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29,900 | Nanomedicine is a biweekly peer-reviewed medical journal covering research on medical nanoscale-structured material and devices, biotechnology devices and molecular machine systems, and nanorobotics applications in medicine. It was established in 2006 and is published by Future Medicine. The editors-in-chief are Kostas... | Nanomedicine (Future Medicine journal) | 0.805211 |
29,901 | The Fermi energy is a concept in quantum mechanics usually referring to the energy difference between the highest and lowest occupied single-particle states in a quantum system of non-interacting fermions at absolute zero temperature. In a Fermi gas, the lowest occupied state is taken to have zero kinetic energy, where... | Fermi velocity | 0.805209 |
29,902 | In the 17th century, the method of exhaustion led to the rectification by geometrical methods of several transcendental curves: the logarithmic spiral by Evangelista Torricelli in 1645 (some sources say John Wallis in the 1650s), the cycloid by Christopher Wren in 1658, and the catenary by Gottfried Leibniz in 1691. In... | Length of an arc | 0.805207 |
29,903 | Arc length is the distance between two points along a section of a curve. Determining the length of an irregular arc segment by approximating the arc segment as connected (straight) line segments is also called curve rectification. A rectifiable curve has a finite number of segments in its rectification (so the curve h... | Length of an arc | 0.805207 |
29,904 | Paleophycology (also once known as paleoalgology) is the subdiscipline of paleobotany that deals with the study and identification of fossil algae and their evolutionary relationships and ecology.The field is very important in the science of paleolimnology as the algae leave many indicators of fossil ecosystems. Primar... | Paleophycology | 0.805207 |
29,905 | After tearing a partitioning algorithm is reapplied. Minimizing feedback loops gets the best results for Binary DSM, but not always for Numeric DSM or Probability DSM. Sequencing algorithms (using optimization, genetic algorithms) are typically trying to minimize the number of feedback loops and also to reorder coupled... | Design Structure Matrix | 0.805206 |
29,906 | The design structure matrix (DSM; also referred to as dependency structure matrix, dependency structure method, dependency source matrix, problem solving matrix (PSM), incidence matrix, N2 matrix, interaction matrix, dependency map or design precedence matrix) is a simple, compact and visual representation of a system ... | Design Structure Matrix | 0.805205 |
29,907 | In the mathematical field of graph theory, the Pappus graph is a bipartite, 3-regular, undirected graph with 18 vertices and 27 edges, formed as the Levi graph of the Pappus configuration. It is named after Pappus of Alexandria, an ancient Greek mathematician who is believed to have discovered the "hexagon theorem" des... | Pappus graph | 0.805204 |
29,908 | The closely related concept in set theory (see: projection (set theory)) differs from that of relational algebra in that, in set theory, one projects onto ordered components, not onto attributes. For instance, projecting ( 3 , 7 ) {\displaystyle (3,7)} onto the second component yields 7. Projection is relational algebr... | Projection (relational algebra) | 0.805203 |
29,909 | In relational algebra, a projection is a unary operation written as Π a 1 , . . . | Projection (relational algebra) | 0.805203 |
29,910 | Meta II programs are compiled into an interpreted byte code language. VALGOL and SMALGOL compilers illustrating its capabilities were written in the META II language, VALGOL is a simple algebraic language designed for the purpose of illustrating META II. SMALGOL was a fairly large subset of ALGOL 60. | META II | 0.805203 |
29,911 | The concept of artificial intelligence was initially proposed in the 1940s, and the idea of improving productivity and gaining insights through smart analytics and modelling is not new. Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge-Based systems have been an active research branch of artificial intelligence for the entire prod... | Artificial intelligence in industry | 0.805202 |
29,912 | Industrial AI can be embedded to existing products or services to make them more effective, reliable, safer, and to enhance their longevity. The automotive industry, for example, uses computer vision to avoid accidents and enable vehicles to stay in lane, facilitating safer driving. In manufacturing, one example is the... | Artificial intelligence in industry | 0.805202 |
