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18,100 | In statistics, dichotomous thinking or binary thinking is the process of seeing a discontinuity in the possible values that a p-value can take during null hypothesis significance testing: it is either above the significance threshold (usually 0.05) or below. When applying dichotomous thinking, a first p-value of 0.0499... | Dichotomous thinking | 0.812428 |
18,101 | After a distinguished career in astronomy and shortly before becoming Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Samuel Pierpont Langley started a serious investigation into aerodynamics at what is today the University of Pittsburgh. In 1891, he published Experiments in Aerodynamics detailing his research, and then turn... | Human flight | 0.812427 |
18,102 | Sir George Cayley was first called the "father of the aeroplane" in 1846. During the last years of the previous century he had begun the first rigorous study of the physics of flight and would later design the first modern heavier-than-air craft. Among his many achievements, his most important contributions to aeronaut... | Human flight | 0.812427 |
18,103 | Given an algebra A {\displaystyle \mathbf {A} } , a pair of congruences α , β ∈ Con ( A ) {\displaystyle \alpha ,\beta \in \operatorname {Con} (\mathbf {A} )} are said to permute when α ∘ β = β ∘ α {\displaystyle \alpha \circ \beta =\beta \circ \alpha } . : 121 An algebra A {\displaystyle \mathbf {A} } is called cong... | Congruence permutable | 0.812427 |
18,104 | Suppose that V {\displaystyle {\mathcal {V}}} is a variety of algebras. The following are equivalent: Such a term is called a Maltsev term and congruence-permutable varieties are also known as Maltsev varieties in his honor. : 122 | Congruence permutable | 0.812427 |
18,105 | Most classical varieties in abstract algebra, such as groups: 123 , rings: 123 , and Lie algebras are congruence-permutable. Any variety that contains a group operation is congruence-permutable, and the Maltsev term is x y − 1 z {\displaystyle xy^{-1}z} . | Congruence permutable | 0.812427 |
18,106 | In nuclear chemistry and nuclear physics, J-couplings (also called spin-spin coupling or indirect dipole–dipole coupling) are mediated through chemical bonds connecting two spins. It is an indirect interaction between two nuclear spins that arises from hyperfine interactions between the nuclei and local electrons. In N... | Spin coupling | 0.812421 |
18,107 | Molar concentration (also called molarity, amount concentration or substance concentration) is a measure of the concentration of a chemical species, in particular of a solute in a solution, in terms of amount of substance per unit volume of solution. In chemistry, the most commonly used unit for molarity is the number ... | Amount concentration | 0.812421 |
18,108 | By considering points in a square grid with carefully chosen spacing, Erdős found an improved lower bound of the form for a constant c {\displaystyle c} , and offered $500 for a proof of whether the number of unit distances can also be bounded above by a function of this form. The best known upper bound for this proble... | Unit distance graph | 0.812421 |
18,109 | Paul Erdős (1946) posed the problem of estimating how many pairs of points in a set of n {\displaystyle n} points could be at unit distance from each other. In graph-theoretic terms, the question asks how dense a unit distance graph can be, and Erdős's publication on this question was one of the first works in extremal... | Unit distance graph | 0.812421 |
18,110 | For every algebraic number α {\displaystyle \alpha } , it is possible to construct a unit distance graph G {\displaystyle G} in which some pair of vertices are at distance α {\displaystyle \alpha } in all unit distance representations of G {\displaystyle G} . This result implies a finite version of the Beckman–Quarles ... | Unit distance graph | 0.812421 |
18,111 | The number of colors required to color unit distance graphs is also unknown (the Hadwiger–Nelson problem): some unit distance graphs require five colors, and every unit distance graph can be colored with seven colors. For every algebraic number there is a unit distance graph with two vertices that must be that distance... | Unit distance graph | 0.812421 |
18,112 | In mathematics, particularly geometric graph theory, a unit distance graph is a graph formed from a collection of points in the Euclidean plane by connecting two points whenever the distance between them is exactly one. To distinguish these graphs from a broader definition that allows some non-adjacent pairs of vertice... | Unit distance graph | 0.812421 |
