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5,800 | In Reactome, human biological processes are annotated by breaking them down into series of molecular events. Like classical chemistry reactions each Reactome event has input physical entities (substrates) which interact, possibly facilitated by enzymes or other molecular catalysts, to generate output physical entities ... | Reactome | 0.825415 |
5,801 | Pathway diagrams use a Systems Biology Graphical Notation (SBGN)-based style. The core unit of the Reactome data model is the reaction. | Reactome | 0.825415 |
5,802 | Reactome is a free online database of biological pathways. There are several Reactomes that concentrate on specific organisms, the largest of these is focused on human biology, the following description concentrates on the human Reactome. It is authored by biologists, in collaboration with Reactome editorial staff. The... | Reactome | 0.825415 |
5,803 | The database contains curated annotations that cover a diverse set of topics in molecular and cellular biology. Details of current and future annotation projects can be found in the calendar of annotation projects. Topics of annotation include; cell cycle metabolism signaling transport cell motility immune function hos... | Reactome | 0.825414 |
5,804 | The Latin term in vitro, meaning "in glass", is used because early biological experiments involving cultivation of tissues outside the living organism were carried out in glass containers, such as beakers, test tubes, or Petri dishes. Today, the scientific term "in vitro" is used to refer to any biological procedure th... | Test-tube baby | 0.825412 |
5,805 | Genetic algorithms search large solution spaces. Neural networks show the connection between input and output parameters and can be used for forecasting. Data analysis: Detection of dependencies, Regression analysis, best fitting function etc. | Plant Simulation | 0.825403 |
5,806 | Integration: Plant Simulation is part of the Digital factory and supports importing data from PLM systems or be used during Virtual Commissioning taking over layout data from AutoCAD, Microstation, Factory CAD, etc. directly into the simulation. Provides comprehensible analysis tools for detecting bottlenecks (Bottlene... | Plant Simulation | 0.825403 |
5,807 | Plant Simulation is used in most industries, most noticeably: Automotive industry Automotive Industry Workgroup Material Flow Simulation Automotive suppliers Aerospace Plant manufacturing Mechanical engineering Process industry Electronics industry Consumer packaged goods industry Airports Logistics companies (transpor... | Plant Simulation | 0.825403 |
5,808 | Plant Simulation is a computer application developed by Siemens Digital Industries Software for modelling, simulating, analyzing, visualizing and optimizing production systems and processes, the flow of materials and logistic operations. Using Tecnomatix Plant Simulation, users can optimize material flow, resource util... | Plant Simulation | 0.825403 |
5,809 | Peters four-step chemistry is a systematically reduced mechanism for methane combustion, named after Norbert Peters, who derived it in 1985. The mechanism reads as CO + 4H2}}\\&{\text{II)}}&&{\ce {CO + H2O <-> CO2 + H2}}\\&{\text{III)}}&&{\ce {H + H + M -> H2 + M}}\\&{\text{IV)}}&&{\ce {O2 + 3H2 <-> 2H + 2H2O}}\end{ali... | Peters four-step chemistry | 0.825403 |
5,810 | Computational biology Computational linguistics Computational physics Computational mathematics Computational materials science | Statistical computing | 0.825401 |
5,811 | the 1880 Census, with about 50 million people, and it took over 7 years to tabulate. While in the 1890 Census, with over 62 million people, it took less than a year. This marks the beginning of the era of mechanized computational statistics and semiautomatic data processing systems. | Statistical computing | 0.825401 |
5,812 | Though computational statistics is widely used today, it actually has a relatively short history of acceptance in the statistics community. For the most part, the founders of the field of statistics relied on mathematics and asymptotic approximations in the development of computational statistical methodology.In statis... | Statistical computing | 0.825401 |
