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the characteristics of these facilities, such as marketers and electricity generators. There are several volumetric measures used to quantify the fundamental characteristics of an underground storage facility and the gas |
contained within it. For some of these measures, it is important to distinguish between the characteristic of a facility such as its capacity, and the characteristic of the gas within |
the facility such as the actual inventory level. These measures are as follows: Total gas storage capacity is the maximum volume of gas that can be stored in an underground |
storage facility in accordance with its design, which comprises the physical characteristics of the reservoir, installed equipment, and operating procedures particular to the site. Total gas in storage is the |
volume of storage in the underground facility at a particular time. Base gas (or cushion gas) is the volume of gas intended as permanent inventory in a storage reservoir to |
maintain adequate pressure and deliverability rates throughout the withdrawal season. Working gas capacity refers to total gas storage capacity minus base gas. Working gas is the volume of gas in |
the reservoir above the level of base gas. Working gas is available to the marketplace. Deliverability is most often expressed as a measure of the amount of gas that can |
be delivered (withdrawn) from a storage facility on a daily basis. Also referred to as the deliverability rate, withdrawal rate, or withdrawal capacity, deliverability is usually expressed in terms of |
millions of cubic feet per day (MMcf/day). Occasionally, deliverability is expressed in terms of equivalent heat content of the gas withdrawn from the facility, most often in dekatherms per day |
(a therm is 100,000 Btu, which is roughly equivalent to 100 cubic feet of natural gas; a dekatherm is the equivalent of about one thousand cubic feet (Mcf)). The deliverability |
of a given storage facility is variable, and depends on factors such as the amount of gas in the reservoir at any particular time, the pressure within the reservoir, compression |
capability available to the reservoir, the configuration and capabilities of surface facilities associated with the reservoir, and other factors. In general, a facility's deliverability rate varies directly with the total |
amount of gas in the reservoir: it is at its highest when the reservoir is most full and declines as working gas is withdrawn. Injection capacity (or rate) is the |
complement of the deliverability or withdrawal rate-it is the amount of gas that can be injected into a storage facility on a daily basis. As with deliverability, injection capacity is |
usually expressed in MMcf/day, although dekatherms/day is also used. The injection capacity of a storage facility is also variable, and is dependent on factors comparable to those that determine deliverability. |
By contrast, the injection rate varies inversely with the total amount of gas in storage: it is at its lowest when the reservoir is most full and increases as working |
gas is withdrawn. None of these measures for any given storage facility are fixed or absolute. The rates of injection and withdrawal change as the level of gas varies within |
the facility. Additionally, in practice a storage facility may be able to exceed certificated total capacity in some circumstances by exceeding certain operational parameters. But the facility's total capacity can |
also vary, temporarily or permanently, as its defining parameters vary. Further, the measures of base gas, working gas, and working gas capacity can also change from time to time. This |
occurs, for example, when a storage operator reclassifies one category of gas to the other, often as a result of new wells, equipment, or operating practices (such a change generally |
requires approval by the appropriate regulatory authority). Also, storage facilities can withdraw base gas for supply to market during times of particularly heavy demand, although by definition, this gas is |
not intended for that use. Underground Natural Gas Storage Data The Energy Information Administration (EIA) collects a variety of data on the storage measures discussed above, and publishes selected data |
on a weekly, monthly, and annual basis. For example, EIA uses Form EIA-912, Weekly Natural Gas Storage Report, to collect data on end-of-week working gas in storage at the company |
and regional level from a sample of all underground natural gas storage operators. The sample is drawn from the respondents to the EIA-191, Monthly Underground Gas Storage Report, which, among |
other things, collects data on total capacity, base gas, working gas, injections, and withdrawals, by reservoir and storage facility, from all underground natural gas storage operators. Data from the EIA-912 |