18,113 | The Hadwiger–Nelson problem concerns the chromatic number of unit distance graphs, and more specifically of the infinite unit distance graph formed from all points of the Euclidean plane. By the de Bruijn–Erdős theorem, which assumes the axiom of choice, this is equivalent to asking for the largest chromatic number of ... | Unit distance graph | 0.812421 |
18,114 | The costate equation is related to the state equation used in optimal control. It is also referred to as auxiliary, adjoint, influence, or multiplier equation. It is stated as a vector of first order differential equations λ ˙ T ( t ) = − ∂ H ∂ x {\displaystyle {\dot {\lambda }}^{\mathsf {T}}(t)=-{\frac {\partial H}{\p... | Costate equation | 0.812419 |
18,115 | This matrix R is an element of the rotation group SO(3) of ℝ3, and K is an element of the Lie algebra s o ( 3 ) {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {so}}(3)} generating that Lie group (note that K is skew-symmetric, which characterizes s o ( 3 ) {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {so}}(3)} ). In terms of the matrix exponential, R = exp ... | Rodrigues' rotation formula | 0.812401 |
18,116 | Then the unit axis vector can be written k = a × b | a × b | = a × b | a | | b | sin α . {\displaystyle \mathbf {k} ={\frac {\mathbf {a} \times \mathbf {b} }{|\mathbf {a} \times \mathbf {b} |}}={\frac {\mathbf {a} \times \mathbf {b} }{|\mathbf {a} ||\mathbf {b} |\sin \alpha }}\,.} This form may be more useful when tw... | Rodrigues' rotation formula | 0.812401 |
18,117 | In the theory of three-dimensional rotation, Rodrigues' rotation formula, named after Olinde Rodrigues, is an efficient algorithm for rotating a vector in space, given an axis and angle of rotation. By extension, this can be used to transform all three basis vectors to compute a rotation matrix in SO(3), the group of a... | Rodrigues' rotation formula | 0.812401 |
18,118 | With the rise of online databases, codes have been devised to provide identifiers for species that are already defined, including: National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) employs a numeric 'taxid' or Taxonomy identifier, a "stable unique identifier", e.g., the taxid of Homo sapiens is 9606. Kyoto Encyclope... | Biological species | 0.812399 |
18,119 | In microbiology, genes can move freely even between distantly related bacteria, possibly extending to the whole bacterial domain. As a rule of thumb, microbiologists have assumed that members of Bacteria or Archaea with 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequences more similar than 97% to each other need to be checked by DNA–DNA h... | Biological species | 0.812399 |
18,120 | Biologists and taxonomists have made many attempts to define species, beginning from morphology and moving towards genetics. Early taxonomists such as Linnaeus had no option but to describe what they saw: this was later formalised as the typological or morphological species concept. Ernst Mayr emphasised reproductive i... | Biological species | 0.812399 |
18,121 | Image acquisition – A digital image is produced by one or several image sensors, which, besides various types of light-sensitive cameras, include range sensors, tomography devices, radar, ultra-sonic cameras, etc. Depending on the type of sensor, the resulting image data is an ordinary 2D image, a 3D volume, or an imag... | Image understanding | 0.812395 |
18,122 | The organization of a computer vision system is highly application-dependent. Some systems are stand-alone applications that solve a specific measurement or detection problem, while others constitute a sub-system of a larger design which, for example, also contains sub-systems for control of mechanical actuators, plann... | Image understanding | 0.812395 |
18,123 | Robot navigation sometimes deals with autonomous path planning or deliberation for robotic systems to navigate through an environment. A detailed understanding of these environments is required to navigate through them. Information about the environment could be provided by a computer vision system, acting as a vision ... | Image understanding | 0.812395 |
18,124 | Examples of supporting systems are obstacle warning systems in cars, cameras and LiDAR sensors in vehicles, and systems for autonomous landing of aircraft. Several car manufacturers have demonstrated systems for autonomous driving of cars. There are ample examples of military autonomous vehicles ranging from advanced m... | Image understanding | 0.812395 |