5,813 | Computational statistics, or statistical computing, is the bond between statistics and computer science. It means statistical methods that are enabled by using computational methods. It is the area of computational science (or scientific computing) specific to the mathematical science of statistics. This area is also d... | Statistical computing | 0.825401 |
5,814 | Computational Statistics & Data Analysis Journal of Computational & Graphical Statistics Statistics and Computing | Statistical computing | 0.825401 |
5,815 | Communications in Statistics - Simulation and Computation Computational Statistics Computational Statistics & Data Analysis Journal of Computational and Graphical Statistics Journal of Statistical Computation and Simulation Journal of Statistical Software The R Journal The Stata Journal Statistics and Computing Wiley I... | Statistical computing | 0.825401 |
5,816 | Monte Carlo a statistical method relies on repeated random sampling to obtain numerical results. The concept is to use randomness to solve problems that might be deterministic in principle. They are often used in physical and mathematical problems and are most useful when it is difficult to use other approaches. Monte ... | Statistical computing | 0.825401 |
5,817 | Quine had a lifelong fascination with combinatory logic, attested to by his introduction to the translation in Van Heijenoort (1967) of the paper by the Russian logician Moses Schönfinkel founding combinatory logic. When Quine began working on PFL in earnest, in 1959, combinatory logic was commonly deemed a failure for... | Predicate functor logic | 0.825399 |
5,818 | The power of relation algebra did not become manifest until the monograph Tarski and Givant (1987), published after the three important papers bearing on PFL, namely Bacon (1985), Kuhn (1983), and Quine (1976); Combinatory logic builds on combinators, higher order functions whose domain is another combinator or functio... | Predicate functor logic | 0.825399 |
5,819 | By virtue of its economical primitives and axioms, this algebra most resembles PFL; Relation algebra algebraizes the fragment of first-order logic consisting of formulas having no atomic formula lying in the scope of more than three quantifiers. That fragment suffices, however, for Peano arithmetic and the axiomatic se... | Predicate functor logic | 0.825399 |
5,820 | Most work Quine published on logic and mathematics in the last 30 years of his life touched on PFL in some way.Quine took "functor" from the writings of his friend Rudolf Carnap, the first to employ it in philosophy and mathematical logic, and defined it as follows: "The word functor, grammatical in import but logical ... | Predicate functor logic | 0.825399 |
5,821 | The source for this section, as well as for much of this entry, is Quine (1976). Quine proposed PFL as a way of algebraizing first-order logic in a manner analogous to how Boolean algebra algebraizes propositional logic. He designed PFL to have exactly the expressive power of first-order logic with identity. Hence the ... | Predicate functor logic | 0.825399 |
5,822 | . x n ) → β {\displaystyle (\alpha \land Fx_{1}...x_{n})\rightarrow \beta } is a PFL theorem, then ( α ∧ ∃ F x 2 . . . x n ) → β {\displaystyle (\alpha \land \exists Fx_{2}...x_{n})\rightarrow \beta } is likewise a PFL theorem. | Predicate functor logic | 0.825399 |
5,823 | In mathematical logic, predicate functor logic (PFL) is one of several ways to express first-order logic (also known as predicate logic) by purely algebraic means, i.e., without quantified variables. PFL employs a small number of algebraic devices called predicate functors (or predicate modifiers) that operate on terms... | Predicate functor logic | 0.825399 |
5,824 | Internally, both MATLAB and NumPy rely on BLAS and LAPACK for efficient linear algebra computations. Python bindings of the widely used computer vision library OpenCV utilize NumPy arrays to store and operate on data. Since images with multiple channels are simply represented as three-dimensional arrays, indexing, slic... | NumPy | 0.825393 |
5,825 | NumPy targets the CPython reference implementation of Python, which is a non-optimizing bytecode interpreter. Mathematical algorithms written for this version of Python often run much slower than compiled equivalents due to the absence of compiler optimization. NumPy addresses the slowness problem partly by providing m... | NumPy | 0.825393 |