survey are tabulated and published at regional (see Figure 2 for depiction of regions) and national levels on a weekly basis. Data derived from the EIA-191 survey are published on |
a monthly basis in the Natural Gas Monthly. These data include tabulations of base gas, total inventories, total storage capacity, injections, and withdrawals at state and regional levels. Figure 3 |
below depicts some basic storage statistics compiled by EIA. Relative Measures of Gas Inventories For some analytic purposes, there is interest in relative inventory status, expressed in terms of how |
nearly "full" are the nation's storage facilities. There are different approaches to measure "percent full." The remainder of this section discusses three ways of computing an estimate of how full |
are the nation's storage facilities, resulting in three numbers, each of which has a different meaning or interpretation. The various estimates of storage "percent full" for the two scenarios, according |
to the computation methods described above, are as follows: While the amount of working gas in storage in a given scenario is fixed, the "percent full" measures vary significantly. For |
Example, in Scenario A, the Method 3 calculation indicates that working gas stocks are only 5 percent below AGA's historical non-coincident maximum, while the 79 percent from Method 2 indicates |
that 21 percent of working gas capacity is available if needed. On the other hand, Method 1 shows that only 10 percent of total capacity is available. (In this scenario, |
Methods 1 and 3 yield percentages that are close in value, but this result is conditional on the relatively high level of working gas, as one can see from the |
results in Scenario B for these two methods.) In Scenario B, Method 2 indicates that gas equivalent to only 27 percent of available working gas capacity remains in storage, while |
Method 1 shows that storage facilities as a whole are over half "full." Yet the same amount of empty capacity is available for the two methods (Total Capacity minus the |
sum of Base and Working Gas volumes). It is important to note that a given measure for percent full for the total U.S., regardless of computation method, may have limited |
usefulness in assessing the adequacy of inventories going into a heating season. This is true because most storage facilities are located near, and are designed for the most part to |
serve, local market areas. Storage facilities have therefore tended to cluster in a number of areas (Figure 2). There are impediments to sharing inventories between or among regions. Working gas |
stocks in the Producing Region can be directed to either of the other two regions, but sharing between the two Consuming regions is limited at best. Thus, inventory status is |
more realistically assessed on a regional basis. Shifts in Storage Use Impact Inventories and Storage Activities The natural gas industry has experienced significant changes in inventory management practices and storage |
utilization over the past decade or more as a result of market restructuring. During that time, the operational practices of many U.S. underground storage sites became much more market oriented. |
Seasonal factors are less important now in the use of underground storage inventories. Many storage gas owners (marketers and other third parties) are attempting to synchronize their buying and selling |
activities more effectively with market needs while minimizing their business costs. "Open Access" to Storage Capacity Prior to 1994, interstate pipeline companies, which are subject to the jurisdiction of the |
FERC, owned all of the gas flowing through their systems, including gas held in storage, and had exclusive control over the capacity and utilization of their storage facilities. With the |
implementation of FERC Order 636, jurisdictional pipeline companies were required to operate their storage facilities on an open-access basis. That is, the major portion of working gas capacity (beyond what |
may be reserved by the pipeline/operator to maintain system integrity and for load balancing) at each site must be made available for lease to third parties on a nondiscriminatory basis. |
Today, in addition to the interstate storage sites, many storage facilities owned/operated by large LDCs, intrastate pipelines, and independent operators also operate on an open-access basis, especially those sites affiliated |
with natural gas market centers. Open access has allowed storage to be used other than simply as backup inventory or a supplemental seasonal supply source. For example, marketers and other |
third parties may move gas into and out of storage (subject to the operational capabilities of the site or the tariff limitations) as changes in price levels present arbitrage opportunities. |