18,125 | One of the newer application areas is autonomous vehicles, which include submersibles, land-based vehicles (small robots with wheels, cars, or trucks), aerial vehicles, and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV). The level of autonomy ranges from fully autonomous (unmanned) vehicles to vehicles where computer-vision-based syst... | Image understanding | 0.812395 |
18,126 | Sub-domains of computer vision include scene reconstruction, object detection, event detection, activity recognition, video tracking, object recognition, 3D pose estimation, learning, indexing, motion estimation, visual servoing, 3D scene modeling, and image restoration. Adopting computer vision technology might be pai... | Image understanding | 0.812395 |
18,127 | The image data can take many forms, such as video sequences, views from multiple cameras, multi-dimensional data from a 3D scanner, 3D point clouds from LiDaR sensors, or medical scanning devices. The technological discipline of computer vision seeks to apply its theories and models to the construction of computer visi... | Image understanding | 0.812395 |
18,128 | Computer vision tasks include methods for acquiring, processing, analyzing and understanding digital images, and extraction of high-dimensional data from the real world in order to produce numerical or symbolic information, e.g. in the forms of decisions. Understanding in this context means the transformation of visual... | Image understanding | 0.812395 |
18,129 | By contrast, fuzzy set theory permits the gradual assessment of the membership of elements in a set; this is described with the aid of a membership function valued in the real unit interval . Fuzzy sets generalize classical sets, since the indicator functions (aka characteristic functions) of classical sets are special... | Fuzzy set theory | 0.812394 |
18,130 | At the same time, Salii (1965) defined a more general kind of structure called an L-relation, which he studied in an abstract algebraic context. Fuzzy relations, which are now used throughout fuzzy mathematics and have applications in areas such as linguistics (De Cock, Bodenhofer & Kerre 2000), decision-making (Kuzmin... | Fuzzy set theory | 0.812394 |
18,131 | The two remaining groups, of director S. Solanki dedicated to the Sun and heliosphere and of U. Christensen dedicated to planets and comets form the present-day Institute. Since 2004, the institute has published the open access review journal Living Reviews in Solar Physics. The Max Planck Society decided to move the i... | Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research | 0.812392 |
18,132 | 1934 Ionosphären-Beobachtungsstation bei der Erprobungsstelle der Luftwaffe (Ionosphere Observation Station at the Test Site of the German Airforce) 1942 Zentralstelle für Funkberatung (Centre for Radiocommunication Advice) 1946 Fraunhoferinstitut für Hochfrequenzforschung (Fraunhofer Institute for High Frequency Resea... | Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research | 0.812392 |
18,133 | The Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research (abbreviation: MPS; German: Max-Planck-Institut für Sonnensystemforschung) is a research institute in astronomy and astrophysics located in Göttingen, Germany, where it relocated in February 2014 from the nearby village of Lindau. The exploration of the Solar System is... | Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research | 0.812392 |
18,134 | The goal is a broad, interdisciplinary, and solid scientific education, extended with courses in numerical physics, space technology, project management, scientific writing, and presentation techniques. There are usually about 50 graduate students studying at the Solar System School. Two thirds are from abroad from ove... | Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research | 0.812392 |
18,135 | A well known paradox is Russell's paradox, consisting in showing that the phrase "the set of all sets that do not contain themselves" is self-contradictory. Other philosophical problems were the proof of the existence of mathematical objects that cannot be computed or explicitly described, and the proof of the existenc... | Foundational mathematics | 0.812391 |
18,136 | The foundational crisis of mathematics (in German Grundlagenkrise der Mathematik) arose at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century with the discovery of several paradoxes or counter-intuitive results. The first one was the proof that the parallel postulate cannot be proved. This results from a... | Foundational mathematics | 0.812391 |