29,913 | Industrial AI can also be used for knowledge discovery by identifying insights in engineering systems. In aviation and aeronautics, AI has been playing a vital role in many critical areas, one of which is safety assurance and root cause. NASA is trying to proactively manage risks to aircraft safety by analyzing flight ... | Artificial intelligence in industry | 0.805202 |
29,914 | Plasma transferred wire arc (PTWA) thermal spraying is a thermal spraying process that deposits a coating on the internal surface of a cylindrical surface, or external surface of any geometry. It is predominantly known for its use in coating the cylinder bores of an internal combustion engine, enabling the construction... | Plasma transferred wire arc | 0.805199 |
29,915 | In physics, the Schrödinger picture or Schrödinger representation is a formulation of quantum mechanics in which the state vectors evolve in time, but the operators (observables and others) are mostly constant with respect to time (an exception is the Hamiltonian which may change if the potential V {\displaystyle V} ch... | Schrodinger picture | 0.805198 |
29,916 | {\displaystyle \operatorname {Pic} _{X/k}^{0}.} For k of characteristic zero, Pic X / k 0 {\displaystyle \operatorname {Pic} _{X/k}^{0}} is an abelian variety, the Picard variety of X.For R the ring of integers of a number field, the divisor class group Cl(R) := Cl(Spec R) is also called the ideal class group of R. It ... | Divisor class | 0.805196 |
29,917 | Let k be a field, and let n be a positive integer. Since the polynomial ring k is a unique factorization domain, the divisor class group of affine space An over k is equal to zero. Since projective space Pn over k minus a hyperplane H is isomorphic to An, it follows that the divisor class group of Pn is generated by th... | Divisor class | 0.805196 |
29,918 | In discrete mathematics, the octonions provide an elementary derivation of the Leech lattice, and thus they are closely related to the sporadic simple groups.Applications of the octonions to physics have largely been conjectural. For example, in the 1970s, attempts were made to understand quarks by way of an octonionic... | Octonion multiplication | 0.805195 |
29,919 | There are several natural ways to choose an integral form of the octonions. The simplest is just to take the octonions whose coordinates are integers. This gives a nonassociative algebra over the integers called the Gravesian octonions. However it is not a maximal order (in the sense of ring theory); there are exactly ... | Octonion multiplication | 0.805195 |
29,920 | The octonions were discovered in 1843 by John T. Graves, inspired by his friend William Rowan Hamilton's discovery of quaternions. Graves called his discovery "octaves", and mentioned them in a letter to Hamilton dated 26 December 1843. He first published his result slightly later than Arthur Cayley's article. The octo... | Octonion multiplication | 0.805195 |
29,921 | The octonions play a significant role in the classification and construction of other mathematical entities. For example, the exceptional Lie group G2 is the automorphism group of the octonions, and the other exceptional Lie groups F4, E6, E7 and E8 can be understood as the isometries of certain projective planes defin... | Octonion multiplication | 0.805195 |
29,922 | An isotopy of an algebra is a triple of bijective linear maps a, b, c such that if xy = z then a(x)b(y) = c(z). For a = b = c this is the same as an automorphism. The isotopy group of an algebra is the group of all isotopies, which contains the group of automorphisms as a subgroup. The isotopy group of the octonions is... | Octonion multiplication | 0.805195 |
29,923 | Their modulus is defined differently from their norm, and they also contain zero divisors. As shown by Hurwitz, R, C, H, and O are the only normed division algebras over the real numbers. These four algebras also form the only alternative, finite-dimensional division algebras over the real numbers (up to isomorphism). ... | Octonion multiplication | 0.805195 |
29,924 | The higher-dimensional algebras defined by the Cayley–Dickson construction (starting with the sedenions) all fail to satisfy this property. They all have zero divisors. Wider number systems exist which have a multiplicative modulus (for example, 16-dimensional conic sedenions). | Octonion multiplication | 0.805195 |