5,826 | Further, NumPy operations are executed on a single CPU. However, many linear algebra operations can be accelerated by executing them on clusters of CPUs or of specialized hardware, such as GPUs and TPUs, which many deep learning applications rely on. As a result, several alternative array implementations have arisen in... | NumPy | 0.825393 |
5,827 | Transported materials are those that have been deposited by water, wind, ice or gravity. Cumulose material is organic matter that has grown and accumulates in place.Residual soils are soils that develop from their underlying parent rocks and have the same general chemistry as those rocks. The soils found on mesas, plat... | Soil formation | 0.825392 |
5,828 | For example, the chernozems of the North American tallgrass prairie have a humus fraction nearly half of which is charcoal. This outcome was not anticipated because the antecedent prairie fire ecology capable of producing these distinct deep rich black soils is not easily observed. The role of soil engineers in the for... | Soil formation | 0.825392 |
5,829 | Plants can form new chemicals that can break down minerals, both directly and indirectly through mycorrhizal fungi and rhizosphere bacteria, and improve the soil structure. The type and amount of vegetation depends on climate, topography, soil characteristics and biological factors, mediated or not by human activities.... | Soil formation | 0.825392 |
5,830 | The zone of active bioturbation is termed the soil biomantle.Soil moisture content and water flow through the soil profile support leaching of solutes, and eluviation. Eluviation is the translocation of colloid material, such as organic matter, clay and other mineral compounds. Transported constituents are deposited du... | Soil formation | 0.825392 |
5,831 | These patterns emerge from topographic differences in erosion, deposition, fertility, soil moisture, plant cover, soil biology, fire history, and exposure to the elements. As a matter of rule, gravity transport water downslope, together with mineral and organic solutes and colloids, increasing particulate and base cont... | Soil formation | 0.825392 |
5,832 | d2 is the symmetry of an isosceles trapezoid, and p2 is the symmetry of a kite. g2 defines the geometry of a parallelogram. Only the g4 subgroup has no degrees of freedom, but can seen as a square with directed edges. | Square | 0.825388 |
5,833 | In hyperbolic geometry, squares with right angles do not exist. Rather, squares in hyperbolic geometry have angles of less than right angles. Larger hyperbolic squares have smaller angles. Examples: | Square | 0.825388 |
5,834 | In non-Euclidean geometry, squares are more generally polygons with 4 equal sides and equal angles. In spherical geometry, a square is a polygon whose edges are great circle arcs of equal distance, which meet at equal angles. Unlike the square of plane geometry, the angles of such a square are larger than a right angle... | Square | 0.825388 |
5,835 | ISBN 978-3-540-93516-2. Lavrukhina, Avgusta Konstantinovna; Pozdnyakov, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich (1970). Analytical Chemistry of Technetium, Promethium, Astatine, and Francium. | Astatine compounds | 0.825371 |
5,836 | Kugler, H. K.; Keller, C. (1985). 'At, Astatine', System No. 8a. Gmelin Handbook of Inorganic and Organometallic Chemistry. | Astatine compounds | 0.825371 |
5,837 | Only a few compounds with metals have been reported, in the form of astatides of sodium, palladium, silver, thallium, and lead. Some characteristic properties of silver and sodium astatide, and the other hypothetical alkali and alkaline earth astatides, have been estimated by extrapolation from other metal halides. The... | Astatine compounds | 0.825371 |
5,838 | NCI-Nature Pathway Interaction Database is a free biomedical database of human cellular signaling pathways (new official name: NCI Nature Pathway Interaction Database: Pathway, synonym: PID). PhosphoSitePlus is a database of observed post-translational modifications in human and mouse proteins; an online systems biolog... | Biological pathway | 0.825351 |