18,137 | 1964: Inspired by the fundamental randomness in physics, Gregory Chaitin starts publishing results on algorithmic information theory (measuring incompleteness and randomness in mathematics). 1966: Paul Cohen showed that the axiom of choice is unprovable in ZF even without urelements. 1970: Hilbert's tenth problem is pr... | Foundational mathematics | 0.812391 |
18,138 | It thus became clear that the notion of mathematical truth can not be completely determined and reduced to a purely formal system as envisaged in Hilbert's program. This dealt a final blow to the heart of Hilbert's program, the hope that consistency could be established by finitistic means (it was never made clear exac... | Foundational mathematics | 0.812391 |
18,139 | Mathematics plays a special role in scientific thought, serving since ancient times as a model of truth and rigor for rational inquiry, and giving tools or even a foundation for other sciences (especially Physics). Mathematics' many developments towards higher abstractions in the 19th century brought new challenges and... | Foundational mathematics | 0.812391 |
18,140 | And Steven Weinberg: The insights of philosophers have occasionally benefited physicists, but generally in a negative fashion – by protecting them from the preconceptions of other philosophers. ... without some guidance from our preconceptions one could do nothing at all. It is just that philosophical principles have n... | Foundational mathematics | 0.812391 |
18,141 | Such a view has also been expressed by some well-known physicists. For example, the Physics Nobel Prize laureate Richard Feynman said People say to me, "Are you looking for the ultimate laws of physics?" No, I'm not ... If it turns out there is a simple ultimate law which explains everything, so be it – that would be v... | Foundational mathematics | 0.812391 |
18,142 | Frege's work was popularized by Bertrand Russell near the turn of the century. But Frege's two-dimensional notation had no success. Popular notations were (x) for universal and (∃x) for existential quantifiers, coming from Giuseppe Peano and William Ernest Johnson until the ∀ symbol was introduced by Gerhard Gentzen in... | Foundational mathematics | 0.812391 |
18,143 | Boolean algebra is the starting point of mathematical logic and has important applications in computer science. Charles Sanders Peirce built upon the work of Boole to develop a logical system for relations and quantifiers, which he published in several papers from 1870 to 1885. The German mathematician Gottlob Frege (1... | Foundational mathematics | 0.812391 |
18,144 | Attempts of formal treatment of mathematics had started with Leibniz and Lambert (1728–1777), and continued with works by algebraists such as George Peacock (1791–1858). Systematic mathematical treatments of logic came with the British mathematician George Boole (1847) who devised an algebra that soon evolved into what... | Foundational mathematics | 0.812391 |
18,145 | Some authors argue that Platonism somehow comes as a necessary assumption underlying any mathematical work.In this view, the laws of nature and the laws of mathematics have a similar status, and the effectiveness ceases to be unreasonable. Not our axioms, but the very real world of mathematical objects forms the founda... | Foundational mathematics | 0.812391 |
18,146 | In this way Plato indicated his high opinion of geometry. He regarded geometry as "the first essential in the training of philosophers", because of its abstract character. This philosophy of Platonist mathematical realism is shared by many mathematicians. | Foundational mathematics | 0.812391 |
18,147 | He believed that the truths about these objects also exist independently of the human mind, but is discovered by humans. In the Meno Plato's teacher Socrates asserts that it is possible to come to know this truth by a process akin to memory retrieval. Above the gateway to Plato's academy appeared a famous inscription: ... | Foundational mathematics | 0.812391 |
18,148 | The ancient Greek philosophers took such questions very seriously. Indeed, many of their general philosophical discussions were carried on with extensive reference to geometry and arithmetic. Plato (424/423 BC – 348/347 BC) insisted that mathematical objects, like other platonic Ideas (forms or essences), must be perfe... | Foundational mathematics | 0.812391 |
18,149 | 1936: Alan Turing proved that a general algorithm to solve the halting problem for all possible program-input pairs cannot exist. 1938: Gödel proved the consistency of the axiom of choice and of the generalized continuum hypothesis. 1936–1937: Alonzo Church and Alan Turing, respectively, published independent papers sh... | Foundational mathematics | 0.812391 |