29,925 | The octonions do retain one important property shared by R, C, and H: the norm on O satisfies ‖ x y ‖ = ‖ x ‖ ‖ y ‖ . {\displaystyle \|xy\|=\|x\|\|y\|.} This equation means that the octonions form a composition algebra. | Octonion multiplication | 0.805195 |
29,926 | Octonionic multiplication is neither commutative: eiej = −ejei ≠ ejei if i, j are distinct and non-zero,nor associative: (eiej)ek = −ei(ejek) ≠ ei(ejek) if i, j, k are distinct, non-zero and eiej ≠ ±ek.The octonions do satisfy a weaker form of associativity: they are alternative. This means that the subalgebra generate... | Octonion multiplication | 0.805195 |
29,927 | In a dual way, a similar relationship exists between notions of greatest fixed point and terminal F-coalgebra. These can be used for allowing potentially infinite objects while maintaining strong normalization property. In the strongly normalizing Charity programming language (i.e. each program terminates in it), coind... | F-algebra | 0.805192 |
29,928 | If the category of F-algebras for a given endofunctor F has an initial object, it is called an initial algebra. The algebra ( N , ) {\displaystyle (\mathbb {N} ,)} in the above example is an initial algebra. Various finite data structures used in programming, such as lists and trees, can be obtained as initial algebra... | F-algebra | 0.805192 |
29,929 | If C {\displaystyle C} is a category, and F: C → C {\displaystyle F:C\rightarrow C} is an endofunctor of C {\displaystyle C} , then an F {\displaystyle F} -algebra is a tuple ( A , α ) {\displaystyle (A,\alpha )} , where A {\displaystyle A} is an object of C {\displaystyle C} and α {\displaystyle \alpha } is a C {\disp... | F-algebra | 0.805192 |
29,930 | Therefore, a ring is an F-algebra of signature 1 + R×R over the category of abelian groups which satisfies two axioms (associativity and identity for the multiplication). When we come to vector spaces and modules, the signature functor includes a scalar multiplication k×E → E, and the signature F(E) = 1 + E + k×E is pa... | F-algebra | 0.805192 |
29,931 | This makes rings F-algebras on the category of sets with signature 1 + 1 + R + R×R + R×R. Alternatively, we can look at the functor F(R) = 1 + R×R in the category of abelian groups. In that context, the multiplication is a homomorphism, meaning m(x + y, z) = m(x,z) + m(y,z) and m(x,y + z) = m(x,y) + m(x,z), which are p... | F-algebra | 0.805192 |
29,932 | Going one step ahead of universal algebra, most algebraic structures are F-algebras. For example, abelian groups are F-algebras for the same functor F(G) = 1 + G + G×G as for groups, with an additional axiom for commutativity: m∘t = m, where t(x,y) = (y,x) is the transpose on GxG. Monoids are F-algebras of signature F(... | F-algebra | 0.805192 |
29,933 | The above construction is used to define group objects over an arbitrary category with finite products and a terminal object 1 {\displaystyle 1} . When the category admits finite coproducts, the group objects are F {\displaystyle F} -algebras. For example, finite groups are F {\displaystyle F} -algebras in the category... | F-algebra | 0.805192 |
29,934 | {\displaystyle {\begin{matrix}\alpha :{1}+G+G\times G&\to &G,\\*&\mapsto &1,\\x&\mapsto &x^{-1},\\(x,y)&\mapsto &x\cdot y.\end{matrix}}} Thus a group is a F {\displaystyle F} -algebra where F {\displaystyle F} is the functor F ( G ) = 1 + G + G × G {\displaystyle F(G)=1+G+G\times G} . However the reverse is not necessa... | F-algebra | 0.805192 |
29,935 | In mathematics, specifically in category theory, F-algebras generalize the notion of algebraic structure. Rewriting the algebraic laws in terms of morphisms eliminates all references to quantified elements from the axioms, and these algebraic laws may then be glued together in terms of a single functor F, the signature... | F-algebra | 0.805192 |
29,936 | However, lattices, which are partial orders in which every two elements have a supremum and an infimum, and in particular total orders, are F-algebras. This is because they can equivalently be defined in terms of the algebraic operations: x∨y = inf(x,y) and x∧y = sup(x,y), subject to certain axioms (commutativity, asso... | F-algebra | 0.805192 |
29,937 | Not all mathematical structures are F-algebras. For example, a poset P may be defined in categorical terms with a morphism s:P × P → Ω, on a subobject classifier (Ω = {0,1} in the category of sets and s(x,y)=1 precisely when x≤y). The axioms restricting the morphism s to define a poset can be rewritten in terms of morp... | F-algebra | 0.805192 |
