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The complexity of living with a highly stigmatised chronic health condition can lead to additional issues for those living with HIV and their immediate family members. Here are some issues that may affect them:
Friendships are an important part of childhood. As children grow up they will seek deeper trust and support from their friendships. Young people who live with, or are closely affected by HIV, have reported finding this more difficult as they typically cannot share the information about HIV with their peers. This can mean they feel they can’t form the depth of relationship they would like to have. Young people have described having two identities, and the identity of living with HIV, or having a close family member living with HIV, is kept secret from most people in their lives.
Keeping information about their own HIV status or that of a family member can cause young people to feel sad or anxious. If they are worrying about something, they would normally share this with their friends, but confidentiality around HIV means that they do not. 'Keeping secrets' can put young people under a lot of pressure. The lack of opportunity to talk through feelings, concerns and fears about how HIV affects their family, can generate a considerable amount of stress. This is particularly true during adolescence, which is already a complex transitional time, often defined by turbulence, as young people seek to develop and understand their identity and place in the world.
For any child, having a chronic illness or living with someone who has one, can have an impact on how well they do at school. When a school does not know a family are living with HIV, this can add additional pressure as poor attendance, frequent lateness, bad concentration or missing deadlines will not be understood as an impact of living with chronic illness. It also means that the child involved, will not have the understanding and support needed from the school and other outside agencies.
There is now growing concern about the extent of low education attainment in young people who are growning up living with HIV. HIV positive children have higher than average levels of cognitive development delay, which could be supported by extra educational support if discovered early. However the lack of sharing of HIV status to schools, due to the fear that this information will not be managed well, means that often this need for additional educational support is delayed or remains unknown.
Knowledge about HIV
Unlike most other medical conditions, in many cases an HIV positive child will not have their illness named to them in the younger stage of childhood. A child living with an HIV positive parent, may not be told about their parent’s HIV status until they are teenagers and many are still not even told then. This can cause complex dynamics in a family. There are stresses and anxieties experienced by parents who ‘hold’ the information about HIV and try to keep this from their children.
It is common that young people already know something is wrong, some find out about the HIV, but, as no one has formally told them and helped them understand what it means, they are left to manage this alone, which can lead to a lot of fear, confusion and unanswered questions. These stresses can present in behaviour difficulties in school, or emotional problems.
Many young people living in a family where there is HIV have caring responsibilities above and beyond those expected in another family. It is important that these are acknowledged and where possible, the young person is linked into specific services. We know that young carers can find their responsibilities extremely consuming, and for many it can be very difficult to get a break.
An added challenge can occur when the parent may not want their HIV status known by the young carers service, therefore an intermediate professional may be needed to support the family to use this service.
On top of this, the parents themselves may not identify their child as a young carer. If you think a young person may have a caring role in their family you can contact Children’s Society Include Project.
Visit our resource library to view publications that look in more detail at this. | <urn:uuid:29060953-7c38-4e71-b989-07f877273c66> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.chiva.org.uk/professionals/support/psychosocial-issues/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00165.warc.gz | en | 0.981566 | 812 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.37288776040... | 5 | The complexity of living with a highly stigmatised chronic health condition can lead to additional issues for those living with HIV and their immediate family members. Here are some issues that may affect them:
Friendships are an important part of childhood. As children grow up they will seek deeper trust and support from their friendships. Young people who live with, or are closely affected by HIV, have reported finding this more difficult as they typically cannot share the information about HIV with their peers. This can mean they feel they can’t form the depth of relationship they would like to have. Young people have described having two identities, and the identity of living with HIV, or having a close family member living with HIV, is kept secret from most people in their lives.
Keeping information about their own HIV status or that of a family member can cause young people to feel sad or anxious. If they are worrying about something, they would normally share this with their friends, but confidentiality around HIV means that they do not. 'Keeping secrets' can put young people under a lot of pressure. The lack of opportunity to talk through feelings, concerns and fears about how HIV affects their family, can generate a considerable amount of stress. This is particularly true during adolescence, which is already a complex transitional time, often defined by turbulence, as young people seek to develop and understand their identity and place in the world.
For any child, having a chronic illness or living with someone who has one, can have an impact on how well they do at school. When a school does not know a family are living with HIV, this can add additional pressure as poor attendance, frequent lateness, bad concentration or missing deadlines will not be understood as an impact of living with chronic illness. It also means that the child involved, will not have the understanding and support needed from the school and other outside agencies.
There is now growing concern about the extent of low education attainment in young people who are growning up living with HIV. HIV positive children have higher than average levels of cognitive development delay, which could be supported by extra educational support if discovered early. However the lack of sharing of HIV status to schools, due to the fear that this information will not be managed well, means that often this need for additional educational support is delayed or remains unknown.
Knowledge about HIV
Unlike most other medical conditions, in many cases an HIV positive child will not have their illness named to them in the younger stage of childhood. A child living with an HIV positive parent, may not be told about their parent’s HIV status until they are teenagers and many are still not even told then. This can cause complex dynamics in a family. There are stresses and anxieties experienced by parents who ‘hold’ the information about HIV and try to keep this from their children.
It is common that young people already know something is wrong, some find out about the HIV, but, as no one has formally told them and helped them understand what it means, they are left to manage this alone, which can lead to a lot of fear, confusion and unanswered questions. These stresses can present in behaviour difficulties in school, or emotional problems.
Many young people living in a family where there is HIV have caring responsibilities above and beyond those expected in another family. It is important that these are acknowledged and where possible, the young person is linked into specific services. We know that young carers can find their responsibilities extremely consuming, and for many it can be very difficult to get a break.
An added challenge can occur when the parent may not want their HIV status known by the young carers service, therefore an intermediate professional may be needed to support the family to use this service.
On top of this, the parents themselves may not identify their child as a young carer. If you think a young person may have a caring role in their family you can contact Children’s Society Include Project.
Visit our resource library to view publications that look in more detail at this. | 795 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The life of Oscar Wile as viewed today was seen on the surface level as just another one of the many writers of the past that followed the idea of writing what they believed in. This is true for this individual in many ways back then as much as it is today. This man’s story was having the ultimate challenge of the time: being a homosexual Irish man living in a taboo lifestyle of writing about the joys of sensual love and pleasure in his writings. This along with his imprisonment for homosexuality was a particularly tragic end for an artist who believed of the idea of expression and to be one’s self. Since his passing, many books and stories have been written on Oscar Wilde, reflecting on the life and many contributions of this unconventional author since his sudden death over a hundred years ago. A celebrity in his own time, Wilde’s powerful and indelible influence will remain as strong as ever and keep audiences captivated in thought and perpetuity. His life and his actions are held in his writings even still to this day in his book The Picture of Dorian Gray. Oscar’s perspective on society was that of being seen mostly as an outsider. During this time period, the idea of homosexuality and ideas of pleasure were often viewed as a taboo and not to be discussed out in public let alone published writings. Wilde established himself as a leading proponent of the aesthetic movement, a theory of art and literature that emphasized the pursuit of beauty for its own sake, rather than to promote any political or social viewpoint. Society at the time. Research shows that the start of Oscar’s life in Oxford, he was an ordinary writer that had won the school’s prize for the top classics student for being an undergraduate. His early writings were not viewed as anything extortionary, but were seen not as anything profane but as standard writings. (Sander 12). This point he was viewed as individual who has expressed his writing with nothing too far out of the standards. This changes with later in his life as his inner thoughts and actions taken from his life into his writings. but was still himself. Oscar’s view of the social elite and the structure of the people of the high life being that of them holding against the idea of the freedom of discussing what was considered to be ‘private talk’ as quoted with Oscar calling them “What is a cynic? A man who knows the price of everything and the value of nothing.” (Wilde). This perspective follows into the line of how in The Picture of Dorian Gray, the Character of Dorian Gray could be reflected of what Oscar could be saying both with himself and against with his desire to go against what society thinks of the norms. | <urn:uuid:7cb9a05c-298f-4ecb-a39c-835c84e67700> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://essays-writing-service-online.com/the-gray-oscars-perspective-on-society-was-that-of/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00451.warc.gz | en | 0.992581 | 555 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.1869073510... | 1 | The life of Oscar Wile as viewed today was seen on the surface level as just another one of the many writers of the past that followed the idea of writing what they believed in. This is true for this individual in many ways back then as much as it is today. This man’s story was having the ultimate challenge of the time: being a homosexual Irish man living in a taboo lifestyle of writing about the joys of sensual love and pleasure in his writings. This along with his imprisonment for homosexuality was a particularly tragic end for an artist who believed of the idea of expression and to be one’s self. Since his passing, many books and stories have been written on Oscar Wilde, reflecting on the life and many contributions of this unconventional author since his sudden death over a hundred years ago. A celebrity in his own time, Wilde’s powerful and indelible influence will remain as strong as ever and keep audiences captivated in thought and perpetuity. His life and his actions are held in his writings even still to this day in his book The Picture of Dorian Gray. Oscar’s perspective on society was that of being seen mostly as an outsider. During this time period, the idea of homosexuality and ideas of pleasure were often viewed as a taboo and not to be discussed out in public let alone published writings. Wilde established himself as a leading proponent of the aesthetic movement, a theory of art and literature that emphasized the pursuit of beauty for its own sake, rather than to promote any political or social viewpoint. Society at the time. Research shows that the start of Oscar’s life in Oxford, he was an ordinary writer that had won the school’s prize for the top classics student for being an undergraduate. His early writings were not viewed as anything extortionary, but were seen not as anything profane but as standard writings. (Sander 12). This point he was viewed as individual who has expressed his writing with nothing too far out of the standards. This changes with later in his life as his inner thoughts and actions taken from his life into his writings. but was still himself. Oscar’s view of the social elite and the structure of the people of the high life being that of them holding against the idea of the freedom of discussing what was considered to be ‘private talk’ as quoted with Oscar calling them “What is a cynic? A man who knows the price of everything and the value of nothing.” (Wilde). This perspective follows into the line of how in The Picture of Dorian Gray, the Character of Dorian Gray could be reflected of what Oscar could be saying both with himself and against with his desire to go against what society thinks of the norms. | 537 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This page will help explain some of the awesome learning taking place in our class!
Our class recycling bin was overflowing by the end of the day. Although this rubbish is being recycled we decided we would try to reduce the size of the rubbish to make more room in the big bins outside. We decided to become scientists and sorted and classified our waste before using different forces to reduce the size. Amazingly we managed to fit a big bin bag full of rubbish into a small carrier bag.
We decided our first job before we can implement some new recycling rules in the school, was to locate where all the bins were in the school. We did some field work around the school using a map and located all the bins and bin areas. We then decided to add these bins to our school map and created a key to make the information easier for people to use.
When we arrived back at school we had to attend a very important assembly with Mrs West. Our caretaker was pulling his hair out over Christmas because the school had produced soooo much waste. Mrs West needs our help to try to find out where all the waste is coming from and has asked us to find a solution to all the pollution. We can't wait to find ways to be more eco-friendly.
Wow!! We hope you enjoyed our performance as much as we did. What an incredible end to the term. Bring on Christmas!
We used our D&T knowledge and skills to create a Nativity scene with a winding and lever mechanism.
We are feeling festive in the Mangoes. We have created Christmas cards for our parents with a moving mechanism.
It is a busy time in Year 2 rehearsing for our Christmas Production!!
We are learning all about levers and how they are used in everyday life. We are creating some awesome Christmas cards with a moving mechanism attached to a lever. We are following our plans and our list of resources.
We arrived in class and there was a bag full of clothes and other trip/holiday items. We emptied the bag with Mr Bowie and decided someone was going on a journey. We discussed lots of different journeys and how people might feel at the beginning and at the end of their journey. We are going to be learning about some very special people during this project and their journeys, which will end with an awesome Christmas production at the end of term.
Miss Sidney was over the moon with all the books we made for the Pippins. We spent the afternoon reading with them and letting them enjoy our books and puppets. We also invited our grown ups in to class so they could see our incredible work. It was very special.
It is official. We are Awesome Authors in the Mangoes Class. We are so happy with our books and puppets. We can't wait to share our books with the Pippins.
What an awesome morning we have had doing our Joe Wicks live workout. We were so worn out by the end but it was so much fun. Everyone looked so cool in their Pudsey outfits. Even Mrs West couldn't resist joining in!
As well as becoming Awesome Authors, we are also making puppets of our favourite toy to go with our amazing books. We love Design and Technology in the Mangoes class.
"Should Emily Brown hand over Stanley?" That was the question for our class debate. We thought of valid arguments 'for' and 'against' and presented our ideas to the whole class... we even stood on a podium!
Wow we had an amazing week. It all began with an exciting visit from Miss Sidney. She needs new books for the Pippins and she has challenged us to create them...she also wants us to create a puppet to go with the story. We decided we would base our stories on the adventures we might go on with our favourite toy... watch this space for the final product!
We did some sketching and learnt how to make different shades with one pencil. We sketched our local historical people. Can you guess who's who?
Mrs Johnn delivered some interesting pictures to our classroom on Monday. We found out that they are connected to significant historical people. Using our Investigating skills we found out these people have a connection to our local area. This week we are going to become Historians and learn all about these amazing people who had an impact on the world!
We presented our New Zealand tour guides to Mrs Johnn. She was super impressed with all of the geographical knowledge we provided in our books. Her favourite destination is the Bay of Plenty because she loves warm, sandy beaches and eating lots of ice cream.
Look at our awesome home learning!
Did you know that New Zealand has volcanoes? Today we all went outside and erupted a volcano Sophia from Strawberries Class had created for home learning. It was so exciting!
We had such an awesome day at Lepe Country Park. We are becoming expert geographers! We looked at the different geographical features of Lepe and detected the difference between human and physical features. We created some amazing sketches and went on a treasure hunt too. Check out our pictures...
We are learning about Mount Ruapehu in New Zealand. Did you know it is one of the most active volcanoes in the world? We thought we would become magnificent artists and create collages of Mount Ruapehu erupting!
What a fantastic morning we have had in Year 2. Mrs Johnn has won a golden ticket to go on holiday to New Zealand at Christmas. The only problem is she doesn't know where to visit or what to do. She has set us a challenge to create a tour guide of exciting destinations for her to visit. We are going to become expert geographers!
What an incredible first day back at school we have had. It was super duper seeing all our friends again and we have loved getting to know our new teacher. We decided to have some relaxing time in the Library, reading is awesome, in the words of Dr Seuss: The more that you read the more things you will know. The more that you learn the more places you'll go. | <urn:uuid:3e1b9c10-32ee-432a-bf2f-49832dc4e860> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.orchard-inf.co.uk/mangoes/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00236.warc.gz | en | 0.982 | 1,242 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.33457994... | 1 | This page will help explain some of the awesome learning taking place in our class!
Our class recycling bin was overflowing by the end of the day. Although this rubbish is being recycled we decided we would try to reduce the size of the rubbish to make more room in the big bins outside. We decided to become scientists and sorted and classified our waste before using different forces to reduce the size. Amazingly we managed to fit a big bin bag full of rubbish into a small carrier bag.
We decided our first job before we can implement some new recycling rules in the school, was to locate where all the bins were in the school. We did some field work around the school using a map and located all the bins and bin areas. We then decided to add these bins to our school map and created a key to make the information easier for people to use.
When we arrived back at school we had to attend a very important assembly with Mrs West. Our caretaker was pulling his hair out over Christmas because the school had produced soooo much waste. Mrs West needs our help to try to find out where all the waste is coming from and has asked us to find a solution to all the pollution. We can't wait to find ways to be more eco-friendly.
Wow!! We hope you enjoyed our performance as much as we did. What an incredible end to the term. Bring on Christmas!
We used our D&T knowledge and skills to create a Nativity scene with a winding and lever mechanism.
We are feeling festive in the Mangoes. We have created Christmas cards for our parents with a moving mechanism.
It is a busy time in Year 2 rehearsing for our Christmas Production!!
We are learning all about levers and how they are used in everyday life. We are creating some awesome Christmas cards with a moving mechanism attached to a lever. We are following our plans and our list of resources.
We arrived in class and there was a bag full of clothes and other trip/holiday items. We emptied the bag with Mr Bowie and decided someone was going on a journey. We discussed lots of different journeys and how people might feel at the beginning and at the end of their journey. We are going to be learning about some very special people during this project and their journeys, which will end with an awesome Christmas production at the end of term.
Miss Sidney was over the moon with all the books we made for the Pippins. We spent the afternoon reading with them and letting them enjoy our books and puppets. We also invited our grown ups in to class so they could see our incredible work. It was very special.
It is official. We are Awesome Authors in the Mangoes Class. We are so happy with our books and puppets. We can't wait to share our books with the Pippins.
What an awesome morning we have had doing our Joe Wicks live workout. We were so worn out by the end but it was so much fun. Everyone looked so cool in their Pudsey outfits. Even Mrs West couldn't resist joining in!
As well as becoming Awesome Authors, we are also making puppets of our favourite toy to go with our amazing books. We love Design and Technology in the Mangoes class.
"Should Emily Brown hand over Stanley?" That was the question for our class debate. We thought of valid arguments 'for' and 'against' and presented our ideas to the whole class... we even stood on a podium!
Wow we had an amazing week. It all began with an exciting visit from Miss Sidney. She needs new books for the Pippins and she has challenged us to create them...she also wants us to create a puppet to go with the story. We decided we would base our stories on the adventures we might go on with our favourite toy... watch this space for the final product!
We did some sketching and learnt how to make different shades with one pencil. We sketched our local historical people. Can you guess who's who?
Mrs Johnn delivered some interesting pictures to our classroom on Monday. We found out that they are connected to significant historical people. Using our Investigating skills we found out these people have a connection to our local area. This week we are going to become Historians and learn all about these amazing people who had an impact on the world!
We presented our New Zealand tour guides to Mrs Johnn. She was super impressed with all of the geographical knowledge we provided in our books. Her favourite destination is the Bay of Plenty because she loves warm, sandy beaches and eating lots of ice cream.
Look at our awesome home learning!
Did you know that New Zealand has volcanoes? Today we all went outside and erupted a volcano Sophia from Strawberries Class had created for home learning. It was so exciting!
We had such an awesome day at Lepe Country Park. We are becoming expert geographers! We looked at the different geographical features of Lepe and detected the difference between human and physical features. We created some amazing sketches and went on a treasure hunt too. Check out our pictures...
We are learning about Mount Ruapehu in New Zealand. Did you know it is one of the most active volcanoes in the world? We thought we would become magnificent artists and create collages of Mount Ruapehu erupting!
What a fantastic morning we have had in Year 2. Mrs Johnn has won a golden ticket to go on holiday to New Zealand at Christmas. The only problem is she doesn't know where to visit or what to do. She has set us a challenge to create a tour guide of exciting destinations for her to visit. We are going to become expert geographers!
What an incredible first day back at school we have had. It was super duper seeing all our friends again and we have loved getting to know our new teacher. We decided to have some relaxing time in the Library, reading is awesome, in the words of Dr Seuss: The more that you read the more things you will know. The more that you learn the more places you'll go. | 1,219 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Sometimes you feel like giving up. Sometimes you feel like everything is going wrong in your life. Sometimes you feel like things just can't get any better and you don't have anyone who believes in you or tells you to keep on trying.
For those moments and for those lives we need books like this one. This is the biography of a woman who was born in 1848, a slave. She lived to be 121 years old.
Those 121 years weren't easy, Mary knew the rules of the plantation: Keep working and slaves can't be taught anything that will make them believe they can have a better life and that includes reading and writing.
But, some lives are truly exceptional and the life of Mary Walker is one of them. Her life is an empowering light.
Mary Walker was born in 1848 and she died in 1969. Her life spanned the terms of 26 presidents including Abraham Lincoln.
When she was fifteen years old, the Emancipation Proclamation set her, her mother, her brothers and sisters free. Can you imagine what that meant to her?
She lived a life of family, hard work, and determination. By the time she was 114 years old she had outlived her entire family. She still couldn't read. She still couldn't write. She believed she "didn't know anything."
But Mary knew the value of reading. She knew that knowledge could be incredibly empowering and could open the doors to the world. At the age of 116 she was determined to learn to read. It wasn't easy for her but she never gave up.
Mary Walker had grit. We need to see the courage of others and the perseverance of others when their lives were difficult. For 121 years that's exactly what Mrs. Mary Walker brought to the world and now her legacy stands to empower others. "It's never too late to learn."
Rita Lorraine Hubbard puts us in the shoes of Mary Walker and lets us feel the trials and the hardships and the courage and the determination. Oge Mora raises us up with the hope and the light she always brings to her illustrations.
This one is special.
40 pages 978-1524768287 Ages 5-9
Keywords: biography, reading, literacy, slavery, African American, African American author, American history, diversity, diverse books, perseverance, grit, empowerment, encouragement, 5 year old, 6 year old, 7 year old, 8 year old, 9 year old, Social Studies Curriculum, Character Building Curriculum, Language Arts Curriculum
Imagine learning to read at the age of 116! Discover the true story of Mary Walker, the nation's oldest student who did just that, in this picture book from a Caldecott Honor-winning illustrator and a rising star author.
In 1848, Mary Walker was born into slavery. At age 15, she was freed, and by age 20, she was married and had her first child. By age 68, she had worked numerous jobs, including cooking, cleaning, babysitting, and selling sandwiches to raise money for her church.
At 114, she was the last remaining member of her family. And at 116, she learned to read.
From Rita Lorraine Hubbard and rising star Oge More comes the inspirational story of Mary Walker, a woman whose long life spanned from the Civil War to the Civil Rights Movement, and who--with perseverance and dedication--proved that you're never too old to learn.---from the publisher | <urn:uuid:d475a5b8-5a7a-439e-b797-c0e19508374d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://abookandahug.com/oldest-student-the-oldest-student-how-many-walker-learned-to-read/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00417.warc.gz | en | 0.980871 | 718 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.18392892181873... | 5 | Sometimes you feel like giving up. Sometimes you feel like everything is going wrong in your life. Sometimes you feel like things just can't get any better and you don't have anyone who believes in you or tells you to keep on trying.
For those moments and for those lives we need books like this one. This is the biography of a woman who was born in 1848, a slave. She lived to be 121 years old.
Those 121 years weren't easy, Mary knew the rules of the plantation: Keep working and slaves can't be taught anything that will make them believe they can have a better life and that includes reading and writing.
But, some lives are truly exceptional and the life of Mary Walker is one of them. Her life is an empowering light.
Mary Walker was born in 1848 and she died in 1969. Her life spanned the terms of 26 presidents including Abraham Lincoln.
When she was fifteen years old, the Emancipation Proclamation set her, her mother, her brothers and sisters free. Can you imagine what that meant to her?
She lived a life of family, hard work, and determination. By the time she was 114 years old she had outlived her entire family. She still couldn't read. She still couldn't write. She believed she "didn't know anything."
But Mary knew the value of reading. She knew that knowledge could be incredibly empowering and could open the doors to the world. At the age of 116 she was determined to learn to read. It wasn't easy for her but she never gave up.
Mary Walker had grit. We need to see the courage of others and the perseverance of others when their lives were difficult. For 121 years that's exactly what Mrs. Mary Walker brought to the world and now her legacy stands to empower others. "It's never too late to learn."
Rita Lorraine Hubbard puts us in the shoes of Mary Walker and lets us feel the trials and the hardships and the courage and the determination. Oge Mora raises us up with the hope and the light she always brings to her illustrations.
This one is special.
40 pages 978-1524768287 Ages 5-9
Keywords: biography, reading, literacy, slavery, African American, African American author, American history, diversity, diverse books, perseverance, grit, empowerment, encouragement, 5 year old, 6 year old, 7 year old, 8 year old, 9 year old, Social Studies Curriculum, Character Building Curriculum, Language Arts Curriculum
Imagine learning to read at the age of 116! Discover the true story of Mary Walker, the nation's oldest student who did just that, in this picture book from a Caldecott Honor-winning illustrator and a rising star author.
In 1848, Mary Walker was born into slavery. At age 15, she was freed, and by age 20, she was married and had her first child. By age 68, she had worked numerous jobs, including cooking, cleaning, babysitting, and selling sandwiches to raise money for her church.
At 114, she was the last remaining member of her family. And at 116, she learned to read.
From Rita Lorraine Hubbard and rising star Oge More comes the inspirational story of Mary Walker, a woman whose long life spanned from the Civil War to the Civil Rights Movement, and who--with perseverance and dedication--proved that you're never too old to learn.---from the publisher | 752 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This museum was started in 1919 by the grandfather of the present owner, who preserved part of the trench system that remained in what the British Army called Sanctuary Wood. The wood got its name in the First Battle of Ypres in 1914, when men separated from their regiments came to this wooded area – a safe area away from the main fighting, a place of ‘sanctuary’ – to await to rejoin their unit. By 1915, the wood, on the lower slopes of Hill 62, was part of the front line area and remained so until 1917. In June 1916, the Germans attacked and broke through the 3rd Canadian Division who held this sector, and fighting took place within the area of the wood. The wood was captured by the Germans in April 1918, and retaken finally in the Fourth Battle of Ypres. | <urn:uuid:a753dffe-ac1e-46d7-886c-dbc074279b02> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.gearthhacks.com/downloads/sanctuary-wood-trench-museum/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00299.warc.gz | en | 0.984093 | 169 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.41284635663... | 2 | This museum was started in 1919 by the grandfather of the present owner, who preserved part of the trench system that remained in what the British Army called Sanctuary Wood. The wood got its name in the First Battle of Ypres in 1914, when men separated from their regiments came to this wooded area – a safe area away from the main fighting, a place of ‘sanctuary’ – to await to rejoin their unit. By 1915, the wood, on the lower slopes of Hill 62, was part of the front line area and remained so until 1917. In June 1916, the Germans attacked and broke through the 3rd Canadian Division who held this sector, and fighting took place within the area of the wood. The wood was captured by the Germans in April 1918, and retaken finally in the Fourth Battle of Ypres. | 194 | ENGLISH | 1 |
St. Martin of Tours
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Saint Martin of Tours was born in in Savaria, Pannonia in either the year 316 or 336 AD. That region is what is today the nation of Hungary. His father was a tribune, which is a high-ranking officer in the Imperial Horse Guard. Martin and his family went with his father when he was assigned to a post at Ticinum, in Northern Italy. It is here that Martin would grow up.
Just before Martin was born, Christianity was legalized in the Roman Empire and the bloody persecution of Christians soon came to an end. It was not the official religion of the State, but it could be practiced and proclaimed openly. The Gospel message soon flourished in ancient Rome, transforming the empire. Martin's parents were pagans, but at the age of 10, Martin chose to respond to the call of the Gospel and become a Christian.
At the age of fifteen, Martin was required to follow his father into the cavalry corps of the Roman military. By the time he was 18, Martin is believed to have served in Gaul, and also eventually Milan and Treves. Scholars think he served as part of the emperor's guard.
As a young soldier, Martin encountered a beggar in Amiens. The beggar was unclothed and it was very cold. Martin removed his cloak and with his sword, he cut it in half. He gave this half to the beggar and dressed himself in the remnant. That night, Martin had a vision in which Christ appeared to him. The vision spoke to him, "Martin, a mere catechumen has clothed me." A catechumen is one who is being instructed in the Christian faith. In the early centuries of Christianity, that was a long process of instruction - and Martin was deeply dedicated to it.
About the age of 20, Martin made clear to his superiors that he would no longer fight, following his formed Christian conscience. He refused his pay prior to a battle and announced he would not join in the combat. He became the first recognized conscientious objector in recorded history. His proclamation occurred before a battle near the modern German city of Worms. His superiors accused him of cowardice and ordered that he be imprisoned. Martin offered to demonstrate his sincerity by going into battle unarmed. This was seen as an acceptable alternative to jailing him, but before the battle could occur, the opposing army agreed to a truce and no conflict took place. Martin was subsequently released from military service.
Now out of the military service, Martin could fully dedicate himself to service of Jesus Christ and the Church. He traveled to Tours where he began studying under Hilary of Poitiers, who is now recognized as a doctor of the Church. Martin's studies lasted until Hilary was forced into temporary exile, likely because of his refusal to participate in a political dispute.
Martin then traveled to Italy. According to one account, Martin was confronted by a highwayman and led him to faith in Jesus Christ. Another account tells of Martin confronting the Devil. While on this journey, Martin had a vision which compelled him to return to his mother in Pannonia. He did so and led his own mother to faith in Jesus Christ. Martin attempted to persuade his father to embrace faith in Jesus Christ, but as far as we know, his father refused.
After bringing his mother to the Church, Martin then turned to confronting a growing heresy which was afflicting the faithful and sowing confusion. He became involved in countering the Arian heresy, which denied the divinity of Jesus Christ. The reaction against him was so violent from the Arian leaders that he was compelled to flee. Martin took up residence on an island in the Adriatic where he lived as a hermit for a time.
Martin's teacher Hilary returned to Tours from temporary exile in 361 so Martin traveled there to work and study. Hilary gave Martin a small grant of land where he and his disciples lived.
Martin established a monastery which would be inhabited by the Benedictines. Established in 361, the Liguge Abbey was destroyed during the French Revolution, then reestablished in 1853. The abbey remains to this day. From the site of his abbey, Martin worked to bring people to faith in Jesus Christ and Baptism into His Church in the surrounding areas. He was an extraordinary evangelist.
In 371, the city of Tours needed a new bishop and the people decided to call Martin to the office. Martin did not want the job so the people decided to trick him into the office. The people insisted he was needed to administer to someone sick, so he came out as quickly as he could. He did not even bother to improve his appearance. When he learned it was a trick to make him a bishop, Martin actually tried to hide. He was quickly discovered and the people called him forward to be ordained to the office of Bishop. Even though he did not really want the office, he was ordained - and he became a holy and hardworking Bishop.
As a Bishop Martin established a system of parishes to manage his diocese. He made a point to visit each parish at least once per year. In addition to his appointed rounds, Martin combated paganism, particularly the Druid religion which was still prevalent at the time. He passionately and faithfully proclaimed the Gospel of Jesus Christ and won many to the Christian faith.
Yet, he longed for more prayer and wanted to pursue a monastic life. In the year 372 Martin established an abbey at Marmoutier so he could retreat there and live as a monk with the many disciples he had attracted.
In the following years, a heresy broke out in the church. An aesthetic sect called the Priscillianists after their leader, Priscillian, had developed in Spain and Gaul. The First Council of Saragossa condemned the heresy, but the Priscillians did not change they practices. This prompted one bishop, Ithacius of Ossonoba to petition the Roman Emperor Magnus Maximus to put him to death. Martin was opposed to the sentence of death, and was joined by Bishop Ambrose of Milan in his opposition. Martin traveled to Trier where the Emperor held court. Martin was able to persuade the Emperor to refrain from putting Priscillian and his followers to death. However, after Martin left, Ithacius persuaded the Emperor to change his mind again and Priscillian and his followers were executed in 385.
Martin was so upset by Ithacius, he refused to communicate with his fellow bishop until the Emperor pressured him to resume communicating with his colleague.
Martin died in Candes-Saint-Martin, Gaul in 397.
The Hagiographer Sulpicius Severus, knew Martin personally and wrote about his life. Many miracles and the casting out of demons were attributed to Martin during his lifetime. According to one account, Martin, while trying to win Druids to follow Jesus Christ and renounce their pagan beliefs, was dared to stand in the path of a sacred tree that was being felled. Martin agreed and was missed by the falling pine, although standing right in its path. This was widely seen as miraculous and a symbol that the message he proclaimed about Jesus Christ was true. Many were converted to the Christian faith.
Veneration of St. Martin became popular in the Middle Ages, and was popular with the Frankish kings.
Saint Martin is the patron of the poor, soldiers, conscientious objectors, tailors, and winemakers. Many locations across Europe have also been placed under his patronage. His feast is on November 11. He commonly appears on horseback and is shown cutting his cloak in half with a sword.
St. Maria Goretti
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Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. All materials contained on this site, whether written, audible or visual are the exclusive property of Catholic Online and are protected under U.S. and International copyright laws, © Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. Any unauthorized use, without prior written consent of Catholic Online is strictly forbidden and prohibited.
Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law. | <urn:uuid:b03de449-78f3-42cf-940a-487e87574271> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id=81 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00389.warc.gz | en | 0.987107 | 1,830 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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FREE Catholic School Enroll Now
Saint Martin of Tours was born in in Savaria, Pannonia in either the year 316 or 336 AD. That region is what is today the nation of Hungary. His father was a tribune, which is a high-ranking officer in the Imperial Horse Guard. Martin and his family went with his father when he was assigned to a post at Ticinum, in Northern Italy. It is here that Martin would grow up.
Just before Martin was born, Christianity was legalized in the Roman Empire and the bloody persecution of Christians soon came to an end. It was not the official religion of the State, but it could be practiced and proclaimed openly. The Gospel message soon flourished in ancient Rome, transforming the empire. Martin's parents were pagans, but at the age of 10, Martin chose to respond to the call of the Gospel and become a Christian.
At the age of fifteen, Martin was required to follow his father into the cavalry corps of the Roman military. By the time he was 18, Martin is believed to have served in Gaul, and also eventually Milan and Treves. Scholars think he served as part of the emperor's guard.
As a young soldier, Martin encountered a beggar in Amiens. The beggar was unclothed and it was very cold. Martin removed his cloak and with his sword, he cut it in half. He gave this half to the beggar and dressed himself in the remnant. That night, Martin had a vision in which Christ appeared to him. The vision spoke to him, "Martin, a mere catechumen has clothed me." A catechumen is one who is being instructed in the Christian faith. In the early centuries of Christianity, that was a long process of instruction - and Martin was deeply dedicated to it.
About the age of 20, Martin made clear to his superiors that he would no longer fight, following his formed Christian conscience. He refused his pay prior to a battle and announced he would not join in the combat. He became the first recognized conscientious objector in recorded history. His proclamation occurred before a battle near the modern German city of Worms. His superiors accused him of cowardice and ordered that he be imprisoned. Martin offered to demonstrate his sincerity by going into battle unarmed. This was seen as an acceptable alternative to jailing him, but before the battle could occur, the opposing army agreed to a truce and no conflict took place. Martin was subsequently released from military service.
Now out of the military service, Martin could fully dedicate himself to service of Jesus Christ and the Church. He traveled to Tours where he began studying under Hilary of Poitiers, who is now recognized as a doctor of the Church. Martin's studies lasted until Hilary was forced into temporary exile, likely because of his refusal to participate in a political dispute.
Martin then traveled to Italy. According to one account, Martin was confronted by a highwayman and led him to faith in Jesus Christ. Another account tells of Martin confronting the Devil. While on this journey, Martin had a vision which compelled him to return to his mother in Pannonia. He did so and led his own mother to faith in Jesus Christ. Martin attempted to persuade his father to embrace faith in Jesus Christ, but as far as we know, his father refused.
After bringing his mother to the Church, Martin then turned to confronting a growing heresy which was afflicting the faithful and sowing confusion. He became involved in countering the Arian heresy, which denied the divinity of Jesus Christ. The reaction against him was so violent from the Arian leaders that he was compelled to flee. Martin took up residence on an island in the Adriatic where he lived as a hermit for a time.
Martin's teacher Hilary returned to Tours from temporary exile in 361 so Martin traveled there to work and study. Hilary gave Martin a small grant of land where he and his disciples lived.
Martin established a monastery which would be inhabited by the Benedictines. Established in 361, the Liguge Abbey was destroyed during the French Revolution, then reestablished in 1853. The abbey remains to this day. From the site of his abbey, Martin worked to bring people to faith in Jesus Christ and Baptism into His Church in the surrounding areas. He was an extraordinary evangelist.
In 371, the city of Tours needed a new bishop and the people decided to call Martin to the office. Martin did not want the job so the people decided to trick him into the office. The people insisted he was needed to administer to someone sick, so he came out as quickly as he could. He did not even bother to improve his appearance. When he learned it was a trick to make him a bishop, Martin actually tried to hide. He was quickly discovered and the people called him forward to be ordained to the office of Bishop. Even though he did not really want the office, he was ordained - and he became a holy and hardworking Bishop.
As a Bishop Martin established a system of parishes to manage his diocese. He made a point to visit each parish at least once per year. In addition to his appointed rounds, Martin combated paganism, particularly the Druid religion which was still prevalent at the time. He passionately and faithfully proclaimed the Gospel of Jesus Christ and won many to the Christian faith.
Yet, he longed for more prayer and wanted to pursue a monastic life. In the year 372 Martin established an abbey at Marmoutier so he could retreat there and live as a monk with the many disciples he had attracted.
In the following years, a heresy broke out in the church. An aesthetic sect called the Priscillianists after their leader, Priscillian, had developed in Spain and Gaul. The First Council of Saragossa condemned the heresy, but the Priscillians did not change they practices. This prompted one bishop, Ithacius of Ossonoba to petition the Roman Emperor Magnus Maximus to put him to death. Martin was opposed to the sentence of death, and was joined by Bishop Ambrose of Milan in his opposition. Martin traveled to Trier where the Emperor held court. Martin was able to persuade the Emperor to refrain from putting Priscillian and his followers to death. However, after Martin left, Ithacius persuaded the Emperor to change his mind again and Priscillian and his followers were executed in 385.
Martin was so upset by Ithacius, he refused to communicate with his fellow bishop until the Emperor pressured him to resume communicating with his colleague.
Martin died in Candes-Saint-Martin, Gaul in 397.
The Hagiographer Sulpicius Severus, knew Martin personally and wrote about his life. Many miracles and the casting out of demons were attributed to Martin during his lifetime. According to one account, Martin, while trying to win Druids to follow Jesus Christ and renounce their pagan beliefs, was dared to stand in the path of a sacred tree that was being felled. Martin agreed and was missed by the falling pine, although standing right in its path. This was widely seen as miraculous and a symbol that the message he proclaimed about Jesus Christ was true. Many were converted to the Christian faith.
Veneration of St. Martin became popular in the Middle Ages, and was popular with the Frankish kings.
Saint Martin is the patron of the poor, soldiers, conscientious objectors, tailors, and winemakers. Many locations across Europe have also been placed under his patronage. His feast is on November 11. He commonly appears on horseback and is shown cutting his cloak in half with a sword.
St. Maria Goretti
Find SaintsPopular Saints
Saints by Alphabet
Saint of the Day
Saint Feast Days by Month
Patron Saints by Alphabet
FREE Catholic Classes Pick a class, you can learn anything
CONFIRMED: Kobe Bryant and daughter Gianna attended Mass before fatal crash - Celebrity
Kobe Bryant - a soul transformed by the Catholic faith - Celebrity
St. Thomas Aquinas
Saint of the Day for Tuesday, Jan 28th, 2020
Unfailing Prayer to St. Anthony
Mysteries of the Rosary
Saint Feast Days in Jan
Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. All materials contained on this site, whether written, audible or visual are the exclusive property of Catholic Online and are protected under U.S. and International copyright laws, © Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. Any unauthorized use, without prior written consent of Catholic Online is strictly forbidden and prohibited.
Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law. | 1,871 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Just a short five years later, a rough storm struck and destroyed the lighthouse. They began to construct a new lighthouse in 1857. This however, was right before the War between the states. Parts of the tower and the keepers quarters were burned by the Confederates. Important objects of the tower such as lens, oils, and tools were hidden in the Apalachicola to keep safe. The lighthouse went back to normal operation on July 23rd, 1865.
In 1869, the people of the Lighthouse Board noticed that the beaches currents in front of the lighthouse were getting stronger, and the lighthouse needed protection from the sea's strong current. By 1875, the waters of the Gulf moved 150 feet under the lighthouse. By 1882, it was flooded in 8 feet of water. The Lighthouse Board came up with the idea of replacing the brick tower with a skeletal tower. The skeletal lighthouse had eight iron legs. The watch room was still at the top of the tower, as well as the lantern. The legs were bolted down in a concrete foundation. This allowed less resistance from the harsh winds and waves. To get to the watch room, they built a spiral metal stairway.
The harsh winds and waves still managed to damage the skeletal tower. The Lighthouse Board thought it was time to move the tower inland. In 1918 it was moved a quarter mile inland. The towers light shined again on January 22, 1919. During this time, the lighthouse was strictly only operated by the coastguard until later on. However, the keepers quarters were left unattended for several years. In 1999, the Air Forced became responsible for the keepers quarters. The Air Force moved them closer to the tower, and kept them non damaged. The harsh waves were still a big danger to the lighthouse and people around it.
By July 15th, 2014, The Cape San Blas Lighthouse was moved to Core Park in St. Joe. It opened back up for al to see on September 12th, 2014. It was only till May 7th, 2015, when Cape San Blas Lighthouse was listed as a Historical Place. The beautiful lighthouse amazingly still stands today overlooking the vast seas that once destroyed it. | <urn:uuid:12cebec7-bcbb-4df8-8bdc-09be0169a6e5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theclio.com/entry/50504 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00286.warc.gz | en | 0.987843 | 450 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.296... | 2 | Just a short five years later, a rough storm struck and destroyed the lighthouse. They began to construct a new lighthouse in 1857. This however, was right before the War between the states. Parts of the tower and the keepers quarters were burned by the Confederates. Important objects of the tower such as lens, oils, and tools were hidden in the Apalachicola to keep safe. The lighthouse went back to normal operation on July 23rd, 1865.
In 1869, the people of the Lighthouse Board noticed that the beaches currents in front of the lighthouse were getting stronger, and the lighthouse needed protection from the sea's strong current. By 1875, the waters of the Gulf moved 150 feet under the lighthouse. By 1882, it was flooded in 8 feet of water. The Lighthouse Board came up with the idea of replacing the brick tower with a skeletal tower. The skeletal lighthouse had eight iron legs. The watch room was still at the top of the tower, as well as the lantern. The legs were bolted down in a concrete foundation. This allowed less resistance from the harsh winds and waves. To get to the watch room, they built a spiral metal stairway.
The harsh winds and waves still managed to damage the skeletal tower. The Lighthouse Board thought it was time to move the tower inland. In 1918 it was moved a quarter mile inland. The towers light shined again on January 22, 1919. During this time, the lighthouse was strictly only operated by the coastguard until later on. However, the keepers quarters were left unattended for several years. In 1999, the Air Forced became responsible for the keepers quarters. The Air Force moved them closer to the tower, and kept them non damaged. The harsh waves were still a big danger to the lighthouse and people around it.
By July 15th, 2014, The Cape San Blas Lighthouse was moved to Core Park in St. Joe. It opened back up for al to see on September 12th, 2014. It was only till May 7th, 2015, when Cape San Blas Lighthouse was listed as a Historical Place. The beautiful lighthouse amazingly still stands today overlooking the vast seas that once destroyed it. | 511 | ENGLISH | 1 |
First Day of the Somme
The 1st of July 1916 AD
The first day proper of the terrible Battle of the Somme was preceded by a weeklong barrage, during which 1.7 million shells were fired at the German lines. The aim of the barrage was to destroy the forest of barbed wire in protecting the German trenches, wreck the trenches themselves, and penetrate the bunkers in which the German troops sheltered. It failed dismally, as had all such barrages in previous battles of the war.
The Germans had built complex shelters deep in the chalky terrain. Anything other than a direct hit by a heavy shell was ineffective, and the British lacked heavy artillery. They were also inexperienced and technically backward as regards artillery, so they had to maintain a safety distance of 300yds in front of their own front line, thus often firing beyond the German front. When the wire was hit it may have broken, but remained a tangled and impenetrable mass, often as thick as a finger and needing special tools to cut.
The Somme was fought under political pressure for results. Originally it had been planned to make a surge in Flanders, but the Somme was agreed on as allowing a joint British and French effort, this being where their lines met. Before the arrangements were made the Germans attacked Verdun, thus the Somme campaign was intended to relieve pressure on that zone.
At 7.30 on July 1 1916 the barrage ceased, and along a 20 mile front the British and French advanced. Though scouts had reported that the German line was little damaged, the commanders refused to believe it. Never has the invisible question mark after the phrase military intelligence been so merited.
Most of the British soldiers were recent volunteers, unused to conflict – those who began the war in 1914 had largely been wiped out. The officers were equally inexperienced in many cases, the British commander Haig having risen rapidly, and far further than his abilities merited. But he did have social standing and drank champagne every night, which makes it alright. Many of the troops went over the top in straight lines, at walking pace, in a style suited to the warfare of a century earlier and questionable even then. They were mown down by the German machine gunners in their thousands.
Equally stupidly many British and Newfoundland troops began their advance from way behind the front line, giving the Germans time to prepare for them.
The ability of the British command to grasp the nature of the new warfare (though hardly new as the war began in 1914) is demonstrated by their decision to have a cavalry regiment ready to charge any gaps created by the infantry.
By the close of July 1 1916 19,240 British were dead. The press reported what the command told them, that casualties were low and the advance a massive success. As the British were so poorly organised they may even have believed this. The enormity of the fiasco did not become apparent for several days.
By the end of the battle in November 420,000 would be dead, plus 200,000 French and half a million Germans.
More famous dates here
8364 views since 20th February 2007 | <urn:uuid:cb0d95b7-3824-4e95-a336-544c47e4de1a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://ads.information-britain.co.uk/famdates.php?id=6 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00428.warc.gz | en | 0.989998 | 641 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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... | 1 | First Day of the Somme
The 1st of July 1916 AD
The first day proper of the terrible Battle of the Somme was preceded by a weeklong barrage, during which 1.7 million shells were fired at the German lines. The aim of the barrage was to destroy the forest of barbed wire in protecting the German trenches, wreck the trenches themselves, and penetrate the bunkers in which the German troops sheltered. It failed dismally, as had all such barrages in previous battles of the war.
The Germans had built complex shelters deep in the chalky terrain. Anything other than a direct hit by a heavy shell was ineffective, and the British lacked heavy artillery. They were also inexperienced and technically backward as regards artillery, so they had to maintain a safety distance of 300yds in front of their own front line, thus often firing beyond the German front. When the wire was hit it may have broken, but remained a tangled and impenetrable mass, often as thick as a finger and needing special tools to cut.
The Somme was fought under political pressure for results. Originally it had been planned to make a surge in Flanders, but the Somme was agreed on as allowing a joint British and French effort, this being where their lines met. Before the arrangements were made the Germans attacked Verdun, thus the Somme campaign was intended to relieve pressure on that zone.
At 7.30 on July 1 1916 the barrage ceased, and along a 20 mile front the British and French advanced. Though scouts had reported that the German line was little damaged, the commanders refused to believe it. Never has the invisible question mark after the phrase military intelligence been so merited.
Most of the British soldiers were recent volunteers, unused to conflict – those who began the war in 1914 had largely been wiped out. The officers were equally inexperienced in many cases, the British commander Haig having risen rapidly, and far further than his abilities merited. But he did have social standing and drank champagne every night, which makes it alright. Many of the troops went over the top in straight lines, at walking pace, in a style suited to the warfare of a century earlier and questionable even then. They were mown down by the German machine gunners in their thousands.
Equally stupidly many British and Newfoundland troops began their advance from way behind the front line, giving the Germans time to prepare for them.
The ability of the British command to grasp the nature of the new warfare (though hardly new as the war began in 1914) is demonstrated by their decision to have a cavalry regiment ready to charge any gaps created by the infantry.
By the close of July 1 1916 19,240 British were dead. The press reported what the command told them, that casualties were low and the advance a massive success. As the British were so poorly organised they may even have believed this. The enormity of the fiasco did not become apparent for several days.
By the end of the battle in November 420,000 would be dead, plus 200,000 French and half a million Germans.
More famous dates here
8364 views since 20th February 2007 | 688 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Social Emotional Learning and How to Build Your Own Instructional Manual
Implementing social-emotional strategies is important, but hard to do when there is little support. Teachers may have to build their own manuals, calling on the expertise of others, to help some students and groups.
Ever notice that the kids don’t come with instructions? We say that as parents, but I also was told that joke as I became a counselor for students with social and emotional challenges. I once was asked to work with four middle school boys who were not interacting well with others in their special education classroom—but rather than simply treat their disorder, I needed to form a relationship with them. At that time, this was a really innovative idea.
What I found was that I needed specific training and support, but there was no handbook of instructions. So to help build my own instruction manual, I reached out to the school counselors and several teachers for advice. While they didn’t know the answers either, they had several ideas that I cobbled together and tried.
First, I was instructed to listen to the students. Rather than sitting in a room together, I decided to walk around the building with them, which was OK as long as we didn’t disturb anyone else. The boys thought this was pretty neat, although I told them we were on a short leash and that I could get in trouble. Interestingly, they didn’t want me in trouble! For them, just the fact of my spending time with them was unique.
Second, I was to set boundaries. I made it clear if they did anything wrong, I would turn them in. I was first and foremost their teacher and part of the school.
Third, we needed goals. While walking endlessly around the school might sound like fun, it gets old pretty quickly, even for seventh-graders. So, we needed to figure out how we would make decisions as to where to go and how to get there. They decided that we would go in order, with one person being the leader each session. If we needed to interact with another member of the staff, then the boys saw that I would always stop beforehand and I would always straighten my necktie. After two weeks one asked, “Why do you do that?” I responded, “I have noticed that when I want something, that if I am polite and look professional, stuff tends to work out.” A few days later, they were tucking in their shirts. I never suggested it.
I did learn a bit about fear, and even in a building where the entire staff was clued in to our strategies, mistakes happened. One cool, sunny day we were walking outside in the middle of a field. One of the boys, who had language dominance, anger issues and developmental challenges, picked up a rock and tossed it in the one direction that would not hit or disturb anyone. As we walked back into the school, one of the administrators came and started yelling at us (I was actually smaller than the guy who threw the rock and hidden by the others). My heart started racing, and I was afraid—as were the boys. When the administrator saw me, he stopped and told the boys, “Oh, you’re with a teacher.” I was shaken, but these boys weren’t. I used the opportunity to talk with them about how we felt, how to react, and how to not make their own problems worse.
Social Emotional Learning and Proper Implementation
Toward the end of the school year, as we sat outside one day, other boys came over and said, “We heard we can talk to you.” One brought up that he was going to be in a fight that Saturday night. I asked him if he wanted to do that. He said no, and we talked a bit about how he was being goaded on by others. We talked about how he could avoid the whole thing. He was relieved to have some new tools to help him.
We know social emotional learning is important, but how can it be implemented in an already full day when teachers are pressured to increase test scores? As teachers and other members of school staffs continue to explore how to improve social emotional learning of students, we know that it will be done with very little support. There aren’t enough counselors, school social workers, or school psychologists to meet the growing needs and challenges of students with mental health issues. And, there is a wide and sometimes conflicting range of ideas on how to help the kids who most need our help.
You may have to build your own “manual” for each class or group of students. But it can be done. For me, as a young counselor, the critical piece was collaborating with teachers who had ideas. I listened, took their suggested strategies and tweaked them as I got to know this group of at-risk students and their challenges. What I learned was that for many at-risk students, the ability to just spend time with an adult who doesn’t judge them is invaluable and can lead to better learning and better outcomes. If nothing else, giving the students new ideas on how to handle emotional challenges with specific behaviors can be very helpful. Many of these kids literally have no idea that they have options and how to exercise them. At the end of the day, you may be the only adult who can make an impact on students deemed at risk.
We do know that the answer will include listening, sharing alternatives with kids who are desperate for alternatives, and teaching by example.
Richard M. Long is Executive Director of the Learning First Alliance. Views expressed are those of the author and do not reflect the endorsement of the Learning First Alliance or any of its members.
This blog originally appeared on AFT's Share My Lesson. | <urn:uuid:2d34bf7a-dc58-44a7-b653-f8a158b7b1f4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://learningfirst.org/blog/social-emotional-learning-and-how-build-your-own-instructional-manual | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00123.warc.gz | en | 0.987393 | 1,203 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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Implementing social-emotional strategies is important, but hard to do when there is little support. Teachers may have to build their own manuals, calling on the expertise of others, to help some students and groups.
Ever notice that the kids don’t come with instructions? We say that as parents, but I also was told that joke as I became a counselor for students with social and emotional challenges. I once was asked to work with four middle school boys who were not interacting well with others in their special education classroom—but rather than simply treat their disorder, I needed to form a relationship with them. At that time, this was a really innovative idea.
What I found was that I needed specific training and support, but there was no handbook of instructions. So to help build my own instruction manual, I reached out to the school counselors and several teachers for advice. While they didn’t know the answers either, they had several ideas that I cobbled together and tried.
First, I was instructed to listen to the students. Rather than sitting in a room together, I decided to walk around the building with them, which was OK as long as we didn’t disturb anyone else. The boys thought this was pretty neat, although I told them we were on a short leash and that I could get in trouble. Interestingly, they didn’t want me in trouble! For them, just the fact of my spending time with them was unique.
Second, I was to set boundaries. I made it clear if they did anything wrong, I would turn them in. I was first and foremost their teacher and part of the school.
Third, we needed goals. While walking endlessly around the school might sound like fun, it gets old pretty quickly, even for seventh-graders. So, we needed to figure out how we would make decisions as to where to go and how to get there. They decided that we would go in order, with one person being the leader each session. If we needed to interact with another member of the staff, then the boys saw that I would always stop beforehand and I would always straighten my necktie. After two weeks one asked, “Why do you do that?” I responded, “I have noticed that when I want something, that if I am polite and look professional, stuff tends to work out.” A few days later, they were tucking in their shirts. I never suggested it.
I did learn a bit about fear, and even in a building where the entire staff was clued in to our strategies, mistakes happened. One cool, sunny day we were walking outside in the middle of a field. One of the boys, who had language dominance, anger issues and developmental challenges, picked up a rock and tossed it in the one direction that would not hit or disturb anyone. As we walked back into the school, one of the administrators came and started yelling at us (I was actually smaller than the guy who threw the rock and hidden by the others). My heart started racing, and I was afraid—as were the boys. When the administrator saw me, he stopped and told the boys, “Oh, you’re with a teacher.” I was shaken, but these boys weren’t. I used the opportunity to talk with them about how we felt, how to react, and how to not make their own problems worse.
Social Emotional Learning and Proper Implementation
Toward the end of the school year, as we sat outside one day, other boys came over and said, “We heard we can talk to you.” One brought up that he was going to be in a fight that Saturday night. I asked him if he wanted to do that. He said no, and we talked a bit about how he was being goaded on by others. We talked about how he could avoid the whole thing. He was relieved to have some new tools to help him.
We know social emotional learning is important, but how can it be implemented in an already full day when teachers are pressured to increase test scores? As teachers and other members of school staffs continue to explore how to improve social emotional learning of students, we know that it will be done with very little support. There aren’t enough counselors, school social workers, or school psychologists to meet the growing needs and challenges of students with mental health issues. And, there is a wide and sometimes conflicting range of ideas on how to help the kids who most need our help.
You may have to build your own “manual” for each class or group of students. But it can be done. For me, as a young counselor, the critical piece was collaborating with teachers who had ideas. I listened, took their suggested strategies and tweaked them as I got to know this group of at-risk students and their challenges. What I learned was that for many at-risk students, the ability to just spend time with an adult who doesn’t judge them is invaluable and can lead to better learning and better outcomes. If nothing else, giving the students new ideas on how to handle emotional challenges with specific behaviors can be very helpful. Many of these kids literally have no idea that they have options and how to exercise them. At the end of the day, you may be the only adult who can make an impact on students deemed at risk.
We do know that the answer will include listening, sharing alternatives with kids who are desperate for alternatives, and teaching by example.
Richard M. Long is Executive Director of the Learning First Alliance. Views expressed are those of the author and do not reflect the endorsement of the Learning First Alliance or any of its members.
This blog originally appeared on AFT's Share My Lesson. | 1,149 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Federalists Vs. Antifederalists Federalists vs. Antifederalists To amend the Articles of Confederation, unanimous approval by all thirteen colonies was a necessity. Instead of reforming the preexisting document, it was decided that once approved by nine states, a newly written document would become the supreme law of the land. Framers of the constitution were voted on by the individual colonies to amend the existing law, the Articles of Confederation, but instead, created something entirely different altogether. They wrote the new document and gave it to the people, who were amazed and frightened at the new piece of legislation.
Because of the introduction of such a radical change, conflict sprouted throughout the country over views of how government should be, and the rights that it should grant the people. People who were against a strong federal government were the antifederalists. They were in opposition of the federalists who supported the constitution and a strong central government. The antifederalists consisted mostly of the poorer classes, those who were poorly educated, backcountry dwellers, single-horse farmers, etc. Along with them were debtors who feared that a strong central government would force them to pay off their debts. Antifederalists suspected that the aristocrats were up to something sinister and trying to somehow trick them. Federalists were more respectable and cultured people.
They mostly owned property and lived in settled areas, unlike the antifederalists. who lived in the backcountry. Many of them were former loyalists who had a conservative attitude. Antifederalists voiced strong objections about the constitution. It had been drawn up by the aristocrats, and therefore was believed to be undemocratic. They spoke out about the loss of sovereignty of the states, and how the freedoms of individuals were in jeopardy because of an absence of a bill of rights.
They criticized that there would no longer be annual elections for congressional representatives, the creating of a standing army, the exclusion of any reference to God, and how only two thirds of the states needed to ratify the document. Special elections for federalists and antifederalists, were held in different states, and were elected based on the pledges for or against the constitution. Four small states and Pennsylvania ratified the document early on. Massachusetts ratified the document as well, but only after the promise that it would include a bill of rights. Three more states then approved the Constitution. All states had agreed upon it except Virginia, New York, Rhode Island, and North Carolina. Although these states had not yet approved, the document was officially adopted on June 21,1788.
Virginia had a strong anti-federalists population, but Rhode Island was close to ratify, and because Virginia could not stand as an independent state, the Virginians agreed. Because New York permitted a manhood-suffrage vote, the majority of people were anti-federalists. Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison wrote a series of articles in New York newspapers that were the most convincing commentary ever written about the Constitution. New York soon ratified as well, with the realization that it could not prosper on its own. North Carolina and Rhode Island were the last two states to agree.
They did so, unwillingly, only after the new government had been in effect for several months. Although no one died because of the Antifederalists-Federalist battle, it was very heated and involved many riots and disagreements. The last four states to ratify did so involuntarily because they knew that in order to survive; they needed to be part of the union. History Reports. | <urn:uuid:955136f5-b1d2-4aa4-bec1-0d9aa86131a2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://redcowonline.com/federalists-vs-antifederalists-essay/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00181.warc.gz | en | 0.986978 | 728 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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-0.10209621489... | 8 | Federalists Vs. Antifederalists Federalists vs. Antifederalists To amend the Articles of Confederation, unanimous approval by all thirteen colonies was a necessity. Instead of reforming the preexisting document, it was decided that once approved by nine states, a newly written document would become the supreme law of the land. Framers of the constitution were voted on by the individual colonies to amend the existing law, the Articles of Confederation, but instead, created something entirely different altogether. They wrote the new document and gave it to the people, who were amazed and frightened at the new piece of legislation.
Because of the introduction of such a radical change, conflict sprouted throughout the country over views of how government should be, and the rights that it should grant the people. People who were against a strong federal government were the antifederalists. They were in opposition of the federalists who supported the constitution and a strong central government. The antifederalists consisted mostly of the poorer classes, those who were poorly educated, backcountry dwellers, single-horse farmers, etc. Along with them were debtors who feared that a strong central government would force them to pay off their debts. Antifederalists suspected that the aristocrats were up to something sinister and trying to somehow trick them. Federalists were more respectable and cultured people.
They mostly owned property and lived in settled areas, unlike the antifederalists. who lived in the backcountry. Many of them were former loyalists who had a conservative attitude. Antifederalists voiced strong objections about the constitution. It had been drawn up by the aristocrats, and therefore was believed to be undemocratic. They spoke out about the loss of sovereignty of the states, and how the freedoms of individuals were in jeopardy because of an absence of a bill of rights.
They criticized that there would no longer be annual elections for congressional representatives, the creating of a standing army, the exclusion of any reference to God, and how only two thirds of the states needed to ratify the document. Special elections for federalists and antifederalists, were held in different states, and were elected based on the pledges for or against the constitution. Four small states and Pennsylvania ratified the document early on. Massachusetts ratified the document as well, but only after the promise that it would include a bill of rights. Three more states then approved the Constitution. All states had agreed upon it except Virginia, New York, Rhode Island, and North Carolina. Although these states had not yet approved, the document was officially adopted on June 21,1788.
Virginia had a strong anti-federalists population, but Rhode Island was close to ratify, and because Virginia could not stand as an independent state, the Virginians agreed. Because New York permitted a manhood-suffrage vote, the majority of people were anti-federalists. Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison wrote a series of articles in New York newspapers that were the most convincing commentary ever written about the Constitution. New York soon ratified as well, with the realization that it could not prosper on its own. North Carolina and Rhode Island were the last two states to agree.
They did so, unwillingly, only after the new government had been in effect for several months. Although no one died because of the Antifederalists-Federalist battle, it was very heated and involved many riots and disagreements. The last four states to ratify did so involuntarily because they knew that in order to survive; they needed to be part of the union. History Reports. | 727 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Another way that Hurston challenges stereotypes with Delia is through her willingness to stand up for herself in the face of her abusive spouse. This among other reasons make Hurston's writing so rich. Hurston grew up comfortably, able to bear witness to all aspects of Black life, including what it means to see Black people in power.
Once someone vows them self to one another, there is no way back. Discussion: From the beginning of the story, it is evident that Delia Jones is in a strained marriage and that her husband has no respect for her. It is an unexpected turn of events since he knows that she is unreservedly scared of snakes.
She also shows their character development through her writing styles and techniques, which show reactions and responses between Joe and Missy May to strengthen the development of their relationship.
I do not mind at all.
Sykes will return to his place one eventide without any marks of Delia and finally be bitten by the serpent and Sykes will decease.
If their marriage had been better, Delia would have warned Sykes about the snake and he would not have died. All of the authors during the Harlem Renaissance were expected to write about race with a political mind set. | <urn:uuid:a29f1c74-9a3e-4781-804f-dea979758dfa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://vytovytypacady.whatshanesaid.com/sweat-essay588633312hj.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00240.warc.gz | en | 0.98452 | 251 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.2133014649152755... | 1 | Another way that Hurston challenges stereotypes with Delia is through her willingness to stand up for herself in the face of her abusive spouse. This among other reasons make Hurston's writing so rich. Hurston grew up comfortably, able to bear witness to all aspects of Black life, including what it means to see Black people in power.
Once someone vows them self to one another, there is no way back. Discussion: From the beginning of the story, it is evident that Delia Jones is in a strained marriage and that her husband has no respect for her. It is an unexpected turn of events since he knows that she is unreservedly scared of snakes.
She also shows their character development through her writing styles and techniques, which show reactions and responses between Joe and Missy May to strengthen the development of their relationship.
I do not mind at all.
Sykes will return to his place one eventide without any marks of Delia and finally be bitten by the serpent and Sykes will decease.
If their marriage had been better, Delia would have warned Sykes about the snake and he would not have died. All of the authors during the Harlem Renaissance were expected to write about race with a political mind set. | 246 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The most famous Cretan writers and artists include the painter El Greco and the author of Zorba the Greek, Nikos Kazantzakis.
The Greeks invented literature, when Homer began weaving his narrative tales that were ultimately written down in The Odyssey and The Iliad. They invented modern drama, during the Golden Age of Pericles in Athens (5th century BC), when writers such as Sophocles, Euripedes and Aeschylus developed revolutionary new styles of drama never before seen on stage. In more recent times Greek poetry has produced two winners of the Nobel Prize for Literature: George Seferis and Odysseus Elytis.
Elytis (1911-96) was born on Crete, and though he moved away to be educated in Athens and Paris he continually returned to his Greek island home. He was one of the great Greek war poets, writing powerfully about his experiences fighting the Germans during World War II, and he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1979.
Crete has produced many fine writers and artists, even though many of them are not known worldwide. The two notable exceptions are the painter El Greco and the writer Nikos Kazantzakis.
The real name of El Greco (‘The Greek’) was Domenikos Theotokopoulos, and he was born on Crete in 1541. Tradition has it that this was in the village of Fódhele although there is no documentary evidence for this. He was born at a time when the so-called Cretan School was already beginning to flourish. He studied at a Venetian workshop in Iráklion, and mastered the art of icon painting.
Theotokopoulos was an artist of immense talent, and he studied under one of the greatest Cretan artists, Michael Damaskinos, whose best works can be seen in the Icon Museum in Iráklion. Theotokopoulos moved to Venice when he was about 27-years-old, to further his studies there. He added Italian influences to the combination of Cretan and Byzantine painting that he had mastered by then, but he was less successful in selling his works either in Venice or in Rome, where competition was fierce.
After almost ten years in Italy he moved to Toledo in Spain, where he lived for most of the rest of his life, dying there in 1614. It was here he achieved fame, as a sculptor and architect as well as an artist. Several of his paintings are in the National Gallery in Athens, but only one on his native island, in the Historical Museum in Iráklion.
Crete’s other towering artistic figure is the writer Nikos Kazantzakis, and he called his autobiography Report to El Greco in a nod to his great forebear. Born in Iráklion in 1883, he is forever associated with the character he created for his 1946 novel, Zorba the Greek. Usually regarded as signifying the robust Cretan character, Zorba was in fact a mainland Greek who came to Crete and showed the locals how to live. The author’s ambivalence to his fellow islanders is also shown in another of his great novels, Christ Recrucified, where Cretan villagers tear each other apart while the Turkish ruler lets them.
Kazantzakis was proud of his island, though, and the island is proud of him. He asked to be buried in Iráklion, and his grave stands on top of the Martinengo Bastion on the City Walls. His epitaph says a lot about the Cretan character: ‘I hope for nothing. I fear nothing. I am free.’
Pandelis Prevelakis was born in Rethymnon in 1909, and became a great friend of Kazantzakis, going on to write his biography. Rather overshadowed by that towering figure, he is still regarded as Crete’s second greatest writer. His 1938 novel Chronicle of a City (sometimes translated as Tale of a Town) is a historical fiction about Rethymnon and goes in and out of print so you may need to hunt it down. Prevelakis died in 1986.
Travel information about Antiparos near Paros in the Cyclades Islands of Greece from the Greece Travel Secrets website.
Greece Grants Honorary Citizenship to Tom Hanks, who has a holiday home on Antiparos, for his charitable work and philhellenism.
Aegina in the Saronic Gulf Islands is an easy day trip from Athens. This page from Greece Travel Secrets also gives details of ferries and what to do.. | <urn:uuid:1bae2916-9c75-48f6-883f-3fcd66202d40> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.greece-travel-secrets.com/Cretan-Writers-and-Artists.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00271.warc.gz | en | 0.985857 | 966 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.6340951919... | 1 | The most famous Cretan writers and artists include the painter El Greco and the author of Zorba the Greek, Nikos Kazantzakis.
The Greeks invented literature, when Homer began weaving his narrative tales that were ultimately written down in The Odyssey and The Iliad. They invented modern drama, during the Golden Age of Pericles in Athens (5th century BC), when writers such as Sophocles, Euripedes and Aeschylus developed revolutionary new styles of drama never before seen on stage. In more recent times Greek poetry has produced two winners of the Nobel Prize for Literature: George Seferis and Odysseus Elytis.
Elytis (1911-96) was born on Crete, and though he moved away to be educated in Athens and Paris he continually returned to his Greek island home. He was one of the great Greek war poets, writing powerfully about his experiences fighting the Germans during World War II, and he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1979.
Crete has produced many fine writers and artists, even though many of them are not known worldwide. The two notable exceptions are the painter El Greco and the writer Nikos Kazantzakis.
The real name of El Greco (‘The Greek’) was Domenikos Theotokopoulos, and he was born on Crete in 1541. Tradition has it that this was in the village of Fódhele although there is no documentary evidence for this. He was born at a time when the so-called Cretan School was already beginning to flourish. He studied at a Venetian workshop in Iráklion, and mastered the art of icon painting.
Theotokopoulos was an artist of immense talent, and he studied under one of the greatest Cretan artists, Michael Damaskinos, whose best works can be seen in the Icon Museum in Iráklion. Theotokopoulos moved to Venice when he was about 27-years-old, to further his studies there. He added Italian influences to the combination of Cretan and Byzantine painting that he had mastered by then, but he was less successful in selling his works either in Venice or in Rome, where competition was fierce.
After almost ten years in Italy he moved to Toledo in Spain, where he lived for most of the rest of his life, dying there in 1614. It was here he achieved fame, as a sculptor and architect as well as an artist. Several of his paintings are in the National Gallery in Athens, but only one on his native island, in the Historical Museum in Iráklion.
Crete’s other towering artistic figure is the writer Nikos Kazantzakis, and he called his autobiography Report to El Greco in a nod to his great forebear. Born in Iráklion in 1883, he is forever associated with the character he created for his 1946 novel, Zorba the Greek. Usually regarded as signifying the robust Cretan character, Zorba was in fact a mainland Greek who came to Crete and showed the locals how to live. The author’s ambivalence to his fellow islanders is also shown in another of his great novels, Christ Recrucified, where Cretan villagers tear each other apart while the Turkish ruler lets them.
Kazantzakis was proud of his island, though, and the island is proud of him. He asked to be buried in Iráklion, and his grave stands on top of the Martinengo Bastion on the City Walls. His epitaph says a lot about the Cretan character: ‘I hope for nothing. I fear nothing. I am free.’
Pandelis Prevelakis was born in Rethymnon in 1909, and became a great friend of Kazantzakis, going on to write his biography. Rather overshadowed by that towering figure, he is still regarded as Crete’s second greatest writer. His 1938 novel Chronicle of a City (sometimes translated as Tale of a Town) is a historical fiction about Rethymnon and goes in and out of print so you may need to hunt it down. Prevelakis died in 1986.
Travel information about Antiparos near Paros in the Cyclades Islands of Greece from the Greece Travel Secrets website.
Greece Grants Honorary Citizenship to Tom Hanks, who has a holiday home on Antiparos, for his charitable work and philhellenism.
Aegina in the Saronic Gulf Islands is an easy day trip from Athens. This page from Greece Travel Secrets also gives details of ferries and what to do.. | 975 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By the beginning of the Victorian era, the county gaol at Oxford had been transformed from a ramshackle, unsanitary enterprise into a rigorous and austere modern institution. The rowdy, disorderly Georgian gaol was replaced with a regimented, eerily quiet Victorian version.
At Oxford, the magistrates sought to crush what was left of the old gaol culture of graft and gambling with a regime of hard fare, hard beds and hard labour. The prisoner’s every movement was supervised and his time controlled down to the very minute.
Between 1780 and 1850, crime rates continued to rise and public fear of crime was running high. The authorities opted for more reform, and as a result, imprisoned more people and made prison life harsher and more degrading.
The prison population rose steeply, and more prisons had to be built to cope with the numbers. Oxford Prison was greatly expanded in the mid-19th century. New wings were added so that prisoners could be classified according to age and gender and kept in individual cells. A separate women’s prison was built before 1851, and then a large new cellblock, now known as ‘A’ Wing. Provision for hard labour was increased with the addition of treadwheels and a capstan for pumping water.
The 1877 Prisons Act introduced a nationalised prison system with back-breaking and demoralising work as its central plank. In the early 19th century, emphasis on work was a means of reforming the convict’s soul, but after fears of prisons becoming too soft, soul-destroying hard labour was introduced to act as a deterrent to crime.
Oxford Castle & Prison had five key hard labour punishments for their prisoners, these punishments weren’t uncommon in many other prisons:
- The Treadwheel
The treadwheel was a large cylinder with steps around its circumference. The prisoner would stand in a stall facing the outside of the wheel and tred on the steps. This action caused the wheel to turn, forcing the prisoner to keep walking on the spot whilst getting nowhere. The average number of steps a prisoner would make was 57,000 a day.
- The Shot Drill
For the Shot Drill exercise, the prisoner would have to pick up a cannonball, lift it to their chest and carry it to the far end of the yard and put it down. This process was then repeated all day.
Prisoners would have to untwist old tar-covered ropes from ships to separate the fibres. These fibres were then used to patch cracks in the hull of ships and fill prison mattresses. The process of oakum-picking would make the hands of the prisoners’ cramp and bleed and they would have to do this for long periods of time.
- The Crank Handle
The Crank was a mechanical handle which prisoners were forced to turn thousands of times, for absolutely no reason. The slang term ‘Screw’ for a prison officer has its origin in the fact that officers were able to tighten the mechanism that makes the prisoners work harder.
- The Capstan
The Capstan was an Oxford Castle speciality and there is still visible evidence at the base of St George’s Tower. Usually, the capstan was used to draw up the anchor on ships, however, the capstan at Oxford Prison was used to pump water from the castle millstream into a water-tank on an upper floor of the tower. This was then used to provide water throughout the prison, notably for the laundry. The capstan consisted of a large wheel with eight spokes, of which 16 men would be strapped to the spokes 2 by 2.
The aim of Victorian hard labour in the prison regime was to crush the spirit of inmates and force them to mend their ways. Prisoners were kept in silence during work and the tasks were tedious and often useless. Hard labour was formally abolished in 1948. | <urn:uuid:c6808627-f4b1-4445-8392-148e57b7935b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.oxfordcastleandprison.co.uk/about/news/victorian-crime-and-punishment/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00137.warc.gz | en | 0.98137 | 804 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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0.043493214994... | 3 | By the beginning of the Victorian era, the county gaol at Oxford had been transformed from a ramshackle, unsanitary enterprise into a rigorous and austere modern institution. The rowdy, disorderly Georgian gaol was replaced with a regimented, eerily quiet Victorian version.
At Oxford, the magistrates sought to crush what was left of the old gaol culture of graft and gambling with a regime of hard fare, hard beds and hard labour. The prisoner’s every movement was supervised and his time controlled down to the very minute.
Between 1780 and 1850, crime rates continued to rise and public fear of crime was running high. The authorities opted for more reform, and as a result, imprisoned more people and made prison life harsher and more degrading.
The prison population rose steeply, and more prisons had to be built to cope with the numbers. Oxford Prison was greatly expanded in the mid-19th century. New wings were added so that prisoners could be classified according to age and gender and kept in individual cells. A separate women’s prison was built before 1851, and then a large new cellblock, now known as ‘A’ Wing. Provision for hard labour was increased with the addition of treadwheels and a capstan for pumping water.
The 1877 Prisons Act introduced a nationalised prison system with back-breaking and demoralising work as its central plank. In the early 19th century, emphasis on work was a means of reforming the convict’s soul, but after fears of prisons becoming too soft, soul-destroying hard labour was introduced to act as a deterrent to crime.
Oxford Castle & Prison had five key hard labour punishments for their prisoners, these punishments weren’t uncommon in many other prisons:
- The Treadwheel
The treadwheel was a large cylinder with steps around its circumference. The prisoner would stand in a stall facing the outside of the wheel and tred on the steps. This action caused the wheel to turn, forcing the prisoner to keep walking on the spot whilst getting nowhere. The average number of steps a prisoner would make was 57,000 a day.
- The Shot Drill
For the Shot Drill exercise, the prisoner would have to pick up a cannonball, lift it to their chest and carry it to the far end of the yard and put it down. This process was then repeated all day.
Prisoners would have to untwist old tar-covered ropes from ships to separate the fibres. These fibres were then used to patch cracks in the hull of ships and fill prison mattresses. The process of oakum-picking would make the hands of the prisoners’ cramp and bleed and they would have to do this for long periods of time.
- The Crank Handle
The Crank was a mechanical handle which prisoners were forced to turn thousands of times, for absolutely no reason. The slang term ‘Screw’ for a prison officer has its origin in the fact that officers were able to tighten the mechanism that makes the prisoners work harder.
- The Capstan
The Capstan was an Oxford Castle speciality and there is still visible evidence at the base of St George’s Tower. Usually, the capstan was used to draw up the anchor on ships, however, the capstan at Oxford Prison was used to pump water from the castle millstream into a water-tank on an upper floor of the tower. This was then used to provide water throughout the prison, notably for the laundry. The capstan consisted of a large wheel with eight spokes, of which 16 men would be strapped to the spokes 2 by 2.
The aim of Victorian hard labour in the prison regime was to crush the spirit of inmates and force them to mend their ways. Prisoners were kept in silence during work and the tasks were tedious and often useless. Hard labour was formally abolished in 1948. | 806 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Does your child frown when he or she is asked to recite numbers or alphabets? Does he run away at the sight of pencil and a notebook? Is your child uninterested in learning/studying? Well, it is necessary for parents to make their kids motivated to learn. How? – Make learning a fun activity. Portray the learning as something which will attract your child himself rather than you as a parents running after him to finish his homework.
One of the ways to make learning a fun activity is to incorporate music or a game into the learning. For example, rather than asking the child to recite numbers from 1 to 10, tell him that the moment you snap your finger he has to run to a particular point and recite the number loudly and come back. On doing this successfully he will be awarded with a sweet/chocolate or anything else. This incentive along with the excitement of running will make him want to recite his numbers properly.
Similarly, incorporating the study in poetry will allow your child to remember his lessons. You can also give him cues through pictures and symbols. While he is enjoying all the fun, make sure that he is learning which is what the objective of the activity.
You can also buy audio cassettes of nursery rhymes, alphabets, numbers that your child can listen to. The moment your child will hear his poems being sung by someone, he too will start reciting along with the audio. Now-a-days you even have videos of all the nursery rhymes on the internet which you child can view to remember rhymes easily. | <urn:uuid:ef90a179-f5a7-453f-849d-9138b322affe> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.parenting.in/learning-becomes-fun-when.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00222.warc.gz | en | 0.980923 | 323 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.4706612229347... | 7 | Does your child frown when he or she is asked to recite numbers or alphabets? Does he run away at the sight of pencil and a notebook? Is your child uninterested in learning/studying? Well, it is necessary for parents to make their kids motivated to learn. How? – Make learning a fun activity. Portray the learning as something which will attract your child himself rather than you as a parents running after him to finish his homework.
One of the ways to make learning a fun activity is to incorporate music or a game into the learning. For example, rather than asking the child to recite numbers from 1 to 10, tell him that the moment you snap your finger he has to run to a particular point and recite the number loudly and come back. On doing this successfully he will be awarded with a sweet/chocolate or anything else. This incentive along with the excitement of running will make him want to recite his numbers properly.
Similarly, incorporating the study in poetry will allow your child to remember his lessons. You can also give him cues through pictures and symbols. While he is enjoying all the fun, make sure that he is learning which is what the objective of the activity.
You can also buy audio cassettes of nursery rhymes, alphabets, numbers that your child can listen to. The moment your child will hear his poems being sung by someone, he too will start reciting along with the audio. Now-a-days you even have videos of all the nursery rhymes on the internet which you child can view to remember rhymes easily. | 324 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Thank a Police Officer Day
Also known as
National Tell a Police Officer "Thank You" Day
the third Saturday in September (since 2012)
Thank a Police Officer Day—also known as National Tell a Police Officer "Thank You" Day—celebrates police officers, with citizens letting them know how much they appreciate the work they do. Citizens may wish them a simple "thank you," or may perform small acts of gratitude on their behalf, such as buying them a coffee. Businesses are encouraged to donate something to them or to offer them discounts. For example, a restaurant may donate breakfast to a police department.
Police officers spend their days coming into harm's way, often risking their own lives while protecting others. According to the creator of the day, they are often also criticized and underappreciated—there may be some bad apples, but the vast majority are hard-working and professional public servants. Thank a Police Officer Day was started by the Whole Truth Project, a pro-police organization "set up to protect and serve those who protect and serve our communities." The Whole Truth Project was founded by Andrew Hale, a Chicago-based attorney who had often represented police officers, and who wanted to show appreciation for them.
Having a police force is a relatively new concept in the scope of history. During colonial times, forces were part-time and privately funded. Volunteer night watches were also common. Boston started one in 1636, followed by New York City in 1658 and Philadelphia in 1700. These were not very efficient, and those who were put on duty were often put there for punishment.
When cities grew larger, night watches were even more ineffective. The first full-time, publicly funded police force in the country was formed in Boston in 1838. Boston was a large shipping area and the need for policing grew out of the need to protect shipping. Merchants had long hired officers to watch over their goods, and then found a way to pass off the costs to the public by convincing them it was for the common good.
In the south, slavery was the original driving force behind the creation of police forces. Beginning in the early eighteenth century, officers chased down runaway slaves and prevented slave revolts. Following Reconstruction, many local sheriffs did similar work to that of the earlier patrols, by enforcing segregation and the disenfranchisement of freed slaves.
By the late 1880s, all major cities had police forces. Officers were there to protect public order, which meant different things to different people. Businessmen with connections to politicians did not want disruptions to their workforce from labor-union organizers and immigrants. Political machines were also rampant at the time, and heads of police were picked by political bosses. It was not until well into the twentieth century that there was a move towards the professionalization of police officers that we are familiar with today, and that we celebrate on Thank a Police Officer Day.
How to Observe
Celebrate the day by saying "thank you" to any police officers you come into contact with. You could also do a small act of gratitude for them, such as buying them a cup of coffee. If you are a business, donate something to your local police department or offer discounts to police officers today. The following are a few other ways you could celebrate the day:
- Share a positive story about law enforcement, either in-person or on social media.
- Wear blue clothing in support of police officers.
- Turn on a blue light outside of your home or apartment.
- Organize an event in your community to support police officers.
- Read a book about law enforcement or the police, such as The Police in America: An Introduction.
- Watch a film about police, such as Serpico, The French Connection, Dirty Harry, or In the Heat of the Night.
- Watch a television show about police officers. | <urn:uuid:adf55982-47d1-4bd4-b5f6-e2eb8036d873> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.checkiday.com/2aae9173f365029c48059a4a8c3c94cc/thank-a-police-officer-day | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00409.warc.gz | en | 0.983613 | 788 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.010116786696016... | 3 | Thank a Police Officer Day
Also known as
National Tell a Police Officer "Thank You" Day
the third Saturday in September (since 2012)
Thank a Police Officer Day—also known as National Tell a Police Officer "Thank You" Day—celebrates police officers, with citizens letting them know how much they appreciate the work they do. Citizens may wish them a simple "thank you," or may perform small acts of gratitude on their behalf, such as buying them a coffee. Businesses are encouraged to donate something to them or to offer them discounts. For example, a restaurant may donate breakfast to a police department.
Police officers spend their days coming into harm's way, often risking their own lives while protecting others. According to the creator of the day, they are often also criticized and underappreciated—there may be some bad apples, but the vast majority are hard-working and professional public servants. Thank a Police Officer Day was started by the Whole Truth Project, a pro-police organization "set up to protect and serve those who protect and serve our communities." The Whole Truth Project was founded by Andrew Hale, a Chicago-based attorney who had often represented police officers, and who wanted to show appreciation for them.
Having a police force is a relatively new concept in the scope of history. During colonial times, forces were part-time and privately funded. Volunteer night watches were also common. Boston started one in 1636, followed by New York City in 1658 and Philadelphia in 1700. These were not very efficient, and those who were put on duty were often put there for punishment.
When cities grew larger, night watches were even more ineffective. The first full-time, publicly funded police force in the country was formed in Boston in 1838. Boston was a large shipping area and the need for policing grew out of the need to protect shipping. Merchants had long hired officers to watch over their goods, and then found a way to pass off the costs to the public by convincing them it was for the common good.
In the south, slavery was the original driving force behind the creation of police forces. Beginning in the early eighteenth century, officers chased down runaway slaves and prevented slave revolts. Following Reconstruction, many local sheriffs did similar work to that of the earlier patrols, by enforcing segregation and the disenfranchisement of freed slaves.
By the late 1880s, all major cities had police forces. Officers were there to protect public order, which meant different things to different people. Businessmen with connections to politicians did not want disruptions to their workforce from labor-union organizers and immigrants. Political machines were also rampant at the time, and heads of police were picked by political bosses. It was not until well into the twentieth century that there was a move towards the professionalization of police officers that we are familiar with today, and that we celebrate on Thank a Police Officer Day.
How to Observe
Celebrate the day by saying "thank you" to any police officers you come into contact with. You could also do a small act of gratitude for them, such as buying them a cup of coffee. If you are a business, donate something to your local police department or offer discounts to police officers today. The following are a few other ways you could celebrate the day:
- Share a positive story about law enforcement, either in-person or on social media.
- Wear blue clothing in support of police officers.
- Turn on a blue light outside of your home or apartment.
- Organize an event in your community to support police officers.
- Read a book about law enforcement or the police, such as The Police in America: An Introduction.
- Watch a film about police, such as Serpico, The French Connection, Dirty Harry, or In the Heat of the Night.
- Watch a television show about police officers. | 794 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Members of the Women’s Division (WD) of the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) were wartime pioneers. Thousands of young Canadian women volunteered to serve at home and abroad during the Second World War as part of the air force. By replacing men in aviation support roles, they lived up to their motto — “We Serve that Men May Fly” — and, through their record of service and sacrifice, ensured themselves a place in Canadian history.
Women’s Service Restricted
When Canada entered the Second World War on 10 September 1939, thousands of Canadian men flocked to the recruiting centres. Canadian women also wanted to serve their country, but the government was reluctant to enlist them in the armed forces, except in medical and nursing roles. Frustrated, many joined existing volunteer service organizations, such as the Red Cross, or formed paramilitary groups through which they could contribute to the war effort.
However, by the second summer of the war, the initial flood of male recruits was slowing down at a time when demands on the services were increasing. For the first time, serious consideration was given to the possibility of women entering the service in non-combat and non-medical roles. Supporters of this idea were quick to point out that the British had been employing women in a variety of uniformed positions since before the start of the war. On 2 April 1941, representatives from the Canadian Army, Royal Canadian Navy and RCAF met in Ottawa and decided that there was no requirement to recruit women. Three months later, the air force would change its mind.
Auxiliary Air Force Created
The RCAF was expanding rapidly, primarily due to the needs of the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan (BCATP) in Canada. To meet the demand for instructors and support staff, more and more Royal Air Force (RAF) personnel were arriving in Canada, some of whom were members of the British Women’s Auxiliary Air Force (WAAF). Neither senior RCAF officers nor Canadian politicians relished the idea of explaining to hostile female voters why British women could serve in the air force, but not Canadians. Therefore, on 2 July 1941, the federal Cabinet authorized the formation of the Canadian Women’s Auxiliary Air Force (CWAAF), and the RCAF became the first Canadian military service to actively recruit women.
Kathleen Oonah Walker, the former head of the transportation service for the Red Cross in Ottawa, and Jean Flatt Davey, a doctor from the medical branch of the RCAF, became the first two members of the CWAAF. To them fell the enormous tasking of recruiting the initial group of women from across the country that, after training, would form the backbone of the organization.
Early applicants had to have high school entrance level education, and be “of the highest possible character,” with a “high sense of leadership and accountability.” As time went on, women already employed in the civil service were not permitted to join, as their work was considered essential to the war effort. Approximately 2,000 women responded to the initial call to join the Air Force, of which 150 were selected. Thousands more would follow.
Basic training first took place in Toronto at No. 6 Manning Depot, the former Havergal College girls school. The new recruits started arriving in October 1941 and training began in earnest the following month under the watchful eye of several members of the British WAAF, loaned to the RCAF as instructional staff. A few months later, the graduates from amongst the initial 150 women were selected to fill senior officer and non-commissioned positions within the CWAAF organization.
In early 1942, legal concerns were raised about the applicability of military law and the granting of air force officer commissions to “auxiliary” (or non-regular air force) personnel. Therefore, on 3 February, the CWAAF became the RCAF (Women’s Division) — a part of the permanent RCAF — and was placed on active service for the defence of Canada. As such, the “WDs”, as the Women’s Division was popularly called, were subject to the same laws, discipline and liabilities as the men. However, they were not paid the same. Despite being part of the RCAF, WDs were initially paid only two-thirds of what a man received in the same occupation. RCAF senior officers raised this inequity several times throughout the war, but the best that could be achieved was a raise in pay, in July 1943, to 80 percent of a man’s wage and acknowledgement that both sexes received the same specialist and duty allowances.
At first, occupations for WDs were limited to trades similar to civilian occupations then readily available to Canadian women, such as clerks, fabric workers and cooks. As WD numbers grew, the RCAF would eventually employ women in 69 of 102 trades, including traditionally male-dominated occupations such as aircraft maintenance and air traffic control. Banned from combat and from flying in general, there was a recommendation sent to the government in January 1943 that qualified WDs be allowed to undertake “light” flying duties due to a perceived shortage of pilots, but no action was taken.
Still, by 1943 WDs were a fixture at RCAF stations and headquarters throughout Canada. The first WDs to serve overseas left Canada on 21 August 1942, and by December 1944, almost 1,500 could be found throughout Britain as part of the headquarters of the RCAF Overseas and No. 6 (RCAF) Group of RAF Bomber Command.
In total, 17,038 women served in the RCAF (WD) during the Second World War. At its peak, in January 1944, the Women’s Division fielded 15,556 personnel at home and abroad. Thirty died while on active service. They had joined the RCAF for adventure, to get away from home, acquire a well-paid job or to serve their country in time of need. Many were decorated for their hard work and sacrifice. By December 1946, with the war over and the number of military personnel shrinking to peacetime levels, the last WD was discharged from the RCAF.
Although they had to deal with the social, economic and institutional barriers of the day, the WDs demonstrated to the nation in general, and the RCAF in particular, that women could be an integral part of Canadian aviation. Five years later, when the RCAF began its Cold War expansion, so strong was the WD’s record of service, that women were almost immediately sought after as air force recruits. There was one important change, however: the wartime motto, “We Serve that Men May Fly”, was no longer used, just as the WD formation itself ceased to exist. Women simply joined the RCAF as any man would, and followed its motto: “Per Ardua ad Astra” (“Through Adversity to the Stars”). Women were in the air force to stay.
Reference: Bill Marsh -www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/rcaf-womens-division/
Glad Bryce, First in, Last Out: The RCAF, Women’s Division and Nursing Sisters in World War II (2010)
Barbara Dundas, A History of Women in the Canadian Military (2000);
Mary Ziegler, We Serve that Men May Fly: The Story of the Women’s Division, Royal Canadian Air Force (1974) | <urn:uuid:c43587f7-6f53-4924-8bf5-e67a8a98527e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://canadiansatarms.ca/rcaf-womens-division/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00468.warc.gz | en | 0.983714 | 1,564 | 3.921875 | 4 | [
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0.1389567553997039... | 1 | Members of the Women’s Division (WD) of the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) were wartime pioneers. Thousands of young Canadian women volunteered to serve at home and abroad during the Second World War as part of the air force. By replacing men in aviation support roles, they lived up to their motto — “We Serve that Men May Fly” — and, through their record of service and sacrifice, ensured themselves a place in Canadian history.
Women’s Service Restricted
When Canada entered the Second World War on 10 September 1939, thousands of Canadian men flocked to the recruiting centres. Canadian women also wanted to serve their country, but the government was reluctant to enlist them in the armed forces, except in medical and nursing roles. Frustrated, many joined existing volunteer service organizations, such as the Red Cross, or formed paramilitary groups through which they could contribute to the war effort.
However, by the second summer of the war, the initial flood of male recruits was slowing down at a time when demands on the services were increasing. For the first time, serious consideration was given to the possibility of women entering the service in non-combat and non-medical roles. Supporters of this idea were quick to point out that the British had been employing women in a variety of uniformed positions since before the start of the war. On 2 April 1941, representatives from the Canadian Army, Royal Canadian Navy and RCAF met in Ottawa and decided that there was no requirement to recruit women. Three months later, the air force would change its mind.
Auxiliary Air Force Created
The RCAF was expanding rapidly, primarily due to the needs of the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan (BCATP) in Canada. To meet the demand for instructors and support staff, more and more Royal Air Force (RAF) personnel were arriving in Canada, some of whom were members of the British Women’s Auxiliary Air Force (WAAF). Neither senior RCAF officers nor Canadian politicians relished the idea of explaining to hostile female voters why British women could serve in the air force, but not Canadians. Therefore, on 2 July 1941, the federal Cabinet authorized the formation of the Canadian Women’s Auxiliary Air Force (CWAAF), and the RCAF became the first Canadian military service to actively recruit women.
Kathleen Oonah Walker, the former head of the transportation service for the Red Cross in Ottawa, and Jean Flatt Davey, a doctor from the medical branch of the RCAF, became the first two members of the CWAAF. To them fell the enormous tasking of recruiting the initial group of women from across the country that, after training, would form the backbone of the organization.
Early applicants had to have high school entrance level education, and be “of the highest possible character,” with a “high sense of leadership and accountability.” As time went on, women already employed in the civil service were not permitted to join, as their work was considered essential to the war effort. Approximately 2,000 women responded to the initial call to join the Air Force, of which 150 were selected. Thousands more would follow.
Basic training first took place in Toronto at No. 6 Manning Depot, the former Havergal College girls school. The new recruits started arriving in October 1941 and training began in earnest the following month under the watchful eye of several members of the British WAAF, loaned to the RCAF as instructional staff. A few months later, the graduates from amongst the initial 150 women were selected to fill senior officer and non-commissioned positions within the CWAAF organization.
In early 1942, legal concerns were raised about the applicability of military law and the granting of air force officer commissions to “auxiliary” (or non-regular air force) personnel. Therefore, on 3 February, the CWAAF became the RCAF (Women’s Division) — a part of the permanent RCAF — and was placed on active service for the defence of Canada. As such, the “WDs”, as the Women’s Division was popularly called, were subject to the same laws, discipline and liabilities as the men. However, they were not paid the same. Despite being part of the RCAF, WDs were initially paid only two-thirds of what a man received in the same occupation. RCAF senior officers raised this inequity several times throughout the war, but the best that could be achieved was a raise in pay, in July 1943, to 80 percent of a man’s wage and acknowledgement that both sexes received the same specialist and duty allowances.
At first, occupations for WDs were limited to trades similar to civilian occupations then readily available to Canadian women, such as clerks, fabric workers and cooks. As WD numbers grew, the RCAF would eventually employ women in 69 of 102 trades, including traditionally male-dominated occupations such as aircraft maintenance and air traffic control. Banned from combat and from flying in general, there was a recommendation sent to the government in January 1943 that qualified WDs be allowed to undertake “light” flying duties due to a perceived shortage of pilots, but no action was taken.
Still, by 1943 WDs were a fixture at RCAF stations and headquarters throughout Canada. The first WDs to serve overseas left Canada on 21 August 1942, and by December 1944, almost 1,500 could be found throughout Britain as part of the headquarters of the RCAF Overseas and No. 6 (RCAF) Group of RAF Bomber Command.
In total, 17,038 women served in the RCAF (WD) during the Second World War. At its peak, in January 1944, the Women’s Division fielded 15,556 personnel at home and abroad. Thirty died while on active service. They had joined the RCAF for adventure, to get away from home, acquire a well-paid job or to serve their country in time of need. Many were decorated for their hard work and sacrifice. By December 1946, with the war over and the number of military personnel shrinking to peacetime levels, the last WD was discharged from the RCAF.
Although they had to deal with the social, economic and institutional barriers of the day, the WDs demonstrated to the nation in general, and the RCAF in particular, that women could be an integral part of Canadian aviation. Five years later, when the RCAF began its Cold War expansion, so strong was the WD’s record of service, that women were almost immediately sought after as air force recruits. There was one important change, however: the wartime motto, “We Serve that Men May Fly”, was no longer used, just as the WD formation itself ceased to exist. Women simply joined the RCAF as any man would, and followed its motto: “Per Ardua ad Astra” (“Through Adversity to the Stars”). Women were in the air force to stay.
Reference: Bill Marsh -www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/rcaf-womens-division/
Glad Bryce, First in, Last Out: The RCAF, Women’s Division and Nursing Sisters in World War II (2010)
Barbara Dundas, A History of Women in the Canadian Military (2000);
Mary Ziegler, We Serve that Men May Fly: The Story of the Women’s Division, Royal Canadian Air Force (1974) | 1,567 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In this article, we will take a look at the contribution of African-American community in the field of science and technology.
Famous American Doctors
Doctors are not just immensely talented in their field of expertise, but gifted in their ability to perform daring and commendable services. Let’s take a look at some famous American doctors who’ve carved a name in history for themselves.
Doctors are the world’s most respected people for their praise-worthy works in the field of science, especially with regard to the human body. Today doctors have advanced within their individual fields of specialization, perfecting methods both new and old to help patients at large with varying ailments. Let’s take a look at some famous American doctors who worked their way to the top as medical marvels of their time and are still fondly remembered even to this day. Modern-day doctors who work wonders everyday, also find themselves as part of the compiled list.
Top 10 American Docs
Charles Horace Mayo
He was a renowned practitioner and one of the founding members of Mayo Clinic. It was first a non-profit private practice in 1919, where the members collectively developed a close relationship with the University of Minnesota Medical School. Charles Horace Mayo oversaw approximately one million patients during his years as a doctor, where he later retired in 1930. He died in the year 1939 from pneumonia.
William James Mayo
He was one of the seven members along with his brother Charles Horace Mayo, who founded the Mayo Clinic. The two brothers joined forces with their father in his private medical practice after graduating from medical school. The Mayo Clinic played a significant role during World War 1 where the two brothers trained military doctors on advanced methods of surgical and scientific developments. They were both promoted to the rank of Brigadier General after the war ended in late November 1918. A Distinguished Service Medal was rightly awarded to the duo for their valued services during the war. William James Mayo died in the year 1939 from gastric carcinoma.
William Osler Abbott
He was known for developing two highly-regarded medical instruments, namely the Abbot Rawson Tube, and the Miller-Abbott Tube. He joined the US army under the rank of Major in the Medical Reserve Corps, but was later discharged due to being physically challenged. He later died of myelogenous leukemia in the year 1943.
He was respected and widely known for his bestselling book Baby and Child Care, where it was criticized for promoting certain practices that propelled people to join movements akin to the Vietnam War, which of course was nothing but empty allegations. Benjamin Spock wrote editions of his famous parenting book Baby and Child Care, where he stressed on how important it was to switch a child’s diet to a vegan one after the age of 2. While it seemed drastic and too much to ask for from working parents, he pointed out how it would most definitely help steer them away from major illnesses like child obesity, heart disease, and certain kinds of cancer. He died at the age of 94 in the year 1998 from old age.