18,150 | 1922: Proof by Abraham Fraenkel that the axiom of choice cannot be proved from the axioms of Zermelo set theory with urelements. 1931: Publication of Gödel's incompleteness theorems, showing that essential aspects of Hilbert's program could not be attained. It showed how to construct, for any sufficiently powerful and ... | Foundational mathematics | 0.812391 |
18,151 | The following lists some notable results in metamathematics. Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory is the most widely studied axiomatization of set theory. It is abbreviated ZFC when it includes the axiom of choice and ZF when the axiom of choice is excluded. 1920: Thoralf Skolem corrected Leopold Löwenheim's proof of what is no... | Foundational mathematics | 0.812391 |
18,152 | Survey meters can be ratemeters or scalers In Radiation Protection, an instrument which reads a rate of detected events is normally known as a ratemeter, which was first developed by N.S.Gingrich et al. in 1936. This provided a real-time dynamic indication of the radiation rate, and the principle has found widespread u... | Survey meter | 0.812391 |
18,153 | In scientific usage, a phenomenon is any event that is observable, including the use of instrumentation to observe, record, or compile data. Especially in physics, the study of a phenomenon may be described as measurements related to matter, energy, or time, such as Isaac Newton's observations of the moon's orbit and o... | Physical phenomenon | 0.812387 |
18,154 | A physical test is a qualitative or quantitative procedure that consists of determination of one or more characteristics of a given product, process or service according to a specified procedure. Often this is part of an experiment. Physical testing is common in physics, engineering, and quality assurance. | Physical test | 0.812384 |
18,155 | A Hamel basis is a subset B of a vector space V such that every element v ∈ V can uniquely be written as v = ∑ b ∈ B α b b {\displaystyle v=\sum _{b\in B}\alpha _{b}b} with αb ∈ F, with the extra condition that the set { b ∈ B ∣ α b ≠ 0 } {\displaystyle \{b\in B\mid \alpha _{b}\neq 0\}} is finite. This property makes t... | Countable basis | 0.812384 |
18,156 | In organic chemistry, a substituent is one or a group of atoms that replaces (one or more) atoms, thereby becoming a moiety in the resultant (new) molecule. (In organic chemistry and biochemistry, the terms substituent and functional group, as well as side chain and pendant group, are used almost interchangeably to des... | Substituent | 0.812382 |
18,157 | Statistics of the distribution of deviations are used as measures of statistical dispersion. Standard deviation is the frequently used measure of dispersion: it uses squared deviations, and has desirable properties, but is not robust. Average absolute deviation, is the sum of absolute values of the deviations divided b... | Absolute deviation | 0.812382 |
18,158 | In mathematics and statistics, deviation is a measure of difference between the observed value of a variable and some other value, often that variable's mean. The sign of the deviation reports the direction of that difference (the deviation is positive when the observed value exceeds the reference value). The magnitude... | Absolute deviation | 0.812382 |
18,159 | In six-dimensional geometry, a truncated 6-cube (or truncated hexeract) is a convex uniform 6-polytope, being a truncation of the regular 6-cube. There are 5 truncations for the 6-cube. Vertices of the truncated 6-cube are located as pairs on the edge of the 6-cube. Vertices of the bitruncated 6-cube are located on the... | Bitruncated 6-cube | 0.812378 |
18,160 | The usage of the term "solid-state" in laser physics is narrower than in typical use. Semiconductor lasers (laser diodes) are typically not referred to as solid-state lasers. Neodymium is a common dopant in various solid-state laser crystals, including yttrium orthovanadate (Nd:YVO4), yttrium lithium fluoride (Nd:YLF) ... | Laser Radiation | 0.812377 |
18,161 | The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to chemical engineering: Chemical engineering – deals with the application of physical science (e.g., chemistry and physics), and life sciences (e.g., biology, microbiology and biochemistry) with mathematics and economics, to the process of convertin... | Outline of chemical engineering | 0.812371 |