29,938 | Consider the functor F: S e t → S e t {\displaystyle F:\mathrm {\bf {Set}} \to \mathrm {\bf {Set}} } that sends a set X {\displaystyle X} to 1 + X {\displaystyle 1+X} . Here, S e t {\displaystyle \mathrm {\bf {Set}} } denotes the category of sets, + {\displaystyle +} denotes the usual coproduct given by the disjoint un... | F-algebra | 0.805192 |
29,939 | But even more remarkable is that abstraction is not even required. Combinatory logic is a model of computation equivalent to lambda calculus, but without abstraction. The advantage of this is that evaluating expressions in lambda calculus is quite complicated because the semantics of substitution must be specified with... | K combinator | 0.805191 |
29,940 | Lambda calculus is known to be computationally equivalent in power to many other plausible models for computation (including Turing machines); that is, any calculation that can be accomplished in any of these other models can be expressed in lambda calculus, and vice versa. According to the Church-Turing thesis, both m... | K combinator | 0.805191 |
29,941 | Moreover, in lambda calculus, notions such as '3' and ' ∗ {\displaystyle *} ' can be represented without any need for externally defined primitive operators or constants. It is possible to identify terms in lambda calculus, which, when suitably interpreted, behave like the number 3 and like the multiplication operator,... | K combinator | 0.805191 |
29,942 | Lambda calculus is concerned with objects called lambda-terms, which can be represented by the following three forms of strings: v {\displaystyle v} λ v . E 1 {\displaystyle \lambda v.E_{1}} ( E 1 E 2 ) {\displaystyle (E_{1}E_{2})} where v {\displaystyle v} is a variable name drawn from a predefined infinite set of var... | K combinator | 0.805191 |
29,943 | This definition is exhaustive: any lambda expression will be subject to exactly one of these rules (see Summary of lambda calculus above). It is related to the process of bracket abstraction, which takes an expression E built from variables and application and produces a combinator expression E in which the variable x ... | K combinator | 0.805191 |
29,944 | Since from Maxwell's equations (specifically Gauss's law for magnetism) magnetic fields are divergenceless, magnetic flux tubes have this property, so flux tubes are mainly used as an aid in visualizing magnetic fields. However flux tubes can also be useful for visualizing other vector fields in regions of zero diverge... | Magnetic flux tube | 0.80519 |
29,945 | Consider the volume bounded by the tube and any two surfaces S 1 {\displaystyle S_{1}} and S 2 {\displaystyle S_{2}} intersecting it. If the field F {\displaystyle F} has sources or sinks within the tube the flux out of this volume will be nonzero. However, if the field is divergenceless (solenoidal, div F = 0 {\disp... | Magnetic flux tube | 0.80519 |
29,946 | In magnetohydrodynamics, Alfvén's theorem states that the magnetic flux through a surface, such as the surface of a flux tube, moving along with a perfectly conducting fluid is conserved. In other words, the magnetic field is constrained to move with the fluid or is "frozen-in" to the fluid. This can be shown mathemati... | Magnetic flux tube | 0.80519 |
29,947 | As used in astrophysics, a flux tube generally means an area of space through which a strong magnetic field passes, in which the behavior of matter (usually ionized gas or plasma) is strongly influenced by the field. They are commonly found around stars, including the Sun, which has many flux tubes from tens to hundred... | Magnetic flux tube | 0.80519 |
29,948 | This is a glossary of linear algebra. See also: glossary of module theory. | Glossary of linear algebra | 0.805187 |
29,949 | Linear algebra The branch of mathematics that deals with vectors, vector spaces, linear transformations and systems of linear equations. Linear combination A sum, each of whose summands is an appropriate vector times an appropriate scalar (or ring element). Linear dependence A linear dependence of a tuple of vectors v ... | Glossary of linear algebra | 0.805187 |
29,950 | Observations of what is now referred to as selfish genetic elements go back to the early days in the history of genetics. Already in 1928, Russian geneticist Sergey Gershenson reported the discovery of a driving X chromosome in Drosophila obscura. Crucially, he noted that the resulting female-biased sex ratio may drive... | Selfish DNA | 0.805187 |