He was the first to develop and discover the polio vaccine during a time when the epidemic was at an all time high during post-war circumstances. It took Jonas Salk seven years to develop the vaccine with a massive backing of 20,000 physicians, 220,000 volunteers, and 64,000 school personnel during his appointment with the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine. He died in the year 1995 from heart failure at the age of 80.
Dr. Phil McGraw
Dr. Phil is a name that is known worldwide, where he rose to fame after making an appearance on the Oprah Winfrey Show while later starting his own TV show entitled Dr. Phil with a debut broadcast in 2002. Oprah needed a strong legal consulting firm to take care of her Amarillo Texas beef trial, where Dr. Phil’s CSI team proved worthy, ultimately leading to a victory in the case. After inviting him to her show for the first time, it wasn’t uncommon to later see Dr. Phil every Tuesday showcasing his own broadcast slot entitled Relationship and Life Strategy Expert. He wrote a slew of books based on relationships and such, where his debut bestseller entitled Life Strategies kick-started a string of other reads. He was also part of a weight loss segment (featuring products under the brand name, Shape It Up, Woo, Woo!) that he promoted on his show featuring testimonials from his siblings and nephew. As a brand it didn’t do well with consumers, resulting in a lawsuit that cost him $10.5 million.
Dr. Mehmet Oz
If you’ve been religiously watching The Oprah Winfrey Show, chances are that you’re familiar with this celebrity doctor. He’s been on the show a number of times since he first appeared on television in 2004, where he later got to host his own set entitled The Dr. Oz Show launched by a combined effort of Harpo Productions and Sony Pictures. His parents emigrated from Turkey and settled in the United States where he was born in Cleveland, Ohio. He joined forces with Jeffery T. Arnold as co-founder of the health forum Sharecare, Inc., to help address health-related queries by the public and in general. He has been honored and awarded various titles and the like, during his term as doctor where he continues to be of great service to those who chance upon his highly-acclaimed medical guidance.
He’s known for his precision and careful eye-hand coordination, including his three-dimensional reasoning skills as a neurosurgeon. He successfully separated conjoined twins in the year 1987 where he headed a medical team of 70 as part of the 22-hour surgery. A documentary was made on his life entitled Gifted Hands: The Ben Carson Story where a movie of the same title was made starring Cuba Gooding Jr. as the main lead. Ben Carson was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by George W. Bush in 2008 for his outstanding contribution and work in the field of neurosurgery and psychiatry.
Dr. Sanjay Gupta
Avid viewers of CNN will most definitely come across Dr. Sanjay Gupta’s show entitled Sanjay Gupta, M.D., where he’s appeared on shows like Anderson Cooper 360°, American Morning, and Larry King Live. He was offered the elite position of Surgeon General of the United States in the Obama administration, but later withdrew his name stating reasons related to his career and family. He’s penned a number of books like Cheating Death and Chasing Life, where his work as a neurosurgeon has won him several awards and recognitions. Oprah Winfrey fondly and reverently referred to him as the hero of CNN in January, 2010.
She was a leading anesthesiologist and is best known for developing a way to analyze the health of newborns using a method called the Apgar score. During a time when infant mortality rates were riding high, she was able to curb numbers using the developed technique. She dedicated her life to the young, treating babies with birth defects and problems related to premature birth. She played a vital role during the rubella pandemic during the year 1964-65, treating patients both young and old who suffered from the devastating effects of the disease. She was respected among those she worked with and was known for her outspoken nature about issues that were considered taboo like teen pregnancy. She was 65 years old when she passed away in the year 1974.
While the list covers only a handful of great doctors both from the past and present, there are many more who are given due respect for their contributions and services to medical science. They serve as inspiration for their passion, drive, and compassion for humanity. | <urn:uuid:cd194a3e-8fc7-4ecc-b7fa-87344b9aa99a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://sciencestruck.com/famous-american-doctors | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00157.warc.gz | en | 0.986078 | 1,583 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.2702659964561... | 3 | In this article, we will take a look at the contribution of African-American community in the field of science and technology.
Famous American Doctors
Doctors are not just immensely talented in their field of expertise, but gifted in their ability to perform daring and commendable services. Let’s take a look at some famous American doctors who’ve carved a name in history for themselves.
Doctors are the world’s most respected people for their praise-worthy works in the field of science, especially with regard to the human body. Today doctors have advanced within their individual fields of specialization, perfecting methods both new and old to help patients at large with varying ailments. Let’s take a look at some famous American doctors who worked their way to the top as medical marvels of their time and are still fondly remembered even to this day. Modern-day doctors who work wonders everyday, also find themselves as part of the compiled list.
Top 10 American Docs
Charles Horace Mayo
He was a renowned practitioner and one of the founding members of Mayo Clinic. It was first a non-profit private practice in 1919, where the members collectively developed a close relationship with the University of Minnesota Medical School. Charles Horace Mayo oversaw approximately one million patients during his years as a doctor, where he later retired in 1930. He died in the year 1939 from pneumonia.
William James Mayo
He was one of the seven members along with his brother Charles Horace Mayo, who founded the Mayo Clinic. The two brothers joined forces with their father in his private medical practice after graduating from medical school. The Mayo Clinic played a significant role during World War 1 where the two brothers trained military doctors on advanced methods of surgical and scientific developments. They were both promoted to the rank of Brigadier General after the war ended in late November 1918. A Distinguished Service Medal was rightly awarded to the duo for their valued services during the war. William James Mayo died in the year 1939 from gastric carcinoma.
William Osler Abbott
He was known for developing two highly-regarded medical instruments, namely the Abbot Rawson Tube, and the Miller-Abbott Tube. He joined the US army under the rank of Major in the Medical Reserve Corps, but was later discharged due to being physically challenged. He later died of myelogenous leukemia in the year 1943.
He was respected and widely known for his bestselling book Baby and Child Care, where it was criticized for promoting certain practices that propelled people to join movements akin to the Vietnam War, which of course was nothing but empty allegations. Benjamin Spock wrote editions of his famous parenting book Baby and Child Care, where he stressed on how important it was to switch a child’s diet to a vegan one after the age of 2. While it seemed drastic and too much to ask for from working parents, he pointed out how it would most definitely help steer them away from major illnesses like child obesity, heart disease, and certain kinds of cancer. He died at the age of 94 in the year 1998 from old age.
He was the first to develop and discover the polio vaccine during a time when the epidemic was at an all time high during post-war circumstances. It took Jonas Salk seven years to develop the vaccine with a massive backing of 20,000 physicians, 220,000 volunteers, and 64,000 school personnel during his appointment with the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine. He died in the year 1995 from heart failure at the age of 80.
Dr. Phil McGraw
Dr. Phil is a name that is known worldwide, where he rose to fame after making an appearance on the Oprah Winfrey Show while later starting his own TV show entitled Dr. Phil with a debut broadcast in 2002. Oprah needed a strong legal consulting firm to take care of her Amarillo Texas beef trial, where Dr. Phil’s CSI team proved worthy, ultimately leading to a victory in the case. After inviting him to her show for the first time, it wasn’t uncommon to later see Dr. Phil every Tuesday showcasing his own broadcast slot entitled Relationship and Life Strategy Expert. He wrote a slew of books based on relationships and such, where his debut bestseller entitled Life Strategies kick-started a string of other reads. He was also part of a weight loss segment (featuring products under the brand name, Shape It Up, Woo, Woo!) that he promoted on his show featuring testimonials from his siblings and nephew. As a brand it didn’t do well with consumers, resulting in a lawsuit that cost him $10.5 million.
Dr. Mehmet Oz
If you’ve been religiously watching The Oprah Winfrey Show, chances are that you’re familiar with this celebrity doctor. He’s been on the show a number of times since he first appeared on television in 2004, where he later got to host his own set entitled The Dr. Oz Show launched by a combined effort of Harpo Productions and Sony Pictures. His parents emigrated from Turkey and settled in the United States where he was born in Cleveland, Ohio. He joined forces with Jeffery T. Arnold as co-founder of the health forum Sharecare, Inc., to help address health-related queries by the public and in general. He has been honored and awarded various titles and the like, during his term as doctor where he continues to be of great service to those who chance upon his highly-acclaimed medical guidance.
He’s known for his precision and careful eye-hand coordination, including his three-dimensional reasoning skills as a neurosurgeon. He successfully separated conjoined twins in the year 1987 where he headed a medical team of 70 as part of the 22-hour surgery. A documentary was made on his life entitled Gifted Hands: The Ben Carson Story where a movie of the same title was made starring Cuba Gooding Jr. as the main lead. Ben Carson was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by George W. Bush in 2008 for his outstanding contribution and work in the field of neurosurgery and psychiatry.
Dr. Sanjay Gupta
Avid viewers of CNN will most definitely come across Dr. Sanjay Gupta’s show entitled Sanjay Gupta, M.D., where he’s appeared on shows like Anderson Cooper 360°, American Morning, and Larry King Live. He was offered the elite position of Surgeon General of the United States in the Obama administration, but later withdrew his name stating reasons related to his career and family. He’s penned a number of books like Cheating Death and Chasing Life, where his work as a neurosurgeon has won him several awards and recognitions. Oprah Winfrey fondly and reverently referred to him as the hero of CNN in January, 2010.
She was a leading anesthesiologist and is best known for developing a way to analyze the health of newborns using a method called the Apgar score. During a time when infant mortality rates were riding high, she was able to curb numbers using the developed technique. She dedicated her life to the young, treating babies with birth defects and problems related to premature birth. She played a vital role during the rubella pandemic during the year 1964-65, treating patients both young and old who suffered from the devastating effects of the disease. She was respected among those she worked with and was known for her outspoken nature about issues that were considered taboo like teen pregnancy. She was 65 years old when she passed away in the year 1974.
While the list covers only a handful of great doctors both from the past and present, there are many more who are given due respect for their contributions and services to medical science. They serve as inspiration for their passion, drive, and compassion for humanity. | 1,621 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Thursday, May 2, 2019
LEONARDO DA VINCI
SAINT OF ANTINOUS
SAINT OF ANTINOUS
ON May 2nd, we honor Leonardo da Vinci, who died on this day in 1519, who was one of the greatest painters and most versatile geniuses in history.
He was one of the key figures of the Renaissance, a great cultural movement that had begun in Italy in the 1300s.
Leonardo, as he is almost always called, was trained to be a painter. But his interests and achievements spread into an astonishing variety of fields that are now considered scientific specialties. Leonardo studied anatomy, astronomy, botany, geology, geometry, and optics, and he designed machines and drew plans for hundreds of inventions.
Because Leonardo excelled in such an amazing number of areas of human knowledge, he is often called a universal genius. However, he had little interest in literature, history, or religion.
He formulated a few scientific laws, but he never developed his ideas systematically. Leonardo was most of all an excellent observer. He concerned himself with what the eye could see, rather than with purely abstract concepts.
When he was 24 years old, Leonardo was arrested, along with several young companions, on the charge of sodomy.
No witnesses appeared against them and eventually the charges were dropped, probably due to pressure brought to bear by Leonardo's wealthy supporters.
Leonardo had no relationships with women, never married, had no children, but raised many young protégés, including one nicknamed "Salai" which means "offspring of Satan."
Salai stole things, broke things, lied, and was generally a, well, devil; if he were a mere student or servant he would have been fired. It's not hard to see how this imp would be attractive to Leonardo. He stayed with Leonardo for over 20 years, and appears many times in Leonardo's works ... including the painting of Bacchus above. | <urn:uuid:93d846b9-ceab-4769-98cb-4feeca12ac19> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://antinousgaygod.blogspot.com/2019/05/leonardo-da-vinci-saint-of-antinous.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00043.warc.gz | en | 0.985036 | 409 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.451099872589... | 1 | Thursday, May 2, 2019
LEONARDO DA VINCI
SAINT OF ANTINOUS
SAINT OF ANTINOUS
ON May 2nd, we honor Leonardo da Vinci, who died on this day in 1519, who was one of the greatest painters and most versatile geniuses in history.
He was one of the key figures of the Renaissance, a great cultural movement that had begun in Italy in the 1300s.
Leonardo, as he is almost always called, was trained to be a painter. But his interests and achievements spread into an astonishing variety of fields that are now considered scientific specialties. Leonardo studied anatomy, astronomy, botany, geology, geometry, and optics, and he designed machines and drew plans for hundreds of inventions.
Because Leonardo excelled in such an amazing number of areas of human knowledge, he is often called a universal genius. However, he had little interest in literature, history, or religion.
He formulated a few scientific laws, but he never developed his ideas systematically. Leonardo was most of all an excellent observer. He concerned himself with what the eye could see, rather than with purely abstract concepts.
When he was 24 years old, Leonardo was arrested, along with several young companions, on the charge of sodomy.
No witnesses appeared against them and eventually the charges were dropped, probably due to pressure brought to bear by Leonardo's wealthy supporters.
Leonardo had no relationships with women, never married, had no children, but raised many young protégés, including one nicknamed "Salai" which means "offspring of Satan."
Salai stole things, broke things, lied, and was generally a, well, devil; if he were a mere student or servant he would have been fired. It's not hard to see how this imp would be attractive to Leonardo. He stayed with Leonardo for over 20 years, and appears many times in Leonardo's works ... including the painting of Bacchus above. | 412 | ENGLISH | 1 |
An Historical Account of the Septuagint Version
The earliest version of the Old Testament Scriptures which is extant, or of which we possess any certain knowledge, is the translation executed at Alexandria in the third century before the Christian era: this version has been so habitually known by the name of the Septuagint, that the attempt of some learned men in modern times to introduce the designation of the Alexandrian version (as more correct) has been far from successful.
The history of the origin of this translation was embellished with various fables at so early a period, that it has been a work of patient critical research in later times to bring into plain light the facts which may be regarded as well authenticated.
We need not wonder that but little is known with accuracy on this subject; for, with regard to the ancient versions of the Scriptures in general, we possess no information whatever as to the time or place of their execution, or by whom they were made: we simply find such versions in use at particular times, and thus we gather the fact that they must have been previously executed. If, then, our knowledge of the origin of the Septuagint be meagre, it is at least more extensive than that which we possess of other translations.
After the conquests of Alexander had brought Egypt under Macedonian rule, the newly-founded city of Alexandria became especially a place where the Greek language, although by no means in its purest form, was the medium of written and spoken communication amongst the varied population there brought together. This Alexandrian dialect is the idiom in which the Septuagint version was made.
Amongst other inhabitants of Alexandria the number of Jews was considerable: many appear to have settled there even from the first founding of the city, and it became the residence of many more during the reign of the first Ptolemy. Hence the existence of the sacred books of the Jews would easily become known to the Greek population.
The earliest writer who gives an account of the Septuagint version is Aristobulus, a Jew who lived at the commencement of the second century b.c. He says that the version of the Law into Greek was completed under the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, and that Demetrius Phalereus had been employed about it. Now, Demetrius died about the beginning of the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, and hence it has been reasonably inferred that Aristobulus is a witness that the work of translation had been commenced under Ptolemy Soter.
Different opinions have been formed as to what is intended by Aristobulus when he speaks of the Law: some consider that he refers merely to the Pentateuch, while others extend the signification to the Old Testament Scriptures in general: the former opinion appears to be favoured by the strict meaning of the terms used; the latter by the mode in which the Jews often applied the name of Law to the whole of their sacred writings.
The fact may, however, be regarded as certain, that prior to the year 285 b.c. the Septuagint version had been commenced, and that in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, either the books in general or at least an important part of them had been completed.
The embellishments and fictitious additions which this account soon received might be scarcely worthy of notice in this place, were it not that they are intimately connected with the authority which this version was once supposed to possess, and with the name by which it is commonly known.
A writer, who calls himself Aristeas, says that when Ptolemy Philadelphus was engaged in the formation of the Alexandrian Library, he was advised by Demetrius Phalereus to procure a translation of the sacred books of the Jews. The king accordingly, as a preliminary, purchased the freedom of more than one hundred thousand Jewish captives, and he then sent a deputation, of which Aristeas himself was one, to Eleazar the high-priest to request a copy of the Jewish Law and seventy-two interpreters, six out of each tribe. To this the priest is represented to have agreed; and after the arrival of the translators and their magnificent reception by the king, they are said to have been conducted to an island by Demetrius, who wrote down the renderings on which they agreed by mutual conference; and thus the work is stated to have been completed in seventy-two days. The translators are then said to have received from the king most abundant rewards; and the Jews are stated to have asked permission to take copies of the version.
Other additions were subsequently made to this story: some said that each translator was shut into a separate cell, and that all by divine inspiration made their versions word for word alike; others said that there were two in each cell, accompanied by an amanuensis; but at all events miracle and direct inspiration were supposed to be connected with the translation: hence we cannot wonder that the authority attached to this version in the minds of those who believed these stories was almost unbounded.
The basis of truth which appears to be under this story seems to be, that it was an Egyptian king who caused the translation to be made, and that it was from the Royal Library at Alexandria that the Hellenistic Jews received the copies which they used.
In examining the version itself, it bears manifest proof that it was not executed by Jews of Palestine, but by those of Egypt:—there are words and expressions which plainly denote its Alexandrian origin: this alone would be a sufficient demonstration that the narrative of Aristeas is a mere fiction. It may also be doubted whether in the year 285 b.c. there were Jews in Palestine who had sufficient intercourse with the Greeks to have executed a translation into that language; for it must be borne in mind how recently they had become the subjects of Greek monarchs, and how differently they were situated from the Alexandrians as to the influx of Greek settlers.
Some in rejecting the fabulous embellishments have also discarded all connected with them: they have then sought to devise new hypotheses as to the origin of the version. Some have thus supposed that the translation was made by Alexandrian Jews for their own use, in order to meet a necessity which they had felt to have a version of the Scriptures in the tongue which had become vernacular to them.
There would be, however, many difficulties in the way of this hypothesis. We would hardly suppose that in a space of thirty-five years the Alexandrian Jews had found such a translation needful or desirable: we must also bear in mind that we find at this period no trace of any versions having been made by Jews into the languages of other countries in which they had continued for periods much longer than that of their settlement at Alexandria.
The most reasonable conclusion is, that the version was executed for the Egyptian king; and that the Hellenistic Jews afterwards used it as they became less and less familiar with the language of the original.
If the expression of Aristobulus does not designate the whole of the books of the Old Testament as translated in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus, the question arises, When, were the other books besides the Pentateuch turned into Greek? To this no definite answer could be given: we may however be certain that various interpreters were occupied in translating various parts, and in all probability the interval between the commencement and the conclusion of the work was not great.
The variety of the translators is proved by the unequal character of the version: some books show that the translators were by no means competent to the task, while others, on the contrary, exhibit on the whole a careful translation. The Pentateuch is considered to be the part the best executed, while the book of Isaiah appears to be the very worst.
In estimating the general character of the version, it must be remembered that the translators were Jews, full of traditional thoughts of their own as to the meaning of Scripture; and thus nothing short of a miracle could have prevented them from infusing into their version the thoughts which were current in their own minds. They could only translate passages as they themselves understood them. This is evidently the case when their work is examined.
It would be, however, too much to say that they translated with dishonest intention; for it cannot be doubted that they wished to express their Scriptures truly in Greek, and that their deviations from accuracy may be simply attributed to the incompetency of some of the interpreters, and the tone of mental and spiritual feeling which was common to them all.
One difficulty which they had to overcome was that of introducing theological ideas, which till then had only their proper terms in Hebrew, into a language of Gentiles, which till then had terms for no religious notions except those of heathens. Hence the necessity of using many words and phrases in new and appropriated senses.
These remarks are not intended as depreciatory of the Septuagint version: their object is rather to show what difficulties the translators had to encounter, and why in some respects they failed; as well as to meet the thought which has occupied the minds of some, who would extol this version as though it possessed something resembling co-ordinate authority with the Hebrew text itself.
One of the earliest of those writers who mention the Greek translation of the Scriptures, speaks also of the version as not fully adequate. The Prologue of Jesus the son of Sirach (written as many suppose b.c. 130) to his Greek version of his grandfather’s work, states: οὐ γὰρ ἰσοδυναμεῖ αὐτὰ ἐν ἑαυτοῖς Ἑβραϊστὶ λεγόμενα, καὶ ὅταν μεταξθῇ εἰς ἑτέραν γλῶσσαν· οὐ μόνον δὲ ταῦτα, ἀλλὰ καὶ αὐτος ὁ νόμος καὶ αἱ προφητεῖαι, καὶ τὰ λοιπὰ τῶν βιβλὶων οὐ μικρὰν ἔχει τὴν διαφορὰν ἐν ἑαυτοῖς λεγόμενα: “For the same things expressed in Hebrew have not an equal force when translated into another language. Not only so, but even the Law and the prophecies and the rest of the books differ not a little as to the things said in them.” The writer of this Prologue had come into Egypt from the Holy Land: he had undertaken the translation of his grandfather’s work into Greek, but in explanation of the difficulty which he had to encounter in this work, he refers to the defects found even in the version of the Law, the prophets, and the other books, of which he had previously spoken. Doubtless coming into Egypt he was more conscious of the defects of the Septuagint version than could have been the case with Egyptian Jews, who had used the translation commonly and habitually for a century and a quarter.
At Alexandria the Hellenistic Jews used the version, and gradually attached to it the greatest possible authority: from Alexandria it spread amongst the Jews of the dispersion, so that at the time of our Lord’s birth it was the common form in which the Old Testament Scriptures had become diffused.
In examining the Pentateuch of the Septuagint in connection with the Hebrew text, and with the copies preserved by the Samaritans in their crooked letters, it is remarkable that in very many passages the readings of the Septuagint accord with the Samaritan copies where they differ from the Jewish. We cannot here notice the various theories which have been advanced to account for this accordance of the Septuagint with the Samaritan copies of the Hebrew; indeed it is not very satisfactory to enter into the details of the subject, because no theory hitherto brought forward explains all the facts, or meets all the difficulties. To one point, however, we will advert, because it has not been sufficiently taken into account,—in the places in which the Samaritan and Jewish copies of the Hebrew text differ, in important and material points, the Septuagint accords much more with the Jewish than with the Samaritan copies, and in a good many points it introduces variations unknown to either.
The Septuagint version having been current for about three centuries before the time when the books of the New Testament were written, it is not surprising that the Apostles should have used it more often than not in making citations from the Old Testament. They used it as an honestly-made version in pretty general use at the time when they wrote. They did not on every occasion give an authoritative translation of each passage de novo, but they used what was already familiar to the ears of converted Hellenists, when it was sufficiently accurate to suit the matter in hand. In fact, they used it as did their contemporary Jewish writers, Philo and Josephus, but not, however, with the blind implicitness of the former.
In consequence of the fact that the New Testament writers used on many occasions the Septuagint version, some have deduced a new argument for its authority,—a theory which we might have thought to be sufficiently disproved by the defects of the version, which evince that it is merely a human work. But the fact that the New Testament writers used this version on many occasions supplies a new proof in opposition to the idea of its authority, for in not a few places they do not follow it, but they supply a version of their own which rightly represents the Hebrew text, although contradicting the Septuagint.
The use, however, which the writers of the New Testament have made of the Septuagint version must always invest it with a peculiar interest; we thus see what honour God may be pleased to put on an honestly-made version, since we find that inspired writers often used such a version, when it was sufficiently near the original to suit the purpose for which it was cited, instead of rendering the Hebrew text de novo on every occasion.
Another important point on which the Septuagint stands in close connection with the New Testament is the general phraseology of the version,—a phraseology in which the traces of Hebrew elements are most marked, but with regard to which we should mistake greatly if we supposed that it originated with the New Testament writers. Thus we may see that the study of the Septuagint is almost needful to any biblical scholar who wishes to estimate adequately the phraseology and usus loquendi of the New Testament.
Besides the direct citations in the New Testament in which the Septuagint is manifestly used, there are not a few passages in which it is clear that the train of expression has been formed on words and phrases of the Septuagint: thus an intimate acquaintance with this version becomes in a manner necessary on the part of an expositor who wishes to enter accurately into the scope of many parts of the New Testament.
Thus, whatever may be our estimate of the defects found in the Septuagint—its inadequate renderings, its departures from the sense of the Hebrew, its doctrinal deficiencies owing to the limited apprehensions of the translators—there is no reason whatever for our neglecting the version, or not being fully alive to its real value and importance.
After the diffusion of Christianity, copies of the Septuagint became widely dispersed amongst the new communities that were formed; so that before many years had elapsed this version must have been as much in the hands of Gentiles as of Jews.
The veneration with which the Jews had treated this version (as is shown in the case of Philo and Josephus), gave place to a very contrary feeling when they found how it could be used against them in argument: hence they decried the version, and sought to deprive it of all authority. As the Gentile Christians were generally unacquainted with Hebrew, they were unable to meet the Jews on the ground which they now took; and as the Gentile Christians at this time believed the most extraordinary legends of the origin of the version, so that they fully embraced the opinions of its authority and inspiration, they necessarily regarded the denial on the part of the Jews of its accuracy, as little less than blasphemy, and as a proof of their blindness.
In the course of the second century, three other complete versions of the Old Testament into Greek were executed: these are of importance in this place, because of the manner in which they were afterwards connected with the Septuagint.
The first of the Greek versions of the Old Testament executed in the second century was that of Aquila. He is described as a Jew or Jewish proselyte of Pontus, and the date commonly attributed to his version is about the year a.d. 126. His translation is said to have been executed for the express purpose of opposing the authority of the Septuagint: his version was in consequence upheld by the Jews. His labour was evidently directed in opposing the passages which the Christians were accustomed to cite from the Septuagint as applicable to the Lord Jesus. The general characteristic of this version is bold literality of rendering: such an endeavour is made to render each Hebrew word and particle into Greek, that all grammar is often set at defiance, and not unfrequently the sense is altogether sacrificed. From the scrupulosity of Aquila in rendering each Hebrew word, his work, if we possessed it complete (and not merely in scattered fragments), would be of great value in textual criticism.
Another Greek translator at a subsequent period in the second century was Symmachus. He is described as an Ebionite, a kind of semi-Christian. His version seems to have been executed in good and pure Greek: perhaps he was the more particular in his attention to this in consequence of the mere barbarism of Aquila.
A third translator in the same century was Theodotion, an Ebionite like Symmachus, to whom he was probably anterior. His version is in many parts based on the Septuagint. He is less servile in his adherence to the words of the Hebrew than Aquila, although he is void of the freedom of Symmachus. His knowledge of Hebrew was certainly but limited, and without the Septuagint it is hardly probable that he could have undertaken this version.
Thus, before the end of the second century there were, besides the Septuagint, three versions of the Old Testament in Greek, known to both Jews and Christians. All this could not fail in making the Old Testament Scriptures better known and more widely read.
Although many Christians believed in the inspiration and authority of the Septuagint, yet this could not have been universally the case; otherwise the disuse of the real Septuagint version of the book of Daniel, and the adoption of that of Theodotion in its stead, could never have taken place. This must have arisen from an apprehension of the poverty and inaccuracy of the Septuagint in this book, so that another version similar in its general style was gladly adopted.
We have now to speak of the labours of Origen in connection with the text of the Septuagint. This learned and enterprising scholar, having acquired a knowledge of Hebrew, found that in many respects the copies of the Septuagint differed from the Hebrew text. It seems to be uncertain whether he regarded such differences as having arisen from mistakes on the part of copyists, or from errors of the original translators themselves.
The object which he proposed to himself was not to restore the Septuagint to its original condition, nor yet to correct mere errors of translation simply as such, but to cause that the Church should possess a text of the Septuagint in which all additions to the Hebrew should be marked with an obelus, and in which all that the Septuagint omitted should be added from one of the other versions marked with an asterisk. He also indicated readings in the Septuagint which were so incorrect that the passage ought to be changed for the corresponding one in another version.
With the object of thus amending the Septuagint, he formed his great works, the Hexapla and Tetrapla; these were (as the names imply) works in which the page was divided respectively into six columns and into four columns.
The Hexapla contained, 1st, the Hebrew text; 2nd, the Hebrew text expressed in Greek characters; 3rd, the version of Aquila; 4th, that of Symmachus; 5th, the Septuagint; 6th, Theodotion. The Tetrapla contained merely the four last columns.
Besides these four versions of the entire Old Testament, Origen employed three anonymous Greek versions of particular books; these are commonly called the fifth, sixth, and seventh versions. Hence in the parts in which two of these versions are added, the work was designated Octapla, and where all the three appeared, it was called Enneapla.
References were then made from the column of the Septuagint to the other versions, so as to complete and correct it: for this purpose Theodotion was principally used. This recension by Origen has generally been called the Hexaplar text. The Hexapla itself is said never to have been copied: what remains of the versions which it contained (mere fragments) was edited by Montfaucon in 1714, and in an abridged edition by Bahrdt in 1769–70.
The Hexaplar text of the Septuagint was copied about half a century after Origen’s death by Pamphilus and Eusebius; it thus obtained a circulation; but the errors of copyists soon confounded the marks of addition and omission which Origen placed, and hence the text of the Septuagint became almost hopelessly mixed up with that of other versions.
The Hexaplar text is best known from a Syriac version which was made from it; of this many books have been published from a MS. at Milan; other books are now in the British Museum amongst the rest of the Syriac treasures obtained from the Nitrian monasteries. This Syro-Hexaplar translation preserves the marks of the Greek text, and the references to the other translations. It may yet be made of great use in separating the readings which were introduced by Origen from those of an older date.
There were two other early attempts to revise the Septuagint besides that of Origen. In the beginning of the fourth century, Lucian, a presbyter of Antioch, and Hesychius, an Egyptian bishop, undertook similar labours of the same kind. These two recensions (which they were in the proper sense of the term) were much used in the Eastern Churches.
From the fourth century and onward, we know of no definite attempt to revise the text of the Septuagint, or to correct the discrepancies of various copies. It is probable, however, that just as the text of the Greek New Testament became in a great measure fixed into the same form as we find it in the modern copies, something of the same kind must have been the case with the Septuagint. As to the Greek New Testament, this seems to have occurred about the eleventh century, when the mass of copies were written within the limits of the patriarchate of Constantinople. It is probable that certain copies approved at the metropolis, both politically and religiously, of those who used the Greek tongue, were tacitly taken as a kind of standard.
We find amongst the members of the Eastern Churches who use the Greek language, that the Septuagint has been and is still so thoroughly received as authentic Scripture, that any effort to introduce amongst them versions which accurately represent the Hebrew (as has been attempted in modern times) has been wholly fruitless.
Thus the Septuagint demands our attention, were it only from the fact that the whole circle of religious ideas and thoughts amongst Christians in the East has always been moulded according to this version. Without an acquaintance with the Septuagint, numerous allusions in the writings of the Fathers become wholly unintelligible, and even important doctrinal discussions and difficulties (such even as some connected with the Arian controversy) become wholly unintelligible.
As the Septuagint was held in such honour in the East, it is no cause for surprise that this version was the basis of the other translations which were made in early times into vernacular tongues. There was, however, also another reason;—the general ignorance of the original Hebrew amongst the early Christians prevented their forming their translations from the fountain itself. The especial exception to this remark is the Syriac version of the Old Testament formed at once from the Hebrew. | <urn:uuid:81514e03-0b18-4d9a-88e9-ee1e800648e5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ebible.org/eng-Brenton/INT01.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00149.warc.gz | en | 0.981165 | 5,293 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.072177514... | 4 | An Historical Account of the Septuagint Version
The earliest version of the Old Testament Scriptures which is extant, or of which we possess any certain knowledge, is the translation executed at Alexandria in the third century before the Christian era: this version has been so habitually known by the name of the Septuagint, that the attempt of some learned men in modern times to introduce the designation of the Alexandrian version (as more correct) has been far from successful.
The history of the origin of this translation was embellished with various fables at so early a period, that it has been a work of patient critical research in later times to bring into plain light the facts which may be regarded as well authenticated.
We need not wonder that but little is known with accuracy on this subject; for, with regard to the ancient versions of the Scriptures in general, we possess no information whatever as to the time or place of their execution, or by whom they were made: we simply find such versions in use at particular times, and thus we gather the fact that they must have been previously executed. If, then, our knowledge of the origin of the Septuagint be meagre, it is at least more extensive than that which we possess of other translations.
After the conquests of Alexander had brought Egypt under Macedonian rule, the newly-founded city of Alexandria became especially a place where the Greek language, although by no means in its purest form, was the medium of written and spoken communication amongst the varied population there brought together. This Alexandrian dialect is the idiom in which the Septuagint version was made.
Amongst other inhabitants of Alexandria the number of Jews was considerable: many appear to have settled there even from the first founding of the city, and it became the residence of many more during the reign of the first Ptolemy. Hence the existence of the sacred books of the Jews would easily become known to the Greek population.
The earliest writer who gives an account of the Septuagint version is Aristobulus, a Jew who lived at the commencement of the second century b.c. He says that the version of the Law into Greek was completed under the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, and that Demetrius Phalereus had been employed about it. Now, Demetrius died about the beginning of the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, and hence it has been reasonably inferred that Aristobulus is a witness that the work of translation had been commenced under Ptolemy Soter.
Different opinions have been formed as to what is intended by Aristobulus when he speaks of the Law: some consider that he refers merely to the Pentateuch, while others extend the signification to the Old Testament Scriptures in general: the former opinion appears to be favoured by the strict meaning of the terms used; the latter by the mode in which the Jews often applied the name of Law to the whole of their sacred writings.
The fact may, however, be regarded as certain, that prior to the year 285 b.c. the Septuagint version had been commenced, and that in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, either the books in general or at least an important part of them had been completed.
The embellishments and fictitious additions which this account soon received might be scarcely worthy of notice in this place, were it not that they are intimately connected with the authority which this version was once supposed to possess, and with the name by which it is commonly known.
A writer, who calls himself Aristeas, says that when Ptolemy Philadelphus was engaged in the formation of the Alexandrian Library, he was advised by Demetrius Phalereus to procure a translation of the sacred books of the Jews. The king accordingly, as a preliminary, purchased the freedom of more than one hundred thousand Jewish captives, and he then sent a deputation, of which Aristeas himself was one, to Eleazar the high-priest to request a copy of the Jewish Law and seventy-two interpreters, six out of each tribe. To this the priest is represented to have agreed; and after the arrival of the translators and their magnificent reception by the king, they are said to have been conducted to an island by Demetrius, who wrote down the renderings on which they agreed by mutual conference; and thus the work is stated to have been completed in seventy-two days. The translators are then said to have received from the king most abundant rewards; and the Jews are stated to have asked permission to take copies of the version.
Other additions were subsequently made to this story: some said that each translator was shut into a separate cell, and that all by divine inspiration made their versions word for word alike; others said that there were two in each cell, accompanied by an amanuensis; but at all events miracle and direct inspiration were supposed to be connected with the translation: hence we cannot wonder that the authority attached to this version in the minds of those who believed these stories was almost unbounded.
The basis of truth which appears to be under this story seems to be, that it was an Egyptian king who caused the translation to be made, and that it was from the Royal Library at Alexandria that the Hellenistic Jews received the copies which they used.
In examining the version itself, it bears manifest proof that it was not executed by Jews of Palestine, but by those of Egypt:—there are words and expressions which plainly denote its Alexandrian origin: this alone would be a sufficient demonstration that the narrative of Aristeas is a mere fiction. It may also be doubted whether in the year 285 b.c. there were Jews in Palestine who had sufficient intercourse with the Greeks to have executed a translation into that language; for it must be borne in mind how recently they had become the subjects of Greek monarchs, and how differently they were situated from the Alexandrians as to the influx of Greek settlers.
Some in rejecting the fabulous embellishments have also discarded all connected with them: they have then sought to devise new hypotheses as to the origin of the version. Some have thus supposed that the translation was made by Alexandrian Jews for their own use, in order to meet a necessity which they had felt to have a version of the Scriptures in the tongue which had become vernacular to them.
There would be, however, many difficulties in the way of this hypothesis. We would hardly suppose that in a space of thirty-five years the Alexandrian Jews had found such a translation needful or desirable: we must also bear in mind that we find at this period no trace of any versions having been made by Jews into the languages of other countries in which they had continued for periods much longer than that of their settlement at Alexandria.
The most reasonable conclusion is, that the version was executed for the Egyptian king; and that the Hellenistic Jews afterwards used it as they became less and less familiar with the language of the original.
If the expression of Aristobulus does not designate the whole of the books of the Old Testament as translated in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus, the question arises, When, were the other books besides the Pentateuch turned into Greek? To this no definite answer could be given: we may however be certain that various interpreters were occupied in translating various parts, and in all probability the interval between the commencement and the conclusion of the work was not great.
The variety of the translators is proved by the unequal character of the version: some books show that the translators were by no means competent to the task, while others, on the contrary, exhibit on the whole a careful translation. The Pentateuch is considered to be the part the best executed, while the book of Isaiah appears to be the very worst.
In estimating the general character of the version, it must be remembered that the translators were Jews, full of traditional thoughts of their own as to the meaning of Scripture; and thus nothing short of a miracle could have prevented them from infusing into their version the thoughts which were current in their own minds. They could only translate passages as they themselves understood them. This is evidently the case when their work is examined.
It would be, however, too much to say that they translated with dishonest intention; for it cannot be doubted that they wished to express their Scriptures truly in Greek, and that their deviations from accuracy may be simply attributed to the incompetency of some of the interpreters, and the tone of mental and spiritual feeling which was common to them all.
One difficulty which they had to overcome was that of introducing theological ideas, which till then had only their proper terms in Hebrew, into a language of Gentiles, which till then had terms for no religious notions except those of heathens. Hence the necessity of using many words and phrases in new and appropriated senses.
These remarks are not intended as depreciatory of the Septuagint version: their object is rather to show what difficulties the translators had to encounter, and why in some respects they failed; as well as to meet the thought which has occupied the minds of some, who would extol this version as though it possessed something resembling co-ordinate authority with the Hebrew text itself.
One of the earliest of those writers who mention the Greek translation of the Scriptures, speaks also of the version as not fully adequate. The Prologue of Jesus the son of Sirach (written as many suppose b.c. 130) to his Greek version of his grandfather’s work, states: οὐ γὰρ ἰσοδυναμεῖ αὐτὰ ἐν ἑαυτοῖς Ἑβραϊστὶ λεγόμενα, καὶ ὅταν μεταξθῇ εἰς ἑτέραν γλῶσσαν· οὐ μόνον δὲ ταῦτα, ἀλλὰ καὶ αὐτος ὁ νόμος καὶ αἱ προφητεῖαι, καὶ τὰ λοιπὰ τῶν βιβλὶων οὐ μικρὰν ἔχει τὴν διαφορὰν ἐν ἑαυτοῖς λεγόμενα: “For the same things expressed in Hebrew have not an equal force when translated into another language. Not only so, but even the Law and the prophecies and the rest of the books differ not a little as to the things said in them.” The writer of this Prologue had come into Egypt from the Holy Land: he had undertaken the translation of his grandfather’s work into Greek, but in explanation of the difficulty which he had to encounter in this work, he refers to the defects found even in the version of the Law, the prophets, and the other books, of which he had previously spoken. Doubtless coming into Egypt he was more conscious of the defects of the Septuagint version than could have been the case with Egyptian Jews, who had used the translation commonly and habitually for a century and a quarter.
At Alexandria the Hellenistic Jews used the version, and gradually attached to it the greatest possible authority: from Alexandria it spread amongst the Jews of the dispersion, so that at the time of our Lord’s birth it was the common form in which the Old Testament Scriptures had become diffused.
In examining the Pentateuch of the Septuagint in connection with the Hebrew text, and with the copies preserved by the Samaritans in their crooked letters, it is remarkable that in very many passages the readings of the Septuagint accord with the Samaritan copies where they differ from the Jewish. We cannot here notice the various theories which have been advanced to account for this accordance of the Septuagint with the Samaritan copies of the Hebrew; indeed it is not very satisfactory to enter into the details of the subject, because no theory hitherto brought forward explains all the facts, or meets all the difficulties. To one point, however, we will advert, because it has not been sufficiently taken into account,—in the places in which the Samaritan and Jewish copies of the Hebrew text differ, in important and material points, the Septuagint accords much more with the Jewish than with the Samaritan copies, and in a good many points it introduces variations unknown to either.
The Septuagint version having been current for about three centuries before the time when the books of the New Testament were written, it is not surprising that the Apostles should have used it more often than not in making citations from the Old Testament. They used it as an honestly-made version in pretty general use at the time when they wrote. They did not on every occasion give an authoritative translation of each passage de novo, but they used what was already familiar to the ears of converted Hellenists, when it was sufficiently accurate to suit the matter in hand. In fact, they used it as did their contemporary Jewish writers, Philo and Josephus, but not, however, with the blind implicitness of the former.
In consequence of the fact that the New Testament writers used on many occasions the Septuagint version, some have deduced a new argument for its authority,—a theory which we might have thought to be sufficiently disproved by the defects of the version, which evince that it is merely a human work. But the fact that the New Testament writers used this version on many occasions supplies a new proof in opposition to the idea of its authority, for in not a few places they do not follow it, but they supply a version of their own which rightly represents the Hebrew text, although contradicting the Septuagint.
The use, however, which the writers of the New Testament have made of the Septuagint version must always invest it with a peculiar interest; we thus see what honour God may be pleased to put on an honestly-made version, since we find that inspired writers often used such a version, when it was sufficiently near the original to suit the purpose for which it was cited, instead of rendering the Hebrew text de novo on every occasion.
Another important point on which the Septuagint stands in close connection with the New Testament is the general phraseology of the version,—a phraseology in which the traces of Hebrew elements are most marked, but with regard to which we should mistake greatly if we supposed that it originated with the New Testament writers. Thus we may see that the study of the Septuagint is almost needful to any biblical scholar who wishes to estimate adequately the phraseology and usus loquendi of the New Testament.
Besides the direct citations in the New Testament in which the Septuagint is manifestly used, there are not a few passages in which it is clear that the train of expression has been formed on words and phrases of the Septuagint: thus an intimate acquaintance with this version becomes in a manner necessary on the part of an expositor who wishes to enter accurately into the scope of many parts of the New Testament.
Thus, whatever may be our estimate of the defects found in the Septuagint—its inadequate renderings, its departures from the sense of the Hebrew, its doctrinal deficiencies owing to the limited apprehensions of the translators—there is no reason whatever for our neglecting the version, or not being fully alive to its real value and importance.
After the diffusion of Christianity, copies of the Septuagint became widely dispersed amongst the new communities that were formed; so that before many years had elapsed this version must have been as much in the hands of Gentiles as of Jews.
The veneration with which the Jews had treated this version (as is shown in the case of Philo and Josephus), gave place to a very contrary feeling when they found how it could be used against them in argument: hence they decried the version, and sought to deprive it of all authority. As the Gentile Christians were generally unacquainted with Hebrew, they were unable to meet the Jews on the ground which they now took; and as the Gentile Christians at this time believed the most extraordinary legends of the origin of the version, so that they fully embraced the opinions of its authority and inspiration, they necessarily regarded the denial on the part of the Jews of its accuracy, as little less than blasphemy, and as a proof of their blindness.
In the course of the second century, three other complete versions of the Old Testament into Greek were executed: these are of importance in this place, because of the manner in which they were afterwards connected with the Septuagint.
The first of the Greek versions of the Old Testament executed in the second century was that of Aquila. He is described as a Jew or Jewish proselyte of Pontus, and the date commonly attributed to his version is about the year a.d. 126. His translation is said to have been executed for the express purpose of opposing the authority of the Septuagint: his version was in consequence upheld by the Jews. His labour was evidently directed in opposing the passages which the Christians were accustomed to cite from the Septuagint as applicable to the Lord Jesus. The general characteristic of this version is bold literality of rendering: such an endeavour is made to render each Hebrew word and particle into Greek, that all grammar is often set at defiance, and not unfrequently the sense is altogether sacrificed. From the scrupulosity of Aquila in rendering each Hebrew word, his work, if we possessed it complete (and not merely in scattered fragments), would be of great value in textual criticism.
Another Greek translator at a subsequent period in the second century was Symmachus. He is described as an Ebionite, a kind of semi-Christian. His version seems to have been executed in good and pure Greek: perhaps he was the more particular in his attention to this in consequence of the mere barbarism of Aquila.
A third translator in the same century was Theodotion, an Ebionite like Symmachus, to whom he was probably anterior. His version is in many parts based on the Septuagint. He is less servile in his adherence to the words of the Hebrew than Aquila, although he is void of the freedom of Symmachus. His knowledge of Hebrew was certainly but limited, and without the Septuagint it is hardly probable that he could have undertaken this version.
Thus, before the end of the second century there were, besides the Septuagint, three versions of the Old Testament in Greek, known to both Jews and Christians. All this could not fail in making the Old Testament Scriptures better known and more widely read.
Although many Christians believed in the inspiration and authority of the Septuagint, yet this could not have been universally the case; otherwise the disuse of the real Septuagint version of the book of Daniel, and the adoption of that of Theodotion in its stead, could never have taken place. This must have arisen from an apprehension of the poverty and inaccuracy of the Septuagint in this book, so that another version similar in its general style was gladly adopted.
We have now to speak of the labours of Origen in connection with the text of the Septuagint. This learned and enterprising scholar, having acquired a knowledge of Hebrew, found that in many respects the copies of the Septuagint differed from the Hebrew text. It seems to be uncertain whether he regarded such differences as having arisen from mistakes on the part of copyists, or from errors of the original translators themselves.
The object which he proposed to himself was not to restore the Septuagint to its original condition, nor yet to correct mere errors of translation simply as such, but to cause that the Church should possess a text of the Septuagint in which all additions to the Hebrew should be marked with an obelus, and in which all that the Septuagint omitted should be added from one of the other versions marked with an asterisk. He also indicated readings in the Septuagint which were so incorrect that the passage ought to be changed for the corresponding one in another version.
With the object of thus amending the Septuagint, he formed his great works, the Hexapla and Tetrapla; these were (as the names imply) works in which the page was divided respectively into six columns and into four columns.
The Hexapla contained, 1st, the Hebrew text; 2nd, the Hebrew text expressed in Greek characters; 3rd, the version of Aquila; 4th, that of Symmachus; 5th, the Septuagint; 6th, Theodotion. The Tetrapla contained merely the four last columns.
Besides these four versions of the entire Old Testament, Origen employed three anonymous Greek versions of particular books; these are commonly called the fifth, sixth, and seventh versions. Hence in the parts in which two of these versions are added, the work was designated Octapla, and where all the three appeared, it was called Enneapla.
References were then made from the column of the Septuagint to the other versions, so as to complete and correct it: for this purpose Theodotion was principally used. This recension by Origen has generally been called the Hexaplar text. The Hexapla itself is said never to have been copied: what remains of the versions which it contained (mere fragments) was edited by Montfaucon in 1714, and in an abridged edition by Bahrdt in 1769–70.
The Hexaplar text of the Septuagint was copied about half a century after Origen’s death by Pamphilus and Eusebius; it thus obtained a circulation; but the errors of copyists soon confounded the marks of addition and omission which Origen placed, and hence the text of the Septuagint became almost hopelessly mixed up with that of other versions.
The Hexaplar text is best known from a Syriac version which was made from it; of this many books have been published from a MS. at Milan; other books are now in the British Museum amongst the rest of the Syriac treasures obtained from the Nitrian monasteries. This Syro-Hexaplar translation preserves the marks of the Greek text, and the references to the other translations. It may yet be made of great use in separating the readings which were introduced by Origen from those of an older date.
There were two other early attempts to revise the Septuagint besides that of Origen. In the beginning of the fourth century, Lucian, a presbyter of Antioch, and Hesychius, an Egyptian bishop, undertook similar labours of the same kind. These two recensions (which they were in the proper sense of the term) were much used in the Eastern Churches.
From the fourth century and onward, we know of no definite attempt to revise the text of the Septuagint, or to correct the discrepancies of various copies. It is probable, however, that just as the text of the Greek New Testament became in a great measure fixed into the same form as we find it in the modern copies, something of the same kind must have been the case with the Septuagint. As to the Greek New Testament, this seems to have occurred about the eleventh century, when the mass of copies were written within the limits of the patriarchate of Constantinople. It is probable that certain copies approved at the metropolis, both politically and religiously, of those who used the Greek tongue, were tacitly taken as a kind of standard.
We find amongst the members of the Eastern Churches who use the Greek language, that the Septuagint has been and is still so thoroughly received as authentic Scripture, that any effort to introduce amongst them versions which accurately represent the Hebrew (as has been attempted in modern times) has been wholly fruitless.
Thus the Septuagint demands our attention, were it only from the fact that the whole circle of religious ideas and thoughts amongst Christians in the East has always been moulded according to this version. Without an acquaintance with the Septuagint, numerous allusions in the writings of the Fathers become wholly unintelligible, and even important doctrinal discussions and difficulties (such even as some connected with the Arian controversy) become wholly unintelligible.
As the Septuagint was held in such honour in the East, it is no cause for surprise that this version was the basis of the other translations which were made in early times into vernacular tongues. There was, however, also another reason;—the general ignorance of the original Hebrew amongst the early Christians prevented their forming their translations from the fountain itself. The especial exception to this remark is the Syriac version of the Old Testament formed at once from the Hebrew. | 5,171 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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Zheng He died in 1433. In Southeast Asia, other Chinese Muslims continued his work. His legacy there is honorable to him and many mosques are name after him. However, most of Zheng He's accomplishments were forgotten. | <urn:uuid:d7c552a5-d7c2-4cc0-b7b5-97795d7bb4ec> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.storyboardthat.com/storyboards/bc9159cf/zheng-he | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00431.warc.gz | en | 0.991068 | 295 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.3445464968681... | 1 | Zheng He was a big piece to Chinese and Muslim History as an admiral, soldier, trader, and diplomat. However, he isn't often recognized as China's greatest explorer.
When Zheng He was younger, his town was raided by the Ming Dynasty's army. He was captured and sent to Nanjing to serve in the imperial household. While there, Zheng befriended a prince named Zhou Di. He rose to the highest position in the government and was given the honorable title, "Zheng."
You will help me spread Islam.
Zheng He was chosen by Zhou Di to lead the voyages for trade and exploration. Zheng He, to complete the Haj, went to Mecca during one of his journeys. After his travels, Zheng He would bring back many exotic trades such as ivory, gold, camels, and even a giraffe!
While Zheng He traveled, he and his advisers would spread Islam everywhere they went. The largest Muslim population, located in Indonesia, could be attributed to the activities of Zheng He
In Palembang, along Java, and in the Philippines, Zheng He established Chinese Muslim communities. These Muslim communities preached Islam to local people, this was very important to the spread of Islam there.
Zheng He died in 1433. In Southeast Asia, other Chinese Muslims continued his work. His legacy there is honorable to him and many mosques are name after him. However, most of Zheng He's accomplishments were forgotten. | 295 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Constitution of the United Kingdom The British system of government is based on an uncodified constitutionmeaning that it is not set out in any single document.
Early life Gladstone was of purely Scottish descent. His father, John, made himself a merchant prince and was a member of Parliament — Gladstone was sent to Eton, where he did not particularly distinguish himself. At Christ Church, Oxford, in he secured first classes in classics and mathematics.
He originally intended to take orders in the Church of Englandbut his father dissuaded him. He mistrusted parliamentary reform; his speech against it in May at the Oxford Union, of which he had been president, made a strong impression.
His maiden speech on June 3,made a decided mark. A woman of lively wit, complete discretion, and exceptional charm, she was utterly devoted to her husband, to whom she bore eight children.
This marriage gave him a secure base of personal happiness for the rest of his life. It also established him in the aristocratic governing class of the time. His conversion from conservatism to liberalism took place in prolonged stages, over a generation.
He embarked on a major simplification of the tariff and became a more thoroughgoing free trader than Peel. In he entered the Cabinet as president of the Board of Trade. His Railway Act of set up minimum requirements for railroad companies and provided for eventual state purchase of railway lines.
Gladstone also much improved working conditions for London dock workers. Early inwhen the Cabinet proposed to increase a state grant to the Irish Roman Catholic college at Maynooth, Gladstone resigned—not because he did not approve of the increase but because it went against views he had published seven years before.
Later in he rejoined the Cabinet as secretary of state for the colonies, until the government fell in While at the Colonial Office, he was led nearer to Liberalism by being forced to consider the claims of English-speaking colonists to govern themselves. Private preoccupations The Glynne family estates were deeply involved in the financial panic of For several years Gladstone was concerned with extricating them.
Gladstone had moved to a High Anglican position in Italy just after leaving Oxford.
The suspicion that he was Catholic was used against him by his adversaries, of whom he had many in the University of Oxfordfor which he was elected MP in August He scandalized many of his new constituents at once by voting for the admission of Jews to Parliament.rows · The first Prime Minister of the current United Kingdom, i.e.
the United Kingdom of Great 18th to 19th century: George I, George II, George III, George IV, William IV, Victoria. The Prime Minister is the political leader of the United Kingdom and is the head of the Government. So far there have been 15 Prime Ministers during the reign of Queen Elizabeth II (Harold Wilson serving twice, in and again in ).
The official residence of the Prime Minister of Britain is The 54th and current Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the Rt. Hon. Theresa May MP. The Prime Minister with her husband, Phillip. Mrs May, who has been the Leader of the Conservative Party, the largest p.
Help us improve barnweddingvt.com To help us improve barnweddingvt.com, we’d like to know more about your visit today. We’ll send you a link to a feedback form.
It will take only 2 minutes to fill in. Don’t. The office of prime minister developed in Britain in the 18th century, when King George I ceased attending meetings of his ministers and it was left to powerful premiers to act as government chief executive.
Sir Robert Walpole is generally considered to have been Britain’s first prime minister. This is a chronologically ordered list of the prime ministers, from the earliest to the most recent.
William Ewart Gladstone: William Ewart Gladstone, statesman and four-time prime minister of Great Britain (–74, –85, , –94). Gladstone was of purely Scottish descent. His father, John, made himself a merchant prince and was a member of Parliament (–27).
Gladstone was sent to Eton, where he did not. | <urn:uuid:8dbe7852-946b-4b67-b385-dceaab2e5716> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://puhonuhuciqugide.barnweddingvt.com/the-prime-minister-of-great-britain-33366em.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00414.warc.gz | en | 0.982567 | 878 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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0.08733323216438293,... | 1 | Constitution of the United Kingdom The British system of government is based on an uncodified constitutionmeaning that it is not set out in any single document.
Early life Gladstone was of purely Scottish descent. His father, John, made himself a merchant prince and was a member of Parliament — Gladstone was sent to Eton, where he did not particularly distinguish himself. At Christ Church, Oxford, in he secured first classes in classics and mathematics.
He originally intended to take orders in the Church of Englandbut his father dissuaded him. He mistrusted parliamentary reform; his speech against it in May at the Oxford Union, of which he had been president, made a strong impression.
His maiden speech on June 3,made a decided mark. A woman of lively wit, complete discretion, and exceptional charm, she was utterly devoted to her husband, to whom she bore eight children.
This marriage gave him a secure base of personal happiness for the rest of his life. It also established him in the aristocratic governing class of the time. His conversion from conservatism to liberalism took place in prolonged stages, over a generation.
He embarked on a major simplification of the tariff and became a more thoroughgoing free trader than Peel. In he entered the Cabinet as president of the Board of Trade. His Railway Act of set up minimum requirements for railroad companies and provided for eventual state purchase of railway lines.
Gladstone also much improved working conditions for London dock workers. Early inwhen the Cabinet proposed to increase a state grant to the Irish Roman Catholic college at Maynooth, Gladstone resigned—not because he did not approve of the increase but because it went against views he had published seven years before.
Later in he rejoined the Cabinet as secretary of state for the colonies, until the government fell in While at the Colonial Office, he was led nearer to Liberalism by being forced to consider the claims of English-speaking colonists to govern themselves. Private preoccupations The Glynne family estates were deeply involved in the financial panic of For several years Gladstone was concerned with extricating them.
Gladstone had moved to a High Anglican position in Italy just after leaving Oxford.
The suspicion that he was Catholic was used against him by his adversaries, of whom he had many in the University of Oxfordfor which he was elected MP in August He scandalized many of his new constituents at once by voting for the admission of Jews to Parliament.rows · The first Prime Minister of the current United Kingdom, i.e.
the United Kingdom of Great 18th to 19th century: George I, George II, George III, George IV, William IV, Victoria. The Prime Minister is the political leader of the United Kingdom and is the head of the Government. So far there have been 15 Prime Ministers during the reign of Queen Elizabeth II (Harold Wilson serving twice, in and again in ).
The official residence of the Prime Minister of Britain is The 54th and current Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the Rt. Hon. Theresa May MP. The Prime Minister with her husband, Phillip. Mrs May, who has been the Leader of the Conservative Party, the largest p.
Help us improve barnweddingvt.com To help us improve barnweddingvt.com, we’d like to know more about your visit today. We’ll send you a link to a feedback form.
It will take only 2 minutes to fill in. Don’t. The office of prime minister developed in Britain in the 18th century, when King George I ceased attending meetings of his ministers and it was left to powerful premiers to act as government chief executive.
Sir Robert Walpole is generally considered to have been Britain’s first prime minister. This is a chronologically ordered list of the prime ministers, from the earliest to the most recent.
William Ewart Gladstone: William Ewart Gladstone, statesman and four-time prime minister of Great Britain (–74, –85, , –94). Gladstone was of purely Scottish descent. His father, John, made himself a merchant prince and was a member of Parliament (–27).
Gladstone was sent to Eton, where he did not. | 861 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Native American and Koreans look similar. When I first read that statement in a book, I did not think it could be true. Even though the book said that American Indians and Koreans both came from Asia, I could not understand why people thought so.
I looked at the picture of a Native America man next to the statement again and again, but still could not find anything common between him and any Korean man I knew. It was not until I read a book called The Education of Little Tree that I learned that Native Americans and Koreans have not only similar appearances but also painful pasts.
The Education of Little Tree is a story about a Cherokee Indian boy called Little Tree. He is raised by his grandfather who teaches him where he came from, how to live like a Cherokee, and who his people are. The most powerful part of this book is where Wales, Little Tree? grandfather, tells his grandson about how Cherokees were forced to leave their land.
Cherokee people once lived peacefully in the Appalachian Mountains, just as their long gone ancestors had. One day, American soldiers, armed with guns, came and ordered them to sign a paper. The paper said that Cherokees were to leave their home and move to the west, the barren land the government had assigned for them. After it was signed, the soldiers surrounded the Cherokee people and led them to a place they had never been to.
On their way to the reservation, more than one third of the tribe died. American soldiers gave the survivors time to bury the dead, but they refused. They held the dead bodies of their sisters, brothers, wives, children, or parents and continued to walk. Villagers passing by saw the trail of the tribe and cried, but the Native Americans did not. They kept the sorrow to themselves.
According to the book, during the ?rail of Tears,??early thirteen thousand Cherokees were forced to move to Oklahoma tribe after tribe. During one thousand and three hundred meter march, about four thousand Cherokees died from cold weather, lack of food, illness, and accidents.?
The description of the ?rail and Tears?reminded me of what I learned in Korean history class. I realized that American Indians and Koreans share sorrowful history. After Korea fell under the reign of Japan, Koreans were forced to leave their homeland as the Native Americans were. Farmers who were deprived of the land they had once cultivated had to move to China or Japan to find shelters. Young men were drafted to Japan, China, and Southeastern Asia.
A great number of them lost their lives working for the Japanese army, either in war or in the construction of Japanese colonies. Women about my age were sent to Japanese forces under the name of ?omfort Women,?being treated as prostitutes. All these historical facts made me have tears form the bottom of my heart for the Cherokees and many other American Indian tribes who must have gone through similar tragedy.
A few days after finishing The Education of Little Tree, I looked at the picture of a middle-aged Native American man again. At that moment, he looked very much like a typical Korean man I could see on the street.
The man in the picture and the man on the street both had harsh-looking features with wrinkles history had left on their faces. I could see deep sorrow in the wrinkles that almost look like scars. At the same time, I read the firm will to keep their own identities and native land. It is a place they love, where their souls lie. They believe no one can truly possess the land.
No guns can change the fact that they belong there, while the land belongs only to nature. They do not say so aloud. They speak by their facial expressions and their eyes, which look bluntly indifferent but hold wisdom and subtle passion time has bestowed. History has deprived them of laughter but when they show a smile, you can see it is sincere.
I still believe that the hardships endured by Koreans and Native Americans are what made them look similar. The painful memories of leaving home had solidified into unremovable facial characteristics for both of them. Native Americans and Koreans have the same facial features, same origin, and same tragic past.
Yet there is one more thing they share. It is a responsibility for their future: a responsibility to adhere to the place they call home and to their identities, which they had once lost. | <urn:uuid:9185a371-346e-4519-b1e7-8ea82df04fb9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://times.uos.ac.kr/news/articleView.html?idxno=403 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00345.warc.gz | en | 0.987496 | 892 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.39691403508186... | 1 | Native American and Koreans look similar. When I first read that statement in a book, I did not think it could be true. Even though the book said that American Indians and Koreans both came from Asia, I could not understand why people thought so.
I looked at the picture of a Native America man next to the statement again and again, but still could not find anything common between him and any Korean man I knew. It was not until I read a book called The Education of Little Tree that I learned that Native Americans and Koreans have not only similar appearances but also painful pasts.
The Education of Little Tree is a story about a Cherokee Indian boy called Little Tree. He is raised by his grandfather who teaches him where he came from, how to live like a Cherokee, and who his people are. The most powerful part of this book is where Wales, Little Tree? grandfather, tells his grandson about how Cherokees were forced to leave their land.
Cherokee people once lived peacefully in the Appalachian Mountains, just as their long gone ancestors had. One day, American soldiers, armed with guns, came and ordered them to sign a paper. The paper said that Cherokees were to leave their home and move to the west, the barren land the government had assigned for them. After it was signed, the soldiers surrounded the Cherokee people and led them to a place they had never been to.
On their way to the reservation, more than one third of the tribe died. American soldiers gave the survivors time to bury the dead, but they refused. They held the dead bodies of their sisters, brothers, wives, children, or parents and continued to walk. Villagers passing by saw the trail of the tribe and cried, but the Native Americans did not. They kept the sorrow to themselves.
According to the book, during the ?rail of Tears,??early thirteen thousand Cherokees were forced to move to Oklahoma tribe after tribe. During one thousand and three hundred meter march, about four thousand Cherokees died from cold weather, lack of food, illness, and accidents.?
The description of the ?rail and Tears?reminded me of what I learned in Korean history class. I realized that American Indians and Koreans share sorrowful history. After Korea fell under the reign of Japan, Koreans were forced to leave their homeland as the Native Americans were. Farmers who were deprived of the land they had once cultivated had to move to China or Japan to find shelters. Young men were drafted to Japan, China, and Southeastern Asia.
A great number of them lost their lives working for the Japanese army, either in war or in the construction of Japanese colonies. Women about my age were sent to Japanese forces under the name of ?omfort Women,?being treated as prostitutes. All these historical facts made me have tears form the bottom of my heart for the Cherokees and many other American Indian tribes who must have gone through similar tragedy.
A few days after finishing The Education of Little Tree, I looked at the picture of a middle-aged Native American man again. At that moment, he looked very much like a typical Korean man I could see on the street.
The man in the picture and the man on the street both had harsh-looking features with wrinkles history had left on their faces. I could see deep sorrow in the wrinkles that almost look like scars. At the same time, I read the firm will to keep their own identities and native land. It is a place they love, where their souls lie. They believe no one can truly possess the land.
No guns can change the fact that they belong there, while the land belongs only to nature. They do not say so aloud. They speak by their facial expressions and their eyes, which look bluntly indifferent but hold wisdom and subtle passion time has bestowed. History has deprived them of laughter but when they show a smile, you can see it is sincere.
I still believe that the hardships endured by Koreans and Native Americans are what made them look similar. The painful memories of leaving home had solidified into unremovable facial characteristics for both of them. Native Americans and Koreans have the same facial features, same origin, and same tragic past.
Yet there is one more thing they share. It is a responsibility for their future: a responsibility to adhere to the place they call home and to their identities, which they had once lost. | 884 | ENGLISH | 1 |
As historic as the bō is, since there is a severe lack of reliable and well-grounded sources detailing its early existence, it is difficult to determine accurately where it first arose. In prehistoric times, we can surmise that man’s first weapon was a rock, and his second weapon was a stick. Over time, especially when warfare between humans broke out, more advanced and sophisticated forms of fighting were developed. Not simply for sport or as an art form, but out of the necessity to preserve one’s life and protect the tribe.
The Bō (Staff) in Prehistoric Asia
Prehistoric Asia primarily revolved around primitive hunter-gatherer aspects of life and was therefore a largely combat-based society. Whether fighting with the bō staff was popularized in Eastern mainland China, Japan, or the long stretch of Pacific islands with its capital based in the appropriately-termed “Okinawa” – meaning “the rope of the wide sea” – is highly debatable. Likely the best and most probable conclusion to make is that it originated in each of these places at similar yet indeterminable times.
Why make this assumption? Put simply, the tribes of each region had a similar need and understanding in the affairs of small-scale war, and the “rokushakubō” (Japanese for “six-foot staff”) was already commonplace as a basic, and easy-to-produce weapon; it was, of course, only a matter of time before a specific technique was created on behalf of the usage of the bō, and ultimately, its future journey around the world. So, the art of “stick wielding” appeared all over mainland and islandic Asia in around the prehistoric period. Many modern teachers of bōjutsu seem to believe that the martial art was primarily a technical combat-based sport, but it is safe to say that this assumption is down to poor understanding of its importance in Neolithic and Bronze Age society.
An alternative, much more probable conclusion is that it gradually became much like a training weapon for the use of spears, especially as genuine, ancient bō staffs were made of stone – a weapon of this sort would be too heavy and unreliable for combat. If there was a man-to-man combat use of the bō, it must have been solely used as an “arresting” weapon. That is, not a tool designed for casualties, but rather a weapon for either a) knocking the opponent to the ground or b) striking the opponent in order to inflict an injury substantial enough so that he is unable to continue fighting.
With that in mind, let’s take a look at the journey of the bō staff and how it travelled from the mountains and rivers of Asia to Europe and America.
The Bō in Medieval Okinawa
During the “ancient” period of Okinawa there existed strong and frequently-used trade links between China, Japan and the sea islands. Tens of ships from Seto and Kyushu landed at the main island of the kingdom and offered their goods in trade to the small population living there. If the details of the merchants travelling from the mainland were omitted from this story, then it would be hard to explain how staff fighting even made its way off the island. It was in the Second Sho Dynasty of the Ryukyu Kingdom that a certain Emperor Shin took the helm of Okinawa and instituted a new set of laws which governed the way a non-military individual could bear arms. Essentially, Sho Shin placed a ban on any weapons which posed a serious threat to the power of the authorities; out of sheer necessity, the residents, who wished to have some way of defending themselves, created the art of fighting with the wooden stick. After all, it was the only power in their hands.
“Meanwhile, police and others developed techniques to use common articles such as weapons, such as sickles, boat oars, farming tools, wooden staffs, and so on. The development of these weapons are referred to as ‘kobudo”. The unarmed martial arts of Okinawa, which are now known as karate, also received more emphasis.” (1)
Apart from an off-topic mention of karate, the previous passage adds some insight into the changes Shin ordered in his long, fifty-year rule. The author refers to the aji as “police”, but this is a twisted interpretation of a group of nobles who were among those who insisted on continuing to hold their weapons. Several forms of staff combat were carried into modern times – a martial arts master specialising in bōjutsu known as Sakugawa Sensei catalysed a growth in popularity for the sport in his lifetime (1733-1815).
It was in this dawn of a dynasty that bō rose, and it was with the start of the year 1609 that the peace was shattered as the Satsuma clan invaded the Okinawan homeland. There was an uproar, violence, and, yet again, another ban on weapons. And finally, this is where bō fighting rose its maximum on the island, boarded those sailing vessels and arrived in mainland Asia. Bōjutsu’s popularity had just started to soar.
The Staff in Medieval China
Medieval China called the wooden stick used in bōjutsu a bang or gun. It may be that the idea of the bō being an “extension of one’s limbs” originated in the agricultural community of China where wooden staffs were used for bearing the weight of water buckets and were therefore just tools of carrying – much like arms. The bō was considered the most important of weapons and was well respected for its religiously acceptable usage. In particular, the Shaolin Monks used staffs as self-defense weapons as it was “wrong” to brutally hurt or kill someone. These monks were trained with long mental and physical training, and it is not hard to see why the art of bōjutsu became so popular among them.
It is also in the monasteries and towns of China that the martial art of Kung Fu rose up, with the wooden stick becoming a central part of combat. Kung Fu used four main weapons: the staff, great for attacking at a distance; the spear, also good for distance; the broadsword, a more dangerous weapon and the straight sword. Unlike swords, where there were a few standardized sizes, the staff could come at many different lengths and designs, making it great for developing different styles of bōjutsu.
At the time of Okinawan bōjutsu appearing in China, almost all regions had used the staff before. However, these Okinawan travelers helped lay down the principles of an exclusive staff martial art. In fact, because the staff was very famous in China, bōjutsu did become adopted frequently over different styles of combat. Chinese teachers, notably during the 19th and 20th centuries, began developing their own techniques. At one point, bōjutsu combatants were drafted into the military. One of the favorite staffs used by the Chinese was the “rattan”, which was made of hard, durable wood, but was very flexible. Although the core of all fighting in China rested heavily upon the staff, bōjutsu did not manage to become the primary martial art, but rather coexisted with others. However, this is not to say that Chinese bōjutsu was not important. Without the “blend” of already existed combat styles and the staff, as well as the new maneuvers invented by teachers, bōjutsu would be much less developed.
The English Quarterstaff
Meanwhile, the face of Europe and its major medieval countries, such as England and Wales, France, Spain and Germany were developing their own fighting styles – not because they were undeveloped as warriors, but because the ratio of poor to rich in the Middle Ages was staggeringly high. In fact, more than 90% of the population in most nations were peasants, living off land that did not even belong to them and making next to no monetary income. Swords, axes and other weapons were extremely expensive and required experienced weapon-smiths to produce. Not only was there a considerable lack of these such craftsmen – they were fairly widely spaced out – but their labor was difficult and time consuming. Therefore, the prices charged by weapon-smiths were extortionately high for the average person living in Europe from 500-1500 AD.
And so, the peasants had to innovate and find something they could use to defend themselves; weapons made of metal or difficult-to-craft parts would be no good. Quarterstaffs, the medieval equivalents of bōs, were usually up to eight feet long and were cut from the quarters of trees. Often stubbed with metal points and occasionally leather hand-grips, these proved to be fairly lethal against a lightly-armed foe as they were easy to swing and stab with. It could be said that the quarterstaff was more aggressive than the bō; metal blades and the techniques of gripping one hand of the stick to smash the opponent to death suggest that it was a weapon for killing, rather than the modest “arresting” of the bō. After all, thieves and surprise ambushers were frequent in the Middle Ages, and the only way to fend them off was to kill them on the spot. Public attacks on escaping thieves were often initiated when one cried out against one:
“Before the advent of professional police, citizens helped catch the crooks. Everyone knew what to do. If you were the witness or victim of a crime, you cried out. Anyone hearing the hue and cry had to dash out- onto the streets to chase and catch the culprit. Townsfolk made a citizen’s arrest and waited for a sheriff to arrive and haul away the suspect.” (2)
However, in the ordinary situation, a captured thief could be treated indecently just by the average town dwellers. All too often authorities would not arrive on the scene soon enough (or there simply wasn’t a recognized police force) and the robber would either sustain major injuries or be beaten to death. Shortly, the quarterstaff was mainly a device of spontaneous violence, because it had to be.
Comparatively, there was less need for a weapon like this in China, Japan and Okinawa. Most nobles abided in “castles” and had their own trained men at hand. Clearly, Asia did not feel like it was necessary for the average person to yield a pole weapon like this for everyday to-the-death fights like in Medieval Europe, and, consequently, the bō remained a device for merely stopping the enemy. Because fighting with the bō staff was not so blatantly aggressive and strength-dependent, the foundations for bōjutsu lay mainly in technical depth, which involved stick-spinning, blocks and moving about to tackle an oppressor who possessed similar skills.
Bō Comes to America
Fast forward to the 20th century. The world is becoming more globalized. American occupation of Okinawa led to servicemen studying under Okinawan masters, as well as on mainland Japan. Karate and its inextricably linked twin kobudo begin to spread to the West. Even though the wooden pole has been used since the earliest times in history, there is barely any evidence for its use among Native American tribes.
Nowadays, despite its lack of a singular world-wide audience, bō staff combat is a loved martial art with a lot of space for newly emerging, unique styles, such as “Ultimate Bō” or “American Style Bōjutsu”, founded by Michael Hodge in 2007. American Style Bojutsu is rooted in the Okinawan tradition, teaching basic techniques, kata (prearranged forms), combat applications, and sparring. This style includes some modernistic aesthetic techniques that add to the art form, as well as a more inclusive use of staff styles from around the world. The style is also the first in the world to have an official ranking system from white to black belt. Typically, the bō is marginalized as a portion of a student’s curriculum, and might be one aspect of earning belts in kobudo. Ultimate Bō is becoming a more popular style in this modern age, looming together ancient staff styles into a contemporary practice that offers benefits to the practitioner’s mind, body, and spirit. | <urn:uuid:9abd0ee2-53ca-4434-b8b7-a8c0c192806c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://globalmartialarts.university/bo-staff-styles-from-around-the-world/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00450.warc.gz | en | 0.980822 | 2,583 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.82077503... | 2 | As historic as the bō is, since there is a severe lack of reliable and well-grounded sources detailing its early existence, it is difficult to determine accurately where it first arose. In prehistoric times, we can surmise that man’s first weapon was a rock, and his second weapon was a stick. Over time, especially when warfare between humans broke out, more advanced and sophisticated forms of fighting were developed. Not simply for sport or as an art form, but out of the necessity to preserve one’s life and protect the tribe.
The Bō (Staff) in Prehistoric Asia
Prehistoric Asia primarily revolved around primitive hunter-gatherer aspects of life and was therefore a largely combat-based society. Whether fighting with the bō staff was popularized in Eastern mainland China, Japan, or the long stretch of Pacific islands with its capital based in the appropriately-termed “Okinawa” – meaning “the rope of the wide sea” – is highly debatable. Likely the best and most probable conclusion to make is that it originated in each of these places at similar yet indeterminable times.
Why make this assumption? Put simply, the tribes of each region had a similar need and understanding in the affairs of small-scale war, and the “rokushakubō” (Japanese for “six-foot staff”) was already commonplace as a basic, and easy-to-produce weapon; it was, of course, only a matter of time before a specific technique was created on behalf of the usage of the bō, and ultimately, its future journey around the world. So, the art of “stick wielding” appeared all over mainland and islandic Asia in around the prehistoric period. Many modern teachers of bōjutsu seem to believe that the martial art was primarily a technical combat-based sport, but it is safe to say that this assumption is down to poor understanding of its importance in Neolithic and Bronze Age society.
An alternative, much more probable conclusion is that it gradually became much like a training weapon for the use of spears, especially as genuine, ancient bō staffs were made of stone – a weapon of this sort would be too heavy and unreliable for combat. If there was a man-to-man combat use of the bō, it must have been solely used as an “arresting” weapon. That is, not a tool designed for casualties, but rather a weapon for either a) knocking the opponent to the ground or b) striking the opponent in order to inflict an injury substantial enough so that he is unable to continue fighting.
With that in mind, let’s take a look at the journey of the bō staff and how it travelled from the mountains and rivers of Asia to Europe and America.
The Bō in Medieval Okinawa
During the “ancient” period of Okinawa there existed strong and frequently-used trade links between China, Japan and the sea islands. Tens of ships from Seto and Kyushu landed at the main island of the kingdom and offered their goods in trade to the small population living there. If the details of the merchants travelling from the mainland were omitted from this story, then it would be hard to explain how staff fighting even made its way off the island. It was in the Second Sho Dynasty of the Ryukyu Kingdom that a certain Emperor Shin took the helm of Okinawa and instituted a new set of laws which governed the way a non-military individual could bear arms. Essentially, Sho Shin placed a ban on any weapons which posed a serious threat to the power of the authorities; out of sheer necessity, the residents, who wished to have some way of defending themselves, created the art of fighting with the wooden stick. After all, it was the only power in their hands.
“Meanwhile, police and others developed techniques to use common articles such as weapons, such as sickles, boat oars, farming tools, wooden staffs, and so on. The development of these weapons are referred to as ‘kobudo”. The unarmed martial arts of Okinawa, which are now known as karate, also received more emphasis.” (1)
Apart from an off-topic mention of karate, the previous passage adds some insight into the changes Shin ordered in his long, fifty-year rule. The author refers to the aji as “police”, but this is a twisted interpretation of a group of nobles who were among those who insisted on continuing to hold their weapons. Several forms of staff combat were carried into modern times – a martial arts master specialising in bōjutsu known as Sakugawa Sensei catalysed a growth in popularity for the sport in his lifetime (1733-1815).
It was in this dawn of a dynasty that bō rose, and it was with the start of the year 1609 that the peace was shattered as the Satsuma clan invaded the Okinawan homeland. There was an uproar, violence, and, yet again, another ban on weapons. And finally, this is where bō fighting rose its maximum on the island, boarded those sailing vessels and arrived in mainland Asia. Bōjutsu’s popularity had just started to soar.
The Staff in Medieval China
Medieval China called the wooden stick used in bōjutsu a bang or gun. It may be that the idea of the bō being an “extension of one’s limbs” originated in the agricultural community of China where wooden staffs were used for bearing the weight of water buckets and were therefore just tools of carrying – much like arms. The bō was considered the most important of weapons and was well respected for its religiously acceptable usage. In particular, the Shaolin Monks used staffs as self-defense weapons as it was “wrong” to brutally hurt or kill someone. These monks were trained with long mental and physical training, and it is not hard to see why the art of bōjutsu became so popular among them.
It is also in the monasteries and towns of China that the martial art of Kung Fu rose up, with the wooden stick becoming a central part of combat. Kung Fu used four main weapons: the staff, great for attacking at a distance; the spear, also good for distance; the broadsword, a more dangerous weapon and the straight sword. Unlike swords, where there were a few standardized sizes, the staff could come at many different lengths and designs, making it great for developing different styles of bōjutsu.
At the time of Okinawan bōjutsu appearing in China, almost all regions had used the staff before. However, these Okinawan travelers helped lay down the principles of an exclusive staff martial art. In fact, because the staff was very famous in China, bōjutsu did become adopted frequently over different styles of combat. Chinese teachers, notably during the 19th and 20th centuries, began developing their own techniques. At one point, bōjutsu combatants were drafted into the military. One of the favorite staffs used by the Chinese was the “rattan”, which was made of hard, durable wood, but was very flexible. Although the core of all fighting in China rested heavily upon the staff, bōjutsu did not manage to become the primary martial art, but rather coexisted with others. However, this is not to say that Chinese bōjutsu was not important. Without the “blend” of already existed combat styles and the staff, as well as the new maneuvers invented by teachers, bōjutsu would be much less developed.
The English Quarterstaff
Meanwhile, the face of Europe and its major medieval countries, such as England and Wales, France, Spain and Germany were developing their own fighting styles – not because they were undeveloped as warriors, but because the ratio of poor to rich in the Middle Ages was staggeringly high. In fact, more than 90% of the population in most nations were peasants, living off land that did not even belong to them and making next to no monetary income. Swords, axes and other weapons were extremely expensive and required experienced weapon-smiths to produce. Not only was there a considerable lack of these such craftsmen – they were fairly widely spaced out – but their labor was difficult and time consuming. Therefore, the prices charged by weapon-smiths were extortionately high for the average person living in Europe from 500-1500 AD.
And so, the peasants had to innovate and find something they could use to defend themselves; weapons made of metal or difficult-to-craft parts would be no good. Quarterstaffs, the medieval equivalents of bōs, were usually up to eight feet long and were cut from the quarters of trees. Often stubbed with metal points and occasionally leather hand-grips, these proved to be fairly lethal against a lightly-armed foe as they were easy to swing and stab with. It could be said that the quarterstaff was more aggressive than the bō; metal blades and the techniques of gripping one hand of the stick to smash the opponent to death suggest that it was a weapon for killing, rather than the modest “arresting” of the bō. After all, thieves and surprise ambushers were frequent in the Middle Ages, and the only way to fend them off was to kill them on the spot. Public attacks on escaping thieves were often initiated when one cried out against one:
“Before the advent of professional police, citizens helped catch the crooks. Everyone knew what to do. If you were the witness or victim of a crime, you cried out. Anyone hearing the hue and cry had to dash out- onto the streets to chase and catch the culprit. Townsfolk made a citizen’s arrest and waited for a sheriff to arrive and haul away the suspect.” (2)
However, in the ordinary situation, a captured thief could be treated indecently just by the average town dwellers. All too often authorities would not arrive on the scene soon enough (or there simply wasn’t a recognized police force) and the robber would either sustain major injuries or be beaten to death. Shortly, the quarterstaff was mainly a device of spontaneous violence, because it had to be.
Comparatively, there was less need for a weapon like this in China, Japan and Okinawa. Most nobles abided in “castles” and had their own trained men at hand. Clearly, Asia did not feel like it was necessary for the average person to yield a pole weapon like this for everyday to-the-death fights like in Medieval Europe, and, consequently, the bō remained a device for merely stopping the enemy. Because fighting with the bō staff was not so blatantly aggressive and strength-dependent, the foundations for bōjutsu lay mainly in technical depth, which involved stick-spinning, blocks and moving about to tackle an oppressor who possessed similar skills.
Bō Comes to America
Fast forward to the 20th century. The world is becoming more globalized. American occupation of Okinawa led to servicemen studying under Okinawan masters, as well as on mainland Japan. Karate and its inextricably linked twin kobudo begin to spread to the West. Even though the wooden pole has been used since the earliest times in history, there is barely any evidence for its use among Native American tribes.
Nowadays, despite its lack of a singular world-wide audience, bō staff combat is a loved martial art with a lot of space for newly emerging, unique styles, such as “Ultimate Bō” or “American Style Bōjutsu”, founded by Michael Hodge in 2007. American Style Bojutsu is rooted in the Okinawan tradition, teaching basic techniques, kata (prearranged forms), combat applications, and sparring. This style includes some modernistic aesthetic techniques that add to the art form, as well as a more inclusive use of staff styles from around the world. The style is also the first in the world to have an official ranking system from white to black belt. Typically, the bō is marginalized as a portion of a student’s curriculum, and might be one aspect of earning belts in kobudo. Ultimate Bō is becoming a more popular style in this modern age, looming together ancient staff styles into a contemporary practice that offers benefits to the practitioner’s mind, body, and spirit. | 2,545 | ENGLISH | 1 |
When Maimonides's "Guide of the Perplexed" appeared in southern France during the early 1300s, translated from Arabic into Hebrew, many in the Jewish community were outraged. This philosophical masterpiece, which Maimonides (c. 1138-1204) had completed in 1190 after three years of intensive toil, exalted the use of reason to an intolerable pitch. The "Guide" was unashamedly Aristotelian throughout in its presuppositions and (most of) its conclusions.
Maimonides had also employed Aristotelian methods and tenets in his treatment of halakah throughout his great "Mishneh Torah." There he subjected the vast body of Jewish law contained in the "Mishneh" to rationalistic principles - arranging and codifying the myriad prescriptions enunciated over centuries - to form a coherent body of precepts. His famous "Thirteen Principles of the Faith," a kind of creed stipulating what a Jew must believe in order to be called a Jew, represented an unprecedented dogmatic turn. French Jews placed both works under interdict and even had the "Guide" publicly burned.
The epitaph on Maimonides's tombstone read, "from Moses to Moses there was none like Moses." The first Moses was, of course, the prophet who spoke with God on Sinai, brought down the Tablets of the Law, and led the Jews out of exile in Egypt. Moses ben Maimon (or Musa ibn Maymun in Arabic) was the second. The honorific epitaph tells only part of the story. For this "second Moses" was not only a codifier of the law but a skilled physician, a master logician, a subtle exegete, an experienced judge, and a revered leader of the Jewish community; as if this weren't enough, he was also one of the few medieval philosophers whose thought remains influential to this day.
Contrasts and paradoxes - some more apparent than real - abound in his career. Though he wrote his "Mishneh Torah" in Hebrew, he used Arabic for most of his other significant works - Arabic written in Hebrew letters, or "Judeo-Arabic." The second Moses reversed the exodus, moving from Spain to Egypt, where he spent his most productive years in Fustat, earning his living as court physician to the Ayyubids, the dynasty founded in 1171 by Saladin. Rabbi Maimon, his father, fretted that he was lazy, but this lazybones produced a treatise on Aristotelian logic by the time he was 16. His commitment to Judaism was profound and unwavering, and yet he relied on Aristotle and such Muslim successors as al-Farabi, the "Second Teacher" (Aristotle was the "First Teacher"), to elucidate its tenets. In a posthumous twist of irony, his beloved son Abraham, whom he called "his only consolation," in later life immersed himself in Sufism.
From Cordoba, where he was born, Maimonides and his parents fled Almohad intolerance, first to Fez, then, after a perilous sea-journey, to Acre, Jerusalem, Alexandria, and finally, Fustat, just two miles outside of Cairo. His loyalty to his birthplace never wavered; to the end of his life he signed himself "al-Qurtubi" ("The Cordovan" in Arabic). He also called his philosophy "Andalusian," meaning its principles were derived from Aristotle and shared by all rationalists - Muslim, Christian, or Jewish. These principles led him to bring order and structure to the baffling complexities of Jewish law; they also reinforced his conviction that the truths of faith and of reason could not be at ultimate variance.
How write the life of such a polymath? To do so presupposes familiarity not only with Maimonides's thought in such difficult areas as law, philosophy, theology, exegesis, the Bible, and Jewish custom, but also with the complex world of the Mediterranean in the 12th century. The late S.D. Goitein could have done justice to such a life. (He chose instead to write the biography of an entire vanished world in his six-volume masterpiece "A Mediterranean Society," to which he devoted the last 20 years of his life.) The historian and surgeon Sherwin B. Nuland has now taken up the challenge with "Maimonides" (Schocken, 240 pages, $19.95).
Though not a medievalist (for which thanks be given), Dr. Nuland has some points of affinity with Maimonides. He is a physician and writes well and he has an obvious affection for his subject. He is agreeably modest, too, offering his brief book as his own "guide of the perplexed" to Maimonides. He winningly calls it "this Jewish doctor's study of the most extraordinary of Jewish doctors."
The merit of this compact life, the second in Schocken's new series of "Jewish Encounters," is that it offers a detailed sense of Maimonides's achievements with a minimum of fuss. Dr. Nuland may have a scalpel to sharpen but he has no ax to grind. In his judgments, sometimes on tricky issues (such as Maimonides's reported conversion to Islam), he is just and sensible. Best of all, he has a sure instinct for what's important. He remarks, "If there is a single factor that characterizes [Maimonides's] thought, it is the constant seeking to observe and interpret the world as it really is, and to find a place for his conclusions within the realm of received Law." That is exactly right.
Maimonides's rare clear-sightedness allied him as a physician with the extraordinary Abu Bakr al-Razi, one of the few medieval doctors to observe patients and their symptoms with his own eyes rather than rely blindly on Galen, and as a philosopher with both Aristotle and his Muslim successors, in particular Ibn Rushd. Maimonides detested al-Razi's philosophical view point but he learned from his medical observations. He learned from al-Farabi too but repudiated his view that the world was eternal rather than created. This was not eclecticism but discernment, and in discernment Maimonides had few rivals.
Dr. Nuland conveys all this well, but Maimonides himself never comes alive in his pages. Dr. Nuland rarely quickens to his subject, even when discussing medicine. This is puzzling; of all the great medieval thinkers, Maimonides is one of the most immediate (as Goitein remarked, even his pronouncements in halakah often have a personal accent). Despite its many virtues, Dr. Nuland's biography betrays a cribbed feeling as though the facts had all been expertly swotted up but not made fully his own.
At the opposite extreme stands Herbert Davidson's "Moses Maimonides: The Man and His Work" (Oxford University Press, 567 pages, $49.95). If Dr. Nuland's biography is brisk, Mr. Davidson's is heavy weather. Clearly the product of a lifelong passion, his monograph documents and analyzes almost everything known about the medieval thinker. Each page teems with learned references: Sources in both Arabic and Hebrew are plumbed, and there appears to be little that Mr. Davidson hasn't read.
Maimonides is wonderfully quotable, and both biographers avail themselves of his pithy remarks. Mr. Davidson does better in evoking some sense of the man, no doubt because he could read the originals. When Maimonides remarks, "I forgive everyone who speaks ill of me through stupidity," the quote isn't only amusing but apt, and we get a feeling for the man who uttered it. (At other moments, however, Mr. Davidson intrudes himself rather too much, as when - it is perhaps an attempt at wit - he chides Maimonides for lacking "gender sensitivity.")
Some reports claim that Maimonides converted to Islam, under duress, while still in Spain; an epistle ascribed to him defends Jews who were compelled to resort to such stratagems. Dr. Nuland quotes his remark: "If a man asks me, 'Shall I be slain or utter the formula of Islam?' I answer, 'Utter the formula and live.' " And yet, as Mr. Davidson is at pains to emphasize, how bad could the persecution have been, since in one epistle Maimonides had the temerity to describe the Prophet Muhammad as "meshuggah"?
These and other Maimonidean puzzles probably won't be resolved soon, if ever. What remains, however, is the amazing and enduring work, both in law and in philosophy. I can't claim that reading or teaching "The Guide of the Perplexed," especially in the lucid translation by Shlomo Pines (1974, but still in print), has lifted any of my own perplexities. If anything, his book has intensified their entanglements. At the same time, however, I like to think that Maimonides has somehow rendered my perplexities fruitful, and what more could one hope for from a book? | <urn:uuid:d38dd1fc-97fb-4aa7-92cf-f933a525196e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.nysun.com/arts/there-was-none-like-him/21221/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00107.warc.gz | en | 0.981523 | 1,920 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.27487021684... | 4 | When Maimonides's "Guide of the Perplexed" appeared in southern France during the early 1300s, translated from Arabic into Hebrew, many in the Jewish community were outraged. This philosophical masterpiece, which Maimonides (c. 1138-1204) had completed in 1190 after three years of intensive toil, exalted the use of reason to an intolerable pitch. The "Guide" was unashamedly Aristotelian throughout in its presuppositions and (most of) its conclusions.
Maimonides had also employed Aristotelian methods and tenets in his treatment of halakah throughout his great "Mishneh Torah." There he subjected the vast body of Jewish law contained in the "Mishneh" to rationalistic principles - arranging and codifying the myriad prescriptions enunciated over centuries - to form a coherent body of precepts. His famous "Thirteen Principles of the Faith," a kind of creed stipulating what a Jew must believe in order to be called a Jew, represented an unprecedented dogmatic turn. French Jews placed both works under interdict and even had the "Guide" publicly burned.
The epitaph on Maimonides's tombstone read, "from Moses to Moses there was none like Moses." The first Moses was, of course, the prophet who spoke with God on Sinai, brought down the Tablets of the Law, and led the Jews out of exile in Egypt. Moses ben Maimon (or Musa ibn Maymun in Arabic) was the second. The honorific epitaph tells only part of the story. For this "second Moses" was not only a codifier of the law but a skilled physician, a master logician, a subtle exegete, an experienced judge, and a revered leader of the Jewish community; as if this weren't enough, he was also one of the few medieval philosophers whose thought remains influential to this day.
Contrasts and paradoxes - some more apparent than real - abound in his career. Though he wrote his "Mishneh Torah" in Hebrew, he used Arabic for most of his other significant works - Arabic written in Hebrew letters, or "Judeo-Arabic." The second Moses reversed the exodus, moving from Spain to Egypt, where he spent his most productive years in Fustat, earning his living as court physician to the Ayyubids, the dynasty founded in 1171 by Saladin. Rabbi Maimon, his father, fretted that he was lazy, but this lazybones produced a treatise on Aristotelian logic by the time he was 16. His commitment to Judaism was profound and unwavering, and yet he relied on Aristotle and such Muslim successors as al-Farabi, the "Second Teacher" (Aristotle was the "First Teacher"), to elucidate its tenets. In a posthumous twist of irony, his beloved son Abraham, whom he called "his only consolation," in later life immersed himself in Sufism.
From Cordoba, where he was born, Maimonides and his parents fled Almohad intolerance, first to Fez, then, after a perilous sea-journey, to Acre, Jerusalem, Alexandria, and finally, Fustat, just two miles outside of Cairo. His loyalty to his birthplace never wavered; to the end of his life he signed himself "al-Qurtubi" ("The Cordovan" in Arabic). He also called his philosophy "Andalusian," meaning its principles were derived from Aristotle and shared by all rationalists - Muslim, Christian, or Jewish. These principles led him to bring order and structure to the baffling complexities of Jewish law; they also reinforced his conviction that the truths of faith and of reason could not be at ultimate variance.
How write the life of such a polymath? To do so presupposes familiarity not only with Maimonides's thought in such difficult areas as law, philosophy, theology, exegesis, the Bible, and Jewish custom, but also with the complex world of the Mediterranean in the 12th century. The late S.D. Goitein could have done justice to such a life. (He chose instead to write the biography of an entire vanished world in his six-volume masterpiece "A Mediterranean Society," to which he devoted the last 20 years of his life.) The historian and surgeon Sherwin B. Nuland has now taken up the challenge with "Maimonides" (Schocken, 240 pages, $19.95).
Though not a medievalist (for which thanks be given), Dr. Nuland has some points of affinity with Maimonides. He is a physician and writes well and he has an obvious affection for his subject. He is agreeably modest, too, offering his brief book as his own "guide of the perplexed" to Maimonides. He winningly calls it "this Jewish doctor's study of the most extraordinary of Jewish doctors."
The merit of this compact life, the second in Schocken's new series of "Jewish Encounters," is that it offers a detailed sense of Maimonides's achievements with a minimum of fuss. Dr. Nuland may have a scalpel to sharpen but he has no ax to grind. In his judgments, sometimes on tricky issues (such as Maimonides's reported conversion to Islam), he is just and sensible. Best of all, he has a sure instinct for what's important. He remarks, "If there is a single factor that characterizes [Maimonides's] thought, it is the constant seeking to observe and interpret the world as it really is, and to find a place for his conclusions within the realm of received Law." That is exactly right.
Maimonides's rare clear-sightedness allied him as a physician with the extraordinary Abu Bakr al-Razi, one of the few medieval doctors to observe patients and their symptoms with his own eyes rather than rely blindly on Galen, and as a philosopher with both Aristotle and his Muslim successors, in particular Ibn Rushd. Maimonides detested al-Razi's philosophical view point but he learned from his medical observations. He learned from al-Farabi too but repudiated his view that the world was eternal rather than created. This was not eclecticism but discernment, and in discernment Maimonides had few rivals.
Dr. Nuland conveys all this well, but Maimonides himself never comes alive in his pages. Dr. Nuland rarely quickens to his subject, even when discussing medicine. This is puzzling; of all the great medieval thinkers, Maimonides is one of the most immediate (as Goitein remarked, even his pronouncements in halakah often have a personal accent). Despite its many virtues, Dr. Nuland's biography betrays a cribbed feeling as though the facts had all been expertly swotted up but not made fully his own.
At the opposite extreme stands Herbert Davidson's "Moses Maimonides: The Man and His Work" (Oxford University Press, 567 pages, $49.95). If Dr. Nuland's biography is brisk, Mr. Davidson's is heavy weather. Clearly the product of a lifelong passion, his monograph documents and analyzes almost everything known about the medieval thinker. Each page teems with learned references: Sources in both Arabic and Hebrew are plumbed, and there appears to be little that Mr. Davidson hasn't read.
Maimonides is wonderfully quotable, and both biographers avail themselves of his pithy remarks. Mr. Davidson does better in evoking some sense of the man, no doubt because he could read the originals. When Maimonides remarks, "I forgive everyone who speaks ill of me through stupidity," the quote isn't only amusing but apt, and we get a feeling for the man who uttered it. (At other moments, however, Mr. Davidson intrudes himself rather too much, as when - it is perhaps an attempt at wit - he chides Maimonides for lacking "gender sensitivity.")
Some reports claim that Maimonides converted to Islam, under duress, while still in Spain; an epistle ascribed to him defends Jews who were compelled to resort to such stratagems. Dr. Nuland quotes his remark: "If a man asks me, 'Shall I be slain or utter the formula of Islam?' I answer, 'Utter the formula and live.' " And yet, as Mr. Davidson is at pains to emphasize, how bad could the persecution have been, since in one epistle Maimonides had the temerity to describe the Prophet Muhammad as "meshuggah"?
These and other Maimonidean puzzles probably won't be resolved soon, if ever. What remains, however, is the amazing and enduring work, both in law and in philosophy. I can't claim that reading or teaching "The Guide of the Perplexed," especially in the lucid translation by Shlomo Pines (1974, but still in print), has lifted any of my own perplexities. If anything, his book has intensified their entanglements. At the same time, however, I like to think that Maimonides has somehow rendered my perplexities fruitful, and what more could one hope for from a book? | 1,962 | ENGLISH | 1 |
ROANOKE RIVER LIGHTS
The Roanoke River Light Station was originally established on Albemarle Sound in 1835, when a three-masted sailing ship was converted into a light station, to help navigators find safe entrance into the Roanoke River. During the Civil War, it is believed that the ship was scuttled in an effort to stop the blockade runners. In 1866, a screwpile lighthouse was built to replace the earlier ship. However, that station was destroyed by fire later that year.
Its replacement light, built shortly after the fire, survived until 1885. The screwpile light was damaged when the Albemarle Sound froze over during a winter storm. When the ice began to melt, and flow with the river, it cut two sides of the pilings, causing one side of the station to become partially merged. A replica of this second light was built, and sits along the Roanoke River, in Plymouth, NC.
The current light was built in 1887, and was originally situated on Albemarle Sound, near the mouth of the Roanoke River, about six miles northeast of Plymouth, NC. The white, thirty-five foot, square wood tower was attached to a two-story keeper's house and housed a Fourth-Order Fresnel lens. It was deactivated in 1941, and in 1955, it was relocated to the town of Edenton, NC, and used as a private residence.