18,162 | Biochemical engineering Biomedical engineering Biotechnology Ceramics Chemical process modeling Chemical Technologist Chemical reactor Chemical reaction engineering Distillation Design Electrochemistry Fluid dynamics Food engineering Heat transfer Mass transfer Materials science Microfluidics Nanotechnology Natural env... | Outline of chemical engineering | 0.812371 |
18,163 | Math Chemistry Physics Fluid Mechanics Chemical Reaction Engineering Thermodynamics Chemical Thermodynamics Engineering Mechanics Fluid Dynamics Heat Transfer Mass Transfer Transport Phenomena Green Chemistry and Sustainability Process Control Process Instrumentation Process Safety Unit Operation Process Design Chemica... | Outline of chemical engineering | 0.812371 |
18,164 | The sample complexity of this algorithm is O ~ ( ( 1 / ϵ 3 ) log ( 1 / δ ) ) {\displaystyle \textstyle {\tilde {O}}((1/\epsilon ^{3})\log(1/\delta ))} and the running time is O ~ ( ( 1 / ϵ 3 ) log n log 2 ( 1 / δ ) ) {\displaystyle \textstyle {\tilde {O}}((1/\epsilon ^{3})\log n\log ^{2}(1/\delta ))} . Theorem Le... | Distribution learning theory | 0.812366 |
18,165 | Consider n {\displaystyle \textstyle n} independent Bernoulli random variables X 1 , … , X n {\displaystyle \textstyle X_{1},\dots ,X_{n}} with probabilities of success p 1 , … , p n {\displaystyle \textstyle p_{1},\dots ,p_{n}} . A Poisson Binomial Distribution of order n {\displaystyle \textstyle n} is the distributi... | Distribution learning theory | 0.812366 |
18,166 | Consider n {\displaystyle \textstyle n} independent random variables X 1 , … , X n {\displaystyle \textstyle X_{1},\dots ,X_{n}} each of which follows an arbitrary distribution with support { 0 , 1 , … , k − 1 } {\displaystyle \textstyle \{0,1,\dots ,k-1\}} . A k − {\displaystyle \textstyle k-} sum of independent integ... | Distribution learning theory | 0.812366 |
18,167 | The distributional learning theory or learning of probability distribution is a framework in computational learning theory. It has been proposed from Michael Kearns, Yishay Mansour, Dana Ron, Ronitt Rubinfeld, Robert Schapire and Linda Sellie in 1994 and it was inspired from the PAC-framework introduced by Leslie Valia... | Distribution learning theory | 0.812366 |
18,168 | Theorem Let F ∈ G M {\displaystyle \textstyle F\in GM} then there is an algorithm which given ϵ > 0 {\displaystyle \textstyle \epsilon >0} , 0 < δ ≤ 1 {\displaystyle \textstyle 0<\delta \leq 1} and access to G E N ( D ) {\displaystyle \textstyle GEN(D)} finds w i ′ , μ i ′ , Σ i ′ {\displaystyle \textstyle w'_{i},\mu '... | Distribution learning theory | 0.812366 |
18,169 | Theorem Let D ∈ G M {\displaystyle \textstyle D\in GM} with | | μ 1 − μ 2 | | ≥ c n max ( λ m a x ( Σ 1 ) , λ m a x ( Σ 2 ) ) {\displaystyle \textstyle ||\mu _{1}-\mu _{2}||\geq c{\sqrt {n\max(\lambda _{max}(\Sigma _{1}),\lambda _{max}(\Sigma _{2}))}}} , where c > 1 / 2 {\displaystyle \textstyle c>1/2} and λ m a x ( A ... | Distribution learning theory | 0.812366 |
18,170 | Using the assumption that the means of the Gaussians are far away from each other with high probability the samples in the first cluster correspond to samples from the first Gaussian and the samples in the second cluster to samples from the second one. Now that the samples are partitioned the μ i , Σ i {\displaystyle \... | Distribution learning theory | 0.812366 |
18,171 | Learning of simple well known distributions is a well studied field and there are a lot of estimators that can be used. One more complicated class of distributions is the distribution of a sum of variables that follow simple distributions. These learning procedure have a close relation with limit theorems like the cent... | Distribution learning theory | 0.812366 |
18,172 | Let T 1 ( z ) , T 2 ( z ) , T 3 ( z ) {\displaystyle T_{1}(z),T_{2}(z),T_{3}(z)} be three matrix-valued meromorphic functions of a complex variable z {\displaystyle z} . The Nahm equations are a system of matrix differential equations d T 1 d z = d T 2 d z = d T 3 d z = , {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\frac {dT_{1... | Nahm equations | 0.812364 |
18,173 | N-body units are a completely self-contained system of units used for N-body simulations of self-gravitating systems in astrophysics. In this system, the base physical units are chosen so that the total mass, M, the gravitational constant, G, and the virial radius, R, are normalized. The underlying assumption is that t... | N-body units | 0.812363 |
18,174 | All the observations combined with their class labels are known as a data set. When a new observation is received, that observation is classified based on previous experience.There are many kinds of classifiers in use. The decision tree is the simplest and most widely used symbolic machine learning algorithm. K-nearest... | Artificial Intelligence | 0.81236 |
