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7,000 | Because it focuses on sampling individuals, landscape genetics has the advantage of not having to subjectively define discrete populations prior to analysis. Genetic tools are used to detect abrupt genetic differences between individuals within a population and statistical tools are used to correlate these genetic disc... | Landscape genetics | 0.823321 |
7,001 | Landscape genetics is the scientific discipline that combines population genetics and landscape ecology. It broadly encompasses any study that analyses plant or animal population genetic data in conjunction with data on the landscape features and matrix quality where the sampled population lives. This allows for the an... | Landscape genetics | 0.823321 |
7,002 | Landscape genetics has advanced ecological and evolutionary theory by facilitating an understanding of how gene flow and adaptation occur in real heterogeneous landscapes. It has also allowed for the estimation of functional connectivity across landscapes. Elucidating landscape features that act as barriers or facilita... | Landscape genetics | 0.823321 |
7,003 | Landscape genetics emerged as its own discipline after the seminal article entitled "Landscape genetics: combining landscape ecology and population genetics" by Manel et al. appeared in the journal Trends in Ecology and Evolution in 2003. According to that article, the concept that landscape patterns affect how organis... | Landscape genetics | 0.823321 |
7,004 | A very simple example of a useful variable change can be seen in the problem of finding the roots of the sixth-degree polynomial: x 6 − 9 x 3 + 8 = 0. {\displaystyle x^{6}-9x^{3}+8=0.} Sixth-degree polynomial equations are generally impossible to solve in terms of radicals (see Abel–Ruffini theorem). | Change of variables | 0.823318 |
7,005 | Variable changes for differentiation and integration are taught in elementary calculus and the steps are rarely carried out in full. The very broad use of variable changes is apparent when considering differential equations, where the independent variables may be changed using the chain rule or the dependent variables ... | Change of variables | 0.823318 |
7,006 | A boundary problem in analysis is a phenomenon in which geographical patterns are differentiated by the shape and arrangement of boundaries that are drawn for administrative or measurement purposes. The boundary problem occurs because of the loss of neighbors in analyses that depend on the values of the neighbors. Whil... | Boundary problem (in spatial analysis) | 0.823317 |
7,007 | Through simulation analysis, however, Griffith and Amrhein identified the inadequacy of such an overbounding technique. Moreover, this technique can bring about issues related to large-area statistics, that is, ecological fallacy. By expanding the boundary of the study area, micro-scale variations within the boundary c... | Boundary problem (in spatial analysis) | 0.823317 |
7,008 | In analysis with point data, dispersion is evaluated as dependent of the boundary. In analysis with area data, statistics should be interpreted based upon the boundary. In geographical research, two types of areas are taken into consideration in relation to the boundary: an area surrounded by fixed natural boundaries (... | Boundary problem (in spatial analysis) | 0.823317 |
7,009 | The first is parallel to the plane, the second is orthogonal. For a given vector and plane, the sum of projection and rejection is equal to the original vector. Similarly, for inner product spaces with more than three dimensions, the notions of projection onto a vector and rejection from a vector can be generalized to ... | Vector rejection | 0.823316 |
7,010 | In contrast to high-throughput screening, virtual screening involves computationally screening in silico libraries of compounds, by means of various methods such as docking, to identify members likely to possess desired properties such as biological activity against a given target. In some cases, combinatorial chemistr... | Cheminformatics | 0.8233 |
7,011 | A primary application of cheminformatics is the storage, indexing, and search of information relating to chemical compounds. The efficient search of such stored information includes topics that are dealt with in computer science, such as data mining, information retrieval, information extraction, and machine learning. ... | Cheminformatics | 0.8233 |
7,012 | Statistics Z1 and Z2 can be combined to produce an omnibus test, able to detect deviations from normality due to either skewness or kurtosis (D'Agostino, Belanger & D'Agostino 1990): K 2 = Z 1 ( g 1 ) 2 + Z 2 ( g 2 ) 2 {\displaystyle K^{2}=Z_{1}(g_{1})^{2}+Z_{2}(g_{2})^{2}\,} If the null hypothesis of normality is true... | D'Agostino's K-squared test | 0.823299 |