Return to the North Carolina State Page
Return to the: Alphabetical Listing or the Listing by States | <urn:uuid:2268fa52-6025-4f43-aff7-b246305579ba> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://seathelights.com/nc/rrlh.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00064.warc.gz | en | 0.984525 | 328 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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The Roanoke River Light Station was originally established on Albemarle Sound in 1835, when a three-masted sailing ship was converted into a light station, to help navigators find safe entrance into the Roanoke River. During the Civil War, it is believed that the ship was scuttled in an effort to stop the blockade runners. In 1866, a screwpile lighthouse was built to replace the earlier ship. However, that station was destroyed by fire later that year.
Its replacement light, built shortly after the fire, survived until 1885. The screwpile light was damaged when the Albemarle Sound froze over during a winter storm. When the ice began to melt, and flow with the river, it cut two sides of the pilings, causing one side of the station to become partially merged. A replica of this second light was built, and sits along the Roanoke River, in Plymouth, NC.
The current light was built in 1887, and was originally situated on Albemarle Sound, near the mouth of the Roanoke River, about six miles northeast of Plymouth, NC. The white, thirty-five foot, square wood tower was attached to a two-story keeper's house and housed a Fourth-Order Fresnel lens. It was deactivated in 1941, and in 1955, it was relocated to the town of Edenton, NC, and used as a private residence.
Return to the North Carolina State Page
Return to the: Alphabetical Listing or the Listing by States | 339 | ENGLISH | 1 |
John II (Poland)
John II (1455-1495) of Portugal, sometimes called "the Perfect Prince," ruled during a crucial period in European history that marked the start of the Age of Exploration. From his ascension to the throne in 1481 until his death fourteen years later, John II's royal treasury financed numerous expeditions that mapped out the African coast. Convinced that India lay on the other side of Africa, he even sent explorers overland. To the Portuguese, he was a much loved regent who curbed the power of the nobles, maintained peace with Spain, and became a great patron of Renaissance art.
John II was named after his great-grandfather, who secured Portugal's independence in the 1380s and founded the House of Aviz royal line. By the time of his arrival in May of 1455, alliances with other European royal lines had given the Aviz family English, French, and Spanish blood. His father, King Alfonso V, was even cousin to the ruling English monarch, Henry VI. Queen Isabel, however, died when John and his older sister Joana were still very young, and both grew close to their aunt, Filipa, an artist and scholar who wrote the first extant poetry by a Portuguese woman.
John was provided with an education suitable for a royal, which included fluency in Latin and a knowledge of science and art. He was betrothed to his cousin in a politically advantageous match, and married Leonor, of the powerful Braganca line, in January of 1471. He was 15 at the time, and his spouse just 12. Later in 1471, he won his knighthood, as was the Aviz tradition, in battle with his father in Morocco. Subjugation of the Moors, who had occupied Portugal after 700 C.E. for a few hundred years and still held part of Spain, was a preoccupation with the Aviz dynasty, and this was the third foray across the Straits of Gibraltar by his father alone. In August, their forces took a seaside fortress, Arzila, and the city of Tangier surrendered.
Mapped Coast of Africa
The year 1471 was also an important one in the annals of exploration, for Portuguese navigators, mapping out the coast of Africa, crossed the Equator for the first time. A 1454 papal decree granted the Portuguese throne sovereignty over this area, and explorers had been planting wooden crosses along the West African shores since. They also held the Azores Islands by the time of John's adulthood, which had become a grazing ground for large herds of Portuguese cattle, and the island of Madeira was producing sugar cane that Portugal exported to the rest of Europe.
In 1474, Alfonso gave John control of the Guineas, the large area situated east of the horn of Africa. It contained rich fisheries, black pepper, and ivory, and reports returned from traders about hairy, human-like animals who lived in trees there and could not be caught. A son with Leonor, named Alfonso in honor of his grandfather, was born in 1475. That same year, the monarch granted John full authority in Portugal before he departed to do battle at Toro against the Castilian empire of Spain. The widowed Alfonso had become enamored of a dispossessed princess, and went to war on her behalf. It was at his father's court at Toro that John met Ana de Mendoca, and a child, Jorge, resulted from their romance.
Reined in Noble Class
For a time, John commanded troops for his father, but the venture was a disastrous one, and Alfonso abdicated his throne to his son in September of 1477. He was proclaimed king at the royal palace at Santarem on November 10, 1477. His father disappeared to a Franciscan monastery, and the war simmered on until the Treaty of Alcocovas concluded it in 1479. Two years later his father died in 1481 at Sintra, and John formally became ruler of Portugal.
John assembled his first Cortes at Evora in November of 1481. The Cortes was a meeting of the clergy, the homens bon ("good men") who led Portugal's concelhos, or free boroughs, and the noble class, who were known as fidalgos ("filhos de Algo," or sons of somebody). No laws were passed at a Cortes, which only the king could call, but debates were held and complaints heard. The fidalgos were descendants of the Visigoths and enjoyed great prestige; under the preoccupied Alfonso V, they grew enriched and emboldened. They attempted to influence the courts, demanded increased tribute of wine and corn, and encroached upon the rights of the concelhos. At the first Cortes, the new king, determined to curb these abuses, had his advisors draw up a new oath of allegiance for the fidalgos, and compelled them to take it. The Duke of Braganca, whose family had enjoyed privileges since the 1440s as descendants of John I, was particularly incensed.
Convinced India Lay to the East
Meanwhile, the new regent looked to expand his empire in other places. On December 12, an expedition set sail to establish a fortress and trading post in the Gulf of Guinea at Elmina. This was known as Sao Jorge da Mina, named after the king's favorite saint, George. It was the first European colony in equatorial Africa, and the gold mine there enriched John's royal treasury enormously. It allowed the king to fund further expeditions, and Portuguese explorers began taking large granite pillars with them to plant in the ground instead of wooden crosses. Called padraos, the pillars featured the Aviz coat of arms as well as the bronze cross of the Order of Christ, the knightly order that emerged from the disbanded Knights of the Templar after the Crusades. John, as ruler, was master of the secret Order, and many of the navigators and sea captains who explored for Portugal belonged to it.
In 1482, John sent Diogo Cao and the first of the padraos to find the end of the African coast. At the time, it was thought that the continent perhaps extended all the way to the Arctic regions. Cao was unsuccessful in his goal, but he did find the mouth of the great Congo River, which was unlike any ever seen by a European, and a populous kingdom there. After meeting with its king, Cao left some Portuguese behind and returned to Portugal with a delegation of Africans, who fascinated John. They were given lavish quarters and feted at state banquets. But internal problems troubled the king during this same year: it was suspected that the Duke of Braganca had made contact with the Castilian royal family in preparation for a possible move against Portugal. The king was informed, and had the duke, Fernando II, arrested. He was sentenced to death and executed for treason in 1484.
John continued to send ships out to find the end of Africa. Finally, in 1488, the Portuguese Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope and reached the other side of Africa. Lacking provisions to continue, he returned to Portugal with the news that a passage to India had been found. Since the time of the Crusades and Marco Polo, trade with the Orient had brought spices, silks, and other exotic goods into Europe. However, these goods traveled overland a great distance, through the desert of the Middle East and through treacherous lands; taxes and highway robbery made them prohibitively expensive by the time they reached Portugal and the end of the European continent. If Portugal could find the sea route, they might profit handsomely from the trade.
John II and Columbus
There are theories that Christopher Columbus was actually a well-born Portuguese, not an Italian, and was part of John's elaborate ruse to keep the Spanish monarchs-Ferdinand and Isabella, whose marriage united Castile and Aragon-from discovering the route to India and claiming it for themselves. Most historians agree that Columbus first tried to interest John in his expedition across the Atlantic, but that the king was supposedly uninterested, and so Columbus went to Spain for funding instead. The alternate theory holds that Columbus was sent to Ferdinand and Isabella to convince them that the riches of India could be reached by sailing west. Far from being the misguided navigator that popular myth holds, historians concede that Columbus was a learned man, like many of the Portuguese seafarers, and may have been a member of the Order of Christ as well. Many in the Order were well aware that a large land mass lay on the other side of the Atlantic. A member had sailed to an island off the coast of Brazil as early as 1438, and the Portuguese knew that Basque fishermen from northern Spain made regular forays to the cod fisheries near Newfoundland.
When Columbus returned to Europe from conquering the Caribbean islands of the Bahamas, the Dominican Republic, and Haiti for Spain, he met first with John in Lisbon. There followed negotiations between Portugal and Spain over territorial rights in the New World. To Portugal, according to a 1480 continuation of the Alcocovas treaty called the Treaty of Toledo, was reserved the Cape Verde islands, "and any other lands that are found or conquered below the Canary Islands and the west of Guinea." Columbus's discoveries lay south of the Canaries, and so negotiations with Spain followed. In 1493 Pope Alexander VI resolved the dispute. The dividing line between what Spain and Portugal might explore and claim was to be west of the Azores; Spain's share was to the west, while territory on the eastern side of the line was Portugal's. This meant that John-whose famed grand-uncle Henry the Navigator had concluded that India was on the other side of Africa-was granted the continent of Africa as well as the Orient.
A Triumph of Diplomatic Trickery
The full Treaty of Tordesillas, signed on June 7, 1494 between John and the Spanish monarchs, set the dividing line another 370 leagues to the west of the Archipelago of Cape Verde, which assured Portugal of rights over Brazil, too. But there would be few years left in his life to enjoy these triumphs. His son and heir, Alfonso VI, had fallen from a horse at Santarem, and died in the hut of fishermen a few years before. John's illegitimate son Jorge became heir to the throne, and this caused marital tension between him and Isabella.
In October of 1495, the king fell ill and died within a week. Near his death, John decreed that his cousin, the duke of Beja, should succeed him. His successor was called Manuel the Fortunate, and he ruled until 1521. During his reign, John's foresight for expansion bore full fruit for Portugal. Its overseas empire expanded terrifically: just three years after his death, Vasco da Gama's ships reached India. Brazil was formally claimed in 1500, the Indian coastal kingdom of Goa captured in 1510, and a port in China, Macao, was ruled as a colony of Portugal from 1557 to 1999, outlasting even the world's most famous colony, the British-held Hong Kong.
John left a legacy as a benevolent ruler. He took in Jewish refugees from Spain's famous 1492 expulsion, and founded what was the most modern medical facility in the world at the time, All Saints Hospital in Lisbon in 1492. In 1498, his widow Leonor founded a charity to aid the poor and cure the sick, the Brotherhood of Our Lady of Mercy, also known as Misericordia. As a testimony to his influence, it was John's Castilian foes who nicknamed him El Principe Perfecto, or the Perfect Prince.
Barreto, Mascarenhas, The Portuguese Columbus: Secret Agent of King John II, translated by Reginald A. Brown, St. Martin's, 1992.
Sanceau, Elaine, The Perfect Prince: A Biography of the King Dom Joao II, Livraria Civilizacao-Editora, 1959. □
King of france
Famous Family . One of the greatest royal families of the French Middle Ages was the Valois dynasty. In the course of the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries, the Valois became dukes and countesses (for example, Louis, Duke of Orleans, and Jeanne, Countess of Bar), empresses and queens (for example, Catherine of Constantinople and Madeleine of Scotland), archbishops and abbesses (for example, Michel de Buey and Madeleine of Orleans), and after 1328 the kings of France when the Capetian Charles IV died leaving no sons. The Valois had in fact started out as nobles—their rise to power stemmed from their having created a lineage from Charles, Count of Valois, the brother of King Philip IV the Fair of France. Hardly a pivotal figure in the rise to power of the Valois, the renown of John II in particular would rest in part on his role in creating a more modern system of French coinage.
Political Connections . The reign of John II (1350–1364) was determined by his father, Philip VI, who became the first Valois king in the early fourteenth century to give continuity to the French crown under succession claims from the English king, Edward III. The threat from English royalty was to play an important part in the early Valois’ strength. Under Philip VI, the French royal council became the dynasty’s strongest supporters against King Edward III. Philip’s son, John, also became thereby the most powerful representative of the French throne, despite his inability to exert the necessary political influence over a reform-minded nobility, a power-hungry bourgeoisie, and his own opportunistic courtiers. In 1356 day-to-day control of the kingdom fell to his son, heir apparent Charles V, who took charge of trying to raise the ransom sum of twelve and one-half tons of gold, three millions ecus, to free his father from English imprisonment stemming from his capture at the Battle of Poitiers. The English crown freed King John II in 1360 on four conditions: the signing of the Treaty of Brétigny-Calais; the relinquishing by France of about half its continental territory; the paying of a king’s ransom; and the retention of surrogate hostages.
Branching Effects . The fortunes of the French economy had been growing all the more precarious under the Valois’s reign. A series of monetary debasements were instituted from 1337 with the beginning of the Hundred Years’ War (1337–1453) between France and England. Unlike the English royalty of the fourteenth century, which had extremely circumscribed taxation rights, historically each of the French kings had been granted a great deal of autonomy in levying. As war began, however, to take a larger share of their tax revenues, only devaluation seemed to insulate them against the losses in real terms. King John II instituted several economic reforms upon his release from English captivity. A new system was introduced to prevent a full-blown monetary crisis from bringing down the French economy: the Pied de Monnaie system denoted with one number the intrinsic worth of a coin with respect to its weight and fineness, with reference to the sound money of 1329. New taxes were ordered, the most unpopular being the gabelle (tax on salt).
Ruler of His Destiny . As monetarists, the Valois were enabled to pay about one-third of King John’s ransom, with, in addition, three of his fourteen children playing a major role in his release, as surrogate hostages. John’s primary activities once at liberty were aimed at his indebtedness to the English crown, and he was able to find support by unusual means through economic maneuvers, making himself ruler of France again in everything but power. Through connections with a rich duke in Milan, Galeas Visconti, John managed to have his daughter Isabelle, age twelve, sold into marriage for more than another one-third of his English ransom amount. Indeed, France was so buoyed at his liberation that the royal mint marked the event by releasing a new gold coin. This first commemorative French coin backfired in spirit, however. When one of the king’s sons, Louis of Anjou, was reported in 1364 to have escaped from his prison in Calais ostensibly to go on crusade, the king himself returned to England as hostage to restore the family honor. Until his death in April of that year in London, the king’s imprisonment set the tone for a return to regency in France.
Patron of Knights . John’s rule not only influenced the distribution of economic power in France and England, but it also affected medieval chivalric life. He promoted the military pursuits of knights through the foundation of a new chivalric order, the Order of the Star. He was particularly active in military encounters himself in the Hundred Years’ War. The Order of the Star became his centerpiece military entourage. John supported a new knights’ order to instill bravery through oaths of steadfastness in battle. His ideals came under challenge in the Battle of Poitiers, where he saw most of the Order’s members killed. The Order of the Star, started in 1351, nonetheless set the standard for a national chivalric order. Its attire, the red cloak bearing a huge black star of eight points, and motto, “They show the way to kings by the star,” guaranteed the predominance of the king’s military order. In his own prowess on horseback and as patron of knights, John sustained a chivalric code of military conduct that would not persist for long with his successors.
Image Concerns . John’s interest in coinage was partly prompted by his worries about how his captivity had affected his royal/knightly image. The Order of the Star, for example, had not survived his years as a prisoner in London. The king became strongly attached to minted symbolic representations also as a counterpoint to the stresses on the economy. On the first coin he issued, the Franc à Cheval, at 3.764 grams of pure gold, he made sure there was a worthy representation: the king in full armor on horseback holding his sword in his left hand. He also, however, took special pains at humility, complementing an obverse caption, “John, King of the Franks, by God’s grace,” with a reverse motif of a cross bedecked with flowers surrounded by the caption “May Christ conquer, rule and reign.” With his release from captivity, the king chose to create his own sense of freedom through the newly “franchised” (hence the word franc) coinage.
Collapse of Royal Strength . French royal strength began seriously to falter with John’s first imprisonment in 1356. Even before being captured, the Valois had focused more on his image and patronage roles than on sound rule. Charles V became, however, an active behind-the-scenes ruler of France and a major support to his father during his captivity. He forged per force administrative ties with the leading merchants of Paris who under the leadership of Etienne Marcel, in league with John’s cousin, Charles “the Bad,” King of Navarre, had arisen in revolt. Even as the political alliances in Paris were collapsing in 1356, two years later, the standing of Charles V’s economic strength in his own county of Dauphiné could no longer depend on the resources of the peasantry. Royal demands for contributions in labor and money to aid in the king’s ransom were met by a peasant rebellion, the Jacquerie.
Impact . With the imprisonment of King John II, Charles V had to step in to take the lead in political and economic rule. Charles V was in the long run to prove to be a much more competent administrator. His greater prominence earned him the title of Charles “the Wise,” as opposed to his father’s John ”Bon Homme” (Good Fellow). Nevertheless, the close relationship between father and son and the kingdom was to remain a defining feature of the early generations of the Valois dynasty. While Louis of Anjou, too, would acquire royal power as King of Naples, Sicily, and Jerusalem in 1382, after having become the adopted son of Jeanne I, Queen of Naples, much of his father’s positive legacy would stem from his act to cleanse the “blemished honor to the lineage,” which his son’s escape had caused.
Anne Denieul-Cormier, Wise and Foolish Kings: The First House of Valois, 1328–1498 (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1980).
Henneman, Royal Taxation in Fourteenth-Century France: The Development of War Financing, 13227ndash;1356 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1971).
John II (1319-1364) was king of France from 1350 to 1364. Stubborn and greedy, he refused to heed good advice, and his reign was marked by social and economic crises.
The son of Philip VI of France and Jeanne of Burgundy, at the age of 13 John was married to Bonne of Luxemburg. He began his military career in 1340, as the commander of royal military forces in Hainaut. In 1341 he was his father's lieutenant in Brittany, and in 1344 he held the same office in Languedoc.
Shortly after his coronation in 1350, John II began the round of banquets, festivals, and tournaments that characterized his reign, and he continued the recently established French royal tradition of lavishly dispensing artistic patronage. His ill-considered attachment to favorites, however, created hostility among the higher nobility, and his employment of men in high public office who exploited their power for private gain contributed substantially to the crisis of public finance that culminated in the 1350s, a point of economic crisis for all of Christendom.
John's inability or unwillingness to deal with political crises diplomatically alienated his powerful cousin and rival Charles (the Bad) of Navarre, who remained John's most dangerous subject throughout his reign. In 1355 the war with the king of England, later called the Hundred Years War (1339-1453), resumed. John sustained a stunning defeat by Edward the Black Prince at Poitiers on Sept. 19, 1356. Captured by the English, he was taken in 1357 to England as a prisoner until his enormous ransom could be paid.
John's misrule had created a social and economic crisis in France. As early as 1351 the coinage, for example, had to be debased, and his humiliation and disaster at Poitiers inspired a revolutionary faction of the Estates General to make strong demands for reform upon the regent, John's son Charles, later King Charles V. From 1356 to 1358 these demands and the later uprising known as the Jacquerie threatened France with political and social chaos. By 1359, however, Charles had managed to restore some public order, and in 1360 he signed the Treaty of Brétigny, which set John's ransom at an impossibly high figure, and promised to give hostages to the English until the ransom was paid.
John returned to France to resume his governance and raise his ransom, but with little success or good judgment in either project. In 1363 one of his sons escaped from the English, to whom he had been given as a hostage for his father. John II returned voluntarily to England to finish his own captivity. He died in England in April 1364.
Although John's reign failed to guide France in its quarrel with England or forestall its economic and social crisis, it did witness the beginning of a standing army, the regularization of extraordinary taxation, the patronage of the arts, and, in spite of John's repeated personal failures, the immense, politically creative prestige of the king of France.
There is no adequate biography of John in English. The best and most recent discussion of John's reign and its contemporary background is in Kenneth Fowler, The Age of Plantagenet and Valois (1967). A lengthier discussion is in E. Perroy, The Hundred Years War (1945; trans. 1951). The contemporary view of John's reign is in Jean Froissart, The Chronicles of England, France, and Spain (many editions). □ | <urn:uuid:b7346a75-941b-4232-bd51-4aed19c070eb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/history/polish-history-biographies/john-ii-poland | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00530.warc.gz | en | 0.980359 | 5,135 | 3.96875 | 4 | [
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0.401191800832... | 1 | John II (Poland)
John II (1455-1495) of Portugal, sometimes called "the Perfect Prince," ruled during a crucial period in European history that marked the start of the Age of Exploration. From his ascension to the throne in 1481 until his death fourteen years later, John II's royal treasury financed numerous expeditions that mapped out the African coast. Convinced that India lay on the other side of Africa, he even sent explorers overland. To the Portuguese, he was a much loved regent who curbed the power of the nobles, maintained peace with Spain, and became a great patron of Renaissance art.
John II was named after his great-grandfather, who secured Portugal's independence in the 1380s and founded the House of Aviz royal line. By the time of his arrival in May of 1455, alliances with other European royal lines had given the Aviz family English, French, and Spanish blood. His father, King Alfonso V, was even cousin to the ruling English monarch, Henry VI. Queen Isabel, however, died when John and his older sister Joana were still very young, and both grew close to their aunt, Filipa, an artist and scholar who wrote the first extant poetry by a Portuguese woman.
John was provided with an education suitable for a royal, which included fluency in Latin and a knowledge of science and art. He was betrothed to his cousin in a politically advantageous match, and married Leonor, of the powerful Braganca line, in January of 1471. He was 15 at the time, and his spouse just 12. Later in 1471, he won his knighthood, as was the Aviz tradition, in battle with his father in Morocco. Subjugation of the Moors, who had occupied Portugal after 700 C.E. for a few hundred years and still held part of Spain, was a preoccupation with the Aviz dynasty, and this was the third foray across the Straits of Gibraltar by his father alone. In August, their forces took a seaside fortress, Arzila, and the city of Tangier surrendered.
Mapped Coast of Africa
The year 1471 was also an important one in the annals of exploration, for Portuguese navigators, mapping out the coast of Africa, crossed the Equator for the first time. A 1454 papal decree granted the Portuguese throne sovereignty over this area, and explorers had been planting wooden crosses along the West African shores since. They also held the Azores Islands by the time of John's adulthood, which had become a grazing ground for large herds of Portuguese cattle, and the island of Madeira was producing sugar cane that Portugal exported to the rest of Europe.
In 1474, Alfonso gave John control of the Guineas, the large area situated east of the horn of Africa. It contained rich fisheries, black pepper, and ivory, and reports returned from traders about hairy, human-like animals who lived in trees there and could not be caught. A son with Leonor, named Alfonso in honor of his grandfather, was born in 1475. That same year, the monarch granted John full authority in Portugal before he departed to do battle at Toro against the Castilian empire of Spain. The widowed Alfonso had become enamored of a dispossessed princess, and went to war on her behalf. It was at his father's court at Toro that John met Ana de Mendoca, and a child, Jorge, resulted from their romance.
Reined in Noble Class
For a time, John commanded troops for his father, but the venture was a disastrous one, and Alfonso abdicated his throne to his son in September of 1477. He was proclaimed king at the royal palace at Santarem on November 10, 1477. His father disappeared to a Franciscan monastery, and the war simmered on until the Treaty of Alcocovas concluded it in 1479. Two years later his father died in 1481 at Sintra, and John formally became ruler of Portugal.
John assembled his first Cortes at Evora in November of 1481. The Cortes was a meeting of the clergy, the homens bon ("good men") who led Portugal's concelhos, or free boroughs, and the noble class, who were known as fidalgos ("filhos de Algo," or sons of somebody). No laws were passed at a Cortes, which only the king could call, but debates were held and complaints heard. The fidalgos were descendants of the Visigoths and enjoyed great prestige; under the preoccupied Alfonso V, they grew enriched and emboldened. They attempted to influence the courts, demanded increased tribute of wine and corn, and encroached upon the rights of the concelhos. At the first Cortes, the new king, determined to curb these abuses, had his advisors draw up a new oath of allegiance for the fidalgos, and compelled them to take it. The Duke of Braganca, whose family had enjoyed privileges since the 1440s as descendants of John I, was particularly incensed.
Convinced India Lay to the East
Meanwhile, the new regent looked to expand his empire in other places. On December 12, an expedition set sail to establish a fortress and trading post in the Gulf of Guinea at Elmina. This was known as Sao Jorge da Mina, named after the king's favorite saint, George. It was the first European colony in equatorial Africa, and the gold mine there enriched John's royal treasury enormously. It allowed the king to fund further expeditions, and Portuguese explorers began taking large granite pillars with them to plant in the ground instead of wooden crosses. Called padraos, the pillars featured the Aviz coat of arms as well as the bronze cross of the Order of Christ, the knightly order that emerged from the disbanded Knights of the Templar after the Crusades. John, as ruler, was master of the secret Order, and many of the navigators and sea captains who explored for Portugal belonged to it.
In 1482, John sent Diogo Cao and the first of the padraos to find the end of the African coast. At the time, it was thought that the continent perhaps extended all the way to the Arctic regions. Cao was unsuccessful in his goal, but he did find the mouth of the great Congo River, which was unlike any ever seen by a European, and a populous kingdom there. After meeting with its king, Cao left some Portuguese behind and returned to Portugal with a delegation of Africans, who fascinated John. They were given lavish quarters and feted at state banquets. But internal problems troubled the king during this same year: it was suspected that the Duke of Braganca had made contact with the Castilian royal family in preparation for a possible move against Portugal. The king was informed, and had the duke, Fernando II, arrested. He was sentenced to death and executed for treason in 1484.
John continued to send ships out to find the end of Africa. Finally, in 1488, the Portuguese Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope and reached the other side of Africa. Lacking provisions to continue, he returned to Portugal with the news that a passage to India had been found. Since the time of the Crusades and Marco Polo, trade with the Orient had brought spices, silks, and other exotic goods into Europe. However, these goods traveled overland a great distance, through the desert of the Middle East and through treacherous lands; taxes and highway robbery made them prohibitively expensive by the time they reached Portugal and the end of the European continent. If Portugal could find the sea route, they might profit handsomely from the trade.
John II and Columbus
There are theories that Christopher Columbus was actually a well-born Portuguese, not an Italian, and was part of John's elaborate ruse to keep the Spanish monarchs-Ferdinand and Isabella, whose marriage united Castile and Aragon-from discovering the route to India and claiming it for themselves. Most historians agree that Columbus first tried to interest John in his expedition across the Atlantic, but that the king was supposedly uninterested, and so Columbus went to Spain for funding instead. The alternate theory holds that Columbus was sent to Ferdinand and Isabella to convince them that the riches of India could be reached by sailing west. Far from being the misguided navigator that popular myth holds, historians concede that Columbus was a learned man, like many of the Portuguese seafarers, and may have been a member of the Order of Christ as well. Many in the Order were well aware that a large land mass lay on the other side of the Atlantic. A member had sailed to an island off the coast of Brazil as early as 1438, and the Portuguese knew that Basque fishermen from northern Spain made regular forays to the cod fisheries near Newfoundland.
When Columbus returned to Europe from conquering the Caribbean islands of the Bahamas, the Dominican Republic, and Haiti for Spain, he met first with John in Lisbon. There followed negotiations between Portugal and Spain over territorial rights in the New World. To Portugal, according to a 1480 continuation of the Alcocovas treaty called the Treaty of Toledo, was reserved the Cape Verde islands, "and any other lands that are found or conquered below the Canary Islands and the west of Guinea." Columbus's discoveries lay south of the Canaries, and so negotiations with Spain followed. In 1493 Pope Alexander VI resolved the dispute. The dividing line between what Spain and Portugal might explore and claim was to be west of the Azores; Spain's share was to the west, while territory on the eastern side of the line was Portugal's. This meant that John-whose famed grand-uncle Henry the Navigator had concluded that India was on the other side of Africa-was granted the continent of Africa as well as the Orient.
A Triumph of Diplomatic Trickery
The full Treaty of Tordesillas, signed on June 7, 1494 between John and the Spanish monarchs, set the dividing line another 370 leagues to the west of the Archipelago of Cape Verde, which assured Portugal of rights over Brazil, too. But there would be few years left in his life to enjoy these triumphs. His son and heir, Alfonso VI, had fallen from a horse at Santarem, and died in the hut of fishermen a few years before. John's illegitimate son Jorge became heir to the throne, and this caused marital tension between him and Isabella.
In October of 1495, the king fell ill and died within a week. Near his death, John decreed that his cousin, the duke of Beja, should succeed him. His successor was called Manuel the Fortunate, and he ruled until 1521. During his reign, John's foresight for expansion bore full fruit for Portugal. Its overseas empire expanded terrifically: just three years after his death, Vasco da Gama's ships reached India. Brazil was formally claimed in 1500, the Indian coastal kingdom of Goa captured in 1510, and a port in China, Macao, was ruled as a colony of Portugal from 1557 to 1999, outlasting even the world's most famous colony, the British-held Hong Kong.
John left a legacy as a benevolent ruler. He took in Jewish refugees from Spain's famous 1492 expulsion, and founded what was the most modern medical facility in the world at the time, All Saints Hospital in Lisbon in 1492. In 1498, his widow Leonor founded a charity to aid the poor and cure the sick, the Brotherhood of Our Lady of Mercy, also known as Misericordia. As a testimony to his influence, it was John's Castilian foes who nicknamed him El Principe Perfecto, or the Perfect Prince.
Barreto, Mascarenhas, The Portuguese Columbus: Secret Agent of King John II, translated by Reginald A. Brown, St. Martin's, 1992.
Sanceau, Elaine, The Perfect Prince: A Biography of the King Dom Joao II, Livraria Civilizacao-Editora, 1959. □
King of france
Famous Family . One of the greatest royal families of the French Middle Ages was the Valois dynasty. In the course of the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries, the Valois became dukes and countesses (for example, Louis, Duke of Orleans, and Jeanne, Countess of Bar), empresses and queens (for example, Catherine of Constantinople and Madeleine of Scotland), archbishops and abbesses (for example, Michel de Buey and Madeleine of Orleans), and after 1328 the kings of France when the Capetian Charles IV died leaving no sons. The Valois had in fact started out as nobles—their rise to power stemmed from their having created a lineage from Charles, Count of Valois, the brother of King Philip IV the Fair of France. Hardly a pivotal figure in the rise to power of the Valois, the renown of John II in particular would rest in part on his role in creating a more modern system of French coinage.
Political Connections . The reign of John II (1350–1364) was determined by his father, Philip VI, who became the first Valois king in the early fourteenth century to give continuity to the French crown under succession claims from the English king, Edward III. The threat from English royalty was to play an important part in the early Valois’ strength. Under Philip VI, the French royal council became the dynasty’s strongest supporters against King Edward III. Philip’s son, John, also became thereby the most powerful representative of the French throne, despite his inability to exert the necessary political influence over a reform-minded nobility, a power-hungry bourgeoisie, and his own opportunistic courtiers. In 1356 day-to-day control of the kingdom fell to his son, heir apparent Charles V, who took charge of trying to raise the ransom sum of twelve and one-half tons of gold, three millions ecus, to free his father from English imprisonment stemming from his capture at the Battle of Poitiers. The English crown freed King John II in 1360 on four conditions: the signing of the Treaty of Brétigny-Calais; the relinquishing by France of about half its continental territory; the paying of a king’s ransom; and the retention of surrogate hostages.
Branching Effects . The fortunes of the French economy had been growing all the more precarious under the Valois’s reign. A series of monetary debasements were instituted from 1337 with the beginning of the Hundred Years’ War (1337–1453) between France and England. Unlike the English royalty of the fourteenth century, which had extremely circumscribed taxation rights, historically each of the French kings had been granted a great deal of autonomy in levying. As war began, however, to take a larger share of their tax revenues, only devaluation seemed to insulate them against the losses in real terms. King John II instituted several economic reforms upon his release from English captivity. A new system was introduced to prevent a full-blown monetary crisis from bringing down the French economy: the Pied de Monnaie system denoted with one number the intrinsic worth of a coin with respect to its weight and fineness, with reference to the sound money of 1329. New taxes were ordered, the most unpopular being the gabelle (tax on salt).
Ruler of His Destiny . As monetarists, the Valois were enabled to pay about one-third of King John’s ransom, with, in addition, three of his fourteen children playing a major role in his release, as surrogate hostages. John’s primary activities once at liberty were aimed at his indebtedness to the English crown, and he was able to find support by unusual means through economic maneuvers, making himself ruler of France again in everything but power. Through connections with a rich duke in Milan, Galeas Visconti, John managed to have his daughter Isabelle, age twelve, sold into marriage for more than another one-third of his English ransom amount. Indeed, France was so buoyed at his liberation that the royal mint marked the event by releasing a new gold coin. This first commemorative French coin backfired in spirit, however. When one of the king’s sons, Louis of Anjou, was reported in 1364 to have escaped from his prison in Calais ostensibly to go on crusade, the king himself returned to England as hostage to restore the family honor. Until his death in April of that year in London, the king’s imprisonment set the tone for a return to regency in France.
Patron of Knights . John’s rule not only influenced the distribution of economic power in France and England, but it also affected medieval chivalric life. He promoted the military pursuits of knights through the foundation of a new chivalric order, the Order of the Star. He was particularly active in military encounters himself in the Hundred Years’ War. The Order of the Star became his centerpiece military entourage. John supported a new knights’ order to instill bravery through oaths of steadfastness in battle. His ideals came under challenge in the Battle of Poitiers, where he saw most of the Order’s members killed. The Order of the Star, started in 1351, nonetheless set the standard for a national chivalric order. Its attire, the red cloak bearing a huge black star of eight points, and motto, “They show the way to kings by the star,” guaranteed the predominance of the king’s military order. In his own prowess on horseback and as patron of knights, John sustained a chivalric code of military conduct that would not persist for long with his successors.
Image Concerns . John’s interest in coinage was partly prompted by his worries about how his captivity had affected his royal/knightly image. The Order of the Star, for example, had not survived his years as a prisoner in London. The king became strongly attached to minted symbolic representations also as a counterpoint to the stresses on the economy. On the first coin he issued, the Franc à Cheval, at 3.764 grams of pure gold, he made sure there was a worthy representation: the king in full armor on horseback holding his sword in his left hand. He also, however, took special pains at humility, complementing an obverse caption, “John, King of the Franks, by God’s grace,” with a reverse motif of a cross bedecked with flowers surrounded by the caption “May Christ conquer, rule and reign.” With his release from captivity, the king chose to create his own sense of freedom through the newly “franchised” (hence the word franc) coinage.
Collapse of Royal Strength . French royal strength began seriously to falter with John’s first imprisonment in 1356. Even before being captured, the Valois had focused more on his image and patronage roles than on sound rule. Charles V became, however, an active behind-the-scenes ruler of France and a major support to his father during his captivity. He forged per force administrative ties with the leading merchants of Paris who under the leadership of Etienne Marcel, in league with John’s cousin, Charles “the Bad,” King of Navarre, had arisen in revolt. Even as the political alliances in Paris were collapsing in 1356, two years later, the standing of Charles V’s economic strength in his own county of Dauphiné could no longer depend on the resources of the peasantry. Royal demands for contributions in labor and money to aid in the king’s ransom were met by a peasant rebellion, the Jacquerie.
Impact . With the imprisonment of King John II, Charles V had to step in to take the lead in political and economic rule. Charles V was in the long run to prove to be a much more competent administrator. His greater prominence earned him the title of Charles “the Wise,” as opposed to his father’s John ”Bon Homme” (Good Fellow). Nevertheless, the close relationship between father and son and the kingdom was to remain a defining feature of the early generations of the Valois dynasty. While Louis of Anjou, too, would acquire royal power as King of Naples, Sicily, and Jerusalem in 1382, after having become the adopted son of Jeanne I, Queen of Naples, much of his father’s positive legacy would stem from his act to cleanse the “blemished honor to the lineage,” which his son’s escape had caused.
Anne Denieul-Cormier, Wise and Foolish Kings: The First House of Valois, 1328–1498 (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1980).
Henneman, Royal Taxation in Fourteenth-Century France: The Development of War Financing, 13227ndash;1356 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1971).
John II (1319-1364) was king of France from 1350 to 1364. Stubborn and greedy, he refused to heed good advice, and his reign was marked by social and economic crises.
The son of Philip VI of France and Jeanne of Burgundy, at the age of 13 John was married to Bonne of Luxemburg. He began his military career in 1340, as the commander of royal military forces in Hainaut. In 1341 he was his father's lieutenant in Brittany, and in 1344 he held the same office in Languedoc.
Shortly after his coronation in 1350, John II began the round of banquets, festivals, and tournaments that characterized his reign, and he continued the recently established French royal tradition of lavishly dispensing artistic patronage. His ill-considered attachment to favorites, however, created hostility among the higher nobility, and his employment of men in high public office who exploited their power for private gain contributed substantially to the crisis of public finance that culminated in the 1350s, a point of economic crisis for all of Christendom.
John's inability or unwillingness to deal with political crises diplomatically alienated his powerful cousin and rival Charles (the Bad) of Navarre, who remained John's most dangerous subject throughout his reign. In 1355 the war with the king of England, later called the Hundred Years War (1339-1453), resumed. John sustained a stunning defeat by Edward the Black Prince at Poitiers on Sept. 19, 1356. Captured by the English, he was taken in 1357 to England as a prisoner until his enormous ransom could be paid.
John's misrule had created a social and economic crisis in France. As early as 1351 the coinage, for example, had to be debased, and his humiliation and disaster at Poitiers inspired a revolutionary faction of the Estates General to make strong demands for reform upon the regent, John's son Charles, later King Charles V. From 1356 to 1358 these demands and the later uprising known as the Jacquerie threatened France with political and social chaos. By 1359, however, Charles had managed to restore some public order, and in 1360 he signed the Treaty of Brétigny, which set John's ransom at an impossibly high figure, and promised to give hostages to the English until the ransom was paid.
John returned to France to resume his governance and raise his ransom, but with little success or good judgment in either project. In 1363 one of his sons escaped from the English, to whom he had been given as a hostage for his father. John II returned voluntarily to England to finish his own captivity. He died in England in April 1364.
Although John's reign failed to guide France in its quarrel with England or forestall its economic and social crisis, it did witness the beginning of a standing army, the regularization of extraordinary taxation, the patronage of the arts, and, in spite of John's repeated personal failures, the immense, politically creative prestige of the king of France.
There is no adequate biography of John in English. The best and most recent discussion of John's reign and its contemporary background is in Kenneth Fowler, The Age of Plantagenet and Valois (1967). A lengthier discussion is in E. Perroy, The Hundred Years War (1945; trans. 1951). The contemporary view of John's reign is in Jean Froissart, The Chronicles of England, France, and Spain (many editions). □ | 5,276 | ENGLISH | 1 |
From your reading of poetry, show how two or three of the poems may have given you a new different sense of poetry or of human experience, and comment on how these effects were achieved in the poetry. Refer to poems of at least two different poets. Poets often describe a scene for us to absorb or understand. Occasionally they feed us ideas to make us wonder, question and think. I have chosen the poems “Hitler’s first photograph” and “The Captain of the1964 Top of the Form team” because they show us how time changes situations.
The poem “The Captain of the 1964 Top of the Form team” is written in the first person and is therefore is a more personal poem; the persona is a man yearning to capture the glories of his lost youth. It has a very nostalgic tone that makes it more intense and meaningful. It makes us think that as we get older things do change, and not always for the better: “I want it back. The captain. The one with all the answers”.
The persona in this poem was a very successful teenager: he was intelligent, confident, had an intense social life, he “lived in a kind of fizzing hope”, he had great expectations for the future. However, when he enters into adulthood nothing is as good, he is not as successful as he hoped to be: “I say to my boss”, he has a boss; “I say to my stale wife”, his sexual life wasn’t as he thought it would be by looking at his teenage years where he was confident and successful with girls. The persona has a frustrated adult life where he is disappointed in what he has turned to be, his life as an adult is not connected to his life as an adolescent.
This poem shows me how, even if you are very popular and successful in your adolescent years, it can all turn around against you and have a very unhappy adult life where you spend a lot of your time looking back at the past with rose-tinted glasses and thinking he could have done so much better with his life. It is a lesson on how we can’t take for granted anything as our future is what we build throughout the years.
The persona in this poem was a very intelligent teenager: “And the photograph. I look so brainy you’d think I’d just had a bath” and had a great future predicted for him: “I ran to the Spinney in my prize shoes, up Churchill Way, up Nelson Drive”, the names of the streets show expectation for adulthood because they have been very successful people; however he either made a mistake or there was a change in his life (the poem doesn’t say what happened) that destroyed his future and made him feel unhappy and frustrated. To show how it all changed Duffy writes a very sinister sentence that evocates the last image of childhood: “I smiled as wide as a child who went missing on the way home from school”. His journey of life has been interrupted by a tragedy and is now gone on a different direction, one which he doesn’t enjoy and which he never wanted.
The poet uses simple and familiar language to make us all related to this poem, as we can very easily have a similar experience to the one the persona has had. Carol Ann Duffy uses very sensual related memories because it is a great aid to nostalgia: “Gargling with Vimto”, “the clever smell of my satchel”; she also uses colloquial language to show that the persona as an adult still hasn’t forgotten his background, when he was a well liked adolescent: “no snags”, “my lips numb as a two-hour snog”; in addition Duffy recalls extracts of songs or pop singers, who became very popular in the sixties: “Do Wah Diddy Diddy, Baby Love, Oh Pretty Woman”, “the Beatles were everywhere else”, ” I pulled my hair forward with a steel comb that I blew like Mick”, “The first cord of A Hard Day’s Night loud in my head”
The most important aspect that the persona recalls is all the knowledge that he had in his young years, this shows us how as times change we usually end up being strangers of the world that we live in because we no longer understand it, the poet expresses this by comparing all his knowledge in the first three stanzas (adolescence period): “The Nile rises in April”, “I knew the capitals, the Kings and Queens, the dates”, “the white sleeve of my shirt saluted again and again. Sir!…Correct.”, “Dominus domine dominum” “The blazer. The badge. The tie.” ; and his ignorance in the fourth and last stanza (adulthood): “Name the Prime Minister of Rhodesia”, “How many florins in a pound?”.
All the questions he asks his children are not valid anymore because neither Rhodesia nor florins exist anymore, however he is not capable of understanding this and he instead calls them “thick kids”. He is stuck in the past, and this is something that can happen to all of us and condition the rest of our life. This poem has showed me that we can’t keep thinking about what we used to be, but we have to think of the day to day, Carpe Diem. | <urn:uuid:eca0fde9-1232-4b20-b2ae-d6b4b868c640> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ozziessays.com/essay-on-poetry-and-comment-3889/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00207.warc.gz | en | 0.983412 | 1,178 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.07195144891738... | 1 | From your reading of poetry, show how two or three of the poems may have given you a new different sense of poetry or of human experience, and comment on how these effects were achieved in the poetry. Refer to poems of at least two different poets. Poets often describe a scene for us to absorb or understand. Occasionally they feed us ideas to make us wonder, question and think. I have chosen the poems “Hitler’s first photograph” and “The Captain of the1964 Top of the Form team” because they show us how time changes situations.
The poem “The Captain of the 1964 Top of the Form team” is written in the first person and is therefore is a more personal poem; the persona is a man yearning to capture the glories of his lost youth. It has a very nostalgic tone that makes it more intense and meaningful. It makes us think that as we get older things do change, and not always for the better: “I want it back. The captain. The one with all the answers”.
The persona in this poem was a very successful teenager: he was intelligent, confident, had an intense social life, he “lived in a kind of fizzing hope”, he had great expectations for the future. However, when he enters into adulthood nothing is as good, he is not as successful as he hoped to be: “I say to my boss”, he has a boss; “I say to my stale wife”, his sexual life wasn’t as he thought it would be by looking at his teenage years where he was confident and successful with girls. The persona has a frustrated adult life where he is disappointed in what he has turned to be, his life as an adult is not connected to his life as an adolescent.
This poem shows me how, even if you are very popular and successful in your adolescent years, it can all turn around against you and have a very unhappy adult life where you spend a lot of your time looking back at the past with rose-tinted glasses and thinking he could have done so much better with his life. It is a lesson on how we can’t take for granted anything as our future is what we build throughout the years.
The persona in this poem was a very intelligent teenager: “And the photograph. I look so brainy you’d think I’d just had a bath” and had a great future predicted for him: “I ran to the Spinney in my prize shoes, up Churchill Way, up Nelson Drive”, the names of the streets show expectation for adulthood because they have been very successful people; however he either made a mistake or there was a change in his life (the poem doesn’t say what happened) that destroyed his future and made him feel unhappy and frustrated. To show how it all changed Duffy writes a very sinister sentence that evocates the last image of childhood: “I smiled as wide as a child who went missing on the way home from school”. His journey of life has been interrupted by a tragedy and is now gone on a different direction, one which he doesn’t enjoy and which he never wanted.
The poet uses simple and familiar language to make us all related to this poem, as we can very easily have a similar experience to the one the persona has had. Carol Ann Duffy uses very sensual related memories because it is a great aid to nostalgia: “Gargling with Vimto”, “the clever smell of my satchel”; she also uses colloquial language to show that the persona as an adult still hasn’t forgotten his background, when he was a well liked adolescent: “no snags”, “my lips numb as a two-hour snog”; in addition Duffy recalls extracts of songs or pop singers, who became very popular in the sixties: “Do Wah Diddy Diddy, Baby Love, Oh Pretty Woman”, “the Beatles were everywhere else”, ” I pulled my hair forward with a steel comb that I blew like Mick”, “The first cord of A Hard Day’s Night loud in my head”
The most important aspect that the persona recalls is all the knowledge that he had in his young years, this shows us how as times change we usually end up being strangers of the world that we live in because we no longer understand it, the poet expresses this by comparing all his knowledge in the first three stanzas (adolescence period): “The Nile rises in April”, “I knew the capitals, the Kings and Queens, the dates”, “the white sleeve of my shirt saluted again and again. Sir!…Correct.”, “Dominus domine dominum” “The blazer. The badge. The tie.” ; and his ignorance in the fourth and last stanza (adulthood): “Name the Prime Minister of Rhodesia”, “How many florins in a pound?”.
All the questions he asks his children are not valid anymore because neither Rhodesia nor florins exist anymore, however he is not capable of understanding this and he instead calls them “thick kids”. He is stuck in the past, and this is something that can happen to all of us and condition the rest of our life. This poem has showed me that we can’t keep thinking about what we used to be, but we have to think of the day to day, Carpe Diem. | 1,082 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It was December 1918 when a war that lasted eight months, erupted between the Republic of Lithuania and the Proto-Soviet Union, a mere the month after the end of the first World War. This conflict was simply a part of the Soviets’ large-scale westward offensive between December 1918 – August, 1919. A campaign that led the Soviets to go into areas that were abandoned by the Ober Ost (Ober Ost were known as the Supreme Commander of all German Forces in the East during WWI) that were being withdrawn back to Germany, after its defeat. This assault pursued the retreating German units with the simple aim of combining Poland and the Baltic States (being Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia) into the Soviet Union.
When the Soviet forces made contact with the Lithuanian borders, with around 18,000 men (5,000 of which were Lithuanian), there wasn’t much opposition towards the Soviet assault. This left them to their own devices claiming one Lithuanian town after another.
By the end of January 1919, about 2/3 of Lithuanian territory was under the Soviets’ control. The Soviets were brought to a halt near the Venta river by Latvian and German units, which allowed the front to partially stabilize and the southern part of Lithuania was better protected so they became complacent.
As the Germans were retreating from Ukraine through Hrodna, the Germans and Soviets signed a treaty on the 18th of January. This treaty was to draw a temporary border of sorts, a clear-cut line that went through Daugai, Stakliškės and about just over six miles east of Kaišiadorys – Jonava railway. At the time, Kaunas was the temporary capital city of Lithuania. During the interwar period, this treaty prohibited the Bolshevik military from conducting an assault on Kaunas, the 2nd largest Lithuanian city.
The Soviets needed to surround Kaunas and strike through Kėdainiai or Alytus to be able to take the temporary capital. However, on the 7th of February, the operation to take Kaunas initiated, and the 2nd rifle regiment of the Lithuanian division of about 1,000 men launched their assault on Kėdainiai.
Under the command of Jonas Variakojis, there were only a couple of hundred Lithuanian military men from Panevėžys. They endured the Soviets advance at close proximity to Kėdainiai with the help of the German military and they successfully stood their ground.
On the 9th of February, the Soviet 7th rifle regiment successfully seized Jieznas, but an assault was initiated by local Lithuanians from Kaunas and the nearby city of Prienai. Even though the Lithuanian forces were only 300 men strong, they successfully pushed the Soviets back. This was achievable because, just before the Red army could strengthen their position in Jieznas, they were betrayed by their own commander and thus they were overcome by the locals.
Lithuanian and German forces pushed back the Bolsheviks that were based close to Kėdainiai into withdrawal, and, by the 10th of February, successfully seized Seta (about 22.3 km outside of Kėdainiai.) This victory helped lift up morale in the Lithuanian forces and helped in preventing the Soviets from surrounding and taking Kaunas from the north.
After such a defeat for the Soviets at Jieznas, they did not surrender and continued their advance on Kaunas. On the 12th of February, about 2,000 men formed the 3rd and 4th Soviet regiment. Both regiments initiated their assault south of Kaunas in the city of Alytus. The 1st formed Lithuanian infantry regiment could not endure the pressure from the Soviets as it had no backing from the German military, thus the regiment had to pull back towards Marijampolė and Prienai.
Between the 14th of February through to the 15th of February, one company of Lithuanian forces, supported by German units, returned to Alytus and claimed it back from the Soviets, successfully defended Kaunas yet again and the front was stable once more for some time. After the loss of Alytus, the Soviets received new instructions, commanding to withdraw from their offensive position and to instead take a more defensive approach. This change worked in favour of the Lithuanian military as it was able to instruct and coordinate their enlistees.
The Soviet international division of approximately 3,000 men took over the Samogitia region in Northern Lithuania, in an attempt to reach the Baltic sea to block the Latvians from getting any German provisions, with the aim of weakening their enemy. In northern Lithuania it was mostly local communists that were operational. Their most sizable attainment was that of a 1,000-man Samogitian regiment that was full of Russian POWs, Criminals and German defectors. This regiment was under the command of one man: Feliksas Baltušis-Žemaiti, a Lithuanian Red army major general.
There were no units of any other Lithuanian locals in Samogitia apart for the partisans in the city of Skuodas. These partisans were assembled together by two brothers: Povilas Plechavičius and Aleksandras Plechavičius.
In the end the Bolsheviks were ordered to head towards East Prussia. This movement by the Soviets brought great concern to Germany; they dispatched enlistees under the command of General Rüdiger von der Goltz. As the end of February approached, the Lithuanian partisans, who were assisted by the German military, successfully seized control of Mažeikiai and the city of Seda. These accomplishments allowed them to chase the Bolsheviks to Kuršėnai (positioned between the cities of Telšiai and Šiauliai.)
On the 27th of February, the Samogitian communist regiment faced its crushing defeat near Luokė at the hands of German enlistees backed up by Plechavičius partisans and partisans from the city of Joniškėlis. After the defeat, the Samogitian regiment dispersed, and, by Mid-March, the German military seized control over Kuršėnai, Joniškėlis, Šiauliai, Radviliškis and then came to a halt. After such a substantial push, the Joniškėlis’ partisans were able to continue guarding the front along the Mūša river and the Lithuanian military gradually established themselves for an offensive assault against the Soviets.
Subsequently, Panevėžys volunteer regiment seized its position and grew its strength after the battle of Kėdainiai. Once this regiment reached a certain amount of power, they began to carry out small excursions into neighbouring towns and cities. Their fundamental objective was simple: cripple the enemy unit’s morale and heighten the morale of local residents and Lithuanian enlistees. This campaign to diminish the Soviets’ spirit was a successful one, and it showed when the Bolshevik units based in Panevėžys and Kupiškis rebelled. They were, however, only crushed by a separation in the Soviet military in nearby Latvia. This catastrophe made the Bolsheviks morale undergo further deterioration, and, between the 19th of March and the 24th of March, the Bolsheviks abandoned Panevėžys.
On the 26th of March, the Lithuanian military made its move in the city and seized control. This only lasted until 4th of April when the Soviet military claimed the city once more. On the 5th of March, the Lithuanian government issued mobilisation of all men born amidst 1887 and 1889, which rapidly increased the headcount of the Lithuanian military, and by the 3rd of May the official number of able men reached to 440 officers and 10,729 privates. Ultimately, only a fraction of the men were trained properly, outfitted and assigned to their military units.
From the month of February through to April, the Lithuanian military was vigorously undergoing training and a chain of command was finally established. Brand-new military units were assembled. Following that Lithuania received a fresh cargo of artillery, munitions and crisp uniforms for the Lithuanian soldiers.
With the military gaining its supplies, it wasn’t long before the first offensive was set on course. The first offensive was executed between the 3rd of April and the 8th of April 1919. At the time, the Polish military got involved and the Lithuanians made sure to take advantage of the Polish assaults against the Soviets in the Hradna area in order to assess enemy vigour and seize back control of their official capital, Vilnius. The Southern troops were formed on the basis of the 1st gunner regiment, under the leadership of Kazys Ladiga. This regiment was to attack from Alytus and along the Daugai-Valkininkai line (about 35 km from one side to another.)
The northern troops assembled on the basis of the 2nd gunner regiment under the leadership of Juozas Butkus and was to commence an assault from Kaišiadorys and along the Žasliai-Vievis line (about 32.5 km in total.) Both assaults were successful at the beginning, however, due to the lack of support from German military, the Soviets assembled their units and put a halt to the Lithuanian advance. As their flanks on either side were not defended, the Lithuanian military came to the conclusion to withdraw from its offensive position.
The Polish military kept applying pressure on the Soviets through their large-scale assaults, causing the Lithuanian military to make the appropriate adjustments in its approach. On the 26th of April, General Silvestras Žukauskas was nominated as Chief of Staff. Not long after he assumed his role, Silvestras decided to mount an offensive assault in Northeastern Lithuania. The first target he assigned was to seize control Ukmergė, and, on the 3rd of May, the Panevėžys enlistee regiment that was being assisted by the 18th regiment of Saxon enlistees, successfully secured the city.
This objective was no easy task to achieve; it had very high risks as it left Kėdainiai (a city north of Kaunas) undefended and, as such, it opened a direct path to Lithuania’s temporary capital. Even with such a risk, it didn’t matter as the undertaking of this operation was a successful one, with the Lithuanian military also taking in about 500 Soviets as prisoners and about 50 Polish men, who were apprehended by the Soviet military in skirmishes that were occurring near the city of Vilnius. At the time, Poland and Lithuania were still civil, so the Polish men that were apprehended by the Soviets were freed and they returned home to Poland.
On the 7th of May General Zukauskas assumed command of the entire Lithuanian army. This transpired to be one of the best things to happen as he initiated a complete overhaul of the Lithuanian military, splitting it into two separate groups. The first company was assigned the city of Ukmergė and was given the name of ‘Vilkmergė group‘. This group also consisted of a battalion of Saxon enlistees. The second company was named the ‘Panevėžys group‘. Both groups had their own objectives: the first company was charged with pushing along the Utena-Zarasai line, and the second company was charged with seizing back control of Panevėžys and then to push along the Kupiškis-Rokiškis-Obeliai line. At first, the company was commanded by Jonas Variakojis and was aided by Joniškėlis partisans from the north. The Lithuanian military made its entrance into Širvintos, where they came across Polish troops, so decided to cooperate together to mount a joint operation to take Giedraičiai (just over 23 km distance from Širvintos) on the 9th of May.
It was the 18th of May when the freshly restructured Lithuanian military executed its initial operation, and the first battalion, the Vilkmergė company, seized control of Kurkliai and Anykščiai. On the same day, the Panevėžys company launched its own assault on the city of Panevėžys, successfully capturing it on the 19th of May. Even though the Panevėžys company was prosperous in its offensive, the Bolsheviks retaliated on the 21st of May. Regardless of the fact the Soviet military put in the supplies and effort to capture the city again, they left Panevėžys without confrontation just two days later.
On the 2nd of May Lithuanian military launched an assault on the city of Utena, however they were confronted by a counterattack from the Soviet army, which forced the Lithuanian units to fall back. The fall back was a strategic move by the Lithuanian military; it gave them a chance to adjust their strategy for the next assault on Utena (which took place on the 31st of May). This time the attack was successful. The Lithuanian army seized control of Utena on the 2nd of June.
Following the group’s success at Panevėžys, they then manoeuvred towards Kupiškis and captured the city of Subačius. On the 30th of May, partisans from Joniškėlis, perforated through enemy lines and took Rokiškis. After the success of the Lithuanian army at Rokiškis, the Soviet military were apprehensive that the Lithuanians would surround them. Taking this into consideration, on the night of the 30th of May through to the 31st they abandoned the city of Kupiškis, allowing the Lithuanian military to seize the city on the 1st of June.
This was just the beginning of a more stable and successful Lithuanian army who were pushing out the Soviet military. After the acquisition of Utena, the Saxon enlistees felt confident enough to leave the front and, by Mid-July 1919, they left Lithuania. Even though the Saxons left, the Lithuanian military was determined and kept putting pressure on the Soviet military. On the 10th of June, they entered the territory under the control of Latvian partisans and provided them with supplies. Two days later, the Soviet military launched a counterattack on the Lithuanians, which brought them to a halt.
On the 20th of June the Soviet military initiated another assault, however, they were cornered in a small region around Zarasai close to the Latvian border. Due to this attack on the Soviets, and the Polish military increasing threat towards the Soviet military, the front was stabilized. The Soviets were reticent for well over a month (there were a few episodes involving scouts and outpost watchmen, but nothing major).
The Red army was making the most of this time to rearrange and toughen their military by making their position more secure. They began utilizing natural barriers like waterways, lakes and hills and they strengthened these barriers by placing barbed wire and creating trenches. Even though the Soviet military had an extensive military force, it was not enough to withstand a well-constructed plan to advance Daugavpils (Latvia). The assault was to take place on the 9th of August, however the plans were pushed back to the 23rd of August as the Ukmergė company made their move on the city first and through that they successfully captured Zarasai two days later.
The Lithuanian military moved about 30 km into Soviet domain. Once again, neither side of their flanks were defended by the Polish or their own Panevėžys company. The day after the seize of Zarasai, the Panevėžys company made headway with the Polish military at their side, following the railroad towards the town of Turmantas. The Lithuanian company was able to navigate around the former reinforced Soviet position, putting intense pressure on the Soviet military as they had to pull back.
Gathering in Daugavpils, the Lithuanian – Soviet front was cut down, meaning the Lithuanian military was able to focus its forces. Not long after, on the 28th of August 1919, the Soviets began pulling back to the north across the Daugava River (which goes through Latvia mostly) and, two days later, the only place that was still under Soviet control was Griva a neighboruhood outside of the city of Daugavpils. Once the Soviets were pushed out of Lithuanian land, the front was stable again. Both military units were divided by the Daugava River, although this worked in favour for the main Lithuanian military whose strength was then able to be redistributed in other areas of Lithuania. This also included holding down and defending the line with Poland.
In the end, there were some issues… Possibly some of those were planned assaults on the Bormentians in the Northern area of Lithuania, calling claim to the territory that was seized by soldiers for themselves and completely ignoring Latvia’s objective stance. This, of course, only led to further conflicts but instead it was between Lithuanian and Latvian military. Through British intervention, the matter in regard to the Lithuanian – Latvian border was resolved in March 1921. Not long after this, Poland lay claims for territory in Lithuania, and a focus on the region of Vilnius, and it was these claims that caused yet another conflict to occur. There were three wars in total that formed the Lithuanian wars of independence; The Lithuanian-Soviet war (also known as the Lithuanian-Bolshevik war), The Lithuanian-Bormentians war and the Polish-Lithuanian war.
In the end, this was a complicated situation, and the best person to describe it all was Ivor Norman Richard Davies, a British-Polish historian. He stated, “The German army was supporting the Lithuanian nationalists, and the Soviets were supporting the Lithuanian communists, and the Polish military was fighting everyone.” | <urn:uuid:1eb28d88-5311-4f49-af02-97d379f01f2b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://historyharpy.com/europe/lithuania/the-lithuanian-soviet-war-of-1918/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00503.warc.gz | en | 0.981891 | 3,868 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.673719942569... | 2 | It was December 1918 when a war that lasted eight months, erupted between the Republic of Lithuania and the Proto-Soviet Union, a mere the month after the end of the first World War. This conflict was simply a part of the Soviets’ large-scale westward offensive between December 1918 – August, 1919. A campaign that led the Soviets to go into areas that were abandoned by the Ober Ost (Ober Ost were known as the Supreme Commander of all German Forces in the East during WWI) that were being withdrawn back to Germany, after its defeat. This assault pursued the retreating German units with the simple aim of combining Poland and the Baltic States (being Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia) into the Soviet Union.
When the Soviet forces made contact with the Lithuanian borders, with around 18,000 men (5,000 of which were Lithuanian), there wasn’t much opposition towards the Soviet assault. This left them to their own devices claiming one Lithuanian town after another.
By the end of January 1919, about 2/3 of Lithuanian territory was under the Soviets’ control. The Soviets were brought to a halt near the Venta river by Latvian and German units, which allowed the front to partially stabilize and the southern part of Lithuania was better protected so they became complacent.
As the Germans were retreating from Ukraine through Hrodna, the Germans and Soviets signed a treaty on the 18th of January. This treaty was to draw a temporary border of sorts, a clear-cut line that went through Daugai, Stakliškės and about just over six miles east of Kaišiadorys – Jonava railway. At the time, Kaunas was the temporary capital city of Lithuania. During the interwar period, this treaty prohibited the Bolshevik military from conducting an assault on Kaunas, the 2nd largest Lithuanian city.
The Soviets needed to surround Kaunas and strike through Kėdainiai or Alytus to be able to take the temporary capital. However, on the 7th of February, the operation to take Kaunas initiated, and the 2nd rifle regiment of the Lithuanian division of about 1,000 men launched their assault on Kėdainiai.
Under the command of Jonas Variakojis, there were only a couple of hundred Lithuanian military men from Panevėžys. They endured the Soviets advance at close proximity to Kėdainiai with the help of the German military and they successfully stood their ground.
On the 9th of February, the Soviet 7th rifle regiment successfully seized Jieznas, but an assault was initiated by local Lithuanians from Kaunas and the nearby city of Prienai. Even though the Lithuanian forces were only 300 men strong, they successfully pushed the Soviets back. This was achievable because, just before the Red army could strengthen their position in Jieznas, they were betrayed by their own commander and thus they were overcome by the locals.
Lithuanian and German forces pushed back the Bolsheviks that were based close to Kėdainiai into withdrawal, and, by the 10th of February, successfully seized Seta (about 22.3 km outside of Kėdainiai.) This victory helped lift up morale in the Lithuanian forces and helped in preventing the Soviets from surrounding and taking Kaunas from the north.
After such a defeat for the Soviets at Jieznas, they did not surrender and continued their advance on Kaunas. On the 12th of February, about 2,000 men formed the 3rd and 4th Soviet regiment. Both regiments initiated their assault south of Kaunas in the city of Alytus. The 1st formed Lithuanian infantry regiment could not endure the pressure from the Soviets as it had no backing from the German military, thus the regiment had to pull back towards Marijampolė and Prienai.
Between the 14th of February through to the 15th of February, one company of Lithuanian forces, supported by German units, returned to Alytus and claimed it back from the Soviets, successfully defended Kaunas yet again and the front was stable once more for some time. After the loss of Alytus, the Soviets received new instructions, commanding to withdraw from their offensive position and to instead take a more defensive approach. This change worked in favour of the Lithuanian military as it was able to instruct and coordinate their enlistees.
The Soviet international division of approximately 3,000 men took over the Samogitia region in Northern Lithuania, in an attempt to reach the Baltic sea to block the Latvians from getting any German provisions, with the aim of weakening their enemy. In northern Lithuania it was mostly local communists that were operational. Their most sizable attainment was that of a 1,000-man Samogitian regiment that was full of Russian POWs, Criminals and German defectors. This regiment was under the command of one man: Feliksas Baltušis-Žemaiti, a Lithuanian Red army major general.
There were no units of any other Lithuanian locals in Samogitia apart for the partisans in the city of Skuodas. These partisans were assembled together by two brothers: Povilas Plechavičius and Aleksandras Plechavičius.
In the end the Bolsheviks were ordered to head towards East Prussia. This movement by the Soviets brought great concern to Germany; they dispatched enlistees under the command of General Rüdiger von der Goltz. As the end of February approached, the Lithuanian partisans, who were assisted by the German military, successfully seized control of Mažeikiai and the city of Seda. These accomplishments allowed them to chase the Bolsheviks to Kuršėnai (positioned between the cities of Telšiai and Šiauliai.)
On the 27th of February, the Samogitian communist regiment faced its crushing defeat near Luokė at the hands of German enlistees backed up by Plechavičius partisans and partisans from the city of Joniškėlis. After the defeat, the Samogitian regiment dispersed, and, by Mid-March, the German military seized control over Kuršėnai, Joniškėlis, Šiauliai, Radviliškis and then came to a halt. After such a substantial push, the Joniškėlis’ partisans were able to continue guarding the front along the Mūša river and the Lithuanian military gradually established themselves for an offensive assault against the Soviets.
Subsequently, Panevėžys volunteer regiment seized its position and grew its strength after the battle of Kėdainiai. Once this regiment reached a certain amount of power, they began to carry out small excursions into neighbouring towns and cities. Their fundamental objective was simple: cripple the enemy unit’s morale and heighten the morale of local residents and Lithuanian enlistees. This campaign to diminish the Soviets’ spirit was a successful one, and it showed when the Bolshevik units based in Panevėžys and Kupiškis rebelled. They were, however, only crushed by a separation in the Soviet military in nearby Latvia. This catastrophe made the Bolsheviks morale undergo further deterioration, and, between the 19th of March and the 24th of March, the Bolsheviks abandoned Panevėžys.
On the 26th of March, the Lithuanian military made its move in the city and seized control. This only lasted until 4th of April when the Soviet military claimed the city once more. On the 5th of March, the Lithuanian government issued mobilisation of all men born amidst 1887 and 1889, which rapidly increased the headcount of the Lithuanian military, and by the 3rd of May the official number of able men reached to 440 officers and 10,729 privates. Ultimately, only a fraction of the men were trained properly, outfitted and assigned to their military units.
From the month of February through to April, the Lithuanian military was vigorously undergoing training and a chain of command was finally established. Brand-new military units were assembled. Following that Lithuania received a fresh cargo of artillery, munitions and crisp uniforms for the Lithuanian soldiers.
With the military gaining its supplies, it wasn’t long before the first offensive was set on course. The first offensive was executed between the 3rd of April and the 8th of April 1919. At the time, the Polish military got involved and the Lithuanians made sure to take advantage of the Polish assaults against the Soviets in the Hradna area in order to assess enemy vigour and seize back control of their official capital, Vilnius. The Southern troops were formed on the basis of the 1st gunner regiment, under the leadership of Kazys Ladiga. This regiment was to attack from Alytus and along the Daugai-Valkininkai line (about 35 km from one side to another.)
The northern troops assembled on the basis of the 2nd gunner regiment under the leadership of Juozas Butkus and was to commence an assault from Kaišiadorys and along the Žasliai-Vievis line (about 32.5 km in total.) Both assaults were successful at the beginning, however, due to the lack of support from German military, the Soviets assembled their units and put a halt to the Lithuanian advance. As their flanks on either side were not defended, the Lithuanian military came to the conclusion to withdraw from its offensive position.
The Polish military kept applying pressure on the Soviets through their large-scale assaults, causing the Lithuanian military to make the appropriate adjustments in its approach. On the 26th of April, General Silvestras Žukauskas was nominated as Chief of Staff. Not long after he assumed his role, Silvestras decided to mount an offensive assault in Northeastern Lithuania. The first target he assigned was to seize control Ukmergė, and, on the 3rd of May, the Panevėžys enlistee regiment that was being assisted by the 18th regiment of Saxon enlistees, successfully secured the city.
This objective was no easy task to achieve; it had very high risks as it left Kėdainiai (a city north of Kaunas) undefended and, as such, it opened a direct path to Lithuania’s temporary capital. Even with such a risk, it didn’t matter as the undertaking of this operation was a successful one, with the Lithuanian military also taking in about 500 Soviets as prisoners and about 50 Polish men, who were apprehended by the Soviet military in skirmishes that were occurring near the city of Vilnius. At the time, Poland and Lithuania were still civil, so the Polish men that were apprehended by the Soviets were freed and they returned home to Poland.
On the 7th of May General Zukauskas assumed command of the entire Lithuanian army. This transpired to be one of the best things to happen as he initiated a complete overhaul of the Lithuanian military, splitting it into two separate groups. The first company was assigned the city of Ukmergė and was given the name of ‘Vilkmergė group‘. This group also consisted of a battalion of Saxon enlistees. The second company was named the ‘Panevėžys group‘. Both groups had their own objectives: the first company was charged with pushing along the Utena-Zarasai line, and the second company was charged with seizing back control of Panevėžys and then to push along the Kupiškis-Rokiškis-Obeliai line. At first, the company was commanded by Jonas Variakojis and was aided by Joniškėlis partisans from the north. The Lithuanian military made its entrance into Širvintos, where they came across Polish troops, so decided to cooperate together to mount a joint operation to take Giedraičiai (just over 23 km distance from Širvintos) on the 9th of May.
It was the 18th of May when the freshly restructured Lithuanian military executed its initial operation, and the first battalion, the Vilkmergė company, seized control of Kurkliai and Anykščiai. On the same day, the Panevėžys company launched its own assault on the city of Panevėžys, successfully capturing it on the 19th of May. Even though the Panevėžys company was prosperous in its offensive, the Bolsheviks retaliated on the 21st of May. Regardless of the fact the Soviet military put in the supplies and effort to capture the city again, they left Panevėžys without confrontation just two days later.
On the 2nd of May Lithuanian military launched an assault on the city of Utena, however they were confronted by a counterattack from the Soviet army, which forced the Lithuanian units to fall back. The fall back was a strategic move by the Lithuanian military; it gave them a chance to adjust their strategy for the next assault on Utena (which took place on the 31st of May). This time the attack was successful. The Lithuanian army seized control of Utena on the 2nd of June.
Following the group’s success at Panevėžys, they then manoeuvred towards Kupiškis and captured the city of Subačius. On the 30th of May, partisans from Joniškėlis, perforated through enemy lines and took Rokiškis. After the success of the Lithuanian army at Rokiškis, the Soviet military were apprehensive that the Lithuanians would surround them. Taking this into consideration, on the night of the 30th of May through to the 31st they abandoned the city of Kupiškis, allowing the Lithuanian military to seize the city on the 1st of June.
This was just the beginning of a more stable and successful Lithuanian army who were pushing out the Soviet military. After the acquisition of Utena, the Saxon enlistees felt confident enough to leave the front and, by Mid-July 1919, they left Lithuania. Even though the Saxons left, the Lithuanian military was determined and kept putting pressure on the Soviet military. On the 10th of June, they entered the territory under the control of Latvian partisans and provided them with supplies. Two days later, the Soviet military launched a counterattack on the Lithuanians, which brought them to a halt.
On the 20th of June the Soviet military initiated another assault, however, they were cornered in a small region around Zarasai close to the Latvian border. Due to this attack on the Soviets, and the Polish military increasing threat towards the Soviet military, the front was stabilized. The Soviets were reticent for well over a month (there were a few episodes involving scouts and outpost watchmen, but nothing major).
The Red army was making the most of this time to rearrange and toughen their military by making their position more secure. They began utilizing natural barriers like waterways, lakes and hills and they strengthened these barriers by placing barbed wire and creating trenches. Even though the Soviet military had an extensive military force, it was not enough to withstand a well-constructed plan to advance Daugavpils (Latvia). The assault was to take place on the 9th of August, however the plans were pushed back to the 23rd of August as the Ukmergė company made their move on the city first and through that they successfully captured Zarasai two days later.
The Lithuanian military moved about 30 km into Soviet domain. Once again, neither side of their flanks were defended by the Polish or their own Panevėžys company. The day after the seize of Zarasai, the Panevėžys company made headway with the Polish military at their side, following the railroad towards the town of Turmantas. The Lithuanian company was able to navigate around the former reinforced Soviet position, putting intense pressure on the Soviet military as they had to pull back.
Gathering in Daugavpils, the Lithuanian – Soviet front was cut down, meaning the Lithuanian military was able to focus its forces. Not long after, on the 28th of August 1919, the Soviets began pulling back to the north across the Daugava River (which goes through Latvia mostly) and, two days later, the only place that was still under Soviet control was Griva a neighboruhood outside of the city of Daugavpils. Once the Soviets were pushed out of Lithuanian land, the front was stable again. Both military units were divided by the Daugava River, although this worked in favour for the main Lithuanian military whose strength was then able to be redistributed in other areas of Lithuania. This also included holding down and defending the line with Poland.
In the end, there were some issues… Possibly some of those were planned assaults on the Bormentians in the Northern area of Lithuania, calling claim to the territory that was seized by soldiers for themselves and completely ignoring Latvia’s objective stance. This, of course, only led to further conflicts but instead it was between Lithuanian and Latvian military. Through British intervention, the matter in regard to the Lithuanian – Latvian border was resolved in March 1921. Not long after this, Poland lay claims for territory in Lithuania, and a focus on the region of Vilnius, and it was these claims that caused yet another conflict to occur. There were three wars in total that formed the Lithuanian wars of independence; The Lithuanian-Soviet war (also known as the Lithuanian-Bolshevik war), The Lithuanian-Bormentians war and the Polish-Lithuanian war.
In the end, this was a complicated situation, and the best person to describe it all was Ivor Norman Richard Davies, a British-Polish historian. He stated, “The German army was supporting the Lithuanian nationalists, and the Soviets were supporting the Lithuanian communists, and the Polish military was fighting everyone.” | 3,935 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Biography of Edouard Manet
Edouard Manet was born in 1832, the first child of Auguste and Eugenie.
He was, unlike many of the other impressionists, born into a wealthy bourgeois family: his father a senior civil servant and later a judge; his mother the goddaughter of the Swedish crown prince.
Manet’s roots were a blessing and a burden: he did not have to worry about money, being left a substantial inheritance on his father’s death in 1862, and so could paint his way without having to worry about sales. But his desire to please his father and justify his career choice after his father’s death meant that he never stopped trying to impress the conservative art establishment—with only limited success.
Manet died when he was only 53. But his fascinating life saw him sail to Rio de Janeiro on a merchant ship, become a household name in France when he took on the conservative art establishment with a painting of a prostitute, defend Paris when the Prussians laid siege to it in 1870/1, and even fight a duel.
These days Claude Monet is probably more famous than Manet. But the latter was seen as the father of Impressionism during his lifetime: he gave the other impressionists the confidence to take on the conservative art world. Indeed, Manet’s most controversial work—Olympia—was probably the first true work of modern art.
1. Manet's early years
Manet was not academic: at school he achieved average grades in everything except art and gymnastics.
This displeased his father, who wanted his eldest son to follow him into the law.
Manet’s artistic desires were instead encouraged by his mother, with whom he was very close, and his maternal uncle, Édmond Fournier (who often took Manet and his best friend, Antonin Proust, to the Louvre).
Manet’s refusal to study law led to arguments with his father and, eventually, a compromise by which it was agreed that Manet would become a naval officer.
But the 16 year-old Manet failed the exams and ended up on a merchant ship, called Havre et Guadeloupe, bound for Rio de Janeiro (8 December 1848 to 13 June 1849). The idea was that Manet would study for his re-sits on board.
Interesting fact ...
The crossing was eventful. Manet was tossed around the ship during storms; spent days watching the water and the clouds; engaged in a maritime ritual for sailors passing the equator for the first time; went to the Rio carnival; was bitten by a snake; drew caricatures (which the ship's captain used as Christmas presents); and gave the crew painting lessons. He also resolved not to be a sailor.
On his return, Manet duly failed his re-sits and was eventually allowed to enrol in a painting school run by the classical landscapist Thomas Couture.
Manet spent six years at Couture’s, between 1850 and 1856. Over this period he copied old masters and started to develop his unique technique. He respected Couture, who encouraged his students to develop their own style.
Did you know?
On occasion Manet and Couture quarrelled. Once, Manet stormed out of Couture’s studio in protest about a critical remark and refused to return for a month!
After leaving Couture’s in 1856, aged 24, Manet opened his own studio and after a few years produced his first major work: the Absinthe Drinker. It is a grand painting depicting a poor Parisian drunkard. And it was Manet’s first submission to the annual Salon (Exhibition) organised by the influential Academy des Beaux Arts (Fine Arts Academy).
In a time where there were few private exhibitions, the Salon was critical to the success or failure of an aspiring artist. Acceptance by the jury and positive reviews in the papers would lead to commissions and sales. Rejection or negative commentary could stop a career in its tracks.
The 1859 jury did not take to The Absinthe Drinker, which received the approval of only one the twelve jurors (that of the romantic painter Eugène Delacroix). When Manet turned to Couture for comfort he got none. Couture remarked that:
“the only drunk around here is you!"
2. The 1860s
The 1860s started well for Manet: he won an honourable mention in the 1861 Salon.But things went downhill from there. His entries for the 1863 and 1865 Salons attracted downright hostility. By 1867, he was so desperate to show his works that he paid for the construction of his own pavilion so that his works could be seen by the worldwide audience attending the World Exhibition in Paris.
The 1861 Salon: signs of promise
For the 1861 Salon, Manet submitted two works: an unsentimental portrait of his parents, and The Spanish Singer.
The former shows his father looking stern and authoritative, though it was actually produced the year after he had suffered a severe stroke. The latter, of a slightly gormless looking street entertainer, won an honourable mention—probably because Spanish subjects were fashionable at the time.
Manet was not to receive any further praise from the jury for another two decades.
The 1863 Salon: Luncheon on the Grass
Manet tried again in 1863, this time with a painting called Dejuner Sur l'Herbe (Luncheon on the Grass).
Even to a modern eye, this is an unusual work: the foreground shows two well-dressed Parisian men eating a picnic with a naked female. A partially dressed woman bathes in the mid-ground. And the four figures are pictured under a coarsely painted tree canopy.
Interesting fact ...
To the Salon’s jury, however, Luncheon on the Grass was an abomination. They were used to historical, mythological and religious scenes. Some still life might occasionally be acceptable, though even this was considered second-rate. But modern scenes of dandies (fashionable young men) and perhaps even prostitutes were beyond the pale. The jury rejected the work.
The Salon des Refuses
Manet then had a stroke of luck.
The 1863 jury was particularly harsh, rejecting two-thirds of the works that had been submitted. News of discontent amongst artists reached Emperor Napoleon III who, sensing a political opportunity, declared that an Exhibition of the Refused should be held so that the public could judge the rejected art for itself.
The public attended the “Salon des Refuses” in their droves. But they came to be entertained and not to admire. Manet’s painting was singled out for particular ridicule, with critics questioning whether it had been painted with a mop and whether the work was Manet’s idea of a practical joke.
The stinging criticism might have knocked a lesser man but Manet would not back down. He even revelled in his notoriety. And he remarked to a friend:
“if they want a nude, I’ll give them a nude.”He was planning perhaps the most controversial painting of all time: Olympia.
The 1865 Salon: Olympia
Olympia features a Parisian prostitute on her bed staring unapologetically at the viewer.
There can be no doubt about her profession: the name Olympia was associated with courtesans; so too were black cats (see the far right of the picture); Olympia wears a provocative black necklace; and her maid appears to be bringing her a bouquet from a satisfied customer.
In fact, the real surprise is that Olympia was accepted by the jury. Perhaps they thought that the criticism Manet would inevitably receive would chasten the young man.
Reaction to Olympia
The public were shocked and the critics harsh. The Salon’s organisers even had to protect the painting from being slashed or punctured be offended viewers. As for the papers, one wrote
“never has a painting received more laughter, mockery and catcalls”.Another said Olympia resembled a female gorilla. A lot of the criticism was hypocritical: at this time many aristocratic men visited prostitutes on a regular basis.
Manet complained that
“insults are beating down on me like hail”and travelled to Spain to escape. But Olympia was not all bad: Manet had shown that he was willing to stand up to the establishment, which encouraged the other impressionists to do likewise; and now everybody in Paris knew his name.
Dejuner sur l'herbe and Olympia feature in our selection of the best 10 impressionist paintings.
1867: Manet’s own pavilion
In 1867, Manet received a double rejection: from the Salon’s jury and from another jury formed to select works for the 1867 World Exhibition being held in Paris.
His reaction was to build his own pavilion, at a cost of 17,000 francs (advanced by his mother) to display his major works. He even penned an emollient foreword to his exhibition catalogue. But few came, and even fewer came to admire.
The foreword was Manet's attempt at conciliation with the conservative art establishment. He said this:
"The artist today is not saying 'Come and see my faultless work' but 'Come and see my sincere work'. ... Monsieur Manet has never wished to protest. Rather, people have protested against him. ... Monsieur Manet presumes neither to overthrow earlier painting nor to remake it. He has merely tried to be himself."
The venture was a failure in financial terms. The most that can be said about it is that it solidified Manet’s position as the leader of the impressionists, a man who was happy not to conform.
The Execution of Maximilian
Manet could not help being controversial.
He was an opponent of Napoleon III and, when his puppet ruler of Mexico, Emperor Maximilian, was executed and the French 'empire' of Mexico collapsed he could not help but produce a painting recording events.
In total, Manet produced three large canvasses and a smaller study.
The earliest work relied on press reports and is historically inaccurate (for instance, the firing squad are shown wearing sombreros). The second and third (pictured) are more accurate, depicting Maximilian and two of his highest-ranking officers (Generals Miguel Miramón and Tomás Mejía), six members of the firing squad and their sergeant (who, no doubt deliberately, resembles Napoleon III). All owe their inspiration to Goya's The Third of May, a painting of Spanish civilians being shot by French soldiers in 1808.
The second work was cut up (probably by both Manet and by his relatives after his death), reassembled by Degas, and now hangs in London's National Gallery.
Since criticism of Napoleon was not allowed, Manet could not exhibit the paintings in France (though one of the large canvasses appeared in America) and Manet was refused permission to make lithographs of them.
3. Manet's personal life
Manet's personal life was anything but straightforward.
There was the illegitimate son born when Manet was 20 to his piano teacher, whose existence was kept secret from Manet's father; there was his public personality: urbane, witty and fashionable; and there was his love for Berthe Morisot and almost certainly lots of other women in addition to his homely wife Suzanne Leenhoff.
Leon and Suzanne
Manet struck up a relationship with Suzanne Leenhoff in about 1851. Suzanne was a young Dutch girl hired by Manet’s father to teach him and his younger brother the piano. By 1852 Suzanne was pregnant, with Leon born early the next year.
There is little doubt that Leon was Manet’s son, though Manet does not appear on Leon’s birth certificate and paternity was not expressly acknowledged during Manet’s lifetime. The evidence is compelling:
- Leon appeared in a number of Manet’s paintings (The Fifer is pictured, but also Luncheon in the Studio, Soap Bubbles and Boy Carrying a Sword),
- Leon lived with Manet and Suzanne after they married in 1862 (the year following Manet’s father’s death), and
- Leon was the main beneficiary of Manet’s will.
Interesting fact ...
As for Suzanne, she was an unlikely companion for Manet. He was wealthy, witty, and enjoyed the latest fashions and cafe culture. Suzanne was plain in both looks and personality. It may be that Manet, who had a number of affairs over the years, found her presence grounding given his turbulent public life—for there is no doubt the two had genuine affection for each other.
Manet loved Paris and going to its cafes.
He adored people, people watching, debating political and artistic ideas, and making people laugh. The impressionists frequented two cafes in particular: the Cafe Guerbois and later the Cafe Nouvelle Athens.
It was here that a number of their members, Manet, Monet and Renoir in particular, could be found in the early evening.
The Manet and Morisot families were in the same social stratosphere. The matriarchs of both families got on. And Manet was taken with the intellect and looks of the Morisot’s elder daughter, Berthe.
The two became very close in the late 1860s and beyond, though how close remains debatable.
Interesting fact ...
Manet appears to have fallen in love with Berthe, and certain of her correspondence appears incriminating (whilst many letters written by Berthe to her sister, Edma, were destroyed at Berthe’s request).
Ultimately, Manet’s way of moving on was to engineer Berthe’s marriage to his younger brother Eugene, which took place after an on/off courtship in 1872.
Over this period Manet repeatedly painted Berthe. The results were sometimes flattering, sometimes not, and on one occasion unusual and indeed sensual (Berthe is captured lying provocatively on a feinting couch in Berthe Morisot Reclining).
4. The 1870s
The 1870s was a varied decade for Manet
He duelled with a friend and art critic; he joined the army and defended Paris from the Russians in late 1870-early 1871; he had his most popular success with Le Bon Bock (the Good Beer); and he painted some of his best art, including the Masked Ball and Nana, provoking outrage amongst critics and being yet again rejected by the Salon's conservative jury.
Duel with Duranty
Strange as it may sound, Manet duelled with an art critic friend of his, Louis Edmond Duranty, in February 1870.
Interesting fact ...
The altercation started when Duranty penned an ambiguous review of Manet's submissions to the Salon that year. Manet was furious: if he couldn't count on his friends to write positive reviews, the impressionists had no chance. He burst into the Cafe Guerbois, slapped Duranty, and demanded a sword-duel.
It took place the next day, in the Forest of Saint-Germain. Neither man was adept at fencing. And after Manet managed to wound Duranty in the upper chest, the duellers' 'seconds' (ie the men who would take their place in the event of injury) declared that honour had been satisfied. Manet and Duranty became friends again before too long.
The Siege of Paris
In late 1870, Napoleon III embarked on a misconceived military campaign against the Prussians. The ill-equipped French forces were soon defeated and Paris surrounded. But the proud Parisians would not give up their city without a fight. They barricaded themselves in.
Did you know?
Not everyone stayed. Whilst Manet refused to leave, and indeed joined the army, Monet and other impressionist colleagues were not so patriotic. (Cezanne refused to be conscripted and hid from the authorities in a fishing village near Aix in southern France; and Monet, Sisley and Pissarro moved to London.)
The Prussians were supremely confident, joking that:
"Parisians won't last a week without their cafe au laits!"How wrong they were: Paris lasted over four months before she eventually surrendered (between 19 September 1870 and 28 January 1871). All faced hardship (even the elephants at the zoo were slaughtered for meat) and many died of starvation, disease or from the incessant shelling.
Manet, having done his duty, went to the seaside town of Archachon, near Bordeaux, to recuperate.
The 1873 Salon: The Good Beer
For the 1873 Salon, Manet submitted a portrait of a working class Parisian man smoking his pipe and enjoying his beer. Called Le Bon Bock (The Good Beer) Manet for once judged the mood of the jury and the public.
The work was seen as an icon of solidity and solidarity in the uncertain times following the disastrous Prussian war and the fall of the Third Empire. Soon, it started appearing all over Paris, including in gift shops and as the name of a pub. Manet also managed to make a rare sale, to the opera singer Jean-Baptiste Faure for the sum of 5,000 francs.
1874: Manet paints with Monet
Manet had been seen as the leader of the impressionists from the mid-1860s. He stood up to the establishment, socialised with and was admired by the rest of the group, and often doled out money when needed.
Manet was initially reluctant to paint en plein air (outdoors): even though his works use broad strokes, he was a perfectionist (often requiring models to sit on scores of occasions for a single work). But Berthe Morisot persuaded him to give it a go and in 1874, Manet painted with Renoir and Monet at the latter’s house in Argenteuil.
Interesting fact ...
The result was that Manet’s paintings became lighter and brighter, though he did not abandon his use of black (a colour eschewed by the other impressionists). Indeed, some of Manet’s open air paintings bear a striking resemblance to Monet’s works.
Despite this pollination, and his financial and pastoral support for the group, Manet never exhibited at the eight independent impressionist exhibitions held in and after 1874. He instead continued to challenge the Salon’s jury.
1874: Masked Ball at the Opera
The 1873 success enjoyed by Manet turned out to be an aberration: the next year the jury rejected one of his most important works, Masked Ball at the Opera.
True it is that Manet was, through this painting, having a dig at the establishment. The masked ball was a high society occasion of low morals: it was attended by actresses, showgirls and courtesans. The jury probably worried that they would be identified among the male revellers (who in fact are modelled on Manet himself and his friends).
But the work is an absolute masterpiece. It has the shimmering black of top hats and dinner jackets; it evokes feelings of movement and merriment (even debauchery); it uses splashes of bright colour; and it has the usual tongue-in-cheek finishing touches (see the stockinged legs hanging from the balcony).
1876: Manet’s own show
Manet’s two submissions for the 1876 Salon were once again rejected. One member of the jury is reported to have said:
“we have given Manet a decade to turn over a new leaf, but he refuses to do so. In fact, he grows worse”.
The offending works were The Laundry (a heart-warming work of a mother and daughter sorting washing in the garden) and The Artist (a portrait of the Bohemian Gilbert Marcellin Desboutin). Manet’s reaction was different from before: he decided to stage his own exhibition at his studio. Formal invitations were sent with the motto
“Make it truthful and let them say what they like.”Four thousand people came. But only a few minds were changed.
One of the few was Mary Laurent, a famous actress, who became close friends with Manet and posed for a number of his paintings.
1877: the Nana scandal
In 1877, Manet returned to the subject of prostitution. His work, Nana, depicts a famous grand-cocotte, Henriette Hauser, in a corset and petticoat looking at the viewer. She is in her boudoir applying make-up. The painting is life-sized and all the more shocking because Henriette was the mistress of the Prince of Orange.
Though not as brazen as Olympia, Nana is in no way apologetic. She is seemingly getting ready for a night out and ignoring a well-dressed gentleman—her client?— sat on the painting’s far right.
After its rejection by the jury, Nana was displayed in the window of an art dealer, Giroux, in the Boulevard de Capucines. Hundreds flocked to see it and the police were called when it looked like a riot would break out.
5. The 1880s
Manet died in 1883, but not before he had won a medal at the Salon, received an honour from the French state and exhibited one of his most important and puzzling works: the Bar at the Folies Bergere.
The 1881 Salon: recognition at last
Manet did not exhibit at the impressionist exhibitions because he craved official recognition. He wanted to take on and beat the art establishment; and he wanted, almost two decades after his father’s death, to justify his controversial career choice.
Recognition finally came in the form of a second class medal awarded by the 1881 jury, for a portrait of a previously exiled revolutionary called Henri Rochefort. Eight other second class medals were awarded, with no entry considered first class material.
The award also allowed his friend, Antonin Proust, to award him the legion d’honneur in December 1881. By this stage Proust was minister for fine arts. The award came just in time: the government fell months later.
The 1882 Salon: the Folies Bergere
Normal service was resumed in the 1872 when Manet submitted the Bar at the Folies Bergere to the Salon.
This was his last major work and is classic Manet: predominantly a portrait, it shows electric lighting and one of the hottest new nightspots in his beloved Paris, with bright colours, broad brush strokes and a dollop of enigma.
The thing that confounded critics and the public at the time and still puzzles is the reflection of the barmaid, Suzon, in the large mirror found behind the bar. It seems to defy the laws of physics!
But it was quite intentional and Manet’s way of being controversial and introducing the top-hatted gentleman in seemingly intense conversation with Suzon.
Who is the man in the Folies Bergere: a patron, lover, disapproving father or someone else entirely?
The Folies Bergere was painted from a specially constructed bar in Manet’s studio. He was, by 1882, too ill to travel to the bar for sittings.
1883: Manet’s last illness
By the time he submitted the Folies Bergere, Manet’s health was failing.
Though he had denied it for a number of years, he had tertiary syphilis that was robbing him of his motor skills. The regimens prescribed by his doctors, which mainly involved bathing in spas, had not worked. And by late 1882 he was struggling to walk. He painted still lifes—mainly flowers—in his last months, socialised and read books to take his mind off the pain.
In the end, his left foot became gangrenous and his left leg was amputated below the knee. He struggled on for another fortnight, dying on 30 April 1883 aged 51.
Manet’s pallbearers included Monet, the critic and writer Émile Zola and Manet's lifelong friend Antonin Proust. Following the procession, Edgar Degas was heard to remark:
“he was even greater than we thought."
6. Manet's Legacy
Manet was in many ways the leader of the impressionists.
He showed them how to believe in their new ways of painting in the face of official opposition and ridicule from the critics. It helped that Manet was slightly older than most of the others; that he was independently wealthy and so able to provide financial support when times got tough; and that he was fashionable, urbane and witty.
His own output is unique. He plays with colour, perspective and the laws of physics. It challenges social conventions. Many of his works—for instance Dejuner Sur l'Herbe, Olympia, and the Bar at the Folies Bergere—are world famous today. Indeed, most experts agree that Olympia was the first true work of modern art.
The slow road to recognition
In the year after his death, a Manet retrospective was held at the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris.
Then, in 1890, Monet organised a public collection to acquire Olympia from Manet's widow Suzanne. That was no mean feat: Monet sent scores of letters to obtain donations of almost 20,000 francs; and then had to enter into correspondence and meetings with the authorities to decide where Olympia would be displayed.
It was not allowed to enter the Louvre immediately, being hung in the Musee du Luxembourg between 1890 and 1907, when it was finally hung at the home of French art. Olympia is now to be found at the Musee d'Orsay.
The most expensive Manets
These days, most Manets are held in the world's leading art museums. But they occasionally come up for auction. In 2014, his Springtime (Le Printemps, 1881) was sold by Christie's in New York for $65.1 million. The previous best price, $33.1 million achieved by Sotheby's in London in 2010, was for Manet's Self Portrait with a Palette.
These two works are, respectively, the eighth and tenth most expensive impressionist paintings ever sold. But they languish far behind the sale value of works by Cezanne, Monet and Degas.
Was Manet an impressionist?
Now here is a difficult question to answer. It is fair to say that Manet did not usually paint outside and that he shunned the impressionist exhibitions.
On the other hand, he painted modern scenes with broad unblended brush strokes, two of the hallmarks of impressionist painting. And he may not have exhibited at the impressionist exhibitions but he gave his friends the courage to take on the establishment and supported them with friendship, encouragement and by doling out money when times got tough.
So our answer to the question 'was Manet an impressionist' is a resounding 'yes'!
The best stand-alone volume on Edouard Manet is Beth Archer Brombert's 'Edouard Manet: Rebel in a Frock Coat' (1996, 528 pages). This in-depth and beautifully written biography captures Manet's varied and complicated life. For a shorter and more general introduction to the impressionists, we suggest Sue Roe's 'The Private Lives of the Impressionists' (2006, 368 pages). | <urn:uuid:df6fccc1-0767-479c-b563-ca7f1910855c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://impressionistarts.com/edouard-manet-biography.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00196.warc.gz | en | 0.980258 | 5,860 | 3.828125 | 4 | [
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0.340950042009353... | 2 | Biography of Edouard Manet
Edouard Manet was born in 1832, the first child of Auguste and Eugenie.
He was, unlike many of the other impressionists, born into a wealthy bourgeois family: his father a senior civil servant and later a judge; his mother the goddaughter of the Swedish crown prince.
Manet’s roots were a blessing and a burden: he did not have to worry about money, being left a substantial inheritance on his father’s death in 1862, and so could paint his way without having to worry about sales. But his desire to please his father and justify his career choice after his father’s death meant that he never stopped trying to impress the conservative art establishment—with only limited success.
Manet died when he was only 53. But his fascinating life saw him sail to Rio de Janeiro on a merchant ship, become a household name in France when he took on the conservative art establishment with a painting of a prostitute, defend Paris when the Prussians laid siege to it in 1870/1, and even fight a duel.
These days Claude Monet is probably more famous than Manet. But the latter was seen as the father of Impressionism during his lifetime: he gave the other impressionists the confidence to take on the conservative art world. Indeed, Manet’s most controversial work—Olympia—was probably the first true work of modern art.
1. Manet's early years
Manet was not academic: at school he achieved average grades in everything except art and gymnastics.
This displeased his father, who wanted his eldest son to follow him into the law.
Manet’s artistic desires were instead encouraged by his mother, with whom he was very close, and his maternal uncle, Édmond Fournier (who often took Manet and his best friend, Antonin Proust, to the Louvre).
Manet’s refusal to study law led to arguments with his father and, eventually, a compromise by which it was agreed that Manet would become a naval officer.
But the 16 year-old Manet failed the exams and ended up on a merchant ship, called Havre et Guadeloupe, bound for Rio de Janeiro (8 December 1848 to 13 June 1849). The idea was that Manet would study for his re-sits on board.
Interesting fact ...
The crossing was eventful. Manet was tossed around the ship during storms; spent days watching the water and the clouds; engaged in a maritime ritual for sailors passing the equator for the first time; went to the Rio carnival; was bitten by a snake; drew caricatures (which the ship's captain used as Christmas presents); and gave the crew painting lessons. He also resolved not to be a sailor.
On his return, Manet duly failed his re-sits and was eventually allowed to enrol in a painting school run by the classical landscapist Thomas Couture.
Manet spent six years at Couture’s, between 1850 and 1856. Over this period he copied old masters and started to develop his unique technique. He respected Couture, who encouraged his students to develop their own style.
Did you know?
On occasion Manet and Couture quarrelled. Once, Manet stormed out of Couture’s studio in protest about a critical remark and refused to return for a month!
After leaving Couture’s in 1856, aged 24, Manet opened his own studio and after a few years produced his first major work: the Absinthe Drinker. It is a grand painting depicting a poor Parisian drunkard. And it was Manet’s first submission to the annual Salon (Exhibition) organised by the influential Academy des Beaux Arts (Fine Arts Academy).
In a time where there were few private exhibitions, the Salon was critical to the success or failure of an aspiring artist. Acceptance by the jury and positive reviews in the papers would lead to commissions and sales. Rejection or negative commentary could stop a career in its tracks.