5,839 | If M is an m-manifold and N is an n-manifold, the Cartesian product M×N is a (m+n)-manifold when given the product topology. | Coordinate chart | 0.825317 |
5,840 | In topology, a branch of mathematics, a topological manifold is a topological space that locally resembles real n-dimensional Euclidean space. Topological manifolds are an important class of topological spaces, with applications throughout mathematics. All manifolds are topological manifolds by definition. Other types ... | Coordinate chart | 0.825317 |
5,841 | In physics, two experimental techniques are often called complementary if they investigate the same subject in two different ways such that two different (ideally non-overlapping) properties or aspects can be investigated. For example, X-ray scattering and neutron scattering experiments are often said to be complementa... | Complementary experiments | 0.825317 |
5,842 | A Gödel number is a number assigned to a formula 3. The Gödel universe is another name for the constructible universe 4. Gödel's incompleteness theorems show that sufficiently powerful consistent recursively enumerable theories cannot be complete 5. Gödel's completeness theorem states that consistent first-order theori... | Glossary of set theory | 0.825312 |
5,843 | A Suslin space is the image of a Polish space under a continuous mapping 14. A Suslin subset is a subset that is the image of a tree under a certain projection 15. The Suslin theorem about analytic sets states that a set that is analytic and coanalytic is Borel 16. A Suslin tree is a tree of height ω1 such that every b... | Glossary of set theory | 0.825312 |
5,844 | A Suslin algebra is a Boolean algebra that is complete, atomless, countably distributive, and satisfies the countable chain condition 3. A Suslin cardinal is a cardinal λ such that there exists a set P ⊂ 2ω such that P is λ-Suslin but P is not λ'-Suslin for any λ' < λ. 4. | Glossary of set theory | 0.825312 |
5,845 | A separating set is a set S of functions on a set such that for any two distinct points there is a function in S with different values on them. separative A separative poset is one that can be densely embedded into the poset of nonzero elements of a Boolean algebra. set A collection of distinct objects, considered as a... | Glossary of set theory | 0.825312 |
5,846 | 𝔦 The independence number I0, I1, I2, I3 The rank-into-rank large cardinal axioms ideal An ideal in the sense of ring theory, usually of a Boolean algebra, especially the Boolean algebra of subsets of a set iff if and only if improper See proper, below.inaccessible cardinal A (weakly or strongly) inaccessible cardinal... | Glossary of set theory | 0.825312 |
5,847 | Émile Borel 2. A Borel set is a set in the smallest sigma algebra containing the open sets bounding number The bounding number is the least size of an unbounded family of sequences of natural numbers BP Baire property BS BST Basic set theory Burali-Forti 1. Cesare Burali-Forti 2. The Burali-Forti paradox states that th... | Glossary of set theory | 0.825312 |
5,848 | The Hebrew letter ב 2. A beth number בα Beth Evert Willem Beth, as in Beth definability BG Bernays–Gödel set theory without the axiom of choice BGC Bernays–Gödel set theory with the axiom of choice boldface The boldface hierarchy is a hierarchy of subsets of a Polish space, definable by second-order formulas with param... | Glossary of set theory | 0.825312 |
5,849 | 2. β is the set of all subsets of a set α of cardinality β, or of an ordered set α of order type β 3. is the equivalence class of x { } 1. {a, b, ...} is the set with elements a, b, ... 2. {x: φ(x)} is the set of x such that φ(x) ⟨ ⟩ ⟨a,b⟩ is an ordered pair, and similarly for ordered n-tuples | X | {\displaystyle |X|... | Glossary of set theory | 0.825312 |
5,850 | Addition of cardinals 3. α+ is the smallest cardinal greater than α 4. B+ is the poset of nonzero elements of a Boolean algebra B 5. The inclusive or operation in a Boolean algebra. | Glossary of set theory | 0.825312 |
5,851 | weakly 1. A weakly inaccessible cardinal is a regular weak limit cardinal 2. A weakly compact cardinal is a cardinal κ (usually also assumed to be inaccessible) such that the infinitary language Lκ,κ satisfies the weak compactness theorem 3. A weakly Mahlo cardinal is a cardinal κ that is weakly inaccessible and such t... | Glossary of set theory | 0.825312 |
