard can be difficult to remove. Blackboard manufacturers often advise that a |
new or newly resurfaced blackboard be completely covered using the side of a stick of chalk and then that chalk brushed off as normal to prepare it for use. Chalk sticks Sticks of processed "chalk" are produced especially for use with blackboards in white and also in various colours. These |
are not actually made from chalk rock but from calcium sulfate in its dihydrate form, gypsum. Advantages and disadvantages As compared to whiteboards, blackboards have a variety of advantages: - Chalk requires no special care; whiteboard markers must be capped or else they dry out. - Chalk is an order |
of magnitude cheaper than whiteboard markers for a comparable amount of writing. - It is easier to draw lines of different weights and thicknesses with chalk than with whiteboard markers. - Chalk has a mild smell, whereas whiteboard markers often have a pungent odor. - Chalk writing often provides better |
contrast than whiteboard markers. On the other hand, chalk produces dust, the amount depending on the quality of chalk used. Some people find this uncomfortable or may be allergic to it, and according to the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology (AAAAI), there are links between chalk dust and |
allergy and asthma problems. The dust also precludes the use of chalk in areas shared with dust-sensitive equipment such as computers. The scratching of fingernails on a blackboard, as well as other pointed, especially metal objects against blackboards, produces a sound that is well known for being extremely irritating... |
most people. Many are averse also to merely the sight or thought of this sort of contact. Etymology and history They use black tablets for the children in the schools, and write upon them along the long side, not the broadside, writing with a white material from the left to |
the right. The first classroom uses of large blackboards are difficult to date, but they were used for music education and composition in Europe as far back as the sixteenth century. The term "blackboard" is attested in English from the mid-eighteenth century; the Oxford English Dictionary provides a citation from |
1739, to write "with Chalk on a black-Board". The term "chalkboard" was used interchangeably with "blackboard" in the United Kingdom in the early nineteenth century, but by the twentieth century had become primarily restricted to North American English. The blackboard was introduced into the US education system from Eu... |
1801. This occurred at West Point, where George Baron, an English mathematician, used chalk and blackboard in a lecture on September 21. James Pillans has been credited with the invention of coloured chalk (1814): he had a recipe with ground chalk, dyes and porridge. See also |Look up blackboard or |
chalkboard in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.| |Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Blackboards| - Chalkboard gag from The Simpsons - Interactive whiteboard - Sidewalk chalk - Sound of fingernails scraping chalkboard - WebMD. "Reading, Writing, and Wheezing? Not Necessarily". Asthma Health Center. WebMD. Retrieved... |
of "Alberuni's India. An account of the religion, philosophy, literature, geography, chronology, astronomy, customs, laws and astrology of India about A.D. 1030"". - Owens, Jessie Ann. Composers at Work: The Craft of Musical Composition, 1450-1600. Oxford University Press, 1998. - Entry for blackboard, n, in the Oxford... |
ed., 2011) - Entry for chalkboard, n, in the Oxford English Dictionary (Third ed., 2011) - Stephen E. Ambrose (1 December 1999). Duty, Honor, Country: A History of West Point. JHU Press. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-8018-6293-9. Retrieved 14 February 2013. - Jo Swinnerton (30 September 2005). The History of Britain |
A textbook or coursebook is a manual of instruction in any branch of study. Textbooks are produced according to the demands of educational institutions. Although most textbooks are only published in printed format, many are now available as online electronic books and increasingly, although illegally, in scanned format... |
sharing networks. The ancient Greeks wrote texts intended for education. The modern textbook has its roots in the standardization made possible by the printing press. Johannes Gutenberg himself may have printed editions of Ars Minor, a schoolbook on Latin grammar by Aelius Donatus. Early textbooks were used by tutors a... |
teachers, who used the books as instructional aids (e.g., alphabet books), as well as individuals who taught themselves. The Greek philosopher Socrates (469-399 B.C.) lamented the loss of knowledge because the media of transmission were changing. Before the invention of the Greek alphabet 2,500 years ago, knowledge and... |
recited aloud, much like Homer's epic poems. The new technology of writing meant stories no longer needed to be memorized, a development Socrates feared would weaken the Greeks' mental capacities for memorizing and retelling. (Paradoxically, we know about Socrates' concerns only because they were written down by his st... |
in his famous Dialogues.) The next revolution for books came with the 15th-century invention of printing with changeable type. The invention is attributed to German metalsmith Johannes Gutenberg, who cast type in molds using a melted metal alloy and constructed a wooden-screw printing press to transfer the image onto p... |
possible for the first time. Although the Gutenberg Bible itself was stratospherically expensive, printed books began to spread widely over European trade routes during the next 50 years, and by the 16th century printed books had become more widely accessible and less costly. Compulsory education and the subsequent gro... |
schooling in Europe led to the printing of many standardized texts for children. Textbooks have become the primary teaching instrument for most children since the 19th century. Two textbooks of historical significance in United States schooling were the 18th century New England Primer and the 19th century McGuffey Read... |
advances change the way people interact with textbooks. Online and digital materials are making it increasingly easy for students to access materials other than the traditional print textbook. Students now have access to electronic and PDF books, online tutoring systems and video lectures. An example of e-book publishi... |
of Biology from Nature Publishing. Most notably, an increasing number of authors are foregoing commercial publishers and offering their textbooks under a creative commons or other open license. The New York Times recently endorsed the use of free, open, digital textbooks in the editorial "That book costs how much?" The |
"broken market" The textbook market does not operate in exactly the same manner as most consumer markets. First, the end consumers (students) do not select the product, and the product is not purchased by faculty or professors. Therefore, price is removed from the purchasing decision, giving the producer (publishers) d... |