The 1859 jury did not take to The Absinthe Drinker, which received the approval of only one the twelve jurors (that of the romantic painter Eugène Delacroix). When Manet turned to Couture for comfort he got none. Couture remarked that:
“the only drunk around here is you!"
2. The 1860s
The 1860s started well for Manet: he won an honourable mention in the 1861 Salon.But things went downhill from there. His entries for the 1863 and 1865 Salons attracted downright hostility. By 1867, he was so desperate to show his works that he paid for the construction of his own pavilion so that his works could be seen by the worldwide audience attending the World Exhibition in Paris.
The 1861 Salon: signs of promise
For the 1861 Salon, Manet submitted two works: an unsentimental portrait of his parents, and The Spanish Singer.
The former shows his father looking stern and authoritative, though it was actually produced the year after he had suffered a severe stroke. The latter, of a slightly gormless looking street entertainer, won an honourable mention—probably because Spanish subjects were fashionable at the time.
Manet was not to receive any further praise from the jury for another two decades.
The 1863 Salon: Luncheon on the Grass
Manet tried again in 1863, this time with a painting called Dejuner Sur l'Herbe (Luncheon on the Grass).
Even to a modern eye, this is an unusual work: the foreground shows two well-dressed Parisian men eating a picnic with a naked female. A partially dressed woman bathes in the mid-ground. And the four figures are pictured under a coarsely painted tree canopy.
Interesting fact ...
To the Salon’s jury, however, Luncheon on the Grass was an abomination. They were used to historical, mythological and religious scenes. Some still life might occasionally be acceptable, though even this was considered second-rate. But modern scenes of dandies (fashionable young men) and perhaps even prostitutes were beyond the pale. The jury rejected the work.
The Salon des Refuses
Manet then had a stroke of luck.
The 1863 jury was particularly harsh, rejecting two-thirds of the works that had been submitted. News of discontent amongst artists reached Emperor Napoleon III who, sensing a political opportunity, declared that an Exhibition of the Refused should be held so that the public could judge the rejected art for itself.
The public attended the “Salon des Refuses” in their droves. But they came to be entertained and not to admire. Manet’s painting was singled out for particular ridicule, with critics questioning whether it had been painted with a mop and whether the work was Manet’s idea of a practical joke.
The stinging criticism might have knocked a lesser man but Manet would not back down. He even revelled in his notoriety. And he remarked to a friend:
“if they want a nude, I’ll give them a nude.”He was planning perhaps the most controversial painting of all time: Olympia.
The 1865 Salon: Olympia
Olympia features a Parisian prostitute on her bed staring unapologetically at the viewer.
There can be no doubt about her profession: the name Olympia was associated with courtesans; so too were black cats (see the far right of the picture); Olympia wears a provocative black necklace; and her maid appears to be bringing her a bouquet from a satisfied customer.
In fact, the real surprise is that Olympia was accepted by the jury. Perhaps they thought that the criticism Manet would inevitably receive would chasten the young man.
Reaction to Olympia
The public were shocked and the critics harsh. The Salon’s organisers even had to protect the painting from being slashed or punctured be offended viewers. As for the papers, one wrote
“never has a painting received more laughter, mockery and catcalls”.Another said Olympia resembled a female gorilla. A lot of the criticism was hypocritical: at this time many aristocratic men visited prostitutes on a regular basis.
Manet complained that
“insults are beating down on me like hail”and travelled to Spain to escape. But Olympia was not all bad: Manet had shown that he was willing to stand up to the establishment, which encouraged the other impressionists to do likewise; and now everybody in Paris knew his name.
Dejuner sur l'herbe and Olympia feature in our selection of the best 10 impressionist paintings.
1867: Manet’s own pavilion
In 1867, Manet received a double rejection: from the Salon’s jury and from another jury formed to select works for the 1867 World Exhibition being held in Paris.
His reaction was to build his own pavilion, at a cost of 17,000 francs (advanced by his mother) to display his major works. He even penned an emollient foreword to his exhibition catalogue. But few came, and even fewer came to admire.
The foreword was Manet's attempt at conciliation with the conservative art establishment. He said this:
"The artist today is not saying 'Come and see my faultless work' but 'Come and see my sincere work'. ... Monsieur Manet has never wished to protest. Rather, people have protested against him. ... Monsieur Manet presumes neither to overthrow earlier painting nor to remake it. He has merely tried to be himself."
The venture was a failure in financial terms. The most that can be said about it is that it solidified Manet’s position as the leader of the impressionists, a man who was happy not to conform.
The Execution of Maximilian
Manet could not help being controversial.
He was an opponent of Napoleon III and, when his puppet ruler of Mexico, Emperor Maximilian, was executed and the French 'empire' of Mexico collapsed he could not help but produce a painting recording events.
In total, Manet produced three large canvasses and a smaller study.
The earliest work relied on press reports and is historically inaccurate (for instance, the firing squad are shown wearing sombreros). The second and third (pictured) are more accurate, depicting Maximilian and two of his highest-ranking officers (Generals Miguel Miramón and Tomás Mejía), six members of the firing squad and their sergeant (who, no doubt deliberately, resembles Napoleon III). All owe their inspiration to Goya's The Third of May, a painting of Spanish civilians being shot by French soldiers in 1808.
The second work was cut up (probably by both Manet and by his relatives after his death), reassembled by Degas, and now hangs in London's National Gallery.
Since criticism of Napoleon was not allowed, Manet could not exhibit the paintings in France (though one of the large canvasses appeared in America) and Manet was refused permission to make lithographs of them.
3. Manet's personal life
Manet's personal life was anything but straightforward.
There was the illegitimate son born when Manet was 20 to his piano teacher, whose existence was kept secret from Manet's father; there was his public personality: urbane, witty and fashionable; and there was his love for Berthe Morisot and almost certainly lots of other women in addition to his homely wife Suzanne Leenhoff.
Leon and Suzanne
Manet struck up a relationship with Suzanne Leenhoff in about 1851. Suzanne was a young Dutch girl hired by Manet’s father to teach him and his younger brother the piano. By 1852 Suzanne was pregnant, with Leon born early the next year.
There is little doubt that Leon was Manet’s son, though Manet does not appear on Leon’s birth certificate and paternity was not expressly acknowledged during Manet’s lifetime. The evidence is compelling:
- Leon appeared in a number of Manet’s paintings (The Fifer is pictured, but also Luncheon in the Studio, Soap Bubbles and Boy Carrying a Sword),
- Leon lived with Manet and Suzanne after they married in 1862 (the year following Manet’s father’s death), and
- Leon was the main beneficiary of Manet’s will.
Interesting fact ...
As for Suzanne, she was an unlikely companion for Manet. He was wealthy, witty, and enjoyed the latest fashions and cafe culture. Suzanne was plain in both looks and personality. It may be that Manet, who had a number of affairs over the years, found her presence grounding given his turbulent public life—for there is no doubt the two had genuine affection for each other.
Manet loved Paris and going to its cafes.
He adored people, people watching, debating political and artistic ideas, and making people laugh. The impressionists frequented two cafes in particular: the Cafe Guerbois and later the Cafe Nouvelle Athens.
It was here that a number of their members, Manet, Monet and Renoir in particular, could be found in the early evening.
The Manet and Morisot families were in the same social stratosphere. The matriarchs of both families got on. And Manet was taken with the intellect and looks of the Morisot’s elder daughter, Berthe.
The two became very close in the late 1860s and beyond, though how close remains debatable.
Interesting fact ...
Manet appears to have fallen in love with Berthe, and certain of her correspondence appears incriminating (whilst many letters written by Berthe to her sister, Edma, were destroyed at Berthe’s request).
Ultimately, Manet’s way of moving on was to engineer Berthe’s marriage to his younger brother Eugene, which took place after an on/off courtship in 1872.
Over this period Manet repeatedly painted Berthe. The results were sometimes flattering, sometimes not, and on one occasion unusual and indeed sensual (Berthe is captured lying provocatively on a feinting couch in Berthe Morisot Reclining).
4. The 1870s
The 1870s was a varied decade for Manet
He duelled with a friend and art critic; he joined the army and defended Paris from the Russians in late 1870-early 1871; he had his most popular success with Le Bon Bock (the Good Beer); and he painted some of his best art, including the Masked Ball and Nana, provoking outrage amongst critics and being yet again rejected by the Salon's conservative jury.
Duel with Duranty
Strange as it may sound, Manet duelled with an art critic friend of his, Louis Edmond Duranty, in February 1870.
Interesting fact ...
The altercation started when Duranty penned an ambiguous review of Manet's submissions to the Salon that year. Manet was furious: if he couldn't count on his friends to write positive reviews, the impressionists had no chance. He burst into the Cafe Guerbois, slapped Duranty, and demanded a sword-duel.
It took place the next day, in the Forest of Saint-Germain. Neither man was adept at fencing. And after Manet managed to wound Duranty in the upper chest, the duellers' 'seconds' (ie the men who would take their place in the event of injury) declared that honour had been satisfied. Manet and Duranty became friends again before too long.
The Siege of Paris
In late 1870, Napoleon III embarked on a misconceived military campaign against the Prussians. The ill-equipped French forces were soon defeated and Paris surrounded. But the proud Parisians would not give up their city without a fight. They barricaded themselves in.
Did you know?
Not everyone stayed. Whilst Manet refused to leave, and indeed joined the army, Monet and other impressionist colleagues were not so patriotic. (Cezanne refused to be conscripted and hid from the authorities in a fishing village near Aix in southern France; and Monet, Sisley and Pissarro moved to London.)
The Prussians were supremely confident, joking that:
"Parisians won't last a week without their cafe au laits!"How wrong they were: Paris lasted over four months before she eventually surrendered (between 19 September 1870 and 28 January 1871). All faced hardship (even the elephants at the zoo were slaughtered for meat) and many died of starvation, disease or from the incessant shelling.
Manet, having done his duty, went to the seaside town of Archachon, near Bordeaux, to recuperate.
The 1873 Salon: The Good Beer
For the 1873 Salon, Manet submitted a portrait of a working class Parisian man smoking his pipe and enjoying his beer. Called Le Bon Bock (The Good Beer) Manet for once judged the mood of the jury and the public.
The work was seen as an icon of solidity and solidarity in the uncertain times following the disastrous Prussian war and the fall of the Third Empire. Soon, it started appearing all over Paris, including in gift shops and as the name of a pub. Manet also managed to make a rare sale, to the opera singer Jean-Baptiste Faure for the sum of 5,000 francs.
1874: Manet paints with Monet
Manet had been seen as the leader of the impressionists from the mid-1860s. He stood up to the establishment, socialised with and was admired by the rest of the group, and often doled out money when needed.
Manet was initially reluctant to paint en plein air (outdoors): even though his works use broad strokes, he was a perfectionist (often requiring models to sit on scores of occasions for a single work). But Berthe Morisot persuaded him to give it a go and in 1874, Manet painted with Renoir and Monet at the latter’s house in Argenteuil.
Interesting fact ...
The result was that Manet’s paintings became lighter and brighter, though he did not abandon his use of black (a colour eschewed by the other impressionists). Indeed, some of Manet’s open air paintings bear a striking resemblance to Monet’s works.
Despite this pollination, and his financial and pastoral support for the group, Manet never exhibited at the eight independent impressionist exhibitions held in and after 1874. He instead continued to challenge the Salon’s jury.
1874: Masked Ball at the Opera
The 1873 success enjoyed by Manet turned out to be an aberration: the next year the jury rejected one of his most important works, Masked Ball at the Opera.
True it is that Manet was, through this painting, having a dig at the establishment. The masked ball was a high society occasion of low morals: it was attended by actresses, showgirls and courtesans. The jury probably worried that they would be identified among the male revellers (who in fact are modelled on Manet himself and his friends).
But the work is an absolute masterpiece. It has the shimmering black of top hats and dinner jackets; it evokes feelings of movement and merriment (even debauchery); it uses splashes of bright colour; and it has the usual tongue-in-cheek finishing touches (see the stockinged legs hanging from the balcony).
1876: Manet’s own show
Manet’s two submissions for the 1876 Salon were once again rejected. One member of the jury is reported to have said:
“we have given Manet a decade to turn over a new leaf, but he refuses to do so. In fact, he grows worse”.
The offending works were The Laundry (a heart-warming work of a mother and daughter sorting washing in the garden) and The Artist (a portrait of the Bohemian Gilbert Marcellin Desboutin). Manet’s reaction was different from before: he decided to stage his own exhibition at his studio. Formal invitations were sent with the motto
“Make it truthful and let them say what they like.”Four thousand people came. But only a few minds were changed.
One of the few was Mary Laurent, a famous actress, who became close friends with Manet and posed for a number of his paintings.
1877: the Nana scandal
In 1877, Manet returned to the subject of prostitution. His work, Nana, depicts a famous grand-cocotte, Henriette Hauser, in a corset and petticoat looking at the viewer. She is in her boudoir applying make-up. The painting is life-sized and all the more shocking because Henriette was the mistress of the Prince of Orange.
Though not as brazen as Olympia, Nana is in no way apologetic. She is seemingly getting ready for a night out and ignoring a well-dressed gentleman—her client?— sat on the painting’s far right.
After its rejection by the jury, Nana was displayed in the window of an art dealer, Giroux, in the Boulevard de Capucines. Hundreds flocked to see it and the police were called when it looked like a riot would break out.
5. The 1880s
Manet died in 1883, but not before he had won a medal at the Salon, received an honour from the French state and exhibited one of his most important and puzzling works: the Bar at the Folies Bergere.
The 1881 Salon: recognition at last
Manet did not exhibit at the impressionist exhibitions because he craved official recognition. He wanted to take on and beat the art establishment; and he wanted, almost two decades after his father’s death, to justify his controversial career choice.
Recognition finally came in the form of a second class medal awarded by the 1881 jury, for a portrait of a previously exiled revolutionary called Henri Rochefort. Eight other second class medals were awarded, with no entry considered first class material.
The award also allowed his friend, Antonin Proust, to award him the legion d’honneur in December 1881. By this stage Proust was minister for fine arts. The award came just in time: the government fell months later.
The 1882 Salon: the Folies Bergere
Normal service was resumed in the 1872 when Manet submitted the Bar at the Folies Bergere to the Salon.
This was his last major work and is classic Manet: predominantly a portrait, it shows electric lighting and one of the hottest new nightspots in his beloved Paris, with bright colours, broad brush strokes and a dollop of enigma.
The thing that confounded critics and the public at the time and still puzzles is the reflection of the barmaid, Suzon, in the large mirror found behind the bar. It seems to defy the laws of physics!
But it was quite intentional and Manet’s way of being controversial and introducing the top-hatted gentleman in seemingly intense conversation with Suzon.
Who is the man in the Folies Bergere: a patron, lover, disapproving father or someone else entirely?
The Folies Bergere was painted from a specially constructed bar in Manet’s studio. He was, by 1882, too ill to travel to the bar for sittings.
1883: Manet’s last illness
By the time he submitted the Folies Bergere, Manet’s health was failing.
Though he had denied it for a number of years, he had tertiary syphilis that was robbing him of his motor skills. The regimens prescribed by his doctors, which mainly involved bathing in spas, had not worked. And by late 1882 he was struggling to walk. He painted still lifes—mainly flowers—in his last months, socialised and read books to take his mind off the pain.
In the end, his left foot became gangrenous and his left leg was amputated below the knee. He struggled on for another fortnight, dying on 30 April 1883 aged 51.
Manet’s pallbearers included Monet, the critic and writer Émile Zola and Manet's lifelong friend Antonin Proust. Following the procession, Edgar Degas was heard to remark:
“he was even greater than we thought."
6. Manet's Legacy
Manet was in many ways the leader of the impressionists.
He showed them how to believe in their new ways of painting in the face of official opposition and ridicule from the critics. It helped that Manet was slightly older than most of the others; that he was independently wealthy and so able to provide financial support when times got tough; and that he was fashionable, urbane and witty.
His own output is unique. He plays with colour, perspective and the laws of physics. It challenges social conventions. Many of his works—for instance Dejuner Sur l'Herbe, Olympia, and the Bar at the Folies Bergere—are world famous today. Indeed, most experts agree that Olympia was the first true work of modern art.
The slow road to recognition
In the year after his death, a Manet retrospective was held at the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris.
Then, in 1890, Monet organised a public collection to acquire Olympia from Manet's widow Suzanne. That was no mean feat: Monet sent scores of letters to obtain donations of almost 20,000 francs; and then had to enter into correspondence and meetings with the authorities to decide where Olympia would be displayed.
It was not allowed to enter the Louvre immediately, being hung in the Musee du Luxembourg between 1890 and 1907, when it was finally hung at the home of French art. Olympia is now to be found at the Musee d'Orsay.
The most expensive Manets
These days, most Manets are held in the world's leading art museums. But they occasionally come up for auction. In 2014, his Springtime (Le Printemps, 1881) was sold by Christie's in New York for $65.1 million. The previous best price, $33.1 million achieved by Sotheby's in London in 2010, was for Manet's Self Portrait with a Palette.
These two works are, respectively, the eighth and tenth most expensive impressionist paintings ever sold. But they languish far behind the sale value of works by Cezanne, Monet and Degas.
Was Manet an impressionist?
Now here is a difficult question to answer. It is fair to say that Manet did not usually paint outside and that he shunned the impressionist exhibitions.
On the other hand, he painted modern scenes with broad unblended brush strokes, two of the hallmarks of impressionist painting. And he may not have exhibited at the impressionist exhibitions but he gave his friends the courage to take on the establishment and supported them with friendship, encouragement and by doling out money when times got tough.
So our answer to the question 'was Manet an impressionist' is a resounding 'yes'!
The best stand-alone volume on Edouard Manet is Beth Archer Brombert's 'Edouard Manet: Rebel in a Frock Coat' (1996, 528 pages). This in-depth and beautifully written biography captures Manet's varied and complicated life. For a shorter and more general introduction to the impressionists, we suggest Sue Roe's 'The Private Lives of the Impressionists' (2006, 368 pages). | 5,844 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During the end of the 16th century England desired more and needed to broaden its horizons. Despite England'sfirst colony in North America, the "Lost Colony", another colony was to be started just off the Chesapeake Bay. England's search for treasure, rival to compete with the success of Spain and Portugal, and desire to spread the Protestant religion all became major factors that contributed to English colonialism in North America.
The search for valued treasures was a major reason for English colonialism in America. Inspired by the success of Spanish explorers who had found gold in South America, many colonists left England in search of gold. With this in mind, the company financing this venture sent jewelers, goldsmiths, and aristocrats but not a single farmer. Upon reaching America they decided to trade with the Powhatan tribe for food, rather that grow it, and spend most of their time in the search for gold. Despite all the excitement, no gold was found near the Jamestown establishment. Tobacco became a major treasure for the colonists although they hadn't heard of it until they reached America. It was called "brown gold" by the colonists because it was really the only treasure they found in America.
Even though gold was a major factor for colonists, the spread of the Protestantism was also very important to England. The battle between Catholics and Protestants went on for decades in England until Queen Elizabeth took the throne in 1558 and Protestantism became dominant. A rivalry started when Catholic Ireland sought help from Catholic Spain to clear the queen of her strong beliefs in the Protestant religion. The queen highly supported colonialism in North America in hope that Protestantism would spread widely across the continent.
Along with the spread of Protestantism, the rival with Spain and Portugal was also a major factor for English colonialism. England had many things to do t… | <urn:uuid:3bdb3d4a-c0f0-4416-b40c-492a02f780a1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/colonization-5/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00393.warc.gz | en | 0.980984 | 368 | 4.34375 | 4 | [
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0.12888897... | 1 | During the end of the 16th century England desired more and needed to broaden its horizons. Despite England'sfirst colony in North America, the "Lost Colony", another colony was to be started just off the Chesapeake Bay. England's search for treasure, rival to compete with the success of Spain and Portugal, and desire to spread the Protestant religion all became major factors that contributed to English colonialism in North America.
The search for valued treasures was a major reason for English colonialism in America. Inspired by the success of Spanish explorers who had found gold in South America, many colonists left England in search of gold. With this in mind, the company financing this venture sent jewelers, goldsmiths, and aristocrats but not a single farmer. Upon reaching America they decided to trade with the Powhatan tribe for food, rather that grow it, and spend most of their time in the search for gold. Despite all the excitement, no gold was found near the Jamestown establishment. Tobacco became a major treasure for the colonists although they hadn't heard of it until they reached America. It was called "brown gold" by the colonists because it was really the only treasure they found in America.
Even though gold was a major factor for colonists, the spread of the Protestantism was also very important to England. The battle between Catholics and Protestants went on for decades in England until Queen Elizabeth took the throne in 1558 and Protestantism became dominant. A rivalry started when Catholic Ireland sought help from Catholic Spain to clear the queen of her strong beliefs in the Protestant religion. The queen highly supported colonialism in North America in hope that Protestantism would spread widely across the continent.
Along with the spread of Protestantism, the rival with Spain and Portugal was also a major factor for English colonialism. England had many things to do t… | 379 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The story of Jackie Robinson
Jackie Robinson burst onto the scene in 1947, breaking baseball’s color barrier and bringing his electrifying style of play to the majors. He quickly became baseball’s top drawing card and a symbol of hope to millions of Americans.
The youngest of five children, Jackie Roosevelt Robinson was raised by a single mother. He attended John Muir High School and Pasadena Junior College, where he was an excellent athlete and played four sports: football, basketball, track and baseball. He was named the region’s Most Valuable Player in baseball in 1938.
Robinson continued his education at the University of California, Los Angeles, where he became the university’s first student to win varsity letters in four sports. In 1941, despite his athletic success, Robinson was forced to leave UCLA just shy of graduation due to financial hardship. He moved to Honolulu, where he played football for the semi-professional Honolulu Bears. His season with the Bears was cut short when the United States entered into World War II.
From 1942 to 1944, Robinson served as a second lieutenant in the United States Army. He never saw combat. However, during boot camp in 1944 in Fort Hood, Texas, he was arrested and court-martialed after refusing to give up his seat and move to the back of a segregated bus when ordered to by the driver.
After his discharge from the Army in 1944, Robinson began to play baseball professionally. At the time, the sport was segregated, so Robinson began playing in the Negro Leagues. But he was soon chosen by Branch Rickey, president of the Brooklyn Dodgers, to help integrate major league baseball.
He joined the Montreal Royals, a farm team for the Brooklyn Dodgers, in 1946. Robinson later moved to Florida to begin spring training with the Royals. He had an outstanding start with the Royals, leading the International League with a .349 batting average and .985 fielding percentage. His successful year led to his promotion with the Dodgers. Robinson played his first game in Ebbets Field for the Brooklyn Dodgers on April 15, 1947 — becoming the first Black player to compete in the major leagues.
From the beginning of his career with the Dodgers, Robinson dealt with racism. Even some of his new teammates objected to having an African American on their team. People in the crowds sometimes jeered at Robinson, and he and his family received threats.
The harassment continued, most notably by the Philadelphia Phillies and their manager, Ben Chapman. During one infamous game, Chapman and his team shouted derogatory terms at Robinson from their dugout. Many players on opposing teams threatened not to play against the Dodgers. Even his own teammates threatened to sit out. But Dodgers manager Leo Durocher informed them that he would sooner trade them than Robinson. His loyalty to the player set the tone for the rest of Robinson’s career with the team.
In his first year, he hit 12 home runs and helped the Dodgers win the National League pennant.
That year, Robinson led the National League in stolen bases and was selected as Rookie of the Year. He continued to wow fans and critics alike with impressive feats, such as an outstanding .342 batting average during the 1949 season. He led in stolen bases that year and earned the National League’s Most Valuable Player Award.
With Robinson as the catalyst, the Dodgers won six pennants in his 10 seasons. He dominated games on the base paths, stealing home 19 times while riling opposing pitchers with his daring base-running style. Robinson was named National League MVP in 1949, leading the loop in hitting (.342) and steals (37), while knocking in 124 runs.
Throughout his decade-long career with the Dodgers, Robinson made advances in the cause of civil rights for Black athletes. In 1955, he helped the Dodgers win the World Series. He retired in 1957 with a career batting average of .311.
After baseball, Robinson became active in business and continued his work as an activist for social change. He worked as an executive for the Chock Full O’ Nuts coffee company and restaurant chain and helped establish the African-American-owned and -controlled Freedom Bank. He served on the board of the NAACP until 1967 and was the first African-American to be inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1962.
In 1972, the Dodgers retired his uniform number 42. In 1997, Major League Baseball universally retired his uniform number across all major league teams; he was the first pro athlete in any sport to be honored that way. Initiated for the first time on April 15, 2004, Major League Baseball has adopted a new annual tradition, “Jackie Robinson Day,” on which every player on every team wears number 42.
Robinson died in Connecticut in 1972. After his death, his wife, Rachel, established the Jackie Robinson Foundation dedicated to honoring his life and work. The foundation helps young people in need by providing scholarships and mentoring programs. | <urn:uuid:46673084-0b09-48a7-8a4d-e6f19ab84949> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://apnews.com/4221ba4d28d44fc3983bb0c3cf3700c1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00447.warc.gz | en | 0.98422 | 1,012 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.04959531873... | 1 | The story of Jackie Robinson
Jackie Robinson burst onto the scene in 1947, breaking baseball’s color barrier and bringing his electrifying style of play to the majors. He quickly became baseball’s top drawing card and a symbol of hope to millions of Americans.
The youngest of five children, Jackie Roosevelt Robinson was raised by a single mother. He attended John Muir High School and Pasadena Junior College, where he was an excellent athlete and played four sports: football, basketball, track and baseball. He was named the region’s Most Valuable Player in baseball in 1938.
Robinson continued his education at the University of California, Los Angeles, where he became the university’s first student to win varsity letters in four sports. In 1941, despite his athletic success, Robinson was forced to leave UCLA just shy of graduation due to financial hardship. He moved to Honolulu, where he played football for the semi-professional Honolulu Bears. His season with the Bears was cut short when the United States entered into World War II.
From 1942 to 1944, Robinson served as a second lieutenant in the United States Army. He never saw combat. However, during boot camp in 1944 in Fort Hood, Texas, he was arrested and court-martialed after refusing to give up his seat and move to the back of a segregated bus when ordered to by the driver.
After his discharge from the Army in 1944, Robinson began to play baseball professionally. At the time, the sport was segregated, so Robinson began playing in the Negro Leagues. But he was soon chosen by Branch Rickey, president of the Brooklyn Dodgers, to help integrate major league baseball.
He joined the Montreal Royals, a farm team for the Brooklyn Dodgers, in 1946. Robinson later moved to Florida to begin spring training with the Royals. He had an outstanding start with the Royals, leading the International League with a .349 batting average and .985 fielding percentage. His successful year led to his promotion with the Dodgers. Robinson played his first game in Ebbets Field for the Brooklyn Dodgers on April 15, 1947 — becoming the first Black player to compete in the major leagues.
From the beginning of his career with the Dodgers, Robinson dealt with racism. Even some of his new teammates objected to having an African American on their team. People in the crowds sometimes jeered at Robinson, and he and his family received threats.
The harassment continued, most notably by the Philadelphia Phillies and their manager, Ben Chapman. During one infamous game, Chapman and his team shouted derogatory terms at Robinson from their dugout. Many players on opposing teams threatened not to play against the Dodgers. Even his own teammates threatened to sit out. But Dodgers manager Leo Durocher informed them that he would sooner trade them than Robinson. His loyalty to the player set the tone for the rest of Robinson’s career with the team.
In his first year, he hit 12 home runs and helped the Dodgers win the National League pennant.
That year, Robinson led the National League in stolen bases and was selected as Rookie of the Year. He continued to wow fans and critics alike with impressive feats, such as an outstanding .342 batting average during the 1949 season. He led in stolen bases that year and earned the National League’s Most Valuable Player Award.
With Robinson as the catalyst, the Dodgers won six pennants in his 10 seasons. He dominated games on the base paths, stealing home 19 times while riling opposing pitchers with his daring base-running style. Robinson was named National League MVP in 1949, leading the loop in hitting (.342) and steals (37), while knocking in 124 runs.
Throughout his decade-long career with the Dodgers, Robinson made advances in the cause of civil rights for Black athletes. In 1955, he helped the Dodgers win the World Series. He retired in 1957 with a career batting average of .311.
After baseball, Robinson became active in business and continued his work as an activist for social change. He worked as an executive for the Chock Full O’ Nuts coffee company and restaurant chain and helped establish the African-American-owned and -controlled Freedom Bank. He served on the board of the NAACP until 1967 and was the first African-American to be inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1962.
In 1972, the Dodgers retired his uniform number 42. In 1997, Major League Baseball universally retired his uniform number across all major league teams; he was the first pro athlete in any sport to be honored that way. Initiated for the first time on April 15, 2004, Major League Baseball has adopted a new annual tradition, “Jackie Robinson Day,” on which every player on every team wears number 42.
Robinson died in Connecticut in 1972. After his death, his wife, Rachel, established the Jackie Robinson Foundation dedicated to honoring his life and work. The foundation helps young people in need by providing scholarships and mentoring programs. | 1,083 | ENGLISH | 1 |
For Michelangelo, his statue of David proved to be a defining moment in his artistic career. The story begins with a commission for a statue of David dating as far back as 1466 when the artist Agostino di Duccio began work on the marble block. Agostino did not make much progress, only managing to mark out the shape of the legs, feet and drapery, his work on the project ceased for reasons that remain unclear. The project was resurrected some ten years later when the artist Antonio Rossellino worked on the statue but his contract was terminated with no real progression being made.
The marble block, purchased from the famous quarries at Carrara, remained in the courtyard workshop of Florence Cathedral and lay neglected for the next twenty-five years.
After the success of the Rome Pieta of 1499-1500 Michelangelo was recognised as a genius, a master of his craft.
The Guild of Wool Merchants wanted to revive the abandoned project for David, Michelangelo was the artist who was offered and accepted this prestigious contract. | <urn:uuid:f174a641-778b-416b-ba1c-1b1564d04813> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.italian-renaissance-art.com/Michelangelo-David.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00356.warc.gz | en | 0.98118 | 214 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.68468242883682... | 2 | For Michelangelo, his statue of David proved to be a defining moment in his artistic career. The story begins with a commission for a statue of David dating as far back as 1466 when the artist Agostino di Duccio began work on the marble block. Agostino did not make much progress, only managing to mark out the shape of the legs, feet and drapery, his work on the project ceased for reasons that remain unclear. The project was resurrected some ten years later when the artist Antonio Rossellino worked on the statue but his contract was terminated with no real progression being made.
The marble block, purchased from the famous quarries at Carrara, remained in the courtyard workshop of Florence Cathedral and lay neglected for the next twenty-five years.
After the success of the Rome Pieta of 1499-1500 Michelangelo was recognised as a genius, a master of his craft.
The Guild of Wool Merchants wanted to revive the abandoned project for David, Michelangelo was the artist who was offered and accepted this prestigious contract. | 221 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Joan of Acre’s first marriage was of her father’s choice. However, after the death of her first husband, she did something that shocked the English court – marrying against her father’s wishes. This caused quite the outrage from her hot-tempered father. But Joan was eventually able to win her father over to her side.
Even though she was an English princess, Joan was born far away from England. Joan was born in the spring of 1272 in Akko (Acre) in present-day Israel. She was born there because her parents, Edward I of England and Eleanor of Castile, were on a crusade. Joan was the eighth of her parent’s sixteen children, but only the second to survive childhood. Around this time, many English princes and princesses were named after their birthplaces, so Joan became known as Joan of Acre. Joan was the second child of Edward and Eleanor to be born on a crusade, about a year before they had a daughter born in the Holy Land, whose name was not recorded and died shortly after birth.
Edward and Eleanor left the Holy Land in September 1272, taking Joan with them. Edward’s father Henry III died in England in November 1272, but the new king did not rush home. While in France, Eleanor gave birth to a son, Alfonso. Edward and Eleanor finally arrived in England in August 1274. Joan remained in France, where she lived with her maternal grandmother, Joan, Countess of Ponthieu.
After her grandmother’s death in 1279, Joan came to England for the first time. By this time, her father was already making marriage arrangements for her. Joan was betrothed to Hartman, the second son of the first Habsburg king, Rudolph I of Germany. This marriage never happened, because Hartman drowned in a shipwreck in December 1281. Some believe he was on his way to England to meet Joan. Hartman’s death would change the fate of Joan.
Joan’s first marriage
Eventually, Edward decided to marry Joan to Gilbert de Clare, Earl of Gloucester and Hertford, one of his barons. It wasn’t that common for English princesses to marry in their own country at the time, but Gilbert was one of England’s most powerful barons. Joan refused to marry until she had the same number of attendants as some of her sisters. On 30 April 1290, Joan and Gilbert were married. Gilbert was twenty-eight years Joan’s senior and had recently divorced his first wife, Alice de Lusignan. By her, Gilbert had two daughters, Isabella and another Joan, both older than Joan of Acre. Edward wanted for Joan to attend the wedding of her next sister, Margaret, a few months after her own. Joan refused and left for her husband’s estates soon after her wedding, without her father’s permission. A displeased Edward took seven dresses that were made for her, and gave them to Margaret instead.
It is not known whether or not if the marriage was happy. Either way, Joan bore four children in quick succession. First came a son named Gilbert, and then three daughters, Eleanor, Margaret, and Elizabeth. Just five years after the wedding, in December 1295, Gilbert de Clare died. Joan was left a widow at twenty-three with four young children.
Joan’s secret second marriage
Edward wanted his widowed daughter to marry again. This time, he chose a foreign match, Amadeus V, Count of Savoy. But Joan was already in love with someone else. This man was one of Gilbert’s squires, Ralph de Monthermer. In late 1296, Joan sent him to her father to be knighted.
Joan and Ralph were married in secret around January 1297. In March, having no idea of his daughter’s new marriage, Edward formally announced Joan’s betrothal to the Count of Savoy. When he found out about his daughter’s secret marriage, he was so angry that he threw the crown he was wearing into the fire. He then had Ralph imprisoned and seized all of Joan’s lands.
Joan eventually pleaded for herself and her new husband. She is said to have told her father that if it was no disgrace for an earl to marry a poor woman, then it was not shameful for a countess to advance a capable young man. By this time, it was also apparent that Joan was pregnant with Ralph’s child. Edward eventually accepted the situation, and freed Ralph, and restored most of Joan’s lands to her. Joan was allowed to keep her title as Countess of Gloucester and Hertford after Gilbert’s death, and by 1304, Ralph held these titles in right of his wife.
Joan and Ralph had at least four children – Mary, Joan, Thomas, and Edward. By 1304, Ralph seems to have been in the king’s favour. Joan was close to her youngest and only surviving full-brother, Edward. When father and son were quarrelling in 1305, Joan lent her brother her personal seal.
Joan died on 23 April 1307, around the time of her 35th birthday. The cause of her death is not known for certain, but it is sometimes thought to have been the birth of a ninth child who did not survive. On her death, Ralph lost his title of Earl of Gloucester to Joan’s son, Gilbert, from her first marriage. Ralph, in turn, was given the title 1st Baron Monthermer. Edward I died a couple of months after his daughter and was succeeded by his son, Edward II. Ralph married for a second time eleven years later. His second wife was Isabel Hastings (nee Despencer). This marriage also happened without the king’s permission. He died in April 1325, eighteen years after Joan.
The story of Joan of Acre is unique among medieval princesses. She seems to have been a woman of strong character, who refused to submit to her father. Due to her known relationship to her brother, Edward, she could have provided great support to him had she lived into his reign. 1 | <urn:uuid:2434e594-a574-407d-8b4c-98a95ff37078> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historyofroyalwomen.com/joan-of-acre/joan-of-acre-the-princess-who-defied-her-father/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00329.warc.gz | en | 0.990983 | 1,303 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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-0.080807790... | 5 | Joan of Acre’s first marriage was of her father’s choice. However, after the death of her first husband, she did something that shocked the English court – marrying against her father’s wishes. This caused quite the outrage from her hot-tempered father. But Joan was eventually able to win her father over to her side.
Even though she was an English princess, Joan was born far away from England. Joan was born in the spring of 1272 in Akko (Acre) in present-day Israel. She was born there because her parents, Edward I of England and Eleanor of Castile, were on a crusade. Joan was the eighth of her parent’s sixteen children, but only the second to survive childhood. Around this time, many English princes and princesses were named after their birthplaces, so Joan became known as Joan of Acre. Joan was the second child of Edward and Eleanor to be born on a crusade, about a year before they had a daughter born in the Holy Land, whose name was not recorded and died shortly after birth.
Edward and Eleanor left the Holy Land in September 1272, taking Joan with them. Edward’s father Henry III died in England in November 1272, but the new king did not rush home. While in France, Eleanor gave birth to a son, Alfonso. Edward and Eleanor finally arrived in England in August 1274. Joan remained in France, where she lived with her maternal grandmother, Joan, Countess of Ponthieu.
After her grandmother’s death in 1279, Joan came to England for the first time. By this time, her father was already making marriage arrangements for her. Joan was betrothed to Hartman, the second son of the first Habsburg king, Rudolph I of Germany. This marriage never happened, because Hartman drowned in a shipwreck in December 1281. Some believe he was on his way to England to meet Joan. Hartman’s death would change the fate of Joan.
Joan’s first marriage
Eventually, Edward decided to marry Joan to Gilbert de Clare, Earl of Gloucester and Hertford, one of his barons. It wasn’t that common for English princesses to marry in their own country at the time, but Gilbert was one of England’s most powerful barons. Joan refused to marry until she had the same number of attendants as some of her sisters. On 30 April 1290, Joan and Gilbert were married. Gilbert was twenty-eight years Joan’s senior and had recently divorced his first wife, Alice de Lusignan. By her, Gilbert had two daughters, Isabella and another Joan, both older than Joan of Acre. Edward wanted for Joan to attend the wedding of her next sister, Margaret, a few months after her own. Joan refused and left for her husband’s estates soon after her wedding, without her father’s permission. A displeased Edward took seven dresses that were made for her, and gave them to Margaret instead.
It is not known whether or not if the marriage was happy. Either way, Joan bore four children in quick succession. First came a son named Gilbert, and then three daughters, Eleanor, Margaret, and Elizabeth. Just five years after the wedding, in December 1295, Gilbert de Clare died. Joan was left a widow at twenty-three with four young children.
Joan’s secret second marriage
Edward wanted his widowed daughter to marry again. This time, he chose a foreign match, Amadeus V, Count of Savoy. But Joan was already in love with someone else. This man was one of Gilbert’s squires, Ralph de Monthermer. In late 1296, Joan sent him to her father to be knighted.
Joan and Ralph were married in secret around January 1297. In March, having no idea of his daughter’s new marriage, Edward formally announced Joan’s betrothal to the Count of Savoy. When he found out about his daughter’s secret marriage, he was so angry that he threw the crown he was wearing into the fire. He then had Ralph imprisoned and seized all of Joan’s lands.
Joan eventually pleaded for herself and her new husband. She is said to have told her father that if it was no disgrace for an earl to marry a poor woman, then it was not shameful for a countess to advance a capable young man. By this time, it was also apparent that Joan was pregnant with Ralph’s child. Edward eventually accepted the situation, and freed Ralph, and restored most of Joan’s lands to her. Joan was allowed to keep her title as Countess of Gloucester and Hertford after Gilbert’s death, and by 1304, Ralph held these titles in right of his wife.
Joan and Ralph had at least four children – Mary, Joan, Thomas, and Edward. By 1304, Ralph seems to have been in the king’s favour. Joan was close to her youngest and only surviving full-brother, Edward. When father and son were quarrelling in 1305, Joan lent her brother her personal seal.
Joan died on 23 April 1307, around the time of her 35th birthday. The cause of her death is not known for certain, but it is sometimes thought to have been the birth of a ninth child who did not survive. On her death, Ralph lost his title of Earl of Gloucester to Joan’s son, Gilbert, from her first marriage. Ralph, in turn, was given the title 1st Baron Monthermer. Edward I died a couple of months after his daughter and was succeeded by his son, Edward II. Ralph married for a second time eleven years later. His second wife was Isabel Hastings (nee Despencer). This marriage also happened without the king’s permission. He died in April 1325, eighteen years after Joan.
The story of Joan of Acre is unique among medieval princesses. She seems to have been a woman of strong character, who refused to submit to her father. Due to her known relationship to her brother, Edward, she could have provided great support to him had she lived into his reign. 1 | 1,301 | ENGLISH | 1 |
View all Overview By the s, African Americans began to mobilize in earnest against discrimination. As the photograph makes clear, even baseball legend Willie Mays was touched by housing discrimination. They lived in the same culture as white Americans — as illustrated by the photographs of Oakland's McClymonds High School marching band and the group of young woman at an NAACP-sponsored social event — and they wanted to enjoy equal rights. The Struggle for Civil Rights ss Civil rights groups demanded an end to segregation.
People were moving in the U. S from the cities to the suburbs, entertainment was becoming more and more popular, civil rights and arts movements were growing, and science and technology was becoming more advanced.
There were many reasons people thought that living in the suburbs was better than the frantic life style of the city. One of them was that it had become easier to travel to and from places with invention and advancement of the automobile. One of the other larger reasons was because of the increasing racial and immigration tensions in the city, many white people who wanted to escape it moved to the suburbs.
This was known as the White Flight. Since the homes were cheap and east to get, it seemed like a miracle for people needing a house because of the postwar housing situation, which made it hard to find homes anywhere. Ads on TV showed the suburbs as being a kind of paradise.
In the movie, it depicts the suburbs as a family friendly place to live with fun activities and events. There was a block party on the 4th of July accompanied by fireworks.
And the community pool that everyone could go to in the summer for a fun time.
Dec 01, · s Movie Essay: Rebel Without A Cause Introduction Rebel Without A Cause is a very popular film from It depicts life in the 's from the viewpoint of three teenagers who live in Los Angeles, California. Arthur Miller and the s. Weales, Gerald. Skip other details (including permanent urls, DOI, citation information) There is a coda to these events which illustrates that the s is not an easy decade to characterize. Joseph Welch, the unlikely hero of the hearings, became a celebrity. In "The Age of Happy Problems," the essay that. Project description Choose a decade (s, s, or s). Identify and discuss the focusing events that caused mobilization, agenda- setting, legislative actions, and the notable outcome that changed emergency management. Research additional information about the focusing event and/or the resulting congressional legislation.
It became a normal, everyday part of American life. Another aspect that was affected by conformity was the idea of the perfect American life style, which included living in the suburbs, owning a brand new car, and having a television set.
It showed that the ideal family was a dad that worked and a mom that stayed at home caring for the kids. Also how he knew that he was bad at playing baseball but he still wanted to learn how to play so he could play with everyone else. Women had always been seen as the ones who should stay at home and care for the kids.
Even though women had begun to branch out and get jobs outside the home, they were never in large numbers or they were a part of the lower class and minorities. The first time women really started to branch out was WWII. When the men when off to fight in the war, women were the only other group of people who could help to build all the weapons and planes and ammunition that the men would need.
Without the women working in the factories and making all the equipment the men needed it would have been very hard for us to win WWII.
The last concept is de facto segregation. Expecting African Americans to sit in the back of the bus is an example of de facto segregation. Another example is separate facilities for each race.The s and Now (Essay Sample) The s and Now Name: Course: Date Abstract Whether the s were adequate in some area or whether recent years are inadequate is still a very hotly debated topic.
However, of importance is the fact that both are different and had to offer unique characteristics. This was an unexpected turn of events. • Section II is 1 hour, 30 minutes and consists of a document-based question accounting for 25 percent of the total score and a long-essay question (there are two long-essay questions, and students choose one to respond to) accounting for 15 percent of the total score.
The s were the first full decade after the end of World War II, and they are remembered as a prosperous time of recovery from the Great Depression of the s and the war years of the s.
Everyone collectively breathed a sigh of relief. It was a time of new styles that broke with the past. The Crucible was based in in and around the town of Salem, Massachusetts, USA. The Salem witch-hunt was view as one of the strangest and most horrendous chapters in the human history.
Ahhh, the s: The decade of the baby boomer. Exciting times indeed. The post-war baby boom was just the beginning. Unfortunately, paranoia about Communism made a lot of good people act bad.
Racism was rampant in many parts of the country, but especially in the south. Although baseball and Jackie. History: s Published on September 15, In the U.S., far-reaching advertising trends were established in the cultural and economic environment of the s. | <urn:uuid:a995f46e-0e10-4cd9-915c-0e0242ca56c8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://rosirekykot.attheheels.com/an-essay-on-the-events-in-the-1950s-16456vc.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00540.warc.gz | en | 0.982903 | 1,100 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.16280910372... | 1 | View all Overview By the s, African Americans began to mobilize in earnest against discrimination. As the photograph makes clear, even baseball legend Willie Mays was touched by housing discrimination. They lived in the same culture as white Americans — as illustrated by the photographs of Oakland's McClymonds High School marching band and the group of young woman at an NAACP-sponsored social event — and they wanted to enjoy equal rights. The Struggle for Civil Rights ss Civil rights groups demanded an end to segregation.
People were moving in the U. S from the cities to the suburbs, entertainment was becoming more and more popular, civil rights and arts movements were growing, and science and technology was becoming more advanced.
There were many reasons people thought that living in the suburbs was better than the frantic life style of the city. One of them was that it had become easier to travel to and from places with invention and advancement of the automobile. One of the other larger reasons was because of the increasing racial and immigration tensions in the city, many white people who wanted to escape it moved to the suburbs.
This was known as the White Flight. Since the homes were cheap and east to get, it seemed like a miracle for people needing a house because of the postwar housing situation, which made it hard to find homes anywhere. Ads on TV showed the suburbs as being a kind of paradise.
In the movie, it depicts the suburbs as a family friendly place to live with fun activities and events. There was a block party on the 4th of July accompanied by fireworks.
And the community pool that everyone could go to in the summer for a fun time.
Dec 01, · s Movie Essay: Rebel Without A Cause Introduction Rebel Without A Cause is a very popular film from It depicts life in the 's from the viewpoint of three teenagers who live in Los Angeles, California. Arthur Miller and the s. Weales, Gerald. Skip other details (including permanent urls, DOI, citation information) There is a coda to these events which illustrates that the s is not an easy decade to characterize. Joseph Welch, the unlikely hero of the hearings, became a celebrity. In "The Age of Happy Problems," the essay that. Project description Choose a decade (s, s, or s). Identify and discuss the focusing events that caused mobilization, agenda- setting, legislative actions, and the notable outcome that changed emergency management. Research additional information about the focusing event and/or the resulting congressional legislation.
It became a normal, everyday part of American life. Another aspect that was affected by conformity was the idea of the perfect American life style, which included living in the suburbs, owning a brand new car, and having a television set.
It showed that the ideal family was a dad that worked and a mom that stayed at home caring for the kids. Also how he knew that he was bad at playing baseball but he still wanted to learn how to play so he could play with everyone else. Women had always been seen as the ones who should stay at home and care for the kids.
Even though women had begun to branch out and get jobs outside the home, they were never in large numbers or they were a part of the lower class and minorities. The first time women really started to branch out was WWII. When the men when off to fight in the war, women were the only other group of people who could help to build all the weapons and planes and ammunition that the men would need.
Without the women working in the factories and making all the equipment the men needed it would have been very hard for us to win WWII.
The last concept is de facto segregation. Expecting African Americans to sit in the back of the bus is an example of de facto segregation. Another example is separate facilities for each race.The s and Now (Essay Sample) The s and Now Name: Course: Date Abstract Whether the s were adequate in some area or whether recent years are inadequate is still a very hotly debated topic.
However, of importance is the fact that both are different and had to offer unique characteristics. This was an unexpected turn of events. • Section II is 1 hour, 30 minutes and consists of a document-based question accounting for 25 percent of the total score and a long-essay question (there are two long-essay questions, and students choose one to respond to) accounting for 15 percent of the total score.
The s were the first full decade after the end of World War II, and they are remembered as a prosperous time of recovery from the Great Depression of the s and the war years of the s.
Everyone collectively breathed a sigh of relief. It was a time of new styles that broke with the past. The Crucible was based in in and around the town of Salem, Massachusetts, USA. The Salem witch-hunt was view as one of the strangest and most horrendous chapters in the human history.
Ahhh, the s: The decade of the baby boomer. Exciting times indeed. The post-war baby boom was just the beginning. Unfortunately, paranoia about Communism made a lot of good people act bad.
Racism was rampant in many parts of the country, but especially in the south. Although baseball and Jackie. History: s Published on September 15, In the U.S., far-reaching advertising trends were established in the cultural and economic environment of the s. | 1,091 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Blitzkrieg in Western Europe: The Fall of France and the Third Republic
The Stuka on the Attack
1918-1939: The Inter-War Years
It's fair to say that the victors of the First World War were as demoralized by the victory as the losers were by their defeats. The cost of winning the war was enormous both in material terms and in manpower. France was wavering near the edge of defeat in 1917 when her army mutinied, and Great Britain was six weeks away from starvation at the hands of German submarines and even closer to financial ruin. The fact that Great Britain and France would go on and win the war was little more than an illusion. That was particularly true for France, who sustained an enormous loss of life on the battlefields of the Western Front losing over 1,654,000 soldiers. This loss of life would shape the strategy of the French Army after the end of the First World War. The man most responsible for this strategy was Henri Philippe Petain, the hero of Verdun, Marshall of France. He was to France during the inter-war years as Wellington had been to Britain after Waterloo, or what Eisenhower would be to the United States after the Second World War.
Basically after the First World War, the French Army's military leadership tied their nation's military strategy to the idea of the static defense. The French nation embarked on building a great belt of fortifications on the German frontier to defend against further invasions. They named it after their Minister of War, a man named Andre Maginot. The French committed a fundamental error building half a fortress leaving the other half of the country completely vulnerable to an end-run around their fortress. "France," a prominent observer said, "was perfectly prepared in 1914 for the war of 1871, and 1939 France was perfectly prepared for the war of 1914." The French military leadership were convinced an army entrenched in its position could not be defeated.
The Maginot Line demonstrated that belief, it took ten years to build and was estimated to cost, a half-a-billion dollars in 1939. French generals were certain that the invaders would never get beyond the main fortifications, so certain in fact that its guns faced in one direction toward the ancient enemy on the other side of the Rhine River. Only the round-topped, steel-armored turrets containing the big guns and the periscopes by which the officers directed the artillery were above ground. Below ground there were networks of catacombs for the ammunition depots, food stores, barracks, hospitals, power plants, air-conditioning apparatus to protect against gas attacks, airplane hangers and garages and the railways linking the series of forts known as the Maginot Line.
The Maginot Line was a marvel of scientific accomplishment but proved to be a failure in protecting the French nation from invasion. After months of inactivity known as the Phony War, Hitler was now ready to unleash his Blitzkrieg in the West. Predicting that the Allies expected the main offensive to take place through Belgium and northern France, the forward thinking German General von Manstein drew up a plan that would involve a diversionary thrust through Holland and Belgium, enticing the best of the French and British troops north to meet the threat, while the main Panzer attack would drive through the "impassable" forest of the Ardennes and head for the channel coast, catching the main body of the Allied armies in an enormous pocket.
The Maginot Line
Case Yellow—the Invasion of Western Europe
In November 1939, the German plan of attack in the West was very similar to the famous Schlieffen plan of the First World War, the main effort was to be on the right wing, but swinging a little wider than in 1914 by including Holland, Army Group B (Colonel General von Bock) was entrusted with this part of the plan. Army Group A (Colonel General von Rundstedt) was to support the attack by crossing the Ardennes and pushing infantry up to a line along the Meuse River, while Army Group C (Colonel General von Leeb) was to stand on the defensive and face the Maginot Line. Doubt arose regarding the advisability of the plan when a plane crashed behind enemy lines containing an entire set of German battle plans.
General Eric von Manstein, then chief of Army Group A was particularly opposed to making the German's main effort on the right wing, which he though would lead to a frontal clash between German amour and the best of the French and British formations in the Brussels area. Merely to repeat the mistakes of the past meant throwing away the prospect of surprise always the best guarantee of victory. Manstein would produce a subtle and highly original plan. A great attack was still to be made on the German right flank, Army Group B was to invade Holland and Belgium with three panzer divisions and all the available airborne troops at key points in Belgium and Holland. The advance of Army Group B would be formidable, noisy, and spectacular but it was a illusion to lead the British and French military away from the main point of attack. There was little doubt that the Allies would regard this advance as the main attack, and move rapidly across the French and Belgium frontier in order to reach a line along the Dyle and Meuse Rivers to cover the approaches to Brussels and Antwerp, as they approached their new positions their advance would best be compared to a gate swinging shut. The French and British High Commands code named this military action the Dyle Plan. It would involve about thirty-five of their best divisions who would advance into Belgium if the Germans invaded, they were to hold up the Germans long enough for the Allies to fortify their positions. The more they committed themselves to this advance, the more certain they would fall into ruin.
The main effort would go to Army Group A, this would involve three armies, the Fourth, Twelfth, and the Sixteenth which contained a special strike force, under the operational name Panzer Group von Kleist also known as the 1st Panzer Army, commanded by Field Marshal Ewald von Kliest. It was a revolutionary organization that included two Panzer Corps, Guderian's and Reinhardt's, along with a mechanized corps which included vital tank battalions forming the largest armored force in existence in any army anywhere in the world at that time .This panzer group contained seven of the ten panzer divisions used in the invasion of western Europe. This force was to attack through the difficult terrain of the Ardennes, extremely unsuitable tank country and cross the Meuse river at Sedan. Panzer Group von Kleist was to then push rapidly west and thrust far behind the flank and rear of the Allied forces as they advanced into Belgium.
The plan would be adopted by the German High Command after the original plan was lost when a German courier aircraft containing the initial plans crashed behind enemy lines. At sunrise on the 10th of May 1940, the German attack on western Europe began as German troops flooded across the borders of Belgium, Luxemburg, and Holland. Like the invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939, the Germans enjoyed the advantage of air superiority over the battlefield during the entire campaign as they advanced toward their objectives. The secret to the German victory was their skillful application of the two greatest principles of war, surprise and concentration.
The key to victory rested with Panzer Group von Kleist as its tanks cut through the woods of the Ardennes and headed for the Meuse River. The Allied military leadership, particularly the French, still thought in terms of the linear tactics of the First World War, and scattered their armor along the front. French military leaders had yet to contemplate using their armored divisions in mass. By dispersing their armor along the whole front from the Swiss border to the English Channel they played right into the Germans hands. The British 1st Armored Division had yet arrived in France, and the setting up of four French armored divisions was only in the initial stages. When the French military leaders considered the tank's uses they took an essentially conservative view of it. It would not be much more than in had been in 1918. This idea was challenged by a whole series of military theoretical writers. In Britain, B.H. Liddell Hart and J.F.C Fuller were developing ideas that would make the linear trench systems of 1914-18 obsolete. Instead of distributing tanks to infantry, they used their tanks in masses, as armored spearheads. Like the cavalry of the Napoleonic era, they could break the enemy's line and then go on the rampage storming the rear areas, disrupting communications and destroying his reserves which could be used later to block their armored spearheads. This was Liddell Hart's theory of "expanding the torrent." The tank would become the dominant weapon on the battlefield, along with the motorized infantry they would form the tip of the armored spearhead.
These ideas would be picked up by German military leaders, notably Heinz Guderian and Erwin Rommel. General Heinz Guderian was the principal architect of Germany's devastating blitzkrieg strategy. At the divisional level a German tank division was a better formation than its Allied counterparts, for it was an all-arms force. Meaning that each division, in addition to its tank battalions, had an adequate force of motorized infantry, artillery, engineer, and other support services organized into one fighting force. This enabled each tank division to advance independently, its infantry fighting off ground attack, its artillery offering fire support against organized defensive strong-points with its 105mm howitzers, against tank attack with its 50mm anti-tanks guns, and against aircraft with its 88mm anti-aircraft guns; and engineers to demolish Allied obstacles and build bridges to cross river barriers.
The French High Command failed to show little interest in the possibilities of armored vehicles on the battlefield. To the French High Command the tank was regarded useful in supporting attacks by foot-soldiers or cavalrymen, or a substitute for cavalry in a reconnaissance role on the battlefield. The also failed to grasp the value of close cooperation between tank and aircraft on the battlefield. The concept of aircraft used as flying artillery to clear the way for the tanks by laying down a carpet of bombs, was alien the French High Command. The German Air Force supported their advancing tanks columns with Dornier light bombers, Messerschmitt 109s and Junker 87s, also known as Stukas. All the aircraft came in at treetop level and opened up with their machine guns, as they dropped their bombs. But the Stukas were the most feared plane on the battlefield. The Stuka's bombs were each equipped with four small cardboard whistles, and on the planes wheels were little rotating propellers. The whistles were set at a different pitch. When a Stuka dived at an angle of 70 degrees and at a speed of over 300mph the sound terrified defending troops.
Allied tanks unlike the Germans lacked two-way radios to communicate with other tanks or aircraft, which put them at an extreme disadvantage during the Battle of France. Everything stemmed from the French weakness in the air. Without sufficient air cover French tanks could never match the speedy advances made by the German tanks divisions. The German Army was actually inferior to the Allied Armies not only in numbers of divisions, but particularly in numbers of tanks. While the combined French and British forces had over 4,000 tanks, the German Army could only put about 2,800 tanks on the battlefield. The Panzerkampfwagen III accounted for a large proportion of the German tank forces in 1940. Only armed with a 20mm cannon and machine guns, in theory it stood little chance against Allied medium tanks with their 37mm or even 47mm main armament. The British Matilda tank with its 47mm main gun was a much better tank than the German Mark III which had thinner armor and a smaller main gun. However, their were few major tank versus tank engagements in the whole campaign.
German Light Bombers Supporting German Armored Formations France 1940
The Destruction of Fort Eben Emael
Instead of the Schlieffen right hook through Belgium and Holland there would be a "Sichelschnitt," a "sickle cut" in the Ardennes. The attack would slice through the French line at its weakest point and envelop the cream of the Allied armies as they advanced north to defend the Belgian and Dutch frontier. The whole plan depended upon making the Allies think it was 1914 all over again. Therefore, the initial weight of the attack was taken by General von Bock's Army Group B advancing into Holland. Strong infantry and armor attacks were carried out, along with heavy aerial bombardment, and paratroop and airborne landings on key airfields throughout the low countries.
The whole campaign in Holland took only four days to complete. The main Belgian defense line ran from Antwerp to Liege along the Albert Canal, and its southern anchor was the great fortress of Eben Emael, about seven miles from Liege. The fortress was considered impregnable, and the Belgians put the future of their nation in the hands of the few who defended it. It was a complex of tunnels, steel cupolas and casemates made of heavy concrete all self contained, with a garrison of about 800 men, Eben Emael was the key to the front door of Belgium. The Germans would attack Eben Emael by landing on top of the fort by using gliders surprising its defenders. By blowing open the casemates and gun turrets with shaped hollow-charges, they were in control of the fort in twenty-eight hours, in time to greet German armor as it forced its way across the Albert Canal.Soon afterward the Germans occupied Liege and raced toward the Dyle River, overwhelming British and French forces who had advanced to support Belgian troops before they had time to site the artillery. The ferocity of the attack convinced the Allied leaders this had to be the main attack the could not have been wrong.
The Attack on Fort Eben Emael
Destruction of Fort Eben Emael Part 1
Destruction of Fort Eben Emael Part 3
The German Army's Breakthrough as Sedan
Breakthrough at Sedan
As the Belgian forces battled the Germans at Fort Eben Emael in the Ardennes they quietly waited for the Germans to attack, things were clouded in an ominous fog. Three German armies hidden by the forest massed against the Belgian garrison defending that sector of the front. The unit the Chasseurs Ardennes was basically government forestry workers in the area, put in uniforms and issued rifles. The Germans were virtually unopposed as they pushed the defenders aside and advanced through the Ardennes.
In two days, Panzer Group von Kleist with most of the German Army's armor, seven armored and two motorized divisions, was parked on the banks of the Meuse River, France's main defensive position. With frantic reports of their arrival French commanders began shifting reserves to meet the oncoming threat. Some of the French formations, made up of over age and under armed reserves, fled precipitately before the onslaught of tanks and Stukas; others fought to the last man, but nowhere were they a match for the constant German superiority of material and numbers at any vital spot. The order to retreat was given on the night of the 13th of May 1940, but the French defensive line had already been destroyed.
By the next morning there was a fifty mile hole in the French line, and within forty-eight hours Panzer Group von Kleist was across the Aisne River, rolling into open country. The whole situation along the breakthrough was incredibly fluid as German tanks raced ahead, with their flanks basically undefended. Ahead of the German spearhead Stukas dive-bombed and strafed the retreating French troops and refugees who clogged the roads and slowed down the troops. Behind the German tanks leading the breakthrough there was virtually nothing, just long dusty columns of very tired German infantry, slogging along attempting to catch the tanks as they raced ahead.
One surprising fact was most of the German Army was largely dependent on horse-drawn transport which created dangerous gaps between amour and support troops during the battle for France. This type of horse transport was most vulnerable to Allied air and ground attack. The Germans were leaving themselves wide open for a counter-attack into their unprotected flanks. But the French Army was busy elsewhere with its own battle for survival.
German Spearheads Slice Up Allied Defenses
A Courage Pill Used By Nazi Germany's Soldiers To Storm Europe.
The Miricle of Dunkirk
German tanks had advanced more than forty miles since crossing the Meuse River four days earlier. As German spearheads converged into a solid armored mass of seven armored divisions, the evidence of the collapse of the Allied armies was clearly in front of them as they advanced through the defeated French Ninth and Second Armies. As the German armored spearhead rolled forward toward Cambrai and the Channel Coast, the new British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, flew over to see what could be done to stop the disaster that was unfolding before them. He visited French generals and looked at their battle maps. Surely, he said, if the head of the German column was far to the west, and the tail far to the east, they must be thin somewhere. He asked the French commander Gamelin where the French reserves were located. Gamelin replied with a shrug, there were no reserves. After the meeting Churchill went back to London appalled. The Germans were indeed thin, and in many ways their high command were as worried as the French were about their exposed flanks.
Von Rundstedt, in command of Army Group A, was so concerned about his flanks that he tried to slow his panzers down. The tank commanders leading the spearhead, Guderian, Reinhardt, and Rommel, were shocked when given the order to stop. When ordered to stop and wait for support, they asked von Rundstedt permission to carry out reconnaissance missions to camouflage their advance. They continued westward again at full tilt. Occasionally, there was heavy fighting. On the northern edge of the drive, the French and British forces put up stiff resistance, the British tanks counter-attacked near Arras and threatened Rommel's headquarters. The British Matilda tanks proved difficult to stop with their heavy armor, the Germans were forced to bring up their famous 88mm anti-tank guns to deal with the threat.
The French did attempt to attack the German armored spearhead's southern flank with the newly formed 4th Armored Division led by Charles de Gualle. On May 17, 1940, he led an attack near Laon, which lay in the path of the German spearhead in an attempt to gain time for a new front to be established north of Paris. The attack would later become the foundation for de Gaulle's reputation as a fighter, but it achieved nothing more than the destruction of his division. The few gains French tanks made could not be held, as they were swept aside by the German armored juggernaut and constant attacks from the air. When the Germans ran against a determined enemy strong-point, they would side-step it with their armor and roll onward leaving it for their Stukas and light bombers. The further west they advanced, the weaker the Allied resistance .
On May 21, 1940, German tanks reached the French coast near the seaside town of Abbeville; the northern Allied armies were now effectively cut off from France. The French supreme commander Gamelin was sacked, and on the 19th of May, he was replaced by General Maxime Weygand, flown in from the French territory of Syria to take over the French defense. By the time Weygand had determined what was happening it was too late to do anything but preside over the disaster. Ordered to push their attack south and break through to France, the Anglo-Franco-Belgian forces were too defeated to combined their forces. Allied cooperation between forces began to break down. The French forces trapped in the northern pocket still wanted to move south, but were incapable of doing so. Lord Gort, the commander of the British Expeditionary Force, realized that without his force England would be left defenseless began planning its evacuation.
Out of this chaos the miracle of Dunkirk took place. With no alternative but evacuation, the British government began organizing everything that could float. With the help of the French Navy as well, the Allied navy started lifting men out of the port of Dunkirk, and even off the open beaches beyond the town. Destroyers, tugs, cross-channel packets, paddle-wheel ferries, fishing boats, yachts, dinghies, swarmed into the English Channel, many falling prey to the German Luftwaffe but determined to bring their soldiers home. When the evacuation was finally over on the night of the 3rd and 4th of June 1940, the Allies had pulled off the impossible, evacuating 338,300 soldiers to Britain to fight another day. The Allies had turned a military disaster into a test of will giving England the troops she needed to defend her island fortress.
The Other Side of Dunkirk
The Last Days of the French Third Republic
Like the Empire of Napoleon III, which it succeeded, the French Third Republic was destroyed in battle near the medieval fortress of Sedan. Expecting this to be a quiet sector, the French had deployed their weakest units at Sedan. The crisis found their best units in Belgium and their high command had not bothered to retain any reserve, an elementary error from which they failed to recover from.
The Luftwaffe, with larger numbers and superior aircraft than both the French and British Air Forces in France, acted as a safe aerial umbrella for most of the campaign. After Dunkirk the French Army was on its own. The Dutch Army was gone, as were the Belgians and the British. The French Army had lost twenty-four of the sixty-seven infantry divisions, six of their twelve motorized divisions. They had lost massive amounts of irreplaceable material and even those formations that remained were seriously depleted in strength and equipment. Almost half the French Army was gone, most of them were the best formations the French Army could put in the field. The German Army's casualties in France proved extremely light.
Defeat hung like a fog over the French soldiers left to battle the German onslaught. Only one day after the defeat at Dunkirk the Germans had redeployed their troops and were ready to strike south into France. With 120 divisions and a 2 to 1 advantage they attacked all along the line from the channel coast to the border with Switzerland.
The attack would begin on June 5, 1940, and within a week Guderian's tanks broke through the French line at Chalons, it was the Ardennes all over again, for all practical purposes the campaign against France was won. In an attempt to give the defeated French Army hope to fight on, France's great hero of the First World War, Marshal Petain was given the command of the French Army. Petain by now was a very old man who had changed over the years, he was no longer the man who won the battle of Verdun, even he couldn't save France's Third Republic for a second time. It had indeed been one of the greatest campaigns in all of military history, the casualties reflected the inequality of the campaign. The German Army lost just over 27,000 soldiers, 18,000 missing, and just over 100,000 wounded. The Dutch and Belgian Armies were completely destroyed. The British lost about 68,000 soldiers and all of their guns, tanks, trucks, and artillery. The French Army lost about 125,000 killed and missing with over 200,000 wounded. By the end of the conflict the Germans would take 1,500,000 prisoners. England was left beaten and standing alone against the thousand-year Reich.
Keegan, John. The Second World War. Viking Penguin Inc. 40 West 23rd Street, New York, New York, 10010 U.S.A. 1990
Monaghan, Frank. World War II: An Illustrated History. J. G. Ferguson and Associates and Geographical Publishing Chicago, Illinois 1953.
Ray, John. The Illustrated History of WWII. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. The Orion Publishing Group Ltd. Orion House. 3 Upper Saint Martin's Lane, London WC 2H 9EA 2003.
Swanston, Alexander. The Historical Atlas of World War II. Chartwell Books 276 Fifth Avenue Suite 206 New York, New York 10001, U.S.A. 2008. | <urn:uuid:39e93766-2aa3-4289-96a9-df305474ab1a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://owlcation.com/humanities/Blitzkreig-on-Western-Europe-1940-The-Fall-of-France | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00310.warc.gz | en | 0.980179 | 5,052 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.527822256088... | 3 | Blitzkrieg in Western Europe: The Fall of France and the Third Republic
The Stuka on the Attack
1918-1939: The Inter-War Years
It's fair to say that the victors of the First World War were as demoralized by the victory as the losers were by their defeats. The cost of winning the war was enormous both in material terms and in manpower. France was wavering near the edge of defeat in 1917 when her army mutinied, and Great Britain was six weeks away from starvation at the hands of German submarines and even closer to financial ruin. The fact that Great Britain and France would go on and win the war was little more than an illusion. That was particularly true for France, who sustained an enormous loss of life on the battlefields of the Western Front losing over 1,654,000 soldiers. This loss of life would shape the strategy of the French Army after the end of the First World War. The man most responsible for this strategy was Henri Philippe Petain, the hero of Verdun, Marshall of France. He was to France during the inter-war years as Wellington had been to Britain after Waterloo, or what Eisenhower would be to the United States after the Second World War.
Basically after the First World War, the French Army's military leadership tied their nation's military strategy to the idea of the static defense. The French nation embarked on building a great belt of fortifications on the German frontier to defend against further invasions. They named it after their Minister of War, a man named Andre Maginot. The French committed a fundamental error building half a fortress leaving the other half of the country completely vulnerable to an end-run around their fortress. "France," a prominent observer said, "was perfectly prepared in 1914 for the war of 1871, and 1939 France was perfectly prepared for the war of 1914." The French military leadership were convinced an army entrenched in its position could not be defeated.
The Maginot Line demonstrated that belief, it took ten years to build and was estimated to cost, a half-a-billion dollars in 1939. French generals were certain that the invaders would never get beyond the main fortifications, so certain in fact that its guns faced in one direction toward the ancient enemy on the other side of the Rhine River. Only the round-topped, steel-armored turrets containing the big guns and the periscopes by which the officers directed the artillery were above ground. Below ground there were networks of catacombs for the ammunition depots, food stores, barracks, hospitals, power plants, air-conditioning apparatus to protect against gas attacks, airplane hangers and garages and the railways linking the series of forts known as the Maginot Line.
The Maginot Line was a marvel of scientific accomplishment but proved to be a failure in protecting the French nation from invasion. After months of inactivity known as the Phony War, Hitler was now ready to unleash his Blitzkrieg in the West. Predicting that the Allies expected the main offensive to take place through Belgium and northern France, the forward thinking German General von Manstein drew up a plan that would involve a diversionary thrust through Holland and Belgium, enticing the best of the French and British troops north to meet the threat, while the main Panzer attack would drive through the "impassable" forest of the Ardennes and head for the channel coast, catching the main body of the Allied armies in an enormous pocket.
The Maginot Line
Case Yellow—the Invasion of Western Europe
In November 1939, the German plan of attack in the West was very similar to the famous Schlieffen plan of the First World War, the main effort was to be on the right wing, but swinging a little wider than in 1914 by including Holland, Army Group B (Colonel General von Bock) was entrusted with this part of the plan. Army Group A (Colonel General von Rundstedt) was to support the attack by crossing the Ardennes and pushing infantry up to a line along the Meuse River, while Army Group C (Colonel General von Leeb) was to stand on the defensive and face the Maginot Line. Doubt arose regarding the advisability of the plan when a plane crashed behind enemy lines containing an entire set of German battle plans.
General Eric von Manstein, then chief of Army Group A was particularly opposed to making the German's main effort on the right wing, which he though would lead to a frontal clash between German amour and the best of the French and British formations in the Brussels area. Merely to repeat the mistakes of the past meant throwing away the prospect of surprise always the best guarantee of victory. Manstein would produce a subtle and highly original plan. A great attack was still to be made on the German right flank, Army Group B was to invade Holland and Belgium with three panzer divisions and all the available airborne troops at key points in Belgium and Holland. The advance of Army Group B would be formidable, noisy, and spectacular but it was a illusion to lead the British and French military away from the main point of attack. There was little doubt that the Allies would regard this advance as the main attack, and move rapidly across the French and Belgium frontier in order to reach a line along the Dyle and Meuse Rivers to cover the approaches to Brussels and Antwerp, as they approached their new positions their advance would best be compared to a gate swinging shut. The French and British High Commands code named this military action the Dyle Plan. It would involve about thirty-five of their best divisions who would advance into Belgium if the Germans invaded, they were to hold up the Germans long enough for the Allies to fortify their positions. The more they committed themselves to this advance, the more certain they would fall into ruin.
The main effort would go to Army Group A, this would involve three armies, the Fourth, Twelfth, and the Sixteenth which contained a special strike force, under the operational name Panzer Group von Kleist also known as the 1st Panzer Army, commanded by Field Marshal Ewald von Kliest. It was a revolutionary organization that included two Panzer Corps, Guderian's and Reinhardt's, along with a mechanized corps which included vital tank battalions forming the largest armored force in existence in any army anywhere in the world at that time .This panzer group contained seven of the ten panzer divisions used in the invasion of western Europe. This force was to attack through the difficult terrain of the Ardennes, extremely unsuitable tank country and cross the Meuse river at Sedan. Panzer Group von Kleist was to then push rapidly west and thrust far behind the flank and rear of the Allied forces as they advanced into Belgium.
The plan would be adopted by the German High Command after the original plan was lost when a German courier aircraft containing the initial plans crashed behind enemy lines. At sunrise on the 10th of May 1940, the German attack on western Europe began as German troops flooded across the borders of Belgium, Luxemburg, and Holland. Like the invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939, the Germans enjoyed the advantage of air superiority over the battlefield during the entire campaign as they advanced toward their objectives. The secret to the German victory was their skillful application of the two greatest principles of war, surprise and concentration.
The key to victory rested with Panzer Group von Kleist as its tanks cut through the woods of the Ardennes and headed for the Meuse River. The Allied military leadership, particularly the French, still thought in terms of the linear tactics of the First World War, and scattered their armor along the front. French military leaders had yet to contemplate using their armored divisions in mass. By dispersing their armor along the whole front from the Swiss border to the English Channel they played right into the Germans hands. The British 1st Armored Division had yet arrived in France, and the setting up of four French armored divisions was only in the initial stages. When the French military leaders considered the tank's uses they took an essentially conservative view of it. It would not be much more than in had been in 1918. This idea was challenged by a whole series of military theoretical writers. In Britain, B.H. Liddell Hart and J.F.C Fuller were developing ideas that would make the linear trench systems of 1914-18 obsolete. Instead of distributing tanks to infantry, they used their tanks in masses, as armored spearheads. Like the cavalry of the Napoleonic era, they could break the enemy's line and then go on the rampage storming the rear areas, disrupting communications and destroying his reserves which could be used later to block their armored spearheads. This was Liddell Hart's theory of "expanding the torrent." The tank would become the dominant weapon on the battlefield, along with the motorized infantry they would form the tip of the armored spearhead.
These ideas would be picked up by German military leaders, notably Heinz Guderian and Erwin Rommel. General Heinz Guderian was the principal architect of Germany's devastating blitzkrieg strategy. At the divisional level a German tank division was a better formation than its Allied counterparts, for it was an all-arms force. Meaning that each division, in addition to its tank battalions, had an adequate force of motorized infantry, artillery, engineer, and other support services organized into one fighting force. This enabled each tank division to advance independently, its infantry fighting off ground attack, its artillery offering fire support against organized defensive strong-points with its 105mm howitzers, against tank attack with its 50mm anti-tanks guns, and against aircraft with its 88mm anti-aircraft guns; and engineers to demolish Allied obstacles and build bridges to cross river barriers.
The French High Command failed to show little interest in the possibilities of armored vehicles on the battlefield. To the French High Command the tank was regarded useful in supporting attacks by foot-soldiers or cavalrymen, or a substitute for cavalry in a reconnaissance role on the battlefield. The also failed to grasp the value of close cooperation between tank and aircraft on the battlefield. The concept of aircraft used as flying artillery to clear the way for the tanks by laying down a carpet of bombs, was alien the French High Command. The German Air Force supported their advancing tanks columns with Dornier light bombers, Messerschmitt 109s and Junker 87s, also known as Stukas. All the aircraft came in at treetop level and opened up with their machine guns, as they dropped their bombs. But the Stukas were the most feared plane on the battlefield. The Stuka's bombs were each equipped with four small cardboard whistles, and on the planes wheels were little rotating propellers. The whistles were set at a different pitch. When a Stuka dived at an angle of 70 degrees and at a speed of over 300mph the sound terrified defending troops.
Allied tanks unlike the Germans lacked two-way radios to communicate with other tanks or aircraft, which put them at an extreme disadvantage during the Battle of France. Everything stemmed from the French weakness in the air. Without sufficient air cover French tanks could never match the speedy advances made by the German tanks divisions. The German Army was actually inferior to the Allied Armies not only in numbers of divisions, but particularly in numbers of tanks. While the combined French and British forces had over 4,000 tanks, the German Army could only put about 2,800 tanks on the battlefield. The Panzerkampfwagen III accounted for a large proportion of the German tank forces in 1940. Only armed with a 20mm cannon and machine guns, in theory it stood little chance against Allied medium tanks with their 37mm or even 47mm main armament. The British Matilda tank with its 47mm main gun was a much better tank than the German Mark III which had thinner armor and a smaller main gun. However, their were few major tank versus tank engagements in the whole campaign.
German Light Bombers Supporting German Armored Formations France 1940
The Destruction of Fort Eben Emael
Instead of the Schlieffen right hook through Belgium and Holland there would be a "Sichelschnitt," a "sickle cut" in the Ardennes. The attack would slice through the French line at its weakest point and envelop the cream of the Allied armies as they advanced north to defend the Belgian and Dutch frontier. The whole plan depended upon making the Allies think it was 1914 all over again. Therefore, the initial weight of the attack was taken by General von Bock's Army Group B advancing into Holland. Strong infantry and armor attacks were carried out, along with heavy aerial bombardment, and paratroop and airborne landings on key airfields throughout the low countries.
The whole campaign in Holland took only four days to complete. The main Belgian defense line ran from Antwerp to Liege along the Albert Canal, and its southern anchor was the great fortress of Eben Emael, about seven miles from Liege. The fortress was considered impregnable, and the Belgians put the future of their nation in the hands of the few who defended it. It was a complex of tunnels, steel cupolas and casemates made of heavy concrete all self contained, with a garrison of about 800 men, Eben Emael was the key to the front door of Belgium. The Germans would attack Eben Emael by landing on top of the fort by using gliders surprising its defenders. By blowing open the casemates and gun turrets with shaped hollow-charges, they were in control of the fort in twenty-eight hours, in time to greet German armor as it forced its way across the Albert Canal.Soon afterward the Germans occupied Liege and raced toward the Dyle River, overwhelming British and French forces who had advanced to support Belgian troops before they had time to site the artillery. The ferocity of the attack convinced the Allied leaders this had to be the main attack the could not have been wrong.
The Attack on Fort Eben Emael
Destruction of Fort Eben Emael Part 1
Destruction of Fort Eben Emael Part 3
The German Army's Breakthrough as Sedan
Breakthrough at Sedan
As the Belgian forces battled the Germans at Fort Eben Emael in the Ardennes they quietly waited for the Germans to attack, things were clouded in an ominous fog. Three German armies hidden by the forest massed against the Belgian garrison defending that sector of the front. The unit the Chasseurs Ardennes was basically government forestry workers in the area, put in uniforms and issued rifles. The Germans were virtually unopposed as they pushed the defenders aside and advanced through the Ardennes.
In two days, Panzer Group von Kleist with most of the German Army's armor, seven armored and two motorized divisions, was parked on the banks of the Meuse River, France's main defensive position. With frantic reports of their arrival French commanders began shifting reserves to meet the oncoming threat. Some of the French formations, made up of over age and under armed reserves, fled precipitately before the onslaught of tanks and Stukas; others fought to the last man, but nowhere were they a match for the constant German superiority of material and numbers at any vital spot. The order to retreat was given on the night of the 13th of May 1940, but the French defensive line had already been destroyed.
By the next morning there was a fifty mile hole in the French line, and within forty-eight hours Panzer Group von Kleist was across the Aisne River, rolling into open country. The whole situation along the breakthrough was incredibly fluid as German tanks raced ahead, with their flanks basically undefended. Ahead of the German spearhead Stukas dive-bombed and strafed the retreating French troops and refugees who clogged the roads and slowed down the troops. Behind the German tanks leading the breakthrough there was virtually nothing, just long dusty columns of very tired German infantry, slogging along attempting to catch the tanks as they raced ahead.
One surprising fact was most of the German Army was largely dependent on horse-drawn transport which created dangerous gaps between amour and support troops during the battle for France. This type of horse transport was most vulnerable to Allied air and ground attack. The Germans were leaving themselves wide open for a counter-attack into their unprotected flanks. But the French Army was busy elsewhere with its own battle for survival.
German Spearheads Slice Up Allied Defenses
A Courage Pill Used By Nazi Germany's Soldiers To Storm Europe.
The Miricle of Dunkirk
German tanks had advanced more than forty miles since crossing the Meuse River four days earlier. As German spearheads converged into a solid armored mass of seven armored divisions, the evidence of the collapse of the Allied armies was clearly in front of them as they advanced through the defeated French Ninth and Second Armies. As the German armored spearhead rolled forward toward Cambrai and the Channel Coast, the new British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, flew over to see what could be done to stop the disaster that was unfolding before them. He visited French generals and looked at their battle maps. Surely, he said, if the head of the German column was far to the west, and the tail far to the east, they must be thin somewhere. He asked the French commander Gamelin where the French reserves were located. Gamelin replied with a shrug, there were no reserves. After the meeting Churchill went back to London appalled. The Germans were indeed thin, and in many ways their high command were as worried as the French were about their exposed flanks.
Von Rundstedt, in command of Army Group A, was so concerned about his flanks that he tried to slow his panzers down. The tank commanders leading the spearhead, Guderian, Reinhardt, and Rommel, were shocked when given the order to stop. When ordered to stop and wait for support, they asked von Rundstedt permission to carry out reconnaissance missions to camouflage their advance. They continued westward again at full tilt. Occasionally, there was heavy fighting. On the northern edge of the drive, the French and British forces put up stiff resistance, the British tanks counter-attacked near Arras and threatened Rommel's headquarters. The British Matilda tanks proved difficult to stop with their heavy armor, the Germans were forced to bring up their famous 88mm anti-tank guns to deal with the threat.
The French did attempt to attack the German armored spearhead's southern flank with the newly formed 4th Armored Division led by Charles de Gualle. On May 17, 1940, he led an attack near Laon, which lay in the path of the German spearhead in an attempt to gain time for a new front to be established north of Paris. The attack would later become the foundation for de Gaulle's reputation as a fighter, but it achieved nothing more than the destruction of his division. The few gains French tanks made could not be held, as they were swept aside by the German armored juggernaut and constant attacks from the air. When the Germans ran against a determined enemy strong-point, they would side-step it with their armor and roll onward leaving it for their Stukas and light bombers. The further west they advanced, the weaker the Allied resistance .
On May 21, 1940, German tanks reached the French coast near the seaside town of Abbeville; the northern Allied armies were now effectively cut off from France. The French supreme commander Gamelin was sacked, and on the 19th of May, he was replaced by General Maxime Weygand, flown in from the French territory of Syria to take over the French defense. By the time Weygand had determined what was happening it was too late to do anything but preside over the disaster. Ordered to push their attack south and break through to France, the Anglo-Franco-Belgian forces were too defeated to combined their forces. Allied cooperation between forces began to break down. The French forces trapped in the northern pocket still wanted to move south, but were incapable of doing so. Lord Gort, the commander of the British Expeditionary Force, realized that without his force England would be left defenseless began planning its evacuation.
Out of this chaos the miracle of Dunkirk took place. With no alternative but evacuation, the British government began organizing everything that could float. With the help of the French Navy as well, the Allied navy started lifting men out of the port of Dunkirk, and even off the open beaches beyond the town. Destroyers, tugs, cross-channel packets, paddle-wheel ferries, fishing boats, yachts, dinghies, swarmed into the English Channel, many falling prey to the German Luftwaffe but determined to bring their soldiers home. When the evacuation was finally over on the night of the 3rd and 4th of June 1940, the Allies had pulled off the impossible, evacuating 338,300 soldiers to Britain to fight another day. The Allies had turned a military disaster into a test of will giving England the troops she needed to defend her island fortress.
The Other Side of Dunkirk
The Last Days of the French Third Republic
Like the Empire of Napoleon III, which it succeeded, the French Third Republic was destroyed in battle near the medieval fortress of Sedan. Expecting this to be a quiet sector, the French had deployed their weakest units at Sedan. The crisis found their best units in Belgium and their high command had not bothered to retain any reserve, an elementary error from which they failed to recover from.
The Luftwaffe, with larger numbers and superior aircraft than both the French and British Air Forces in France, acted as a safe aerial umbrella for most of the campaign. After Dunkirk the French Army was on its own. The Dutch Army was gone, as were the Belgians and the British. The French Army had lost twenty-four of the sixty-seven infantry divisions, six of their twelve motorized divisions. They had lost massive amounts of irreplaceable material and even those formations that remained were seriously depleted in strength and equipment. Almost half the French Army was gone, most of them were the best formations the French Army could put in the field. The German Army's casualties in France proved extremely light.
Defeat hung like a fog over the French soldiers left to battle the German onslaught. Only one day after the defeat at Dunkirk the Germans had redeployed their troops and were ready to strike south into France. With 120 divisions and a 2 to 1 advantage they attacked all along the line from the channel coast to the border with Switzerland.
The attack would begin on June 5, 1940, and within a week Guderian's tanks broke through the French line at Chalons, it was the Ardennes all over again, for all practical purposes the campaign against France was won. In an attempt to give the defeated French Army hope to fight on, France's great hero of the First World War, Marshal Petain was given the command of the French Army. Petain by now was a very old man who had changed over the years, he was no longer the man who won the battle of Verdun, even he couldn't save France's Third Republic for a second time. It had indeed been one of the greatest campaigns in all of military history, the casualties reflected the inequality of the campaign. The German Army lost just over 27,000 soldiers, 18,000 missing, and just over 100,000 wounded. The Dutch and Belgian Armies were completely destroyed. The British lost about 68,000 soldiers and all of their guns, tanks, trucks, and artillery. The French Army lost about 125,000 killed and missing with over 200,000 wounded. By the end of the conflict the Germans would take 1,500,000 prisoners. England was left beaten and standing alone against the thousand-year Reich.
Keegan, John. The Second World War. Viking Penguin Inc. 40 West 23rd Street, New York, New York, 10010 U.S.A. 1990
Monaghan, Frank. World War II: An Illustrated History. J. G. Ferguson and Associates and Geographical Publishing Chicago, Illinois 1953.
Ray, John. The Illustrated History of WWII. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. The Orion Publishing Group Ltd. Orion House. 3 Upper Saint Martin's Lane, London WC 2H 9EA 2003.
Swanston, Alexander. The Historical Atlas of World War II. Chartwell Books 276 Fifth Avenue Suite 206 New York, New York 10001, U.S.A. 2008. | 5,233 | ENGLISH | 1 |
School for Social Work
This study explored how transracial adoptees perceive their racial identity and the role that parents play in identity development. In particular, people who participated in this study were asked to reflect on the messages they received about their racial/ethnic identity and how racism may have played into these messages. Interviews were conducted with 12 transracial adoptees who were over the age of 18 at the time of the study. Participants were asked questions about the diversity of the neighborhoods in which they grew up; how their parents recognized their race/ethnicity; how their parents contributed to their racial identity development; how racism influenced their development; if they felt their parents had prepared them for racism; and how their racial/ethnic identity fits into how they identify themselves currently. The findings illustrate that many parents related to this sample seemed to emphasize similarities between themselves and their adopted children more often than acknowledge their differences. It is noteworthy, however, that some of the sample members' parents did offer assistance in the way of food, books, or dolls to help their children learn about their race/ethnicity, none of them chose to live in diverse neighborhoods. Findings also show that the majority of the participants did not feel that their parents prepared them to deal with racism. Findings from the study further suggest that social workers must support and encourage people who adopt transracially to explore their own identity, as well as that of their prospective adoptive child to become more in tune with differences and their potential implications. Finally, the findings suggest that living in a diverse neighborhood and having frequent contact with people who are of the similar race or ethnicity of the adopted child could aid in the development of a healthy racial identity.
McCully, Kristen Denise, "The space between : transracial adoptee's racial identity and the role parents play in identity development" (2007). Masters Thesis, Smith College, Northampton, MA.
Off Campus Download | <urn:uuid:a13088d7-054f-4882-951d-f6e300c70fcd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://scholarworks.smith.edu/theses/1278/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00372.warc.gz | en | 0.982871 | 389 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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This study explored how transracial adoptees perceive their racial identity and the role that parents play in identity development. In particular, people who participated in this study were asked to reflect on the messages they received about their racial/ethnic identity and how racism may have played into these messages. Interviews were conducted with 12 transracial adoptees who were over the age of 18 at the time of the study. Participants were asked questions about the diversity of the neighborhoods in which they grew up; how their parents recognized their race/ethnicity; how their parents contributed to their racial identity development; how racism influenced their development; if they felt their parents had prepared them for racism; and how their racial/ethnic identity fits into how they identify themselves currently. The findings illustrate that many parents related to this sample seemed to emphasize similarities between themselves and their adopted children more often than acknowledge their differences. It is noteworthy, however, that some of the sample members' parents did offer assistance in the way of food, books, or dolls to help their children learn about their race/ethnicity, none of them chose to live in diverse neighborhoods. Findings also show that the majority of the participants did not feel that their parents prepared them to deal with racism. Findings from the study further suggest that social workers must support and encourage people who adopt transracially to explore their own identity, as well as that of their prospective adoptive child to become more in tune with differences and their potential implications. Finally, the findings suggest that living in a diverse neighborhood and having frequent contact with people who are of the similar race or ethnicity of the adopted child could aid in the development of a healthy racial identity.
McCully, Kristen Denise, "The space between : transracial adoptee's racial identity and the role parents play in identity development" (2007). Masters Thesis, Smith College, Northampton, MA.
Off Campus Download | 390 | ENGLISH | 1 |
An introduction to the history of president john f kennedy
When Kennedy was an upperclassman at Harvard, he began to take his studies more seriously and developed an interest in political philosophy.
Soon after being elected senator, John F.
Taking office in the midst of a recession, he proposed sweeping income tax cuts, raising the minimum wage and instituting new social programs to improve education, health care and mass transit.
Kennedy President Kennedy's death caused enormous sadness and grief among all Americans. Kennedy asked Lyndon B. A Japanese destroyer suddenly became visible.
Kennedy and Ross found a small canoe, packages of crackers, candy and a fifty-gallon drum of drinkable water left by the Japanese, which Kennedy paddled another half mile back to Olasana in the acquired canoe to provide his hungry crew.
John f kennedy jr
House of Representatives for three terms —53 , served two terms as a U. When was John F. In his inaugural speech he spoke of the need for all Americans to be active citizens. These missiles would be able to strike the U. Despite months of training, he was medically disqualified due to his chronic lower back problems. The Kennedys believed that the White House should be a place to celebrate American history, culture, and achievement. Kennedy Jr. At the end of the school year, the Kennedy children would go to their summer home in Hyannis Port on Cape Cod where they enjoyed swimming, sailing, and playing touch football. Constrained by Southern Democrats in Congress who remained stridently opposed to civil rights for black citizens, Kennedy offered only tepid support for civil rights reforms early in his term.
Sadly, his older brother Joe wasn't as lucky and died in combat during the war. In the darkness, Lt. Kennedy He was the first president who was a Boy Scout.
John f kennedy biography
Jack never really recovered from this accident and his back continued to bother him for the rest of his life. They cut my PT boat in half. He was also chronically ill during his childhood and adolescence; he suffered from severe colds, the flu, scarlet fever and even more severe, undiagnosed diseases that forced him to miss months of school at a time and occasionally brought him to the brink of death. John F. Kennedy served in the U. On November 8, , Kennedy defeated Nixon by a razor-thin margin to become the 35th president of the United States of America. Kennedy Sr. By the time Jack was eight there were seven children altogether. He won the Pulitzer Prize in history for the book Profiles in Courage. While riding in a motorcade, he was struck by two rifle bullets and died shortly after hospitalization. Ill-health forced his return to the United States in October of that year, when he enrolled late and attended Princeton University but had to leave after two months due to a gastrointestinal illness. President Kennedy wanted the United States to move forward into the future with new discoveries in science and improvements in education, employment and other fields. He knew that if there was a war, millions of people would die. Despite his poor grades, Kennedy continued on to Choate, an elite Connecticut preparatory school. He was the youngest ever to be elected president Teddy Roosevelt was the youngest president, but he came into office due to the death of President McKinley.
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0.447056055068... | 3 | An introduction to the history of president john f kennedy
When Kennedy was an upperclassman at Harvard, he began to take his studies more seriously and developed an interest in political philosophy.
Soon after being elected senator, John F.
Taking office in the midst of a recession, he proposed sweeping income tax cuts, raising the minimum wage and instituting new social programs to improve education, health care and mass transit.
Kennedy President Kennedy's death caused enormous sadness and grief among all Americans. Kennedy asked Lyndon B. A Japanese destroyer suddenly became visible.
Kennedy and Ross found a small canoe, packages of crackers, candy and a fifty-gallon drum of drinkable water left by the Japanese, which Kennedy paddled another half mile back to Olasana in the acquired canoe to provide his hungry crew.
John f kennedy jr
House of Representatives for three terms —53 , served two terms as a U. When was John F. In his inaugural speech he spoke of the need for all Americans to be active citizens. These missiles would be able to strike the U. Despite months of training, he was medically disqualified due to his chronic lower back problems. The Kennedys believed that the White House should be a place to celebrate American history, culture, and achievement. Kennedy Jr. At the end of the school year, the Kennedy children would go to their summer home in Hyannis Port on Cape Cod where they enjoyed swimming, sailing, and playing touch football. Constrained by Southern Democrats in Congress who remained stridently opposed to civil rights for black citizens, Kennedy offered only tepid support for civil rights reforms early in his term.
Sadly, his older brother Joe wasn't as lucky and died in combat during the war. In the darkness, Lt. Kennedy He was the first president who was a Boy Scout.
John f kennedy biography
Jack never really recovered from this accident and his back continued to bother him for the rest of his life. They cut my PT boat in half. He was also chronically ill during his childhood and adolescence; he suffered from severe colds, the flu, scarlet fever and even more severe, undiagnosed diseases that forced him to miss months of school at a time and occasionally brought him to the brink of death. John F. Kennedy served in the U. On November 8, , Kennedy defeated Nixon by a razor-thin margin to become the 35th president of the United States of America. Kennedy Sr. By the time Jack was eight there were seven children altogether. He won the Pulitzer Prize in history for the book Profiles in Courage. While riding in a motorcade, he was struck by two rifle bullets and died shortly after hospitalization. Ill-health forced his return to the United States in October of that year, when he enrolled late and attended Princeton University but had to leave after two months due to a gastrointestinal illness. President Kennedy wanted the United States to move forward into the future with new discoveries in science and improvements in education, employment and other fields. He knew that if there was a war, millions of people would die. Despite his poor grades, Kennedy continued on to Choate, an elite Connecticut preparatory school. He was the youngest ever to be elected president Teddy Roosevelt was the youngest president, but he came into office due to the death of President McKinley.
based on 36 review | 680 | ENGLISH | 1 |
"The Battle of Plum Creek"
Bois d'ark wood with resin inlay from Kelly Springs battle site
The greatest battle that Texas had with a combined force of Comanches and Kiowa Indians was the battle of Plum Creek, following what was known as "The Great Raid of 1840."
And although the Indians greatly outnumbered the Texans, the battle was a crushing defeat for them.
Any trust between the Texans and Indians totally collapsed following the loss of twelve of their war chiefs and many warriors in San Antonio during what became known as the "Council House Fight." It had started out as a peace mission to negotiate the return of all captured women and children. But only 16 year old Matilda Lockhart and several mexican children were brought in. The chiefs told the Texas commisioners that any other captured whites were being held by different tribes that they had no control over, but Matilda Lockhart, who had been physically abused by the Indians, discreetly told the captain that they were holding the other captives back in their camp and were going to attempt to ransom them one at a time. With this news, the captain told the Chiefs that they, and all of the warriors and squaws with them, would be held there under guard until the other captives were brought in. This quickly turned into a fight inside the council house, which spilled out into the streets of San Antonio, and ending with the death of seven texans, and over thirty-five Indians.
San Fernando Cathedral in the Main Plaza in San Antonio. The council house is the small building on the right.
Over the next few months, the Indians began making plans for retaliation. About five to six hundred infuriated Comanches and Kiowa from combined tribes were led by Chief Buffalo Hump, well armed and mounted on their best horses they moved down out of west Texas, carefully avoiding the settlements in the Guadalupe valley.
Chief Buffalo Hump
At the time of the “Great Comanche Raid," it was late summer and the August days were hot, dry, and harsh. The vast open spaces of Texas were thinly dotted with farms, small towns and settlements, and was still very much a raw frontier. Here the people were conscious each day of living in close proximity to an Indian-Mexican frontier. The entire male population was armed, and experienced horsemen. A boy got his first gun and learned to shoot it accurately at the age of six or seven. For all their small numbers, the tiny companies of Minute Men and Rangers were not made up of soft-handed clerks or humble farmers, they were frontiersmen who had been accustomed to violence most of their lives. Their leaders were almost never rich or professional people, but rather that cool, grim, hardened men who had grown up along the frontier, who reacted calmly and purposefully to violent emergencies.
Buffalo Hump rode by the rising moon, and his tactics were flawless. He penetrated the borderlands undetected with hundreds of Comanches, and was deep into southeast Texas before their trail was discovered.
Great Comanche Raid Warriors Gather in Comancheria
The Baptist preacher Rev. Z.N. Morrell was travelling over to Bastrop in a wagon when he came across the beaten path made by hundreds of unshod horses. He quickly returned to La Grange and told Captain Ed Burleson what he’d seen. The sight of this beaten path also raised an alarm in the town of Gonzales, some sixty miles southeast of San Antonio. The experienced Ranger Captain Ben McCulloch read the sign perfectly. Grimly, McCulloch sent riders in all directions to cry the alarm and to call out the militias. He estimated that they were already two days behind them.
Meanwhile, the Comanches had reached Victoria, taking the settlement completely by surprise. While many of its citizens stayed behind cover, the Comanches attacked the town and killed fifteen others. Buffalo Hump directed warriors to ride up the streets, attacking and setting fire to houses. The men of Victoria had now positioned themselves up on the roofs and in second story windows and opened fire on the attackers. The warriors quickly retreated, but in the process, drove off many mules and horses with them.