7,013 | In statistics, D'Agostino's K2 test, named for Ralph D'Agostino, is a goodness-of-fit measure of departure from normality, that is the test aims to gauge the compatibility of given data with the null hypothesis that the data is a realization of independent, identically distributed Gaussian random variables. The test is... | D'Agostino's K-squared test | 0.823299 |
7,014 | Yu, Chong Ho (2003): Resampling methods: concepts, applications, and justification. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 8(19). (statistical bootstrapping) Resampling: A Marriage of Computers and Statistics (ERIC Digests) == References == | Permutation tests | 0.823298 |
7,015 | Moore, D. S., G. McCabe, W. Duckworth, and S. Sclove (2003): Bootstrap Methods and Permutation Tests Simon, J. L. (1997): Resampling: The New Statistics. | Permutation tests | 0.823298 |
7,016 | An asymptotically equivalent permutation test can be created when there are too many possible orderings of the data to allow complete enumeration in a convenient manner. This is done by generating the reference distribution by Monte Carlo sampling, which takes a small (relative to the total number of permutations) rand... | Permutation tests | 0.823298 |
7,017 | Pesarin, F. (2001). Multivariate Permutation Tests: With Applications in Biostatistics, John Wiley & Sons. | Permutation tests | 0.823298 |
7,018 | The full scope of combinatorics is not universally agreed upon. According to H.J. Ryser, a definition of the subject is difficult because it crosses so many mathematical subdivisions. Insofar as an area can be described by the types of problems it addresses, combinatorics is involved with: the enumeration (counting) of... | Combinatorial mathematics | 0.823291 |
7,019 | The area has further connections to coding theory and geometric combinatorics. Combinatorial design theory can be applied to the area of design of experiments. Some of the basic theory of combinatorial designs originated in the statistician Ronald Fisher's work on the design of biological experiments. Modern applicatio... | Combinatorial mathematics | 0.823291 |
7,020 | Partition theory studies various enumeration and asymptotic problems related to integer partitions, and is closely related to q-series, special functions and orthogonal polynomials. Originally a part of number theory and analysis, it is now considered a part of combinatorics or an independent field. It incorporates the... | Combinatorial mathematics | 0.823291 |
7,021 | This approach (often referred to as the probabilistic method) proved highly effective in applications to extremal combinatorics and graph theory. A closely related area is the study of finite Markov chains, especially on combinatorial objects. Here again probabilistic tools are used to estimate the mixing time.Often as... | Combinatorial mathematics | 0.823291 |
7,022 | Infinitary combinatorics, or combinatorial set theory, is an extension of ideas in combinatorics to infinite sets. It is a part of set theory, an area of mathematical logic, but uses tools and ideas from both set theory and extremal combinatorics. Some of the things studied include continuous graphs and trees, extensio... | Combinatorial mathematics | 0.823291 |
7,023 | Solar and wind are variable renewable energy sources that supply electricity intermittently depending on the weather and the time of day. Most electrical grids were constructed for non-intermittent energy sources such as coal-fired power plants. As larger amounts of solar and wind energy are integrated into the grid, c... | Electrification | 0.823282 |
7,024 | Energy storage helps overcome barriers for intermittent renewable energy, and is therefore an important aspect of a sustainable energy system. The most commonly used storage method is pumped-storage hydroelectricity, which requires locations with large differences in height and access to water. Batteries, and specifica... | Electrification | 0.823282 |
7,025 | As clean energy is mostly generated in the form of electricity, such as renewable energy or nuclear power, a switch to these energy sources requires that end uses, such as transport and heating, be electrified for the world's energy systems to be sustainable. Recent work has shown that in the U.S. and Canada the use of... | Electrification | 0.823282 |
7,026 | In 1878, he formed Crompton & Co. and began to manufacture, sell and install the Crompton lamp. His concern was one of the first electrical engineering firms in the world. | Electrification | 0.823282 |
7,027 | Whereas probability theory uses a single number, the probability, to describe how likely an event is to occur, possibility theory uses two concepts, the possibility and the necessity of the event. For any set U {\displaystyle U} , the necessity measure is defined by nec ( U ) = 1 − pos ( U ¯ ) {\displaystyle \opera... | Possibility theory | 0.823282 |
7,028 | Possibility theory is a mathematical theory for dealing with certain types of uncertainty and is an alternative to probability theory. It uses measures of possibility and necessity between 0 and 1, ranging from impossible to possible and unnecessary to necessary, respectively. Professor Lotfi Zadeh first introduced pos... | Possibility theory | 0.823282 |