5,852 | A probability measure on the algebra of all subsets of some set 3. A measure on the algebra of all subsets of a set, taking values 0 and 1 measurable cardinal A measurable cardinal is a cardinal number κ such that there exists a κ-additive, non-trivial, 0-1-valued measure on the power set of κ. Most (but not all) autho... | Glossary of set theory | 0.825312 |
5,853 | Also called a set of first category. measure 1. A measure on a σ-algebra of subsets of a set 2. | Glossary of set theory | 0.825312 |
5,854 | j An elementary embedding J Levels of the Jensen hierarchy Jensen 1. Ronald Jensen 2. The Jensen hierarchy is a variation of the constructible hierarchy 3. Jensen's covering theorem states that if 0# does not exist then every uncountable set of ordinals is contained in a constructible set of the same cardinality Jónsso... | Glossary of set theory | 0.825312 |
5,855 | A Cohen algebra is a Boolean algebra whose completion is free Col collapsing algebra A collapsing algebra Col(κ,λ) collapses cardinals between λ and κ complete 1. "Complete set" is an old term for "transitive set" 2. A theory is called complete if it assigns a truth value (true or false) to every statement of its langu... | Glossary of set theory | 0.825312 |
5,856 | Cantor's absolute is a somewhat unclear concept sometimes used to mean the class of all sets 7. Cantor's theorem states that the powerset operation increases cardinalities Card The cardinality of a set cardinal 1. A cardinal number is an ordinal with more elements than any smaller ordinal cardinality The number of elem... | Glossary of set theory | 0.825312 |
5,857 | Zermelo's well-ordering theorem states that every set can be well ordered ZF Zermelo−Fraenkel set theory without the axiom of choice ZFA Zermelo−Fraenkel set theory with atoms ZFC Zermelo−Fraenkel set theory with the axiom of choice ZF-P Zermelo−Fraenkel set theory without the axiom of choice or the powerset axiom Zorn... | Glossary of set theory | 0.825312 |
5,858 | The Erdős–Rado theorem extends Ramsey's theorem to infinite cardinals ethereal cardinal An ethereal cardinal is a type of large cardinal similar in strength to subtle cardinals extender An extender is a system of ultrafilters encoding an elementary embedding extendible cardinal A cardinal κ is called extendible if for ... | Glossary of set theory | 0.825312 |
5,859 | E E(X) is the membership relation of the set X Easton's theorem Easton's theorem describes the possible behavior of the powerset function on regular cardinals EATS The statement "every Aronszajn tree is special" elementary An elementary embedding is a function preserving all properties describable in the language of se... | Glossary of set theory | 0.825312 |
5,860 | 𝔱 The tower number T A tree tall cardinal A tall cardinal is a type of large cardinal that is the critical point of a certain sort of elementary embedding Tarski 1. Alfred Tarski 2. Tarski's theorem states that the axiom of choice is equivalent to the existence of a bijection from X to X×X for all infinite sets X TC T... | Glossary of set theory | 0.825312 |
5,861 | A strong limit cardinal is a cardinal, usually assumed to be nonzero, larger than the powerset of any smaller cardinal 3. A limit ordinal is an ordinal, usually assumed to be nonzero, that is not the successor α+1 of another ordinal α limited A limited quantifier is the same as a bounded quantifier LM Lebesgue measure ... | Glossary of set theory | 0.825312 |
5,862 | 𝔟 The bounding number, the least size of an unbounded family of sequences of natural numbers B A Boolean algebra BA Baumgartner's axiom, one of three axioms introduced by Baumgartner. BACH Baumgartner's axiom plus the continuum hypothesis. Baire 1. René-Louis Baire 2. | Glossary of set theory | 0.825311 |
5,863 | To find a score which forms a consistent basis for selecting the best configuration, studies are carried out on a standard benchmark (see below) of protein–protein interaction cases. Scoring functions are assessed on the rank they assign to the best structure (ideally the best structure should be ranked 1), and on thei... | Protein–protein docking | 0.825307 |