Leaving the shaken town behind, the Comanches poured across the Guadalupe River and down Peach Creek. The warriors left a path of destruction to the sea, surrounding houses, killing surprised settlers, and setting fire to homes and barns. This was an Indian raid such as no living Texan had ever experienced. It was like Santa Anna's march four years earlier, leaving smoldering desolation in its trail.
Ben McCulloch's messengers were now riding far and wide, warning the scattered homesteads, and gathering up armed men from the towns. But until they organized together, McCulloch had no choice but to move slowly and carefully in the Comanches wake. Other Ranger parties were doing the same as well.
The Comanches were sweeping rapidly toward Lavaca Bay on the Gulf. They were now nearing tiny port town of Linnville, a small settlement on the bay that served as a port for San Antonio and the surrounding region. At Nine Mile Point, his riders seized Mrs. Crosby who was travelling in a buggy with her baby. Mrs. Crosby was the granddaughter of Daniel Boone, the great Kentucky frontiersman. They threw her over a horse and took her and her baby captive. They later killed her baby when it began crying.
As they neared the town, the warriors hung over onto the sides of their horses, concealing themselves. To the residents of Linnville, it looked like a typical arrival of Mexican traders bringing in some horses. Once into town, they rose up and the attack started. Five men were immediately killed, including Mrs. Crosby’s husband Cyrus. As the mayhem and screaming broke out, some residents ran to the shoreline and began wading out into the bay and scrambling into boats to try to get out of the reach of danger. Major Watts, the customs collector and his young bride were frantically wading out together hand in hand towards one of the boats when he was killed by a warrior, who then caught Mrs. Watts and dragged her back onto shore. Along with Mrs. Watts, a black woman and her young daughter were also taken as captives.
Out in one of the small boats, Judge John Hays became so angry watching the ransacking and destruction of Linnville, that he jumped out and waded ashore waving an old muzzle-loading shotgun above his head, bravely challenging the galloping warriors. The Comanches, thinking the man must be crazy, or "bad medicine," for facing them as he did, simply rode around him and acted as if he didn’t exist. When the Judge finally gave up and waded back out to his boat, he was shocked when he realized that he had never loaded the shotgun.
The Comanches found John Linn's warehouse, which was packed with goods awaiting shipment to San Antonio. Bolts of red cloth, boxes of fashionable stovepipe hats, umbrellas, and assorted ladies' finery. The warriors outfitted themselves in what they'd found and presented a ludicrous sight. The naked warriors dressed themselves in the stolen clothing, with tall top hats and fancy frock coats with tails. But they had them on backwards with the buttons going up their backs. They spread the calico over their horses, and tied hundreds of yards of brightly colored ribbons into their horses' manes and tails, and a few were carrying fancy ladies parasols opened for the shade.
"Comanche Spoilers" By Howard Terpning
Ben McCulloch’s Rangers had caught up to Buffalo Hump's rear scouting parties, but many of his men had been riding for days and were exhausted. He realized that the Comanches would have to cross "Big Prairie" near Plum Creek, which is a small tributary of the San Marcos River. Ben directed a small group his most exhausted riders to continue following and, if possible, harass the rear of the Comanche column. He then rode for the settlements higher on the Colorado, short-cutting the enemy. Dusty messengers raced across the coastal prairies, alerting men in every bottom, ordering every able-bodied man to muster at Plum Creek.
"Big Foot" Wallace
Gen. Felix Huston
One by one the tiny companies came in from the brushy bottoms along Plum Creek. They were led by a score of hard-bitten Captains. John Tumlinson, Matthew Caldwell, John Moore, Edward Burleson, William “Gotch” Hardeman, and William "Big Foot" Wallace. All men who had previously faced Comanches along the Colorado frontier.
The Texas Army of the Bastrop militia arrived, and Brigadier General Felix Huston set up his headquarters. As the ranking regular officer, he took command of all Rangers, militias, and volunteers.
McCulloch's original party from Gonzales stayed close on the Comanches' heels and continued to fire on it. The Texans' horses died one by one as they were ridden out, but the group maintained so much pressure on the Comanches that some of the loot loaded pack mules began tiring badly as well. They started passing mules shot on the trail, and then the trail began to be strewn with abandoned loot, chests of ribbon, and bolts of calico.
But the Comanches still clung to the bulk of their loot and the large number of horses in the center of their column. They slowly approached “Big Prairie”, a few miles from the site of present day Lockhart, trailed by a large dust cloud. Some of the Comanche warriors had dispersed to guard and manage the difficult horses and drive the tiring mules, and other warriors were scattered throughout the column with the herd. Only a handful were stationed as outriders along the flanks.
The site of the main battle- Kelly Springs at Plum Creek
In a short four years, the Texas Ranger captains had become experts. They had anticipated the Comanches' moves. Now, almost casually, they prepared for the battle.
The captains dismounted their men along the tree lines and rested them in the shade while the Comanche horde moved in their direction. They checked the men’s weapons, making the volunteers discard useless items. As the dust cloud of the approaching column got nearer, the captains stood the troops and their horses and led them at a walk out onto “Big Prairie.” They formed two long parallel lines that enclosed and converged upon the oncoming Comanches. General Huston was technically in command, but the real command lay with Burleson, Caldwell, and the Ranger officers who rode at the head of their troops.
The Comanche outriders wheeled and pranced, engaging in mounted acrobatics, shouting out their prowess, performing feats of horsemanship possible only to those raised on horseback. To the Texan volunteers, there was a strange grotesqueness to the warrior’s appearance and actions. They trailed long red ribbons from their horses' tails. Some carried opened umbrellas, contrasting weirdly and ridiculously with their fierce, horned headdresses. The Captains, however, weren’t distracted by the sight. They were calculating the enemy’s actions.
"Battle of Plum Creek" By Lee Herring
Matthew Caldwell, who was known as "Old Paint" from his grizzled beard and mottled complexion, knew that the enemy was deliberately putting on a show hoping to delay the battle until after the mule train and horse herd had passed. Caldwell, as well as Burleson and McCulloch, knew the time to strike was now, and they called out to Huston to order a charge. But General Huston continued to wait, and watched as a tall Chief in a feather headdress rode out and yelled insults, daring the white men to single combat.
Caldwell, unimpressed by savage chivalry told one of his men to shoot him. A long rifle cracked and the warrior tumbled from his horse. At the sight of this, the Indians let out a loud wail as other warriors ran out to retrieve the Chiefs body.
“This is not the way to fight Indians!” Caldwell yelled over to Huston. ""Now, General! Charge 'em!"
Huston gave the order and the Texas horsemen emptied their rifles at the Comanche throng. Then, themselves shrieking like warriors, spurred their horses towards the flanks of the long column. They struck down the few skirmishers on the flanks and crashed into the main body. The great horse herd and mules were stampeded and plunged forward out of control. The mule train ran into a spot of marshy ground, tired an overloaded they piled up and were unable to go any farther, and then the huge mass of horses crashed into them.
Individual warriors could not maneuver their horses out of the mass. A few warriors escaped by leaping across the backs of the bogged-down horses and running for the nearby creek bottom.
The Comanches scattered and fled in all directions. Some warriors did put up a desperate fight, but the heart had suddenly gone out of them. Hardeman's horse was speared, and several Rangers were severely wounded, but as the fight became a pursuit the Texans had the upper hand.
The captives were now a burden to the Comanches, who wanted to move fast, and they quickly began killing the prisoners that they had tied to horses, shooting them with arrows. Mrs. Crosby jumped from the horse she was on a ran for the trees, but a warrior rode up on her and shot two arrows that went "clean through her."
Mrs. Watts was knocked from her horse and a warrior shot an arrow at her breast, but the whalebone corset she was wearing stopped it from going through her.
The account of Ranger Robert Hall.
Robert was wounded in the lower leg and fell from his horse into the prairie grass. He was able to get up in time to shoot an Indian off his horse just as he was about to lance another Ranger.
While Robert was scrambling about trying to staunch the blood that was flowing from his leg, he came across a very large black woman hiding in the grass along with her terrified child. They had been taken hostage along with others from Linnville. She cried out, "Bless God!" when she saw that Robert was a Texan, and not an Indian.
Moving along together through the grass a bit farther, they found the body of Mrs. Crosby, another hostage. There were two arrows protruding from her body that had passed completely through her, and she was gasping her last breathes as they knelt next to her. The Indians were trying to kill their hostages and be rid of them.
Another Ranger named Isham Good had now joined them as they kept moving across the prairie, and soon they came across Mrs. Watts lying in the grass. Her arms were very sunburned, and an arrow had been shot at her breast, but her whalebone corset saved her life. It had entered her body, but the steel bands in her corset had slowed the arrow such that it didn't penetrate past her breastbone. Robert and Isham quickly fastened a pocket knife onto the arrow and were able to pull it out.
Hall said that, "She possessed great fortitude, for she never flinched, though we could hear the breastbone crack when the arrow came out."
She turned over on her side and some blood flowed out, but she soon recovered. Mrs. Watts' started describing how her husband had been killed as the Indians sacked Linnville, and she was taken away with them. In one of the boxes that they had stolen were some books, and while in camp at night, they would gather around Mrs. Watts and ask her to explain the pictures and to read to them.
Grasping onto Robert's arm, she began asking about Mrs. Crosby and if she had been rescued. He told her that they had found her, but that she couldn't be saved. Mrs. Watts was so distraught upon learning that she had been killed. Through her tears she told them how the Indians had whipped the poor woman because she couldn't read.
Hall said that it was a mystery to why the Indians became so demoralized in this battle, being that it was fought on an open prairie, and they could easily see that they greatly outnumbered the Texans. He thought that they would try to make a stand. The warriors flourished their white shields, and the young chiefs galloped about the field with the colorful ribbons streaming from their hats and floating in the air, exhibiting great bravado. Some of them raced their horses very close to the Texans, and two or three of them lost their lives in this display of valor. The Texas finally let out a loud yell and charged the Indians. They held their fire until they got very close to the Indians, who were then panic stricken and fled across the prairie. The Texans followed them for fifteen to twenty miles putting an end to their colorful day.
Other Texans immediately went to work capturing what was left of the Indian pack train. The mules were loaded with household furniture, wearing apparel, and general merchandise. There were five hundred of these pack mules. The government had just received a supply of stores at Linnville, and the Indians had captured these.
Although they still got away with a number of mules and horses, it was because they were driving some many animals that made it hard for them to quickly escape this battle as they normally could.
During the battle of Plum Creek, a number of Indian woman and children were captured, and around eighty Indians lost their lives. The Texans had one man killed and seven wounded.
The town of Linnville never recovered, and many of its residents moved to Port Lavaca, which was being established a little over three miles to the southwest.
Paraphrased and edited from online content from the following sites;
Council House Fight- Texas State Historical Association
Battle of Plum Creek - Wikipedia
The Council House - Wikipedia
Battle of Plum Creek - Texas A&M University
The Battle of Plum Creek- Lone Star Junction
The Great Comanche Raid and the Battle of Plum Creek by Jeffery Robenalt
Comanches, The Destruction of a People, by T.R. Fehrenbach:
Indian Depredations in Texas- J.W. Wilbarger
Modern wet plate photography by Tom Cavness | <urn:uuid:e150917a-7892-4b79-aca3-a50cb136fdef> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thomascavness.com/the-plum-creek | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00247.warc.gz | en | 0.987274 | 3,838 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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-0.1410322... | 2 | "The Battle of Plum Creek"
Bois d'ark wood with resin inlay from Kelly Springs battle site
The greatest battle that Texas had with a combined force of Comanches and Kiowa Indians was the battle of Plum Creek, following what was known as "The Great Raid of 1840."
And although the Indians greatly outnumbered the Texans, the battle was a crushing defeat for them.
Any trust between the Texans and Indians totally collapsed following the loss of twelve of their war chiefs and many warriors in San Antonio during what became known as the "Council House Fight." It had started out as a peace mission to negotiate the return of all captured women and children. But only 16 year old Matilda Lockhart and several mexican children were brought in. The chiefs told the Texas commisioners that any other captured whites were being held by different tribes that they had no control over, but Matilda Lockhart, who had been physically abused by the Indians, discreetly told the captain that they were holding the other captives back in their camp and were going to attempt to ransom them one at a time. With this news, the captain told the Chiefs that they, and all of the warriors and squaws with them, would be held there under guard until the other captives were brought in. This quickly turned into a fight inside the council house, which spilled out into the streets of San Antonio, and ending with the death of seven texans, and over thirty-five Indians.
San Fernando Cathedral in the Main Plaza in San Antonio. The council house is the small building on the right.
Over the next few months, the Indians began making plans for retaliation. About five to six hundred infuriated Comanches and Kiowa from combined tribes were led by Chief Buffalo Hump, well armed and mounted on their best horses they moved down out of west Texas, carefully avoiding the settlements in the Guadalupe valley.
Chief Buffalo Hump
At the time of the “Great Comanche Raid," it was late summer and the August days were hot, dry, and harsh. The vast open spaces of Texas were thinly dotted with farms, small towns and settlements, and was still very much a raw frontier. Here the people were conscious each day of living in close proximity to an Indian-Mexican frontier. The entire male population was armed, and experienced horsemen. A boy got his first gun and learned to shoot it accurately at the age of six or seven. For all their small numbers, the tiny companies of Minute Men and Rangers were not made up of soft-handed clerks or humble farmers, they were frontiersmen who had been accustomed to violence most of their lives. Their leaders were almost never rich or professional people, but rather that cool, grim, hardened men who had grown up along the frontier, who reacted calmly and purposefully to violent emergencies.
Buffalo Hump rode by the rising moon, and his tactics were flawless. He penetrated the borderlands undetected with hundreds of Comanches, and was deep into southeast Texas before their trail was discovered.
Great Comanche Raid Warriors Gather in Comancheria
The Baptist preacher Rev. Z.N. Morrell was travelling over to Bastrop in a wagon when he came across the beaten path made by hundreds of unshod horses. He quickly returned to La Grange and told Captain Ed Burleson what he’d seen. The sight of this beaten path also raised an alarm in the town of Gonzales, some sixty miles southeast of San Antonio. The experienced Ranger Captain Ben McCulloch read the sign perfectly. Grimly, McCulloch sent riders in all directions to cry the alarm and to call out the militias. He estimated that they were already two days behind them.
Meanwhile, the Comanches had reached Victoria, taking the settlement completely by surprise. While many of its citizens stayed behind cover, the Comanches attacked the town and killed fifteen others. Buffalo Hump directed warriors to ride up the streets, attacking and setting fire to houses. The men of Victoria had now positioned themselves up on the roofs and in second story windows and opened fire on the attackers. The warriors quickly retreated, but in the process, drove off many mules and horses with them.
Leaving the shaken town behind, the Comanches poured across the Guadalupe River and down Peach Creek. The warriors left a path of destruction to the sea, surrounding houses, killing surprised settlers, and setting fire to homes and barns. This was an Indian raid such as no living Texan had ever experienced. It was like Santa Anna's march four years earlier, leaving smoldering desolation in its trail.
Ben McCulloch's messengers were now riding far and wide, warning the scattered homesteads, and gathering up armed men from the towns. But until they organized together, McCulloch had no choice but to move slowly and carefully in the Comanches wake. Other Ranger parties were doing the same as well.
The Comanches were sweeping rapidly toward Lavaca Bay on the Gulf. They were now nearing tiny port town of Linnville, a small settlement on the bay that served as a port for San Antonio and the surrounding region. At Nine Mile Point, his riders seized Mrs. Crosby who was travelling in a buggy with her baby. Mrs. Crosby was the granddaughter of Daniel Boone, the great Kentucky frontiersman. They threw her over a horse and took her and her baby captive. They later killed her baby when it began crying.
As they neared the town, the warriors hung over onto the sides of their horses, concealing themselves. To the residents of Linnville, it looked like a typical arrival of Mexican traders bringing in some horses. Once into town, they rose up and the attack started. Five men were immediately killed, including Mrs. Crosby’s husband Cyrus. As the mayhem and screaming broke out, some residents ran to the shoreline and began wading out into the bay and scrambling into boats to try to get out of the reach of danger. Major Watts, the customs collector and his young bride were frantically wading out together hand in hand towards one of the boats when he was killed by a warrior, who then caught Mrs. Watts and dragged her back onto shore. Along with Mrs. Watts, a black woman and her young daughter were also taken as captives.
Out in one of the small boats, Judge John Hays became so angry watching the ransacking and destruction of Linnville, that he jumped out and waded ashore waving an old muzzle-loading shotgun above his head, bravely challenging the galloping warriors. The Comanches, thinking the man must be crazy, or "bad medicine," for facing them as he did, simply rode around him and acted as if he didn’t exist. When the Judge finally gave up and waded back out to his boat, he was shocked when he realized that he had never loaded the shotgun.
The Comanches found John Linn's warehouse, which was packed with goods awaiting shipment to San Antonio. Bolts of red cloth, boxes of fashionable stovepipe hats, umbrellas, and assorted ladies' finery. The warriors outfitted themselves in what they'd found and presented a ludicrous sight. The naked warriors dressed themselves in the stolen clothing, with tall top hats and fancy frock coats with tails. But they had them on backwards with the buttons going up their backs. They spread the calico over their horses, and tied hundreds of yards of brightly colored ribbons into their horses' manes and tails, and a few were carrying fancy ladies parasols opened for the shade.
"Comanche Spoilers" By Howard Terpning
Ben McCulloch’s Rangers had caught up to Buffalo Hump's rear scouting parties, but many of his men had been riding for days and were exhausted. He realized that the Comanches would have to cross "Big Prairie" near Plum Creek, which is a small tributary of the San Marcos River. Ben directed a small group his most exhausted riders to continue following and, if possible, harass the rear of the Comanche column. He then rode for the settlements higher on the Colorado, short-cutting the enemy. Dusty messengers raced across the coastal prairies, alerting men in every bottom, ordering every able-bodied man to muster at Plum Creek.
"Big Foot" Wallace
Gen. Felix Huston
One by one the tiny companies came in from the brushy bottoms along Plum Creek. They were led by a score of hard-bitten Captains. John Tumlinson, Matthew Caldwell, John Moore, Edward Burleson, William “Gotch” Hardeman, and William "Big Foot" Wallace. All men who had previously faced Comanches along the Colorado frontier.
The Texas Army of the Bastrop militia arrived, and Brigadier General Felix Huston set up his headquarters. As the ranking regular officer, he took command of all Rangers, militias, and volunteers.
McCulloch's original party from Gonzales stayed close on the Comanches' heels and continued to fire on it. The Texans' horses died one by one as they were ridden out, but the group maintained so much pressure on the Comanches that some of the loot loaded pack mules began tiring badly as well. They started passing mules shot on the trail, and then the trail began to be strewn with abandoned loot, chests of ribbon, and bolts of calico.
But the Comanches still clung to the bulk of their loot and the large number of horses in the center of their column. They slowly approached “Big Prairie”, a few miles from the site of present day Lockhart, trailed by a large dust cloud. Some of the Comanche warriors had dispersed to guard and manage the difficult horses and drive the tiring mules, and other warriors were scattered throughout the column with the herd. Only a handful were stationed as outriders along the flanks.
The site of the main battle- Kelly Springs at Plum Creek
In a short four years, the Texas Ranger captains had become experts. They had anticipated the Comanches' moves. Now, almost casually, they prepared for the battle.
The captains dismounted their men along the tree lines and rested them in the shade while the Comanche horde moved in their direction. They checked the men’s weapons, making the volunteers discard useless items. As the dust cloud of the approaching column got nearer, the captains stood the troops and their horses and led them at a walk out onto “Big Prairie.” They formed two long parallel lines that enclosed and converged upon the oncoming Comanches. General Huston was technically in command, but the real command lay with Burleson, Caldwell, and the Ranger officers who rode at the head of their troops.
The Comanche outriders wheeled and pranced, engaging in mounted acrobatics, shouting out their prowess, performing feats of horsemanship possible only to those raised on horseback. To the Texan volunteers, there was a strange grotesqueness to the warrior’s appearance and actions. They trailed long red ribbons from their horses' tails. Some carried opened umbrellas, contrasting weirdly and ridiculously with their fierce, horned headdresses. The Captains, however, weren’t distracted by the sight. They were calculating the enemy’s actions.
"Battle of Plum Creek" By Lee Herring
Matthew Caldwell, who was known as "Old Paint" from his grizzled beard and mottled complexion, knew that the enemy was deliberately putting on a show hoping to delay the battle until after the mule train and horse herd had passed. Caldwell, as well as Burleson and McCulloch, knew the time to strike was now, and they called out to Huston to order a charge. But General Huston continued to wait, and watched as a tall Chief in a feather headdress rode out and yelled insults, daring the white men to single combat.
Caldwell, unimpressed by savage chivalry told one of his men to shoot him. A long rifle cracked and the warrior tumbled from his horse. At the sight of this, the Indians let out a loud wail as other warriors ran out to retrieve the Chiefs body.
“This is not the way to fight Indians!” Caldwell yelled over to Huston. ""Now, General! Charge 'em!"
Huston gave the order and the Texas horsemen emptied their rifles at the Comanche throng. Then, themselves shrieking like warriors, spurred their horses towards the flanks of the long column. They struck down the few skirmishers on the flanks and crashed into the main body. The great horse herd and mules were stampeded and plunged forward out of control. The mule train ran into a spot of marshy ground, tired an overloaded they piled up and were unable to go any farther, and then the huge mass of horses crashed into them.
Individual warriors could not maneuver their horses out of the mass. A few warriors escaped by leaping across the backs of the bogged-down horses and running for the nearby creek bottom.
The Comanches scattered and fled in all directions. Some warriors did put up a desperate fight, but the heart had suddenly gone out of them. Hardeman's horse was speared, and several Rangers were severely wounded, but as the fight became a pursuit the Texans had the upper hand.
The captives were now a burden to the Comanches, who wanted to move fast, and they quickly began killing the prisoners that they had tied to horses, shooting them with arrows. Mrs. Crosby jumped from the horse she was on a ran for the trees, but a warrior rode up on her and shot two arrows that went "clean through her."
Mrs. Watts was knocked from her horse and a warrior shot an arrow at her breast, but the whalebone corset she was wearing stopped it from going through her.
The account of Ranger Robert Hall.
Robert was wounded in the lower leg and fell from his horse into the prairie grass. He was able to get up in time to shoot an Indian off his horse just as he was about to lance another Ranger.
While Robert was scrambling about trying to staunch the blood that was flowing from his leg, he came across a very large black woman hiding in the grass along with her terrified child. They had been taken hostage along with others from Linnville. She cried out, "Bless God!" when she saw that Robert was a Texan, and not an Indian.
Moving along together through the grass a bit farther, they found the body of Mrs. Crosby, another hostage. There were two arrows protruding from her body that had passed completely through her, and she was gasping her last breathes as they knelt next to her. The Indians were trying to kill their hostages and be rid of them.
Another Ranger named Isham Good had now joined them as they kept moving across the prairie, and soon they came across Mrs. Watts lying in the grass. Her arms were very sunburned, and an arrow had been shot at her breast, but her whalebone corset saved her life. It had entered her body, but the steel bands in her corset had slowed the arrow such that it didn't penetrate past her breastbone. Robert and Isham quickly fastened a pocket knife onto the arrow and were able to pull it out.
Hall said that, "She possessed great fortitude, for she never flinched, though we could hear the breastbone crack when the arrow came out."
She turned over on her side and some blood flowed out, but she soon recovered. Mrs. Watts' started describing how her husband had been killed as the Indians sacked Linnville, and she was taken away with them. In one of the boxes that they had stolen were some books, and while in camp at night, they would gather around Mrs. Watts and ask her to explain the pictures and to read to them.
Grasping onto Robert's arm, she began asking about Mrs. Crosby and if she had been rescued. He told her that they had found her, but that she couldn't be saved. Mrs. Watts was so distraught upon learning that she had been killed. Through her tears she told them how the Indians had whipped the poor woman because she couldn't read.
Hall said that it was a mystery to why the Indians became so demoralized in this battle, being that it was fought on an open prairie, and they could easily see that they greatly outnumbered the Texans. He thought that they would try to make a stand. The warriors flourished their white shields, and the young chiefs galloped about the field with the colorful ribbons streaming from their hats and floating in the air, exhibiting great bravado. Some of them raced their horses very close to the Texans, and two or three of them lost their lives in this display of valor. The Texas finally let out a loud yell and charged the Indians. They held their fire until they got very close to the Indians, who were then panic stricken and fled across the prairie. The Texans followed them for fifteen to twenty miles putting an end to their colorful day.
Other Texans immediately went to work capturing what was left of the Indian pack train. The mules were loaded with household furniture, wearing apparel, and general merchandise. There were five hundred of these pack mules. The government had just received a supply of stores at Linnville, and the Indians had captured these.
Although they still got away with a number of mules and horses, it was because they were driving some many animals that made it hard for them to quickly escape this battle as they normally could.
During the battle of Plum Creek, a number of Indian woman and children were captured, and around eighty Indians lost their lives. The Texans had one man killed and seven wounded.
The town of Linnville never recovered, and many of its residents moved to Port Lavaca, which was being established a little over three miles to the southwest.
Paraphrased and edited from online content from the following sites;
Council House Fight- Texas State Historical Association
Battle of Plum Creek - Wikipedia
The Council House - Wikipedia
Battle of Plum Creek - Texas A&M University
The Battle of Plum Creek- Lone Star Junction
The Great Comanche Raid and the Battle of Plum Creek by Jeffery Robenalt
Comanches, The Destruction of a People, by T.R. Fehrenbach:
Indian Depredations in Texas- J.W. Wilbarger
Modern wet plate photography by Tom Cavness | 3,775 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Defending a Man's Honor The main male characters in Shakespeare's play Othello kill their wives in order to defend their own honor. In the period setting of the play, to show honor, women are expected to be subservient to their husbands. The characters Iago and Othello reflect this attitude toward their respective wives, giving them reason to feel just in killing these women. Iago kills Emilia because she dishonors him by revealing his manipulation of Othello and Cassio.
Othello strangles Desdemona because of imagined infidelity, which makes him look like a fool. Both men have different ideas of honor, perceive their own honorable status differently, have different relationships with their wives, and different feelings of remorse. Ultimately they both kill their wives to defend their own honor. Proud, noble, and brave warrior Othello is well respected and his military skills and adventures are widely known. He is charismatic, charming, self-reliant and well traveled.
These personality traits made Desdemona fall in love with him, and by these, he measures his honor ability. His measures his self-worth by the way he is perceived by others. That is the main reason why he perceives Desdemona's alleged infidelity as ruining his honor. It makes him look like a fool and he feels that he has been taken advantage of because he is unwise and unfamiliar with the devious sexual practices of Venice women. Othello is also very trusting. Of course, the question is why he believes Iago and doubts his wife.
He believes "honest Iago" without question because Iago had served in the army with him and is generally regarded by all to be an honest man. The feelings of being an outsider and insecure in his social status are Othello's character flaws and Iago to takes advantage of these Achilles heals. For Iago, deception, manipulating, and killing are second nature. It doesn't occur to him that he will be caught and he doesn't have any conscience about what he has done.
These characteristics show that Iago is self-absorbed and out for himself. He is also greedy and jealous and plots to make everyone around him unhappy, while seeking position and honor. High position and honor starts his hatred of Othello. Iago sees Othello as being beneath him because of his race, but having all the glory and honor that he covets.
The final straw, Cassio being made lieutenant over him, makes him take action and plot his revenge. This blow to his pride and honor is his motivation to engage Othello into a jealous and angry rage, and brings Othello down to his level. Othello and Desdemona love each other, but for different reasons. In his insecurity about being an outsider, marrying Desdemona gives him a way to be included among the nobles of Venice. She gives him status and the honor he wants. Othello sees Desdemona giving up everything to be with him.
Desdemona defends her marriage to her father and the other nobles by saying "I saw Othello's visage in his mind / And to his honors and his valiant parts, / Did I my soul and fortunes consecrate". His honorable and noble nature was one of the reasons she fell in love with him in the first place. Even on her deathbed, she covers for him when asked who did this to her saying, "Nobody-I myself. Farewell.
/ Commend me to my kind lord. O, farewell!" Not much is written about Iago and Emilia's marriage other than she was very much bound by duty. When she steals the handkerchief for him she asks, "What will you do with't, that you have been so earnest to have me filch it?" He replies "Why, what is that to you?" He doesn't confide in her as Macbeth did Lady Macbeth. They did not work as a partnership, the focus was on Iago and his ambitions. She tries to stand up to him, "If it be not for some purpose of import, / Give me again". And he just tells her to leave, dismissing her.
He doesn't show any love or appreciation for her throughout the play, but she remains constant in her wifely duty. Othello ultimately kills Desdemona because he loses his control of his passions. He normally possesses much self-control. It is easier for him to believe she would betray him because she easily betrayed her father. His trust in Iago's honorable character leads him to doubt his feelings for his wife and introduces a new emotion to Othello -- jealousy.
Iago plays on Othello's new role as a husband because Othello and Desdemona were only married a short period of time and haven't been able to build the kind of trust that comes from a long relationship. Since Othello is so self reliant, it is hard for him to automatically put that trust in someone else. Her imagined infidelity mocks his honor and his insecurity making him think that he is such an outsider that he doesn't even know that women in Venice always carry on affairs. Because of his insecurity, it was easier for him to think that she was making a fool of him rather than giving her the benefit of the doubt. Iago kills Emilia to cover up his own evil deeds. Even after Iago tells her to hold her tongue, Emilia decides to tell the truth rather than let the nobles think that Desdemona was capable of infidelity.
She tells how Iago has manipulated her and Othello. Iago kills her after she reveals his deception and he is unable to cover for himself. Emilia admits that she gave her husband the handkerchief, Iago's only tangible proof of Desdemona's infidelity, because he begged her to steal it. Emilia has always been a good wife by being dutiful and honoring her husband.
As she tells the story about what happened, Iago says "Zounds, hold your peace! / Be wise, and get you home". She defends Desdemona's honor and yells at Othello, "Mud " rous coxcomb! What should such a fool do with so good a wife?" The honorable Iago shows cowardice and flees after killing his own wife in front of the nobles. Even in the moment he is going to kill her, Othello shows his love for Desdemona by kissing her and saying, "Be thus when thou art dead and I will kill thee, and love the after. / One more (kiss) and that's the last!
/ So sweet was ne " er so fatal, I must weep, / but they are cruel tears. / This sorrow's heavenly; It strikes where it doth love". He has loved her deeply all the way to her last breath, but rather than swallow his pride and live with her supposed infidelity, he kills his true love. While killing Desdemona, he feels it is his right to kill her because she has done such a huge injustice to him.
In his remorse after killing Desdemona, he realizes how his pride and honor has done and how he has been manipulated by his trust in the honest Iago Iago feels no remorse because his desires come comes above all other people. While he also feels it is his right to kill his wife, he feels he is only protecting himself because she will not do what she is told. By honor, he means that Emilia must do all things required by him, right or wrong. His honor is so important that he will get it and defend it by any means, as shown in his devious dealings throughout the play. These women would have done anything asked of them, especially when it comes to their husbands honor. They loved them, though differently, and would not have done anything to dishonor their husbands or themselves.
In the end, they defended their husbands honor with their own lives. For Iago and Othello, the lives of their wives meant less to them than their own honorable status. | <urn:uuid:0321f1e1-b62b-4f33-874c-9de903483d17> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://essaypride.com/ex/honorable-iago-8f804 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00229.warc.gz | en | 0.990553 | 1,672 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.18200322985649... | 1 | Defending a Man's Honor The main male characters in Shakespeare's play Othello kill their wives in order to defend their own honor. In the period setting of the play, to show honor, women are expected to be subservient to their husbands. The characters Iago and Othello reflect this attitude toward their respective wives, giving them reason to feel just in killing these women. Iago kills Emilia because she dishonors him by revealing his manipulation of Othello and Cassio.
Othello strangles Desdemona because of imagined infidelity, which makes him look like a fool. Both men have different ideas of honor, perceive their own honorable status differently, have different relationships with their wives, and different feelings of remorse. Ultimately they both kill their wives to defend their own honor. Proud, noble, and brave warrior Othello is well respected and his military skills and adventures are widely known. He is charismatic, charming, self-reliant and well traveled.
These personality traits made Desdemona fall in love with him, and by these, he measures his honor ability. His measures his self-worth by the way he is perceived by others. That is the main reason why he perceives Desdemona's alleged infidelity as ruining his honor. It makes him look like a fool and he feels that he has been taken advantage of because he is unwise and unfamiliar with the devious sexual practices of Venice women. Othello is also very trusting. Of course, the question is why he believes Iago and doubts his wife.
He believes "honest Iago" without question because Iago had served in the army with him and is generally regarded by all to be an honest man. The feelings of being an outsider and insecure in his social status are Othello's character flaws and Iago to takes advantage of these Achilles heals. For Iago, deception, manipulating, and killing are second nature. It doesn't occur to him that he will be caught and he doesn't have any conscience about what he has done.
These characteristics show that Iago is self-absorbed and out for himself. He is also greedy and jealous and plots to make everyone around him unhappy, while seeking position and honor. High position and honor starts his hatred of Othello. Iago sees Othello as being beneath him because of his race, but having all the glory and honor that he covets.
The final straw, Cassio being made lieutenant over him, makes him take action and plot his revenge. This blow to his pride and honor is his motivation to engage Othello into a jealous and angry rage, and brings Othello down to his level. Othello and Desdemona love each other, but for different reasons. In his insecurity about being an outsider, marrying Desdemona gives him a way to be included among the nobles of Venice. She gives him status and the honor he wants. Othello sees Desdemona giving up everything to be with him.
Desdemona defends her marriage to her father and the other nobles by saying "I saw Othello's visage in his mind / And to his honors and his valiant parts, / Did I my soul and fortunes consecrate". His honorable and noble nature was one of the reasons she fell in love with him in the first place. Even on her deathbed, she covers for him when asked who did this to her saying, "Nobody-I myself. Farewell.
/ Commend me to my kind lord. O, farewell!" Not much is written about Iago and Emilia's marriage other than she was very much bound by duty. When she steals the handkerchief for him she asks, "What will you do with't, that you have been so earnest to have me filch it?" He replies "Why, what is that to you?" He doesn't confide in her as Macbeth did Lady Macbeth. They did not work as a partnership, the focus was on Iago and his ambitions. She tries to stand up to him, "If it be not for some purpose of import, / Give me again". And he just tells her to leave, dismissing her.
He doesn't show any love or appreciation for her throughout the play, but she remains constant in her wifely duty. Othello ultimately kills Desdemona because he loses his control of his passions. He normally possesses much self-control. It is easier for him to believe she would betray him because she easily betrayed her father. His trust in Iago's honorable character leads him to doubt his feelings for his wife and introduces a new emotion to Othello -- jealousy.
Iago plays on Othello's new role as a husband because Othello and Desdemona were only married a short period of time and haven't been able to build the kind of trust that comes from a long relationship. Since Othello is so self reliant, it is hard for him to automatically put that trust in someone else. Her imagined infidelity mocks his honor and his insecurity making him think that he is such an outsider that he doesn't even know that women in Venice always carry on affairs. Because of his insecurity, it was easier for him to think that she was making a fool of him rather than giving her the benefit of the doubt. Iago kills Emilia to cover up his own evil deeds. Even after Iago tells her to hold her tongue, Emilia decides to tell the truth rather than let the nobles think that Desdemona was capable of infidelity.
She tells how Iago has manipulated her and Othello. Iago kills her after she reveals his deception and he is unable to cover for himself. Emilia admits that she gave her husband the handkerchief, Iago's only tangible proof of Desdemona's infidelity, because he begged her to steal it. Emilia has always been a good wife by being dutiful and honoring her husband.
As she tells the story about what happened, Iago says "Zounds, hold your peace! / Be wise, and get you home". She defends Desdemona's honor and yells at Othello, "Mud " rous coxcomb! What should such a fool do with so good a wife?" The honorable Iago shows cowardice and flees after killing his own wife in front of the nobles. Even in the moment he is going to kill her, Othello shows his love for Desdemona by kissing her and saying, "Be thus when thou art dead and I will kill thee, and love the after. / One more (kiss) and that's the last!
/ So sweet was ne " er so fatal, I must weep, / but they are cruel tears. / This sorrow's heavenly; It strikes where it doth love". He has loved her deeply all the way to her last breath, but rather than swallow his pride and live with her supposed infidelity, he kills his true love. While killing Desdemona, he feels it is his right to kill her because she has done such a huge injustice to him.
In his remorse after killing Desdemona, he realizes how his pride and honor has done and how he has been manipulated by his trust in the honest Iago Iago feels no remorse because his desires come comes above all other people. While he also feels it is his right to kill his wife, he feels he is only protecting himself because she will not do what she is told. By honor, he means that Emilia must do all things required by him, right or wrong. His honor is so important that he will get it and defend it by any means, as shown in his devious dealings throughout the play. These women would have done anything asked of them, especially when it comes to their husbands honor. They loved them, though differently, and would not have done anything to dishonor their husbands or themselves.
In the end, they defended their husbands honor with their own lives. For Iago and Othello, the lives of their wives meant less to them than their own honorable status. | 1,662 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Jackson Pollock - Biography and Legacy
East Hampton, New York
Biography of Jackson Pollock
Paul Jackson Pollock was born in Cody, Wyoming, in 1912, the fifth and youngest son of a family of Irish-Scottish extraction. Pollock was only ten months old when the family moved to San Diego. His father's work as a surveyor would force them to move repeatedly around the Southwest in subsequent years, until, when Pollock was aged nine, his father abandoned the family, only to return when Jackson himself had left home. Although Pollock had a tough upbringing, but he grew to love nature - animals and the expanse of the land - and while living in Phoenix in 1923 he discovered Native American art.
Pollock attended the Manual Arts High School in Los Angeles, where he befriended Philip Guston, and where he was also introduced to theosophical ideas which prepared him for his later interests in Surrealism and psychoanalysis. Two of Pollock's older brothers, Charles and Sanford, also pursued careers as artists, and it was their encouragement which lured him to New York in 1930, where he studied under Regionalist painter Thomas Hart Benton at the Art Students League.
In New York Pollock was attracted to Old Masters and began to study mural painting. He posed for Benton's 1930-31 murals at the New School for Social Research, and he met the prominent Mexican Muralist José Clemente Orozco. He later spent a summer observing Diego Rivera paint murals at the New Workers School, and in 1936 he joined the Experimental Workshop of another muralist, David Alfaro Siqueiros, where he learned to employ unorthodox painting techniques. Pollock's own canvas, Going West (1934-35), blends many of these influences and is typical of his style at this time. In 1937, he was assigned to the Easel Division of Works Progress Administration's Federal Art Project.
During much of the 1930s Pollock lived with his brothers in Greenwich Village, and was at times so poor that he had to work as a janitor and steal food to survive. In 1932, however, he was invited to participate in the 8th Exhibition of Watercolors, Pastels and Drawings by American and French Artists at the Brooklyn Museum, his first exhibition.
In 1936, Pollock briefly met Lenore ("Lee") Krasner. In time, their relationship would bring some of the few spells of calm and happiness that Pollock ever knew. But the two did not meet again until 1941, after which they became romantically involved and married in 1945. Meanwhile, Pollock's alcoholism - which had been a problem since his adolescence - drove him into treatment as early as 1938, and by 1939 he was receiving Jungian psychoanalysis. His analyst encouraged him to produce drawings to aid his recovery, and the methods and motifs in these drawings - albeit shaped by Joan Miró, Pablo Picasso, Jose Clemente Orozco and the theories of John Graham - soon found their way into works such as Guardians of the Secret(1943).
Despite his personal problems, Pollock remained bullishly confident in his art. Krasner was impressed when she saw his work in the early 1940s and introduced him to her teacher, Hans Hofmann. Hofmann was similarly enthusiastic, and the meeting blossomed into an enduring friendship between the two men. Hofmann is said to have remarked that Pollock needed to work more from nature, to which Pollock famously replied, "I don't paint nature, I am nature."
The WPA came to an end in 1943 and Pollock was forced to find work on his own. Along with various odd-jobs he became a custodian at the Museum of Non-Objective Painting (later the Guggenheim Museum), and it was there that he met Peggy Guggenheim, who invited him to submit work to her new gallery, The Art of This Century. Eventually, Guggenheim put Pollock on a contract, and in 1943 she gave him his first solo exhibition, which was well received. The critic Clement Greenberg noted with approval that Pollock had absorbed and transcended Mexican mural painting, Picasso and Miró. The pictures still carried much figuration, although the references remained concealed - as Pollock said, "I choose to veil the imagery."
At the same time, Peggy Guggenheim also commissioned a painting for the entry hall of her New York apartment. The resulting work was Mural (1943), which would prove important in Pollock's transition from a style shaped by murals, Native American art and European modernism towards his mature drip technique. And it was Guggenheim who again helped Pollock when he needed a down-payment to secure an old farmhouse in the town of The Springs on Long Island. He and Krasner bought the farmhouse in the fall of 1945 and married in October. Krasner hoped that distance from the struggles and temptations of the city would offer a great opportunity for both of them to pursue their painting in seclusion and peace.
Exactly how Pollock came upon his drip technique has been a matter of long and inconclusive scholarly argument, but his work was already taking steps towards it in the mid-1940s. He began to lose the symbolic imagery of his earlier pictures and looked for more abstract means of expression. His experience of painting Mural for Guggenheim's apartment was also important in spurring him on, and in 1945 he painted There Were Seven in Eight, a picture in which recognizable imagery was thoroughly suppressed and the surface was knitted together by a vivid tangle of lines. In the following years his style became more boldly abstract still, and he produced works like Shimmering Substance (1946). The following year he finally hit on the idea of flinging and pouring paint, and thus found the means to create the light, airy and apparently endless webs of color that he was reaching towards. Masterpieces such as Full Fathom Five (1947) were the result. Pollock had carried out another stylistic somersault and arrived at a method that synthesized Impressionism, Surrealism and Cubism.
Shimmering Substance led on to works like Number 1A (1948), a larger canvas than Pollock was familiar with, and dense with a dazzling web of color. He found he was best able to approach works such as this by positioning the canvas flat on the floor, moving around it and applying the paint from all sides. By dipping a small stick, house brush or trowel into the paint and then rapidly moving his wrist, arm and body, he allowed it to drip and fall in weaving rhythms over the surface. The technique - the epitome of what critic Harold Rosenberg would call Action Painting - rarely permitted the brush to directly touch the canvas. "On the floor I am more at ease," he said. "I feel nearer, more a part of the painting, since this way I can walk around it, work from the four sides and literally be in the painting." Pollock's work thus became as much about process as they were about product. They became a record of the performance of painting - his play in and around the canvas, where he could enter them as a participant and hover above them as their creator. "There is no accident," Pollock once said, "just as there is no beginning or end.. Sometimes I lose a painting, but I have no fear of changes, of destroying the image, because a painting has a life of its own."
Critics were quick to recognize the power of Pollock mature work. Greenberg, who would be his staunchest and most powerful supporter, wrote at the time, "[His] superiority to his contemporaries in this country lies in his ability to create genuinely violent and extravagant art without losing stylistic control." But when Pollock's pictures reached a wider public, through coverage in magazines such as Vogue and Life, the response was a mixture of shock and incredulity. Nor was he widely collected at first, having only a small circle of supporters. Commercial success would soon come, but even at its height - after Art of This Century Gallery had closed and gallery owner Betty Parsons had taken over Pollock's contract - the painter was still being treated for alcoholism.
Pollock supposedly stayed dry from mid-1948 to late 1950, and during these years he lived primarily in Long Island, only occasionally coming into the city. In 1950, he had a successful solo exhibition, and, along with Arshile Gorky and Willem de Kooning, was selected by MoMA director Alfred H. Barr, Jr., for the Venice Biennale. But a year later he was drinking again.
Late Period and Death
Pollock's radical abstraction seemed to herald an incredible new freedom for painting, yet semblances of recognizable imagery continued to hover in the background of his pictures. The vast expanse of Blue Poles (1952) is knitted together with the aid of diagonal lines. And One: Number 31 (1950) retains a strong sense of rhythmically dancing figures, amidst its remarkable diversity of effects. Pollock might have abandoned the realism of his youth, but he still managed to make his paintings eloquently metaphorical. Like many of his canvases from this time, One evokes a mood of grandeur which ties it to the tradition of sublime landscape which stretches back into the 18th century. It also glistens as if it were dappled with light in the manner of Monet's canvases, and many critics have speculated on whether Pollock was influenced by the French Impressionist.
Pollock never really lost his interest in figurative imagery - as he once put it, "I'm very representational some of the time, and a little all of the time. But when you're painting out of your unconscious, figures are bound to emerge." As early as the late 1940s, figuration showed signs of resurfacing in his work. By 1950, whilst his drinking increased, he returned to drawing, resurrecting some of his old motifs, and producing a series of mainly black and white poured paintings. Some, like Yellow Islands (1952), incorporate touches of color and are highly abstract; some, like Echo (Number 25, 1951), are calligraphic in style and only residually figurative; others bear clear images of heads. They were badly received when Pollock first exhibited them, but he continued to work on them right through 1953, his last productive year of work.
His personal troubles only increased in his later years. He left Betty Parsons Gallery, and, his reputation preceding him, he struggled to find another gallery. He painted little in 1954, claiming that he had nothing left to say. In the summer of 1956, Krasner took a trip to Europe to get some distance from Pollock, and soon after the painter began a relationship with 25 year old artist Ruth Kligman, who he had met at the Cedar Bar. Then, on the night of August 11, 1956, while Pollock was drunk and out driving with Kligman and her friend, Edith Metzger, he lost control of the car, killing himself and Metzger, and seriously injuring Kligman.
The Legacy of Jackson Pollock
Pollock's immediate legacy was certainly felt most by other painters. His work brought together elements of Cubism, Surrealism, and Impressionism, and transcended them all. Beside that achievement even greats such as de Kooning, who remained closer to Cubism, and hung on to figurative imagery, seemed to fall short. And the best among subsequent generations of painters would all have to take on his achievement, just as Pollock himself had wrestled with Picasso.
And as early as 1958, when pioneering performance artist Allan Kaprow explicitly addressed the question of his legacy in an article for Art News, some were beginning to wonder if Pollock might even have opened up possibilities outside of the realm of painting. To borrow critic Harold Rosenberg's words, Pollock had re-imagined the canvas not as "a space in which to reproduce, re-design, analyze, or 'express' an object.. [but as] an arena in which to act." And it was a short step from this realization to interpreting Pollock's balletic moves around the canvas as a species of performance art. Since then, Pollock's reputation has only increased. The subject of many biographies, a movie biopic, and major retrospectives, he has become not only one of the most famous symbols of the alienated modern artist, but also an embodiment for critics and historians of American modernism in its finest hour. | <urn:uuid:4c96f03e-4629-41c6-aa80-77d1d913fc95> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://m.theartstory.org/artist/pollock-jackson/life-and-legacy/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00529.warc.gz | en | 0.985884 | 2,609 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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East Hampton, New York
Biography of Jackson Pollock
Paul Jackson Pollock was born in Cody, Wyoming, in 1912, the fifth and youngest son of a family of Irish-Scottish extraction. Pollock was only ten months old when the family moved to San Diego. His father's work as a surveyor would force them to move repeatedly around the Southwest in subsequent years, until, when Pollock was aged nine, his father abandoned the family, only to return when Jackson himself had left home. Although Pollock had a tough upbringing, but he grew to love nature - animals and the expanse of the land - and while living in Phoenix in 1923 he discovered Native American art.
Pollock attended the Manual Arts High School in Los Angeles, where he befriended Philip Guston, and where he was also introduced to theosophical ideas which prepared him for his later interests in Surrealism and psychoanalysis. Two of Pollock's older brothers, Charles and Sanford, also pursued careers as artists, and it was their encouragement which lured him to New York in 1930, where he studied under Regionalist painter Thomas Hart Benton at the Art Students League.
In New York Pollock was attracted to Old Masters and began to study mural painting. He posed for Benton's 1930-31 murals at the New School for Social Research, and he met the prominent Mexican Muralist José Clemente Orozco. He later spent a summer observing Diego Rivera paint murals at the New Workers School, and in 1936 he joined the Experimental Workshop of another muralist, David Alfaro Siqueiros, where he learned to employ unorthodox painting techniques. Pollock's own canvas, Going West (1934-35), blends many of these influences and is typical of his style at this time. In 1937, he was assigned to the Easel Division of Works Progress Administration's Federal Art Project.
During much of the 1930s Pollock lived with his brothers in Greenwich Village, and was at times so poor that he had to work as a janitor and steal food to survive. In 1932, however, he was invited to participate in the 8th Exhibition of Watercolors, Pastels and Drawings by American and French Artists at the Brooklyn Museum, his first exhibition.
In 1936, Pollock briefly met Lenore ("Lee") Krasner. In time, their relationship would bring some of the few spells of calm and happiness that Pollock ever knew. But the two did not meet again until 1941, after which they became romantically involved and married in 1945. Meanwhile, Pollock's alcoholism - which had been a problem since his adolescence - drove him into treatment as early as 1938, and by 1939 he was receiving Jungian psychoanalysis. His analyst encouraged him to produce drawings to aid his recovery, and the methods and motifs in these drawings - albeit shaped by Joan Miró, Pablo Picasso, Jose Clemente Orozco and the theories of John Graham - soon found their way into works such as Guardians of the Secret(1943).
Despite his personal problems, Pollock remained bullishly confident in his art. Krasner was impressed when she saw his work in the early 1940s and introduced him to her teacher, Hans Hofmann. Hofmann was similarly enthusiastic, and the meeting blossomed into an enduring friendship between the two men. Hofmann is said to have remarked that Pollock needed to work more from nature, to which Pollock famously replied, "I don't paint nature, I am nature."
The WPA came to an end in 1943 and Pollock was forced to find work on his own. Along with various odd-jobs he became a custodian at the Museum of Non-Objective Painting (later the Guggenheim Museum), and it was there that he met Peggy Guggenheim, who invited him to submit work to her new gallery, The Art of This Century. Eventually, Guggenheim put Pollock on a contract, and in 1943 she gave him his first solo exhibition, which was well received. The critic Clement Greenberg noted with approval that Pollock had absorbed and transcended Mexican mural painting, Picasso and Miró. The pictures still carried much figuration, although the references remained concealed - as Pollock said, "I choose to veil the imagery."
At the same time, Peggy Guggenheim also commissioned a painting for the entry hall of her New York apartment. The resulting work was Mural (1943), which would prove important in Pollock's transition from a style shaped by murals, Native American art and European modernism towards his mature drip technique. And it was Guggenheim who again helped Pollock when he needed a down-payment to secure an old farmhouse in the town of The Springs on Long Island. He and Krasner bought the farmhouse in the fall of 1945 and married in October. Krasner hoped that distance from the struggles and temptations of the city would offer a great opportunity for both of them to pursue their painting in seclusion and peace.
Exactly how Pollock came upon his drip technique has been a matter of long and inconclusive scholarly argument, but his work was already taking steps towards it in the mid-1940s. He began to lose the symbolic imagery of his earlier pictures and looked for more abstract means of expression. His experience of painting Mural for Guggenheim's apartment was also important in spurring him on, and in 1945 he painted There Were Seven in Eight, a picture in which recognizable imagery was thoroughly suppressed and the surface was knitted together by a vivid tangle of lines. In the following years his style became more boldly abstract still, and he produced works like Shimmering Substance (1946). The following year he finally hit on the idea of flinging and pouring paint, and thus found the means to create the light, airy and apparently endless webs of color that he was reaching towards. Masterpieces such as Full Fathom Five (1947) were the result. Pollock had carried out another stylistic somersault and arrived at a method that synthesized Impressionism, Surrealism and Cubism.
Shimmering Substance led on to works like Number 1A (1948), a larger canvas than Pollock was familiar with, and dense with a dazzling web of color. He found he was best able to approach works such as this by positioning the canvas flat on the floor, moving around it and applying the paint from all sides. By dipping a small stick, house brush or trowel into the paint and then rapidly moving his wrist, arm and body, he allowed it to drip and fall in weaving rhythms over the surface. The technique - the epitome of what critic Harold Rosenberg would call Action Painting - rarely permitted the brush to directly touch the canvas. "On the floor I am more at ease," he said. "I feel nearer, more a part of the painting, since this way I can walk around it, work from the four sides and literally be in the painting." Pollock's work thus became as much about process as they were about product. They became a record of the performance of painting - his play in and around the canvas, where he could enter them as a participant and hover above them as their creator. "There is no accident," Pollock once said, "just as there is no beginning or end.. Sometimes I lose a painting, but I have no fear of changes, of destroying the image, because a painting has a life of its own."
Critics were quick to recognize the power of Pollock mature work. Greenberg, who would be his staunchest and most powerful supporter, wrote at the time, "[His] superiority to his contemporaries in this country lies in his ability to create genuinely violent and extravagant art without losing stylistic control." But when Pollock's pictures reached a wider public, through coverage in magazines such as Vogue and Life, the response was a mixture of shock and incredulity. Nor was he widely collected at first, having only a small circle of supporters. Commercial success would soon come, but even at its height - after Art of This Century Gallery had closed and gallery owner Betty Parsons had taken over Pollock's contract - the painter was still being treated for alcoholism.
Pollock supposedly stayed dry from mid-1948 to late 1950, and during these years he lived primarily in Long Island, only occasionally coming into the city. In 1950, he had a successful solo exhibition, and, along with Arshile Gorky and Willem de Kooning, was selected by MoMA director Alfred H. Barr, Jr., for the Venice Biennale. But a year later he was drinking again.
Late Period and Death
Pollock's radical abstraction seemed to herald an incredible new freedom for painting, yet semblances of recognizable imagery continued to hover in the background of his pictures. The vast expanse of Blue Poles (1952) is knitted together with the aid of diagonal lines. And One: Number 31 (1950) retains a strong sense of rhythmically dancing figures, amidst its remarkable diversity of effects. Pollock might have abandoned the realism of his youth, but he still managed to make his paintings eloquently metaphorical. Like many of his canvases from this time, One evokes a mood of grandeur which ties it to the tradition of sublime landscape which stretches back into the 18th century. It also glistens as if it were dappled with light in the manner of Monet's canvases, and many critics have speculated on whether Pollock was influenced by the French Impressionist.
Pollock never really lost his interest in figurative imagery - as he once put it, "I'm very representational some of the time, and a little all of the time. But when you're painting out of your unconscious, figures are bound to emerge." As early as the late 1940s, figuration showed signs of resurfacing in his work. By 1950, whilst his drinking increased, he returned to drawing, resurrecting some of his old motifs, and producing a series of mainly black and white poured paintings. Some, like Yellow Islands (1952), incorporate touches of color and are highly abstract; some, like Echo (Number 25, 1951), are calligraphic in style and only residually figurative; others bear clear images of heads. They were badly received when Pollock first exhibited them, but he continued to work on them right through 1953, his last productive year of work.
His personal troubles only increased in his later years. He left Betty Parsons Gallery, and, his reputation preceding him, he struggled to find another gallery. He painted little in 1954, claiming that he had nothing left to say. In the summer of 1956, Krasner took a trip to Europe to get some distance from Pollock, and soon after the painter began a relationship with 25 year old artist Ruth Kligman, who he had met at the Cedar Bar. Then, on the night of August 11, 1956, while Pollock was drunk and out driving with Kligman and her friend, Edith Metzger, he lost control of the car, killing himself and Metzger, and seriously injuring Kligman.
The Legacy of Jackson Pollock
Pollock's immediate legacy was certainly felt most by other painters. His work brought together elements of Cubism, Surrealism, and Impressionism, and transcended them all. Beside that achievement even greats such as de Kooning, who remained closer to Cubism, and hung on to figurative imagery, seemed to fall short. And the best among subsequent generations of painters would all have to take on his achievement, just as Pollock himself had wrestled with Picasso.
And as early as 1958, when pioneering performance artist Allan Kaprow explicitly addressed the question of his legacy in an article for Art News, some were beginning to wonder if Pollock might even have opened up possibilities outside of the realm of painting. To borrow critic Harold Rosenberg's words, Pollock had re-imagined the canvas not as "a space in which to reproduce, re-design, analyze, or 'express' an object.. [but as] an arena in which to act." And it was a short step from this realization to interpreting Pollock's balletic moves around the canvas as a species of performance art. Since then, Pollock's reputation has only increased. The subject of many biographies, a movie biopic, and major retrospectives, he has become not only one of the most famous symbols of the alienated modern artist, but also an embodiment for critics and historians of American modernism in its finest hour. | 2,729 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Post-Impressionism is the art movement that arrived hot on the heels of Impressionism, starting in the 1880s, while Impressionism was at its height. It includes a variety of artistic styles including the precise art of Georges Seurat to the brightly coloured images created by Paul Gauguin.
This was the time in which art stopped just being about what the artist could see but also about what was in the artist’s mind and soul. The movement led on to other art movements such as expressionism and feminist art. The aim of the artist was to connect with the viewer on a different level and to do this they brought out their emotions and memories.
Cézanne, Signac and Seurat liked order and structure in their work. They used colours and shapes to describe the world instead of just show it to the viewer. Some abstract form made it into post-impressionist paintings and this also helped to pave the way for the various movements that brought us a variety of abstract art. Cézanne and Seurat had also been linked with the Impressionism movement and helped to bridge the gap between the two movements. Seurat was known for his technique of Pointillism, which used dots to build the image. This was a new and scientific approach and one of his most famous paintings was ‘A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte’, painted between 1884 and 1886.
Gauguin studied art in northern France and one of the works that he produced here was ‘Vision After the Sermon’. He later became known for the works he produced because of his time in Tahiti. It is notable that the works of each artist were not necessarily popular with the other artists involved in this movement. Cézanne and Van Gogh spent a lot of time in the south of France and many other artists also chose to leave Paris. | <urn:uuid:55adac7b-fedf-4aae-aeaf-9d45b64079e4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://harbourartscentre.com/post-impressionism/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00436.warc.gz | en | 0.989264 | 390 | 3.96875 | 4 | [
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0.16265092790126... | 11 | Post-Impressionism is the art movement that arrived hot on the heels of Impressionism, starting in the 1880s, while Impressionism was at its height. It includes a variety of artistic styles including the precise art of Georges Seurat to the brightly coloured images created by Paul Gauguin.
This was the time in which art stopped just being about what the artist could see but also about what was in the artist’s mind and soul. The movement led on to other art movements such as expressionism and feminist art. The aim of the artist was to connect with the viewer on a different level and to do this they brought out their emotions and memories.
Cézanne, Signac and Seurat liked order and structure in their work. They used colours and shapes to describe the world instead of just show it to the viewer. Some abstract form made it into post-impressionist paintings and this also helped to pave the way for the various movements that brought us a variety of abstract art. Cézanne and Seurat had also been linked with the Impressionism movement and helped to bridge the gap between the two movements. Seurat was known for his technique of Pointillism, which used dots to build the image. This was a new and scientific approach and one of his most famous paintings was ‘A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte’, painted between 1884 and 1886.
Gauguin studied art in northern France and one of the works that he produced here was ‘Vision After the Sermon’. He later became known for the works he produced because of his time in Tahiti. It is notable that the works of each artist were not necessarily popular with the other artists involved in this movement. Cézanne and Van Gogh spent a lot of time in the south of France and many other artists also chose to leave Paris. | 389 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Perfect Progressive Tense
The perfect progressive tense describes actions that repeated over a period of time in the past, are continuing in the present, and/or will continue in the future.
The present perfect progressive tense tells you about a continuous action that was initiated in the past and finished at some point in the past; however, the action has some relation to the present time. Use have/has + been + ing.
- It has been raining, and the street is still wet.
- I have been running, and I am still tired.
- She has been practicing the piano, and she is much better now.
The past perfect progressive tense illustrates a continuous action in the past that was completed before another past action. Use had + been + ing.
- It had been raining, and the street was still wet.
- I had been running, and I was still tired.
- She had been practicing the piano, and she had gotten much better.
The future perfect progressive tense indicates a continuous action that will be completed in the future. Use will + have + been + ing.
- By tonight, it will have been raining several hours, and the street will be very wet.
- By next summer, I will have been running for almost a year, and I will be fit and healthy.
- By the time of the concert, she will have been practicing the piano for several months, and she will be much better.
Choose the incorrect sentence from the following.
1) I have been sleeping all day today.
2) They will have been walking for almost an hour by the time they arrive at their destination.
3) She have been eating a lot recently. | <urn:uuid:9c1b0791-6756-489b-9614-dfecde5564cd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bankers-adda.com/english-grammar/perfect-progressive-tense/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00473.warc.gz | en | 0.987531 | 350 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.09993042796850204... | 1 | Perfect Progressive Tense
The perfect progressive tense describes actions that repeated over a period of time in the past, are continuing in the present, and/or will continue in the future.
The present perfect progressive tense tells you about a continuous action that was initiated in the past and finished at some point in the past; however, the action has some relation to the present time. Use have/has + been + ing.
- It has been raining, and the street is still wet.
- I have been running, and I am still tired.
- She has been practicing the piano, and she is much better now.
The past perfect progressive tense illustrates a continuous action in the past that was completed before another past action. Use had + been + ing.
- It had been raining, and the street was still wet.
- I had been running, and I was still tired.
- She had been practicing the piano, and she had gotten much better.
The future perfect progressive tense indicates a continuous action that will be completed in the future. Use will + have + been + ing.
- By tonight, it will have been raining several hours, and the street will be very wet.
- By next summer, I will have been running for almost a year, and I will be fit and healthy.
- By the time of the concert, she will have been practicing the piano for several months, and she will be much better.
Choose the incorrect sentence from the following.
1) I have been sleeping all day today.
2) They will have been walking for almost an hour by the time they arrive at their destination.
3) She have been eating a lot recently. | 333 | ENGLISH | 1 |
History of Theatre
History of Theatre Early in the 1700’s British people that were involved with theatre were mostly middle class. There were 2 kinds of new dramatic theatre: sentimental comedy and domestic tragedy. The fist playhouse was in the American colonies was built in Williamsburg, Virginia. In 1741 the greatest British actor was born and his name was David Garrick. Aeschylus wrote the first major playwright and multiple contests. “The Orestria” was the last remaining tragic trilogy. Sophocles pioneered painted scenery and added the third choral leader, wrote “Antigone. Euripides went against popular belief and pioneered female protagonist. Aristophanes was the first comedian and made fun of current leaders, rated “M” for mature. Gotthold Ephraim Lessing was the head German dramatist during the Enlightenment, as well as a critic, a philosopher, and an aesthetician. His works advocated liberal thinking and religious tolerance. He wrote the first German plays of “Note and Sought” to make German drama as an entity seperate from French and classical influences.
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Johann Wolfgang von Goethe is permanently associated with the German romantic movement and is the major literary figure in German history. A true Renaissance man, he was a novelist, playwright, translator, natural philosopher, poet, musician, composer, scientist, and finally a historian. His Faust is a “closet drama”, a work in dramatic form to be read not performed. In the late 1700’s, German theatre changed dramatically by the Romantic movement known as “Sturm und Drang” (storm and stress).
In 1773, British playwright Oliver Goldsmith attacked the popular sentimental comedy and proposed a more humorous and realistic “laughing comedy. ” In his fast paced comedy She Stoops to Conquer, Goldsmith had achieved his goal. Rich Brinsley Sheridan got into sentimental comedy in the 1770’s with his plays The Rivals and The School for Scandal. The American Revolution had a crippling effect on all forms of theatre. Congress passed a resolution discouraging theatrical “entertainments”, and after the U. S. eclared independence, the individual states passed laws forbidding all stage performances. Most of the anti-theatre laws remained in effect until the early 1780’s. construction of the Paris Opera House began in 1861 and was completed in 1875. The idea for a protected performance area arose after a royal procession escorting Napoleon the third and his wife to the opera was bombed by a group of revels and scores were killed. Napoleon wanted an opera house where royalty could enter less publicly, and created a contest calling for new designs.
The architect Charles Garnier won. The Paris Opera House has 17 stories, covers three acres of land, and seats 2000 people. Gaston Leroux’s novel The Phantom of the Opera took place here and Andrew Lloyd Webber’s musical based on this too. The “Father of modern drama,” was a Norwegian playwright who’s name is Henrik Ibsen. James A. Herne began his theatre career as a very good actor. Later he became a stage manager at Baldwin’s Academy of Music in California, a job that brought him many more roles.
In 1878, he married the actress Katherine Corcoran, a member of the Baldwin acting company, and began a career as a playwright to write leading parts for him and his wife. Naturalism was a theatrical school of thought developed in the late 1800’s and early 1900’s. it introduced sets that looked as real as possible, characters who spoke in a natural way, and story lines that were plausible. The primary spokesperson for early naturalism was French novelist Emile Zola(1840 – 1902). | <urn:uuid:0d2e5434-d1e1-4905-a5b3-9f520a831714> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-theatre/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00264.warc.gz | en | 0.982541 | 821 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.179073303937912,... | 1 | History of Theatre
History of Theatre Early in the 1700’s British people that were involved with theatre were mostly middle class. There were 2 kinds of new dramatic theatre: sentimental comedy and domestic tragedy. The fist playhouse was in the American colonies was built in Williamsburg, Virginia. In 1741 the greatest British actor was born and his name was David Garrick. Aeschylus wrote the first major playwright and multiple contests. “The Orestria” was the last remaining tragic trilogy. Sophocles pioneered painted scenery and added the third choral leader, wrote “Antigone. Euripides went against popular belief and pioneered female protagonist. Aristophanes was the first comedian and made fun of current leaders, rated “M” for mature. Gotthold Ephraim Lessing was the head German dramatist during the Enlightenment, as well as a critic, a philosopher, and an aesthetician. His works advocated liberal thinking and religious tolerance. He wrote the first German plays of “Note and Sought” to make German drama as an entity seperate from French and classical influences.
Need Help with Your Essay?
Leave your essay topic in comments and get a free help
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe is permanently associated with the German romantic movement and is the major literary figure in German history. A true Renaissance man, he was a novelist, playwright, translator, natural philosopher, poet, musician, composer, scientist, and finally a historian. His Faust is a “closet drama”, a work in dramatic form to be read not performed. In the late 1700’s, German theatre changed dramatically by the Romantic movement known as “Sturm und Drang” (storm and stress).
In 1773, British playwright Oliver Goldsmith attacked the popular sentimental comedy and proposed a more humorous and realistic “laughing comedy. ” In his fast paced comedy She Stoops to Conquer, Goldsmith had achieved his goal. Rich Brinsley Sheridan got into sentimental comedy in the 1770’s with his plays The Rivals and The School for Scandal. The American Revolution had a crippling effect on all forms of theatre. Congress passed a resolution discouraging theatrical “entertainments”, and after the U. S. eclared independence, the individual states passed laws forbidding all stage performances. Most of the anti-theatre laws remained in effect until the early 1780’s. construction of the Paris Opera House began in 1861 and was completed in 1875. The idea for a protected performance area arose after a royal procession escorting Napoleon the third and his wife to the opera was bombed by a group of revels and scores were killed. Napoleon wanted an opera house where royalty could enter less publicly, and created a contest calling for new designs.
The architect Charles Garnier won. The Paris Opera House has 17 stories, covers three acres of land, and seats 2000 people. Gaston Leroux’s novel The Phantom of the Opera took place here and Andrew Lloyd Webber’s musical based on this too. The “Father of modern drama,” was a Norwegian playwright who’s name is Henrik Ibsen. James A. Herne began his theatre career as a very good actor. Later he became a stage manager at Baldwin’s Academy of Music in California, a job that brought him many more roles.
In 1878, he married the actress Katherine Corcoran, a member of the Baldwin acting company, and began a career as a playwright to write leading parts for him and his wife. Naturalism was a theatrical school of thought developed in the late 1800’s and early 1900’s. it introduced sets that looked as real as possible, characters who spoke in a natural way, and story lines that were plausible. The primary spokesperson for early naturalism was French novelist Emile Zola(1840 – 1902). | 818 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Han Dynasty was a great dynasty in Chinese history, lasting for more than 400 years, from 206 BC to 220 AD. The Han Dynasty was the second Imperial dynasty after the Qin dynasty, and it is considered the Golden Age of Ancient China. It was an era of peace and prosperity, allowing China to expand to a major world power.
The Han Dynasty influenced the East in the same way Rome and Greece influenced the West. Some of the biggest achievements were made during this period. For starters, Confucianism became the official state ideology. It was during this period that China emphasized moderation.
To this day, majority ethnic groups in China refer to themselves as the “Han People.
The Han Dynasty began with a peasant revolt against the Qin Emperor. The revolution was led by Liu Bang, son of a peasant family. He became the first Chinese emperor that was originally a commoner. Before that, all China emperors were royal people.
Once the Qin Emperor was killed, there was a war lasting for four years. On one side, there was Liu Bang, and on the other side, there was his rival Xiang Yu. Liu Bang won the war, becoming an emperor in the process.
He adopted the name Emperor Gaozu of Han, becoming the founder of the Han dynasty. His name means “The High Ancestor of Han”.
One of the first things that Emperor Gaozu did was to establish the civil service. He gathered many educated men, asking them for help to run the empire. He also established schools to make sure that only educated and intelligent men would run the government. This method of government ran for more than 2,000 years.
The major economic achievement during the Han Dynasty was the opening of the Silk Road. Emperor Wu was the one that took the initiative to set out on diplomatic mission to various rulers in Central Asia. As a result, there was a huge exploration of trade routes that linked China to the Mediterranean and opened up new roads for merchants. Trade was increased, as well as economic prosperity of the Empire. Nowadays, China is trying to modernize the Silk road, but the ancient route is still valuable.
Another important invention for world history is paper. During the period of the Han Dynasty, paper was invented, and it allowed the government to easily keep records and pass on instructions through the empire. A eunuch named Cai Lun was responsible for the invention of paper. He dipped a screen into a vat of watery oatmeal-like pulp made of rice straw and inner tree bark. When the screen was raised, it had a layer of dripping slush on top, was then pressed and dried. And the end result of the process was the sheet of paper.
Last, but not least, during the Han Dynasty, the “Records of the Gran Historian” was written. It is largely considered largest Chinese historiographical work, written by Sima Qian. He is referred as the father of Chinese historiography. The book covers a period of more than 2,000 years, from the times of the Yellow Emperor, to the reign of Emperor Wu.
According to history and historians, many people during the Han dynasty lived in the cities. Life was nice for the rich, as their houses were finely decorated with carpets and art. Rich people wore silk robes, they were well educated, and considered almost royal.
Poor people, on the other hand, lived in crowded houses and often went without food. Peasants, and poor people, usually lived better in the countryside. They had to work hard, but they had food and shelter.
During the Han Dynasty, taxes were reduced to allow people to have more money, and people who tilled the soil were well respected.
Merchants were not respected, but they managed to become rich thanks to the Silk Road and trade routes.
By the end of the first century CE, one after another Han emperor died young or without a chosen heir. In the case of an emperor dying without an heir, close relatives were named emperors. In some cases, new emperors were children or even infants, and in that case, the real power was in the hands of a guardian from the family of the empress. That led to all types of cunning schemes in the court.
The Han Dynasty ran its course when a child Liu Xie was placed as the new ruler. He was a member of the Han family, but the real power in the hands of a warlord named Dong Zhou. He seized control over the capital. He killed all the eunuchs in the city, and burned the capital to the ground. Several battles later, the Liu Xie family finally abdicated in 220 CE, which was the last year of the Han dynasty.
Wars started for rule, and China would have to wait for more than 350 years to be unified again.
The Romanovs were a high-ranking family in Russia during the 16th and 17th century. In 1613, Mikhail Romanov became the first Romanov czar of Russia, following a fifteen-year...
Hieroglyphs are characters used in a system of pictorial writing. They were used on ancient Egyptian monuments. They can represent objects that they depict, but usually they ...
Marco Polo was an Italian merchant, explorer, and writer. He traveled through Asia along the Silk Road between 1271 and 1295. He traveled with his family, but also a crew. Du... | <urn:uuid:0bd760e6-b749-491c-91f4-116a990315fc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.documentarytube.com/articles/the-han-people-legacy-of-han-dynasty-in-china | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00305.warc.gz | en | 0.988646 | 1,122 | 4 | 4 | [
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0.12024726718... | 1 | The Han Dynasty was a great dynasty in Chinese history, lasting for more than 400 years, from 206 BC to 220 AD. The Han Dynasty was the second Imperial dynasty after the Qin dynasty, and it is considered the Golden Age of Ancient China. It was an era of peace and prosperity, allowing China to expand to a major world power.
The Han Dynasty influenced the East in the same way Rome and Greece influenced the West. Some of the biggest achievements were made during this period. For starters, Confucianism became the official state ideology. It was during this period that China emphasized moderation.
To this day, majority ethnic groups in China refer to themselves as the “Han People.
The Han Dynasty began with a peasant revolt against the Qin Emperor. The revolution was led by Liu Bang, son of a peasant family. He became the first Chinese emperor that was originally a commoner. Before that, all China emperors were royal people.
Once the Qin Emperor was killed, there was a war lasting for four years. On one side, there was Liu Bang, and on the other side, there was his rival Xiang Yu. Liu Bang won the war, becoming an emperor in the process.
He adopted the name Emperor Gaozu of Han, becoming the founder of the Han dynasty. His name means “The High Ancestor of Han”.
One of the first things that Emperor Gaozu did was to establish the civil service. He gathered many educated men, asking them for help to run the empire. He also established schools to make sure that only educated and intelligent men would run the government. This method of government ran for more than 2,000 years.
The major economic achievement during the Han Dynasty was the opening of the Silk Road. Emperor Wu was the one that took the initiative to set out on diplomatic mission to various rulers in Central Asia. As a result, there was a huge exploration of trade routes that linked China to the Mediterranean and opened up new roads for merchants. Trade was increased, as well as economic prosperity of the Empire. Nowadays, China is trying to modernize the Silk road, but the ancient route is still valuable.
Another important invention for world history is paper. During the period of the Han Dynasty, paper was invented, and it allowed the government to easily keep records and pass on instructions through the empire. A eunuch named Cai Lun was responsible for the invention of paper. He dipped a screen into a vat of watery oatmeal-like pulp made of rice straw and inner tree bark. When the screen was raised, it had a layer of dripping slush on top, was then pressed and dried. And the end result of the process was the sheet of paper.
Last, but not least, during the Han Dynasty, the “Records of the Gran Historian” was written. It is largely considered largest Chinese historiographical work, written by Sima Qian. He is referred as the father of Chinese historiography. The book covers a period of more than 2,000 years, from the times of the Yellow Emperor, to the reign of Emperor Wu.
According to history and historians, many people during the Han dynasty lived in the cities. Life was nice for the rich, as their houses were finely decorated with carpets and art. Rich people wore silk robes, they were well educated, and considered almost royal.
Poor people, on the other hand, lived in crowded houses and often went without food. Peasants, and poor people, usually lived better in the countryside. They had to work hard, but they had food and shelter.
During the Han Dynasty, taxes were reduced to allow people to have more money, and people who tilled the soil were well respected.
Merchants were not respected, but they managed to become rich thanks to the Silk Road and trade routes.
By the end of the first century CE, one after another Han emperor died young or without a chosen heir. In the case of an emperor dying without an heir, close relatives were named emperors. In some cases, new emperors were children or even infants, and in that case, the real power was in the hands of a guardian from the family of the empress. That led to all types of cunning schemes in the court.
The Han Dynasty ran its course when a child Liu Xie was placed as the new ruler. He was a member of the Han family, but the real power in the hands of a warlord named Dong Zhou. He seized control over the capital. He killed all the eunuchs in the city, and burned the capital to the ground. Several battles later, the Liu Xie family finally abdicated in 220 CE, which was the last year of the Han dynasty.
Wars started for rule, and China would have to wait for more than 350 years to be unified again.
The Romanovs were a high-ranking family in Russia during the 16th and 17th century. In 1613, Mikhail Romanov became the first Romanov czar of Russia, following a fifteen-year...
Hieroglyphs are characters used in a system of pictorial writing. They were used on ancient Egyptian monuments. They can represent objects that they depict, but usually they ...
Marco Polo was an Italian merchant, explorer, and writer. He traveled through Asia along the Silk Road between 1271 and 1295. He traveled with his family, but also a crew. Du... | 1,130 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Politics is all about how power, resources, and life are organized in the society. It involves leadership and decision making processes. Politics is, therefore, a very critical component of societal development and should be handled with a lot of care to ensure the well-being of the society in terms of political, social, and economic rights. In addition, politics goes hand in hand with warfare in the sense that bad politics may lead to war that could degenerate into adverse implications for the population in general. Politics involves a lot of things that may, like corruption, use propaganda to achieve personal interests as well as destructive force, which causes negative impacts on the prosperity of the society. For example, any war results in destruction of physical property as well as loss of lives.
Austria-Hungary was a nation in central Europe. It had a diverse population and large army that enabled it to participate in wars with other nations. The state bordered Germany to the North, Italy Southwest, Russia Northeast, Serbia and Montenegro Southeast, and Switzerland to the West. These were the nations that Austria was involved in war with. Certain factors necessitated the start of wars among these states. For example, issues concerning assassinations of political officials in Austria created unrest among its citizens (Harrison 14). Those who were assassinated in most cases were the political leader who led the others in mobilization processes in an attempt to fight for their rights. They anticipated the moment when it would be possible to gain control and guide the huge army in any war battle that required proper supervision to enhance their success. On reaching the place of assassination, these political leaders were killed as this was the only way of getting rid of their productive activities in the society. By such means, they were stopped from mobilizing the citizens for solving certain political issues. This greatly affected the population, hence, calling for war was regarded as a way of fighting for their rights. Also, Bosnian crisis of 1908-09 led to the World War 1 that started in 1914 and ended in 1918 (Stevenson 17). These were the major push factors that provoked Austria to involve in war with other countries, mainly with Russia and Serbia (Stevenson 22).
The assassinations of political leaders in Austria and the Bosnian crisis drove the nation into the war with other states like Serbia and Russia. After the murders of the major politicians, like archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria by the government of Serbia, Austria-Hungary decided to start up a battle with Serbia, as a result, it had cost the nation its active political leaders (Harrison 16). It decided to demand of ten things from Serbia and failure to satisfy them, which would provoke the nation into engaging in the war with the state. Serbia failed to fulfill the ten demands from Austria and only responded to eight of them. The remaining two incited the country to involve in war with Austria, as there was no way for complying with what Austria demanded. This would have meant profound implications for Serbia as a nation. Austria- Hungary used propaganda to ensure that its needs were fully achieved (Harrison 29). Serbia chose war over death.
Serbia had a good army. It was experienced compared to that of Austria-Hungary due to the fact that it had been participating in the war with the Balkans in the past two years. Consequently, the soldiers were tired and poorly equipped. They did not have the required weapons to fight the Austrians. There was a lot of destruction as a result of this war. Ordinary soldiers, officers as well as civilians lost their lives because of the war between Serbia and Austria (Stevenson 31). There was also dramatic loss of property in terms of physical infrastructure and personal possessions. In addition, there was massive displacement of people from their areas of settlement. Austria mainly wanted to destroy the part of Serbia:.. natural resources and strong armed forces that the country used to fight in wars.
Austria-Hungary, on the other hand, had a large army that was of poor quality compared to its enemy. It was not experienced . Most of the army leaders were illiterate and could understand neither Germany nor Hungarian (Harrison 33). This made it very difficult to communicate, slowing down the activities they were expected to carry out. Moreover, .they faced transportation problems that restricted the access to Serbian territory. The nation also lacked reserves and replacement troops. This led to a massive decrease in the size of the army that was in the field. As a result, armed forces experienced chronic shortages in manpower that was required to facilitate the achievement of desirable results. The attempts to address the shortages in the army were made by replacing the troops with underage or overage men (Harrison 33). Such an endeavor was undermining the well-being of the society. It also implied weakening the strength of the army in comparison to what other countries had. The nation also faced financial constraints (Harrison 41). It had inadequate financial resources, hence, was unable to finance the its army. The state could not purchase enough necessities, like uniforms and all the equipment that were required to fight well in the war battles. This fact meant that the soldiers were not comfortable with what the country was offering them, contributing a lot to the vast losses of lives in the war. They also lacked modern weaponry that could help them to fight more successfully (Harrison 43). This problem was related to the lack of appropriate technology and inadequate financial resources that could have been used to facilitate the purchase of necessary weapons. These drawbacks affected the performance of the Austria-Hungary army in the war with Serbia and other nations, like Russia, which had the largest army in the word by then and was constantly strengthening and enhancing its performance.
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The fighting countries, Austria and Serbia, were not willing to decline their sovereignties in place of the other. Neither Austria nor Serbia was willing to bargain at its own expense as it implied that by doing so, either side would have endangered the lives of its people. One state would have won. In this case, if Serbia would have accepted to respond and comply with all the demands of its enemy, then it had lost to Austria. It also meant that Austria would have won. This scenario could have been accompanied by serious political and economic complications for Serbia (Harrison 44). That is why, it decided not to comply with the ten demands of Austria, choosing the war with Austria, which meant its own death too. Serbia refused hegemony due to the fact that, if it had fulfilled all the demands, it would have empowered Austria to rule over the whole nation . It also meant that the population would become slaves. In other words, Serbia had to sell its citizens to Austria-Hungary.
Austria also resorted to direct political threats to fight for its rights. This could be seen from the way it used the assassination issues as the key point to embroil other countries in war . It deployed this technique by demanding ten things from Serbia, failure to comply with them meant a serious war (Harrison 45).
Austria rationally chose to involve in the war with Serbia because the country had a lot of unsolved political issues. Austria-Hungary took advantage of the assassinations in order to entangle Serbia in a military conflict because it did not want to fulfill all ten demands. There was also the aspect of mobilization; people were manipulated into working or moving towards a certain direction with the belief that it would benefit the society (Stevenson 37). This was very evident in Austria, where the mobilizers were assassinated with the view of terminating their productive activities. Mobilization was also a way of initiating structural changes in the society. Most of the political leaders who guided the mobilization processes were more experienced than the natives; hence, they could generate good results whenever they conducted war.
There were no international bargaining institutions between Serbia and Austria-Hungary to intervene or mediate in order to prevent them from engaging in war. Serbia had earlier fought with the Balkans and could not support it in any way. Austria, on the other hand, was extremely aggressive and could not be trusted by either Russia or the Balkans to intervene for them because of the threats it used against other countries. These circumstances led to the development of World War 1 (Harrison 49).
There existed great powers during World War I that exercised considerable influence over other nations in terms of how they carried out their activities politically, socially, and economically. These states could control others due to the great opportunities, military power, and economic position. These factors allowed them to control and influence other states in the whole world. This implied that great powers could guide and manipulate other countries into what they wanted, depending on their interests. They could easily seize much more opportunities compared to those with less potential (Stevenson 51). In this situation, there was the aspect of power imbalance that could easily contribute to problems in the society. An example of the major power in that context, which is the focus of analysis in this section, is Great Britain or England.
England gained the position at the top of the hierarchy as its status was very high due to enormous influence over other states. It was able to exercise power, using its great potential. England had a lot of opportunities that enabled it to be very powerful with regard to others. For example, the availability of capital in the nation makes it grow fast. Great Britain acquired a lot of capital and technology to finance all its activities at that time. The country could purchase the necessary weaponry for conducting warfare. This helped it in winning most wars it engaged in. The explanation for such success was the fact that Britain was so strong that it managed to acquire a lot of colonies and, as a result, could use their infinite capacity. The capital allowed to employ technology that enabled the state to make modern weapons that was a very crucial aspect during war. Consequently, the country was able to acquire a lot of colonies (Harrison 53).
Another source of its power was the size of the population. England had a huge population that enabled it to strengthen the capacity of its army. A large number of citizens also provided labor force that was used to perform specific tasks.
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Availability of raw materials contributed to the country’s strength too, in the sense that raw materials were being used to make weapons . Materials like iron, steel, and coal facilitated production processes. Coal was used as a source of energy to heat water that generated steam to drive machines, which enhanced production and transport processes.
There was also political stability and equal distribution of power in England. The state played the sole role in maintaining the stability. This was done by formulation and implementation of laws that protected all of its citizens. England suffered fewer injuries as a result of its political stability (Harrison 66). There was fair distribution of power in the sense that there was a very narrow gap between the rich and the poor. The government implemented patent laws that encouraged a lot of investments from other nations that offered employment to the citizens.
Availability of transportation networks in England facilitated easier connection between nations. For instance, navigable rivers and canals enhanced faster shipping and access to other countries (Stevenson 69). It was also cheaper as transportation costs were not high. This enabled Great Britain to conquer many countries due to easier access to them. This was the reason why Britain had a lot of colonies compared to other powers like Serbia and Austria that faced transportation problems.
The topography and geographical location of England also contributed to its great power during World War 1 (Harrison 71). Since the country was an island, it accommodated a lot of ports and harbors. This also fastened the transportation of the army from one nation to another. England had a central location; hence, it was very easy for it to obtain more colonies than other powers. The state was the major power, whereas the colonies were minor powers and Great Britain could easily exercise authority over them. The colonies could resist this influence through demonstrations, work strikes, and wars . There was loss of lives and property as people fought for their rights.
Political issues are very sensitive and that is why they should be tackled with a lot of care so as to reduce adverse impacts that has always been imposed on the societies. Warfare is a serious implication that is supposed to be addressed cautiously to avoid loss of lives and property. It should be settled in order to enhance and observe the well-being in the society . Power distribution can be used as a weapon to start war. Power should be divided equally in the society to avoid the conflicts that may arise from the development of classes or major and minor powers. Such differences create clashes, especially when it comes to access, control, and use of the available resources. Those with more power tend to dominate the society by owning more resources, easily becoming authoritative. This aspect may provoke the minor powers to act violently, applying force that might cause war between these two classes. The state can also create favorable environment for everyone regardless of their status in the society. This can be done by enhancing political stability of the nation. | <urn:uuid:a558646a-72c5-4929-b9d2-bb26e40d2995> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://top-papers.com/essays/austria-hungary/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00433.warc.gz | en | 0.980879 | 2,697 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.4807679653167... | 8 | Politics is all about how power, resources, and life are organized in the society. It involves leadership and decision making processes. Politics is, therefore, a very critical component of societal development and should be handled with a lot of care to ensure the well-being of the society in terms of political, social, and economic rights. In addition, politics goes hand in hand with warfare in the sense that bad politics may lead to war that could degenerate into adverse implications for the population in general. Politics involves a lot of things that may, like corruption, use propaganda to achieve personal interests as well as destructive force, which causes negative impacts on the prosperity of the society. For example, any war results in destruction of physical property as well as loss of lives.
Austria-Hungary was a nation in central Europe. It had a diverse population and large army that enabled it to participate in wars with other nations. The state bordered Germany to the North, Italy Southwest, Russia Northeast, Serbia and Montenegro Southeast, and Switzerland to the West. These were the nations that Austria was involved in war with. Certain factors necessitated the start of wars among these states. For example, issues concerning assassinations of political officials in Austria created unrest among its citizens (Harrison 14). Those who were assassinated in most cases were the political leader who led the others in mobilization processes in an attempt to fight for their rights. They anticipated the moment when it would be possible to gain control and guide the huge army in any war battle that required proper supervision to enhance their success. On reaching the place of assassination, these political leaders were killed as this was the only way of getting rid of their productive activities in the society. By such means, they were stopped from mobilizing the citizens for solving certain political issues. This greatly affected the population, hence, calling for war was regarded as a way of fighting for their rights. Also, Bosnian crisis of 1908-09 led to the World War 1 that started in 1914 and ended in 1918 (Stevenson 17). These were the major push factors that provoked Austria to involve in war with other countries, mainly with Russia and Serbia (Stevenson 22).
The assassinations of political leaders in Austria and the Bosnian crisis drove the nation into the war with other states like Serbia and Russia. After the murders of the major politicians, like archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria by the government of Serbia, Austria-Hungary decided to start up a battle with Serbia, as a result, it had cost the nation its active political leaders (Harrison 16). It decided to demand of ten things from Serbia and failure to satisfy them, which would provoke the nation into engaging in the war with the state. Serbia failed to fulfill the ten demands from Austria and only responded to eight of them. The remaining two incited the country to involve in war with Austria, as there was no way for complying with what Austria demanded. This would have meant profound implications for Serbia as a nation. Austria- Hungary used propaganda to ensure that its needs were fully achieved (Harrison 29). Serbia chose war over death.
Serbia had a good army. It was experienced compared to that of Austria-Hungary due to the fact that it had been participating in the war with the Balkans in the past two years. Consequently, the soldiers were tired and poorly equipped. They did not have the required weapons to fight the Austrians. There was a lot of destruction as a result of this war. Ordinary soldiers, officers as well as civilians lost their lives because of the war between Serbia and Austria (Stevenson 31). There was also dramatic loss of property in terms of physical infrastructure and personal possessions. In addition, there was massive displacement of people from their areas of settlement. Austria mainly wanted to destroy the part of Serbia:.. natural resources and strong armed forces that the country used to fight in wars.
Austria-Hungary, on the other hand, had a large army that was of poor quality compared to its enemy. It was not experienced . Most of the army leaders were illiterate and could understand neither Germany nor Hungarian (Harrison 33). This made it very difficult to communicate, slowing down the activities they were expected to carry out. Moreover, .they faced transportation problems that restricted the access to Serbian territory. The nation also lacked reserves and replacement troops. This led to a massive decrease in the size of the army that was in the field. As a result, armed forces experienced chronic shortages in manpower that was required to facilitate the achievement of desirable results. The attempts to address the shortages in the army were made by replacing the troops with underage or overage men (Harrison 33). Such an endeavor was undermining the well-being of the society. It also implied weakening the strength of the army in comparison to what other countries had. The nation also faced financial constraints (Harrison 41). It had inadequate financial resources, hence, was unable to finance the its army. The state could not purchase enough necessities, like uniforms and all the equipment that were required to fight well in the war battles. This fact meant that the soldiers were not comfortable with what the country was offering them, contributing a lot to the vast losses of lives in the war. They also lacked modern weaponry that could help them to fight more successfully (Harrison 43). This problem was related to the lack of appropriate technology and inadequate financial resources that could have been used to facilitate the purchase of necessary weapons. These drawbacks affected the performance of the Austria-Hungary army in the war with Serbia and other nations, like Russia, which had the largest army in the word by then and was constantly strengthening and enhancing its performance.
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The fighting countries, Austria and Serbia, were not willing to decline their sovereignties in place of the other. Neither Austria nor Serbia was willing to bargain at its own expense as it implied that by doing so, either side would have endangered the lives of its people. One state would have won. In this case, if Serbia would have accepted to respond and comply with all the demands of its enemy, then it had lost to Austria. It also meant that Austria would have won. This scenario could have been accompanied by serious political and economic complications for Serbia (Harrison 44). That is why, it decided not to comply with the ten demands of Austria, choosing the war with Austria, which meant its own death too. Serbia refused hegemony due to the fact that, if it had fulfilled all the demands, it would have empowered Austria to rule over the whole nation . It also meant that the population would become slaves. In other words, Serbia had to sell its citizens to Austria-Hungary.
Austria also resorted to direct political threats to fight for its rights. This could be seen from the way it used the assassination issues as the key point to embroil other countries in war . It deployed this technique by demanding ten things from Serbia, failure to comply with them meant a serious war (Harrison 45).
Austria rationally chose to involve in the war with Serbia because the country had a lot of unsolved political issues. Austria-Hungary took advantage of the assassinations in order to entangle Serbia in a military conflict because it did not want to fulfill all ten demands. There was also the aspect of mobilization; people were manipulated into working or moving towards a certain direction with the belief that it would benefit the society (Stevenson 37). This was very evident in Austria, where the mobilizers were assassinated with the view of terminating their productive activities. Mobilization was also a way of initiating structural changes in the society. Most of the political leaders who guided the mobilization processes were more experienced than the natives; hence, they could generate good results whenever they conducted war.
There were no international bargaining institutions between Serbia and Austria-Hungary to intervene or mediate in order to prevent them from engaging in war. Serbia had earlier fought with the Balkans and could not support it in any way. Austria, on the other hand, was extremely aggressive and could not be trusted by either Russia or the Balkans to intervene for them because of the threats it used against other countries. These circumstances led to the development of World War 1 (Harrison 49).
There existed great powers during World War I that exercised considerable influence over other nations in terms of how they carried out their activities politically, socially, and economically. These states could control others due to the great opportunities, military power, and economic position. These factors allowed them to control and influence other states in the whole world. This implied that great powers could guide and manipulate other countries into what they wanted, depending on their interests. They could easily seize much more opportunities compared to those with less potential (Stevenson 51). In this situation, there was the aspect of power imbalance that could easily contribute to problems in the society. An example of the major power in that context, which is the focus of analysis in this section, is Great Britain or England.
England gained the position at the top of the hierarchy as its status was very high due to enormous influence over other states. It was able to exercise power, using its great potential. England had a lot of opportunities that enabled it to be very powerful with regard to others. For example, the availability of capital in the nation makes it grow fast. Great Britain acquired a lot of capital and technology to finance all its activities at that time. The country could purchase the necessary weaponry for conducting warfare. This helped it in winning most wars it engaged in. The explanation for such success was the fact that Britain was so strong that it managed to acquire a lot of colonies and, as a result, could use their infinite capacity. The capital allowed to employ technology that enabled the state to make modern weapons that was a very crucial aspect during war. Consequently, the country was able to acquire a lot of colonies (Harrison 53).
Another source of its power was the size of the population. England had a huge population that enabled it to strengthen the capacity of its army. A large number of citizens also provided labor force that was used to perform specific tasks.
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Availability of raw materials contributed to the country’s strength too, in the sense that raw materials were being used to make weapons . Materials like iron, steel, and coal facilitated production processes. Coal was used as a source of energy to heat water that generated steam to drive machines, which enhanced production and transport processes.
There was also political stability and equal distribution of power in England. The state played the sole role in maintaining the stability. This was done by formulation and implementation of laws that protected all of its citizens. England suffered fewer injuries as a result of its political stability (Harrison 66). There was fair distribution of power in the sense that there was a very narrow gap between the rich and the poor. The government implemented patent laws that encouraged a lot of investments from other nations that offered employment to the citizens.
Availability of transportation networks in England facilitated easier connection between nations. For instance, navigable rivers and canals enhanced faster shipping and access to other countries (Stevenson 69). It was also cheaper as transportation costs were not high. This enabled Great Britain to conquer many countries due to easier access to them. This was the reason why Britain had a lot of colonies compared to other powers like Serbia and Austria that faced transportation problems.
The topography and geographical location of England also contributed to its great power during World War 1 (Harrison 71). Since the country was an island, it accommodated a lot of ports and harbors. This also fastened the transportation of the army from one nation to another. England had a central location; hence, it was very easy for it to obtain more colonies than other powers. The state was the major power, whereas the colonies were minor powers and Great Britain could easily exercise authority over them. The colonies could resist this influence through demonstrations, work strikes, and wars . There was loss of lives and property as people fought for their rights.
Political issues are very sensitive and that is why they should be tackled with a lot of care so as to reduce adverse impacts that has always been imposed on the societies. Warfare is a serious implication that is supposed to be addressed cautiously to avoid loss of lives and property. It should be settled in order to enhance and observe the well-being in the society . Power distribution can be used as a weapon to start war. Power should be divided equally in the society to avoid the conflicts that may arise from the development of classes or major and minor powers. Such differences create clashes, especially when it comes to access, control, and use of the available resources. Those with more power tend to dominate the society by owning more resources, easily becoming authoritative. This aspect may provoke the minor powers to act violently, applying force that might cause war between these two classes. The state can also create favorable environment for everyone regardless of their status in the society. This can be done by enhancing political stability of the nation. | 2,749 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Irving Langmuir Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Irving Langmuir was born on January 31, 1881. He was an American chemist and physicist. He won the 1932 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. He got the prize because of his works on surface chemistry. He was also well known for his publication which was released in 1919 titled ‘The Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms and Molecules.’ From a very tender age, he was so curious and observant that his love of nature grew and so he decided to be a chemist so to explore nature’s fullness. He died on August 16, 1957.
Irving Langmuir was born on January 31, 1881, in Brooklyn, New York. He was born to Charles Langmuir who was an insurance executive and Sadie. He was brought up alongside three siblings. Irving and his siblings were brought up in such a manner that they were so curious about nature and what it had to offer. He attended Chestnut Hill Academy where he graduated in 1898. He was an outstanding student and developed interests in Physics, Chemistry, and Mathematics.
Irving Langmuir had an elder brother, Arthur, who was a research chemist and he made Irving love chemistry even more. He influenced him into having a career as a chemist. Arthur also helped him set up a chemistry laboratory at the corner of his bedroom.
After high school, Irving joined the Columbia University in Maine, and he graduated from the school in 1903 with a Bachelor of Science Degree in Metallurgical Engineering. He also attended the University of Gottingen in Germany. He graduated from the University in 1906 with a doctorate.
After graduating from the University of Gottingen, Irving Langmuir went ahead to teach at the Stevens Institute of Technology in Hoboken, New Jersey. He taught at the school until 1909 when he got a job as an associate director at the General Electric Research Laboratory in New York. While he was working at the laboratory, he improved the design for the tungsten filament of the incandescent bulb which was being worked on by the lab when he joined as an associate director.
Irving’s improvisation of the filament led to the bulb being commercially successful. He was so much into the chemistry that he started studying gases. He developed an atomic hydrogen welding torch from his study of the hydrogen gas.
Irving also invented a fast and efficient vacuum pump from his investigation of thermionic emission. His love for chemistry led him to write so many articles on absorption, condensation, and evaporation of gas molecules at solid surfaces. He also wrote articles on the arrangement of atoms in the surface layers of liquids. He published a paper on the chemistry of oil films in 1917.
Two years later, Irving Langmuir wrote the article ‘The Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms and Molecules.’ In 1924, he invented the Langmuir probe which is an electrostatic probe for measuring temperature and density. This examination is mostly used in plasma physics.