7,029 | The introduction of the book reprints the paper "Complexity and real computation: a manifesto", previously published by the same authors. This manifesto explains why classical discrete models of computation such as the Turing machine are inadequate for the study of numerical problems in areas such as scientific computi... | Complexity and Real Computation | 0.823281 |
7,030 | The book is aimed at the level of a graduate student or researcher in these topics, and in places it assumes background knowledge of classical computational complexity theory, differential geometry, topology, and dynamical systems.Reviewer Klaus Meer writes that the book is "very well written", "perfect to use on a gra... | Complexity and Real Computation | 0.823281 |
7,031 | The ring of integers is studied as a particular example, as are the algebraically closed fields of characteristic zero, which are shown from the point of view of NP-completeness within their computational models to all be equivalent to the complex numbers. (Eric Bach points out that this equivalence can be seen as a fo... | Complexity and Real Computation | 0.823281 |
7,032 | The Cantor–Zassenhaus algorithm is implemented in the PARI/GP computer algebra system as the factorcantor() function. | Cantor–Zassenhaus algorithm | 0.82328 |
7,033 | In computational algebra, the Cantor–Zassenhaus algorithm is a method for factoring polynomials over finite fields (also called Galois fields). The algorithm consists mainly of exponentiation and polynomial GCD computations. It was invented by David G. Cantor and Hans Zassenhaus in 1981. It is arguably the dominant alg... | Cantor–Zassenhaus algorithm | 0.82328 |
7,034 | One important application of the Cantor–Zassenhaus algorithm is in computing discrete logarithms over finite fields of prime-power order. Computing discrete logarithms is an important problem in public key cryptography. For a field of prime-power order, the fastest known method is the index calculus method, which invol... | Cantor–Zassenhaus algorithm | 0.82328 |
7,035 | QFAB was established in 2007, with funding from the Queensland Government's National and International Research Alliances Program, as a joint venture between The University of Queensland, Queensland University of Technology, Griffith University, CSIRO’s Australian eHealth Research Centre and the Queensland Government’s... | QFAB Bioinformatics | 0.823275 |
7,036 | QFAB and QCIF, together with the University of Melbourne's Melbourne Bioinformatics, and the University of Queensland's Research Computing Centre jointly built and operate Galaxy Australia, which is a major feature of the Genomics Virtual Laboratory, based on the Galaxy (computational biology) scientific workflow syste... | QFAB Bioinformatics | 0.823275 |
7,037 | QFAB Bioinformatics is a unit of the Queensland Cyber Infrastructure Foundation (QCIF), a not-for-profit member-based organisation. | QFAB Bioinformatics | 0.823275 |
7,038 | QFAB Bioinformatics is a Queensland-based organisation concerned with the provision of resources in bioinformatics, biostatistics and specialised computing platforms. QFAB operates Australia-wide and is a key contributor to the EMBL Australia Bioinformatics Resource. | QFAB Bioinformatics | 0.823275 |
7,039 | Some of these are used to make polarizing filters. Light also becomes partially polarized when it reflects at an angle from a surface. According to quantum mechanics, electromagnetic waves can also be viewed as streams of particles called photons. | Degree of polarization | 0.823265 |
7,040 | Structured k-Nearest Neighbours is a machine learning algorithm that generalizes the k-Nearest Neighbors (kNN) classifier. Whereas the kNN classifier supports binary classification, multiclass classification and regression, the Structured kNN (SkNN) allows training of a classifier for general structured output labels. ... | Structured kNN | 0.823264 |
7,041 | The Aristotelian tradition and medieval alchemy eventually gave rise to modern chemistry, scientific theories and new taxonomies. By the time of Antoine Lavoisier, for example, a list of elements would no longer refer to classical elements. Some modern scientists see a parallel between the classical elements and the fo... | Four element theory | 0.823256 |
7,042 | To capitalize on the favorable characteristics of PNPs, improvements within PNP synthesis methods are being widely explored. Advancements or the development of new synthesis methods are desirable as existing methods (sonochemistry, thermal decomposition, and colloidal/ hydrothermal/microemulsion methods) contribute to ... | Protein nanoparticles | 0.823256 |