5,864 | Later, the relative orientations of the interacting partners in the modelling was allowed to vary, but the internal geometry of each of the partners was held fixed. This type of modelling is sometimes referred to as "rigid docking". With further increases in computational power, it became possible to model changes in i... | Protein–protein docking | 0.825307 |
5,865 | In probability theory, a balance equation is an equation that describes the probability flux associated with a Markov chain in and out of states or set of states. | Balance equation | 0.8253 |
5,866 | In chemistry, a parent structure is the structure of an unadorned ion or molecule from which derivatives can be visualized. Parent structures underpin systematic nomenclature and facilitate classification. Fundamental parent structures have one or no functional groups and often have various types of symmetry. | Parent compound | 0.825297 |
5,867 | A parent hydride is a parent structure with one or more hydrogen atoms. Parent hydrides have a defined standard population of hydrogen atoms attached to a skeletal structure. Parent hydrides are used extensively in organic nomenclature, but are also used in inorganic chemistry. Phosphines | Parent compound | 0.825297 |
5,868 | The concepts of the Rydberg formula can be applied to any system with a single particle orbiting a nucleus, for example a He+ ion or a muonium exotic atom. The equation must be modified based on the system's Bohr radius; emissions will be of a similar character but at a different range of energies. The Pickering–Fowler... | Hydrogen frequencies | 0.825297 |
5,869 | Morphological markers are associated with several general deficits that reduce their usefulness including: the delay of marker expression until late into the development of the organism allowing dominance to mask the underlying genetics pleiotropy, which does not allow easy and parsimonious inferences to be drawn from ... | Smart breeding | 0.82529 |
5,870 | Electrodes are used to provide current through nonmetal objects to alter them in numerous ways and to measure conductivity for numerous purposes. Examples include: Electrodes for fuel cells Electrodes for medical purposes, such as EEG (for recording brain activity), ECG (recording heart beats), ECT (electrical brain st... | Electrode | 0.825276 |
5,871 | Thus, mechanical properties are crucial to enable the development of new electrodes for long lasting batteries. A possible strategy for measuring the mechanical behavior of electrodes during operation is by using nanoindentation. The method is able to analyze how the stresses evolve during the electrochemical reactions... | Electrode | 0.825276 |
5,872 | GUI operation is recorded as equivalent function calls, and therefore in addition to binary formats, FEATool simulation models can also be saved and exported as fully scriptable and editable MATLAB compatible m-script files. The short MATLAB script below illustrates how a complete flow around a cylinder computational f... | FEATool Multiphysics | 0.825275 |
5,873 | FEATool Multiphysics is a fully integrated physics and PDE simulation environment where the modeling process is subdivided into six steps; preprocessing (CAD and geometry modeling), mesh and grid generation, physics and PDE specification, boundary condition specification, solution, and postprocessing and visualization. | FEATool Multiphysics | 0.825275 |
5,874 | FEATool Multiphysics ("Finite Element Analysis Toolbox for Multiphysics") is a physics, finite element analysis (FEA), and partial differential equation (PDE) simulation toolbox. FEATool Multiphysics features the ability to model fully coupled heat transfer, fluid dynamics, chemical engineering, structural mechanics, f... | FEATool Multiphysics | 0.825275 |
5,875 | The FEATool graphical user interface (GUI) shown above was designed for ease of use and minimal prerequisite knowledge. Specifically, because of the full integration of CAD and simulation tools users can switch between pre-processing, analysis, and post-processing modes to change simulation parameters, modify geometry ... | FEATool Multiphysics | 0.825275 |
5,876 | 28 pre-defined equations and multiphysics modes in 1D, 2D Cartesian and cylindrical coordinates, as well as full 3D. Support for custom user defined PDE equations. Mesh and geometry import, export, and conversion between OpenFOAM, SU2, Dolfin/FEniCS XML, GiD, Gmsh, GMV, Triangle (PSLG), and plain ASCII grid formats. On... | FEATool Multiphysics | 0.825275 |