Irving and Katharine Blodgett studied thin films and surface absorption and introduced the concept of monolayer and two-dimensional physics. He discovered Langmuir circulation due to his observations of windrows of drifting seaweed on the Sargasso Sea. He retired from being a chemist in 1950 and remained a consultant until his death.
Awards and Achievements
In 1928, Irving Langmuir bestowed the Perkin Medal. In 1932, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his discoveries and investigations in surface chemistry. In 1934, he received the Franklin Medal from the Franklin Institute for his contributions to chemistry.
In 1912, Irving Langmuir married Marion Mersereau with whom he adopted two children, Kenneth and Barbara. He succumbed to a heart attack on August 16, 1957, in Wood Hole, Massachusetts, United States. | <urn:uuid:0dfdcbe4-4103-4f40-98ca-274061f96391> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/d/profile/irving-langmuir/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00101.warc.gz | en | 0.985061 | 796 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.16250109672546... | 2 | Irving Langmuir Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Irving Langmuir was born on January 31, 1881. He was an American chemist and physicist. He won the 1932 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. He got the prize because of his works on surface chemistry. He was also well known for his publication which was released in 1919 titled ‘The Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms and Molecules.’ From a very tender age, he was so curious and observant that his love of nature grew and so he decided to be a chemist so to explore nature’s fullness. He died on August 16, 1957.
Irving Langmuir was born on January 31, 1881, in Brooklyn, New York. He was born to Charles Langmuir who was an insurance executive and Sadie. He was brought up alongside three siblings. Irving and his siblings were brought up in such a manner that they were so curious about nature and what it had to offer. He attended Chestnut Hill Academy where he graduated in 1898. He was an outstanding student and developed interests in Physics, Chemistry, and Mathematics.
Irving Langmuir had an elder brother, Arthur, who was a research chemist and he made Irving love chemistry even more. He influenced him into having a career as a chemist. Arthur also helped him set up a chemistry laboratory at the corner of his bedroom.
After high school, Irving joined the Columbia University in Maine, and he graduated from the school in 1903 with a Bachelor of Science Degree in Metallurgical Engineering. He also attended the University of Gottingen in Germany. He graduated from the University in 1906 with a doctorate.
After graduating from the University of Gottingen, Irving Langmuir went ahead to teach at the Stevens Institute of Technology in Hoboken, New Jersey. He taught at the school until 1909 when he got a job as an associate director at the General Electric Research Laboratory in New York. While he was working at the laboratory, he improved the design for the tungsten filament of the incandescent bulb which was being worked on by the lab when he joined as an associate director.
Irving’s improvisation of the filament led to the bulb being commercially successful. He was so much into the chemistry that he started studying gases. He developed an atomic hydrogen welding torch from his study of the hydrogen gas.
Irving also invented a fast and efficient vacuum pump from his investigation of thermionic emission. His love for chemistry led him to write so many articles on absorption, condensation, and evaporation of gas molecules at solid surfaces. He also wrote articles on the arrangement of atoms in the surface layers of liquids. He published a paper on the chemistry of oil films in 1917.
Two years later, Irving Langmuir wrote the article ‘The Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms and Molecules.’ In 1924, he invented the Langmuir probe which is an electrostatic probe for measuring temperature and density. This examination is mostly used in plasma physics.
Irving and Katharine Blodgett studied thin films and surface absorption and introduced the concept of monolayer and two-dimensional physics. He discovered Langmuir circulation due to his observations of windrows of drifting seaweed on the Sargasso Sea. He retired from being a chemist in 1950 and remained a consultant until his death.
Awards and Achievements
In 1928, Irving Langmuir bestowed the Perkin Medal. In 1932, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his discoveries and investigations in surface chemistry. In 1934, he received the Franklin Medal from the Franklin Institute for his contributions to chemistry.
In 1912, Irving Langmuir married Marion Mersereau with whom he adopted two children, Kenneth and Barbara. He succumbed to a heart attack on August 16, 1957, in Wood Hole, Massachusetts, United States. | 852 | ENGLISH | 1 |
1985 Volume 94 Issue 4 Pages 427-457,564
Among the decisions (saikyo-jyo) which were issued by Kamakura Bakufu, there were some decisions that used an assumptive word "koto-jichi-naraba". This word implied that in that case the Bakufu reserved the right to decide whether it was the fact or not. Therefore in some cases, as the result of this reservation, after many years there occured a new dispute. Why did these decisions use such an assumptive word? These may possibly have been the writs of summons (toi-jyo), not the decisions. As for the writs of summons in Kamakura period, there were two different types. One was relatively short and neutral. And the other was long and showed some value judgements. For that reason, the latter was sometimes misused as a decision. Both problematic documents (the decisions with an assumptive word and the long writs of summons) were issued before the middle of the 13th century. Accordingly we can consider these documents as the documents which were issued during the transition period of Kamakura legislation. Nevertheless as for the settlement of dispute, these documents were not so useless. According to this fact, we know that at this period Kamakura Bakufu was called for as an authority not as a coercive power. | <urn:uuid:e39d229f-b848-4d28-a98d-dfedf99da13f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/shigaku/94/4/94_KJ00003673627/_article/-char/en | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00557.warc.gz | en | 0.988091 | 277 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.238415598869323... | 1 | 1985 Volume 94 Issue 4 Pages 427-457,564
Among the decisions (saikyo-jyo) which were issued by Kamakura Bakufu, there were some decisions that used an assumptive word "koto-jichi-naraba". This word implied that in that case the Bakufu reserved the right to decide whether it was the fact or not. Therefore in some cases, as the result of this reservation, after many years there occured a new dispute. Why did these decisions use such an assumptive word? These may possibly have been the writs of summons (toi-jyo), not the decisions. As for the writs of summons in Kamakura period, there were two different types. One was relatively short and neutral. And the other was long and showed some value judgements. For that reason, the latter was sometimes misused as a decision. Both problematic documents (the decisions with an assumptive word and the long writs of summons) were issued before the middle of the 13th century. Accordingly we can consider these documents as the documents which were issued during the transition period of Kamakura legislation. Nevertheless as for the settlement of dispute, these documents were not so useless. According to this fact, we know that at this period Kamakura Bakufu was called for as an authority not as a coercive power. | 291 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The most controversial decision of the 20th century—probably in all of history—was the one reportedly made by President Harry S. Truman, president of the United States and commander-in-chief of the United States armed forces, in the summer of 1945 to drop the atomic bomb on Japan. No other event has affected mankind so dramatically, and no other decision is as controversial.
To the young soldiers and Marines who were in training or moving to the Pacific when “the bomb” was dropped there was no question—many of them survived the war because Harry Truman “had the guts to drop it.” This belief was burned into their young minds when they heard the news and most never bothered to question whether it was founded on fact. In recent years their sons have sought to reinforce the belief of their fathers, once again without taking a serious look at the facts surrounding the decision to drop the bomb and the events leading up to it. Yet, in reality, Truman never made an actual decision to use the bomb, and it was the one decision made by Emperor Hirohito of Japan to accept Allied surrender terms and end the war that actually spared their lives.
Even while millions of Americans continue to believe that the atomic bomb ended World War II, many, including some in high positions in government and the military at the time, have long believed it was unnecessary. Previously classified documents released to the National Archives in recent years support their position that the White House knew the end for Japan had already come and that the use of atomic weapons was motivated more by postwar concerns than by preventing an amphibious invasion of Japan. Furthermore, principals such as General Leslie Groves, the officer in charge of the nuclear project, have revealed that there never really was a “decision” as such by President Truman to drop the bomb, but that he simply allowed plans that were already in motion before he was thrust into office to continue. In essence, the decision to use atomic weapons against Japan was made long before Truman even had an inkling of their existence.
Building the Bomb
American research into the possibility of creating powerful weapons using nuclear fission actually predated the outbreak of World War II by several weeks. In July 1939, three European scientists met with renowned physicist Albert Einstein and persuaded him to write a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt advising that a bomb designed to produce a nuclear explosion might be under development in Germany. Einstein’s letter is dated August 2, 1939, nearly a month before Germany and the Soviet Union invaded Poland and World War II officially began. British scientists were already working on such a weapon, and the United States began a similar, although generally unsuccessful, effort in response to the Einstein letter.ƒ
In 1941, a group of American scientists visited England, where considerable nuclear research work was being done. Prior to the visit, no American scientist believed that nuclear fission would be of critical importance to the war, but the British work so impressed the visitors that in December they recommended that a full-scale nuclear project commence in the United States. President Roosevelt authorized a research program under the code name Manhattan Engineering Project, and British nuclear experts came to the United States to work with their American counterparts in research toward the development of a nuclear weapon.
In September 1942, the War Department assumed control of the project and Colonel Leslie R. Groves of the Army Corps of Engineers, who had previously been in charge of the construction of the Pentagon, was appointed as the project head. On December 2, 1942, Dr. Enrico Fermi, an Italian-born physicist working at the University of Chicago, achieved fission, the first controlled release of nuclear energy. Fermi’s successful experiment proved that it was indeed possible to develop a nuclear weapon and ushered the world into the nuclear age. The next step was to develop a means of maintaining the nuclear material in an inert state until the desired detonation point.
Manhattan Project scientists solved the problem by dividing nuclear material into two masses, then firing one into the other to achieve an explosion. Another method was to place the nuclear material between two masses of conventional explosives. The shock waves of their detonation would cause the plutonium to collapse and then expand again in a powerful explosion. The first method was used for the bomb dropped on Hiroshima, while the second was the mechanism for the first nuclear detonation at the Trinity site in New Mexico and in the bomb dropped on Nagasaki. The nuclear secret was so classified that President Roosevelt did not even inform his vice presidents of it. (Truman was the third of three vice presidents who served with Roosevelt. Truman was not elected until November 1944 and did not take the vice-presidential office until the following January, only a few weeks before FDR’s death.)
Finding a Suitable Delivery Vehicle
For any weapon to be effective it has to be delivered onto a target, and in the case of a nuclear weapon it has to be detonated in the air to achieve maximum effect. At the time, guided missiles did not exist and the artillery of the day lacked the range to deliver a nuclear warhead. The only option was delivery from the air in the form of an aerial bomb. In 1943, the only suitable delivery vehicle in the U.S. inventory was the Boeing B-29 Superfortress, a large, long-range, four-engine bomber that was under development at the same time as the bomb itself. Originally conceived in 1940, the B-29 had been planned for extremely long-range strategic bombing missions against Germany from bases in North Africa and the northern British Isles. The B-29 program was plagued with birthing problems, but planning for a special combat unit to deliver the new weapons when they were developed began even before the first Superfortress entered operational service.
To command the new unit, which would be designated as the 509th Composite Group, Army Air Forces commander General Henry H. Arnold selected Colonel Paul W. Tibbets, Jr., a veteran bomber pilot from Columbus, Ohio, who had seen combat in Europe and North Africa but who had no experience against the Japanese. Lt. Col. Thomas J. Classen, a Pacific veteran who had been awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for a 1943 mission in a B-17 Flying Fortress bomber, was selected as his deputy. Classen was already in command of the 393rd Bombardment Squadron, the operational unit that would actually drop the nuclear device.
Tibbets picked most of his staff officers from members of his former group, while others were chosen because they had special qualifications that made them particularly useful. Only Tibbets himself was privy to the nuclear secret. The other members of the group knew only that when they went into combat, it would be to drop a special kind of bomb. They came to refer to the weapon they knew nothing about as “the gimmick.” Tibbets was in complete charge of organizing and staffing his new unit and with selecting the training base. He chose Wendover Field, a remote base in the Utah desert that had previously been used to train aerial gunners. Wendover’s remoteness was a major factor in Tibbets’s choice—he thought it would enhance security. The 393rd Bombardment Squadron, a B-29 squadron then in training at Fairmount, Nebraska, would be the combat element of his new command. The 509th Composite Group was activated in September 1944, and by the end of December the men of the 393rd had completed their training and were ready for combat. The question was—where?
1943: Japan Confirmed as the Target
Traditional atomic bomb lore records that the Manhattan Project was originally begun with the intent of using the weapon against Nazi Germany. Apparently, this is what the scientists working on the project, many of whom were Jews who had fled Europe, were led to believe. In January 1945, the War Department revealed that Hitler’s Germany was nowhere close to developing a nuclear bomb of its own and that the Germans were on the verge of defeat.
By this time some of the scientists involved in the project had begun to have second thoughts about the wisdom of actually using nuclear weapons. They had come to realize their awesome power and the possible implications for a future world. A number of Manhattan scientists signed a letter expressing their opposition to continuing development of the bomb because it was no longer needed to defeat Germany.
In reality, the bomb was never intended for use against Germany except, perhaps, during the first year or so of research. The Military Policy Committee, a high-level group—including Leslie Groves—that was set up to determine how best to use nuclear weapons, decided as early as May 5, 1943, that the proper target for such an awesome weapon was Japan. This decision was made more than two years before the first test of the new weapons. One possibility was the massive supply base at Truk, from which Japanese military operations in the Southwest Pacific were supplied. According to minutes of the May meeting, the Japanese were selected to be the recipients of the bomb because they “were less likely to secure knowledge from it as the Germans,” possibly in the event of a dud. | <urn:uuid:09576b0a-a1c6-4634-bb51-6de4965b8d5f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://nationalinterest.org/blog/the-buzz/the-ultimate-weapon-or-the-ultimate-mistake-should-america-22218 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00342.warc.gz | en | 0.983172 | 1,877 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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... | 2 | The most controversial decision of the 20th century—probably in all of history—was the one reportedly made by President Harry S. Truman, president of the United States and commander-in-chief of the United States armed forces, in the summer of 1945 to drop the atomic bomb on Japan. No other event has affected mankind so dramatically, and no other decision is as controversial.
To the young soldiers and Marines who were in training or moving to the Pacific when “the bomb” was dropped there was no question—many of them survived the war because Harry Truman “had the guts to drop it.” This belief was burned into their young minds when they heard the news and most never bothered to question whether it was founded on fact. In recent years their sons have sought to reinforce the belief of their fathers, once again without taking a serious look at the facts surrounding the decision to drop the bomb and the events leading up to it. Yet, in reality, Truman never made an actual decision to use the bomb, and it was the one decision made by Emperor Hirohito of Japan to accept Allied surrender terms and end the war that actually spared their lives.
Even while millions of Americans continue to believe that the atomic bomb ended World War II, many, including some in high positions in government and the military at the time, have long believed it was unnecessary. Previously classified documents released to the National Archives in recent years support their position that the White House knew the end for Japan had already come and that the use of atomic weapons was motivated more by postwar concerns than by preventing an amphibious invasion of Japan. Furthermore, principals such as General Leslie Groves, the officer in charge of the nuclear project, have revealed that there never really was a “decision” as such by President Truman to drop the bomb, but that he simply allowed plans that were already in motion before he was thrust into office to continue. In essence, the decision to use atomic weapons against Japan was made long before Truman even had an inkling of their existence.
Building the Bomb
American research into the possibility of creating powerful weapons using nuclear fission actually predated the outbreak of World War II by several weeks. In July 1939, three European scientists met with renowned physicist Albert Einstein and persuaded him to write a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt advising that a bomb designed to produce a nuclear explosion might be under development in Germany. Einstein’s letter is dated August 2, 1939, nearly a month before Germany and the Soviet Union invaded Poland and World War II officially began. British scientists were already working on such a weapon, and the United States began a similar, although generally unsuccessful, effort in response to the Einstein letter.ƒ
In 1941, a group of American scientists visited England, where considerable nuclear research work was being done. Prior to the visit, no American scientist believed that nuclear fission would be of critical importance to the war, but the British work so impressed the visitors that in December they recommended that a full-scale nuclear project commence in the United States. President Roosevelt authorized a research program under the code name Manhattan Engineering Project, and British nuclear experts came to the United States to work with their American counterparts in research toward the development of a nuclear weapon.
In September 1942, the War Department assumed control of the project and Colonel Leslie R. Groves of the Army Corps of Engineers, who had previously been in charge of the construction of the Pentagon, was appointed as the project head. On December 2, 1942, Dr. Enrico Fermi, an Italian-born physicist working at the University of Chicago, achieved fission, the first controlled release of nuclear energy. Fermi’s successful experiment proved that it was indeed possible to develop a nuclear weapon and ushered the world into the nuclear age. The next step was to develop a means of maintaining the nuclear material in an inert state until the desired detonation point.
Manhattan Project scientists solved the problem by dividing nuclear material into two masses, then firing one into the other to achieve an explosion. Another method was to place the nuclear material between two masses of conventional explosives. The shock waves of their detonation would cause the plutonium to collapse and then expand again in a powerful explosion. The first method was used for the bomb dropped on Hiroshima, while the second was the mechanism for the first nuclear detonation at the Trinity site in New Mexico and in the bomb dropped on Nagasaki. The nuclear secret was so classified that President Roosevelt did not even inform his vice presidents of it. (Truman was the third of three vice presidents who served with Roosevelt. Truman was not elected until November 1944 and did not take the vice-presidential office until the following January, only a few weeks before FDR’s death.)
Finding a Suitable Delivery Vehicle
For any weapon to be effective it has to be delivered onto a target, and in the case of a nuclear weapon it has to be detonated in the air to achieve maximum effect. At the time, guided missiles did not exist and the artillery of the day lacked the range to deliver a nuclear warhead. The only option was delivery from the air in the form of an aerial bomb. In 1943, the only suitable delivery vehicle in the U.S. inventory was the Boeing B-29 Superfortress, a large, long-range, four-engine bomber that was under development at the same time as the bomb itself. Originally conceived in 1940, the B-29 had been planned for extremely long-range strategic bombing missions against Germany from bases in North Africa and the northern British Isles. The B-29 program was plagued with birthing problems, but planning for a special combat unit to deliver the new weapons when they were developed began even before the first Superfortress entered operational service.
To command the new unit, which would be designated as the 509th Composite Group, Army Air Forces commander General Henry H. Arnold selected Colonel Paul W. Tibbets, Jr., a veteran bomber pilot from Columbus, Ohio, who had seen combat in Europe and North Africa but who had no experience against the Japanese. Lt. Col. Thomas J. Classen, a Pacific veteran who had been awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for a 1943 mission in a B-17 Flying Fortress bomber, was selected as his deputy. Classen was already in command of the 393rd Bombardment Squadron, the operational unit that would actually drop the nuclear device.
Tibbets picked most of his staff officers from members of his former group, while others were chosen because they had special qualifications that made them particularly useful. Only Tibbets himself was privy to the nuclear secret. The other members of the group knew only that when they went into combat, it would be to drop a special kind of bomb. They came to refer to the weapon they knew nothing about as “the gimmick.” Tibbets was in complete charge of organizing and staffing his new unit and with selecting the training base. He chose Wendover Field, a remote base in the Utah desert that had previously been used to train aerial gunners. Wendover’s remoteness was a major factor in Tibbets’s choice—he thought it would enhance security. The 393rd Bombardment Squadron, a B-29 squadron then in training at Fairmount, Nebraska, would be the combat element of his new command. The 509th Composite Group was activated in September 1944, and by the end of December the men of the 393rd had completed their training and were ready for combat. The question was—where?
1943: Japan Confirmed as the Target
Traditional atomic bomb lore records that the Manhattan Project was originally begun with the intent of using the weapon against Nazi Germany. Apparently, this is what the scientists working on the project, many of whom were Jews who had fled Europe, were led to believe. In January 1945, the War Department revealed that Hitler’s Germany was nowhere close to developing a nuclear bomb of its own and that the Germans were on the verge of defeat.
By this time some of the scientists involved in the project had begun to have second thoughts about the wisdom of actually using nuclear weapons. They had come to realize their awesome power and the possible implications for a future world. A number of Manhattan scientists signed a letter expressing their opposition to continuing development of the bomb because it was no longer needed to defeat Germany.
In reality, the bomb was never intended for use against Germany except, perhaps, during the first year or so of research. The Military Policy Committee, a high-level group—including Leslie Groves—that was set up to determine how best to use nuclear weapons, decided as early as May 5, 1943, that the proper target for such an awesome weapon was Japan. This decision was made more than two years before the first test of the new weapons. One possibility was the massive supply base at Truk, from which Japanese military operations in the Southwest Pacific were supplied. According to minutes of the May meeting, the Japanese were selected to be the recipients of the bomb because they “were less likely to secure knowledge from it as the Germans,” possibly in the event of a dud. | 1,902 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The fourth chapter of John Wear’s book, The evidence is overwhelming that it was Roosevelt and Churchill who were determined to have war with Germany and not Germany who wanted war with the Anglo-Saxons. is now posted.
Hitler made many peace overtures to the British government both before and after he conquered France and drove the British out of Europe.On August 14, 1940, during the Battle of Britain, Hitler called his field marshalls into the Chancellery and told them that victory over Britain must not lead to the collapse of the British Empire. Hitler told them that “Germay is not striving to smash Britain because the beneficiaries will not be Germany, but Japan in the east, Russia in India, Italy in the Mediterranean, and America in world trade. This is why peace is possible with Britain—but not so long as Churchill is prime minister. Thus we must see what the Luftwaffe can do, and wait a possible general election.”
It was Churchill’s determination to keep the war going that destroyed the British Empire.
I have reread Viktor Suvorov’s book, , published by the U.S. Naval Institute Press in 2008. Suvorov believes that Stalin is responsible for WWII by encouraging, even luring, Hitler into moves that would put Germany at war with Britain and France. Stalin had long planned to take advantage of Europe at war when his massive and fresh armies would dominate the field.
In June, 1941, both Hitler and Stalin had assembled on their border large armies for invasion.Stalin’s army was many times larger and much better armed than Hitler’s which Suvorov reports had resources for only two months of war.Stalin knew that German forces were assembled on the border.Stalin had excellent intelligence, and it was the excellence of his intelligence that resulted in the Soviet army being caught off guard.Stalin knew that Hitler had assembled troops but lacked the material resources that he needed to support an invasion of Russia.He assumed that Hitler and his generals were rational and would not attack until they were properly prepared.
In contrast to Hitler, Stalin had all the resources needed to overrun Germany and all of Europe in a real blitzkrieg.Stalin had militarized the economy.Hitler had not.Stalin had prepared the Soviet Army, Navy, and Air force only for offensive operations. The army had not been trained how to retreat. The high speed Soviet tanks were designed for the roads of Western Europe, not for use in the mud, snow, and ice of Russia.Everything Suvorov has uncovered about the Soviet armed forces proves it was assembled for an invasion of Western Europe, which if the Soviets had struck first would have been successful.
The forward positions of the German and Soviet armies made them vulnerable to whoever struck first. As the Germans were not prepared, Stalin was convinced the initiative would be his.In forward position, there are no defense positions.All the ammunition and weapons are on the border. There is no time to move anything or to fall back.
Suvorov believes that Hitler knew Stalin was about to attack and struck first.In contrast David Irving reports that Hitler said that if he had known of the size of the Soviet army, the superiority of its weapon systems, and the Soviet ability to turn out far more and better tanks, cannon, and aircraft than Germany, he would not have attacked.
My conclusion at this time is that Suvorov is correct that Stalin was on the verge of invading Western Europe which required only the defeat of Germany, whose armed forces were greatly outclassed by those of Stalin.By striking first Hitler captured the vast stockpiles of offensive weapons and entire Soviet armies prepared for offensive, not defensive war, and thereby prevented the Soviet conquest and occupation of Western Europe from which no Normandy invasion could possibly have dislodged them.
Hitler attacked unprepared because he believed the war would only last 3 months, which gave him two months to come up with the resources for the third month.I don’t see the evidence that Hitler knew he was about to be attacked.And it is certain that the British and Americans had no inkling of Stalin’s plan to conquer Western Europe.
It is a paradox that it is the demonized Hitler who saved Western Europe from communism, and it is ironic that the British and Americans were so incompetent that they were focused on the German non-threat and not on the Soviet threat.
It seems clear enough that both Wear and Suvorov are correct. World War II was caused by Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin, not by Hitler. | <urn:uuid:6b424db5-2df2-4699-ad5c-faff5d78f778> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://crushlimbraw.blogspot.com/2020/01/rescuing-history-of-world-war-ii-wear.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00430.warc.gz | en | 0.983932 | 943 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.48602920770... | 3 | The fourth chapter of John Wear’s book, The evidence is overwhelming that it was Roosevelt and Churchill who were determined to have war with Germany and not Germany who wanted war with the Anglo-Saxons. is now posted.
Hitler made many peace overtures to the British government both before and after he conquered France and drove the British out of Europe.On August 14, 1940, during the Battle of Britain, Hitler called his field marshalls into the Chancellery and told them that victory over Britain must not lead to the collapse of the British Empire. Hitler told them that “Germay is not striving to smash Britain because the beneficiaries will not be Germany, but Japan in the east, Russia in India, Italy in the Mediterranean, and America in world trade. This is why peace is possible with Britain—but not so long as Churchill is prime minister. Thus we must see what the Luftwaffe can do, and wait a possible general election.”
It was Churchill’s determination to keep the war going that destroyed the British Empire.
I have reread Viktor Suvorov’s book, , published by the U.S. Naval Institute Press in 2008. Suvorov believes that Stalin is responsible for WWII by encouraging, even luring, Hitler into moves that would put Germany at war with Britain and France. Stalin had long planned to take advantage of Europe at war when his massive and fresh armies would dominate the field.
In June, 1941, both Hitler and Stalin had assembled on their border large armies for invasion.Stalin’s army was many times larger and much better armed than Hitler’s which Suvorov reports had resources for only two months of war.Stalin knew that German forces were assembled on the border.Stalin had excellent intelligence, and it was the excellence of his intelligence that resulted in the Soviet army being caught off guard.Stalin knew that Hitler had assembled troops but lacked the material resources that he needed to support an invasion of Russia.He assumed that Hitler and his generals were rational and would not attack until they were properly prepared.
In contrast to Hitler, Stalin had all the resources needed to overrun Germany and all of Europe in a real blitzkrieg.Stalin had militarized the economy.Hitler had not.Stalin had prepared the Soviet Army, Navy, and Air force only for offensive operations. The army had not been trained how to retreat. The high speed Soviet tanks were designed for the roads of Western Europe, not for use in the mud, snow, and ice of Russia.Everything Suvorov has uncovered about the Soviet armed forces proves it was assembled for an invasion of Western Europe, which if the Soviets had struck first would have been successful.
The forward positions of the German and Soviet armies made them vulnerable to whoever struck first. As the Germans were not prepared, Stalin was convinced the initiative would be his.In forward position, there are no defense positions.All the ammunition and weapons are on the border. There is no time to move anything or to fall back.
Suvorov believes that Hitler knew Stalin was about to attack and struck first.In contrast David Irving reports that Hitler said that if he had known of the size of the Soviet army, the superiority of its weapon systems, and the Soviet ability to turn out far more and better tanks, cannon, and aircraft than Germany, he would not have attacked.
My conclusion at this time is that Suvorov is correct that Stalin was on the verge of invading Western Europe which required only the defeat of Germany, whose armed forces were greatly outclassed by those of Stalin.By striking first Hitler captured the vast stockpiles of offensive weapons and entire Soviet armies prepared for offensive, not defensive war, and thereby prevented the Soviet conquest and occupation of Western Europe from which no Normandy invasion could possibly have dislodged them.
Hitler attacked unprepared because he believed the war would only last 3 months, which gave him two months to come up with the resources for the third month.I don’t see the evidence that Hitler knew he was about to be attacked.And it is certain that the British and Americans had no inkling of Stalin’s plan to conquer Western Europe.
It is a paradox that it is the demonized Hitler who saved Western Europe from communism, and it is ironic that the British and Americans were so incompetent that they were focused on the German non-threat and not on the Soviet threat.
It seems clear enough that both Wear and Suvorov are correct. World War II was caused by Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin, not by Hitler. | 922 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Mamluks were a corps of slaves which went from being the elite bodyguards of the Ayyubid Caliphate founded by Saladin, to running Egypt for themselves. It lasted as an independent state for over 250 years, from 1250 to 1517 when Egypt was conquered by the Ottoman Empire. But the Mamluks survived.
By the 1630s, a Mamluk emir managed to become de facto ruler of the country. By the 1700s, the importance of the pasha (Ottoman governor) was superseded by that of the Mamluk beys, and it was even made official. Two offices, those of Shaykh al-Balad and Amir al-hajj -- both offices held by Mamluks -- represented the rulers of Egypt. In the name of the Ottoman Sultan, of course. It was only with the invasion of Egypt by Napoleon in 1799 that the Mamluk power center was permanently ended.
The Tiwanaku state dominated the Andean highlands for centuries yet we know very little about them. What we do know comes from their archaeological remains. They appear to have developed in the Lake Titicaca region, and at their peak, they may have only numbered 10,000 to 20,000 people. Recent underwater excavations near the lake's Island of the Sun reveal ritual offerings made by the Tiwanaku centuries before the Island of the Sun was converted into a major Incan pilgrimage site. The finds include puma-shaped incense burners with fragments of charcoal present on the excavated deposits, and a number of gold, shell, and stone ornaments. They date from the 700s to the 900s CE. And they were, intriguingly, found near anchors -- like the offerings had been deliberately weighed to drift the bottom of the lake.
A snapshot of the world of Islam in 1400s. The newest Mongol state, the turkic-mongol Timurid Empire, was at the height of its power, while the last Islamic state was clinging to the Iberian Peninsula. The Kilwa Sultanate was at its peak, controlling much of the trade along the Swahili coast of Africa. Meanwhile India had broken up once again into a series of small kingdoms; the Muslim Mughal Empire was not for another 125 years.
When Michelangelo’s David was unveiled in 1504 in Florence, it was seen to symbolize the civil liberties of the Republic of Florence, which were threatened by the surrounding city-states and the powerful Medici family who wanted to rule. The republican government had only been in place since 1494. The republic's concerns were well-founded: Giovanni de' Medici re-conquered the republic in 1512 and restored Medici rule. The second Florentine duke, Duke Cosimo I de' Medici decided to commission Cellini’s Perseus With the Head of Medusa, which was unveiled exactly 50 years after David in 1554. Composed of bronze, Perseus was deliberately placed opposite the David. Medusa’s gaze appeared to have turned David to stone.
There is no known portrait or depiction of Christopher Columbus that was made while he was alive. So all those statues and images you've seen are based on artists' ideas of what he could have looked like.
The first nautical circumnavigation was by the Magellan-Elcano expedition, which sailed from Seville, Spain in 1519 and returned in 1522. The first successful aerial circumnavigation was completed by aviators of the U.S. Army Air Service in four Douglas World Cruiser biplanes in 1924.
Thanks to /u/NewSwaraelia for the map!
Although Machu Picchu was home to hundreds of people, the only residence with a private toilet area was the emperor’s.
The Ottomans generally used two different terms when referring to their state, versus the territory the state ruled over. The state was called "Devlet-i Aliye-i Osmaniye" which literally translates to "the High Ottoman State." Side note: "Osman" was the founder of the Ottoman dynasty, and the English word "Ottoman" comes from his name which was sometimes translated as "Othman." The Ottomans called their territory "Memalik-i Mahruse," or "The Protected Lands." The two terms are sometimes more poetically translated to "the Sublime Ottoman State" or "the Sublime State" and "the Well-Protected Domains."
Great Zimbabwe was a massive stone city in southeastern Africa that was a thriving trade center from the 1000s and 1400s. But when Europeans first learned of it in the 1500s, they were certain it wasn't African at all. Listen to the podcast all about it, by "Stuff You Missed In History Class." | <urn:uuid:23cc5774-f1c6-4318-8b5e-31e3aaa121cc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://historical-nonfiction.com/?page=2&filter=time_period&value=Medieval | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00407.warc.gz | en | 0.981001 | 1,006 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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0.0698723420500... | 1 | The Mamluks were a corps of slaves which went from being the elite bodyguards of the Ayyubid Caliphate founded by Saladin, to running Egypt for themselves. It lasted as an independent state for over 250 years, from 1250 to 1517 when Egypt was conquered by the Ottoman Empire. But the Mamluks survived.
By the 1630s, a Mamluk emir managed to become de facto ruler of the country. By the 1700s, the importance of the pasha (Ottoman governor) was superseded by that of the Mamluk beys, and it was even made official. Two offices, those of Shaykh al-Balad and Amir al-hajj -- both offices held by Mamluks -- represented the rulers of Egypt. In the name of the Ottoman Sultan, of course. It was only with the invasion of Egypt by Napoleon in 1799 that the Mamluk power center was permanently ended.
The Tiwanaku state dominated the Andean highlands for centuries yet we know very little about them. What we do know comes from their archaeological remains. They appear to have developed in the Lake Titicaca region, and at their peak, they may have only numbered 10,000 to 20,000 people. Recent underwater excavations near the lake's Island of the Sun reveal ritual offerings made by the Tiwanaku centuries before the Island of the Sun was converted into a major Incan pilgrimage site. The finds include puma-shaped incense burners with fragments of charcoal present on the excavated deposits, and a number of gold, shell, and stone ornaments. They date from the 700s to the 900s CE. And they were, intriguingly, found near anchors -- like the offerings had been deliberately weighed to drift the bottom of the lake.
A snapshot of the world of Islam in 1400s. The newest Mongol state, the turkic-mongol Timurid Empire, was at the height of its power, while the last Islamic state was clinging to the Iberian Peninsula. The Kilwa Sultanate was at its peak, controlling much of the trade along the Swahili coast of Africa. Meanwhile India had broken up once again into a series of small kingdoms; the Muslim Mughal Empire was not for another 125 years.
When Michelangelo’s David was unveiled in 1504 in Florence, it was seen to symbolize the civil liberties of the Republic of Florence, which were threatened by the surrounding city-states and the powerful Medici family who wanted to rule. The republican government had only been in place since 1494. The republic's concerns were well-founded: Giovanni de' Medici re-conquered the republic in 1512 and restored Medici rule. The second Florentine duke, Duke Cosimo I de' Medici decided to commission Cellini’s Perseus With the Head of Medusa, which was unveiled exactly 50 years after David in 1554. Composed of bronze, Perseus was deliberately placed opposite the David. Medusa’s gaze appeared to have turned David to stone.
There is no known portrait or depiction of Christopher Columbus that was made while he was alive. So all those statues and images you've seen are based on artists' ideas of what he could have looked like.
The first nautical circumnavigation was by the Magellan-Elcano expedition, which sailed from Seville, Spain in 1519 and returned in 1522. The first successful aerial circumnavigation was completed by aviators of the U.S. Army Air Service in four Douglas World Cruiser biplanes in 1924.
Thanks to /u/NewSwaraelia for the map!
Although Machu Picchu was home to hundreds of people, the only residence with a private toilet area was the emperor’s.
The Ottomans generally used two different terms when referring to their state, versus the territory the state ruled over. The state was called "Devlet-i Aliye-i Osmaniye" which literally translates to "the High Ottoman State." Side note: "Osman" was the founder of the Ottoman dynasty, and the English word "Ottoman" comes from his name which was sometimes translated as "Othman." The Ottomans called their territory "Memalik-i Mahruse," or "The Protected Lands." The two terms are sometimes more poetically translated to "the Sublime Ottoman State" or "the Sublime State" and "the Well-Protected Domains."
Great Zimbabwe was a massive stone city in southeastern Africa that was a thriving trade center from the 1000s and 1400s. But when Europeans first learned of it in the 1500s, they were certain it wasn't African at all. Listen to the podcast all about it, by "Stuff You Missed In History Class." | 1,050 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Asteroid 128 Nemesis was discovered on November 25th 1872 by J C Watson. It’s a C-type asteroid, estimated to be about 188km in diameter, and is one of the slower rotators, with a day of 39 hours. 128 Nemesis is the largest member of the Nemesis (or nemesian) family of asteroids, of which at least 129 have been identified by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey.
Nemesis, as the name might have already suggested to you, was the Greek goddess of retribution. She is generally thought to have been the mother of Helen of Troy and her twin sister Clytemnestra, as well as the more astronomically famous twins Castor and Pollydeuces (a.k.a. Pollux). Obviously, having two sets of twins, while unusual, was nowhere near bizarre enough for the Greeks, so the story goes that Nemesis, attempting to avoid Zeus (as usual) took the form of a goose. Zeus then turned into a swan, resulting of course in an egg from which her children are born.
What were those guys on? | <urn:uuid:f69fd7e4-6e13-48d5-8120-f1fa34052030> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://iagout.wordpress.com/2019/11/25/november-25-0-asteroid-128-nemesis/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00025.warc.gz | en | 0.986288 | 227 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.25251716375350... | 2 | Asteroid 128 Nemesis was discovered on November 25th 1872 by J C Watson. It’s a C-type asteroid, estimated to be about 188km in diameter, and is one of the slower rotators, with a day of 39 hours. 128 Nemesis is the largest member of the Nemesis (or nemesian) family of asteroids, of which at least 129 have been identified by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey.
Nemesis, as the name might have already suggested to you, was the Greek goddess of retribution. She is generally thought to have been the mother of Helen of Troy and her twin sister Clytemnestra, as well as the more astronomically famous twins Castor and Pollydeuces (a.k.a. Pollux). Obviously, having two sets of twins, while unusual, was nowhere near bizarre enough for the Greeks, so the story goes that Nemesis, attempting to avoid Zeus (as usual) took the form of a goose. Zeus then turned into a swan, resulting of course in an egg from which her children are born.
What were those guys on? | 243 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Endometriosis is a common condition that affects an estimated one in 10 females of reproductive age. But because few discuss the symptoms or regard the severe pain and nausea during menstruation as abnormal, many suffer for years before getting treatment.
Now, researchers at BC Women’s Hospital and Health Centre have launched an experimental program to teach high-school students about endometriosis as part of their sexual-health curriculum.
They hope the one-hour sessions, taught to students at New Westminster Secondary School, will help adolescents recognize what’s normal and what’s not during menstruation, and encourage them to seek help if they experience symptoms.
“What we’re trying to advocate is also empowerment of young females in terms of taking charge of their health,” said Catherine Allaire, medical director of the Centre for Pelvic Pain and Endometriosis at BC Women’s.
Endometriosis occurs when endometrial tissue, which normally lines the interior of the uterus, grows outside of the uterus, which can lead to the formation of lesions, cysts and other growths. Symptoms, which may include severe menstrual cramps, nausea, vomiting, irritable bowels and diarrhea, can cause individuals to miss school or work. Pain can also occur outside of menstruation, such as during ovulation or during sex, Allaire said.
But due in part to taboos around talking about menstruation, there is often an eight-year delay between the onset of symptoms and receiving a diagnosis of endometriosis, she said.
“A young female that is having all these symptoms may not know that it's not the norm or may not know what to do about it,” she said, adding that when young women do speak up, their symptoms are often dismissed by family members or even health professionals.
More than 60 per cent of women with endometriosis report encountering at least one health professional who dismissed their symptoms, Allaire said.
The in-class sessions are based on a menstrual health and endometriosis educational program in New Zealand, which has been shown to increase students’ awareness about the condition and potentially lead young women to seek specialized health-care services sooner.
The researchers at BC Women’s have partnered with Options for Sexual Health (Planned Parenthood’s affiliate in B.C.) to deliver the lessons to a total of roughly 100 students, grades 8 to 12, as part of a pilot study. The first group of around 20 Grade 12 students participated in a session last month, and the team aims to have four or five more classes each undergo a session early this year. The study is funded by the Michael Smith Foundation for Health Research.
Kristen Gilbert, education director of Options for Sexual Health who is teaching the sessions, said the classes include students of all genders.
“All of us know people who have periods, even if we don’t [have them],” she said, adding in the first class, all the students were interested and engaged.
One student, in particular, informed her afterward that she would share what she learned with a friend, whose menstrual symptoms included vomiting.
“So it wasn’t just that student in the class who’s going to benefit from that lesson. It’s her whole circle,” Gilbert said.
Teacher Chelsie Goodchild, whose Grade 12 anatomy and physiology class participated in that first session, said her students typically learn about the reproductive system in school, but endometriosis is generally not a topic that is covered.
Goodchild said the session was not only informative for her students, but for her as well. Later, when she discussed the study with her parents, she learned her own mother had endometriosis.
“It was pretty eye-opening,” she said.
Philippa Bridge-Cook, chair of the board of the not-for-profit Endometriosis Network Canada who is not involved in the study, said she was happy to see the program being tested in B.C., and hopes to see it offered across the country.
Had she learned about endometriosis in high school, Bridge-Cook said she likely would have realized much sooner that the pain she experienced during menstruation was abnormal. Even though she began having symptoms at age 13, the first she heard about endometriosis was when she was in her 20s. She was not diagnosed until she was 34. (A surgical procedure called a laparoscopy is needed to receive an accurate diagnosis.)
The pain became so debilitating when she was in her 30s, she was unable to work for about three years. After four surgeries and a combination of strategies, including nutritional changes, pelvic physiotherapy and medications, she is now able to manage her symptoms but still has chronic pain, partly because her endometriosis was untreated for so long.
If the education sessions can help young women seek help sooner, that may prevent them from developing chronic pain syndromes, she said.
“I think if I had gone through the program, not only would I have identified earlier that my symptoms were not normal, I would have felt okay about speaking up about it,” she said.
Our Morning Update and Evening Update newsletters are written by Globe editors, giving you a concise summary of the day’s most important headlines. Sign up today. | <urn:uuid:39d7ae4a-f2ba-4e26-ab6c-209101dceded> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-new-program-aims-to-break-taboo-by-teaching-high-school-students-about/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00121.warc.gz | en | 0.980148 | 1,122 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.03257237747311... | 10 | Endometriosis is a common condition that affects an estimated one in 10 females of reproductive age. But because few discuss the symptoms or regard the severe pain and nausea during menstruation as abnormal, many suffer for years before getting treatment.
Now, researchers at BC Women’s Hospital and Health Centre have launched an experimental program to teach high-school students about endometriosis as part of their sexual-health curriculum.
They hope the one-hour sessions, taught to students at New Westminster Secondary School, will help adolescents recognize what’s normal and what’s not during menstruation, and encourage them to seek help if they experience symptoms.
“What we’re trying to advocate is also empowerment of young females in terms of taking charge of their health,” said Catherine Allaire, medical director of the Centre for Pelvic Pain and Endometriosis at BC Women’s.
Endometriosis occurs when endometrial tissue, which normally lines the interior of the uterus, grows outside of the uterus, which can lead to the formation of lesions, cysts and other growths. Symptoms, which may include severe menstrual cramps, nausea, vomiting, irritable bowels and diarrhea, can cause individuals to miss school or work. Pain can also occur outside of menstruation, such as during ovulation or during sex, Allaire said.
But due in part to taboos around talking about menstruation, there is often an eight-year delay between the onset of symptoms and receiving a diagnosis of endometriosis, she said.
“A young female that is having all these symptoms may not know that it's not the norm or may not know what to do about it,” she said, adding that when young women do speak up, their symptoms are often dismissed by family members or even health professionals.
More than 60 per cent of women with endometriosis report encountering at least one health professional who dismissed their symptoms, Allaire said.
The in-class sessions are based on a menstrual health and endometriosis educational program in New Zealand, which has been shown to increase students’ awareness about the condition and potentially lead young women to seek specialized health-care services sooner.
The researchers at BC Women’s have partnered with Options for Sexual Health (Planned Parenthood’s affiliate in B.C.) to deliver the lessons to a total of roughly 100 students, grades 8 to 12, as part of a pilot study. The first group of around 20 Grade 12 students participated in a session last month, and the team aims to have four or five more classes each undergo a session early this year. The study is funded by the Michael Smith Foundation for Health Research.
Kristen Gilbert, education director of Options for Sexual Health who is teaching the sessions, said the classes include students of all genders.
“All of us know people who have periods, even if we don’t [have them],” she said, adding in the first class, all the students were interested and engaged.
One student, in particular, informed her afterward that she would share what she learned with a friend, whose menstrual symptoms included vomiting.
“So it wasn’t just that student in the class who’s going to benefit from that lesson. It’s her whole circle,” Gilbert said.
Teacher Chelsie Goodchild, whose Grade 12 anatomy and physiology class participated in that first session, said her students typically learn about the reproductive system in school, but endometriosis is generally not a topic that is covered.
Goodchild said the session was not only informative for her students, but for her as well. Later, when she discussed the study with her parents, she learned her own mother had endometriosis.
“It was pretty eye-opening,” she said.
Philippa Bridge-Cook, chair of the board of the not-for-profit Endometriosis Network Canada who is not involved in the study, said she was happy to see the program being tested in B.C., and hopes to see it offered across the country.
Had she learned about endometriosis in high school, Bridge-Cook said she likely would have realized much sooner that the pain she experienced during menstruation was abnormal. Even though she began having symptoms at age 13, the first she heard about endometriosis was when she was in her 20s. She was not diagnosed until she was 34. (A surgical procedure called a laparoscopy is needed to receive an accurate diagnosis.)
The pain became so debilitating when she was in her 30s, she was unable to work for about three years. After four surgeries and a combination of strategies, including nutritional changes, pelvic physiotherapy and medications, she is now able to manage her symptoms but still has chronic pain, partly because her endometriosis was untreated for so long.
If the education sessions can help young women seek help sooner, that may prevent them from developing chronic pain syndromes, she said.
“I think if I had gone through the program, not only would I have identified earlier that my symptoms were not normal, I would have felt okay about speaking up about it,” she said.
Our Morning Update and Evening Update newsletters are written by Globe editors, giving you a concise summary of the day’s most important headlines. Sign up today. | 1,067 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Researchers studying kids shortly after tics appear have discovered that tics don’t go away completely over time; rather, most children simply exhibit tics less when others are watching.
Learning how kids suppress their tics may provide insight to help others at risk for significant tic disorders.
At least 20 percent of elementary school-age children develop tics such as excessive blinking, throat clearing, or sniffing, but for most of those kids, the tics don’t become a long-term problem. Conventional wisdom has held that most tics go away on their own and that only in rare cases do they become chronic or develop into a disorder such as Tourette syndrome.
“We found that tics were still present one year after they first appeared but that many of the kids we studied had figured out how to suppress them,” says principal investigator Kevin J. Black, a professor of psychiatry at Washington University in St. Louis.
“Uncovering just how they are able to control these tics may help other children do the same and perhaps avoid chronic tic disorders such as Tourette syndrome.” Chronic tic disorders affect about 3 percent of the population, he adds.
A year after tics appear
The researchers examined 45 children who had just started experiencing some sort of tic. The kids were ages 5 to 10, with an average age of about 7 and a half.
Thirty of the children were boys—in whom tic disorders are more common—and the other 15 were girls. All of the children were examined within a few months of when their tics first appeared, and a second time 12 months after the tics had started.
“Our expectation, initially, was that maybe one in 10 kids would still have tics at their follow-up exams,” says first author Soyoung Kim, postdoctoral research associate in psychiatry. “Most had improved a year later, but to our surprise in every case, the children still had tics—many of them just controlled them better.”
The researchers verified the presence of tics by leaving each child alone in a room with a video camera. They found it was possible for most children to suppress tics when researchers were watching them during neurological exams. But when left alone, the children exhibited tics, without exception.
“I find tics fascinating because they illustrate the interplay between what is volitional and what is involuntary,” Black says. “People don’t tic on purpose, and most can suppress it for a short period of time, but at some point, it’s going to come out.”
Social cues and suppression
The research team was able to identify several factors that predicted problematic tics at the one-year mark, as well as factors related to the ability to suppress tics.
A history of anxiety disorder was among the predictors of an inability to control or suppress tics, as was having pronounced tics during the kids’ initial exams. Having three or more vocal tics, such as throat clearing or making other noises, also indicated likelihood of evident tics one year later.
In addition, children with higher scores on the Social Responsiveness Scale—a test that measures behaviors on the autism spectrum—also were likely to have continued problems with tics a year after first experiencing them.
“None of these kids had autism, but those who did a little bit worse on that test, who had what we would call sub-syndromal symptoms of autism, were more likely to have trouble with tics one year later,” Black says.
The researchers used a reward system to help determine whether the children could suppress tics. In one study exercise, they rewarded children with a token worth a few pennies for every 10 seconds they could go without having a tic. Those who suppressed their tics most effectively in response to rewards exhibited fewer and less significant problems at their follow-up visits.
“My suspicion is that, over time, these kids may improve in their ability to suppress tics, just from social cues,” Black says. “But perhaps more importantly, early on—when they’ve experienced tics for only a few weeks or months—some children already can suppress them. If we can develop ways to help other children acquire those skills, we might improve quality of life for those who otherwise may go on to develop a chronic tic disorder such as Tourette syndrome.”
Support for these studies came from the National Institute Mental Health, the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, and the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health & Human Development of the National Institutes of Health (NIH). A grant from the National Center for Research Resources also provided support for the work published in Scientific Reports. | <urn:uuid:58ea2220-b8a9-42ca-bdcc-ecdd8bbe8254> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.futurity.org/tics-kids-tic-disorders-2095052/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00163.warc.gz | en | 0.980234 | 1,001 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.3446192741394... | 4 | Researchers studying kids shortly after tics appear have discovered that tics don’t go away completely over time; rather, most children simply exhibit tics less when others are watching.
Learning how kids suppress their tics may provide insight to help others at risk for significant tic disorders.
At least 20 percent of elementary school-age children develop tics such as excessive blinking, throat clearing, or sniffing, but for most of those kids, the tics don’t become a long-term problem. Conventional wisdom has held that most tics go away on their own and that only in rare cases do they become chronic or develop into a disorder such as Tourette syndrome.
“We found that tics were still present one year after they first appeared but that many of the kids we studied had figured out how to suppress them,” says principal investigator Kevin J. Black, a professor of psychiatry at Washington University in St. Louis.
“Uncovering just how they are able to control these tics may help other children do the same and perhaps avoid chronic tic disorders such as Tourette syndrome.” Chronic tic disorders affect about 3 percent of the population, he adds.
A year after tics appear
The researchers examined 45 children who had just started experiencing some sort of tic. The kids were ages 5 to 10, with an average age of about 7 and a half.
Thirty of the children were boys—in whom tic disorders are more common—and the other 15 were girls. All of the children were examined within a few months of when their tics first appeared, and a second time 12 months after the tics had started.
“Our expectation, initially, was that maybe one in 10 kids would still have tics at their follow-up exams,” says first author Soyoung Kim, postdoctoral research associate in psychiatry. “Most had improved a year later, but to our surprise in every case, the children still had tics—many of them just controlled them better.”
The researchers verified the presence of tics by leaving each child alone in a room with a video camera. They found it was possible for most children to suppress tics when researchers were watching them during neurological exams. But when left alone, the children exhibited tics, without exception.
“I find tics fascinating because they illustrate the interplay between what is volitional and what is involuntary,” Black says. “People don’t tic on purpose, and most can suppress it for a short period of time, but at some point, it’s going to come out.”
Social cues and suppression
The research team was able to identify several factors that predicted problematic tics at the one-year mark, as well as factors related to the ability to suppress tics.
A history of anxiety disorder was among the predictors of an inability to control or suppress tics, as was having pronounced tics during the kids’ initial exams. Having three or more vocal tics, such as throat clearing or making other noises, also indicated likelihood of evident tics one year later.
In addition, children with higher scores on the Social Responsiveness Scale—a test that measures behaviors on the autism spectrum—also were likely to have continued problems with tics a year after first experiencing them.
“None of these kids had autism, but those who did a little bit worse on that test, who had what we would call sub-syndromal symptoms of autism, were more likely to have trouble with tics one year later,” Black says.
The researchers used a reward system to help determine whether the children could suppress tics. In one study exercise, they rewarded children with a token worth a few pennies for every 10 seconds they could go without having a tic. Those who suppressed their tics most effectively in response to rewards exhibited fewer and less significant problems at their follow-up visits.
“My suspicion is that, over time, these kids may improve in their ability to suppress tics, just from social cues,” Black says. “But perhaps more importantly, early on—when they’ve experienced tics for only a few weeks or months—some children already can suppress them. If we can develop ways to help other children acquire those skills, we might improve quality of life for those who otherwise may go on to develop a chronic tic disorder such as Tourette syndrome.”
Support for these studies came from the National Institute Mental Health, the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, and the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health & Human Development of the National Institutes of Health (NIH). A grant from the National Center for Research Resources also provided support for the work published in Scientific Reports. | 943 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The history of April Fool's Day or All Fool's Day is uncertain, but the current thinking is that it began around 1582 in France with the reform of the calendar under Charles IX. The Gregorian Calendar was introduced, and New Year's Day was moved from March 25 - April 1 (new year's week) to January 1.
Communication traveled slowly in those days and some people were only informed of the change several years later. Still others, who were more rebellious refused to acknowledge the change and continued to celebrate on the last day of the former celebration, April 1. These people were labeled "fools" by the general populace, were subject to ridicule and sent on "fool errands," sent invitations to nonexistent parties and had other practical jokes played upon them. The butts of these pranks became known as a "poisson d'avril" or "April fish" because a young naive fish is easily caught. In addition, one common practice was to hook a paper fish on the back of someone as a joke.
This harassment evolved over time and a custom of prank-playing continue on the first day of April. This tradition eventually spread elsewhere like to Britain and Scotland in the 18th century and was introduced to the American colonies by the English and the French. Because of this spread to other countries, April Fool's Day has taken on an international flavor with each country celebrating the holiday in its own way.
In Scotland, for instance, April Fool's Day is devoted to spoofs involving the buttocks and as such is called Taily Day. The butts of these jokes are known as April 'Gowk', another name for cuckoo bird. The origins of the "Kick Me" sign can be traced back to the Scottish observance.
In England, jokes are played only in the morning. Fools are called 'gobs' or 'gobby' and the victim of a joke is called a 'noodle.' It was considered back luck to play a practical joke on someone after noon.
In Rome, the holiday is known as Festival of Hilaria, celebrating the resurrection of the god Attis, is on March 25 and is also referred to as "Roman Laughing Day."
In Portugal, April Fool's Day falls on the Sunday and Monday before lent. In this celebration, many people throw flour at their friends.
The Huli Festival is celebrated on March 31 in India. People play jokes on one another and smear colors on one another celebrating the arrival of Spring.
So, no matter where you happen to be in the world on April 1, don't be surprised if April fools fall playfully upon you.
(I swapped all of my co-worker's desktop picture frames & her mouse to opposite sides of her desk... it momentarily threw her off guard in the confusion when she first arrived to work... hehe Nothing big... but JUST enough to start her day off...) | <urn:uuid:34582d6b-2e6b-41bd-a539-715dc8cea130> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://purekitte.livejournal.com/56453.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00232.warc.gz | en | 0.981693 | 597 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.070815585... | 2 | The history of April Fool's Day or All Fool's Day is uncertain, but the current thinking is that it began around 1582 in France with the reform of the calendar under Charles IX. The Gregorian Calendar was introduced, and New Year's Day was moved from March 25 - April 1 (new year's week) to January 1.
Communication traveled slowly in those days and some people were only informed of the change several years later. Still others, who were more rebellious refused to acknowledge the change and continued to celebrate on the last day of the former celebration, April 1. These people were labeled "fools" by the general populace, were subject to ridicule and sent on "fool errands," sent invitations to nonexistent parties and had other practical jokes played upon them. The butts of these pranks became known as a "poisson d'avril" or "April fish" because a young naive fish is easily caught. In addition, one common practice was to hook a paper fish on the back of someone as a joke.
This harassment evolved over time and a custom of prank-playing continue on the first day of April. This tradition eventually spread elsewhere like to Britain and Scotland in the 18th century and was introduced to the American colonies by the English and the French. Because of this spread to other countries, April Fool's Day has taken on an international flavor with each country celebrating the holiday in its own way.
In Scotland, for instance, April Fool's Day is devoted to spoofs involving the buttocks and as such is called Taily Day. The butts of these jokes are known as April 'Gowk', another name for cuckoo bird. The origins of the "Kick Me" sign can be traced back to the Scottish observance.
In England, jokes are played only in the morning. Fools are called 'gobs' or 'gobby' and the victim of a joke is called a 'noodle.' It was considered back luck to play a practical joke on someone after noon.
In Rome, the holiday is known as Festival of Hilaria, celebrating the resurrection of the god Attis, is on March 25 and is also referred to as "Roman Laughing Day."
In Portugal, April Fool's Day falls on the Sunday and Monday before lent. In this celebration, many people throw flour at their friends.
The Huli Festival is celebrated on March 31 in India. People play jokes on one another and smear colors on one another celebrating the arrival of Spring.
So, no matter where you happen to be in the world on April 1, don't be surprised if April fools fall playfully upon you.
(I swapped all of my co-worker's desktop picture frames & her mouse to opposite sides of her desk... it momentarily threw her off guard in the confusion when she first arrived to work... hehe Nothing big... but JUST enough to start her day off...) | 599 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Baseball had previously played for the Boston Red
Baseball in the 1920´s was filled with superlative players, managers, and teams with game-altering changes in strategy, equipment, and ballparks. In 1920 George Herman (Babe Ruth) made his debut as a New York Yankee. Babe Ruth had previously played for the Boston Red Sox. Rules were imposed, forbidding pitchers to improve their odds with the batter by scuffing or adding foreign substances to balls. They made these changes to help batters hit home runs. The 1920´s provided an extraordinary gathering of legendary players such as the Yankees Babe Ruth, The Detroit Tigers Ty Cobb, And the Cleveland Indians Tris Speaker. Massive sports stadiums were built such as the Yankee Stadium and Madison Square Garden. The Baseball’s World Series was broadcast on radio for the first time in October 1921. Americans listened to the thrilling radio commentary as the New York Giants defeated the New York Yankees. Babe Ruth was a Baseball sports star who became a national hero, famous for hitting hundreds of home runs. In 1920 Babe Ruth hit over 54 home runs and in 1927 he hit 60. Babe Ruth won the World Series on seven different occasions. His real name was George Herman Ruth he was nicknamed “Babe” when he was under contract to Jack Dunn and a sportswriter referred to him as one of “Dunn’s babes.” Babe Ruth became a multi-millionaire earning over $2,000,000 during his career. The most popular sports in the 1920’s were boxing, baseball, basketball and football but other sports also attracted vast interest such as ice hockey, tennis, athletics, golf and swimming, especially when sports stars achieved worldwide success.The vast majority of College students in the 1920’s were men and its history dated back to 1859. The first Sporting favorites in college included baseball and football. The range soon extended to include athletics, gymnastics and basketball. Spectators and gate receipts became a regular part of college games. The number of women attending college rose to just about 10 percent of the population by the end of the 1920’s. Physical Education was a feature of college life for women. This did not include competitive games or those requiring any form of physical contact. Women participated in more ‘genteel’ sporting activities such as bowling, golf, boating, ice skating, tennis, archery, swimming, and horseback riding. Boxing and baseball were the first professional sports. Professional football began during the 1920s. Tennis, Golf and Polo were considered more as elitist sports for the wealthy due to the ‘country club’ background of golf, polo and tennis and as a result were dominated by wealthy white players. | <urn:uuid:30999d22-43ed-4bd7-986a-f1dda30df648> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://farmersfeastmanitoba.com/baseball-had-previously-played-for-the-boston-red/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00350.warc.gz | en | 0.984228 | 564 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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-0.0715229362... | 2 | Baseball had previously played for the Boston Red
Baseball in the 1920´s was filled with superlative players, managers, and teams with game-altering changes in strategy, equipment, and ballparks. In 1920 George Herman (Babe Ruth) made his debut as a New York Yankee. Babe Ruth had previously played for the Boston Red Sox. Rules were imposed, forbidding pitchers to improve their odds with the batter by scuffing or adding foreign substances to balls. They made these changes to help batters hit home runs. The 1920´s provided an extraordinary gathering of legendary players such as the Yankees Babe Ruth, The Detroit Tigers Ty Cobb, And the Cleveland Indians Tris Speaker. Massive sports stadiums were built such as the Yankee Stadium and Madison Square Garden. The Baseball’s World Series was broadcast on radio for the first time in October 1921. Americans listened to the thrilling radio commentary as the New York Giants defeated the New York Yankees. Babe Ruth was a Baseball sports star who became a national hero, famous for hitting hundreds of home runs. In 1920 Babe Ruth hit over 54 home runs and in 1927 he hit 60. Babe Ruth won the World Series on seven different occasions. His real name was George Herman Ruth he was nicknamed “Babe” when he was under contract to Jack Dunn and a sportswriter referred to him as one of “Dunn’s babes.” Babe Ruth became a multi-millionaire earning over $2,000,000 during his career. The most popular sports in the 1920’s were boxing, baseball, basketball and football but other sports also attracted vast interest such as ice hockey, tennis, athletics, golf and swimming, especially when sports stars achieved worldwide success.The vast majority of College students in the 1920’s were men and its history dated back to 1859. The first Sporting favorites in college included baseball and football. The range soon extended to include athletics, gymnastics and basketball. Spectators and gate receipts became a regular part of college games. The number of women attending college rose to just about 10 percent of the population by the end of the 1920’s. Physical Education was a feature of college life for women. This did not include competitive games or those requiring any form of physical contact. Women participated in more ‘genteel’ sporting activities such as bowling, golf, boating, ice skating, tennis, archery, swimming, and horseback riding. Boxing and baseball were the first professional sports. Professional football began during the 1920s. Tennis, Golf and Polo were considered more as elitist sports for the wealthy due to the ‘country club’ background of golf, polo and tennis and as a result were dominated by wealthy white players. | 591 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Johnson County Tennessee in the Civil War
In 1861 the Civil War began and Johnson County was in tumult as was the rest of the nation. East Tennessee was historically a primarily Republican area and most men here sided with the Union. The vote in Johnson County was 787 to 111 against secession. Many families split and neighbors became enemies over this issue. Johnson County sent a company to unite with the 13th Tennessee Volunteer Cavalry which fought for the Union. The Confederate army had sent troops into East Tennessee to control the people. The loyal Union men were forced to slip by these Confederate troops into Kentucky to join the Union army. Although there were no major battles fought in Johnson County, there were conflicts which resulted in some fighting. After the war was over many men were able to return home and settle their differences with their neighbors. This was true with the Coffey Brothers in the Smith's Mill area. However, other men were unable to reestablish their businesses. Major Joseph Wagner owned a hardware store and was a wealthy citizen. After he voted Republican his store was boycotted. Wagner left Johnson County after the war and left his home behind.
The first newspaper written in Johnson County was the Taylorsville Reporter. It was established in 1874 by W.J. Keys. Later the paper was renamed The Tomahawk.
In 1885 the town Taylorsville was renamed Mountain City. This change took place when Roderick Random Butler who served in the 13th Tennessee Cavalry convinced the people of the town to change the name. The new name came not only from its location at the foothills of the Appalachian Mountains, but also because it was in one of the highest valleys in Tennessee.
Smith's Mill was also renamed Butler in honor of Roderick Random Butler.
In 1900 the railroad finally came to Johnson County. The ETWNC (Tweetsie) Railroad which served as a shipper from Butler to Hampton had been the closest railroad before this. The V&SW Railroad originally planned mainly to carry iron ore out of upper East Tennessee became a major means to transport farm and timber products. Several logging operations came to the area creating a thriving railroad related business.
In 1907 the Pea Vine Railroad traveled through Laurel on its way from Damascus to Mountain City. This railroad also ran to Forge Creek.
In just a few years a large portion of Johnson County had been over logged. At this time many private land owners began selling their land to the United States government to form the Cherokee National Forest. Other land owners turned to agriculture to make a living. The railroad was being used less and less. After flooding destroyed large portions of the railroad track in 1940 the track was not replaced and the railroad no longer traveled through the county.
From 1935 to 1950 Johnson County was a leading producer of green beans. In the early 1950’s it was called the “Bean Capital of the World”. Mechanical pickers ended the success of the crop in Johnson County. Mechanical pickers were cheaper than hand picking so farmers stopped raising bean crops. Today the largest agricultural product is our county is tobacco.
Since 1966 many industries have moved into and out of Johnson County. Today approximately 2300 people are employed by various industries in the county.
In 1992 Johnson County had a population of 15,209 and Mountain City's population was 2,252. The population per square mile in 1992 was 51.
reprinted by permission from Mountain City Elementary website | <urn:uuid:eedddb33-2b96-4011-a96d-2b8a220631c4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.jctcuzins.org/johnson-county-civil-war | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00080.warc.gz | en | 0.986774 | 700 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.249913215637... | 14 | Johnson County Tennessee in the Civil War
In 1861 the Civil War began and Johnson County was in tumult as was the rest of the nation. East Tennessee was historically a primarily Republican area and most men here sided with the Union. The vote in Johnson County was 787 to 111 against secession. Many families split and neighbors became enemies over this issue. Johnson County sent a company to unite with the 13th Tennessee Volunteer Cavalry which fought for the Union. The Confederate army had sent troops into East Tennessee to control the people. The loyal Union men were forced to slip by these Confederate troops into Kentucky to join the Union army. Although there were no major battles fought in Johnson County, there were conflicts which resulted in some fighting. After the war was over many men were able to return home and settle their differences with their neighbors. This was true with the Coffey Brothers in the Smith's Mill area. However, other men were unable to reestablish their businesses. Major Joseph Wagner owned a hardware store and was a wealthy citizen. After he voted Republican his store was boycotted. Wagner left Johnson County after the war and left his home behind.
The first newspaper written in Johnson County was the Taylorsville Reporter. It was established in 1874 by W.J. Keys. Later the paper was renamed The Tomahawk.
In 1885 the town Taylorsville was renamed Mountain City. This change took place when Roderick Random Butler who served in the 13th Tennessee Cavalry convinced the people of the town to change the name. The new name came not only from its location at the foothills of the Appalachian Mountains, but also because it was in one of the highest valleys in Tennessee.
Smith's Mill was also renamed Butler in honor of Roderick Random Butler.
In 1900 the railroad finally came to Johnson County. The ETWNC (Tweetsie) Railroad which served as a shipper from Butler to Hampton had been the closest railroad before this. The V&SW Railroad originally planned mainly to carry iron ore out of upper East Tennessee became a major means to transport farm and timber products. Several logging operations came to the area creating a thriving railroad related business.
In 1907 the Pea Vine Railroad traveled through Laurel on its way from Damascus to Mountain City. This railroad also ran to Forge Creek.
In just a few years a large portion of Johnson County had been over logged. At this time many private land owners began selling their land to the United States government to form the Cherokee National Forest. Other land owners turned to agriculture to make a living. The railroad was being used less and less. After flooding destroyed large portions of the railroad track in 1940 the track was not replaced and the railroad no longer traveled through the county.
From 1935 to 1950 Johnson County was a leading producer of green beans. In the early 1950’s it was called the “Bean Capital of the World”. Mechanical pickers ended the success of the crop in Johnson County. Mechanical pickers were cheaper than hand picking so farmers stopped raising bean crops. Today the largest agricultural product is our county is tobacco.
Since 1966 many industries have moved into and out of Johnson County. Today approximately 2300 people are employed by various industries in the county.
In 1992 Johnson County had a population of 15,209 and Mountain City's population was 2,252. The population per square mile in 1992 was 51.
reprinted by permission from Mountain City Elementary website | 752 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Today is the 63rd death anniversary of B.R. Ambedkar. Here are the few facts about him
B. R. Ambedkar was a wizard in law making and a social reformer who worked his life for the untouchables to get equal rights.
Ambedkar’s actual name was Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar and he was popularly known as Babasaheb (Respected Father) Ambedkar.
His teacher Mahadev Ambedkar, was a Brahmin, changed his surname from Ambavadekar to Ambedkar.
Ambedkar was very good in his studies and did his doctorate in Economics.
He was an ardent follower of Buddha.
Right from his childhood, Ambedkar faced discrimination as he was born in a lower caste and conducted many campaigns to create awareness .
He is known as the Father of Indian Constitution and his main aim was to give everyone equal rights to maintain the unity of the country.
Hence, he developed the reservation system to maintain uniformity.
The Constitution which he introduced took the effect on January 26th of 1950.
He was also a political leader and an economist. He was the first law minister.
The Constitution that came into effect 69 years ago, was not typed. It was handwritten in beautiful calligraphy.
It was originally written in Hindi and English and it is still preserved in Helium filled boxes in the Parliament of India.
“Religion, social status, and property are all sources of power and authority which one man has, to control the liberty of another”
Follow us for Sports features, Cinema, Updates and News! | <urn:uuid:5e3177bc-0345-4ca9-9ae7-a105886d21bd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.penbugs.com/remembering-b-r-ambedkar/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00079.warc.gz | en | 0.987492 | 346 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.30150699615... | 1 | Today is the 63rd death anniversary of B.R. Ambedkar. Here are the few facts about him
B. R. Ambedkar was a wizard in law making and a social reformer who worked his life for the untouchables to get equal rights.
Ambedkar’s actual name was Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar and he was popularly known as Babasaheb (Respected Father) Ambedkar.
His teacher Mahadev Ambedkar, was a Brahmin, changed his surname from Ambavadekar to Ambedkar.
Ambedkar was very good in his studies and did his doctorate in Economics.
He was an ardent follower of Buddha.
Right from his childhood, Ambedkar faced discrimination as he was born in a lower caste and conducted many campaigns to create awareness .
He is known as the Father of Indian Constitution and his main aim was to give everyone equal rights to maintain the unity of the country.
Hence, he developed the reservation system to maintain uniformity.
The Constitution which he introduced took the effect on January 26th of 1950.
He was also a political leader and an economist. He was the first law minister.
The Constitution that came into effect 69 years ago, was not typed. It was handwritten in beautiful calligraphy.
It was originally written in Hindi and English and it is still preserved in Helium filled boxes in the Parliament of India.
“Religion, social status, and property are all sources of power and authority which one man has, to control the liberty of another”
Follow us for Sports features, Cinema, Updates and News! | 338 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Buddhism started with the Buddha. The word ‘Buddha’ is a title, which means ‘one who is awake’ — in the sense of having ‘woken up to reality’. The Buddha was born as Siddhartha Gautama in Nepal around 2,500 years ago. He did not claim to be a god or a prophet. He was a human being who became Enlightened, understanding life in the deepest way possible.
Siddhartha was born into the royal family of a small kingdom on the Indian-Nepalese border. According to the traditional story he had a privileged upbringing, but was jolted out of his sheltered life on realising that life includes the harsh facts of old age, sickness, and death.
This prompted him to puzzle over the meaning of life. Eventually he felt impelled to leave his palace and follow the traditional Indian path of the wandering holy man, a seeker after Truth. He became very adept at meditation under various teachers, and then took up ascetic practices. This was based on the belief that one could free the spirit by denying the flesh. He practised austerities so determinedly that he almost starved to death.
But he still hadn’t solved the mystery of life and death. True understanding seemed as far away as ever. So he abandoned this way and looked into his own heart and mind; he decided to trust his intuition and learn from direct experience. He sat down beneath a pipal tree and vowed to stay there until he’d gained Enlightenment. After 40 days, on the full moon in May, Siddhartha finally attained ultimate Freedom.
Buddhists believe he reached a state of being that goes beyond anything else in the world. If normal experience is based on conditions — upbringing, psychology, opinions, perceptions — Enlightenment is Unconditioned. A Buddha is free from greed, hatred and ignorance, and characterised by wisdom, compassion and freedom. Enlightenment brings insight into the deepest workings of life, and therefore into the cause of human suffering — the problem that had initially set him on his spiritual quest.
During the remaining 45 years of his life, the Buddha travelled through much of northern India, spreading his understanding. His teaching is known in the East as the Buddha-dharma or ‘teaching of the Enlightened One’.
He reached people from all walks of life and many of his disciples gained Enlightenment. They, in turn, taught others and in this way an unbroken chain of teaching has continued, right down to the present day.
The Buddha was not a god and he made no claim to divinity. He was a human being who, through tremendous effort of heart and mind, transformed all limitations. He affirmed the potential of every being to reach Buddhahood. Buddhists see him as an ideal human being, and a guide who can lead us all towards Enlightenment.
Listen to evocations of Gautama Buddha by Vishavapani.
Read Who Is The Buddha? by Sangharakshita.
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0.38324996829... | 2 | Buddhism started with the Buddha. The word ‘Buddha’ is a title, which means ‘one who is awake’ — in the sense of having ‘woken up to reality’. The Buddha was born as Siddhartha Gautama in Nepal around 2,500 years ago. He did not claim to be a god or a prophet. He was a human being who became Enlightened, understanding life in the deepest way possible.
Siddhartha was born into the royal family of a small kingdom on the Indian-Nepalese border. According to the traditional story he had a privileged upbringing, but was jolted out of his sheltered life on realising that life includes the harsh facts of old age, sickness, and death.
This prompted him to puzzle over the meaning of life. Eventually he felt impelled to leave his palace and follow the traditional Indian path of the wandering holy man, a seeker after Truth. He became very adept at meditation under various teachers, and then took up ascetic practices. This was based on the belief that one could free the spirit by denying the flesh. He practised austerities so determinedly that he almost starved to death.
But he still hadn’t solved the mystery of life and death. True understanding seemed as far away as ever. So he abandoned this way and looked into his own heart and mind; he decided to trust his intuition and learn from direct experience. He sat down beneath a pipal tree and vowed to stay there until he’d gained Enlightenment. After 40 days, on the full moon in May, Siddhartha finally attained ultimate Freedom.
Buddhists believe he reached a state of being that goes beyond anything else in the world. If normal experience is based on conditions — upbringing, psychology, opinions, perceptions — Enlightenment is Unconditioned. A Buddha is free from greed, hatred and ignorance, and characterised by wisdom, compassion and freedom. Enlightenment brings insight into the deepest workings of life, and therefore into the cause of human suffering — the problem that had initially set him on his spiritual quest.
During the remaining 45 years of his life, the Buddha travelled through much of northern India, spreading his understanding. His teaching is known in the East as the Buddha-dharma or ‘teaching of the Enlightened One’.
He reached people from all walks of life and many of his disciples gained Enlightenment. They, in turn, taught others and in this way an unbroken chain of teaching has continued, right down to the present day.
The Buddha was not a god and he made no claim to divinity. He was a human being who, through tremendous effort of heart and mind, transformed all limitations. He affirmed the potential of every being to reach Buddhahood. Buddhists see him as an ideal human being, and a guide who can lead us all towards Enlightenment.
Listen to evocations of Gautama Buddha by Vishavapani.
Read Who Is The Buddha? by Sangharakshita.
The Buddhist Centre:buddhism for today | 621 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Edmund Burke (; 12 January [NS] 1729 – 9 July 1797) was an Anglo-Irish statesman and philosopher. Born in Dublin, Burke served as a member of parliament (MP) between 1766 and 1794 in the House of Commons with the Whig Party after moving to London in 1750.
Burke was a proponent of underpinning virtues with manners in society and of the importance of religious institutions for the moral stability and good of the state. These views were expressed in his A Vindication of Natural Society. He criticized British treatment of the American colonies, including through its taxation policies. Burke also supported the rights of the colonists to resist metropolitan authority, although he opposed the attempt to achieve independence. He is remembered for his support for Catholic emancipation, the impeachment of Warren Hastings from the East India Company and for his staunch opposition to the French Revolution.
In his Reflections on the Revolution in France, Burke asserted that the revolution was destroying the fabric of good society and traditional institutions of state and society and condemned the persecution of the Catholic Church that resulted from it. This led to his becoming the leading figure within the conservative faction of the Whig Party which he dubbed the Old Whigs as opposed to the pro-French Revolution New Whigs led by Charles James Fox.In the 19th century, Burke was praised by both conservatives and liberals. Subsequently in the 20th century, he became widely regarded as the philosophical founder of modern conservatism. | <urn:uuid:7e2e36db-31a1-461e-b475-993dbf1bef81> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://goodquotes.me/authors/edmund-burke/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00034.warc.gz | en | 0.983779 | 297 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.324961... | 3 | Edmund Burke (; 12 January [NS] 1729 – 9 July 1797) was an Anglo-Irish statesman and philosopher. Born in Dublin, Burke served as a member of parliament (MP) between 1766 and 1794 in the House of Commons with the Whig Party after moving to London in 1750.
Burke was a proponent of underpinning virtues with manners in society and of the importance of religious institutions for the moral stability and good of the state. These views were expressed in his A Vindication of Natural Society. He criticized British treatment of the American colonies, including through its taxation policies. Burke also supported the rights of the colonists to resist metropolitan authority, although he opposed the attempt to achieve independence. He is remembered for his support for Catholic emancipation, the impeachment of Warren Hastings from the East India Company and for his staunch opposition to the French Revolution.
In his Reflections on the Revolution in France, Burke asserted that the revolution was destroying the fabric of good society and traditional institutions of state and society and condemned the persecution of the Catholic Church that resulted from it. This led to his becoming the leading figure within the conservative faction of the Whig Party which he dubbed the Old Whigs as opposed to the pro-French Revolution New Whigs led by Charles James Fox.In the 19th century, Burke was praised by both conservatives and liberals. Subsequently in the 20th century, he became widely regarded as the philosophical founder of modern conservatism. | 319 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Grace's Guide is the leading source of historical information on industry and manufacturing in Britain. This web publication contains 137,397 pages of information and 221,173 images on early companies, their products and the people who designed and built them.
The Tank, Infantry, Mk II, Matilda II (A12) (sometimes referred to as Senior Matilda) was a British tank of World War II. In a somewhat unorthodox move, it shared the same name as the Tank, Infantry, Mk I (A11). The name Matilda itself comes from a cartoon duck. Matilda is also an old Teutonic female name meaning "mighty battle maid".
When the A11 was removed from service the A12's name of Matilda II was dropped, and it was then known as just the Matilda.
The Tank, Infantry, Mk II was designed at the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, and built by the Vulcan Foundry, as an improvement on the Mk I which was a two man tank with only machine guns for armament. The Senior Matilda weighed 27 metric tons, more than twice as much as its predecessor, and was armed with a QF 2-pounder tank gun in a three-man turret.
Like other infantry tanks it was heavily armoured; from 20 mm at the thinnest it was 78 mm (3.1 inch) at the front, much more than most contemporaries. The weight of the armour, together with the relatively weak twin-engine power unit (adapted from a bus) and troublesome suspension severely limited the speed of the vehicle. For example, in the deserts of North Africa the Matilda could average only about 6 mph. This was not thought to be a problem because the Matilda was specifically designed in accordance with the British doctrine of infantry tanks, that is, slow-moving, heavily-armoured vehicles designed to provide support to infantry. Under this thinking, a speed equal to the walking speed of a man was considered sufficient. Only combat would prove that the doctrine was flawed. The heavy armour of the Matilda's cast turret became legendary; for a time in 1940-41 the Matilda earned the nickname "Queen of the Desert".
The first Matilda was produced in 1937 but only two were in service when war broke out in September 1939. Some 2,987 tanks were produced by the Vulcan Foundry, John Fowler and Co, Ruston and Hornsby, and later by the London, Midland and Scottish Railway at Horwich Works, Harland and Wolff, and the North British Locomotive Co. Production was stopped in August 1943. | <urn:uuid:3907b023-36fa-4266-a46c-cc903f6f20c5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.gracesguide.co.uk/Matilda_Tank | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00420.warc.gz | en | 0.980306 | 532 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.396108359098... | 1 | Grace's Guide is the leading source of historical information on industry and manufacturing in Britain. This web publication contains 137,397 pages of information and 221,173 images on early companies, their products and the people who designed and built them.
The Tank, Infantry, Mk II, Matilda II (A12) (sometimes referred to as Senior Matilda) was a British tank of World War II. In a somewhat unorthodox move, it shared the same name as the Tank, Infantry, Mk I (A11). The name Matilda itself comes from a cartoon duck. Matilda is also an old Teutonic female name meaning "mighty battle maid".
When the A11 was removed from service the A12's name of Matilda II was dropped, and it was then known as just the Matilda.
The Tank, Infantry, Mk II was designed at the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, and built by the Vulcan Foundry, as an improvement on the Mk I which was a two man tank with only machine guns for armament. The Senior Matilda weighed 27 metric tons, more than twice as much as its predecessor, and was armed with a QF 2-pounder tank gun in a three-man turret.
Like other infantry tanks it was heavily armoured; from 20 mm at the thinnest it was 78 mm (3.1 inch) at the front, much more than most contemporaries. The weight of the armour, together with the relatively weak twin-engine power unit (adapted from a bus) and troublesome suspension severely limited the speed of the vehicle. For example, in the deserts of North Africa the Matilda could average only about 6 mph. This was not thought to be a problem because the Matilda was specifically designed in accordance with the British doctrine of infantry tanks, that is, slow-moving, heavily-armoured vehicles designed to provide support to infantry. Under this thinking, a speed equal to the walking speed of a man was considered sufficient. Only combat would prove that the doctrine was flawed. The heavy armour of the Matilda's cast turret became legendary; for a time in 1940-41 the Matilda earned the nickname "Queen of the Desert".
The first Matilda was produced in 1937 but only two were in service when war broke out in September 1939. Some 2,987 tanks were produced by the Vulcan Foundry, John Fowler and Co, Ruston and Hornsby, and later by the London, Midland and Scottish Railway at Horwich Works, Harland and Wolff, and the North British Locomotive Co. Production was stopped in August 1943. | 566 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Two Polynesian artifacts link early settlers to Polynesia. After that, the head would be put away, and brought out on important occasions, when stories of the victory would be retold, and insults hurled at the head.
Missionaries helped explain the Treaty of Waitangi to Tainui in More than any other aspect of their culture, this complex dance is an expression of the identity of the race. The colours black, white and red dominated. Art schools[ edit ] New Zealand has three university-based fine art schools: These compromises stopped with the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi.
Missionaries helped explain the Treaty of Waitangi to Tainui in Secondly a strict system of obligation was in force whereby the receiver was bound to not only reciprocate but to increase the value of the reciprocated gift.
The head was either smoked over a fire or left in the air to dry. This act abolished the traditional shared landholdings and made it easier for European settlers to directly purchase land for themselves.
They could be both rowed and sailed. Maori newspapers eagerly reported on events from overseas that showed groups such as the Irish challenging British sovereignty to obtain home rule. Men were tattooed on many parts of their bodies, including faces, buttocks and thighs.
There are eight ranks among the Maori and each have their own design. Some of these were kept as trophies of war but some were sold to the Europeans, perhaps as a further insult to the fallen.
They also can be used as weapons for hunting or to defend their land. Stone served in all aspects of Polynesian life: Generally only female slaves were kept as they were less threat and more useful as potato farmers and partners.
Their entire faces may be covered as opposed to the women who may only have certain parts of their faces covered such as their chins, cheeks, upper lips, and between the eyebrows.
Photo Credit In the past, these markings represented high social status in Maori culture, and it was generally men who had the full facial moko, though high-ranked women often had moko on their lips and chins. Although print runs were often small it was common for a newspaper to be passed around a whole hapu.
Both stone and bone were used to create jewellery such as the hei-tiki. Symbols include the tiki, which represents the human figure, and the manaia, a creature with bird-like head and serpent-like body, associated with guardianship.
In colder areas, such as in the North Island central plateau, it was common for whare to be partly sunk into the ground for better insulation. The most current reliable evidence strongly indicates that initial settlement of New Zealand occurred around CE from the Society Islands.
He says that in pre-contact times the power of chiefs was never very great, largely being restricted to directing warfare. In the concept of "utu", a fault must always be corrected. This lure has been reliably dated to the early- to midth century.When looking at Maori art, there is one thing that sticks out amongst everything else with me, and with most likely everyone that sees it for the first time, this is their tattooing skills.
They are equipped with many other art skills such as their carvings, weaponry, and townhouses, but th. Unlike most editing & proofreading services, we edit for everything: grammar, spelling, punctuation, idea flow, sentence structure, & more.
Get started now! Additionally, this was a way for the deceased, especially dead leaders, to maintain their involvement in the community, even after death. As objects of honor, these mokomokai were kept by their immediate families in ornately carved boxes.
maori art The principal traditional arts of the Maori may be broadly classified as carving in wood, stone, or bone, geometrical designs in plaiting and weaving, painted designs on wood and on the walls of rock shelters, and, finally, tattooing.
Maori Art & Culture PouMatua Pūutoōrino Life mask of Wiremu Te Manewha Presentation: A cast of the great leader Maori's face tattooed Made by Gottfried Lindauer in the late s.
Apr 02, · From traditional Maori art to arguably WA’s most famous tattoo, Mike Earsman has inked his way to stardom over the past three dominicgaudious.net: Steve Butler.Download | <urn:uuid:a84295f1-c7e3-445d-9b71-c8b88461fb37> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://fimitok.dominicgaudious.net/the-maori-art-a-way-of-preserving-the-past-88371nj.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00375.warc.gz | en | 0.982064 | 923 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
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0.448918104171... | 1 | Two Polynesian artifacts link early settlers to Polynesia. After that, the head would be put away, and brought out on important occasions, when stories of the victory would be retold, and insults hurled at the head.
Missionaries helped explain the Treaty of Waitangi to Tainui in More than any other aspect of their culture, this complex dance is an expression of the identity of the race. The colours black, white and red dominated. Art schools[ edit ] New Zealand has three university-based fine art schools: These compromises stopped with the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi.
Missionaries helped explain the Treaty of Waitangi to Tainui in Secondly a strict system of obligation was in force whereby the receiver was bound to not only reciprocate but to increase the value of the reciprocated gift.
The head was either smoked over a fire or left in the air to dry. This act abolished the traditional shared landholdings and made it easier for European settlers to directly purchase land for themselves.
They could be both rowed and sailed. Maori newspapers eagerly reported on events from overseas that showed groups such as the Irish challenging British sovereignty to obtain home rule. Men were tattooed on many parts of their bodies, including faces, buttocks and thighs.
There are eight ranks among the Maori and each have their own design. Some of these were kept as trophies of war but some were sold to the Europeans, perhaps as a further insult to the fallen.
They also can be used as weapons for hunting or to defend their land. Stone served in all aspects of Polynesian life: Generally only female slaves were kept as they were less threat and more useful as potato farmers and partners.
Their entire faces may be covered as opposed to the women who may only have certain parts of their faces covered such as their chins, cheeks, upper lips, and between the eyebrows.
Photo Credit In the past, these markings represented high social status in Maori culture, and it was generally men who had the full facial moko, though high-ranked women often had moko on their lips and chins. Although print runs were often small it was common for a newspaper to be passed around a whole hapu.
Both stone and bone were used to create jewellery such as the hei-tiki. Symbols include the tiki, which represents the human figure, and the manaia, a creature with bird-like head and serpent-like body, associated with guardianship.
In colder areas, such as in the North Island central plateau, it was common for whare to be partly sunk into the ground for better insulation. The most current reliable evidence strongly indicates that initial settlement of New Zealand occurred around CE from the Society Islands.
He says that in pre-contact times the power of chiefs was never very great, largely being restricted to directing warfare. In the concept of "utu", a fault must always be corrected. This lure has been reliably dated to the early- to midth century.When looking at Maori art, there is one thing that sticks out amongst everything else with me, and with most likely everyone that sees it for the first time, this is their tattooing skills.
They are equipped with many other art skills such as their carvings, weaponry, and townhouses, but th. Unlike most editing & proofreading services, we edit for everything: grammar, spelling, punctuation, idea flow, sentence structure, & more.
Get started now! Additionally, this was a way for the deceased, especially dead leaders, to maintain their involvement in the community, even after death. As objects of honor, these mokomokai were kept by their immediate families in ornately carved boxes.
maori art The principal traditional arts of the Maori may be broadly classified as carving in wood, stone, or bone, geometrical designs in plaiting and weaving, painted designs on wood and on the walls of rock shelters, and, finally, tattooing.
Maori Art & Culture PouMatua Pūutoōrino Life mask of Wiremu Te Manewha Presentation: A cast of the great leader Maori's face tattooed Made by Gottfried Lindauer in the late s.
Apr 02, · From traditional Maori art to arguably WA’s most famous tattoo, Mike Earsman has inked his way to stardom over the past three dominicgaudious.net: Steve Butler.Download | 893 | ENGLISH | 1 |
"It is probably the site of "Galgala" from the historical Madaba Map," Prof. Zertal says.
The enormous and striking cave covers an area of approximately 1 acre: it is some 100 meters long and about 40 meters wide. The cave is located 4 km north of Jericho. The cave, which is the largest excavated by man to be discovered in Israel, was exposed in the course of an archaeological survey that the University of Haifa has been carrying out since 1978.
Credit: University of Haifa
As with other discoveries in the past, this exposure is shrouded in mystery. "When we arrived at the opening of the cave, two Bedouins approached and told us not to go in as the cave is bewitched and inhabited by wolves and hyenas," Prof. Zertal relates. Upon entering, accompanied by his colleagues, he was surprised to find an impressive architectonic underground structure supported by 22 giant pillars. They discovered 31 cross markings on the pillars, an engraving resembling the zodiac symbol, Roman letters and an etching that looks like the Roman Legion's pennant. The team also discovered recesses in the pillars, which would have been used for oil lamps, and holes to which animals that were hauling quarried stones out of the cave could have been tied.
The cave's ceiling is some 3 meters high, but was originally probably about 4 meters high. According to Prof. Zertal, ceramics that were found and the engravings on the pillars date the cave to around 1-600 AD. "The cave's primary use had been as a quarry, which functioned for about 400-500 years. But other findings definitely indicate that the place was also used for other purposes, such as a monastery and possibly as a hiding place," Prof. Zertal explains.
The main question that arose upon discovering the cave was why a quarry was dug underground in the first place.
"All of the quarries that we know are above ground. Digging down under the surface requires extreme efforts in hauling the heavy rocks up to the surface, and in this case the quarrying was immense. The question is, why?"
For a possible answer to this mystery, Prof. Zertal points to the famous Madaba map. This is a Byzantine mosaic map that was found in Jordan and is the most ancient map of the Land of Israel. Jerusalem and the Jordan Valley are depicted with precision on the map, and a site called Galgala is depicted next to a Greek inscription that reads "Dodekaliton", which translates as "Twelve Stones."
This place is marked at a distance from Jericho that matches this cave's distance from the city. According to the map, there is a church next to Dodekaliton; there are two ancient churches located nearby the newly discovered cave. According to Prof. Zertal, until now it has been hypothesized that the meaning of "Twelve Stones" related to the biblical verses that describe the twelve stones that the Children of Israel place in Gilgal. However, it could be that the reference is a description of the quarry that was dug where the Byzantines identified the Gilgal.
"During the Roman era, it was customary to construct temples of stones that were brought from holy places, and which were therefore also more valuable stones. If our assumption is correct, then the Byzantine identification of the place as the biblical Gilgal afforded the site its necessary reverence and that is also why they would have dug an underground quarry there," Prof. Zertal concludes. "But" he adds, "much more research is needed." | <urn:uuid:5926d87b-2737-4ad9-a080-3d001e59dd58> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.science20.com/news_articles/underground_cave_1_ad_revealed_israel | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00224.warc.gz | en | 0.983815 | 744 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.1497123241... | 2 | "It is probably the site of "Galgala" from the historical Madaba Map," Prof. Zertal says.
The enormous and striking cave covers an area of approximately 1 acre: it is some 100 meters long and about 40 meters wide. The cave is located 4 km north of Jericho. The cave, which is the largest excavated by man to be discovered in Israel, was exposed in the course of an archaeological survey that the University of Haifa has been carrying out since 1978.
Credit: University of Haifa
As with other discoveries in the past, this exposure is shrouded in mystery. "When we arrived at the opening of the cave, two Bedouins approached and told us not to go in as the cave is bewitched and inhabited by wolves and hyenas," Prof. Zertal relates. Upon entering, accompanied by his colleagues, he was surprised to find an impressive architectonic underground structure supported by 22 giant pillars. They discovered 31 cross markings on the pillars, an engraving resembling the zodiac symbol, Roman letters and an etching that looks like the Roman Legion's pennant. The team also discovered recesses in the pillars, which would have been used for oil lamps, and holes to which animals that were hauling quarried stones out of the cave could have been tied.
The cave's ceiling is some 3 meters high, but was originally probably about 4 meters high. According to Prof. Zertal, ceramics that were found and the engravings on the pillars date the cave to around 1-600 AD. "The cave's primary use had been as a quarry, which functioned for about 400-500 years. But other findings definitely indicate that the place was also used for other purposes, such as a monastery and possibly as a hiding place," Prof. Zertal explains.
The main question that arose upon discovering the cave was why a quarry was dug underground in the first place.
"All of the quarries that we know are above ground. Digging down under the surface requires extreme efforts in hauling the heavy rocks up to the surface, and in this case the quarrying was immense. The question is, why?"
For a possible answer to this mystery, Prof. Zertal points to the famous Madaba map. This is a Byzantine mosaic map that was found in Jordan and is the most ancient map of the Land of Israel. Jerusalem and the Jordan Valley are depicted with precision on the map, and a site called Galgala is depicted next to a Greek inscription that reads "Dodekaliton", which translates as "Twelve Stones."
This place is marked at a distance from Jericho that matches this cave's distance from the city. According to the map, there is a church next to Dodekaliton; there are two ancient churches located nearby the newly discovered cave. According to Prof. Zertal, until now it has been hypothesized that the meaning of "Twelve Stones" related to the biblical verses that describe the twelve stones that the Children of Israel place in Gilgal. However, it could be that the reference is a description of the quarry that was dug where the Byzantines identified the Gilgal.
"During the Roman era, it was customary to construct temples of stones that were brought from holy places, and which were therefore also more valuable stones. If our assumption is correct, then the Byzantine identification of the place as the biblical Gilgal afforded the site its necessary reverence and that is also why they would have dug an underground quarry there," Prof. Zertal concludes. "But" he adds, "much more research is needed." | 759 | ENGLISH | 1 |
0159 GMT January 19, 2020
They know the types of stars that are likely to die in fiery supernova blasts, and they know that not all supernova are created equal. Still, space has many untold secrets, and a new study published in The Astrophysical Journal reveals that scientists had their understanding of supernova thrown into question after observing an explosion so massive that they initially thought their instruments had broken, bgr.com reported.
The explosion in question, called SN2016iet, was first spotted back in 2016, but it took a further three years for astronomers to truly understand what they were seeing.
“When we first realized how thoroughly unusual SN2016iet is my reaction was ‘Whoa — did something go horribly wrong with our data?'” Harvard grad Sebastian Gomez, lead author of the paper, said in a statement.
“After a while, we determined that SN2016iet is an incredible mystery, located in a previously uncatalogued galaxy one billion light years from Earth.”
Working backward from what they could see of the star’s current state, the team determined that the blast was created by a star 200 times as massive as our own Sun.
Researchers believe it shed a whopping 85 percent of its mass during its brief existence which ultimately ended in a colossal detonation. The huge amount of material the star shed, along with the supernova explosion itself, produced a sight that left scientists scratching their heads for years.
“Everything about this supernova looks different — its change in brightness with time, its spectrum, the galaxy it is located in, and even where it’s located within its galaxy,” Professor Edo Berger explained.
“We sometimes see supernovas that are unusual in one respect, but otherwise are normal; this one is unique in every possible way.”
Going forward, the team plans to continue to observe SN2016iet and, hopefully, learn more about its past and future. This will be made easier by the fact that the explosion was incredibly bright, and located in a bare area of the sky, so there may still be more it can teach us. | <urn:uuid:cb956809-b0ea-438f-b6d9-db870d232e38> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.iran-daily.com/News/257403.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00044.warc.gz | en | 0.981577 | 442 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.278102278709... | 1 | 0159 GMT January 19, 2020
They know the types of stars that are likely to die in fiery supernova blasts, and they know that not all supernova are created equal. Still, space has many untold secrets, and a new study published in The Astrophysical Journal reveals that scientists had their understanding of supernova thrown into question after observing an explosion so massive that they initially thought their instruments had broken, bgr.com reported.
The explosion in question, called SN2016iet, was first spotted back in 2016, but it took a further three years for astronomers to truly understand what they were seeing.
“When we first realized how thoroughly unusual SN2016iet is my reaction was ‘Whoa — did something go horribly wrong with our data?'” Harvard grad Sebastian Gomez, lead author of the paper, said in a statement.
“After a while, we determined that SN2016iet is an incredible mystery, located in a previously uncatalogued galaxy one billion light years from Earth.”
Working backward from what they could see of the star’s current state, the team determined that the blast was created by a star 200 times as massive as our own Sun.
Researchers believe it shed a whopping 85 percent of its mass during its brief existence which ultimately ended in a colossal detonation. The huge amount of material the star shed, along with the supernova explosion itself, produced a sight that left scientists scratching their heads for years.
“Everything about this supernova looks different — its change in brightness with time, its spectrum, the galaxy it is located in, and even where it’s located within its galaxy,” Professor Edo Berger explained.
“We sometimes see supernovas that are unusual in one respect, but otherwise are normal; this one is unique in every possible way.”
Going forward, the team plans to continue to observe SN2016iet and, hopefully, learn more about its past and future. This will be made easier by the fact that the explosion was incredibly bright, and located in a bare area of the sky, so there may still be more it can teach us. | 443 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Henry Ford was the first person to build cars which were cheap, strong and fast. He was able to sell millions of models because he mass produced them; i.e. he made great many cars of exactly the same type. Ford's father hoped that his son would become a farmer, but the young man did not like the idea and he went to Detroit where he worked as a machine. by the age of 29 , in 1892 ,he had built his first car. However , the first mass-produced car in the world , famous Model T , did not appear until 1908 - five years after Ford had started his great Motor company. This car proved to be so popular that it remained unchanged for twenty years. Since Ford's time , mass produced methods have become common in industry and have reduced the price of many articles which would otherwise by very expensive.
i. The three qualities of ford's car were cheap , strong and fast.
ii . Model T car was proved to be so popular and unchanged fo 20 years.
iii . Ford did not fulfill the hope of his father because he did not like the idea of being a farmer.
ii . fast
iii . reduced | <urn:uuid:0bb9703c-1870-4dad-83b4-17fb37c580f5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.kullabs.com/classes/subjects/units/lessons/notes/note-detail/2377 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00042.warc.gz | en | 0.994726 | 240 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.375902235507... | 1 | Henry Ford was the first person to build cars which were cheap, strong and fast. He was able to sell millions of models because he mass produced them; i.e. he made great many cars of exactly the same type. Ford's father hoped that his son would become a farmer, but the young man did not like the idea and he went to Detroit where he worked as a machine. by the age of 29 , in 1892 ,he had built his first car. However , the first mass-produced car in the world , famous Model T , did not appear until 1908 - five years after Ford had started his great Motor company. This car proved to be so popular that it remained unchanged for twenty years. Since Ford's time , mass produced methods have become common in industry and have reduced the price of many articles which would otherwise by very expensive.
i. The three qualities of ford's car were cheap , strong and fast.
ii . Model T car was proved to be so popular and unchanged fo 20 years.
iii . Ford did not fulfill the hope of his father because he did not like the idea of being a farmer.
ii . fast
iii . reduced | 244 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Just like a lot of people today, Neanderthals seemed to enjoy spending time at the beach, and even collected seashells, research suggests.