29,951 | In relativistic physics, Supplee's paradox (also called the submarine paradox) is a physical paradox that arises when considering the buoyant force exerted on a relativistic bullet (or in a submarine) immersed in a fluid subject to an ambient gravitational field. If a bullet has neutral buoyancy when it is at rest in a... | Supplee's paradox | 0.805183 |
29,952 | The high cost of many laboratory robots has inhibited their adoption. However, currently there are many robotic devices that have very low cost, and these could be employed to do some jobs in a laboratory. For example, a low-cost robotic arm was employed to perform several different kinds of water analysis, without los... | Laboratory robotics | 0.805183 |
29,953 | One of the first applications of robotics in biology was peptide and oligonucleotide synthesis. One early example is the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) which is able to amplify DNA strands using a thermal cycler to micromanage DNA synthesis by adjusting temperature using a pre-made computer program. Since then, automa... | Laboratory robotics | 0.805183 |
29,954 | Typically the cost of a single synthesis or sample assessment are expensive to set up and start up cost for automation can be expensive (but see above "Low-cost laboratory robotics"). Many techniques have not been developed for automation yet. Additionally there is difficulty automating instances where visual analysis,... | Laboratory robotics | 0.805183 |
29,955 | This solution is the use of scripting languages that can control mouse clicks and keyboard inputs, like AutoIt. This way, it is possible to integrate any device by any manufacturer as long as they are controlled by a computer, which is often the case. Another important development in robotics which has important potent... | Laboratory robotics | 0.805183 |
29,956 | Essentially, all the manual activity of liquid handling can be performed automatically, allowing humans spending their time in more conceptual activities. Instrument companies have designed plate readers which can carry out detect specific biological, chemical or physical events in samples stored in these plates. These... | Laboratory robotics | 0.805183 |
29,957 | A number of companies have developed robots to specifically handle SBS microplates. Such robots may be liquid handlers which aspirates or dispenses liquid samples from and to these plates, or "plate movers" which transport them between instruments. Other companies have pushed integration even further: on top of interfa... | Laboratory robotics | 0.805183 |
29,958 | One major advantage of automating purification is the scale at which separations can be done. Using microprocessors, ion-exchange separation can be conducted on a nanoliter scale in a short period of time. Robotics have been implemented in liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) to streamline the process of preparing biological... | Laboratory robotics | 0.805183 |
29,959 | Simulated distillation, a type of gas chromatography testing method used in the petroleum, can be automated via robotics. An older method used a system called ORCA (Optimized Robot for Chemical Analysis) was used for the analysis of petroleum samples by simulated distillation (SIMDIS). ORCA has allowed for shorter anal... | Laboratory robotics | 0.805183 |
29,960 | Robotics have applications with combinatorial chemistry which has great impact on the pharmaceutical industry. The use of robotics has allowed for the use of much smaller reagent quantities and mass expansion of chemical libraries. The "parallel synthesis" method can be improved upon with automation. The main disadvant... | Laboratory robotics | 0.805183 |
29,961 | Laboratory robotics is the act of using robots in biology, chemistry or engineering labs. For example, pharmaceutical companies employ robots to move biological or chemical samples around to synthesize novel chemical entities or to test pharmaceutical value of existing chemical matter. Advanced laboratory robotics can ... | Laboratory robotics | 0.805183 |
29,962 | American sports executive Daryl Morey was the first to adapt James' Pythagorean expectation to professional basketball while a researcher at STATS, Inc. He found that using 13.91 for the exponents provided an acceptable model for predicting won-lost percentages: W i n = points for 13.91 points for 13.91 + points agains... | Pythagorean expectation | 0.805183 |