18,175 | Deep learning uses several layers of neurons between the network's inputs and outputs. The multiple layers can progressively extract higher-level features from the raw input. For example, in image processing, lower layers may identify edges, while higher layers may identify the concepts relevant to a human such as digi... | Artificial Intelligence | 0.81236 |
18,176 | "Neats" hope that intelligent behavior is described using simple, elegant principles (such as logic, optimization, or neural networks). "Scruffies" expect that it necessarily requires solving a large number of unrelated problems. Neats defend their programs with theoretical rigor, scruffies rely mainly on incremental t... | Artificial Intelligence | 0.81236 |
18,177 | The agent learns to choose responses that are classified as "good".Transfer learning is when the knowledge gained from one problem is applied to a new problem. Deep learning uses artificial neural networks for all of these types of learning. Computational learning theory can assess learners by computational complexity,... | Artificial Intelligence | 0.81236 |
18,178 | Machine learning is the study of programs that can improve their performance on a given task automatically. It has been a part of AI from the beginning.There are several kinds of machine learning. Unsupervised learning analyzes a stream of data and finds patterns and makes predictions without any other guidance.Supervi... | Artificial Intelligence | 0.81236 |
18,179 | Risk estimates vary; for example, in the 2010s Michael Osborne and Carl Benedikt Frey estimated 47% of U.S. jobs are at "high risk" of potential automation, while an OECD report classified only 9% of U.S. jobs as "high risk". The methodology of speculating about future employment levels has been criticised as lacking e... | Artificial Intelligence | 0.812359 |
18,180 | From the early days of the development of artificial intelligence there have been arguments, for example those put forward by Weizenbaum, about whether tasks that can be done by computers actually should be done by them, given the difference between computers and humans, and between quantitative calculation and qualita... | Artificial Intelligence | 0.812359 |
18,181 | In this case, the frictional force may depend strongly on the area of contact. Some drag racing tires are adhesive for this reason. However, despite the complexity of the fundamental physics behind friction, the relationships are accurate enough to be useful in many applications. | Frictional force | 0.812358 |
18,182 | This complex is called the Tangential Cauchy–Riemann complex or the Kohn–Rossi complex. Investigation of this complex and the study of the Cohomology groups of this complex was done in a fundamental paper by Joseph J. Kohn and Hugo Rossi.Associated to the Tangential CR complex is a fundamental object in CR Geometry and... | CR geometry | 0.812357 |
18,183 | Note that this condition is strictly stronger than needed to apply the implicit function theorem: in particular, M is a manifold of real dimension 2 n − k . {\displaystyle 2n-k.} We say that M is a generic embedded CR submanifold of CR codimension k. The adjective generic indicates that the tangent space T M {\displays... | CR geometry | 0.812357 |
18,184 | The Heisenberg group is an example of a non-compact CR manifold with zero Webster torsion and zero Webster curvature. The unit circle bundle over compact Riemann surfaces with genus strictly greater than 1 also provides examples of CR manifolds which are strongly pseudoconvex and have zero Webster torsion and constant ... | CR geometry | 0.812357 |
18,185 | The journal is abstracted and indexed in: Biological Abstracts BIOSIS Previews Current Contents/Agriculture, Biology & Environmental Sciences Current Contents/Life Sciences Chemical Abstracts Service Embase Index Medicus/MEDLINE/PubMed Science Citation Index Scopus The Zoological RecordAccording to Journal Citation Rep... | PLOS Biology | 0.812356 |
18,186 | PLOS Biology is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering all aspects of biology. Publication began on October 13, 2003. It is the first journal published by the Public Library of Science. The editor-in-chief is Nonia Pariente.In addition to research articles, the journal publishes magazine content aimed to b... | PLOS Biology | 0.812356 |