They may even have dived into the Mediterranean sea to gather clam shells for tools.
The findings come from discoveries made in Grotta dei Moscerini, a cave that sits 10ft above a beach in the Latium region of central Italy.
Neanderthals also collected volcanic rock from the beach and coastal waters during the Middle Palaeolithic, according to a study published in the PLOS One journal.
It had already been known that the ancient humans used tools. However, the extent to which they were able to exploit coastal resources has been less clear.
A team led by Paola Villa, of the University of Colorado Boulder, explored artefacts from the cave - one of two Neanderthal sites in Italy with an abundance of hand-modified clam shells, dating back 100,000 years.
Researchers examined 171 modified shells, most of which had been retouched to be used as scrapers.
The team found that nearly three quarters of the Moscerini shell tools had opaque and slightly abraded exteriors, as if they had been sanded down over time.
This was in keeping with what you would expect to see in shells that had washed up on a sandy beach.
However, the rest had a shiny, smooth exterior.
Those shells, which also tended to be a little bit bigger, had to have been plucked directly from the sea floor as live animals, the team concluded. Dr Villa said: "It's quite possible that the Neanderthals were collecting shells as far down as four metres (13ft). Of course, they did not have scuba equipment."
In the same cave sediments, the team also found abundant pumice stones that were most likely used as abrading tools.
Researchers say the findings join a growing list of evidence that Neanderthals in Western Europe were in the practice of wading or diving into coastal waters to collect resources long before Homo sapiens brought these habits to the region. | <urn:uuid:56470c88-8d10-4603-a998-d478d507fcfd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2020/01/16/neanderthals-collected-shells-could-dive-13-feet-get-study-finds/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00166.warc.gz | en | 0.981579 | 432 | 3.921875 | 4 | [
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0.67218714952468... | 1 | Just like a lot of people today, Neanderthals seemed to enjoy spending time at the beach, and even collected seashells, research suggests.
They may even have dived into the Mediterranean sea to gather clam shells for tools.
The findings come from discoveries made in Grotta dei Moscerini, a cave that sits 10ft above a beach in the Latium region of central Italy.
Neanderthals also collected volcanic rock from the beach and coastal waters during the Middle Palaeolithic, according to a study published in the PLOS One journal.
It had already been known that the ancient humans used tools. However, the extent to which they were able to exploit coastal resources has been less clear.
A team led by Paola Villa, of the University of Colorado Boulder, explored artefacts from the cave - one of two Neanderthal sites in Italy with an abundance of hand-modified clam shells, dating back 100,000 years.
Researchers examined 171 modified shells, most of which had been retouched to be used as scrapers.
The team found that nearly three quarters of the Moscerini shell tools had opaque and slightly abraded exteriors, as if they had been sanded down over time.
This was in keeping with what you would expect to see in shells that had washed up on a sandy beach.
However, the rest had a shiny, smooth exterior.
Those shells, which also tended to be a little bit bigger, had to have been plucked directly from the sea floor as live animals, the team concluded. Dr Villa said: "It's quite possible that the Neanderthals were collecting shells as far down as four metres (13ft). Of course, they did not have scuba equipment."
In the same cave sediments, the team also found abundant pumice stones that were most likely used as abrading tools.
Researchers say the findings join a growing list of evidence that Neanderthals in Western Europe were in the practice of wading or diving into coastal waters to collect resources long before Homo sapiens brought these habits to the region. | 434 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The battle of Caporetto also known as the Twelfth Battle of the Isonzo River was fought between the Central Powers, Austro-Hungarian and German forces and the 2nd Italian Army. The ultimate result of the battle was a disastrous loss of life, organisation, equipment and territory for the Italians. Yet it was several factors which resulted in an easy victory for the Central Powers.
The Italian army was led by Supreme Commander General Luigi Cardorna. In the lead up to the battle Cardona had twice ordered the army to adopt a defensive stance in the region. However for the most part his orders were generic and lacked real strategic information which didn’t enable the Italian army to have a substantial and co-ordinated defensive line. The commander at Caporetto was Luigi Capello who despite remaining in control over the battle was ill during the entire period of fighting. Further preparation in the region of Caporetto was undermined by Italian command who dismissed the idea of a large-scale offensive in Northern Isonzo because they believed the attack would take place in Trentino. This idea was furthered by a small attack by the Central Powers in that region previously. This resulted in Caporetto being one of the weaker points in the Italian defensive line.
But a bigger and more decisive factor in the battle was tactics from the Austro-Hungarian and German command. German forces had reinforced the Austro-Hungarian troops in the region as they did not want to lose their strongest ally from the war with Italy, with previous battles along the Isonzo river affective the stability of Austrian control of surrounding regions. As such due to easing commitments in the engagements with Russia they could afford to send units to reinforce and strengthen the Austro-Hungarian forces, the first time they had done so on the Italian front. As a result, they formed a new 14th Army with nine Austrian and six German divisions commanded by the German Otto Von Below. The Central Powers had used effective tactics which helped swing the balance away from the Italians even before the assault started. The Austrians and German’s had purposely misled the Italians prior to the battle on the amount of artillery equipment they possessed. Using slow sporadic fire over weeks prior to the war the Italians were unaware of the extent the Central Powers could launch an artillery barrage, with them having a gun every 4.4 metres.
The offensive was launched on the 24th October at two in the morning. One thousand gas shells were launched into Italian lines in the first thirty seconds of the barrage killing six hundred men. Each canister launched into Italian territory contained 600ml of chlorine and phosphine gases. With Italian gas masks only able to protect the soldiers for hours many had to flea for their lives as the onslaught continued. The retreat caused panic and disorganisation in the Italian army but it was followed up by a further and more devastating attack and onslaught by the Austro-Hungarian and German forces.
A follow up swift penetrative offensive was launched by the Central Powers later in the morning. The Italians vision was clouded by the numerous gas clouds which littered the battlefield was only made worse by dense fog that morning. Despite being ordered to take a defensive line Capello decided to try and go on the offensive which ultimately proved more detrimental to the Italians. A decisive infantry attack was spearheaded by German troopers who decisively attacked in small groups and at weak points across the Italian line. Effective penetration from the Stormtroopers and fellow infantry allowed extensive ground to be made up allowing for surprise attacks to be launched on the Italians from behind. This only added to the confusion within the Italian ranks. The penetration tactics used by the Central Powers were so effective by the end of the first day some platoons had advanced 25km. But more crucially the Italianswere pushed back into the mountain ranges, resulting in a weaker position as the German led offensive could look down toward the fleeing Italian army.
Capello eventually understanding the situation did request for a withdrawal troops, however he was met with disapproval as a defensive line was to be established. However despite some resistance from the Italian troops at both Plezzo Gap and Monte Nero there was no sustained defensive hold on which the Italians could regroup from. This was in part by weather as fog did limit vision but more importantly shelling and damage done by advances from enemy infantry had caused damage to telephone communication wires. This resulted in a disorientated and uncoordinated Italian retreat. This only further added to Italian casualties and loss because of the lack of directive for the Italian army.
A supremely effective breakthrough from the Austro-Hungarian and German forces had caught the Italians off guard, but crucially the amount of success also came as a surprise to the offensive troops. By October 30th the Italian army had been pushed back to the River Tagliamento. However the astounding success and territorial gain had surprised the Central powers and as such supply lines were becoming stretched and effecting the troops who were spearheading the assault. An Italian withdrawal took them to the River Piave, just 20 miles North of Venice. By the end of the battle the Italians had strengthened their defensive line south of the river and anchored on the Asiago Plateau and Monte Grappa in the North which provided a good strategic defensive position. This shoring up of Italian defence was only aided by further stretching of supply lines for the enemy and the German troops who spearheaded the offensive were becoming weary after a 70km advance into Italian territory.
But ultimately this was a disastrous result for the Italians. Italian losses were extensive with 22 airfields being abandoned, 40,000 dead, 280,000 taken prisoner by the enemy and 350,000 men had at least temporarily lost contact with their units. The last figure effectively illustrates the panic and incoordination of the Italian response to the offensive. Furthering on this a substantial amount of equipment had been lost in the hasty retreat.
The battle also brought about the creation of the Supreme War Council at the Rapallo conference between the 5th and 7th December. The council aimed at improving allied military co-operation and developing a unified strategy. Ultimately the Allies sent 11 divisions to the region in response to the defeat at Caporetto. This helped the Italians make a stronger defensive line and protect the city of Venice and further enemy advances.
A subsequent Italian parliamentary investigation placed blame for Caporetto on both Capello and Cardona. Luigi Cardona was ultimately replaced by General Armando Diaz. The effects of the defeat were even larger with Italian tactics being fundamentally altered. The Italian army didn’t go on the offensive until the end of the war and it played a crucial role in limiting Italian influence on the outcome of the war. Furthermore, it was at the time and still is regarded as one of the greatest military defeats in Italian history. | <urn:uuid:ed637844-264d-48a8-85c2-5a0fc8974fae> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wuhstry.wordpress.com/2017/10/18/italy-goes-down-at-caporetto/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00408.warc.gz | en | 0.984439 | 1,382 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.10021921992... | 3 | The battle of Caporetto also known as the Twelfth Battle of the Isonzo River was fought between the Central Powers, Austro-Hungarian and German forces and the 2nd Italian Army. The ultimate result of the battle was a disastrous loss of life, organisation, equipment and territory for the Italians. Yet it was several factors which resulted in an easy victory for the Central Powers.
The Italian army was led by Supreme Commander General Luigi Cardorna. In the lead up to the battle Cardona had twice ordered the army to adopt a defensive stance in the region. However for the most part his orders were generic and lacked real strategic information which didn’t enable the Italian army to have a substantial and co-ordinated defensive line. The commander at Caporetto was Luigi Capello who despite remaining in control over the battle was ill during the entire period of fighting. Further preparation in the region of Caporetto was undermined by Italian command who dismissed the idea of a large-scale offensive in Northern Isonzo because they believed the attack would take place in Trentino. This idea was furthered by a small attack by the Central Powers in that region previously. This resulted in Caporetto being one of the weaker points in the Italian defensive line.
But a bigger and more decisive factor in the battle was tactics from the Austro-Hungarian and German command. German forces had reinforced the Austro-Hungarian troops in the region as they did not want to lose their strongest ally from the war with Italy, with previous battles along the Isonzo river affective the stability of Austrian control of surrounding regions. As such due to easing commitments in the engagements with Russia they could afford to send units to reinforce and strengthen the Austro-Hungarian forces, the first time they had done so on the Italian front. As a result, they formed a new 14th Army with nine Austrian and six German divisions commanded by the German Otto Von Below. The Central Powers had used effective tactics which helped swing the balance away from the Italians even before the assault started. The Austrians and German’s had purposely misled the Italians prior to the battle on the amount of artillery equipment they possessed. Using slow sporadic fire over weeks prior to the war the Italians were unaware of the extent the Central Powers could launch an artillery barrage, with them having a gun every 4.4 metres.
The offensive was launched on the 24th October at two in the morning. One thousand gas shells were launched into Italian lines in the first thirty seconds of the barrage killing six hundred men. Each canister launched into Italian territory contained 600ml of chlorine and phosphine gases. With Italian gas masks only able to protect the soldiers for hours many had to flea for their lives as the onslaught continued. The retreat caused panic and disorganisation in the Italian army but it was followed up by a further and more devastating attack and onslaught by the Austro-Hungarian and German forces.
A follow up swift penetrative offensive was launched by the Central Powers later in the morning. The Italians vision was clouded by the numerous gas clouds which littered the battlefield was only made worse by dense fog that morning. Despite being ordered to take a defensive line Capello decided to try and go on the offensive which ultimately proved more detrimental to the Italians. A decisive infantry attack was spearheaded by German troopers who decisively attacked in small groups and at weak points across the Italian line. Effective penetration from the Stormtroopers and fellow infantry allowed extensive ground to be made up allowing for surprise attacks to be launched on the Italians from behind. This only added to the confusion within the Italian ranks. The penetration tactics used by the Central Powers were so effective by the end of the first day some platoons had advanced 25km. But more crucially the Italianswere pushed back into the mountain ranges, resulting in a weaker position as the German led offensive could look down toward the fleeing Italian army.
Capello eventually understanding the situation did request for a withdrawal troops, however he was met with disapproval as a defensive line was to be established. However despite some resistance from the Italian troops at both Plezzo Gap and Monte Nero there was no sustained defensive hold on which the Italians could regroup from. This was in part by weather as fog did limit vision but more importantly shelling and damage done by advances from enemy infantry had caused damage to telephone communication wires. This resulted in a disorientated and uncoordinated Italian retreat. This only further added to Italian casualties and loss because of the lack of directive for the Italian army.
A supremely effective breakthrough from the Austro-Hungarian and German forces had caught the Italians off guard, but crucially the amount of success also came as a surprise to the offensive troops. By October 30th the Italian army had been pushed back to the River Tagliamento. However the astounding success and territorial gain had surprised the Central powers and as such supply lines were becoming stretched and effecting the troops who were spearheading the assault. An Italian withdrawal took them to the River Piave, just 20 miles North of Venice. By the end of the battle the Italians had strengthened their defensive line south of the river and anchored on the Asiago Plateau and Monte Grappa in the North which provided a good strategic defensive position. This shoring up of Italian defence was only aided by further stretching of supply lines for the enemy and the German troops who spearheaded the offensive were becoming weary after a 70km advance into Italian territory.
But ultimately this was a disastrous result for the Italians. Italian losses were extensive with 22 airfields being abandoned, 40,000 dead, 280,000 taken prisoner by the enemy and 350,000 men had at least temporarily lost contact with their units. The last figure effectively illustrates the panic and incoordination of the Italian response to the offensive. Furthering on this a substantial amount of equipment had been lost in the hasty retreat.
The battle also brought about the creation of the Supreme War Council at the Rapallo conference between the 5th and 7th December. The council aimed at improving allied military co-operation and developing a unified strategy. Ultimately the Allies sent 11 divisions to the region in response to the defeat at Caporetto. This helped the Italians make a stronger defensive line and protect the city of Venice and further enemy advances.
A subsequent Italian parliamentary investigation placed blame for Caporetto on both Capello and Cardona. Luigi Cardona was ultimately replaced by General Armando Diaz. The effects of the defeat were even larger with Italian tactics being fundamentally altered. The Italian army didn’t go on the offensive until the end of the war and it played a crucial role in limiting Italian influence on the outcome of the war. Furthermore, it was at the time and still is regarded as one of the greatest military defeats in Italian history. | 1,404 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On this page...
This is a colour image showing five stages of fish-hook manufacture by First Nations people in the top row, and below a complete modern turban shell Turbo torquata for comparison. The modified turban shells were excavated from an archaeological site in Botany Bay, New South Wales, and range in size from 29 mm to 42 mm. The modern turban shell is 65 mm in length.
The photograph shows the sequence of manufacture of shellfish hooks from the Sydney area. One or more oval-shaped 'blanks' were cut from each shell and the shell's outer surface was ground down on a flat stone. A hole was made in the centre to form a ring and then part of the ring was removed to create the final shape. The hook was formed by filing the inner edges smooth, finishing the point and putting a notch in the shank end where the line is tied.
The five modified shells at varying stages of hook manufacture have been dated as being less than 900 years old. They were excavated from a midden at Kurnell in Botany Bay in 1970. A small pointed ground stone file, often called a fishhook file, was also excavated from the site and may have been used to shape the hooks.
The completed fishhook is representative of hooks from the area, which were either C- or J-shaped and curved to a point but not barbed. Hooks ranging from 13 to 50 mm were attached to a line made from two strands of flax or bark fibre twisted together. A small stone was attached to the line to act as a sinker. No bait was put on the hook but chewed shellfish were spat out on the surface of the water to attract fish. The pearl lustre of the shell would have acted as a lure.
The completed hook on the far right is typical of shellfish hooks found along the eastern Australian coast between Port Stephens in the north and the NSW-Victorian border in the south, which first appear in the archaeological record 900 years ago. It is speculated that fishhooks were independently invented in the region at this time or were introduced to the area either from the north coast of Australia or by Polynesians from the east. | <urn:uuid:d1ce9cf0-9d16-4413-af8f-0f4603f3322a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://australianmuseum.net.au/learn/cultures/atsi-collection/cultural-objects/shellfish-hooks/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00186.warc.gz | en | 0.985303 | 455 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.306913524866... | 13 | On this page...
This is a colour image showing five stages of fish-hook manufacture by First Nations people in the top row, and below a complete modern turban shell Turbo torquata for comparison. The modified turban shells were excavated from an archaeological site in Botany Bay, New South Wales, and range in size from 29 mm to 42 mm. The modern turban shell is 65 mm in length.
The photograph shows the sequence of manufacture of shellfish hooks from the Sydney area. One or more oval-shaped 'blanks' were cut from each shell and the shell's outer surface was ground down on a flat stone. A hole was made in the centre to form a ring and then part of the ring was removed to create the final shape. The hook was formed by filing the inner edges smooth, finishing the point and putting a notch in the shank end where the line is tied.
The five modified shells at varying stages of hook manufacture have been dated as being less than 900 years old. They were excavated from a midden at Kurnell in Botany Bay in 1970. A small pointed ground stone file, often called a fishhook file, was also excavated from the site and may have been used to shape the hooks.
The completed fishhook is representative of hooks from the area, which were either C- or J-shaped and curved to a point but not barbed. Hooks ranging from 13 to 50 mm were attached to a line made from two strands of flax or bark fibre twisted together. A small stone was attached to the line to act as a sinker. No bait was put on the hook but chewed shellfish were spat out on the surface of the water to attract fish. The pearl lustre of the shell would have acted as a lure.
The completed hook on the far right is typical of shellfish hooks found along the eastern Australian coast between Port Stephens in the north and the NSW-Victorian border in the south, which first appear in the archaeological record 900 years ago. It is speculated that fishhooks were independently invented in the region at this time or were introduced to the area either from the north coast of Australia or by Polynesians from the east. | 465 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The earliest settlement in the region was probably established on dry raised sites amongst the carrs and salt-marshes. The town of Howden was first recorded in 959 and was the centre of a large 51-carucate estate recorded in the Domesday Book. The earliest settlement in Howden was probably centred on the church and manor house. Small amounts of 9th, 10th and 11th-century pottery recovered during excavations at the Bishops manor House imply that there was a late Saxon settlement in the immediate vicinity. A church and a priest were recorded on the Bishop of Durham’s Howdenshire estate in 1086, presumably in Howden.
Occasionally referred to as a borough, Howden was the only large settlement and only market in the area. In 1200, a September horse fair was granted to Philip, Bishop of Durham, and the market mentioned in 1296 no doubt took place in the market place laid out by the Bishop in the area north of his manor house, which was previously much larger.
Buildings on the Market Place included the White Horse Inn, the Moot Hall and the Shire Hall. The Moot Hall was a half-timbered building where the Bishop’s halmote court was held, with shops below the hall by 1760. It was demolished in 1815 when the court was moved to the court house in the vicarage grounds. The Shire Hall was located on the west of the Market place, on the site of three shops which were demolished prior to the construction of the hall in 1871. There are also two other triangular spaces in Howden’s street plan which possibly accommodated specialised markets.
The annual market was in decline by the 18th century and had apparently been discontinued by 1751. By the 19th century, Howden had been eclipsed by Goole and Selby as a market centre. This said, a successful annual horse fair had been established by the end of the 18th century. In both 1807 and 1850 the September horse fair was said to be the largest in England. Horses were brought to and from the fair by train in the 1860s, but the fair was later adversely affected by the decline in coaching traffic. The fair was much contracted by the turn of the 20th century.
Bi-weekly cattle and horse markets were also held in Howden and a Christmas fat-stock market was held in the yards of the Wellington, Bowman’s and Half Moon hotels between 1869 and the Second World War.
An annual hiring fair was held in Howden at martinmas (23rd November) between the mid-19th and early 20th century.
There were other more isolated areas of settlement in Howden township including the Groves, a farm south of Howden. There were also at least three isolated settlement sites to the north-west of Howden, all probably representing pre-Conquest and medieval reclamation of the waste. The settlement at Barnhill was first recorded in 959 and a moat was later dug around the house, while the Bishop of Durham’s deer park was probably enclosed from the waste in the 12th or 13th century.
Irregular field boundaries in the area to the east of the park suggest this area was also brought into cultivation long before the enclosures of the 1770s produced the regular field patterns further north in Howden Common. The land east of the park was known as Ringstone Hurst, and was the site of a hermitage and a moated chapel dedicated to St Mary Magdalene, from at least 1284 and the 15th century respectively. Later isolated settlement in Howden township includes the house and orchard known as California, which occupied a site east of the town by 1879. It was later occupied by the Hall family, who established the nursery and garden centre on the site now known as California Gardens.
Howden itself was more densely populated in both 1672 and 1764, as were some of the townships in its immediate vicinity. Like other market towns in the Vale of York, Howden’s population continued to grow throughout the early 19th century. Between 1801 and 1851 the town’s population was swelled by almost 1,000 persons, reaching 2,491 in the latter year. Its success may have been partially at the expense of surrounding villages: the compilers of the census noted that the growth between 1811 and 1821 could be attributed to the opening of a sacking factory in the town and “the demolition of cottages in adjoining villages”. Migration probably affected individual villages differently depending on their agricultural and economic circumstances. | <urn:uuid:40b0cd4a-e22d-44d7-af5e-e9c163028a5d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://howdencivicsociety.co.uk/brief-history-of-howden/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00129.warc.gz | en | 0.993166 | 965 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.2715913... | 2 | The earliest settlement in the region was probably established on dry raised sites amongst the carrs and salt-marshes. The town of Howden was first recorded in 959 and was the centre of a large 51-carucate estate recorded in the Domesday Book. The earliest settlement in Howden was probably centred on the church and manor house. Small amounts of 9th, 10th and 11th-century pottery recovered during excavations at the Bishops manor House imply that there was a late Saxon settlement in the immediate vicinity. A church and a priest were recorded on the Bishop of Durham’s Howdenshire estate in 1086, presumably in Howden.
Occasionally referred to as a borough, Howden was the only large settlement and only market in the area. In 1200, a September horse fair was granted to Philip, Bishop of Durham, and the market mentioned in 1296 no doubt took place in the market place laid out by the Bishop in the area north of his manor house, which was previously much larger.
Buildings on the Market Place included the White Horse Inn, the Moot Hall and the Shire Hall. The Moot Hall was a half-timbered building where the Bishop’s halmote court was held, with shops below the hall by 1760. It was demolished in 1815 when the court was moved to the court house in the vicarage grounds. The Shire Hall was located on the west of the Market place, on the site of three shops which were demolished prior to the construction of the hall in 1871. There are also two other triangular spaces in Howden’s street plan which possibly accommodated specialised markets.
The annual market was in decline by the 18th century and had apparently been discontinued by 1751. By the 19th century, Howden had been eclipsed by Goole and Selby as a market centre. This said, a successful annual horse fair had been established by the end of the 18th century. In both 1807 and 1850 the September horse fair was said to be the largest in England. Horses were brought to and from the fair by train in the 1860s, but the fair was later adversely affected by the decline in coaching traffic. The fair was much contracted by the turn of the 20th century.
Bi-weekly cattle and horse markets were also held in Howden and a Christmas fat-stock market was held in the yards of the Wellington, Bowman’s and Half Moon hotels between 1869 and the Second World War.
An annual hiring fair was held in Howden at martinmas (23rd November) between the mid-19th and early 20th century.
There were other more isolated areas of settlement in Howden township including the Groves, a farm south of Howden. There were also at least three isolated settlement sites to the north-west of Howden, all probably representing pre-Conquest and medieval reclamation of the waste. The settlement at Barnhill was first recorded in 959 and a moat was later dug around the house, while the Bishop of Durham’s deer park was probably enclosed from the waste in the 12th or 13th century.
Irregular field boundaries in the area to the east of the park suggest this area was also brought into cultivation long before the enclosures of the 1770s produced the regular field patterns further north in Howden Common. The land east of the park was known as Ringstone Hurst, and was the site of a hermitage and a moated chapel dedicated to St Mary Magdalene, from at least 1284 and the 15th century respectively. Later isolated settlement in Howden township includes the house and orchard known as California, which occupied a site east of the town by 1879. It was later occupied by the Hall family, who established the nursery and garden centre on the site now known as California Gardens.
Howden itself was more densely populated in both 1672 and 1764, as were some of the townships in its immediate vicinity. Like other market towns in the Vale of York, Howden’s population continued to grow throughout the early 19th century. Between 1801 and 1851 the town’s population was swelled by almost 1,000 persons, reaching 2,491 in the latter year. Its success may have been partially at the expense of surrounding villages: the compilers of the census noted that the growth between 1811 and 1821 could be attributed to the opening of a sacking factory in the town and “the demolition of cottages in adjoining villages”. Migration probably affected individual villages differently depending on their agricultural and economic circumstances. | 1,030 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Big River First Nation of Saskatchewan
These Saulteaux Ojibway People are going down a wrong road. They are from Pelican Lake Ojibway's, as are Ahtahkakoop, Mistawasis and Muskeg Lake. They are signatories to Treaty 6. These Saulteaux Ojibway's from Big River, shared Big River Reserve with Pelican Lake and Witchekan Lake Saulteaux Ojibways, back before Canada forced them to accept new leaders who identified as Cree. In 1902, these Saulteaux Ojibway's were led by chief Kenemotayoo. Something transpired after chief Kenemotayoo was replaced, died or a new leader took over. Ojibway People had their own leaders. Whites selected leaders among Ojibway People that did what they wanted. That's probably what caused them to go their own ways. Their on-Reserve population is 1,553 according to 2016's census. They have 407 dwellings with 366 lived in. Average household size is 4.2 persons per household. Around 495 speak Corrupted Ojibway Language which is what Lewis and Clark called Cree Language. They are within Big Bears Reserve. They think they are Cree. Cree People are too cowardly to follow prophecy. In 1876, chief Big Bear along with chief Rocky Boy and chief Sitting Bull, fled their native Montana for Alberta's and Saskatchewan's Cypress Hills. Canadian negotiators were sent to Fort Carlton to negotiate a treaty with chief Big Bear about a Reserve. That treaty is Treaty 6. Chief Big Bear was in fear of being executed for his part in 1876's War in Montana. He signed Treaty 6 in either 1876 or 1877 and agree to lead 1,000's of his Montana Ojibway's 100's of miles north to near Fort Pitt. He possibly did that in 1877. He told Canadian negotiators he had to return to his people at Cypress Hills and would bring them north to sign treaty. His Ojibway subjects found many locations to settle at. One is Big River First Nation which is within Big Bear Reserve. He did not cede his Reservation. They have no proof he ceded Reservation. They only go so far as writing that chief Big Bear wanted a large Reserve which included many districts. Big River First Nation is one of many locations chief Big Bear's Montana Ojibway's settled at. His Reservation extended from east of Big River, to a location west of Saddle Lake Reserve in Alberta. Chief Big Bears Reservation is north of North Saskatchewan River or as they agreed to, North Saskatchewan River was his Reservations southern boundary. We have been told by prophecy to find evidence along a trail. That's what we are doing. | <urn:uuid:ce252595-9ed1-4c11-b30d-07c54fabded5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.anishinabe-history.com/first-nation/big-river.shtml | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00099.warc.gz | en | 0.988639 | 572 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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These Saulteaux Ojibway People are going down a wrong road. They are from Pelican Lake Ojibway's, as are Ahtahkakoop, Mistawasis and Muskeg Lake. They are signatories to Treaty 6. These Saulteaux Ojibway's from Big River, shared Big River Reserve with Pelican Lake and Witchekan Lake Saulteaux Ojibways, back before Canada forced them to accept new leaders who identified as Cree. In 1902, these Saulteaux Ojibway's were led by chief Kenemotayoo. Something transpired after chief Kenemotayoo was replaced, died or a new leader took over. Ojibway People had their own leaders. Whites selected leaders among Ojibway People that did what they wanted. That's probably what caused them to go their own ways. Their on-Reserve population is 1,553 according to 2016's census. They have 407 dwellings with 366 lived in. Average household size is 4.2 persons per household. Around 495 speak Corrupted Ojibway Language which is what Lewis and Clark called Cree Language. They are within Big Bears Reserve. They think they are Cree. Cree People are too cowardly to follow prophecy. In 1876, chief Big Bear along with chief Rocky Boy and chief Sitting Bull, fled their native Montana for Alberta's and Saskatchewan's Cypress Hills. Canadian negotiators were sent to Fort Carlton to negotiate a treaty with chief Big Bear about a Reserve. That treaty is Treaty 6. Chief Big Bear was in fear of being executed for his part in 1876's War in Montana. He signed Treaty 6 in either 1876 or 1877 and agree to lead 1,000's of his Montana Ojibway's 100's of miles north to near Fort Pitt. He possibly did that in 1877. He told Canadian negotiators he had to return to his people at Cypress Hills and would bring them north to sign treaty. His Ojibway subjects found many locations to settle at. One is Big River First Nation which is within Big Bear Reserve. He did not cede his Reservation. They have no proof he ceded Reservation. They only go so far as writing that chief Big Bear wanted a large Reserve which included many districts. Big River First Nation is one of many locations chief Big Bear's Montana Ojibway's settled at. His Reservation extended from east of Big River, to a location west of Saddle Lake Reserve in Alberta. Chief Big Bears Reservation is north of North Saskatchewan River or as they agreed to, North Saskatchewan River was his Reservations southern boundary. We have been told by prophecy to find evidence along a trail. That's what we are doing. | 615 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Real history of Pensacola's Confederate statue
In recent weeks, a broad dialogue has been focused on memorials and monuments related to the days and personalities of the Confederacy.
Pensacola’s monument has been part of the historical scene since 1891 and its beginning and purpose are part of the culture, which prevailed after 1865. Hundreds of such memorials were erected, with a variety of focuses and purposes. Pensacola’s placement was conceived and dedicated in a unique manner; there may be value for all in Pensacola in reviewing that background.
In 1885, Pensacola attorney Edward Perry was elected Florida’s governor. Prior to that, Perry had served in the War Between the States and had reached field-grade rank. With the coming of peace, he returned to Pensacola and for two decades became extremely popular for his service to veterans and to many in commercial circles. In 1884, those followers urged him to seek the governor’s chair, for Florida was suffering from results of a constitution imposed in 1867.
Perry agreed to run (though he never before sought or held public office), and from his inauguration he successfully pursued popular goals. The constitution was written and passed. Pensacola received a new charter, which brought elective status to many local offices, and the means to begin a public school system.
However, Gov. Perry was personally disturbed when he discovered that Florida was the only Southern state that had not erected some form of memorial to veterans and those who had died. He began to seek a state-sponsored monument, but upon leaving office his attempt had failed. In those same months, Perry’s health was failing. Shortly after he left office his illness proved fatal.
It was then, in 1889, that Mrs. Perry brought together women from leading Pensacola families. Her proposal was that the ladies form a league and pursue establishment of a memorial in the city of Pensacola. The women agreed and formed the Ladies Monument Association. The association was given legal aid by attorney Alex C. Blount and by business and professional men, including the railroad magnate William D. Chipley. The campaign was climaxed by efforts through Christ Church and its respected pastor, the Rev. F.C. Whaley.
Contacts were made with a Washington, D.C., firm, which had produced scores of such memorials. The producers were guided by specifics prepared by the ladies and their association. The memorial was to recognize men from the four companies who had been formed locally and men who had perished in battle from disease. The small plaques of copy were directed to those views.
The 30-foot Vermont granite memorial was capped by an 8-foot figure representing the basic soldier.
The memorial was carried to Pensacola without charge by railroads. And when dedication day came, the rail lines provided free passage for veterans and charged but 1 cent per mile for others. The ceremony was conducted at the placement site on Cage’s Hill and news reports said that virtually every one of the city’s 3,000 citizens attended, with hundreds more from out of town. Gov. Francis Fleming was the dedication speaker and bands from several sources also were involved.
Shortly, members of the Ladies Monument Association asked members of the Pensacola City Commission to rename the hill where the monument stood, from Gage (who was a British Revolutionary War general) to the honor of Robert E. Lee, a request quickly confirmed.
From that date forward, the monument has been the site of countless celebrations, including reunions of veterans, some still wearing tattered uniforms. For decades, the Ladies Association provided planting and special care on this hill.
And that’s how it all began. | <urn:uuid:c4d2e01a-70de-4ee6-a25b-e41890e9bef5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.pnj.com/story/news/2017/08/23/real-history-how-pensacola-confederate-statue-came/592196001/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00396.warc.gz | en | 0.987133 | 771 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.4651869535446167... | 1 | Real history of Pensacola's Confederate statue
In recent weeks, a broad dialogue has been focused on memorials and monuments related to the days and personalities of the Confederacy.
Pensacola’s monument has been part of the historical scene since 1891 and its beginning and purpose are part of the culture, which prevailed after 1865. Hundreds of such memorials were erected, with a variety of focuses and purposes. Pensacola’s placement was conceived and dedicated in a unique manner; there may be value for all in Pensacola in reviewing that background.
In 1885, Pensacola attorney Edward Perry was elected Florida’s governor. Prior to that, Perry had served in the War Between the States and had reached field-grade rank. With the coming of peace, he returned to Pensacola and for two decades became extremely popular for his service to veterans and to many in commercial circles. In 1884, those followers urged him to seek the governor’s chair, for Florida was suffering from results of a constitution imposed in 1867.
Perry agreed to run (though he never before sought or held public office), and from his inauguration he successfully pursued popular goals. The constitution was written and passed. Pensacola received a new charter, which brought elective status to many local offices, and the means to begin a public school system.
However, Gov. Perry was personally disturbed when he discovered that Florida was the only Southern state that had not erected some form of memorial to veterans and those who had died. He began to seek a state-sponsored monument, but upon leaving office his attempt had failed. In those same months, Perry’s health was failing. Shortly after he left office his illness proved fatal.
It was then, in 1889, that Mrs. Perry brought together women from leading Pensacola families. Her proposal was that the ladies form a league and pursue establishment of a memorial in the city of Pensacola. The women agreed and formed the Ladies Monument Association. The association was given legal aid by attorney Alex C. Blount and by business and professional men, including the railroad magnate William D. Chipley. The campaign was climaxed by efforts through Christ Church and its respected pastor, the Rev. F.C. Whaley.
Contacts were made with a Washington, D.C., firm, which had produced scores of such memorials. The producers were guided by specifics prepared by the ladies and their association. The memorial was to recognize men from the four companies who had been formed locally and men who had perished in battle from disease. The small plaques of copy were directed to those views.
The 30-foot Vermont granite memorial was capped by an 8-foot figure representing the basic soldier.
The memorial was carried to Pensacola without charge by railroads. And when dedication day came, the rail lines provided free passage for veterans and charged but 1 cent per mile for others. The ceremony was conducted at the placement site on Cage’s Hill and news reports said that virtually every one of the city’s 3,000 citizens attended, with hundreds more from out of town. Gov. Francis Fleming was the dedication speaker and bands from several sources also were involved.
Shortly, members of the Ladies Monument Association asked members of the Pensacola City Commission to rename the hill where the monument stood, from Gage (who was a British Revolutionary War general) to the honor of Robert E. Lee, a request quickly confirmed.
From that date forward, the monument has been the site of countless celebrations, including reunions of veterans, some still wearing tattered uniforms. For decades, the Ladies Association provided planting and special care on this hill.
And that’s how it all began. | 765 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Educated at Cambridge A. He refused a call to the church of Boston because it had not formally broken with the Church of England, but after two invitations he became the assistant pastor, later pastor, of the church at Salem. He questioned the right of the colonists to take the Indians' land from them merely on the legal basis of the royal charter and in other ways ran afoul of the oligarchy then ruling Massachusetts.
Library of Congress, Rare Books and Roger williams and religious freedom Collections Division InWilliams returned to Providence from England with a charter that established Rhode Island as a democracy and left decisions concerning religion to majority rule. Barry Smithsonian Magazine Subscribe January Even the most bitter opponents of Roger Williams recognized in him that combination of charm, confidence and intensity a later age would call charisma.
They did not regard such traits as assets, however, for those traits only made the preacher more dangerous in the Massachusetts Bay Colony.
With someone like him, they could not compromise. For his part, Williams was not about to compromise, either, despite his benevolent intelligence and Christian charity. The error, he believed, was not his, and when convinced he was right he backed away from no one.
So the conflict between Williams and his accusers nearly years ago was inevitable.
It was also thick with history, for it concerned both the relationship between church and state and defining the very nature of state power. Its repercussions would be immense and reach into the present. The American part of the story began when John Winthrop led 1, men, women and children to plant the Massachusetts Bay Colony in These Puritans were disgusted with what they regarded as corruption in the Church of England and the tyranny of the crown.
Seeking simple worship and personal intimacy with God, Puritan ministers were compelled—upon pain of imprisonment—to wear the surplice and use the Book of Common Prayer, and their congregants were compelled to participate in what they regarded as rote worship.
Williams, who had developed a reputation for scholarship and piety as a clergyman in England, brought his family to the colony a few months later. But Williams declined, spurning the church as insufficiently committed to the proper worship of God.
Williams did not differ with them on any point of theology. They believed that the success of the Massachusetts plantation depended upon it. The dispute defined for the first time two fault lines that have run through American history ever since.
The first, of course, is over the proper relation between government and what man has made of God—the church. The second is over the relation between a free individual and government authority—the shape of liberty. Eventually, after Williams accepted a church post in Salem, north of Boston, and gathered a like-minded congregation, the authorities in the Bay feared that the foul error emanating from him could spread and corrupt the entire colony.
In Octoberthe General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony banished him, ordering him to leave the colony within six weeks. If he returned, he risked execution.
Williams was ill and winter was coming to New England, so the court extended him one mercy, suspending enforcement of the banishment order until spring. In return, he promised not to speak publicly. In his own home among his friends, however, he did not hold his tongue.
Considering this a violation of his promise, the authorities in January abruptly sent soldiers to arrest him and put him on a ship bound for England. This went well beyond the banishment order: The best Williams could expect in England was life in prison; in English prisons such sentences were generally short.
Winthrop, though, did not believe Williams deserved that fate; in secret he warned him of the impending arrest. Dressing against the winter, stuffing his pockets with the dried corn paste that Indians lived on for weeks at a time, he fled his home. He would never see it again.
The cold that winter struck with violence. During that winter one of the Bay clerics wrote him letters, several of which Indians delivered. He was a social creature, a man who made friends easily, yet he was now cast adrift emotionally, mentally and physically.
But being unmoored in an entirely new world had one benefit: He began exploring, probing, thinking about what kind of society he wanted to create, for he now had, as Plymouth Gov.
His family and a dozen or so men with their families, many of them followers from Salem, joined him. Few as they were, Williams soon recognized the need for some form of government. The Narragansetts had sold the land solely to him, and in all English and colonial precedent those proprietary rights gave him political control over the settlement.
Yet he drafted a political compact for Providence, and in it he demonstrated that his thinking had taken him into a new world indeed. He relinquished nearly all his land—to a town common stock—and any special political rights, reserving for himself only a vote equal to others.Freedom of religion is protected by the First Amendment of the U.S.
Constitution, which prohibits laws establishing a national religion or impeding the free exercise of religion for its citizens. Roger Williams: Father of Religious Freedom in America Roger Williams came to the New World in with much the same hopes as the first Pilgrim Separatists.
His heart’s desire was to see a pure church raised up, with no ties to the Church of England and its corruption, compromise, and oppression. Oct 29, · Watch video · Roger Williams (?) was a religious dissenter and the founder of Rhode Island (). During his fifty years in New England, Williams was a staunch advocate of religious toleration and.
roger williams university law review [vol. foundation for the peaceful coexistence of religion and society, and also, for the pluralistic democracy we inhabit today. After his expulsion, Roger Williams settled on Narragansett Bay, where he purchased land from the Narragansett tribe and established a new colony he called Providence.
Williams proclaimed that everyone had the freedom to worship as they chose. God, Government and Roger Williams’ Big Idea Such language on religious freedom was written into the concession of land for New Jersey.
Similar guarantees appeared in the charter of Carolina. | <urn:uuid:c481222b-a093-4b41-9183-f78a7ecd5ba7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://qipacabynujatoke.rutadeltambor.com/roger-williams-and-religious-freedom-55911nv.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00005.warc.gz | en | 0.981729 | 1,273 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.084975868463... | 1 | Educated at Cambridge A. He refused a call to the church of Boston because it had not formally broken with the Church of England, but after two invitations he became the assistant pastor, later pastor, of the church at Salem. He questioned the right of the colonists to take the Indians' land from them merely on the legal basis of the royal charter and in other ways ran afoul of the oligarchy then ruling Massachusetts.
Library of Congress, Rare Books and Roger williams and religious freedom Collections Division InWilliams returned to Providence from England with a charter that established Rhode Island as a democracy and left decisions concerning religion to majority rule. Barry Smithsonian Magazine Subscribe January Even the most bitter opponents of Roger Williams recognized in him that combination of charm, confidence and intensity a later age would call charisma.
They did not regard such traits as assets, however, for those traits only made the preacher more dangerous in the Massachusetts Bay Colony.
With someone like him, they could not compromise. For his part, Williams was not about to compromise, either, despite his benevolent intelligence and Christian charity. The error, he believed, was not his, and when convinced he was right he backed away from no one.
So the conflict between Williams and his accusers nearly years ago was inevitable.
It was also thick with history, for it concerned both the relationship between church and state and defining the very nature of state power. Its repercussions would be immense and reach into the present. The American part of the story began when John Winthrop led 1, men, women and children to plant the Massachusetts Bay Colony in These Puritans were disgusted with what they regarded as corruption in the Church of England and the tyranny of the crown.
Seeking simple worship and personal intimacy with God, Puritan ministers were compelled—upon pain of imprisonment—to wear the surplice and use the Book of Common Prayer, and their congregants were compelled to participate in what they regarded as rote worship.
Williams, who had developed a reputation for scholarship and piety as a clergyman in England, brought his family to the colony a few months later. But Williams declined, spurning the church as insufficiently committed to the proper worship of God.
Williams did not differ with them on any point of theology. They believed that the success of the Massachusetts plantation depended upon it. The dispute defined for the first time two fault lines that have run through American history ever since.
The first, of course, is over the proper relation between government and what man has made of God—the church. The second is over the relation between a free individual and government authority—the shape of liberty. Eventually, after Williams accepted a church post in Salem, north of Boston, and gathered a like-minded congregation, the authorities in the Bay feared that the foul error emanating from him could spread and corrupt the entire colony.
In Octoberthe General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony banished him, ordering him to leave the colony within six weeks. If he returned, he risked execution.
Williams was ill and winter was coming to New England, so the court extended him one mercy, suspending enforcement of the banishment order until spring. In return, he promised not to speak publicly. In his own home among his friends, however, he did not hold his tongue.
Considering this a violation of his promise, the authorities in January abruptly sent soldiers to arrest him and put him on a ship bound for England. This went well beyond the banishment order: The best Williams could expect in England was life in prison; in English prisons such sentences were generally short.
Winthrop, though, did not believe Williams deserved that fate; in secret he warned him of the impending arrest. Dressing against the winter, stuffing his pockets with the dried corn paste that Indians lived on for weeks at a time, he fled his home. He would never see it again.
The cold that winter struck with violence. During that winter one of the Bay clerics wrote him letters, several of which Indians delivered. He was a social creature, a man who made friends easily, yet he was now cast adrift emotionally, mentally and physically.
But being unmoored in an entirely new world had one benefit: He began exploring, probing, thinking about what kind of society he wanted to create, for he now had, as Plymouth Gov.
His family and a dozen or so men with their families, many of them followers from Salem, joined him. Few as they were, Williams soon recognized the need for some form of government. The Narragansetts had sold the land solely to him, and in all English and colonial precedent those proprietary rights gave him political control over the settlement.
Yet he drafted a political compact for Providence, and in it he demonstrated that his thinking had taken him into a new world indeed. He relinquished nearly all his land—to a town common stock—and any special political rights, reserving for himself only a vote equal to others.Freedom of religion is protected by the First Amendment of the U.S.
Constitution, which prohibits laws establishing a national religion or impeding the free exercise of religion for its citizens. Roger Williams: Father of Religious Freedom in America Roger Williams came to the New World in with much the same hopes as the first Pilgrim Separatists.
His heart’s desire was to see a pure church raised up, with no ties to the Church of England and its corruption, compromise, and oppression. Oct 29, · Watch video · Roger Williams (?) was a religious dissenter and the founder of Rhode Island (). During his fifty years in New England, Williams was a staunch advocate of religious toleration and.
roger williams university law review [vol. foundation for the peaceful coexistence of religion and society, and also, for the pluralistic democracy we inhabit today. After his expulsion, Roger Williams settled on Narragansett Bay, where he purchased land from the Narragansett tribe and established a new colony he called Providence.
Williams proclaimed that everyone had the freedom to worship as they chose. God, Government and Roger Williams’ Big Idea Such language on religious freedom was written into the concession of land for New Jersey.
Similar guarantees appeared in the charter of Carolina. | 1,251 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On August 19th, 1942, Canadian troops, along with groups of British, free-French and American soldiers, attacked the heavily fortified German-held seaport of Dieppe, located on French soil. The infamous Dieppe Raid was one of the most devastating battles in World War II for the Canadian armed forces. It was truly a devastating moment in Canadian military history, resulting in over 3000 Canadian soldiers killed in action, wounded or captured. Dieppe undoubtedly was a defining moment in Canadian history affecting the following battles as it demonstrated Canada's devotion to war shown in the troops used and helping out its allies, it unfortunately ending into one of the biggest mission failures in Canadian history. Raid of Dieppe portrays its significant effect in battles such as in the execution of D-Day, which would have resulted in a much different ending to World War II.
Dieppe affected future battles in many ways. The raid on Dieppe showed how important it was to destroy enemy defenses with air bombings prior to the attack, along with improvement of military tactics and equipment from traditional war trends. Dieppe resulted in important lessons, assisting in the Canadian development of new military tactics "Dieppe taught us that if we wanted to land in France, we had to have mass bombing attacks." (Newman 233). Dieppe Raid proved that aerial bombings were key to supporting the troops during the attack and that these bombings were more important than the minor surprise gained by ground forces. For example, in the Dieppe Raid the troops suffered greatly from the gun batteries and mortars which were supposed to be taken out by aerial bombings. By not using them beforehand, more men were killed by machine-gun fire and struck by mortar shells.(Juno Beach Centre). However Canada was able to learn from the previous mistakes and used aerial bombing on crucial raids like D-Day and resulted in successful future outcomes. | <urn:uuid:1f68479b-9bdf-4361-bdb4-504af60996ad> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/218020.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00201.warc.gz | en | 0.981391 | 374 | 3.890625 | 4 | [
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0.1475863903760... | 7 | On August 19th, 1942, Canadian troops, along with groups of British, free-French and American soldiers, attacked the heavily fortified German-held seaport of Dieppe, located on French soil. The infamous Dieppe Raid was one of the most devastating battles in World War II for the Canadian armed forces. It was truly a devastating moment in Canadian military history, resulting in over 3000 Canadian soldiers killed in action, wounded or captured. Dieppe undoubtedly was a defining moment in Canadian history affecting the following battles as it demonstrated Canada's devotion to war shown in the troops used and helping out its allies, it unfortunately ending into one of the biggest mission failures in Canadian history. Raid of Dieppe portrays its significant effect in battles such as in the execution of D-Day, which would have resulted in a much different ending to World War II.
Dieppe affected future battles in many ways. The raid on Dieppe showed how important it was to destroy enemy defenses with air bombings prior to the attack, along with improvement of military tactics and equipment from traditional war trends. Dieppe resulted in important lessons, assisting in the Canadian development of new military tactics "Dieppe taught us that if we wanted to land in France, we had to have mass bombing attacks." (Newman 233). Dieppe Raid proved that aerial bombings were key to supporting the troops during the attack and that these bombings were more important than the minor surprise gained by ground forces. For example, in the Dieppe Raid the troops suffered greatly from the gun batteries and mortars which were supposed to be taken out by aerial bombings. By not using them beforehand, more men were killed by machine-gun fire and struck by mortar shells.(Juno Beach Centre). However Canada was able to learn from the previous mistakes and used aerial bombing on crucial raids like D-Day and resulted in successful future outcomes. | 382 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1896, a pedestrian was hit, killed and recorded for the first time. In those days, cars were very angular and were designed with little thought about the chance that they might collide with a pedestrian who unexpectedly runs into the street.
The incident caused carmakers and engineers to look for ways to save lives.
A small revolution took place in 1927 when the “Pedestrian Safety Device” was introduced. This device was first introduced to the public in Berlin, Germany. It was actually less of a safety device and more of a huge hammock attached to the front of the car that could “catch” a jaywalking pedestrian at any time.
The new device had several shortcomings. The huge structure of the hammock reduced the driver’s field of vision, and the catcher limited the car’s maneuverability in tight spaces.
Years after the first people-catcher was introduced, two Sheffield, Great Britain based engineers presented their own interpretation. Unlike the earlier device that was always expanded, the British invention made it possible to only deploy the catcher in an emergency situation.
All the driver had to do was flick a lever next to the steering wheel and the pedestrian would be saved.
This archive footage from 1939 shows the two Sheffield based engineers demonstrating their new pedestrian-scooping invention for the front of the automobile that potentially staves off injury to pedestrians… | <urn:uuid:e0308dba-2865-492a-9405-c253be0acb93> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://m.roadkillcustoms.com/1920s-1930s-pedestrian-safety-device/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00328.warc.gz | en | 0.984008 | 284 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.3087926208972931... | 8 | In 1896, a pedestrian was hit, killed and recorded for the first time. In those days, cars were very angular and were designed with little thought about the chance that they might collide with a pedestrian who unexpectedly runs into the street.
The incident caused carmakers and engineers to look for ways to save lives.
A small revolution took place in 1927 when the “Pedestrian Safety Device” was introduced. This device was first introduced to the public in Berlin, Germany. It was actually less of a safety device and more of a huge hammock attached to the front of the car that could “catch” a jaywalking pedestrian at any time.
The new device had several shortcomings. The huge structure of the hammock reduced the driver’s field of vision, and the catcher limited the car’s maneuverability in tight spaces.
Years after the first people-catcher was introduced, two Sheffield, Great Britain based engineers presented their own interpretation. Unlike the earlier device that was always expanded, the British invention made it possible to only deploy the catcher in an emergency situation.
All the driver had to do was flick a lever next to the steering wheel and the pedestrian would be saved.
This archive footage from 1939 shows the two Sheffield based engineers demonstrating their new pedestrian-scooping invention for the front of the automobile that potentially staves off injury to pedestrians… | 280 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Fort Defiance was the home of General William Lenoir, a Major General in the North Carolina militia during the American Revolution. Lenoir is best known for his written account of the pivotal battle of Kings Mountain that helped turned the tide against the British in their southern campaign. Lenoir built his home in 1792 near the site of an original fort that he had commissioned to fend off Cherokee raiders. Many generations of William Lenoir’s family lived in the home until the house was acquired in 1965. The site allows tours through the home to see furniture from the era and experience what life was like during the period.
Fort Defiance was the residence of William Lenoir and the six generations of his family that preceded him. Construction of the house was started in 1788 but was not completed until 1792 four years later. Lenoir oversaw every aspect and design of the house to ensure that each room had a specific use to everyday life. Years later the house was bought by a non-profit organization in 1962 to help restore the house to its original glory.
At the age of eighteen, William became certified as a teacher but had other ambitions as he knew that his teaching salary would be insufficient to raise a family. To combat his low salary, he chose to become an apprentice to a land surveyor in 1772. Recognizing the opportunity presented by uncharted lands towards the Appalachian Mountains, Lenoir went to what at that time was the frontier of North Carolina.
Lenoir used his salary to acquire land and moved his family here just before the start of the American Revolution in 1775. His first house was at Fisher’s Creek (present-day Wilkesboro), until he moved his family into a two room cabin in Happy Valley. William and his family then moved into the home he called Fort Defiance in 1792 where he spent the rest of his years.
Today Fort Defiance is a historical site that allows anyone to be exposed to the architecture and natural beauty of the land that William Lenoir himself surveyed hundreds of years ago. Inside the house, there are over three hundred pieces of original furniture and artifacts that depict how everyday life was during the 18th and 19th centuries. | <urn:uuid:e3e1bb5f-8ef9-46e4-a6bd-416fa80efde4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theclio.com/entry/18840 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00493.warc.gz | en | 0.989595 | 445 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.0140173370018... | 2 | Fort Defiance was the home of General William Lenoir, a Major General in the North Carolina militia during the American Revolution. Lenoir is best known for his written account of the pivotal battle of Kings Mountain that helped turned the tide against the British in their southern campaign. Lenoir built his home in 1792 near the site of an original fort that he had commissioned to fend off Cherokee raiders. Many generations of William Lenoir’s family lived in the home until the house was acquired in 1965. The site allows tours through the home to see furniture from the era and experience what life was like during the period.
Fort Defiance was the residence of William Lenoir and the six generations of his family that preceded him. Construction of the house was started in 1788 but was not completed until 1792 four years later. Lenoir oversaw every aspect and design of the house to ensure that each room had a specific use to everyday life. Years later the house was bought by a non-profit organization in 1962 to help restore the house to its original glory.
At the age of eighteen, William became certified as a teacher but had other ambitions as he knew that his teaching salary would be insufficient to raise a family. To combat his low salary, he chose to become an apprentice to a land surveyor in 1772. Recognizing the opportunity presented by uncharted lands towards the Appalachian Mountains, Lenoir went to what at that time was the frontier of North Carolina.
Lenoir used his salary to acquire land and moved his family here just before the start of the American Revolution in 1775. His first house was at Fisher’s Creek (present-day Wilkesboro), until he moved his family into a two room cabin in Happy Valley. William and his family then moved into the home he called Fort Defiance in 1792 where he spent the rest of his years.
Today Fort Defiance is a historical site that allows anyone to be exposed to the architecture and natural beauty of the land that William Lenoir himself surveyed hundreds of years ago. Inside the house, there are over three hundred pieces of original furniture and artifacts that depict how everyday life was during the 18th and 19th centuries. | 474 | ENGLISH | 1 |
When Jinnah passed his legal exam in May ofhe was the youngest ever to have been accepted to the bar. He was also made president of Pakistan's constituent assembly shortly before his death. Full power remained in the hands of the Viceroy, however, who could dissolve legislatures and rule by decree.
Gradually, Jinnah realized that the Hindu leaders of Congress held a political agenda that was incongruent with his own.
This change has been seen to last for the rest of Jinnah's life. The resolution was passed by the League session in Lahore on 23 March People say our demands smack of communalism.
Rattanbai defied her family and nominally converted to Islamadopting though never using the name Maryam Jinnah, resulting in a permanent estrangement from her family and Parsi society. Quaid e Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah was one of those men whom history will remember as the most significant political leader of all time.
He said that our principle of separate electorates was dividing the nation against itself. He sacrificed his sleep, rest and leisure and even health for the accomplishment of his noble cause.
Emibai was from the village of Paneli in India, and the wedding took place in her hometown. In the aftermath of the conflict, some Anglo-Indians, as well as Indians in Britain, called for greater self-government for the subcontinent, resulting in the founding of the Indian National Congress in Four years later, Britain sent a cabinet mission to India to outline a constitution for transfer of power to India.
Even his opponents were impressed by his wisdom. | <urn:uuid:08f270a7-5c6f-4eb4-b1fd-76a83b773a77> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://fomalogaxapoxizot.whatshanesaid.com/my-favourite-personality-quaid-e-azam-muhammad-ali-jinnah352065690ev.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00059.warc.gz | en | 0.988609 | 332 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.3035387992858886... | 1 | When Jinnah passed his legal exam in May ofhe was the youngest ever to have been accepted to the bar. He was also made president of Pakistan's constituent assembly shortly before his death. Full power remained in the hands of the Viceroy, however, who could dissolve legislatures and rule by decree.
Gradually, Jinnah realized that the Hindu leaders of Congress held a political agenda that was incongruent with his own.
This change has been seen to last for the rest of Jinnah's life. The resolution was passed by the League session in Lahore on 23 March People say our demands smack of communalism.
Rattanbai defied her family and nominally converted to Islamadopting though never using the name Maryam Jinnah, resulting in a permanent estrangement from her family and Parsi society. Quaid e Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah was one of those men whom history will remember as the most significant political leader of all time.
He said that our principle of separate electorates was dividing the nation against itself. He sacrificed his sleep, rest and leisure and even health for the accomplishment of his noble cause.
Emibai was from the village of Paneli in India, and the wedding took place in her hometown. In the aftermath of the conflict, some Anglo-Indians, as well as Indians in Britain, called for greater self-government for the subcontinent, resulting in the founding of the Indian National Congress in Four years later, Britain sent a cabinet mission to India to outline a constitution for transfer of power to India.
Even his opponents were impressed by his wisdom. | 329 | ENGLISH | 1 |
As part of our ongoing series on ancient Roman life, to commemorate 2000 years since the death of Rome's first emperor August, celebrated in 2014, Carol Kings heads to the Circus Maximus to report on one of the most exciting sports events of the time: chariot racing.
You can read part one of the series, "The Romans: What They Ate" here; part two, "The Romans: Marriage and Weddings" here; part three, "The Romans: Top 5 Emperors" here; part four, "The Romans: What they Wore" here; part 5, "The Romans: Gladiators" here; part 6, "The Romans: Housing" here.
The nine-minute chariot race featured in the 1959 movie ‘Ben Hur’ has become one of cinema’s most famous sequences. In Ancient Rome, chariot racing was the equivalent of today’s Formula One, but with galloping horses rather than cars. Cheering crowds were thrilled by the speed and skill of drivers, who were fêted by emperors and the public alike. Like F1 drivers, charioteers earned large sums and were regarded as the courageous heroic sportsmen of the day.
The Romans likely borrowed the custom of chariot racing from the Etruscans, who were in turn influenced by the chariot races of the Greeks. Chariot races were held at the Panhellenic festivals in Greece and in Roman times, and at the ludi sacred games staged during religious festivals.
In republican and imperial times, Roman chariot races, or circenses, were staged in arenas known as circuses. The centre of chariot racing in Rome was the Circus Maximus, which could seat 250,000 people. A circus was divided down the centre by a low wall, the spina. Races were for four-horse chariots, quadrigae, and two-horse chariots, bigae. Chariots started the race speeding out of spring-loaded gates known as carceres. Four to six chariots competed in a heat by driving up one side of a circus track and down the other, rounding the metae (conical pillars) at each end. A heat consisted of seven rounds of the circus.
[Photo: the site of the Circus Maximus in Rome today]
The race host, the magistrate, signalled its start by dropping a cloth called a mappa. Once a race had started, charioteers would jostle to move in front of one another and cause their opponents to collide into the spina wall. Competitors were ruthless in their desire to win and did not hesitate to cause a crash that could lead to a rival’s chariot being destroyed.
The chariots were made from wood and leather, making them light to handle, and aiding speed and manoeuvrability. They were low and rounded at the front, open at the back, and mounted on small wheels. Typically, a biga was drawn by two horses yoked to a pole and a quadriga by four horses yoked to two poles. The Romans recorded information on horses’ names, breeds and pedigrees, and – like charioteers –horses had their own fan following. Popular racehorses even received awards from emperors.
Charioteers were usually slaves, however, on the racetrack, they were professional sportsmen. They wore leather helmets and short tunics with padding around the torso and thighs. Charioteers stood upright in chariots, wrapped the horse reins around their waists – knotting them at the back – and leaned in the direction they wanted their chariot to turn; their hands were then free to use a whip. Chariot racing was a dangerous sport because in the event of a crash a charioteer could be dragged around the track, risking life and limb, unless he managed to escape by cutting the reins using a falx (curved knife) to release himself. However, the rewards for a successful charioteer could be great. Winners were crowned with laurel leaves and awarded prize money, but best of all, if they won enough races, charioteers could buy their freedom. Nevertheless, the life expectancy of even a celebrity charioteer was usually short given the deadly nature of a life spent on the track.
In republican times, chariot teams belonged to private owners. In imperial times, teams were owned by contractors who acted as owner-managers. The teams were distinguished by four colours: blue, white, red and green. Later, two other colours were added: purple and gold. Charioteers could switch teams, just as footballers are traded between teams today.
Each team had its own band of fans that followed it keenly. Watching the skill of the charioteers was not the only reason crowds flocked to the races – they placed bets on different colour teams, too. Passions among fans ran high. Sometimes disappointed fans rioted after watching their team lose. Pliny wrote about the extreme gesture of a grieving fan who threw himself on the funeral pyre of a charioteer from the red team. Chariot racing may have only been a game, but fans’ love of the sport appears to have been as strong as that of any enthusiastic group of football or motor-facing supporters in the 21st century. | <urn:uuid:4a2196de-5e41-4a76-b10a-fe6dc43d8302> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.italymagazine.com/featured-story/romans-chariot-racing | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00365.warc.gz | en | 0.983391 | 1,114 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.538037419319152... | 4 | As part of our ongoing series on ancient Roman life, to commemorate 2000 years since the death of Rome's first emperor August, celebrated in 2014, Carol Kings heads to the Circus Maximus to report on one of the most exciting sports events of the time: chariot racing.
You can read part one of the series, "The Romans: What They Ate" here; part two, "The Romans: Marriage and Weddings" here; part three, "The Romans: Top 5 Emperors" here; part four, "The Romans: What they Wore" here; part 5, "The Romans: Gladiators" here; part 6, "The Romans: Housing" here.
The nine-minute chariot race featured in the 1959 movie ‘Ben Hur’ has become one of cinema’s most famous sequences. In Ancient Rome, chariot racing was the equivalent of today’s Formula One, but with galloping horses rather than cars. Cheering crowds were thrilled by the speed and skill of drivers, who were fêted by emperors and the public alike. Like F1 drivers, charioteers earned large sums and were regarded as the courageous heroic sportsmen of the day.
The Romans likely borrowed the custom of chariot racing from the Etruscans, who were in turn influenced by the chariot races of the Greeks. Chariot races were held at the Panhellenic festivals in Greece and in Roman times, and at the ludi sacred games staged during religious festivals.
In republican and imperial times, Roman chariot races, or circenses, were staged in arenas known as circuses. The centre of chariot racing in Rome was the Circus Maximus, which could seat 250,000 people. A circus was divided down the centre by a low wall, the spina. Races were for four-horse chariots, quadrigae, and two-horse chariots, bigae. Chariots started the race speeding out of spring-loaded gates known as carceres. Four to six chariots competed in a heat by driving up one side of a circus track and down the other, rounding the metae (conical pillars) at each end. A heat consisted of seven rounds of the circus.
[Photo: the site of the Circus Maximus in Rome today]
The race host, the magistrate, signalled its start by dropping a cloth called a mappa. Once a race had started, charioteers would jostle to move in front of one another and cause their opponents to collide into the spina wall. Competitors were ruthless in their desire to win and did not hesitate to cause a crash that could lead to a rival’s chariot being destroyed.
The chariots were made from wood and leather, making them light to handle, and aiding speed and manoeuvrability. They were low and rounded at the front, open at the back, and mounted on small wheels. Typically, a biga was drawn by two horses yoked to a pole and a quadriga by four horses yoked to two poles. The Romans recorded information on horses’ names, breeds and pedigrees, and – like charioteers –horses had their own fan following. Popular racehorses even received awards from emperors.
Charioteers were usually slaves, however, on the racetrack, they were professional sportsmen. They wore leather helmets and short tunics with padding around the torso and thighs. Charioteers stood upright in chariots, wrapped the horse reins around their waists – knotting them at the back – and leaned in the direction they wanted their chariot to turn; their hands were then free to use a whip. Chariot racing was a dangerous sport because in the event of a crash a charioteer could be dragged around the track, risking life and limb, unless he managed to escape by cutting the reins using a falx (curved knife) to release himself. However, the rewards for a successful charioteer could be great. Winners were crowned with laurel leaves and awarded prize money, but best of all, if they won enough races, charioteers could buy their freedom. Nevertheless, the life expectancy of even a celebrity charioteer was usually short given the deadly nature of a life spent on the track.
In republican times, chariot teams belonged to private owners. In imperial times, teams were owned by contractors who acted as owner-managers. The teams were distinguished by four colours: blue, white, red and green. Later, two other colours were added: purple and gold. Charioteers could switch teams, just as footballers are traded between teams today.
Each team had its own band of fans that followed it keenly. Watching the skill of the charioteers was not the only reason crowds flocked to the races – they placed bets on different colour teams, too. Passions among fans ran high. Sometimes disappointed fans rioted after watching their team lose. Pliny wrote about the extreme gesture of a grieving fan who threw himself on the funeral pyre of a charioteer from the red team. Chariot racing may have only been a game, but fans’ love of the sport appears to have been as strong as that of any enthusiastic group of football or motor-facing supporters in the 21st century. | 1,121 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1772, a family of four brothers by the last name of Ellicott moved into the area. They bought land that flanked the nearby Patapsco River and began a grain mill and a general store. Banneker, now 41 years old, was drawn to the workings of the mill, which employed an
The sea voyage was miserable, cramped, and dirty. With great relief, Molly landed at Chesapeake Bay in 1683 as one of the hundreds of "Seven Years Passengers" who arrived regularly to be sold into servitude. This was a convenient way for plantation owners, who desperately needed laborers to work their land, to attain the help they needed. The owner of a tobacco plantation located on the Patapsco River in Maryland purchased Molly's labor, and she was put to work in the fields.
In 1690, after serving her seven years on the plantation, Molly was released and given the items that were customary supplied by the employer. Armed with an ox, cart, plow, clothing, gun, and seeds with which to plant crops, Molly staked a claim near the Patapsco River on Cooper's Branch, not far from her former master's plantation. For a few years, she worked the land alone, saving her earnings from Indian corn and tobacco harvests. Though she was opposed to slavery, she needed help on the farm.
Money in hand, she traveled to the docks and bought two slaves from a ship that had recently arrived from Africa. One of the slaves, whose name is not known, was robust and hardworking. The other was Bannaka, a frail individual who claimed to be the son of an African king. In Silvio A. Bedini's The Life of Benjamin Banneker (1999), Bannaka is described as being "a man of bright intelligence, fine temper, with a very agreeable presence, dignified manners, and contemplative habits." Molly grew to love Bannaka, and he returned her love. After freeing Bannaka (as well as the other slave), Molly ignored the law against mixed-race marriages and married him, taking his name as her surname.
integrated system of complex (for the times) mechanical hardware, including a waterwheel. As always, Banneker's fascination with mechanics was in the forefront of his daily life. Drawn by its mechanisms, he frequented the mill enough to become friends with the Ellicotts. In this way, the arrival of the mill became the first real link for the solitary Banneker to the budding world of technology. The area later became known as Ellicott Mills.
Among the Ellicott family was 12-year-old George, son of one of the brothers. George shared Banneker's fascination with science, and while there was a generation gap of 29 years between them, they still became good friends.
It was George Ellicott who first became interested in astronomy, and he had the means to pursue it. He began to acquire textbooks and instruments imported from England, including a celestial globe and various telescopes. Banneker was right there with him, learning along with George at an insatiable rate. In this way, George was the key influence in Banneker's becoming involved with astronomy.
Was this article helpful? | <urn:uuid:318cefaf-100c-482a-ae95-a39221685390> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.astronomyclub.xyz/bang-theory/an-influential-arrival.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00524.warc.gz | en | 0.986617 | 674 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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-0.2348031401... | 1 | In 1772, a family of four brothers by the last name of Ellicott moved into the area. They bought land that flanked the nearby Patapsco River and began a grain mill and a general store. Banneker, now 41 years old, was drawn to the workings of the mill, which employed an
The sea voyage was miserable, cramped, and dirty. With great relief, Molly landed at Chesapeake Bay in 1683 as one of the hundreds of "Seven Years Passengers" who arrived regularly to be sold into servitude. This was a convenient way for plantation owners, who desperately needed laborers to work their land, to attain the help they needed. The owner of a tobacco plantation located on the Patapsco River in Maryland purchased Molly's labor, and she was put to work in the fields.
In 1690, after serving her seven years on the plantation, Molly was released and given the items that were customary supplied by the employer. Armed with an ox, cart, plow, clothing, gun, and seeds with which to plant crops, Molly staked a claim near the Patapsco River on Cooper's Branch, not far from her former master's plantation. For a few years, she worked the land alone, saving her earnings from Indian corn and tobacco harvests. Though she was opposed to slavery, she needed help on the farm.
Money in hand, she traveled to the docks and bought two slaves from a ship that had recently arrived from Africa. One of the slaves, whose name is not known, was robust and hardworking. The other was Bannaka, a frail individual who claimed to be the son of an African king. In Silvio A. Bedini's The Life of Benjamin Banneker (1999), Bannaka is described as being "a man of bright intelligence, fine temper, with a very agreeable presence, dignified manners, and contemplative habits." Molly grew to love Bannaka, and he returned her love. After freeing Bannaka (as well as the other slave), Molly ignored the law against mixed-race marriages and married him, taking his name as her surname.
integrated system of complex (for the times) mechanical hardware, including a waterwheel. As always, Banneker's fascination with mechanics was in the forefront of his daily life. Drawn by its mechanisms, he frequented the mill enough to become friends with the Ellicotts. In this way, the arrival of the mill became the first real link for the solitary Banneker to the budding world of technology. The area later became known as Ellicott Mills.
Among the Ellicott family was 12-year-old George, son of one of the brothers. George shared Banneker's fascination with science, and while there was a generation gap of 29 years between them, they still became good friends.
It was George Ellicott who first became interested in astronomy, and he had the means to pursue it. He began to acquire textbooks and instruments imported from England, including a celestial globe and various telescopes. Banneker was right there with him, learning along with George at an insatiable rate. In this way, George was the key influence in Banneker's becoming involved with astronomy.
Was this article helpful? | 686 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Wampum belts tell history through symbolism and interpretation. There are many wampum belts made by various Indigenous groups in Canada and the United States. Wampum shells were named after the Wampunum people. Wampum belts can be described as visual interpretations of covenants and agreements made of beads fashioned from the shells of wampum.
During the annual MNCFN Historical Gathering in February, Elder Garry Sault explained the meaning and significance of some of the more well-known wampum belts in existence. Sault spent his childhood learning about culture and history from his grandparents.
He explained in depth one belt of particular importance: the “Chief Yellowhead Belt.”
The belt is of special significance to the Anishinaabe people. It consists of five diamonds, each one representing a council fire.
“The first council fire is represented by this diamond,” he said, pointing to the end of the belt. “It represents Lake Superior and is still burning.” The second council fire is on Manitoulin Island, where a beautiful whitefish was placed to keep the sacred fire going until the end of time. The third council fire represents an island off of Penetanguishine, where a beaver was placed to look after that council fire and he represented wisdom. The fourth council fire is at the narrows with a white reindeer keeping an eye on that fire. He is the symbol of strength. It was there that the dish with many ladles was given. “[Chief] Yellowhead said our people then placed a large round wampum that symbolized the sun; that people would remember where this dish with many ladles was made. We have our own spoons.”
The fifth and last council fire is represented by a great, bald headed eagle who sits on top of a tall tree at the mouth of the Credit River and there he watched all of the other council fires so no winds blew upon the land. If there was a disturbance in them, he was to fly to all the other council fires and warn them of the disturbance. “These are the dodems (clans) that were present in the 1600s. They were the dominant dodems.” Sault said, “This belt signifies that we had possession of the land because this belt gave those dodems that area and when you match up the paper treaties, the signatories on there match up to this belt.” | <urn:uuid:7bece486-6b3b-4993-8156-f3fbad2a2591> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://mncfn.ca/elder-garry-sault-talks-wampums/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00210.warc.gz | en | 0.980598 | 508 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.2814018726... | 7 | Wampum belts tell history through symbolism and interpretation. There are many wampum belts made by various Indigenous groups in Canada and the United States. Wampum shells were named after the Wampunum people. Wampum belts can be described as visual interpretations of covenants and agreements made of beads fashioned from the shells of wampum.
During the annual MNCFN Historical Gathering in February, Elder Garry Sault explained the meaning and significance of some of the more well-known wampum belts in existence. Sault spent his childhood learning about culture and history from his grandparents.
He explained in depth one belt of particular importance: the “Chief Yellowhead Belt.”
The belt is of special significance to the Anishinaabe people. It consists of five diamonds, each one representing a council fire.
“The first council fire is represented by this diamond,” he said, pointing to the end of the belt. “It represents Lake Superior and is still burning.” The second council fire is on Manitoulin Island, where a beautiful whitefish was placed to keep the sacred fire going until the end of time. The third council fire represents an island off of Penetanguishine, where a beaver was placed to look after that council fire and he represented wisdom. The fourth council fire is at the narrows with a white reindeer keeping an eye on that fire. He is the symbol of strength. It was there that the dish with many ladles was given. “[Chief] Yellowhead said our people then placed a large round wampum that symbolized the sun; that people would remember where this dish with many ladles was made. We have our own spoons.”
The fifth and last council fire is represented by a great, bald headed eagle who sits on top of a tall tree at the mouth of the Credit River and there he watched all of the other council fires so no winds blew upon the land. If there was a disturbance in them, he was to fly to all the other council fires and warn them of the disturbance. “These are the dodems (clans) that were present in the 1600s. They were the dominant dodems.” Sault said, “This belt signifies that we had possession of the land because this belt gave those dodems that area and when you match up the paper treaties, the signatories on there match up to this belt.” | 488 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Nathaniel Hawthorn, the author of "The Scarlet Letter," lived from 1804 to 1864. Hawthorne developed his talents as a writer by his short fiction works and other novels including "The House of the Seven Gables" and "The Marble Faun" (The American Novel). Hawthorne's works focused on what can be called the darker side of human nature. Many of the concepts Hawthorne wrote about included morality, sin, and redemption (The American Novel). Much of Hawthorne's writings' thematic patterns included the idea of self-trust verses accommodation to authority and guilt verses innocence which is shown in the book "The Scarlet Letter" (The American Novel). This book reflected much of what Hawthorne believed about people and society in the time period during which he lived. This piece of writing was a dramatic accomplishment for Hawthorne and order to analyze this piece of work further; it is important to look at how his beliefs, writing style, and who the audience was intended for and how it impacted the way in which this book is perceived. .
Nathaniel Hawthorne was born in Salem, Massachusetts. He attended Bowdoin College and absorbed concepts of faulty psychology which impacted his style of writing (Gollin). This belief included a "unitary mind with separate but interacting powers regulated by the will during waking times, but not in dreams; and conviction that fulfillment requires living throughout the entire range of our faculties and sensibilities" (Gollin). Hawthorne's forefathers were strict puritans and his writing reflected the way in which people lived during that time. During this time period, the church was highly involved with the livelihood of others. People such as Hester Prynne, who committed adultery with Author Dimmesdale in "The Scarlet Letter," were made well known to the public eye. The fact that morality and discipline played such significant role in the Puritans' way of life, and the fact that Nathaniel Hawthorne also experienced this way of life, contributed to his writing. | <urn:uuid:af26ae40-598e-405b-86fd-682e254f6b3b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/210506.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00324.warc.gz | en | 0.988249 | 408 | 3.953125 | 4 | [
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0.08594863116... | 5 | Nathaniel Hawthorn, the author of "The Scarlet Letter," lived from 1804 to 1864. Hawthorne developed his talents as a writer by his short fiction works and other novels including "The House of the Seven Gables" and "The Marble Faun" (The American Novel). Hawthorne's works focused on what can be called the darker side of human nature. Many of the concepts Hawthorne wrote about included morality, sin, and redemption (The American Novel). Much of Hawthorne's writings' thematic patterns included the idea of self-trust verses accommodation to authority and guilt verses innocence which is shown in the book "The Scarlet Letter" (The American Novel). This book reflected much of what Hawthorne believed about people and society in the time period during which he lived. This piece of writing was a dramatic accomplishment for Hawthorne and order to analyze this piece of work further; it is important to look at how his beliefs, writing style, and who the audience was intended for and how it impacted the way in which this book is perceived. .
Nathaniel Hawthorne was born in Salem, Massachusetts. He attended Bowdoin College and absorbed concepts of faulty psychology which impacted his style of writing (Gollin). This belief included a "unitary mind with separate but interacting powers regulated by the will during waking times, but not in dreams; and conviction that fulfillment requires living throughout the entire range of our faculties and sensibilities" (Gollin). Hawthorne's forefathers were strict puritans and his writing reflected the way in which people lived during that time. During this time period, the church was highly involved with the livelihood of others. People such as Hester Prynne, who committed adultery with Author Dimmesdale in "The Scarlet Letter," were made well known to the public eye. The fact that morality and discipline played such significant role in the Puritans' way of life, and the fact that Nathaniel Hawthorne also experienced this way of life, contributed to his writing. | 416 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 538 B.C.E., Cyrus, The King of Persia, who had conquered Babylonia, allowed The Jews to return to Eretz Yisrael. A third of The Jews choose to come back to Eretz Yisrael and the rest stayed in Babylonia under Persian rule. Among some of the Jews who returned to Eretz Yisrael were Ezra and Nehemiah who were born in Babylonia. They put together The Bible and started to form relgious traditions and culture. They started the weekly reading of The Torah. The Jews that stayed in Babylonia under Persian rule are the Jews that the story of Purim happened to. They also introduced alot of Persian names into Hebrew including Mordechai, Esther, and the names of the months of The Jewish Calendar. Cyrus allowed The Jews to create The Commonwealth of Judea and gave them autonomy, allowed religious freedom, and allowed the reconstruction of The Temple. Cyrus is the only Non-Jew in The Bible referred to as Meshiach since he allowed The Return to Zion. The Second Temple was built in 515 B.C.E.. The Commenwealth of Judea was a theocratic regime ruled by The Kohanim who held all relations with the Persian rulers. Judean coins were issued that said Yehuda in ancient Hebrew letters. It says the same thing today on the back of 1 shekel coins.
A couple hundred years later, The Greeks under Alexander The Great conquered Eretz Yisrael. When Alexander died, his territory was divided between 3 of his generals. Eretz Yisrael was ruled by The Ptolemaic Dynasty out of Egypt between 300 B.C.E. to 200 B.C.E.. The Greeks spread their language, culture, art, and architecture. Starting in 250 B.C.E., Jews started translating The Bible into Greek for other Jews. They did this since some Jews moved to Alexandria, Egypt, and only spoke Greek, which was the language of Egypt. This translation is called The Septuaguta because 70 people translated it. When Jews translated The Bible, they had to learn Greek and therefore came into contact with Greek culture, which outside of Greece was called Hellenistic culture. The polytheistic Hellenistic culture clashed with monotheistic Jewish culture. Some Jews wanted to adopt Hellenistic culture and didn't want to follow Judaism while others wanted to preserve Jewish tradition.
After the end of Ptolemaic rule out of Egypt, Eretz Yisrael was ruled by The Seleucid Dynasty out of Antioch, Syria. There were a number of kings named Antiochus. Antiochus IV defiled The Temple to steal the valuables to sell and he put pigs and a statue to Zeus in it. He made it illegal to study Torah, perform brit milah, and to declare Rosh Chodesh. The Hasmoneans, a family of Kohanim, also known as The Maccabees, led by Judah Maccabee decided that that was enough of Greek rule. They led a revolt against Antiochus and Syrian-Greek rule. In 166 B.C.E., Jerusalem was liberated and The Temple was rededicated on 25 Kislev. The holiday of Hanukkah was made for 8 days starting on 25 Kislev to comemmorate the victory. It was originally celebrated to compensate for the 8 days of Sukkot left uncelebrated that year. Judah Maccabbe and his colleagues made this decision and it was immidiately accepted with the rededication of the altar and they even urged upon the Jewish communities of Egypt to embrace as well. As the 8 days came to a close that year, another resolution was accepted. That resolution was to celebrate 8 days of the rededication of the altar on an annual basis as a means of eternalizing this sanctuary based holiday. When they rededicated The Temple, they only found enough pure oil to last for one day, but there was a miracle and the oil lasted for the full 8 days of the original Hanukkah. This miracle was recorded in The Talmud.
In 140 B.C.E., the war was over and there was an independent Jewish Kingdom ruled by The Hasmonean Dynasty. Some of the kings were Alexander Yannai and Yochanan Hircanus. When Alexander Yannai died, his wife Shlomtzion became queen. Independence ended when The Romans entered Eretz Yisrael in 63 B.C.E..
© 2015 firstname.lastname@example.org | <urn:uuid:8d8efb91-0f5e-493b-9bb1-b98984a566ba> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.jonathan5742.com/Right_Wing_Zionist_Homepage/SecondTemple.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00044.warc.gz | en | 0.981226 | 949 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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-0.08833050727... | 2 | In 538 B.C.E., Cyrus, The King of Persia, who had conquered Babylonia, allowed The Jews to return to Eretz Yisrael. A third of The Jews choose to come back to Eretz Yisrael and the rest stayed in Babylonia under Persian rule. Among some of the Jews who returned to Eretz Yisrael were Ezra and Nehemiah who were born in Babylonia. They put together The Bible and started to form relgious traditions and culture. They started the weekly reading of The Torah. The Jews that stayed in Babylonia under Persian rule are the Jews that the story of Purim happened to. They also introduced alot of Persian names into Hebrew including Mordechai, Esther, and the names of the months of The Jewish Calendar. Cyrus allowed The Jews to create The Commonwealth of Judea and gave them autonomy, allowed religious freedom, and allowed the reconstruction of The Temple. Cyrus is the only Non-Jew in The Bible referred to as Meshiach since he allowed The Return to Zion. The Second Temple was built in 515 B.C.E.. The Commenwealth of Judea was a theocratic regime ruled by The Kohanim who held all relations with the Persian rulers. Judean coins were issued that said Yehuda in ancient Hebrew letters. It says the same thing today on the back of 1 shekel coins.
A couple hundred years later, The Greeks under Alexander The Great conquered Eretz Yisrael. When Alexander died, his territory was divided between 3 of his generals. Eretz Yisrael was ruled by The Ptolemaic Dynasty out of Egypt between 300 B.C.E. to 200 B.C.E.. The Greeks spread their language, culture, art, and architecture. Starting in 250 B.C.E., Jews started translating The Bible into Greek for other Jews. They did this since some Jews moved to Alexandria, Egypt, and only spoke Greek, which was the language of Egypt. This translation is called The Septuaguta because 70 people translated it. When Jews translated The Bible, they had to learn Greek and therefore came into contact with Greek culture, which outside of Greece was called Hellenistic culture. The polytheistic Hellenistic culture clashed with monotheistic Jewish culture. Some Jews wanted to adopt Hellenistic culture and didn't want to follow Judaism while others wanted to preserve Jewish tradition.
After the end of Ptolemaic rule out of Egypt, Eretz Yisrael was ruled by The Seleucid Dynasty out of Antioch, Syria. There were a number of kings named Antiochus. Antiochus IV defiled The Temple to steal the valuables to sell and he put pigs and a statue to Zeus in it. He made it illegal to study Torah, perform brit milah, and to declare Rosh Chodesh. The Hasmoneans, a family of Kohanim, also known as The Maccabees, led by Judah Maccabee decided that that was enough of Greek rule. They led a revolt against Antiochus and Syrian-Greek rule. In 166 B.C.E., Jerusalem was liberated and The Temple was rededicated on 25 Kislev. The holiday of Hanukkah was made for 8 days starting on 25 Kislev to comemmorate the victory. It was originally celebrated to compensate for the 8 days of Sukkot left uncelebrated that year. Judah Maccabbe and his colleagues made this decision and it was immidiately accepted with the rededication of the altar and they even urged upon the Jewish communities of Egypt to embrace as well. As the 8 days came to a close that year, another resolution was accepted. That resolution was to celebrate 8 days of the rededication of the altar on an annual basis as a means of eternalizing this sanctuary based holiday. When they rededicated The Temple, they only found enough pure oil to last for one day, but there was a miracle and the oil lasted for the full 8 days of the original Hanukkah. This miracle was recorded in The Talmud.
In 140 B.C.E., the war was over and there was an independent Jewish Kingdom ruled by The Hasmonean Dynasty. Some of the kings were Alexander Yannai and Yochanan Hircanus. When Alexander Yannai died, his wife Shlomtzion became queen. Independence ended when The Romans entered Eretz Yisrael in 63 B.C.E..
© 2015 firstname.lastname@example.org | 967 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The game, called Tennis For Two, featuring a ball bouncing around the screen under the control of a small, hand-held controls which made a mechanical clicking sound. Players could see the mechanical parts bouncing back and forth as they pressed the button and spun the dial to knock the ball back over the net to the opponent.
On one October day, a nuclear physicist, Dr. William ‘Willy’ Higinbotham, had prepared something special for Brookhaven’s guests as he had noticed that visitors didn’t connect well with the static displays shown at the fair. He created something more compelling for the lab’s visitors to interact with which was a simple tennis game played on an oscilloscope; a device that looks like a radar screen in a submarines.
Tennis for Two was the hit and a revolutionary step in video games history, setting the foundation for later games like Pong – the video game craze of the 1980’s. Despite its historical appearance, after the exhibition was over, the game was dismantled and being forgotten for years.
There is also debates over if Tennis for Two was the first game as there are some who say other games beat TfT such as the ‘Cathode-Ray Amusement Device’ which was patented in 1948 and used electronic signals to shoot ‘targets.’ or the Alan Turing’s 1948 chess simulation ‘Turochamp’ or the 1952 game ‘OXO’.
These three technological games were obviously important steppingstones for modern video games; however, they were not the world’s first video games because:
The Cathode-Ray Amusement Device wasn’t a video game since it operated on analog hardware while Alan Turing’s ‘Turochamp’ was a theoretical game that was never actually built to run and its code was written for chess simulation, and computers of that day couldn’t even operate the program.
Finally, OXO was a simple game of tic-tac-toe that ran on computers with memory in which the player entered their moves via a rotary telephone controller. Although its ability to compete was impressive but its major purpose was for research, not entertainment. OXO was much more similar to Minesweepers than Mario which should be considered a computer game as opposed to a video game because it didn’t have a dynamic display allowing user to interact in real time. | <urn:uuid:ce47f12e-6fa3-42cc-b3c4-f69ef5d472d5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://puzzleroot.com/tag/computer-games-history/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00121.warc.gz | en | 0.982747 | 510 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.259709775447... | 10 | The game, called Tennis For Two, featuring a ball bouncing around the screen under the control of a small, hand-held controls which made a mechanical clicking sound. Players could see the mechanical parts bouncing back and forth as they pressed the button and spun the dial to knock the ball back over the net to the opponent.
On one October day, a nuclear physicist, Dr. William ‘Willy’ Higinbotham, had prepared something special for Brookhaven’s guests as he had noticed that visitors didn’t connect well with the static displays shown at the fair. He created something more compelling for the lab’s visitors to interact with which was a simple tennis game played on an oscilloscope; a device that looks like a radar screen in a submarines.
Tennis for Two was the hit and a revolutionary step in video games history, setting the foundation for later games like Pong – the video game craze of the 1980’s. Despite its historical appearance, after the exhibition was over, the game was dismantled and being forgotten for years.
There is also debates over if Tennis for Two was the first game as there are some who say other games beat TfT such as the ‘Cathode-Ray Amusement Device’ which was patented in 1948 and used electronic signals to shoot ‘targets.’ or the Alan Turing’s 1948 chess simulation ‘Turochamp’ or the 1952 game ‘OXO’.
These three technological games were obviously important steppingstones for modern video games; however, they were not the world’s first video games because:
The Cathode-Ray Amusement Device wasn’t a video game since it operated on analog hardware while Alan Turing’s ‘Turochamp’ was a theoretical game that was never actually built to run and its code was written for chess simulation, and computers of that day couldn’t even operate the program.
Finally, OXO was a simple game of tic-tac-toe that ran on computers with memory in which the player entered their moves via a rotary telephone controller. Although its ability to compete was impressive but its major purpose was for research, not entertainment. OXO was much more similar to Minesweepers than Mario which should be considered a computer game as opposed to a video game because it didn’t have a dynamic display allowing user to interact in real time. | 478 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Fertility, agriculture, rainfall, music and peace – all used to describe the ancient Hawaiian god, Lono. Lono is one of the four gods (Kū, Kāne, and Kāne's twin brother Kanaloa) who the Hawaiian’s believed to exist before the world was created. While Lono is often associated with peace and enlightenment, this was not the case for Captain James Cook – the first westerner to make contact with the Native Hawaiians.
Captain Cook first came Hawaii on January 18, 1778. Early legends believe that when Captain Cook came to the islands, the Hawaiians were celebrating the Makahiki festival in Lono’s honor. During this time, Lono was believed to be circumnavigating the islands and strict kapu (forbidden) was placed on war and unnecessary work. Some argue that at the time of Cook’s arrival, the Hawaiians believed that he was Lono or used his name as a metaphor for Lono – welcoming him and his crew with open arms and adorning them with gifts and offerings. During his first and second voyage, Cook’s crew mentioned that he was referred to as “Rono” by the Natives.
After leaving Hawaii, Captain Cook and his crew faced extreme weather conditions which caused a mast on his ship, Resolution, to break, forcing them to return to the Hawaiian islands for a third time. But this time, he was not welcomed with open arms. The Hawaiians had no longer been in the festival season, but instead they were in the season for battle and war under the worship and rituals for Kūkaʻilimoku, the god of war. The Hawaiians grew sour with Cook and his crew, even stealing one of their lifeboats. At this point, Cook attempted to trick and take the royal chief Kalaniʻōpuʻu but he was quickly overwhelmed by Native Hawaiians and eventually killed in a fight that struck out between the two groups.
To this day, it is assumed that the hospitality shown towards Cook as a foreigner was due to their loyalty towards Lono. However, whether or not they believed he was Lono can only be confirmed by memories locked away in ancient Hawaiian history. Every day, we are learning more about the intricate and mysterious nature of the Native Hawaiian culture.
Subscribe & Save
Join To Receive 20% OFF Your First Order* | <urn:uuid:60104ee3-23a8-4cd2-9d11-d7adfc397bce> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.hilohattie.com/blogs/news/legend-of-lono-captain-cook | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00066.warc.gz | en | 0.983181 | 500 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
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0.3801960... | 6 | Fertility, agriculture, rainfall, music and peace – all used to describe the ancient Hawaiian god, Lono. Lono is one of the four gods (Kū, Kāne, and Kāne's twin brother Kanaloa) who the Hawaiian’s believed to exist before the world was created. While Lono is often associated with peace and enlightenment, this was not the case for Captain James Cook – the first westerner to make contact with the Native Hawaiians.
Captain Cook first came Hawaii on January 18, 1778. Early legends believe that when Captain Cook came to the islands, the Hawaiians were celebrating the Makahiki festival in Lono’s honor. During this time, Lono was believed to be circumnavigating the islands and strict kapu (forbidden) was placed on war and unnecessary work. Some argue that at the time of Cook’s arrival, the Hawaiians believed that he was Lono or used his name as a metaphor for Lono – welcoming him and his crew with open arms and adorning them with gifts and offerings. During his first and second voyage, Cook’s crew mentioned that he was referred to as “Rono” by the Natives.
After leaving Hawaii, Captain Cook and his crew faced extreme weather conditions which caused a mast on his ship, Resolution, to break, forcing them to return to the Hawaiian islands for a third time. But this time, he was not welcomed with open arms. The Hawaiians had no longer been in the festival season, but instead they were in the season for battle and war under the worship and rituals for Kūkaʻilimoku, the god of war. The Hawaiians grew sour with Cook and his crew, even stealing one of their lifeboats. At this point, Cook attempted to trick and take the royal chief Kalaniʻōpuʻu but he was quickly overwhelmed by Native Hawaiians and eventually killed in a fight that struck out between the two groups.
To this day, it is assumed that the hospitality shown towards Cook as a foreigner was due to their loyalty towards Lono. However, whether or not they believed he was Lono can only be confirmed by memories locked away in ancient Hawaiian history. Every day, we are learning more about the intricate and mysterious nature of the Native Hawaiian culture.
Subscribe & Save
Join To Receive 20% OFF Your First Order* | 488 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Plot Overview: Alice Walker’s Everyday Use
Everyday Use is a short story by Alice Walker. It was written in a first-person account. It is a short narrative that narrates the story of a lady, or mother in a conflicted relationship. This conflicted relationship is between her, and her two daughters. In the short story, Alice tries to address the issue of heritage that exists among the African American minority group. The eldest daughter is struggling to be successful, but is rather superficial. The youngest daughter, however, is seen to be less fortunate but is more practical. The mother, however, favors the youngest daughter and rejects all that is stood for by the eldest daughter. This is what leads to the conflict between the parties involved.
The story is set in a time in history that focused on African Americans to define their personal identities. This was in terms of their cultural heritage and background. The roots were needed to be redefined by the African Americans. They were ready to reject the pain and suffering they went through in the American society. In this short story, an argument is brought forth by the author. Alice argues that African Americans have American and African roots. She further goes on to claim that denying either side would be quite harmful and detrimental to an individual (Walker 408).
To describe the theme that is being discussed, the author uses characters such as Mama, Maggie, and Dee. Mama is described as a rough-boned woman with hands like those of a man. The fact that she could kill and clean a hog like any man is not left out in her description (Walker 409). Her lack of education does not stop her love for those who came before her from growing. There are a few things that show of the relation that Mama has with the people of the past. The quilts she has represented the people who had them from some time back.
The connection between the characters is seen in some of the items that they use. The churn, for example, is used by the author to show of the connection between Mama and her family (Walker 412). The author talks of pride that exist between the African American people. This is seen in the character played by Dee. She, however, does a disservice to the African American pride. She does not like the fact that others take it upon themselves to forget about the hardships that others might have undergone. This is, however, seen as hypocritical.
In her presence, Mama and Maggie should be humbled. She even changes her name and takes on a new African one. Even though she has denounced her American name, she does not stop acting like one. She is considered to have adopted a fake African heritage (Walker 411). This is where the superficial nature is seen. Maggie, on the other hand, is depicted as the original African American type. She is depicted as the type of African American that was used to obeying her masters. The main theme is seen when the daughters are to take ownership of the quilts that Mama had in her possession. They were supposed to be the defining factor of the African American heritage.
In conclusion, the author’s interest in African American heritage is quite evident in the novel. Family traditions are not left behind in this short story. They are what inspired this story. It serves as a reminder of where one comes from, and the reality that it must never be overlooked. This is no matter where one goes, or what one is exposed to overtime. The short story makes up for a rather interesting piece of work.
Walker, A. Everyday Use. Literature: Reading Fiction, Poetry, Drama, and the Essay. New York: McGraw Hill, 1998. Print. | <urn:uuid:7bb2d635-d610-4b45-99c7-ee2fbea48d5f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://summarystory.com/everyday-use/plot-overview-alice-walker-s-everyday-use/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00015.warc.gz | en | 0.983762 | 751 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.029560796... | 12 | Plot Overview: Alice Walker’s Everyday Use
Everyday Use is a short story by Alice Walker. It was written in a first-person account. It is a short narrative that narrates the story of a lady, or mother in a conflicted relationship. This conflicted relationship is between her, and her two daughters. In the short story, Alice tries to address the issue of heritage that exists among the African American minority group. The eldest daughter is struggling to be successful, but is rather superficial. The youngest daughter, however, is seen to be less fortunate but is more practical. The mother, however, favors the youngest daughter and rejects all that is stood for by the eldest daughter. This is what leads to the conflict between the parties involved.
The story is set in a time in history that focused on African Americans to define their personal identities. This was in terms of their cultural heritage and background. The roots were needed to be redefined by the African Americans. They were ready to reject the pain and suffering they went through in the American society. In this short story, an argument is brought forth by the author. Alice argues that African Americans have American and African roots. She further goes on to claim that denying either side would be quite harmful and detrimental to an individual (Walker 408).
To describe the theme that is being discussed, the author uses characters such as Mama, Maggie, and Dee. Mama is described as a rough-boned woman with hands like those of a man. The fact that she could kill and clean a hog like any man is not left out in her description (Walker 409). Her lack of education does not stop her love for those who came before her from growing. There are a few things that show of the relation that Mama has with the people of the past. The quilts she has represented the people who had them from some time back.
The connection between the characters is seen in some of the items that they use. The churn, for example, is used by the author to show of the connection between Mama and her family (Walker 412). The author talks of pride that exist between the African American people. This is seen in the character played by Dee. She, however, does a disservice to the African American pride. She does not like the fact that others take it upon themselves to forget about the hardships that others might have undergone. This is, however, seen as hypocritical.
In her presence, Mama and Maggie should be humbled. She even changes her name and takes on a new African one. Even though she has denounced her American name, she does not stop acting like one. She is considered to have adopted a fake African heritage (Walker 411). This is where the superficial nature is seen. Maggie, on the other hand, is depicted as the original African American type. She is depicted as the type of African American that was used to obeying her masters. The main theme is seen when the daughters are to take ownership of the quilts that Mama had in her possession. They were supposed to be the defining factor of the African American heritage.
In conclusion, the author’s interest in African American heritage is quite evident in the novel. Family traditions are not left behind in this short story. They are what inspired this story. It serves as a reminder of where one comes from, and the reality that it must never be overlooked. This is no matter where one goes, or what one is exposed to overtime. The short story makes up for a rather interesting piece of work.