Further, storage is used in conjunction with various financial instruments (e.g. futures and options contracts, swaps, etc.) in ever more creative and complex ways in an attempt to profit from |
market conditions. Reflecting this change in focus within the natural gas storage industry during recent years, the largest growth in daily withdrawal capability has been from high deliverability storage sites, |
which include salt cavern storage reservoirs as well as some depleted oil or gas reservoirs. These facilities can cycle their inventories-i.e., completely withdraw and refill working gas (or vice versa)-more |
rapidly than can other types of storage, a feature more suitable to the flexible operational needs of today's storage users. Since 1993, daily withdrawal capability from high deliverability salt cavern |
Tribes and Dialects Order the book Self-designation. The name the Aguls call themselves is agiul shui. Their neighbours are the Dargwas to the north, the Tabasarans to the east, the Lezgians to the south and the Rutuls to the west. Administratively the Agul settlements are situated in the Agul region of the Dagestan ASSR. Its centre is Tpig. The region |
is divided into eight subdivisions. There are 19 Agul and 5 Dargwin villages. After Tpig the next largest villages are Richa, Burkihan and Khoredzh. Census statistics on the Agul population are as follows: Like the other Lezgian peoples the Aguls are natives of the Caucasus. This is proved both by anthropological and cultural data. Their religion is Sunnite Islam which |
was spread during the 15th--18th-century Turkish and Persian conquests. According to oral tradition a part of the Aguls had adhered to Judaism, and a part to Christianity before that. Because of the previous importance of religion in Agul society the new Soviet power made great efforts to weaken it: mosques were turned into store-rooms, clergymen into peasants, and a cult |
of prophets quite different from Muhammad was propagated. Geographical isolation failed to protect the region from invaders. The land of the Aguls was coveted by Arab, Mongolian-Tatar and Turkish conquerors. The Aguls of Aguldere established their own territorial and political unit, a free community that was incorporated into the Kasikumukh Khanate in the 17th--18th centuries. Other communities that were not |
self-governing continued to be subjected to the local feudal lords (e.g. the Tabasaran qadi) who levied taxes. Owing to such political disunion the Aguls did not develop a state which retarded their development into a nation. In 1813 the Agul territories were incorporated into Russia within the Kürin Khanate which then became the Kürin District. The superiority of the nobility |
and the clergy, however, was retained, while the common territory created a basis for the development of the Agul nation. Economy. As a result of natural conditions the main occupation of the Aguls was (and is) raising livestock. The animals kept were mainly sheep, but cattle-breeding was also of importance. Land cultivation was practised for personal necessities. However arable lands |
were so scarce and the yields so small that the yearly harvest lasted for six months only. This was also partly due to the primitive nature of the farming implements in use, for example, wooden ploughs with a metal ploughshares. As food was scarce men often spent winters in Baku or in Derbent working. While the Tabasarans are famous for |
rug-making the Aguls are proud of their master-builders who devised a special type of building -- a one-storey house standing on a stone archway. The remaining features of their material and intellectual cultures are similar to those of the other Lezgian peoples. It should also be noted, perhaps, that among the Aguls farinaceous foods are more popular than among the |
rest of the Caucasian peoples. The Aguls' system of administration was the same as with other Caucasian mountain-dwellers. Local problems were decided by the village elder (begaoul) with his helpers. The elder was elected by the village assembly (dzhamat). In the 19th century when material differentiation began to make itself felt village elders tended to be elected from among the |
richest rather than from among the most distinguished. The establishment of Soviet power and Soviet politics brought many changes. In order to strengthen its ideological position the state had first to do away with territorial isolation. This was accomplished in 1936 with the completion of the Tpig-Kasumkent highway. The importance of the road was immediately made apparent with collectivization: in |
1935 the Aguls had not a single kolkhoz, but in 1937 there were as many as twenty of them while their membership comprised 89 % of the population. The accomplishment of the road also boosted the development of a state-run system of health care and education. In 1936 Tpig gained a hospital. In 1952 the Aguls had one secondary school, |