5,877 | Similar to the OpenFOAM and SU2 solver interfaces, FEATool also features a fully integrated interface to the FEniCS general FEM and multiphysics solver. Using the FEATool-FEniCS interface, as both codes feature PDE definition languages, multiphysics problems can automatically be translated and converted to FEniCS Pytho... | FEATool Multiphysics | 0.825275 |
5,878 | In astronomy, stars are routinely treated as point sources even though they are much larger than the Earth. This is a good approximation because the distance from even a nearby star to the Earth is much larger than the star's diameter. For instance, the irradiance of Alpha Centauri A (radiant flux: 1.5 L☉, distance: 4.... | Spectral irradiance | 0.825271 |
5,879 | In radiometry, irradiance is the radiant flux received by a surface per unit area. The SI unit of irradiance is the watt per square metre (W⋅m−2). The CGS unit erg per square centimetre per second (erg⋅cm−2⋅s−1) is often used in astronomy. Irradiance is often called intensity, but this term is avoided in radiometry whe... | Spectral irradiance | 0.825271 |
5,880 | An abstract for an American Society of Human Genetics meeting in Salt Lake City was submitted in April 1985, and the first announcement of PCR was made there by Saiki in October. Two publications were planned – an 'idea' paper from Mullis, and an 'application' paper from the entire development group. Mullis submitted h... | History of polymerase chain reaction | 0.825271 |
5,881 | Many of the Cetus PCR researchers moved to the Roche subsidiary, Roche Molecular Systems. On October 13, 1993 Kary Mullis, who had left Cetus in 1986, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. On the morning of his acceptance speech, he was nearly arrested by Swedish authorities for the "inappropriate use of a laser po... | History of polymerase chain reaction | 0.825271 |
5,882 | Cetus responded, explaining the differences between PCR and the atomic bomb. On July 23, 1991 Cetus announced that its sale to the neighboring biotechnology company Chiron. As part of the sale, rights to the PCR patents were sold for USD $300 million to Hoffman-La Roche (who in 1989 had bought limited rights to PCR). | History of polymerase chain reaction | 0.825271 |
5,883 | On December 22, 1989 the journal Science awarded Taq Polymerase (and PCR) its first "Molecule of the Year". The 'Taq PCR' paper became for several years the most cited publication in biology. After the publication of the first PCR paper, the United States Government sent a stern letter to Randy Saiki, admonishing him f... | History of polymerase chain reaction | 0.825271 |
5,884 | After moving to nearby Emeryville, they began projects involving the new biotechnology industry, primarily the cloning and expression of human genes, but also the development of diagnostic tests for genetic mutations. In 1976 a DNA polymerase was isolated from T. aquaticus. It was found to retain its activity at temper... | History of polymerase chain reaction | 0.825271 |
5,885 | On April 25, 1953 James D. Watson and Francis Crick published "a radically different structure" for DNA, thereby founding the field of molecular genetics. Their structural model featured two strands of complementary base-paired DNA, running in opposite directions as a double helix. They concluded their report saying th... | History of polymerase chain reaction | 0.825271 |
5,886 | A permanent magnet motor is a type of electric motor that uses permanent magnets for the field excitation and a wound armature. The permanent magnets can either be stationary or rotating; interior or exterior to the armature for a radial flux machine or layered with the armature for an axial flux topology. The schemati... | Permanent magnet motor | 0.82526 |
5,887 | It is the second stellation of the icosahedron, and given as Wenninger model index 23. It can be constructed by a rhombic triacontahedron with rhombic-based pyramids added to all the faces, as shown by the five colored model image. (This construction does not generate the regular compound of five octahedra, but shares ... | Compound of five octahedra | 0.825252 |