29,963 | By plugging these expected runs scored and allowed into the pythagorean formula, one can generate second-order wins, the number of wins a team deserves based on the number of runs they should have scored and allowed given their component offensive and defensive statistics. Third-order wins are second-order wins that ha... | Pythagorean expectation | 0.805183 |
29,964 | Pythagorean expectation is a sports analytics formula devised by Bill James to estimate the percentage of games a baseball team "should" have won based on the number of runs they scored and allowed. Comparing a team's actual and Pythagorean winning percentage can be used to make predictions and evaluate which teams are... | Pythagorean expectation | 0.805183 |
29,965 | Some modulo operations can be factored or expanded similarly to other mathematical operations. This may be useful in cryptography proofs, such as the Diffie–Hellman key exchange. Some of these properties require that a and n are integers. Identity: (a mod n) mod n = a mod n. nx mod n = 0 for all positive integer values... | Modulo | 0.80518 |
29,966 | The papers were listed under four headings, each representing a different domain of requisite cognitive ability: (i) space, (ii) qualities and objects, (iii) numbers and probabilities, and (iv) social entities. The workshop papers examined topics ranging from “Animals as Natural Geometers” and “Color Generalization by ... | Cognitive Biology | 0.805174 |
29,967 | For example, the decision to append cognitive to a body of biological research on neurons, e.g. the cognitive biology of neuroscience, is separate from the decision to put such body of research in a category named cognitive sciences. No less difficult a decision needs be made—between the computational and constructivis... | Cognitive Biology | 0.805174 |
29,968 | Some, for example, considered evolutionary epistemology a fellow-traveler. Others appropriated the keyword, as for example Donald Griffin in 1978, when he advocated the establishment of cognitive ethology.Meanwhile, breakthroughs in molecular, cell, evolutionary, and developmental biology generated a cornucopia of data... | Cognitive Biology | 0.805174 |
29,969 | Cognitive biology is an emerging science that regards natural cognition as a biological function. It is based on the theoretical assumption that every organism—whether a single cell or multicellular—is continually engaged in systematic acts of cognition coupled with intentional behaviors, i.e., a sensory-motor coupling... | Cognitive Biology | 0.805174 |
29,970 | Aside from an essay regarding Goodwin's conception by Margaret Boden in 1980, the next appearance of ‘cognitive biology’ as a phrase in the literature came in 1986 from a professor of biochemistry, Ladislav Kováč. His conception, based on natural principles grounded in bioenergetics and molecular biology, is briefly di... | Cognitive Biology | 0.805174 |
29,971 | 'Cognitive biology' first appeared in the literature as a paper with that title by Brian C. Goodwin in 1977. There and in several related publications Goodwin explained the advantage of cognitive biology in the context of his work on morphogenesis. He subsequently moved on to other issues of structure, form, and comple... | Cognitive Biology | 0.805174 |
29,972 | A prolegomena for such science was presented in 2007 and several authors have published their thoughts on the subject since the late 1970s. Yet, as the examples in the next section suggest, there is neither consensus on the theory nor widespread application in practice. Although the two terms are sometimes used synonym... | Cognitive Biology | 0.805174 |
29,973 | However, the biological details of such basic cognition have neither been delineated for a great many species nor sufficiently generalized to stimulate further investigation. This lack of detail is due to the lack of a science dedicated to the task of elucidating the cognitive ability common to all biological organisms... | Cognitive Biology | 0.805174 |
29,974 | While cognitive science endeavors to explain human thought and the conscious mind, the work of cognitive biology is focused on the most fundamental process of cognition for any organism. In the past several decades, biologists have investigated cognition in organisms large and small, both plant and animal. “Mounting ev... | Cognitive Biology | 0.805174 |