18,187 | In many networks this can be done by successive applications of the rules for combination of series or parallel impedances. This is not, however, possible in this case where the Y-Δ transform is needed in addition to the series and parallel rules. The Y topology is also called star topology. However, star topology may ... | Circuit topology (electrical) | 0.812356 |
18,188 | All these topologies can be viewed as a short section of a ladder topology. Longer sections would normally be described as ladder topology. These kinds of circuits are commonly analysed and characterised in terms of a two-port network. | Circuit topology (electrical) | 0.812356 |
18,189 | The topologies shown in figure 1.7 are commonly used for filter and attenuator designs. The L-section is identical topology to the potential divider topology. The T-section is identical topology to the Y topology. The Π-section is identical topology to the Δ topology. | Circuit topology (electrical) | 0.812356 |
18,190 | A cut set of a graph produces two disjoint subgraphs, that is, it cuts the graph into two parts, and is the minimum set of branches needed to do so. The set of network equations are formed by equating the node pair voltages to the algebraic sum of the cut set branch voltages. The dual of the special case of mesh analys... | Circuit topology (electrical) | 0.812356 |
18,191 | The set of branches forming a given loop is called a tie set. The set of network equations are formed by equating the loop currents to the algebraic sum of the tie set branch currents.It is possible to choose a set of independent loop currents without reference to the trees and tie sets. A sufficient, but not necessary... | Circuit topology (electrical) | 0.812356 |
18,192 | To guarantee a set of independent variables the loop currents must be those associated with a certain set of loops. This set of loops consists of those loops formed by replacing a single link of a given tree of the graph of the circuit to be analysed. Since replacing a single link in a tree forms exactly one unique loo... | Circuit topology (electrical) | 0.812356 |
18,193 | An example would be a transformer earthed on both the primary and secondary side. The transformer still functions as a transformer with the same voltage ratio but can now no longer be used as an isolation transformer.More recent techniques in graph theory are able to deal with active components, which are also problema... | Circuit topology (electrical) | 0.812356 |
18,194 | Circuits containing components with three or more terminals greatly increase the number of possible topologies. Conversely, the number of different circuits represented by a topology diminishes and in many cases the circuit is easily recognisable from the topology even when specific components are not identified. With ... | Circuit topology (electrical) | 0.812356 |
18,195 | Another way of extending classical graph theory for active components is through the use of hypergraphs. Some electronic components are not represented naturally using graphs. The transistor has three connection points, but a normal graph branch may only connect to two nodes. | Circuit topology (electrical) | 0.812356 |
18,196 | Many topology names relate to their appearance when drawn diagrammatically. Most circuits can be drawn in a variety of ways and consequently have a variety of names. For instance, the three circuits shown in Figure 1.1 all look different but have identical topologies. This example also demonstrates a common convention ... | Circuit topology (electrical) | 0.812356 |
18,197 | Two graphs are dual when the relationship between branches and node pairs in one is the same as the relationship between branches and loops in the other. The dual of a graph can be found entirely by a graphical method.The dual of a graph is another graph. For a given tree in a graph, the complementary set of branches (... | Circuit topology (electrical) | 0.812356 |
18,198 | The weight of a directed edge in these graphs represents a gain, such as possessed by an amplifier. In general, signal-flow graphs, unlike the regular directed graphs described above, do not correspond to the topology of the physical arrangement of components.The second approach is to extend the classical method so tha... | Circuit topology (electrical) | 0.812356 |
18,199 | Graph theory is the branch of mathematics dealing with graphs. In network analysis, graphs are used extensively to represent a network being analysed. The graph of a network captures only certain aspects of a network; those aspects related to its connectivity, or, in other words, its topology. This can be a useful repr... | Circuit topology (electrical) | 0.812356 |
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