7,043 | Protein nanotechnology is a burgeoning field of research that integrates the diverse physicochemical properties of proteins with nanoscale technology. This field assimilated into pharmaceutical research to give rise to a new classification of nanoparticles termed protein (or protein-based) nanoparticles (PNPs). PNPs ga... | Protein nanoparticles | 0.823256 |
7,044 | In most areas of biology a single gene codes for one or a few possible proteins. Through V(D)J recombination a number of organisms take a relatively small number of genes coding for antibodies and T-cell receptors (TCRs) and produce a huge diversity of slightly different antibodies and TCRs. The diversity allows for th... | Immunosequencing | 0.823256 |
7,045 | Physical chemistry and chemical physics: Chemistry investigated via physical methods like laser techniques, scanning tunneling microscope, etc. The formal distinction between both fields is that physical chemistry is a branch of chemistry while chemical physics is a branch of physics. In practice this distinction is qu... | Theoretical chemist | 0.823254 |
7,046 | Historically, the major field of application of theoretical chemistry has been in the following fields of research: Atomic physics: The discipline dealing with electrons and atomic nuclei. Molecular physics: The discipline of the electrons surrounding the molecular nuclei and of movement of the nuclei. This term usuall... | Theoretical chemist | 0.823254 |
7,047 | Theoretical chemical kinetics Theoretical study of the dynamical systems associated to reactive chemicals, the activated complex and their corresponding differential equations. Cheminformatics (also known as chemoinformatics) The use of computer and informational techniques, applied to crop information to solve problem... | Theoretical chemist | 0.823254 |
7,048 | The latter are usually parameterized from ab initio calculations. Mathematical chemistry Discussion and prediction of the molecular structure using mathematical methods without necessarily referring to quantum mechanics. Topology is a branch of mathematics that allows researchers to predict properties of flexible finit... | Theoretical chemist | 0.823254 |
7,049 | Molecular modelling Methods for modelling molecular structures without necessarily referring to quantum mechanics. Examples are molecular docking, protein-protein docking, drug design, combinatorial chemistry. The fitting of shape and electric potential are the driving factor in this graphical approach. | Theoretical chemist | 0.823254 |
7,050 | Quantum chemistry The application of quantum mechanics or fundamental interactions to chemical and physico-chemical problems. Spectroscopic and magnetic properties are between the most frequently modelled. Computational chemistry The application of scientific computing to chemistry, involving approximation schemes such... | Theoretical chemist | 0.823254 |
7,051 | 12. Kepler’ Epitome of Copernican Astronomy (1618–21) and Galileo’s Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (1632) consolidated a critical mass of novel physical claims and arguments developed between the 1580s and the telescopic discoveries of 1610-13. While Kepler and Galileo disagreed on some important issue... | The Copernican Question | 0.823253 |
7,052 | In the face of Pico’s critique there were different kinds of efforts to improve astrological prognostication during the sixteenth century and Copernicus’s proposal to reform theoretical astronomy was but one of them. 5. The appearance of unforeseen, singular, celestial novelties between 1572 and 1604 pushed a handful o... | The Copernican Question | 0.823253 |
7,053 | Similarly, he contends that historical actors located the topic of planetary order within the domains of theoretical astronomy and theoretical astrology—as opposed to their practical counterparts. 2. Copernicus’s initial turn to the heliocentric planetary arrangement occurred in the context of his encounter with Pico d... | The Copernican Question | 0.823253 |
7,054 | 1. To avoid projecting current classifications of knowledge onto the past, Westman argues that categories of knowledge and their meanings should be regarded as bound to time and place. In Copernicus’s lifetime (1473-1543) and well into the seventeenth century, astronomy and astrology constituted a compound subject, cal... | The Copernican Question | 0.823253 |
7,055 | Yasumasa Kanada has performed detailed statistical analyses on the decimal digits of π, and found them consistent with normality; for example, the frequencies of the ten digits 0 to 9 were subjected to statistical significance tests, and no evidence of a pattern was found. Any random sequence of digits contains arbitra... | Archimedes constant | 0.823238 |
7,056 | There are several proofs that π is irrational; they generally require calculus and rely on the reductio ad absurdum technique. The degree to which π can be approximated by rational numbers (called the irrationality measure) is not precisely known; estimates have established that the irrationality measure is larger than... | Archimedes constant | 0.823238 |