seven 7-year schools and one primary school. The Aguls having no literary language of their own received their tuition in Lezgi. In 1953 instruction was transferred to Russian beginning from the fifth form. The Russian language developed a foothold in business management and culture, the stocks of libraries, for example, being made up from Russian books. The past 40 years |
have brought several major changes in the material culture as well as the mentality of the Aguls. Every year brings an increase in the consumption of factory products and urban-style consumer goods. Traditional dress has been pushed aside for decades, especially men's. The severest blow to spiritual traditions has been dealt by the uprooting of Islam to make room for |
Soviet ideology. Among the young there is a disdainful attitude towards the old traditions. Nevertheless, the sound old way of thinking has retained a venerable place in Agul society and old customs still persist. During the 1950s--1960s a new wave of industrialisation rolled over Dagestan. This increased the flow of mountain-dwellers to towns which usually severe ties with the native |
environment and, with time, erodes national identity. The second and third generation town-dwellers have partly fused with bigger ethnic groups. Although urbanization is a noticeable tendency among the Aguls it is not very extensive and bears, as yet, no menace to the preservation of the nation. The main goal of the Soviet power in Dagestan has been the creation of |
a unified Dagestan people. For this purpose the smaller ethnic groups were first planned to be fused with bigger ones which in their turn were expected to become russified. For the Aguls the language of primary consolidation was to be Lezgi. Its use increased to a certain extent in the 1950s but the expected transition did not take place. In |
the decades following the use of Russian has grown quite considerably, but in comparison with Lezgi its advance has not been so direct and it has not restricted the spheres of Agul usage as the geographical areas of the two languages lack a common border. According to present prognosis the Aguls will continue their existence if they are able to |
updated 06:23 am EDT, Mon September 24, 2012 Threat of continued wasting forced fine reduction Microsoft wasted a vast amount of electricity last year in order to avoid paying a |
fine. According to the New York Times, “millions of watts” were deliberately used to meet estimations on a Washington data center's energy use. The penalty of $210,000 was avoided, but |
was then followed by threats to continue wasting energy until the fine was lowered. The Grant County Public Utility District spends a considerable amount of time working on balancing its |
supply of power to customers, and so requires large customers, such as data centers, to submit power usage forecasts for the year. After a number of years where the forecasts |
were not deemed to be accurate, the Utility levied penalties under the Rate Schedule 99 provision in December. Only two customers were found to be outside the margin for error: |
Microsoft and Yahoo, and of the two, Yahoo decided to pay its $94,608 fine. At that point, Microsoft threatened to waste high amounts of energy by running giant heaters at |
the center for no reason at all, unless the penalty was significantly reduced. The company burned an additional 5 to 7 million watts in mid-December, enough power to cover half |
the town of Quincy, Washington. A letter delivered to the Utility on December 16th said the company has "the alternative available to it of increasing power utilization" in a "commercially |
unproductive" manner, by burning through $70,000 worth of power over a three day period in order to save $140,000 on a fine it would have otherwise paid. Power use jumped |
from 28.5 million watts on December 16th to 34 million by December 19th. The Utility board quickly voted 4 to 1 to waive all but $60,000 of the fine. The |
data center has a history of energy-related issues. In 2007, three days after cutting the ribbon on the center, Microsoft made a complaint to the Utility that construction on a |
substation was slow. The substation would be able to provide 48 million watts of capacity, enough for 29,000 homes. Another controversy saw the center requesting to be taken off the |
energy grid during an expansion in 2010, with it relying on diesel-powered generators for 3,615 hours in the year 2010. In comparison, the Yahoo center used its back-up generators for |
Inherently Conducting Polymers Processing, Fabrication, Applications, LimitationsBy - M. Aldissi Materials scientists. Plastics engineers. Hardbound, 104 Pages Published: December 1989 Imprint: William Andrew - I. IntroductionII. Synthesis of Conjugated Polymers |