market power to set prices high. Similarities are found in the pharmaceutical industry, which sells its wares to doctors, rather than the ultimate end-user (i.e. patient). This fundamental difference in the market is often cited as the primary reason that prices are out of control. The term "Broken Market" first |
appeared in Economist James Koch's analysis of the market commissioned by the Advisory Committee on Student Financial Assistance. This situation is exacerbated by the lack of competition in the textbook market. Consolidation in the past few decades[when?] has reduced the number of major textbook companies from around 3... |
a handful. Consequently, there is less competition than there used to be, and the high cost of starting up 'keeps new companies from entering. New editions & the used book market Students seek relief from rising prices through the purchase of used copies of textbooks, which tend to be less |
expensive. Most college bookstores offer used copies of textbooks at lower prices. Most bookstores will also buy used copies back from students at the end of a term if the book is going to be re-used at the school. Books that are not being re-used at the school are often |
purchased by an off-campus wholesaler for 0-30% of the new cost, for distribution to other bookstores where the books will be sold. Textbook companies have countered this by encouraging faculty to assign homework that must be done on the publisher's website. If a student has a new textbook then he |
or she can use the pass code in the book to register on the site. If the student has purchased a used textbook then he or she must pay money directly to the publisher in order to access the website and complete assigned homework. Students who look beyond the campus |
bookstore can typically find lower prices. With the ISBN or title, author and edition, most textbooks can be located through online used book sellers or retailers. Most leading textbook companies publish a new edition every 3 or 4 years, more frequently in math & science. Harvard economics chair James K. |
Stock has stated that new editions are often not about significant improvements to the content. "New editions are to a considerable extent simply another tool used by publishers and textbook authors to maintain their revenue stream, that is, to keep up prices," A study conducted by The Student PIRGs found |
that a new edition costs 12% more than a new copy of previous edition, and 58% more than a used copy of the previous edition. Textbook publishers maintain these new editions are driven by faculty demand. The Student PIRGs' study found that 76% of faculty said new editions were justified |
electronic textbooks, or "eTextbooks," does not always save students money. Even though the book costs less up-front, the student will not recover any of the cost through resale. Another publishing industry practice that has been highly criticized is "bundling," or shrink-wrapping supplemental items into a textbook. Su... |
CD-ROMs and workbooks to online passcodes and bonus material. Students do not always have the option to purchase these items separately, and often the one-time-use supplements destroy the resale value of the textbook. According to the Student PIRGs, the typical bundled textbook is 10%-50% more than an unbundled textboo... |
65% of professors said they “rarely” or “never” use the bundled items in their courses. A 2005 Government Accountability Office (GAO) Report found that the production of these supplemental items was the primary cause of rapidly increasing prices: While publishers, retailers, and wholesalers all play a role in textbook ... |
the primary factor contributing to increases in the price of textbooks has been the increased investment publishers have made in new products to enhance instruction and learning...While wholesalers, retailers, and others do not question the quality of these materials, they have expressed concern that the publishers’ pr... |
with a textbook to sell as one unit limits the opportunity students have to purchase less expensive used books....If publishers continue to increase these investments, particularly in technology, the cost to produce a textbook is likely to continue to increase in the future. Bundling has also been used as a |
means of segmenting the used book market. Each combination of a textbook and supplemental items receives a separate ISBN. A single textbook could therefore have dozens of ISBNs that denote different combinations of supplements packaged with that particular book. When a bookstore attempts to track down used copies of te... |
they will search for the ISBN the course instructor orders, which will locate only a subset of the copies of the textbook. Legislation on the state and federal level seeks to limit the practice of bundling, by requiring publishers to offer all components separately. Publishers have testified in favor of |
bills including this provision, but only in the case that the provision exempts the loosely defined category of "integrated textbooks." The Federal bill only exempts 3rd party materials in integrated textbooks, however publisher lobbyists have attempted to create a loophole through this definition in state bills. Price... |
the problem of high textbook prices is linked to the "broken" economics of the market, requiring publishers to disclose textbook prices to faculty is a solution pursued by a number of legislatures. By inserting price into sales interactions, this regulation will supposedly make the economic forces operate more normally... |
data suggests that this is in fact true. However, The Student PIRGs have found that publishers actively withhold pricing information from faculty, making it difficult to obtain. Their most recent study found that 77% of faculty say publisher sales representatives do not volunteer prices, and only 40% got an answer |
when they directly asked. Furthermore, the study found that 23% of faculty rated publisher websites as “informative and easy to use” and less than half said they typically listed the price. The US Congress passed a law in the 2008 Higher Education Opportunity Act that would require price disclosure. Legislation |
requiring price disclosure has passed in Connecticut, Washington, Minnesota, Oregon, Arizona, Oklahoma, and Colorado. Publishers are currently supporting price disclosure mandates, though they insist that the "suggested retail price" should be disclosed, rather than the actual price the publisher would get for the book... |
is purchased from a retailer for the first time, there are several ways a student can sell his/her textbooks back at the end of the semester. Students can sell to 1) the college/university bookstore; 2) fellow students; or 3) a number of online Web sites or student swap service. Campus |
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