7,057 | By Barbier's theorem, every curve of constant width has perimeter π times its width. The Reuleaux triangle (formed by the intersection of three circles with the sides of an equilateral triangle as their radii) has the smallest possible area for its width and the circle the largest. There also exist non-circular smooth ... | Archimedes constant | 0.823238 |
7,058 | Because π is transcendental, it is by definition not algebraic and so cannot be a quadratic irrational. Therefore, π cannot have a periodic continued fraction. Although the simple continued fraction for π (shown above) also does not exhibit any other obvious pattern, several generalized continued fractions do, such as:... | Archimedes constant | 0.823238 |
7,059 | Certain identities hold for all automorphic forms. An example is which implies that θ transforms as a representation under the discrete Heisenberg group. General modular forms and other theta functions also involve π, once again because of the Stone–von Neumann theorem. | Archimedes constant | 0.823238 |
7,060 | The Euler characteristic of a sphere can be computed from its homology groups and is found to be equal to two. Thus we have reproducing the formula for the surface area of a sphere of radius 1. The constant appears in many other integral formulae in topology, in particular, those involving characteristic classes via th... | Archimedes constant | 0.823238 |
7,061 | The constant π appears in the Gauss–Bonnet formula which relates the differential geometry of surfaces to their topology. Specifically, if a compact surface Σ has Gauss curvature K, then where χ(Σ) is the Euler characteristic, which is an integer. An example is the surface area of a sphere S of curvature 1 (so that its... | Archimedes constant | 0.823238 |
7,062 | One of the key tools in complex analysis is contour integration of a function over a positively oriented (rectifiable) Jordan curve γ. A form of Cauchy's integral formula states that if a point z0 is interior to γ, then Although the curve γ is not a circle, and hence does not have any obvious connection to the constant... | Archimedes constant | 0.823238 |
7,063 | Incorporating mixed strategies into the game allows us to use von Neumann's minimax theorem: min R max D T ( A , D ) = max D min A T ( A , D ) {\displaystyle \min _{R}\max _{D}T(A,D)=\max _{D}\min _{A}T(A,D)\,} where R is a distribution over the algorithms, D is a distribution over inputs, A is a single deterministic a... | Randomized algorithms as zero-sum games | 0.823235 |
7,064 | The individual serial chains of parallel manipulators are called 'limbs' or 'legs'. Topology refers to the arrangement of links and joints forming a manipulator or robot. Joint notation is a convenient way of defining the joint topology of mechanisms, manipulators or robots. | Kinematic pair | 0.823224 |
7,065 | Mechanisms, manipulators or robots are typically composed of links connected together by joints. Serial manipulators, like the SCARA robot, connect a moving platform to a base through a single chain of links and joints. In robotics the moving platform is called the 'end effector'. Multiple serial chains connect the mov... | Kinematic pair | 0.823224 |
7,066 | Kinematics is the branch of classical mechanics which describes the motion of points, bodies (objects) and systems of bodies (groups of objects) without consideration of the causes of motion. Kinematics as a field of study is often referred to as the "geometry of motion". For further detail, see Kinematics. Hartenberg ... | Kinematic pair | 0.823224 |
7,067 | The additive log ratio (alr) transform is an isomorphism where alr: S D → R D − 1 {\displaystyle \operatorname {alr} :S^{D}\rightarrow \mathbb {R} ^{D-1}} . This is given by alr ( x ) = {\displaystyle \operatorname {alr} (x)=\left} The choice of denominator component is arbitrary, and could be any specified componen... | Compositional data | 0.823223 |
7,068 | The simplex can be given the structure of a real vector space in several different ways. The following vector space structure is called Aitchison geometry or the Aitchison simplex and has the following operations: Perturbation x ⊕ y = = C ∀ x , y ∈ S D {\displaystyle x\oplus y=\left=C\qquad \forall x,y\in S^{D}} Powe... | Compositional data | 0.823223 |
7,069 | In high throughput sequencing, data obtained are typically transformed to relative abundances, rendering them compositional. In probability and statistics, a partition of the sampling space into disjoint events is described by the probabilities assigned to such events. | Compositional data | 0.823223 |
7,070 | A data set would correspond to a list of towns. In geology, a rock composed of different minerals may be a compositional data point in a sample of rocks; a rock of which 10% is the first mineral, 30% is the second, and the remaining 60% is the third would correspond to the triple . A data set would contain one such tri... | Compositional data | 0.823223 |