A. Polyacetylene B. Poly(Paraphenylene) C. Poly(Phenylene Sulfide) D. Polypyrroles and Polythiophenes E. High-Temperature Polymers F. Polyaniline G. Polyacetylene Copolymers H. Composites of Conducting Polymers I. New Synthesis Techniques and ApproachesIII. |
Electronic Structure in Conjugated PolymersIV. Doping of Conjugated Polymers: Conducting Polymers A. Doping Techniques B. Types of DopingV. Transport Properties û Semiconductor to Metal TransitionVI. Magnetic Properties A. Electron Spin |
Resonance B. Magnetic SusceptibilityVII Stability and Stabilization of Pristine and Doped Polymers A. Air Stability B. Thermal Stability C. Stability Related to Material Morphology and Dopant Diffusion D. Stabilization TechniquesVIII. |
Future Technological Applications A. Heterojunctions B. Photoelectrochemical Solar Cells C. Electrochromic Display Devices D. Shielding E. Circuit Board Applications F. Rechargeable Batteries of Conducting Polymers G. Fuel CellsIX. SummaryReferencesAppendix: Synopsis |
Asthma Action Plan: Yellow Zone An asthma action plan is a written plan of what to do if you have a sudden increase in your asthma symptoms (asthma attack). The yellow zone may mean that you are having an asthma attack or that your medicine needs to be increased. In the yellow zone, your peak expiratory flow is 50% to |
80% of your personal best measurement. To find 80% of your personal best, multiply your personal best measurement by 0.80. For example, if your personal best flow is 400, then 80% of that is 400 times 0.80, which is 320. And 50% of your personal best would be 400 times 0.50, which is 200. In this example, the yellow zone |
would be any value from 200 to 320. You may not have any symptoms, but your lung function is reduced. When symptoms are present, they may be mild to moderate, or they may keep you from your usual activities or disturb your sleep. Symptoms can include: Treatment for symptoms in the yellow zone includes the following: If you keep going |
into the yellow zone from the green zone, talk with your doctor. Your regular medicine may need to be changed. eMedicineHealth Medical Reference from Healthwise To learn more visit Healthwise.org © 1995-2012 Healthwise, Incorporated. Healthwise, Healthwise for every health decision, and the Healthwise logo are trademarks of Healthwise, Incorporated. Allergies & Asthma Improve treatments & prevent attacks. Asthma and Allergy |
A meniscus is a piece of cartilage (rubbery tissue) that acts as a shock absorber between bones and stabilizes the joints by evenly distributing the load across the joint area. Menisci (plural of meniscus) protect and cushion the joint surface and bone ends. In the knee, the crescent-shaped menisci are positioned between the ends of the upper (femur) and lower (tibia) leg bones. The |
menisci protect the knee joint surface and absorb the shock produced by activities such as walking, running, and jumping. eMedicineHealth Medical Reference from Healthwise To learn more visit Healthwise.org Find out what women really need. Most Popular Topics Pill Identifier on RxList - quick, easy, Find a Local Pharmacy - including 24 hour, pharmacies |
Stage and Grade of Cancer The stage and grade of a cancer are ways to measure how severe the disease is. Tumors are described by their size, whether they have spread, and how their cells look under a microscope. There are three parts to staging: This staging system is commonly referred to as the TNM cancer staging system. Some cancers, |
such as lymphomas, have a different staging system. Most leukemias don't have a staging system. Tumor grading describes how tumor cells look under a microscope. Tumor cells that look like normal cells (well-differentiated) are called Grade 1 tumors. They usually grow slowly. Cells that look very different from normal cells are said to be undifferentiated (Grade 4). These cells often |
grow quickly and spread rapidly. The following system may be used to grade tumors: eMedicineHealth Medical Reference from Healthwise To learn more visit Healthwise.org Find out what women really need. Pill Identifier on RxList - quick, easy, Find a Local Pharmacy - including 24 hour, pharmacies |
Each generation of landing technology addresses the challenges posed by the previous generation. People have been fascinated with the idea of exploring Mars since the very beginning of the space age. Largely because of the belief that some form of |
life may have existed there at one time, surface exploration has been the ultimate ambition of this exploration. Unfortunately, engineers and scientists discovered early on that landing a spacecraft on the surface of Mars would be one of the most |
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