5,888 | The disk has circular symmetry.The open disk and the closed disk are not topologically equivalent (that is, they are not homeomorphic), as they have different topological properties from each other. For instance, every closed disk is compact whereas every open disk is not compact. However from the viewpoint of algebrai... | Disc (geometry) | 0.825248 |
5,889 | In microbiology, the multiplicity of infection or MOI is the ratio of agents (e.g. phage or more generally virus, bacteria) to infection targets (e.g. cell). For example, when referring to a group of cells inoculated with virus particles, the MOI is the ratio of the number of virus particles to the number of target cel... | Multiplicity of Infection | 0.825229 |
5,890 | Finding a quadratic classifier for the original measurements would then become the same as finding a linear classifier based on the expanded measurement vector. This observation has been used in extending neural network models; the "circular" case, which corresponds to introducing only the sum of pure quadratic terms x... | Quadratic classifier | 0.825227 |
5,891 | In statistics, a quadratic classifier is a statistical classifier that uses a quadratic decision surface to separate measurements of two or more classes of objects or events. It is a more general version of the linear classifier. | Quadratic classifier | 0.825227 |
5,892 | {\displaystyle \mathbb {Q} .} An algebraically closed field F has no proper algebraic extensions, that is, no algebraic extensions E with F < E. An example is the field of complex numbers. Every field has an algebraic extension which is algebraically closed (called its algebraic closure), but proving this in general re... | Algebraic field extension | 0.825222 |
5,893 | {\displaystyle K(a).} If a is algebraic over K, then the elements of K(a) can be expressed as polynomials in a with coefficients in K; that is, K(a) is also the smallest ring containing K and a. In this case, K ( a ) {\displaystyle K(a)} is a finite extension of K (it is a finite dimensional K-vector space), and all it... | Algebraic field extension | 0.825222 |
5,894 | All transcendental extensions are of infinite degree. This in turn implies that all finite extensions are algebraic. The converse is not true however: there are infinite extensions which are algebraic. For instance, the field of all algebraic numbers is an infinite algebraic extension of the rational numbers.Let E be a... | Algebraic field extension | 0.825222 |
5,895 | Model theory generalizes the notion of algebraic extension to arbitrary theories: an embedding of M into N is called an algebraic extension if for every x in N there is a formula p with parameters in M, such that p(x) is true and the set { y ∈ N ∣ p ( y ) } {\displaystyle \left\{y\in N\mid p(y)\right\}} is finite. It t... | Algebraic field extension | 0.825222 |
5,896 | For example, in natural language processing, "linear chain" CRFs are popular, for which each prediction is dependent only on its immediate neighbours. In image processing, the graph typically connects locations to nearby and/or similar locations to enforce that they receive similar predictions. Other examples where CRF... | Conditional random fields | 0.825219 |
5,897 | Conditional random fields (CRFs) are a class of statistical modeling methods often applied in pattern recognition and machine learning and used for structured prediction. Whereas a classifier predicts a label for a single sample without considering "neighbouring" samples, a CRF can take context into account. To do so, ... | Conditional random fields | 0.825219 |
5,898 | Learning the parameters θ {\displaystyle \theta } is usually done by maximum likelihood learning for p ( Y i | X i ; θ ) {\displaystyle p(Y_{i}|X_{i};\theta )} . If all nodes have exponential family distributions and all nodes are observed during training, this optimization is convex. It can be solved for example using... | Conditional random fields | 0.825219 |
5,899 | In theoretical physics, cutoff (AE: cutoff, BE: cut-off) is an arbitrary maximal or minimal value of energy, momentum, or length, used in order that objects with larger or smaller values than these physical quantities are ignored in some calculation. It is usually represented within a particular energy or length scale,... | Ultraviolet cutoff | 0.825213 |
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