7,071 | In chemistry, compositions can be expressed as molar concentrations of each component. As the sum of all concentrations is not determined, the whole composition of D parts is needed and thus expressed as a vector of D molar concentrations. These compositions can be translated into weight per cent multiplying each compo... | Compositional data | 0.823223 |
7,072 | Latent-dynamic conditional random fields (LDCRF) or discriminative probabilistic latent variable models (DPLVM) are a type of CRFs for sequence tagging tasks. They are latent variable models that are trained discriminatively. In an LDCRF, like in any sequence tagging task, given a sequence of observations x = x 1 , … ,... | Conditional Random Field | 0.823219 |
7,073 | In physics, shear rate is the rate at which a progressive shearing deformation is applied to some material. | Shear rate | 0.823214 |
7,074 | (2000). "Structure, Reactivity, and Growth Pathways of Metallocarbohedrenes M8C12and Transition Metal/Carbon Clusters and Nanocrystals: A Challenge to Computational Chemistry". Chemical Reviews. | Cluster compounds | 0.823204 |
7,075 | "Chemistry of Hexanuclear Rhenium Chalcohalide Clusters". Chemical Reviews. 101 (7): 2037–2066. | Cluster compounds | 0.823204 |
7,076 | The extraction of RNA in molecular biology experiments is greatly complicated by the presence of ubiquitous and hardy RNases that degrade RNA samples. Certain RNases can be extremely hardy and inactivating them is difficult compared to neutralizing DNases. In addition to the cellular RNases that are released there are ... | RNA extraction | 0.823185 |
7,077 | RNA extraction is the purification of RNA from biological samples. This procedure is complicated by the ubiquitous presence of ribonuclease enzymes in cells and tissues, which can rapidly degrade RNA. Several methods are used in molecular biology to isolate RNA from samples, the most common of these is guanidinium thio... | RNA extraction | 0.823185 |
7,078 | Includes many practical applications, problems and examples emphasizing troubleshooting, design, and safety to provide a solid foundation in the field of electronics. Assuming that readers have a basic understanding of algebra and trigonometry, the book provides a thorough treatment of the basic principles, theorems, c... | Principles of Electronics | 0.823185 |
7,079 | Principles of Electronics is a 2002 book by Colin Simpson designed to accompany the Electronics Technician distance education program and contains a concise and practical overview of the basic principles, including theorems, circuit behavior and problem-solving procedures of Electronic circuits and devices. The textboo... | Principles of Electronics | 0.823185 |
7,080 | Materials are typically aluminum alloy and stainless steel, but they can also be made in acetal, maraging steel and titanium. The most common applications are attaching rotary encoders to shafts and motion control for robotics. Beam couplings can be known by various names depending upon industry. These names include fl... | Elastic coupling | 0.823182 |
7,081 | Students may be more likely to favor the flipped classroom approach once they have taken the time to personally participate in this specific type of learning course. In a prior pharmaceutics course, for instance, a mere 34.6% of the 19 students initially preferred the flipped classroom setting. After all of the student... | Flipped learning | 0.823179 |
7,082 | In mathematics, a graded vector space is a vector space that has the extra structure of a grading or gradation, which is a decomposition of the vector space into a direct sum of vector subspaces, generally indexed by the integers. For "pure" vector spaces, the concept has been introduced in homological algebra, and it ... | Graded dimension | 0.823176 |
7,083 | This is for example the case for electrons in a typical metal at T = 300 K, where the electron gas obeys Fermi–Dirac statistics, or in a Bose–Einstein condensate. On the other hand, for i.e., when the interparticle distance is much larger than the thermal de Broglie wavelength, the gas will obey Maxwell–Boltzmann stati... | Thermal de Broglie wavelength | 0.823172 |
7,084 | The critical temperature is the transition point between these two regimes, and at this critical temperature, the thermal wavelength will be approximately equal to the interparticle distance. That is, the quantum nature of the gas will be evident for i.e., when the interparticle distance is less than the thermal de Bro... | Thermal de Broglie wavelength | 0.823172 |
7,085 | In physics, the thermal de Broglie wavelength ( λ t h {\displaystyle \lambda _{\mathrm {th} }} , sometimes also denoted by Λ {\displaystyle \Lambda } ) is roughly the average de Broglie wavelength of particles in an ideal gas at the specified temperature. We can take the average interparticle spacing in the gas to be a... | Thermal de Broglie wavelength | 0.823172 |