29,975 | For example, a major publisher's website displays links to material in a dozen domains of major scientific endeavor. One of which is described thus: “Cognitive science is the study of how the mind works, addressing cognitive functions such as perception and action, memory and learning, reasoning and problem solving, de... | Cognitive Biology | 0.805174 |
29,976 | The words ‘cognitive’ and ‘biology’ are also used together as the name of a category. The category of cognitive biology has no fixed content but, rather, the content varies with the user. If the content can only be recruited from cognitive science, then cognitive biology would seem limited to a selection of items in th... | Cognitive Biology | 0.805174 |
29,977 | There in the Faculty of Natural Sciences, the Bratislava Biocenter is presented as a consortium of research teams working in biomedical sciences. Their website lists the Center for Cognitive Biology in the Department of Biochemistry at the top of the page, followed by five lab groups, each at a separate department of b... | Cognitive Biology | 0.805174 |
29,978 | As another example, the Department für Kognitionsbiologie at the University of Vienna declares in its mission statement a strong commitment “to experimental evaluation of multiple, testable hypotheses” regarding cognition in terms of evolutionary and developmental history as well as adaptive function and mechanism, whe... | Cognitive Biology | 0.805174 |
29,979 | The concept of cognitive biology is exemplified by this seminar description: Cognitive science has focused primarily on human cognitive activities. These include perceiving, remembering and learning, evaluating and deciding, planning actions, etc. But humans are not the only organisms that engage in these activities. I... | Cognitive Biology | 0.805174 |
29,980 | For the sake of emphasis, (i) “We want to keep the focus on biology because for too long cognition was considered a function that could be almost entirely divorced from its physical instantiation, to the extent that whatever could be said of cognition almost by definition had to be applicable to both organisms and mach... | Cognitive Biology | 0.805174 |
29,981 | The University of Adelaide has established a "Cognitive Biology" workgroup using this operating concept: Cognition is, first and foremost, a natural biological phenomenon — regardless of how the engineering of artificial intelligence proceeds. As such, it makes sense to approach cognition like other biological phenomen... | Cognitive Biology | 0.805174 |
29,982 | Ladislav Kováč's “Introduction to cognitive biology” (Kováč, 1986a) lists ten ‘Principles of Cognitive Biology.’ A closely related thirty page paper was published the following year: “Overview: Bioenergetics between chemistry, genetics and physics.” (Kováč, 1987). Over the following decades, Kováč elaborated, updated, ... | Cognitive Biology | 0.805174 |
29,983 | This comparative approach is expected to yield simple cognitive concepts common to all organisms. “It is hoped a theoretically well-grounded toolkit of basic cognitive concepts will facilitate the use and discussion of research carried out in different fields to increase understanding of two foundational issues: what c... | Cognitive Biology | 0.805174 |
29,984 | Early inquiries into marine chemistry usually concerned the origin of salinity in the ocean, including work by Robert Boyle. Modern chemical oceanography began as a field with the 1872–1876 Challenger expedition, which made the first systematic measurements of ocean chemistry. | Marine chemist | 0.805173 |
29,985 | Increased carbon dioxide levels, mostly from burning fossil fuels, are changing ocean chemistry. Global warming and changes in salinity have significant implications for the ecology of marine environments. | Marine chemist | 0.805172 |
29,986 | In probability theory and statistics, there are several relationships among probability distributions. These relations can be categorized in the following groups: One distribution is a special case of another with a broader parameter space Transforms (function of a random variable); Combinations (function of several va... | Sum of independent random variables | 0.805172 |
29,987 | Approximate or limit relationship means either that the combination of an infinite number of iid random variables tends to some distribution, or that the limit when a parameter tends to some value approaches to a different distribution.Combination of iid random variables: Given certain conditions, the sum (hence the av... | Sum of independent random variables | 0.805171 |
29,988 | In mathematics, Shafarevich's theorem states that any finite solvable group is the Galois group of some finite extension of the rational numbers. It was first proved by Igor Shafarevich (1954), though Alexander Schmidt later pointed out a gap in the proof, which was fixed by Shafarevich (1989). | Shafarevich's theorem on solvable Galois groups | 0.805169 |
29,989 | The physics controlling this very early period (including quantum gravity in the Planck epoch) is not understood, so we cannot say what, if anything, happened before time zero. Since the Planck epoch, the universe has been expanding to its present scale, with a very short but intense period of cosmic inflation speculat... | Universe | 0.805168 |
29,990 | The earliest written records of identifiable predecessors to modern astronomy come from Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia from around 3000 to 1200 BCE. Babylonian astronomers of the 7th century BCE viewed the world as a flat disk surrounded by the ocean, and this forms the premise for early Greek maps like those of Anaxima... | Universe | 0.805168 |
29,991 | General relativity describes how spacetime is curved and bent by mass and energy (gravity). The topology or geometry of the universe includes both local geometry in the observable universe and global geometry. Cosmologists often work with a given space-like slice of spacetime called the comoving coordinates. The sectio... | Universe | 0.805168 |
29,992 | Dark matter is a hypothetical kind of matter that is invisible to the entire electromagnetic spectrum, but which accounts for most of the matter in the universe. The existence and properties of dark matter are inferred from its gravitational effects on visible matter, radiation, and the large-scale structure of the uni... | Universe | 0.805168 |
29,993 | Charged leptons can combine with other particles to form various composite particles such as atoms and positronium. The electron governs nearly all of chemistry, as it is found in atoms and is directly tied to all chemical properties. Neutrinos rarely interact with anything, and are consequently rarely observed. | Universe | 0.805168 |
29,994 | The universe appears to be a smooth spacetime continuum consisting of three spatial dimensions and one temporal (time) dimension. Therefore, an event in the spacetime of the physical universe can therefore be identified by a set of four coordinates: (x, y, z, t). On average, space is observed to be very nearly flat (wi... | Universe | 0.805168 |
29,995 | A remark by John Archibald Wheeler that has become proverbial among physicists summarizes the theory: "Spacetime tells matter how to move; matter tells spacetime how to curve", and therefore there is no point in considering one without the other (the Newtonian theory of gravity is a good approximation to the prediction... | Universe | 0.805168 |
29,996 | Modern physics regards events as being organized into spacetime. This idea originated with the special theory of relativity, which predicts that if one observer sees two events happening in different places at the same time, a second observer who is moving relative to the first will see those events happening at differ... | Universe | 0.805168 |
29,997 | The magnetic interaction is described in terms of a vector field, where each point in space is associated with a vector that determines what force a moving charge would experience at that point (see Lorentz force). Since a vector field is quite difficult to visualize, introductory physics instruction often uses field l... | Magnetic flux | 0.805166 |
29,998 | In physics, specifically electromagnetism, the magnetic flux through a surface is the surface integral of the normal component of the magnetic field B over that surface. It is usually denoted Φ or ΦB. The SI unit of magnetic flux is the weber (Wb; in derived units, volt–seconds), and the CGS unit is the maxwell. Magnet... | Magnetic flux | 0.805166 |
29,999 | Then n is finite. If n is composite, n is divisible by prime q which is less than n. From Cauchy's theorem, the subgroup H will be exist whose order is q, it is not suitable. Therefore, n must be a prime number. | Cauchy's theorem (group theory) | 0.805163 |
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