7,086 | VOLATILE is part of the Fortran 2003 standard, although earlier version supported it as an extension. Making all variables volatile in a function is also useful finding aliasing related bugs. By always "drilling down" to memory of a VOLATILE, the Fortran compiler is precluded from reordering reads or writes to volatile... | Volatile variable | 0.823165 |
7,087 | (This excludes value structs, as well as the primitive types Double, Int64, UInt64 and Decimal.) Using the volatile keyword does not support fields that are passed by reference or captured local variables; in these cases, Thread.VolatileRead and Thread.VolatileWrite must be used instead.In effect, these methods disable... | Volatile variable | 0.823165 |
7,088 | In C#, volatile ensures that code accessing the field is not subject to some thread-unsafe optimizations that may be performed by the compiler, the CLR, or by hardware. When a field is marked volatile, the compiler is instructed to generate a "memory barrier" or "fence" around it, which prevents instruction reordering ... | Volatile variable | 0.823165 |
7,089 | The above code would never detect such a change; without the volatile keyword, the compiler assumes that the current program is the only part of the system that could change the value (which is by far the most common situation). To prevent the compiler from optimizing code as above, the volatile keyword is used: With t... | Volatile variable | 0.823165 |
7,090 | The following C programs, and accompanying assembler language excerpts, demonstrate how the volatile keyword affects the compiler's output. The compiler in this case was GCC. While observing the assembly code, it is clearly visible that the code generated with volatile objects is more verbose, making it longer so the n... | Volatile variable | 0.823165 |
7,091 | Only molecules or ions with certain properties will be able to diffuse across such a membrane. This is a very important mechanism in biology where fluids inside a blood vessel need to be regulated and controlled. Permeation can occur through most materials including metals, ceramics and polymers. | Permeation | 0.823162 |
7,092 | In physics and engineering, permeation (also called imbuing) is the penetration of a permeate (a fluid such as a liquid, gas, or vapor) through a solid. It is directly related to the concentration gradient of the permeate, a material's intrinsic permeability, and the materials' mass diffusivity. Permeation is modeled b... | Permeation | 0.823162 |
7,093 | Other types of curves, such as trigonometric functions (such as sine and cosine), may also be used, in certain cases. In spectroscopy, data may be fitted with Gaussian, Lorentzian, Voigt and related functions. In biology, ecology, demography, epidemiology, and many other disciplines, the growth of a population, the spr... | Plane curve fitting | 0.823155 |
7,094 | Mad about Physics: Brainteasers, Paradoxes, and Curiosities is a book revolving around physics puzzles first released in 2001 and published by Wiley. It covers mechanics, electricity, magnetism and optics, and also the physics of sports, space exploration and astronomy. It has been translated into seven languages, incl... | Mad About Physics | 0.82314 |
7,095 | In 2002, Mad about Physics was selected by the New York Public Library as "one of the best" titles of the year 2001 in the teen books and media category. | Mad About Physics | 0.82314 |
7,096 | Peter Ford, a physicist at the University of Bath in the UK, called Mad about Physics "an interesting new book." He wrote that "many of its problems will be useful for teachers, both at senior level in schools and at universities, for discussion with students in small groups. Such tutorials should be used to encourage ... | Mad About Physics | 0.82314 |
7,097 | Normal subgroups of prime power index are kernels of surjective maps to p-groups and have interesting structure, as described at Focal subgroup theorem: Subgroups and elaborated at focal subgroup theorem. There are three important normal subgroups of prime power index, each being the smallest normal subgroup in a certa... | Index of a subgroup | 0.823139 |
7,098 | An elementary observation is that one cannot have exactly 2 subgroups of index 2, as the complement of their symmetric difference yields a third. This is a simple corollary of the above discussion (namely the projectivization of the vector space structure of the elementary abelian group G / E p ( G ) ≅ ( Z / p ) k {\di... | Index of a subgroup | 0.823139 |
7,099 | The mathematical theory of probability arose from attempts to formulate mathematical descriptions of chance events, originally in the context of gambling, but later in connection with physics. Statistics is used to infer the underlying probability distribution of a collection of empirical observations. For the purposes... | Random chance | 0.823139 |
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