Walker, A. Everyday Use. Literature: Reading Fiction, Poetry, Drama, and the Essay. New York: McGraw Hill, 1998. Print. | 756 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ancient Egypt holds a significant importance in history. Or, in simple words, we can say that Egyptian history has always been very rich. Maybe it’s their religion, beliefs, traditions, lifestyles, culture or jewelry. Indeed, Egypt was the land of nobles and royalty. The culture they shared was very luxurious and full of colors and jewels. Egyptian jewelry has been a great contributor when it comes to the manufacturing of jewelry. At first, they started with using animal skin, teeth, seashells and bones but it was not far enough that they were advanced to work with various precious gemstones and metals such as gold. They created great jewelry designs from precious metals and worked them in by carving and detailing.
Egyptian Rings For Men
The jewelry was not only meant to dress them up but it also it was used to protect them from the bad. The beliefs and rituals of ancient Egypt time played a vital role in the use of jewelry, especially the rings. The rings were carved and engraved for each man and woman. These rings were made uniquely for every individual. Different animals and signs were carved on to them which had unique meanings. The rings as well were not only used as a piece of jewel in their collection but also as a piece of the agreement. The rings were signed as a special piece of document. But the women did not own any of these signet rings like the men did. The ones who were wealthy enough had gemstones and valuable metals as their signet rings. But the poor or not so wealthy ones used simple rings as their signet rings. All this knowledge has been gathered from ages through archeologists or the Egyptians ancestors.
The Egyptian rings are not only ancient artifacts but a sign of nobility. They are still in style and very much loved by the people when it comes to fancy rings. It is especially for the ones who love history and deeper into it. Other than that, according to the Egyptian lifestyle, there are some great designs for wedding rings that can be worn.
Egyptian Wedding Rings
Throughout ancient times, Egyptian rings were used as seals for agreements. They signed and lightly pressed the seal of clay on earth. This was how their seal was recognized for legal documents. These rings were made out of carved metal or stones such as agate or diorite. The other important use of these rings was the emblematic function of a person’s marital status. This was how the wedding rings were brought into living. The husbands in the ancient Egyptian history placed their rings on his life partner's finger, this was to entrust and entitle them both to each other.
Egyptian Gold Ring
Different metals were symbolized for different meanings like gold was used to symbolize the high status of the wearer. Therefore, it was specifically for the nobles and royal families. Other gemstones included amethyst its symbolized royalty as well. Turquoise was the one that meant happiness and joy for all. Emerald was widely used for fertility and immortality, the reason why those bodies were preserved. On the other hand, Garnet meant extreme anger and fire. These were some gems that had interesting meanings. Other than these gems stones, beads of various hues of blue, green and red were in use. not only for jewelry but also for pottery and what not.
The Egyptians worked very hard to make their pieces of jewelry different and significant. They worked in workshops and it was considered to be a special talent people had. Different people worked on different parts to get a perfect outlook. The process was simple but needed very precise measurements. As gold was worn by the wealthy ones, copper was the metal that was worn by common people in their daily lives. It can be seen that the ancient Egyptian jewelry still has a great influence on modern jewelry designs.
The Ring of The Dead
This ring was symbolized by the beetle. The beetle also known as the Scarab was the symbol of good luck, and who would mind some good luck if he or she believed in life after death. This was depicted from the God “Jepri”, he was known as the god of the morning and for life after death. In ancient times, the one who was found wearing the ring with the beetle was considered wearing a vital tool.
Egyptian Style Rings
Back in the ancient times in Egypt, the rings were not just used as an emblem of class or wealth; instead, the rings were used by the people to customize the individuals. Such as for agreements, weddings, sharing etc. these rings were made beautifully with silver or gold. There were different and various symbols engraved on these rings, this was mainly because of the reason that the rings were used as amulets and also as symbols of wealth and power among all. The rings were mainly intended to provide protection to wearing them.Animals as Symbols
Animals such as the cats, beetles, hawks, and snakes were considered as protection against the evil spirits and bad intentions of others because the symbols actually represented the most authoritative gods they used to worship.Shapes
Some other types of rings used were of different geometric shapes, they also symbolized protection of the user. Some examples are:
- Wed jet: this was an eye shaped, which means keeping away the evil eye.
- Djed: this represented stability to the user
- Sa: it meant health.
- Ankle: the sign means long life to the user.
- Tyer: this gave good luck and prosperity.
Colors were dependent on the gemstone that was selected to wear by the user just like the shape and animals. The colors also had a lot of meanings to themselves. Such as
- Green - it represented vegetation
- Black -it meant fertility
- Red - this color meant desert
Who Would Wear Those Pieces
Egyptian jewelry was worn by everyone it was adored by both men and women. Also, they used those astonishing pieces of metal and stones to decorate their statues of Gods. Their beliefs for afterlife were also very firm; they used to embellish the dead ones which meant preparing them for life after death. This was a fine and lavish way of ending life as well.
What Was Used
As time passed and the Egyptians evolved their sense of living, different metals were symbolized for different meanings. For example, gold was known for power and status. Therefore, it was specifically for the nobles and royal families. Other than gold, the material which was most commonly seems to have been colored glass. When it was first discovered it used to be very expenses. The archeologists have found remains of the deceased ones wearing pieces of jewelry which symbolized not only the culture of the person but also casts. These remains were very carefully and with great minds reserved in places people can’t find.
Fun Facts About Egyptian Rings
Ancient Egyptian jewelry since its time has been considered as one of the most beautiful pieces in the world.
Because the infant mortality rate is higher in that era, the infants were especially stacked up with protecting charms, to keep away the evil spirits.
On the battlefield, if one side lost the battle, they had to surrender all their jewelry in the battlefield.
Gold was significantly for the god in ancient Egyptian history.
Also, the scarab was said to hold very high powers and was considered a symbol of rebirth.
The mummies were preserved with jewels in their wrapping layers in order to provide protection to them.
The Egyptian rings are a powerful way of styling your look every now and then, it never goes out of style. The classic style is a total statement idea, so if you are one of those who have a special preference for something bold, then Egyptian rings will be the perfect partner for your hands. So, do not forget to add a pinch of Egyptian style to your collection! | <urn:uuid:c213690e-81f4-4f21-a3f4-47e197d33e58> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://egyptian-jewelry.com/collections/egyptian-rings | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00031.warc.gz | en | 0.989266 | 1,590 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.088612243533... | 3 | Ancient Egypt holds a significant importance in history. Or, in simple words, we can say that Egyptian history has always been very rich. Maybe it’s their religion, beliefs, traditions, lifestyles, culture or jewelry. Indeed, Egypt was the land of nobles and royalty. The culture they shared was very luxurious and full of colors and jewels. Egyptian jewelry has been a great contributor when it comes to the manufacturing of jewelry. At first, they started with using animal skin, teeth, seashells and bones but it was not far enough that they were advanced to work with various precious gemstones and metals such as gold. They created great jewelry designs from precious metals and worked them in by carving and detailing.
Egyptian Rings For Men
The jewelry was not only meant to dress them up but it also it was used to protect them from the bad. The beliefs and rituals of ancient Egypt time played a vital role in the use of jewelry, especially the rings. The rings were carved and engraved for each man and woman. These rings were made uniquely for every individual. Different animals and signs were carved on to them which had unique meanings. The rings as well were not only used as a piece of jewel in their collection but also as a piece of the agreement. The rings were signed as a special piece of document. But the women did not own any of these signet rings like the men did. The ones who were wealthy enough had gemstones and valuable metals as their signet rings. But the poor or not so wealthy ones used simple rings as their signet rings. All this knowledge has been gathered from ages through archeologists or the Egyptians ancestors.
The Egyptian rings are not only ancient artifacts but a sign of nobility. They are still in style and very much loved by the people when it comes to fancy rings. It is especially for the ones who love history and deeper into it. Other than that, according to the Egyptian lifestyle, there are some great designs for wedding rings that can be worn.
Egyptian Wedding Rings
Throughout ancient times, Egyptian rings were used as seals for agreements. They signed and lightly pressed the seal of clay on earth. This was how their seal was recognized for legal documents. These rings were made out of carved metal or stones such as agate or diorite. The other important use of these rings was the emblematic function of a person’s marital status. This was how the wedding rings were brought into living. The husbands in the ancient Egyptian history placed their rings on his life partner's finger, this was to entrust and entitle them both to each other.
Egyptian Gold Ring
Different metals were symbolized for different meanings like gold was used to symbolize the high status of the wearer. Therefore, it was specifically for the nobles and royal families. Other gemstones included amethyst its symbolized royalty as well. Turquoise was the one that meant happiness and joy for all. Emerald was widely used for fertility and immortality, the reason why those bodies were preserved. On the other hand, Garnet meant extreme anger and fire. These were some gems that had interesting meanings. Other than these gems stones, beads of various hues of blue, green and red were in use. not only for jewelry but also for pottery and what not.
The Egyptians worked very hard to make their pieces of jewelry different and significant. They worked in workshops and it was considered to be a special talent people had. Different people worked on different parts to get a perfect outlook. The process was simple but needed very precise measurements. As gold was worn by the wealthy ones, copper was the metal that was worn by common people in their daily lives. It can be seen that the ancient Egyptian jewelry still has a great influence on modern jewelry designs.
The Ring of The Dead
This ring was symbolized by the beetle. The beetle also known as the Scarab was the symbol of good luck, and who would mind some good luck if he or she believed in life after death. This was depicted from the God “Jepri”, he was known as the god of the morning and for life after death. In ancient times, the one who was found wearing the ring with the beetle was considered wearing a vital tool.
Egyptian Style Rings
Back in the ancient times in Egypt, the rings were not just used as an emblem of class or wealth; instead, the rings were used by the people to customize the individuals. Such as for agreements, weddings, sharing etc. these rings were made beautifully with silver or gold. There were different and various symbols engraved on these rings, this was mainly because of the reason that the rings were used as amulets and also as symbols of wealth and power among all. The rings were mainly intended to provide protection to wearing them.Animals as Symbols
Animals such as the cats, beetles, hawks, and snakes were considered as protection against the evil spirits and bad intentions of others because the symbols actually represented the most authoritative gods they used to worship.Shapes
Some other types of rings used were of different geometric shapes, they also symbolized protection of the user. Some examples are:
- Wed jet: this was an eye shaped, which means keeping away the evil eye.
- Djed: this represented stability to the user
- Sa: it meant health.
- Ankle: the sign means long life to the user.
- Tyer: this gave good luck and prosperity.
Colors were dependent on the gemstone that was selected to wear by the user just like the shape and animals. The colors also had a lot of meanings to themselves. Such as
- Green - it represented vegetation
- Black -it meant fertility
- Red - this color meant desert
Who Would Wear Those Pieces
Egyptian jewelry was worn by everyone it was adored by both men and women. Also, they used those astonishing pieces of metal and stones to decorate their statues of Gods. Their beliefs for afterlife were also very firm; they used to embellish the dead ones which meant preparing them for life after death. This was a fine and lavish way of ending life as well.
What Was Used
As time passed and the Egyptians evolved their sense of living, different metals were symbolized for different meanings. For example, gold was known for power and status. Therefore, it was specifically for the nobles and royal families. Other than gold, the material which was most commonly seems to have been colored glass. When it was first discovered it used to be very expenses. The archeologists have found remains of the deceased ones wearing pieces of jewelry which symbolized not only the culture of the person but also casts. These remains were very carefully and with great minds reserved in places people can’t find.
Fun Facts About Egyptian Rings
Ancient Egyptian jewelry since its time has been considered as one of the most beautiful pieces in the world.
Because the infant mortality rate is higher in that era, the infants were especially stacked up with protecting charms, to keep away the evil spirits.
On the battlefield, if one side lost the battle, they had to surrender all their jewelry in the battlefield.
Gold was significantly for the god in ancient Egyptian history.
Also, the scarab was said to hold very high powers and was considered a symbol of rebirth.
The mummies were preserved with jewels in their wrapping layers in order to provide protection to them.
The Egyptian rings are a powerful way of styling your look every now and then, it never goes out of style. The classic style is a total statement idea, so if you are one of those who have a special preference for something bold, then Egyptian rings will be the perfect partner for your hands. So, do not forget to add a pinch of Egyptian style to your collection! | 1,565 | ENGLISH | 1 |
We teach about the contributions of many famous scientists in Virginia. The third scientist who makes contributions in electricity is Michael Faraday. We used the book from FOSS Science Stories to introduce his contribution of creating the electromagnet.
He, like so many of our great scientists, was one who did not have a good experience in school. This story tells how he struggled the first 13 years of his life, until he consciously made the decision to change. What did he do? He studied successful people and decided to act the way they did. Guess what? He became successful too!
After we read and discuss his life and contributions, we reflect with the sheet below....
Grab your freebie here! and head over to www.sciencegal-sciencegal.blogspot.com for more resources about inquiry based science. | <urn:uuid:98a1d1e3-7c8e-437b-9a7f-2685f8887c57> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.classroomfreebiestoo.com/2012/02/michael-faraday.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00254.warc.gz | en | 0.98034 | 165 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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-0.068822793662... | 1 | We teach about the contributions of many famous scientists in Virginia. The third scientist who makes contributions in electricity is Michael Faraday. We used the book from FOSS Science Stories to introduce his contribution of creating the electromagnet.
He, like so many of our great scientists, was one who did not have a good experience in school. This story tells how he struggled the first 13 years of his life, until he consciously made the decision to change. What did he do? He studied successful people and decided to act the way they did. Guess what? He became successful too!
After we read and discuss his life and contributions, we reflect with the sheet below....
Grab your freebie here! and head over to www.sciencegal-sciencegal.blogspot.com for more resources about inquiry based science. | 161 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By Patryk Zalewski
The Gordon Riots were caused by anti-Catholic views and the resentment towards Catholics that was long held and never truly reversed. Led by Lord George Gordon, the rioters found reason for the actions that were to follow. Before moving forward into the motives and reasons for why the Protestant rioters did what they did, it is important to understand the history of Lord George Gordon, and why he is many times mistaken for the outcome of the protest that he originally began. The long standing belief of the start of the riots was that they began as an overarching view of the hatred Protestants had towards the Catholics. However, there were many other reasons as to why a the protest or riots truly began, and that all begins with the political climate of England during this time.
The Gordon Riots began when England was involved in the American Revolutionary war and “since France and Spain, Catholic countries, had sided with the American colonists, England was virtually isolated. The Gordon Riots, moreover, were not without precedent” (Erskine, Thomas L.). The British people were therefore even more furious with the passing of the Catholic Relief because as they are in the middle of a war against the Americans (but also Catholics in terms of France and Spain), and the British Parliament decides to relinquish its anti- Catholic laws at this moment in time. This was also not the only precedent that the British had against Catholics. “There was also a great deal of anti-Catholic prejudice, stemming from past conflicts between Protestants and Catholics relating to the throne. The Irish who had emigrated to London to find work and had subsequently taken low-paying jobs from the English lower class, were specifically targets of anti-Catholic feeling. Given these conditions, the time was ripe for an individual to spearhead a Protestant movement against the Catholics” (Erskine, Thomas L.).
There is a brief historical background on Lord George Gordon that helps to answer some of the questions as to why he wanted to start a protest that escalated into one of the largest and most destructive riots of its time.
Generally speaking, Lord George Gordon did not have the intent of violence when the talks with the House of Commons first began. His attempt was first only to resolve the issues he had with the House of Commons’ actions in a peaceful manner, but as the population of the crowd changed throughout that first day, their actions became of a violent manner. When the crowd became no longer under his control, his actions seemed to go against what he had somewhat originally intended. His motive in first trying to limit Catholics became a diluted one, where rioters turned violent and began to attack not only Catholics, but also all peoples of power. They began to burn all Catholic chapels as well as any houses they suspected were Catholic, only those wearing “blue cockades” or having “antipapal signs on their doors” were spared. “In response to the violence, the House of Commons passed resolutions encouraging the identification and prosecution of those responsible for the burning of houses and chapels.Gordon voted for all the resolutions and did attempt unsuccessfully to quell the violence” (Erskine, Thomas L.).
This is where the idea to blame Gordon for the actions of the rioters is misdirected. His intention was never the thought to burn down churches or the homes of Catholics; he wanted to use the power of numbers in order to persuade the House to change the legislation they had enacted. The rioters not only escalated the protest into an uncontrollable riot, but directed their violence to those whom the protest was never intended against.
Because the rioters’ actions were directed not against the poor Catholics, but against Catholics of substance, it seems clear that the riots reflected not only dislike of Catholics, but also of the wealthy, providing an outlet for the smoldering anger of the lower classes” (Erskine, Thomas L.). This is a fascinating point as the rioters used the platform of such a riot to promote a more personal agenda, where Catholics seemed to be only the target for a part of their motives. The lower classes were always under-represented by governments not only during this time, but throughout history, and even today. The belief was that the wealthy were the ones driving the decisions leading up to the passing of acts such as the Catholic Relief Act was a significant motive more the rioters. For something that began at first a peaceful protest, it became a diluted version of it very quickly. “The Gordon Riots—the bloodiest, most violent riots in London’s long and turbulent history—have received considerable attention from historians.Jones, Brad A.
Implications Following the Riots
Researchers “positioned the riots as a uniquely London event and portrayed Gordon and the rioters as crazed religious zealots bent on defending beliefs that were becoming unfashionable in an increasingly enlightened and tolerant British society”.Jones, Brad A.
This sense of a changing religious climate was an undesired effect for the Protestants, and a rise of patriotism came about as a result of this. People who long held these strong beliefs of Protestantism, especially those rioters of the lower classes, thought that rioting would be a way to show their dislike of the changes regarding the toleration of Catholics. Though this rising patriotism held by the rioters had precedent, it misrepresented the majority opinion on these issues. This is what can be seen through primary documents of those who wrote honestly about their thoughts on the actions of the rioters as well as the what they truly thought of Catholics. The rioters went as far as breaking into Newgate prison as shown in the picture on the left and releasing prisoners, while commoners did not view this as appropriate behavior.
A lot of times when it comes to primary documents that outline the events of the time, the reader is not informed enough on the issues at hand. The accounts of people like Susan Burney who lived in London while the riots were happening gave the reader a more personal rather than historical narrative of what people were feeling during that time. Many people who were not involved in the riots did not feel that same patriotism of British precedent (anti-Catholic views). People who were Protestant too feared for their lives and thought that the violence of the rioters was not very extensive, but also misdirected at those who were innocent Catholics.
The primary accounts of others like George Crabbe show hints of what Susan Burney aimed at portraying through her journals. There was a massive upheaval in London that lead the world to believe that England still held their anti-Catholic beliefs, but this was not the case. A majority of people did not participate in the riots or did not approve of them altogether, only relay their Protestant anti-Pope beliefs through the wearing of blue for fear of their own lives.
Crabbe writes, “By eight o’clock, Akerman’s house was in flames. I went close to it, and never saw any thing so dreadful.”
Burney writes, “I was terrified & shocked extremely at the rage, & unbridled licence of the Mob- & all the horrors which followed this Evenings work were anticipated by my fears” (169).
It was only a certain set of people that took a slight forward movement of tolerating Catholics out of proportion. These two primary accounts allow readers and historians to now conclude that there was not a general intolerance, and that the tide towards toleration of Catholics was shifting during this time. The effects that the bill passed would not be immense, and the House of Commons knew not to take radical action as something like this may occur. They believed that over time there would be a greater toleration and that through a series of acts, a greater toleration would occur.
Being that Catholics made up seventy-five percent of the British population, it is also interesting to note that they were seen as the minority to be discriminated against and that Catholics did not band together in order to counter not only the riots, but the overwhelming discrimination. This surely would have caused a civil war, and it is what historians recount as Britain narrowly avoiding.
- Brad A. Jones. “‘In Favour of Popery’: Patriotism, Protestantism, and the Gordon Riots in the Revolutionary British Atlantic.” Journal of British Studies, no. 1, 2013, p. 79. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1017/jbr.2012.60.
- Crabbe, George. “The Gordon Riots, 8 June 1780.” Gale World History in Context, Gale, 2014. Student Resources In Context, http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/AHGQCD243245758/SUIC?u=setonhallu&sid=SUIC&xid=fcf74724. Accessed 5 Dec. 2018.
- Erskine, Thomas L. “Gordon Riots.” Salem Press Encyclopedia, 2017. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,sso&db=ers&AN=89158654&site=ehost-live&authtype=sso&custid=s8475574.
- Olleson, Philip, and Susanna Burney. The Journals and Letters of Susan Burney Music and Society in Late Eighteenth-Century England. Ashgate Publishing Limited , 2012. | <urn:uuid:b7628bca-36c4-4044-80c5-96f4879223ca> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brewminate.com/precedent-and-motives-for-the-anti-catholic-gordon-riots-of-1780/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00347.warc.gz | en | 0.981697 | 1,958 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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-0.0157359894365... | 3 | By Patryk Zalewski
The Gordon Riots were caused by anti-Catholic views and the resentment towards Catholics that was long held and never truly reversed. Led by Lord George Gordon, the rioters found reason for the actions that were to follow. Before moving forward into the motives and reasons for why the Protestant rioters did what they did, it is important to understand the history of Lord George Gordon, and why he is many times mistaken for the outcome of the protest that he originally began. The long standing belief of the start of the riots was that they began as an overarching view of the hatred Protestants had towards the Catholics. However, there were many other reasons as to why a the protest or riots truly began, and that all begins with the political climate of England during this time.
The Gordon Riots began when England was involved in the American Revolutionary war and “since France and Spain, Catholic countries, had sided with the American colonists, England was virtually isolated. The Gordon Riots, moreover, were not without precedent” (Erskine, Thomas L.). The British people were therefore even more furious with the passing of the Catholic Relief because as they are in the middle of a war against the Americans (but also Catholics in terms of France and Spain), and the British Parliament decides to relinquish its anti- Catholic laws at this moment in time. This was also not the only precedent that the British had against Catholics. “There was also a great deal of anti-Catholic prejudice, stemming from past conflicts between Protestants and Catholics relating to the throne. The Irish who had emigrated to London to find work and had subsequently taken low-paying jobs from the English lower class, were specifically targets of anti-Catholic feeling. Given these conditions, the time was ripe for an individual to spearhead a Protestant movement against the Catholics” (Erskine, Thomas L.).
There is a brief historical background on Lord George Gordon that helps to answer some of the questions as to why he wanted to start a protest that escalated into one of the largest and most destructive riots of its time.
Generally speaking, Lord George Gordon did not have the intent of violence when the talks with the House of Commons first began. His attempt was first only to resolve the issues he had with the House of Commons’ actions in a peaceful manner, but as the population of the crowd changed throughout that first day, their actions became of a violent manner. When the crowd became no longer under his control, his actions seemed to go against what he had somewhat originally intended. His motive in first trying to limit Catholics became a diluted one, where rioters turned violent and began to attack not only Catholics, but also all peoples of power. They began to burn all Catholic chapels as well as any houses they suspected were Catholic, only those wearing “blue cockades” or having “antipapal signs on their doors” were spared. “In response to the violence, the House of Commons passed resolutions encouraging the identification and prosecution of those responsible for the burning of houses and chapels.Gordon voted for all the resolutions and did attempt unsuccessfully to quell the violence” (Erskine, Thomas L.).
This is where the idea to blame Gordon for the actions of the rioters is misdirected. His intention was never the thought to burn down churches or the homes of Catholics; he wanted to use the power of numbers in order to persuade the House to change the legislation they had enacted. The rioters not only escalated the protest into an uncontrollable riot, but directed their violence to those whom the protest was never intended against.
Because the rioters’ actions were directed not against the poor Catholics, but against Catholics of substance, it seems clear that the riots reflected not only dislike of Catholics, but also of the wealthy, providing an outlet for the smoldering anger of the lower classes” (Erskine, Thomas L.). This is a fascinating point as the rioters used the platform of such a riot to promote a more personal agenda, where Catholics seemed to be only the target for a part of their motives. The lower classes were always under-represented by governments not only during this time, but throughout history, and even today. The belief was that the wealthy were the ones driving the decisions leading up to the passing of acts such as the Catholic Relief Act was a significant motive more the rioters. For something that began at first a peaceful protest, it became a diluted version of it very quickly. “The Gordon Riots—the bloodiest, most violent riots in London’s long and turbulent history—have received considerable attention from historians.Jones, Brad A.
Implications Following the Riots
Researchers “positioned the riots as a uniquely London event and portrayed Gordon and the rioters as crazed religious zealots bent on defending beliefs that were becoming unfashionable in an increasingly enlightened and tolerant British society”.Jones, Brad A.
This sense of a changing religious climate was an undesired effect for the Protestants, and a rise of patriotism came about as a result of this. People who long held these strong beliefs of Protestantism, especially those rioters of the lower classes, thought that rioting would be a way to show their dislike of the changes regarding the toleration of Catholics. Though this rising patriotism held by the rioters had precedent, it misrepresented the majority opinion on these issues. This is what can be seen through primary documents of those who wrote honestly about their thoughts on the actions of the rioters as well as the what they truly thought of Catholics. The rioters went as far as breaking into Newgate prison as shown in the picture on the left and releasing prisoners, while commoners did not view this as appropriate behavior.
A lot of times when it comes to primary documents that outline the events of the time, the reader is not informed enough on the issues at hand. The accounts of people like Susan Burney who lived in London while the riots were happening gave the reader a more personal rather than historical narrative of what people were feeling during that time. Many people who were not involved in the riots did not feel that same patriotism of British precedent (anti-Catholic views). People who were Protestant too feared for their lives and thought that the violence of the rioters was not very extensive, but also misdirected at those who were innocent Catholics.
The primary accounts of others like George Crabbe show hints of what Susan Burney aimed at portraying through her journals. There was a massive upheaval in London that lead the world to believe that England still held their anti-Catholic beliefs, but this was not the case. A majority of people did not participate in the riots or did not approve of them altogether, only relay their Protestant anti-Pope beliefs through the wearing of blue for fear of their own lives.
Crabbe writes, “By eight o’clock, Akerman’s house was in flames. I went close to it, and never saw any thing so dreadful.”
Burney writes, “I was terrified & shocked extremely at the rage, & unbridled licence of the Mob- & all the horrors which followed this Evenings work were anticipated by my fears” (169).
It was only a certain set of people that took a slight forward movement of tolerating Catholics out of proportion. These two primary accounts allow readers and historians to now conclude that there was not a general intolerance, and that the tide towards toleration of Catholics was shifting during this time. The effects that the bill passed would not be immense, and the House of Commons knew not to take radical action as something like this may occur. They believed that over time there would be a greater toleration and that through a series of acts, a greater toleration would occur.
Being that Catholics made up seventy-five percent of the British population, it is also interesting to note that they were seen as the minority to be discriminated against and that Catholics did not band together in order to counter not only the riots, but the overwhelming discrimination. This surely would have caused a civil war, and it is what historians recount as Britain narrowly avoiding.
- Brad A. Jones. “‘In Favour of Popery’: Patriotism, Protestantism, and the Gordon Riots in the Revolutionary British Atlantic.” Journal of British Studies, no. 1, 2013, p. 79. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1017/jbr.2012.60.
- Crabbe, George. “The Gordon Riots, 8 June 1780.” Gale World History in Context, Gale, 2014. Student Resources In Context, http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/AHGQCD243245758/SUIC?u=setonhallu&sid=SUIC&xid=fcf74724. Accessed 5 Dec. 2018.
- Erskine, Thomas L. “Gordon Riots.” Salem Press Encyclopedia, 2017. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,sso&db=ers&AN=89158654&site=ehost-live&authtype=sso&custid=s8475574.
- Olleson, Philip, and Susanna Burney. The Journals and Letters of Susan Burney Music and Society in Late Eighteenth-Century England. Ashgate Publishing Limited , 2012. | 1,944 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Kanesville Tabernacle was where Brigham Young was sustained as the second President and Prophet of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. The tabernacle was constructed for the purpose of housing as many people as possible for a conference in December 1847 to reorganize the First Presidency of the Church. The conference was postponed so that a building large enough could be constructed.
The tabernacle, constructed in three weeks with the help of 200 men, was believed to be the largest log structure in the world.1After its completion, the First Presidency was reorganized, and on December 27, 1847, with over 1,000 people in attendance, Brigham Young was sustained as President and Prophet of the Church. Also, on October 21,1848, upon his return to the Church, Oliver Cowdery spoke to a large number of people gathered at a conference in the tabernacle; he “bore a strong testimony to the authenticity of the Book of Mormon, and declared that an angel conferred the Priesthood on Joseph Smith and himself.”2
The original tabernacle was dismantled in 1849 because of damage by the spring runoffs; the current structure is a replica. President Gordon B. Hinckley dedicated the rebuilt Kanesville Tabernacle on July 13, 1996. It now serves as a visitors’ center for people to learn about the Saints migration west to the Salt Lake Valley. | <urn:uuid:db861797-6e86-422f-a9fe-31208fcf44c6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theclio.com/entry/20574 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00260.warc.gz | en | 0.981715 | 293 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.3126497864... | 2 | The Kanesville Tabernacle was where Brigham Young was sustained as the second President and Prophet of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. The tabernacle was constructed for the purpose of housing as many people as possible for a conference in December 1847 to reorganize the First Presidency of the Church. The conference was postponed so that a building large enough could be constructed.
The tabernacle, constructed in three weeks with the help of 200 men, was believed to be the largest log structure in the world.1After its completion, the First Presidency was reorganized, and on December 27, 1847, with over 1,000 people in attendance, Brigham Young was sustained as President and Prophet of the Church. Also, on October 21,1848, upon his return to the Church, Oliver Cowdery spoke to a large number of people gathered at a conference in the tabernacle; he “bore a strong testimony to the authenticity of the Book of Mormon, and declared that an angel conferred the Priesthood on Joseph Smith and himself.”2
The original tabernacle was dismantled in 1849 because of damage by the spring runoffs; the current structure is a replica. President Gordon B. Hinckley dedicated the rebuilt Kanesville Tabernacle on July 13, 1996. It now serves as a visitors’ center for people to learn about the Saints migration west to the Salt Lake Valley. | 316 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This arch is known as the Arch of Caligula because an equestrian statue of the Roman Emperor was found nearby that may have been attached to it.
Pompeii, founded in the 6th century BCE by the Oscans (an Italic people), it came under Roman rule after the Samnite wars. By the first century CE it was a prosperous provincial capital with a population estimated between 20, 000 and 25,000 people. In 62 CE Pompeii experienced a major earthquake which resulted in heavy damage. The town was rapidly reconstructed and restored. The people and the administration used the damage as motivation to enrich their town with abundant architectural and artistic projects. Mount Vesuvius suddenly erupted in 79 CE, burying the town with approximately 20ft of pumice and ash. Excavations began in the 17th century. A large part of what we know about the daily life of ancient Romans is attributable to these excavations. | <urn:uuid:a8dcc8e7-7f0a-4f31-b6e8-949d380fd888> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://knowltondl.osu.edu/index.php/Detail/objects/4470 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00437.warc.gz | en | 0.980853 | 191 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.2980229556560516... | 2 | This arch is known as the Arch of Caligula because an equestrian statue of the Roman Emperor was found nearby that may have been attached to it.
Pompeii, founded in the 6th century BCE by the Oscans (an Italic people), it came under Roman rule after the Samnite wars. By the first century CE it was a prosperous provincial capital with a population estimated between 20, 000 and 25,000 people. In 62 CE Pompeii experienced a major earthquake which resulted in heavy damage. The town was rapidly reconstructed and restored. The people and the administration used the damage as motivation to enrich their town with abundant architectural and artistic projects. Mount Vesuvius suddenly erupted in 79 CE, burying the town with approximately 20ft of pumice and ash. Excavations began in the 17th century. A large part of what we know about the daily life of ancient Romans is attributable to these excavations. | 208 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Now that I have discussed the habits and beliefs of children as documented by Bessie Wallis I will now focus on the attitudes of the adults in the community.
Firstly, I realize that Bessie talks a lot about the behaviour of her father, a figure she seems to have high respect for and whom she states is popular within the village. Therefore I consider discussing his habits and beliefs will be a good place to start.
He was a frequent in the pubs where he had “singing engagements” in which he played the role as a “Minstrel and sing Foster’s songs accompanying himself on his ‘G’ string banjo.” This alludes to a culture of musical appreciation. This came with a problematic side though as he “usually came home worse for drink” and he “could not say no!”. The fact that this was a common occurrence implies that this behaviour was tolerated and perhaps encouraged due to the money he brought back.
The character he plays includes “black-face” and Bessie’s mother helped darken his face with soot before he had these arrangements. The Foster he mentions is Stephen Foster, a composer who wrote songs specifically written for black-face minstrel shows. It is not discussed whether this was considered racist or not but this sort of behaviour would be regarded as discriminatory now. It seemed to be a big hit with the locals, however.
Although he mentions these acts of performing and getting drunk, Bessie’s discourse on her father suggests the work ethic of the populace, “For sixteen years my father had done a strenuous job. He never missed a day’s work.” It highlights the strength of both mind and body of her father and what was expected of the male relatives of the family in the mining industry.
Although their livelihoods depended on the pits, there was a strong belief of unity in the village. For example, when the buzzer sounded announcing a casualty of the pit, “The pit always stood idle the next day as a token of respect to the dead man’s family.” There was a sense of community and respect for those who risked their lives and also respect for the family. So even though this meant a day in which a miner could not get money, showing respect to other mining families was priority.
In fact, this pride did not stop with who your neighbours were but also what you drank. Bessie recalls her grandfather warning her “Think on! I don’t like Barnsley Brew, I only like the local beer.” when she was asked to fetch the beer for him every week. This infers a preference for local and a distaste for what is outside of the community.
Finally i’m going to concentrate on the role of the church in relation to habits and beliefs. Bessie mentions the important figures within this center of the community – older women. “The backbone of the Chapels were the old ladies. They were the organisers and administrators who knit, sewed, crocheted and also solicited the local businessmen for funds.” This is interesting because it suggests how it was believed that the elder females would be in control of the events that were so important in Bessie’s childhood such as the “Church teas” at which “The food was made all the more wonderful by being cooked and prepared by the people themselves.” This shows a culture of resourcefulness, independence and again, local pride.
This significance around independence is emphasized when Bessie talks about bringing the left over food to the old people. “They always gave such a welcome. Although most of them certainly could not afford sixpence they always paid. They were fiercely independent and charity was hated.” There seemed to be a relationship between the community helping each other out but also respecting the other party’s want to be self-sufficient.
When Bessie was in the South, the attitudes of the north were mentioned again, such as when the young vicar she had made friends with “Had transferred to a mining district as he preferred to make his Ministry in an area where people were blunt and straight after that he had encountered in the south.” This underlines the differences between the the south and the north of the country, such as where West Melton was. It expresses that those from mining districts are seen to be more matter-of-fact, something that a vicar making his Ministry prefers.
Overall, I believe Bessie’s memoirs on her life at West Melton demonstrates the population’s passion for music and drinking but also their high regard for respecting other mining families and the desire to be self-sufficient and supportive in the community.
J. Burnett (ed.), Destiny Obscure: Autobiographies of childhood, education and family from the 1820s to the 1920s (Allen Lane, London, 1982) | <urn:uuid:009a6570-b76c-4524-9a9b-43d7063efbb3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.writinglives.org/bessie-wallis/bessie-wallis-b-1904-habits-and-beliefs-part-2 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00223.warc.gz | en | 0.98726 | 1,037 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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Firstly, I realize that Bessie talks a lot about the behaviour of her father, a figure she seems to have high respect for and whom she states is popular within the village. Therefore I consider discussing his habits and beliefs will be a good place to start.
He was a frequent in the pubs where he had “singing engagements” in which he played the role as a “Minstrel and sing Foster’s songs accompanying himself on his ‘G’ string banjo.” This alludes to a culture of musical appreciation. This came with a problematic side though as he “usually came home worse for drink” and he “could not say no!”. The fact that this was a common occurrence implies that this behaviour was tolerated and perhaps encouraged due to the money he brought back.
The character he plays includes “black-face” and Bessie’s mother helped darken his face with soot before he had these arrangements. The Foster he mentions is Stephen Foster, a composer who wrote songs specifically written for black-face minstrel shows. It is not discussed whether this was considered racist or not but this sort of behaviour would be regarded as discriminatory now. It seemed to be a big hit with the locals, however.
Although he mentions these acts of performing and getting drunk, Bessie’s discourse on her father suggests the work ethic of the populace, “For sixteen years my father had done a strenuous job. He never missed a day’s work.” It highlights the strength of both mind and body of her father and what was expected of the male relatives of the family in the mining industry.
Although their livelihoods depended on the pits, there was a strong belief of unity in the village. For example, when the buzzer sounded announcing a casualty of the pit, “The pit always stood idle the next day as a token of respect to the dead man’s family.” There was a sense of community and respect for those who risked their lives and also respect for the family. So even though this meant a day in which a miner could not get money, showing respect to other mining families was priority.
In fact, this pride did not stop with who your neighbours were but also what you drank. Bessie recalls her grandfather warning her “Think on! I don’t like Barnsley Brew, I only like the local beer.” when she was asked to fetch the beer for him every week. This infers a preference for local and a distaste for what is outside of the community.
Finally i’m going to concentrate on the role of the church in relation to habits and beliefs. Bessie mentions the important figures within this center of the community – older women. “The backbone of the Chapels were the old ladies. They were the organisers and administrators who knit, sewed, crocheted and also solicited the local businessmen for funds.” This is interesting because it suggests how it was believed that the elder females would be in control of the events that were so important in Bessie’s childhood such as the “Church teas” at which “The food was made all the more wonderful by being cooked and prepared by the people themselves.” This shows a culture of resourcefulness, independence and again, local pride.
This significance around independence is emphasized when Bessie talks about bringing the left over food to the old people. “They always gave such a welcome. Although most of them certainly could not afford sixpence they always paid. They were fiercely independent and charity was hated.” There seemed to be a relationship between the community helping each other out but also respecting the other party’s want to be self-sufficient.
When Bessie was in the South, the attitudes of the north were mentioned again, such as when the young vicar she had made friends with “Had transferred to a mining district as he preferred to make his Ministry in an area where people were blunt and straight after that he had encountered in the south.” This underlines the differences between the the south and the north of the country, such as where West Melton was. It expresses that those from mining districts are seen to be more matter-of-fact, something that a vicar making his Ministry prefers.
Overall, I believe Bessie’s memoirs on her life at West Melton demonstrates the population’s passion for music and drinking but also their high regard for respecting other mining families and the desire to be self-sufficient and supportive in the community.
J. Burnett (ed.), Destiny Obscure: Autobiographies of childhood, education and family from the 1820s to the 1920s (Allen Lane, London, 1982) | 975 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The word hajduk entered the Polish language from Hungarian in the late 16th century. It was initially a colloquial term for a style of footsoldier, Hungarian or Turco-Balkan in inspiration, that was introduced by King Stephen Báthory in the 1570s, and who formed the backbone of the Polish infantry arm from the 1570s until about the 1630s. Unusually for this period, Polish-Lithuanian hajduks wore uniforms, typically of grey-blue woollen cloth, with red collar and cuffs. Their principal weapon was a small calibre matchlock firearm, known as an arquebus. For close combat they also carried a heavy variety of sabre, capable of hacking off the heads of enemy pikes and polearms.
Contrary to popular opinion, the small axe they often wore tucked in their belt (not to be confused with the huge half-moon shaped berdysz axe, which was seldom carried by hajduks) was not a combat weapon, but rather was intended for cutting wood.
In the mid 17th century hajduk-style infantry largely fell out of fashion in Poland-Lithuania, and were replaced by musket-armed infantry of Western style. However, commanders or hetmans of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth continued to maintain their own liveried bodyguards of hajduks, well into the 18th century as something of a throwback to the past, even though they were now rarely used as field troops. In imitation of these bodyguards, in the 18th century wealthy members of the szlachta hired liveried domestic servants who they called hajduks, thereby creating the meaning of the term 'hajduk' as it is generally understood in modern Polish. | <urn:uuid:6e619198-ed6c-4287-bd79-a1f87dad8b6b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alchetron.com/Hajduk-%28Polish-Lithuanian-Commonwealth%29 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00279.warc.gz | en | 0.98031 | 377 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.049283292144536... | 2 | The word hajduk entered the Polish language from Hungarian in the late 16th century. It was initially a colloquial term for a style of footsoldier, Hungarian or Turco-Balkan in inspiration, that was introduced by King Stephen Báthory in the 1570s, and who formed the backbone of the Polish infantry arm from the 1570s until about the 1630s. Unusually for this period, Polish-Lithuanian hajduks wore uniforms, typically of grey-blue woollen cloth, with red collar and cuffs. Their principal weapon was a small calibre matchlock firearm, known as an arquebus. For close combat they also carried a heavy variety of sabre, capable of hacking off the heads of enemy pikes and polearms.
Contrary to popular opinion, the small axe they often wore tucked in their belt (not to be confused with the huge half-moon shaped berdysz axe, which was seldom carried by hajduks) was not a combat weapon, but rather was intended for cutting wood.
In the mid 17th century hajduk-style infantry largely fell out of fashion in Poland-Lithuania, and were replaced by musket-armed infantry of Western style. However, commanders or hetmans of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth continued to maintain their own liveried bodyguards of hajduks, well into the 18th century as something of a throwback to the past, even though they were now rarely used as field troops. In imitation of these bodyguards, in the 18th century wealthy members of the szlachta hired liveried domestic servants who they called hajduks, thereby creating the meaning of the term 'hajduk' as it is generally understood in modern Polish. | 379 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Origin of Basketball
Duck-on-a-Rock was a game James Naismith played as a boy outside the one-room schoolhouse he attended. The game, combining tag and marksmanship, was played by placing a somewhat large stone (known as a "drake") upon a larger stone or a tree stump. One player would stay near the stone to guard it while other players would throw stones (known as ducks) at the drake in an attempt to knock it off of the platform. Once it was knocked off, the throwers would all rush to retrieve their ducks. If a player was tagged before returning to the throwing line with his or her duck, they became the guard. The guard could not tag anyone until he picked up a duck at his feet, nor could he chase anyone until he put the drake back up on its platform. Naismith's concept of basketball evolved from his experiences playing Duck-on-a-Rock.
Because of security issues with connecting sites and subsequent headaches, I've suspended the best sites programs permanently. | <urn:uuid:1ae2f8ba-c7a6-499e-84be-45fce477173a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.sports.aceswebworld.com/best_basketball_sites.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00003.warc.gz | en | 0.991633 | 216 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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Duck-on-a-Rock was a game James Naismith played as a boy outside the one-room schoolhouse he attended. The game, combining tag and marksmanship, was played by placing a somewhat large stone (known as a "drake") upon a larger stone or a tree stump. One player would stay near the stone to guard it while other players would throw stones (known as ducks) at the drake in an attempt to knock it off of the platform. Once it was knocked off, the throwers would all rush to retrieve their ducks. If a player was tagged before returning to the throwing line with his or her duck, they became the guard. The guard could not tag anyone until he picked up a duck at his feet, nor could he chase anyone until he put the drake back up on its platform. Naismith's concept of basketball evolved from his experiences playing Duck-on-a-Rock.
Because of security issues with connecting sites and subsequent headaches, I've suspended the best sites programs permanently. | 211 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During the first week back from Winter Break, the Dubonim children were eager to greet each other and share their experiences with the class. There was much discussion about playing at home and seeing the surprise snow shower! Some children explained that they saw it snowing from the window while they were inside their homes. Following Morning Meeting, we decided to create the scene where they observed the snow shower or a setting where they wanted it to snow
As some children were drawing their homes, the discussion turned toward having play dates. “Well, everybody can come to my house!” exclaimed one child. The teacher suggested that the class is like having one big play date. “It’s not really because it’s not at a house”, explained another child.
We decided to build small model homes to create a neighborhood. The children used wooden cubes and loose parts to create their homes. Two children who were constructing next to each other decided to connect their homes. Others wanted to be connected as well. One child suggested building roads. “Yeah, then we can all go to each other’s houses.”
The materials we had gathered wasn’t quite ample enough to connect all the homes. So, some children decided that the space in between would be water and that you would need a boat to travel to your friend’s house. Most of the homes now have a car parked beside them and a docked boat!
HOUSE NUMBERS: "How are we going to know who's house is who's?" One of the children said, "Houses have numbers. I know because I see the number on my house." We read a book about numbers and observed that homes have numbers on them. Some children knew the number of their real homes. We decided to label the homes by their correct street address.
JEWISH HOMES: While the children were making their chanukiot and learning about Chanukah before the Winter Break, we talked about the importance of lighting the candles by the front window in their homes. They were very proud to be bringing home a real chanukiah that they made in class and could light at home! The teacher asked what other Jewish objects are in your home? Together, we created a web as we brainstormed about what makes a home a Jewish home!
Now that the model homes are complete, byways and roads included, the discussion has turned to maps. Stay tuned for updates on this amazing project... | <urn:uuid:b706e5d1-661c-44cc-8ed4-56c406304eef> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bethsholomecc.com/single-post/2017/01/10/Building-a-neighborhood | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00021.warc.gz | en | 0.984471 | 513 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.637716114... | 3 | During the first week back from Winter Break, the Dubonim children were eager to greet each other and share their experiences with the class. There was much discussion about playing at home and seeing the surprise snow shower! Some children explained that they saw it snowing from the window while they were inside their homes. Following Morning Meeting, we decided to create the scene where they observed the snow shower or a setting where they wanted it to snow
As some children were drawing their homes, the discussion turned toward having play dates. “Well, everybody can come to my house!” exclaimed one child. The teacher suggested that the class is like having one big play date. “It’s not really because it’s not at a house”, explained another child.
We decided to build small model homes to create a neighborhood. The children used wooden cubes and loose parts to create their homes. Two children who were constructing next to each other decided to connect their homes. Others wanted to be connected as well. One child suggested building roads. “Yeah, then we can all go to each other’s houses.”
The materials we had gathered wasn’t quite ample enough to connect all the homes. So, some children decided that the space in between would be water and that you would need a boat to travel to your friend’s house. Most of the homes now have a car parked beside them and a docked boat!
HOUSE NUMBERS: "How are we going to know who's house is who's?" One of the children said, "Houses have numbers. I know because I see the number on my house." We read a book about numbers and observed that homes have numbers on them. Some children knew the number of their real homes. We decided to label the homes by their correct street address.
JEWISH HOMES: While the children were making their chanukiot and learning about Chanukah before the Winter Break, we talked about the importance of lighting the candles by the front window in their homes. They were very proud to be bringing home a real chanukiah that they made in class and could light at home! The teacher asked what other Jewish objects are in your home? Together, we created a web as we brainstormed about what makes a home a Jewish home!
Now that the model homes are complete, byways and roads included, the discussion has turned to maps. Stay tuned for updates on this amazing project... | 485 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Do we behave the way we do because of free will, or is it because we have learned that behaving any other way will produce non-favorable results? B. F. Skinner founded his own school of experimental research psychology to examine this topic. He believed if we acted one way and the consequences were not good that people would learn by default to try another way until they found something that garnered the results they were seeking, then they would continue to behave that way. This was what he called the principle of reinforcement.
Skinner described operant conditioning as looking at the cause of a certain behavior and the consequences. His work on the topic of operant conditioning was based on Thorndike’s Law of Effect. (McLeod, 2007) This theory basically stated that any behavior that is not reinforced would typically die out. He tested his operant conditioning theory on animals by creating a box in which animals would be placed and the animals would learn to pull a lever for food to be dispensed or the floor of the box to shock them as a punishment.
The study was to see if the animals would learn which action would create the results they want: ie. the food. As stated by Skinner, there are three different types of operants (responses) that will follow a behavior; Neutral Operants, Reinforcers, and Punishers. He believed that we will learn to behave in the manner that makes the most favorable outcome. Skinner also used to pigeons to learn more about superstitious behavior.
Food would be delivered to the pigeons on a 15 second schedule. Some pigeons simply pecked around the cage or circled the cage. “These behaviors were labeled ‘superstitious’ because they were not instrumental to the delivery of the reinforcer but appeared to be strengthened adventitiously as they were occasionally reinforced by food. These adventitiously reinforced responses eventually filled the time between food deliveries. ” | <urn:uuid:74acc55a-e497-4455-bc2a-fd5bcbd106a8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://woodstock-online.com/burrhus-frederic-skinner/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00237.warc.gz | en | 0.983072 | 394 | 4.25 | 4 | [
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0.31555804610... | 2 | Do we behave the way we do because of free will, or is it because we have learned that behaving any other way will produce non-favorable results? B. F. Skinner founded his own school of experimental research psychology to examine this topic. He believed if we acted one way and the consequences were not good that people would learn by default to try another way until they found something that garnered the results they were seeking, then they would continue to behave that way. This was what he called the principle of reinforcement.
Skinner described operant conditioning as looking at the cause of a certain behavior and the consequences. His work on the topic of operant conditioning was based on Thorndike’s Law of Effect. (McLeod, 2007) This theory basically stated that any behavior that is not reinforced would typically die out. He tested his operant conditioning theory on animals by creating a box in which animals would be placed and the animals would learn to pull a lever for food to be dispensed or the floor of the box to shock them as a punishment.
The study was to see if the animals would learn which action would create the results they want: ie. the food. As stated by Skinner, there are three different types of operants (responses) that will follow a behavior; Neutral Operants, Reinforcers, and Punishers. He believed that we will learn to behave in the manner that makes the most favorable outcome. Skinner also used to pigeons to learn more about superstitious behavior.
Food would be delivered to the pigeons on a 15 second schedule. Some pigeons simply pecked around the cage or circled the cage. “These behaviors were labeled ‘superstitious’ because they were not instrumental to the delivery of the reinforcer but appeared to be strengthened adventitiously as they were occasionally reinforced by food. These adventitiously reinforced responses eventually filled the time between food deliveries. ” | 393 | ENGLISH | 1 |
With the present increase in global violence, some people are calling towards "non-violence" quoting the biblical passage about "turning the other cheek".
Often this passage is interpreted as: "If I hit you, you should turn me the other cheek, but if you hit me, I have right to defend myself".
We look at the real meaning of "turning the other cheek", and how this method can be used with positive results, and where it fails.
The passage about turning the other cheek appears in The New Testament (Matthew 5:39, and Luke 6:29), as follows:
"If someone strikes you on one cheek, turn to him the other also".
But a similar passage appears in the Old Testament (Lamentations 3:30):
"Let him offer his cheek to one who would strike him, and let him be filled with disgrace".
This last passage is part of laments over the destruction of the Kingdom of Judah (Yehuda), Jerusalem, and the Temple by the Babylonians in 586 BC. The first passage originated in Palestine in the early decades of the 1st Century AD, when Palestine was ruled by the Roman puppet Herod.
Thus, both the passages relate to circumstances when people were downtrodden and oppressed to such a degree when any resistance seemed futile, and the only option was to face any aggression on the part of the oppressor by calmly accepting the blows, so as not to provoke more violence.
But the method of "turning the other cheek", both literally and figuratively, has been successfully used in more recent times, as illustrated by the following examples.
At the time of World War II a German officer ordered a group of British prisoners of war to line up in front of him. As each of the prisoner's name was read out, the prisoner was to walk up to the officer and stand up to attention in front of him. Then the officer would slap the prisoner on the face and the prisoner would return to his place in the line.
Having undergone such treatment and returned to his place in the line, one of the prisoners had a sudden flash in his mind. As the next name was read out, he walked out of the line and stood up to attention in front of the officer - to be slapped on the face for the second time.
But instead of slapping him on the face a second time, the officer spat on the ground, as if in disgust, ordered for the prisoners to be returned to their places, and walked away.
Here this literal "turning the cheek to be slapped" worked. It stopped the officer slapping the prisoners.
Why did it work?
The whole exercise of slapping the prisoners, was not dictated by any "military" or any other necessity. By humiliating the prisoners the officer wanted to show to them and to himself who is in control. It gave him a sense of superiority. But, once he saw that his actions do not produce the desired effect on the prisoners, his game was spoiled. So, he gave up his game, dismissed the prisoners and walked away.
Had the officer been faced with any attempts by the prisoners to resist this humiliating treatment or to protest against it, the officer would have been only encouraged to continue with his game, because it would have been producing the desired by him results. It would have enabled him to suppress any resistance or protest by his superior force and thus demonstrate his "superiority" over the "enemy" prisoners.
Some few years ago in an African country a businessman caught a young man who climbed over the wall into his yard in order to steal something. The youngster was obviously frightened that he would be beaten up or handed over to the police.
"I can beat you up, or hand you over to the police", said the businessman, "But I understand why you came here to steal. You have no money and you are hungry. I shall give you money, but you will have to work for it. But if you do not agree, then I shall hand you over to the police".
The youngster agreed to work for his money. The businessman found the youngster capable and trustworthy and after some time trained him to be a manager of one of his warehouses.
Here the businessman was faced with a burglary, which was a hostile aggressive act against his property. The natural human reaction to aggression is an aggressive response. And, in such cases people often respond in such way. But instead of reacting emotionally and instinctively as most people do, the businessman assessed the situation rationally and acted in a way which proved beneficial to himself.
Had he beaten up the burglar or handed him over to the police, not only the businessman would have lost an opportunity to employ a capable and trustworthy employee, but could have had another visit from the same burglar, who would have been toughen by his beating and his prison experience, and turned into a habitual hardened criminal.
In one office in a European country a director of the company went to the photocopying room to take a copy of a letter before going out for lunch. At the photocopier he found an employee copying a large heap of papers.
The employee was obviously embarrassed. He did not expect the director to find him in the copier room. It was already lunchtime, and he thought that the director went out for lunch.
Having glanced at the papers, the director understood what was going on, and said, "So, you've got some great business idea. You want to use the company information to set up a business of your own. I don't mind that. And, if your idea is any good, I can even invest in your new business".
The director understood that the information the employee was copying had no value whatsoever. And the "great idea" that the employee had was just a lot of nonsense. But instead of saying so to the employee, the director asked the employee to explain to him, how his "great business" would produce any profit. After a few questions it became clear even to the employee himself, that what he was doing was nonsense.
"Ok, now let me just take a copy of my letter, and then you can carry on copying your papers", said the director. And having copied his letter, went to lunch, leaving the employee to carry on copying the papers.
Later in the day, as the director passed through the copying room, he noticed that all the papers copied by the employee were sticking out of the waste-paper bin near the copier. The employee did not continue copying after the director left for lunch. And whatever he had copied before, the employee had thrown away.
On the next day the director received a telephone call from the employee's mother-in-law:
"My son-in-law has been taken to a mental hospital. He had a nervous breakdown. You make your people work too much. Everyday after coming from work my son-in-law was working on his computer till midnight. No wonder he had a nervous break down!".
"We do not give any work to any of our employees to be done at home", said the director, "Your son-in-law was doing his own work, not just at home, but even at the office. He has un unhealthy attitude to life".
"This is true", agreed the mother-in-law with a deep sigh. (Apparently her son-in-law had domestic problems as well).
Here again an employee had committed a dishonest, aggressive act against his employer, and the employer could have told him to stop copying the company information, which the employee thought was confidential and important, and which he hoped to "steal" from the company and to set his own "rival" business. He could also have dismissed him, or even threatened with legal proceedings.
Had the director reacted in such "aggressive" ways, he would have confirmed to the employee that the information he was trying to steal was valuable and so were his "business plans". And, even if had been dismissed, he could have still be trying to steal the "secrets" by breaking in or in some other way.
But by letting the employee to carry on with his activities, the director had shown to him that what he was doing had no value at all. The employee had realized that all his plans and his activities that he was carrying on in secrecy for some time were of no value at all. And this realization had such a strong impact on him that he had a nervous breakdown.
Here again we have a case when responding to aggression not emotionally and aggressively, but by rationally assessing the situation and acting accordingly, has neutralized the aggression with practically no effort and within minutes, while reacting to it aggressively could have fueled the aggression and kept it alive for years.
September the 11th, 2001.
The President of the USA decided to respond to that aggressive act with more aggression, by starting his War on Terror. And the consequences are there for all to see.
But, what would have happened, if the President had made use of the TTOC (Turning The Other Cheek) technique? In fact we suggested to him how to apply that technique to the 9/11 case still on 16th October 2001.
Osama bin Laden did what he did not because he wanted to be "evil", but because he sincerely believed that he was fighting against "Evil", just as G.W Bush and Tony Blair believe that they are doing today.
But, if, instead of being faced with war, he would have been faced with an offer to eradicate the "evil", against which he is fighting, by peaceful means, and with the assistance and cooperation of those he is trying to fight against - what would he have done?
If he had refused, he would have lost all credibility, because he would have been fighting for no reason.
But, if he would have taken up the offer? - Then the War on Terror, in the true sense of that word, would have been won "without a shot being fired".
But for G.W Bush it was so important to "get Osama bin Laden dead or alive". And what are the results?
Some people still respond to aggression with aggression and do not understand the power of the technique of "turning the other cheek".
But, if the TTOC (Turning The Other Cheek) technique is so powerful, why not use it in every case?
Because it does not work in every case.
Would have the USA been an independent country, rather than a British colony, if the Americans had been meek and obedient to the British, rather than rising up against them in a violent War of American Independence?
Would have the European colonizers left their Asian and African colonies, had it not been for a combination of violent and non-violent resistance?
In Case 1 (above) the prisoner could stop the officer slapping prisoners on the face using TTOC, but TTOC would not have liberated the countries occupied by the Germans in World War II. The only way to do that was military force.
In Case 2 (above) the burglar agreed to work for the businessman, because the alternative was to undergo violent punishment, and the businessman was a strong man backed by a group of servants standing behind him, which helped the burglar to accept the businessman's offer.
There is no single magic cure-all, each case needs to be considered on its merits. Often violence needs to be resisted with violence, but sometimes "turning the other cheek" works, while use of violence without sense creates just more violence. | <urn:uuid:3f68816e-4374-47e3-84be-a6d61fdeaeee> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.shamsali.org/taj/other-cheek.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00008.warc.gz | en | 0.988663 | 2,377 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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-0.014445312321... | 1 | With the present increase in global violence, some people are calling towards "non-violence" quoting the biblical passage about "turning the other cheek".
Often this passage is interpreted as: "If I hit you, you should turn me the other cheek, but if you hit me, I have right to defend myself".
We look at the real meaning of "turning the other cheek", and how this method can be used with positive results, and where it fails.
The passage about turning the other cheek appears in The New Testament (Matthew 5:39, and Luke 6:29), as follows:
"If someone strikes you on one cheek, turn to him the other also".
But a similar passage appears in the Old Testament (Lamentations 3:30):
"Let him offer his cheek to one who would strike him, and let him be filled with disgrace".
This last passage is part of laments over the destruction of the Kingdom of Judah (Yehuda), Jerusalem, and the Temple by the Babylonians in 586 BC. The first passage originated in Palestine in the early decades of the 1st Century AD, when Palestine was ruled by the Roman puppet Herod.
Thus, both the passages relate to circumstances when people were downtrodden and oppressed to such a degree when any resistance seemed futile, and the only option was to face any aggression on the part of the oppressor by calmly accepting the blows, so as not to provoke more violence.
But the method of "turning the other cheek", both literally and figuratively, has been successfully used in more recent times, as illustrated by the following examples.
At the time of World War II a German officer ordered a group of British prisoners of war to line up in front of him. As each of the prisoner's name was read out, the prisoner was to walk up to the officer and stand up to attention in front of him. Then the officer would slap the prisoner on the face and the prisoner would return to his place in the line.
Having undergone such treatment and returned to his place in the line, one of the prisoners had a sudden flash in his mind. As the next name was read out, he walked out of the line and stood up to attention in front of the officer - to be slapped on the face for the second time.
But instead of slapping him on the face a second time, the officer spat on the ground, as if in disgust, ordered for the prisoners to be returned to their places, and walked away.
Here this literal "turning the cheek to be slapped" worked. It stopped the officer slapping the prisoners.
Why did it work?
The whole exercise of slapping the prisoners, was not dictated by any "military" or any other necessity. By humiliating the prisoners the officer wanted to show to them and to himself who is in control. It gave him a sense of superiority. But, once he saw that his actions do not produce the desired effect on the prisoners, his game was spoiled. So, he gave up his game, dismissed the prisoners and walked away.
Had the officer been faced with any attempts by the prisoners to resist this humiliating treatment or to protest against it, the officer would have been only encouraged to continue with his game, because it would have been producing the desired by him results. It would have enabled him to suppress any resistance or protest by his superior force and thus demonstrate his "superiority" over the "enemy" prisoners.
Some few years ago in an African country a businessman caught a young man who climbed over the wall into his yard in order to steal something. The youngster was obviously frightened that he would be beaten up or handed over to the police.
"I can beat you up, or hand you over to the police", said the businessman, "But I understand why you came here to steal. You have no money and you are hungry. I shall give you money, but you will have to work for it. But if you do not agree, then I shall hand you over to the police".
The youngster agreed to work for his money. The businessman found the youngster capable and trustworthy and after some time trained him to be a manager of one of his warehouses.
Here the businessman was faced with a burglary, which was a hostile aggressive act against his property. The natural human reaction to aggression is an aggressive response. And, in such cases people often respond in such way. But instead of reacting emotionally and instinctively as most people do, the businessman assessed the situation rationally and acted in a way which proved beneficial to himself.
Had he beaten up the burglar or handed him over to the police, not only the businessman would have lost an opportunity to employ a capable and trustworthy employee, but could have had another visit from the same burglar, who would have been toughen by his beating and his prison experience, and turned into a habitual hardened criminal.
In one office in a European country a director of the company went to the photocopying room to take a copy of a letter before going out for lunch. At the photocopier he found an employee copying a large heap of papers.
The employee was obviously embarrassed. He did not expect the director to find him in the copier room. It was already lunchtime, and he thought that the director went out for lunch.
Having glanced at the papers, the director understood what was going on, and said, "So, you've got some great business idea. You want to use the company information to set up a business of your own. I don't mind that. And, if your idea is any good, I can even invest in your new business".
The director understood that the information the employee was copying had no value whatsoever. And the "great idea" that the employee had was just a lot of nonsense. But instead of saying so to the employee, the director asked the employee to explain to him, how his "great business" would produce any profit. After a few questions it became clear even to the employee himself, that what he was doing was nonsense.
"Ok, now let me just take a copy of my letter, and then you can carry on copying your papers", said the director. And having copied his letter, went to lunch, leaving the employee to carry on copying the papers.
Later in the day, as the director passed through the copying room, he noticed that all the papers copied by the employee were sticking out of the waste-paper bin near the copier. The employee did not continue copying after the director left for lunch. And whatever he had copied before, the employee had thrown away.
On the next day the director received a telephone call from the employee's mother-in-law:
"My son-in-law has been taken to a mental hospital. He had a nervous breakdown. You make your people work too much. Everyday after coming from work my son-in-law was working on his computer till midnight. No wonder he had a nervous break down!".
"We do not give any work to any of our employees to be done at home", said the director, "Your son-in-law was doing his own work, not just at home, but even at the office. He has un unhealthy attitude to life".
"This is true", agreed the mother-in-law with a deep sigh. (Apparently her son-in-law had domestic problems as well).
Here again an employee had committed a dishonest, aggressive act against his employer, and the employer could have told him to stop copying the company information, which the employee thought was confidential and important, and which he hoped to "steal" from the company and to set his own "rival" business. He could also have dismissed him, or even threatened with legal proceedings.
Had the director reacted in such "aggressive" ways, he would have confirmed to the employee that the information he was trying to steal was valuable and so were his "business plans". And, even if had been dismissed, he could have still be trying to steal the "secrets" by breaking in or in some other way.
But by letting the employee to carry on with his activities, the director had shown to him that what he was doing had no value at all. The employee had realized that all his plans and his activities that he was carrying on in secrecy for some time were of no value at all. And this realization had such a strong impact on him that he had a nervous breakdown.
Here again we have a case when responding to aggression not emotionally and aggressively, but by rationally assessing the situation and acting accordingly, has neutralized the aggression with practically no effort and within minutes, while reacting to it aggressively could have fueled the aggression and kept it alive for years.
September the 11th, 2001.
The President of the USA decided to respond to that aggressive act with more aggression, by starting his War on Terror. And the consequences are there for all to see.
But, what would have happened, if the President had made use of the TTOC (Turning The Other Cheek) technique? In fact we suggested to him how to apply that technique to the 9/11 case still on 16th October 2001.
Osama bin Laden did what he did not because he wanted to be "evil", but because he sincerely believed that he was fighting against "Evil", just as G.W Bush and Tony Blair believe that they are doing today.
But, if, instead of being faced with war, he would have been faced with an offer to eradicate the "evil", against which he is fighting, by peaceful means, and with the assistance and cooperation of those he is trying to fight against - what would he have done?
If he had refused, he would have lost all credibility, because he would have been fighting for no reason.
But, if he would have taken up the offer? - Then the War on Terror, in the true sense of that word, would have been won "without a shot being fired".
But for G.W Bush it was so important to "get Osama bin Laden dead or alive". And what are the results?
Some people still respond to aggression with aggression and do not understand the power of the technique of "turning the other cheek".
But, if the TTOC (Turning The Other Cheek) technique is so powerful, why not use it in every case?
Because it does not work in every case.
Would have the USA been an independent country, rather than a British colony, if the Americans had been meek and obedient to the British, rather than rising up against them in a violent War of American Independence?
Would have the European colonizers left their Asian and African colonies, had it not been for a combination of violent and non-violent resistance?
In Case 1 (above) the prisoner could stop the officer slapping prisoners on the face using TTOC, but TTOC would not have liberated the countries occupied by the Germans in World War II. The only way to do that was military force.
In Case 2 (above) the burglar agreed to work for the businessman, because the alternative was to undergo violent punishment, and the businessman was a strong man backed by a group of servants standing behind him, which helped the burglar to accept the businessman's offer.
There is no single magic cure-all, each case needs to be considered on its merits. Often violence needs to be resisted with violence, but sometimes "turning the other cheek" works, while use of violence without sense creates just more violence. | 2,344 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The wreck of a warship that sank nearly 400 years ago is enshrined in a museum. No one knows why the sophisticated ship in its time sank, 20 minutes after the first voyage. Tragic!
Vasa is the name of the warship wreck. Quoted by Landdisposition.com, when sailing from Stockholm in 1628 Gulf ago, warship Vasa is the most high-tech in the world. This ship was built along 68 meters and carrying 64 cannons, which at that time had never existed before. Vasa is one example of the first warship with two fully armed decks.
However, the glory of this magnificent ship with beautiful decorations did not last long. Only 20 minutes after its maiden voyage, the ship sank and killed 30 passengers. Vasa sank at the bottom of the bay for about three centuries. Until one day, archaeologists rescued the wreck and put it on display in a museum that is now the most visited by tourists in Scandinavia.
The Story of the Vasa Warship
The story of the sinking of Vasa became one of the most significant failures and mysteries in the history of naval architecture. This accident has been considered a national disaster by the public. The sinking of this ship was witnessed by so many people who had gathered to celebrate the first voyage of this warship. So dramatic, the seconds of this ship killed the people who boarded it was clearly visible to the public.
At that time, the ship was blown by strong winds, then leaned to the side until then the water began to enter it. After sinking suddenly, it is suspected that this ship is unstable. The reason behind the instability is not known until now. Some historians believe that the ship was not designed correctly. While others reasoned that the full firepower weight of the ship was not properly distributed.
Interestingly, even though it has been sitting on the seabed around three centuries, Vasa’s condition was still good when it was discovered. Apparently, this is inseparable from the manufacturing process. Because it would sail in the Baltic seawater, which was cold and oxygen-poor, the ship was protected from bacteria and worms that usually undermined wooden shipwrecks. When transported from the sea in 1961, experts estimated that 98% of the original wood on the ship was intact even though it had been submerged for a long time.
Now, the Vasa ship is located at the Vasa Museum, Stockholm, Sweden. The public can see the remnants of the beauty of the ship decorated with wood carvings that tell the story of the Swedish royal family. The experts are determined to continue to preserve the ship until the future. | <urn:uuid:99868060-5ed5-49bb-a652-1aa53137756e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.landdisposition.com/vasa-400-years-old-warship-for-museum-decoration/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00308.warc.gz | en | 0.983461 | 539 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.2642818093299... | 3 | The wreck of a warship that sank nearly 400 years ago is enshrined in a museum. No one knows why the sophisticated ship in its time sank, 20 minutes after the first voyage. Tragic!
Vasa is the name of the warship wreck. Quoted by Landdisposition.com, when sailing from Stockholm in 1628 Gulf ago, warship Vasa is the most high-tech in the world. This ship was built along 68 meters and carrying 64 cannons, which at that time had never existed before. Vasa is one example of the first warship with two fully armed decks.
However, the glory of this magnificent ship with beautiful decorations did not last long. Only 20 minutes after its maiden voyage, the ship sank and killed 30 passengers. Vasa sank at the bottom of the bay for about three centuries. Until one day, archaeologists rescued the wreck and put it on display in a museum that is now the most visited by tourists in Scandinavia.
The Story of the Vasa Warship
The story of the sinking of Vasa became one of the most significant failures and mysteries in the history of naval architecture. This accident has been considered a national disaster by the public. The sinking of this ship was witnessed by so many people who had gathered to celebrate the first voyage of this warship. So dramatic, the seconds of this ship killed the people who boarded it was clearly visible to the public.
At that time, the ship was blown by strong winds, then leaned to the side until then the water began to enter it. After sinking suddenly, it is suspected that this ship is unstable. The reason behind the instability is not known until now. Some historians believe that the ship was not designed correctly. While others reasoned that the full firepower weight of the ship was not properly distributed.
Interestingly, even though it has been sitting on the seabed around three centuries, Vasa’s condition was still good when it was discovered. Apparently, this is inseparable from the manufacturing process. Because it would sail in the Baltic seawater, which was cold and oxygen-poor, the ship was protected from bacteria and worms that usually undermined wooden shipwrecks. When transported from the sea in 1961, experts estimated that 98% of the original wood on the ship was intact even though it had been submerged for a long time.
Now, the Vasa ship is located at the Vasa Museum, Stockholm, Sweden. The public can see the remnants of the beauty of the ship decorated with wood carvings that tell the story of the Swedish royal family. The experts are determined to continue to preserve the ship until the future. | 552 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On December 7, 1941, at around 1:30 p.m., President Franklin Roosevelt is conferring with advisor Harry Hopkins in his study when Navy Secretary Frank Knox bursts in and announces that Japan had attacked Pearl Harbor. The attack killed more than 2,400 naval and military personnel.
For weeks, a war with Japan had appeared likely since negotiations had deteriorated over the subject of Japan’s military forays into China and elsewhere in the Pacific during World War II. FDR and his advisors knew that an attack on the U.S. fleet at the Philippines was possible, but few suspected the naval base at Pearl Harbor would be a target.
In her account of Roosevelt and first lady Eleanor during the years of the Second World War, No Ordinary Time, historian Doris Kearns Goodwin recounts the scene at the White House on that tragic and pivotal day: Eleanor had just finished hosting a luncheon and walked into FDR’s study just as he received confirmation of the attack via telephone. While aides and secretaries scurried around the room, Eleanor overheard some of her husband’s conversation and knew that, in her words, “the final blow had fallen and we had been attacked.”
Although Eleanor, who knew Roosevelt best, later recalled her husband’s demeanor on that day as “deadly calm,” she knew that he was incensed by the attacks. He was concerned that it might only be a matter of time until Germany, too, would officially declare war on the United States and that, at that moment, U.S. forces would be hard-pressed to fight a war on two fronts. According to Goodwin, he told Eleanor that it would take time for the United States to build up its military and that he feared the nation would “have to take a good many defeats before we can have a victory.” Indeed, FDR and his advisors had discussed the possibility that the Japanese were already planning an invasion of the mainland somewhere on the West Coast.
As the day wore on, Roosevelt displayed a calm and steady efficiency: He consulted with military advisors, enlisted his son James’ help to work with the media and spoke by telephone with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, who told him “we are all in the same boat now.” Early that evening, Roosevelt dictated a speech to his secretary, Grace Tully, which he planned to deliver to Congress the next day. (Eleanor actually addressed the nation on the subject of war before her husband. That evening she delivered a scheduled weekly radio broadcast in which she told listeners that although the United States had been thrust reluctantly into the war she was confident that “whatever is asked of [America] we shall accomplish it; we are the free and unconquerable people of the U.S.A.”) Late that night, Roosevelt updated his cabinet and Congressional members on the situation: “this is probably the most serious crisis any Cabinet has confronted since the Civil War.” One cabinet member later noted that the president, a former Navy man, was visibly distraught while recounting what he had been told of the strafing of sailors and the destruction of most of the Pacific fleet. After the meeting, Roosevelt went to bed.
The next day, Roosevelt addressed Congress and the nation with a somber yet stirring speech in which he swore that America would never forget December 7, 1941, as a “date that would live in infamy.”
READ MORE: Pearl Harbor - Facts, Casualties & Impact | <urn:uuid:7f2b2746-fda8-49fe-8507-88d7a9673277> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/fdr-reacts-to-news-of-pearl-harbor-bombing | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00278.warc.gz | en | 0.987649 | 719 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.8833783864974... | 5 | On December 7, 1941, at around 1:30 p.m., President Franklin Roosevelt is conferring with advisor Harry Hopkins in his study when Navy Secretary Frank Knox bursts in and announces that Japan had attacked Pearl Harbor. The attack killed more than 2,400 naval and military personnel.
For weeks, a war with Japan had appeared likely since negotiations had deteriorated over the subject of Japan’s military forays into China and elsewhere in the Pacific during World War II. FDR and his advisors knew that an attack on the U.S. fleet at the Philippines was possible, but few suspected the naval base at Pearl Harbor would be a target.
In her account of Roosevelt and first lady Eleanor during the years of the Second World War, No Ordinary Time, historian Doris Kearns Goodwin recounts the scene at the White House on that tragic and pivotal day: Eleanor had just finished hosting a luncheon and walked into FDR’s study just as he received confirmation of the attack via telephone. While aides and secretaries scurried around the room, Eleanor overheard some of her husband’s conversation and knew that, in her words, “the final blow had fallen and we had been attacked.”
Although Eleanor, who knew Roosevelt best, later recalled her husband’s demeanor on that day as “deadly calm,” she knew that he was incensed by the attacks. He was concerned that it might only be a matter of time until Germany, too, would officially declare war on the United States and that, at that moment, U.S. forces would be hard-pressed to fight a war on two fronts. According to Goodwin, he told Eleanor that it would take time for the United States to build up its military and that he feared the nation would “have to take a good many defeats before we can have a victory.” Indeed, FDR and his advisors had discussed the possibility that the Japanese were already planning an invasion of the mainland somewhere on the West Coast.
As the day wore on, Roosevelt displayed a calm and steady efficiency: He consulted with military advisors, enlisted his son James’ help to work with the media and spoke by telephone with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, who told him “we are all in the same boat now.” Early that evening, Roosevelt dictated a speech to his secretary, Grace Tully, which he planned to deliver to Congress the next day. (Eleanor actually addressed the nation on the subject of war before her husband. That evening she delivered a scheduled weekly radio broadcast in which she told listeners that although the United States had been thrust reluctantly into the war she was confident that “whatever is asked of [America] we shall accomplish it; we are the free and unconquerable people of the U.S.A.”) Late that night, Roosevelt updated his cabinet and Congressional members on the situation: “this is probably the most serious crisis any Cabinet has confronted since the Civil War.” One cabinet member later noted that the president, a former Navy man, was visibly distraught while recounting what he had been told of the strafing of sailors and the destruction of most of the Pacific fleet. After the meeting, Roosevelt went to bed.
The next day, Roosevelt addressed Congress and the nation with a somber yet stirring speech in which he swore that America would never forget December 7, 1941, as a “date that would live in infamy.”
READ MORE: Pearl Harbor - Facts, Casualties & Impact | 702 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Why do we commemorate Remembrance Day?
Many churches will mark Remembrance Day during their Sunday services, but why is it so important to keep it at the forefront of our minds at this time of year?
As well as marking Remembrance Day, or Armistice Day,in our Sunday services, most people across the UK will hold a two-minute silence at 11am on the 11th day of the 11th month; the time World War One ended back in 1918. You’ll also see people wearing poppies and memorials that are covered in red at this time of year. But why do people still make such a big deal about Remembrance Day more than 100 years after the event, and why, as Christians should we be leading the charge?
First of all, because it is a big deal! According to the BBC, six million British troops were mobilised during World War I and more than 700,000 were killed. It’s also worth remembering that many of those who survived would have had physical injuries or mental health issues as a result of their service, and thousands of civilians would also have endured great loss and hardship. Added to this, there have been countless other conflicts before and since then in which men and women have laid down their lives for their country, for example during World War Two, the Falklands War, the Gulf War, and during more recent conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan. It is a huge sacrifice to make, and one we should never forget.
John 15:13 says: “Greater love has no one than this, that someone lay down his life for his friends.”
Secondly, British soldiers continue to face danger on a daily basis across the globe. Those who survive can never unsee what they have seen. The impact can only really be understood by those who have been to a warzone and faced their own mortality, the mortality of their friends, and the mortality of the unknown men, women and children on the other side of the conflict. It’s also worth remembering the price the soldiers’ family members pay for their service. The families of British troops suffer their absence if they survive and their loss if they don’t. Again, that is a huge price to pay for the protection of our country.
Romans 12:15 says: “Rejoice with those who rejoice, weep with those who weep.”
Thirdly, it’s important for Christians to lead the way in moments like this. The words surrounding this annual commemoration are deliberately not faith-related so that those of all faiths and none can feel included, but that doesn’t mean we can’t bring God into the situation. Many churches hold special services to remember the dead, the injured and those who have made huge sacrifices during times of conflict. This is a good opportunity to invite those who wouldn’t normally attend church to be part of something that might bring them comfort.
Even during the two-minute silence at work or on the high street we can pray for those who are suffering and ask him to bring peace where there is currently war. We can pray for those who have lost family members and been forced out of their lands. We can reach out to people in our communities who have been affected by war. We can visit residential homes to pay our respects to veterans. We can wear a poppy to show that we remember, and more importantly that we care. And ultimately, we can be a light to those around us in living life to the full because our freedom has been bought at a price… both on the part of brave soldiers past and present, and by our saviour, Jesus Christ, who died on the cross to give us life for all eternity.
John 3:16 says: “For God so loved the world, that he gave his only Son, that whoever believes in him should not perish but have eternal life.” | <urn:uuid:e2d130a4-02ff-4825-a2cd-5421190917f9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.premierpraise.com/Discover/Why-do-we-commemorate-Remembrance-Day | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00369.warc.gz | en | 0.981404 | 805 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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Many churches will mark Remembrance Day during their Sunday services, but why is it so important to keep it at the forefront of our minds at this time of year?
As well as marking Remembrance Day, or Armistice Day,in our Sunday services, most people across the UK will hold a two-minute silence at 11am on the 11th day of the 11th month; the time World War One ended back in 1918. You’ll also see people wearing poppies and memorials that are covered in red at this time of year. But why do people still make such a big deal about Remembrance Day more than 100 years after the event, and why, as Christians should we be leading the charge?
First of all, because it is a big deal! According to the BBC, six million British troops were mobilised during World War I and more than 700,000 were killed. It’s also worth remembering that many of those who survived would have had physical injuries or mental health issues as a result of their service, and thousands of civilians would also have endured great loss and hardship. Added to this, there have been countless other conflicts before and since then in which men and women have laid down their lives for their country, for example during World War Two, the Falklands War, the Gulf War, and during more recent conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan. It is a huge sacrifice to make, and one we should never forget.
John 15:13 says: “Greater love has no one than this, that someone lay down his life for his friends.”
Secondly, British soldiers continue to face danger on a daily basis across the globe. Those who survive can never unsee what they have seen. The impact can only really be understood by those who have been to a warzone and faced their own mortality, the mortality of their friends, and the mortality of the unknown men, women and children on the other side of the conflict. It’s also worth remembering the price the soldiers’ family members pay for their service. The families of British troops suffer their absence if they survive and their loss if they don’t. Again, that is a huge price to pay for the protection of our country.
Romans 12:15 says: “Rejoice with those who rejoice, weep with those who weep.”
Thirdly, it’s important for Christians to lead the way in moments like this. The words surrounding this annual commemoration are deliberately not faith-related so that those of all faiths and none can feel included, but that doesn’t mean we can’t bring God into the situation. Many churches hold special services to remember the dead, the injured and those who have made huge sacrifices during times of conflict. This is a good opportunity to invite those who wouldn’t normally attend church to be part of something that might bring them comfort.
Even during the two-minute silence at work or on the high street we can pray for those who are suffering and ask him to bring peace where there is currently war. We can pray for those who have lost family members and been forced out of their lands. We can reach out to people in our communities who have been affected by war. We can visit residential homes to pay our respects to veterans. We can wear a poppy to show that we remember, and more importantly that we care. And ultimately, we can be a light to those around us in living life to the full because our freedom has been bought at a price… both on the part of brave soldiers past and present, and by our saviour, Jesus Christ, who died on the cross to give us life for all eternity.
John 3:16 says: “For God so loved the world, that he gave his only Son, that whoever believes in him should not perish but have eternal life.” | 796 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Tenth Air Force, established in India in early 1942, was one of the smallest and least celebrated combat air forces of World War II, but it had a primary mission of great importance: protecting the logistics lifeline from India to China. In mid-1942, that air force included the 7th Bomb Group with two heavy and two medium squadrons; two fighter groups; and some transports. Only six of the 10 combat squadrons were even marginally operational.
In June 1942, the already feeble Tenth was eviscerated when its commander, Maj. Gen. Lewis H. Brereton, was ordered to the Middle East to help stop Field Marshal Erwin Rommel’s drive into Egypt. He took with him most of the command’s heavy bombers and its key personnel. The 7th Bomb Group’s 436th Bomb Squadron, which was converting to longer-range B-24s, was left in India at scattered locations, far from combat ready. Gradually, replacement crews and aircraft arrived in India, and Tenth Air Force began a slow recovery.
Before his air force came off the critical list, Maj. Gen. Clayton L. Bissell, who had been named commander of the Tenth, was handed a mission unrelated to the protection of the India-China lifeline. Its audacity must have staggered the imagination of the few who were privy to the details.
Far behind enemy lines in the vicinity of Beijing, China, lay the Linsi mines, which produced a major share of coking coal used by the Japanese to produce high-grade steel. These were “wet mines” that could be kept in operation only by continuous pumping, powered by an electric generating plant at the site. If the plant could be knocked out, it was believed, the flooded mines would be useless for perhaps a year. The only bomber that had the range to reach the mines was the B-24, and even it required staging to bases in west-central China. This would be the first ever strike north of the Yellow River.
Maj. Max R. Fennell, who had gone to the Middle East with Brereton, was recalled to lead the B-24s to Linsi. Fennell had flown in China and was familiar with some of the inevitable problems. He arrived at Karachi on Oct. 8, where he met five B-24D crews of the 436th Bomb Squadron. On Oct. 11, his B-24s and a spare flew to Allahabad in northern India, where they were met by General Bissell. Only the crew members who needed to know were told what their target was.
The General informed one of the crews that if it returned from the mission, the crew members could consider themselves among the luckiest of men. His pessimism was not unfounded. From their forward staging base at Chengdu, they would fly 800 miles into enemy territory without adequate maps, weather forecasts, or fighter escort, and past several Japanese airfields that were believed to be occupied by some 300 enemy fighters. If a crew went down, there could be no rescue attempt.
Major Fennell’s flight proceeded from Allahabad over The Hump to Kunming, en route to Chengdu, nearly losing one B-24 to icing as they crossed the Himalayas. On Oct. 20, the B-24s took off from Chengdu on the 1,100-mile flight to Linsi, heavy with bombs and fuel. Over 14,000-foot mountains, they ran into a violent front causing severe icing and were forced to return to Chengdu. The following day, the weather was clear but very cold. On the flight to Linsi, Major Fennell’s formation passed seven enemy airfields, none occupied. Apparently, the Japanese were confident that no American aircraft would penetrate that far behind the lines.
One B-24 had to abort before reaching Linsi. The other five bombed from 14,000 feet, each making two runs over the powerplant. The crews, who encountered light flak, believed they had scored several direct hits. Their photos showed tall columns of smoke rising from the Linsi complex. All returned safely to Chengdu more than 12 hours after takeoff, having completed one of the potentially most hazardous missions flown in China up to that time.
One senior commander recommended that all crew members be awarded the Silver Star for this pioneering mission. Another held that no awards should be made because air combat had not taken place. With the brass deadlocked on that issue, the crews went undecorated.
Seventh Bomb Group Report, WW II says that, according to ground sources, the power station was destroyed and the mines flooded. On the other hand, The Army Air Forces in World War II reports that “while the bombs struck in the target area they failed to destroy the objectives.” Japanese officials who have been queried replied that records of that mission have been destroyed. The actual outcome may never be known, but the measure of heroism lies not in the success but in the doing. The men of these crews accepted without hesitation a mission from which it seemed they were not likely to return. Their heroism has been recognized by little more than a footnote in history.
Thanks to retired Maj. John T. Foster of Keene, N. H., author of the privately published China Up and Down, who allowed the use of his files on the Linsi mission.
Published October 1995. For presentation on this web site, some Valor articles have been amended for accuracy. | <urn:uuid:dd254126-f15b-4404-8a72-1bb9aa3dae1b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.airforcemag.com/article/valor-target-the-linsi-mines/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00474.warc.gz | en | 0.980815 | 1,145 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.751248240470886... | 11 | Tenth Air Force, established in India in early 1942, was one of the smallest and least celebrated combat air forces of World War II, but it had a primary mission of great importance: protecting the logistics lifeline from India to China. In mid-1942, that air force included the 7th Bomb Group with two heavy and two medium squadrons; two fighter groups; and some transports. Only six of the 10 combat squadrons were even marginally operational.
In June 1942, the already feeble Tenth was eviscerated when its commander, Maj. Gen. Lewis H. Brereton, was ordered to the Middle East to help stop Field Marshal Erwin Rommel’s drive into Egypt. He took with him most of the command’s heavy bombers and its key personnel. The 7th Bomb Group’s 436th Bomb Squadron, which was converting to longer-range B-24s, was left in India at scattered locations, far from combat ready. Gradually, replacement crews and aircraft arrived in India, and Tenth Air Force began a slow recovery.
Before his air force came off the critical list, Maj. Gen. Clayton L. Bissell, who had been named commander of the Tenth, was handed a mission unrelated to the protection of the India-China lifeline. Its audacity must have staggered the imagination of the few who were privy to the details.
Far behind enemy lines in the vicinity of Beijing, China, lay the Linsi mines, which produced a major share of coking coal used by the Japanese to produce high-grade steel. These were “wet mines” that could be kept in operation only by continuous pumping, powered by an electric generating plant at the site. If the plant could be knocked out, it was believed, the flooded mines would be useless for perhaps a year. The only bomber that had the range to reach the mines was the B-24, and even it required staging to bases in west-central China. This would be the first ever strike north of the Yellow River.
Maj. Max R. Fennell, who had gone to the Middle East with Brereton, was recalled to lead the B-24s to Linsi. Fennell had flown in China and was familiar with some of the inevitable problems. He arrived at Karachi on Oct. 8, where he met five B-24D crews of the 436th Bomb Squadron. On Oct. 11, his B-24s and a spare flew to Allahabad in northern India, where they were met by General Bissell. Only the crew members who needed to know were told what their target was.
The General informed one of the crews that if it returned from the mission, the crew members could consider themselves among the luckiest of men. His pessimism was not unfounded. From their forward staging base at Chengdu, they would fly 800 miles into enemy territory without adequate maps, weather forecasts, or fighter escort, and past several Japanese airfields that were believed to be occupied by some 300 enemy fighters. If a crew went down, there could be no rescue attempt.
Major Fennell’s flight proceeded from Allahabad over The Hump to Kunming, en route to Chengdu, nearly losing one B-24 to icing as they crossed the Himalayas. On Oct. 20, the B-24s took off from Chengdu on the 1,100-mile flight to Linsi, heavy with bombs and fuel. Over 14,000-foot mountains, they ran into a violent front causing severe icing and were forced to return to Chengdu. The following day, the weather was clear but very cold. On the flight to Linsi, Major Fennell’s formation passed seven enemy airfields, none occupied. Apparently, the Japanese were confident that no American aircraft would penetrate that far behind the lines.
One B-24 had to abort before reaching Linsi. The other five bombed from 14,000 feet, each making two runs over the powerplant. The crews, who encountered light flak, believed they had scored several direct hits. Their photos showed tall columns of smoke rising from the Linsi complex. All returned safely to Chengdu more than 12 hours after takeoff, having completed one of the potentially most hazardous missions flown in China up to that time.
One senior commander recommended that all crew members be awarded the Silver Star for this pioneering mission. Another held that no awards should be made because air combat had not taken place. With the brass deadlocked on that issue, the crews went undecorated.
Seventh Bomb Group Report, WW II says that, according to ground sources, the power station was destroyed and the mines flooded. On the other hand, The Army Air Forces in World War II reports that “while the bombs struck in the target area they failed to destroy the objectives.” Japanese officials who have been queried replied that records of that mission have been destroyed. The actual outcome may never be known, but the measure of heroism lies not in the success but in the doing. The men of these crews accepted without hesitation a mission from which it seemed they were not likely to return. Their heroism has been recognized by little more than a footnote in history.
Thanks to retired Maj. John T. Foster of Keene, N. H., author of the privately published China Up and Down, who allowed the use of his files on the Linsi mission.
Published October 1995. For presentation on this web site, some Valor articles have been amended for accuracy. | 1,171 | ENGLISH | 1 |
facts about William the conqueror?
does anyone have any facts about william the conqueror
- EnquireLv 71 decade agoFavorite Answer
(born 1027, ruled 1066–87), called William the Conqueror, was an illegitimate son of Robert I, duke of Normandy. His mother was a tanner's daughter. William succeeded his father when he was only seven years old. At 24 he had made himself the mightiest feudal lord in all France by various conquests, but his ambition was not satisfied. He laid plans to become king of England also.
William married Matilda, daughter of Baldwin V, count of Flanders, in 1053. She was descended from the old Anglo-Saxon line of kings. Among their children were four sons: Robert, future duke of Normandy; Richard, who died as a youth; William Rufus, who succeeded his father as king of England; and Henry, who succeeded William Rufus. One daughter, Adela, became the mother of England's King Stephen.
Edward the Confessor, king of England, was William's cousin. William used his connection with Flanders to put pressure on Edward to extort a promise that he would become heir to the English throne. It is probable that Edward made some kind of pledge to William as early as 1051. Edward died childless on Jan. 5, 1066. William then claimed the throne on the basis of this promise. The English, however, chose Harold, earl of Wessex, as their king.
William prepared a large expedition and set sail for England. On Oct. 14, 1066, he defeated and killed Harold at Hastings in one of the decisive battles of the world (see Hastings, Battle of). Then he marched on London, and on Christmas day he was crowned king.
After subduing England's powerful earls, William seized their lands for his Norman nobles and ordered the nobles to build fortified stone castles to protect their lands. As payment for their fiefs, the nobles supplied the king with armed knights. French became the language of the king's court and gradually blended with the Anglo-Saxon tongue.
William won the loyalty of the mass of the people by wisely retaining the old Anglo-Saxon laws, courts, and customs with only a few changes. Thus the principle of self-government, which lies at the root of the political system of English-speaking peoples, was preserved and strengthened. At the same time, William taught the English the advantages of a central government strong enough to control feudal lords.
Toward the end of his reign, William ordered a great census to be taken of all the lands and people of England. This survey was called the Domesday Book. The original may still be seen at the National Archives in Kew, Surrey. “So very narrowly did he cause the survey to be made,” complained the old Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, “that there was not a single rood of land, nor an ox, or a cow, or a pig passed by, and that was not set down in the accounts.”
William was often on the continent dealing with his widespread holdings. He died there in 1087 from injuries received while warring with Philip I of France. William was a man of great stature and had a tremendous voice. Such was the good order he established that, according to a quaint historian of his time, “any man, who was himself aught, might travel over the kingdom with a bosom of gold unmolested, and no man durst kill another, however great the injury he might have received from him.” He was succeeded in Normandy by his eldest son, Robert, and in England by his second son, William II, called William Rufus.
Encyclopaedia Britannica Online
- Anonymous5 years ago
William the Conqueror Facts
◾William the Conqueror was born in 1027, Falaise, Normandy
◾His father was Robert I, Duke of Normandy
◾His mother was Herleva
◾He was crowned on 25 December 1066 at Westminster Abbey, aged 38
◾He married Matilda of Flanders
◾He had ten children, most notably: Robert II Duke of Normandy, William II, Stephen Count of Blois, Henry I
◾He died on 9 September 1087 at Rouen, aged 59
◾He was the first Norman King of England
- 4 years ago
England's first Norman king, William I, was born in 1028, at Falaise Castle, the illegitimate son of Robert the Devil or the Magnificent, Duke of Normandy and Herleve, (sometimes called Arlette) the daughter of Fullbert, a tanner of Falaise. Before history renamed him the Conqueror he was more commonly known to his contemporaries as William the Bastard. Herleve was reported to have attracted Duke Robert with her dancing, in some accounts, he is said to have first caught sight of her while she was washing her linen in the castle moat. The Norman dynasty had been founded by Robert's ancestor Rollo or Hrolf the Ganger, a Viking raider chief, who was granted the duchy by Charles the Simple, King of France, in 911, at the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte, in exchange for feudal alliegiance and conversion to Christianity at which he took the baptismal name of Robert. William's mother, Herleve, also had a daughter, Adelaide, to Duke Robert. Although they had a long relationship, the gap in their social standing rendered marriage out of the question and Herleve was married off to one of Robert's vassals, Herluin, a knight. From this marriage, Herleve produced two further sons, Robert, who later became Count of Mortain and Odo, destined to become Bishop of Bayeux and also to play a part in England's history. There's more on the website. Have a nice day.
- 1 decade ago
1. His name was William.
2. He was a Conqueror.
- How do you think about the answers? You can sign in to vote the answer.
- 1 decade ago
William I otherwise known as William the Conquer was believed to be born 1027 or 1028.
He was French.
He was the only son of Robert I, Duke of Normandy.
He won the Battle of Hastings.
In 1087 in France, William burned Mantes (50 km west of Paris), besieging the town. However, he fell off his horse, suffering fatal abdominal injuries by the saddle pommel. On his deathbed, William divided his succession for his sons, sparking strife between them. Despite William's reluctance, his combative elder son Robert received the Duchy of Normandy, as Robert II. William Rufus (his third son) was next English king, as William II. William's youngest son Henry received 5,000 silver pounds, which would be earmarked to buy land. He also became King Henry I of England after William II died without issue. While on his deathbed, William pardoned many of his political adversaries, including Odo.
William died at age 59 at the Convent of St Gervais in Rouen, capital city of Normandie, France, on 9 September 1087. William was buried in the Abbaye-aux-Hommes, which he had erected, in Caen, Normandy.
According to some sources, a fire broke out during the funeral; the original owner of the land on which the church was built claimed he had not been paid yet, demanding 60 shillings, which William's son Henry had to pay on the spot; and, in a most unregal postmortem, William's corpulent body would not fit in the stone sarcophagus.
William's grave is currently marked by a marble slab with a Latin inscription; the slab dates from the early 19th century. The grave was defiled twice, once during the French Wars of Religion, when his bones were scattered across the town of Caen, and again during the French Revolution. Following those events, only William's left femur remains in the tomb and some skin particlesSource(s): http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_I_of_England General Knowledge.
- Anonymous1 decade ago
Watch " A history of Britain " by Simon Schama ( Episode 2 )
- Anonymous1 decade ago
He Conquered stuff. | <urn:uuid:ab88ec5f-c5b8-4453-8e8b-a6e114a20548> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20090102062845AAdpGgK | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00374.warc.gz | en | 0.985291 | 1,768 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.171746999025344... | 2 | facts about William the conqueror?
does anyone have any facts about william the conqueror
- EnquireLv 71 decade agoFavorite Answer
(born 1027, ruled 1066–87), called William the Conqueror, was an illegitimate son of Robert I, duke of Normandy. His mother was a tanner's daughter. William succeeded his father when he was only seven years old. At 24 he had made himself the mightiest feudal lord in all France by various conquests, but his ambition was not satisfied. He laid plans to become king of England also.
William married Matilda, daughter of Baldwin V, count of Flanders, in 1053. She was descended from the old Anglo-Saxon line of kings. Among their children were four sons: Robert, future duke of Normandy; Richard, who died as a youth; William Rufus, who succeeded his father as king of England; and Henry, who succeeded William Rufus. One daughter, Adela, became the mother of England's King Stephen.
Edward the Confessor, king of England, was William's cousin. William used his connection with Flanders to put pressure on Edward to extort a promise that he would become heir to the English throne. It is probable that Edward made some kind of pledge to William as early as 1051. Edward died childless on Jan. 5, 1066. William then claimed the throne on the basis of this promise. The English, however, chose Harold, earl of Wessex, as their king.
William prepared a large expedition and set sail for England. On Oct. 14, 1066, he defeated and killed Harold at Hastings in one of the decisive battles of the world (see Hastings, Battle of). Then he marched on London, and on Christmas day he was crowned king.
After subduing England's powerful earls, William seized their lands for his Norman nobles and ordered the nobles to build fortified stone castles to protect their lands. As payment for their fiefs, the nobles supplied the king with armed knights. French became the language of the king's court and gradually blended with the Anglo-Saxon tongue.
William won the loyalty of the mass of the people by wisely retaining the old Anglo-Saxon laws, courts, and customs with only a few changes. Thus the principle of self-government, which lies at the root of the political system of English-speaking peoples, was preserved and strengthened. At the same time, William taught the English the advantages of a central government strong enough to control feudal lords.
Toward the end of his reign, William ordered a great census to be taken of all the lands and people of England. This survey was called the Domesday Book. The original may still be seen at the National Archives in Kew, Surrey. “So very narrowly did he cause the survey to be made,” complained the old Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, “that there was not a single rood of land, nor an ox, or a cow, or a pig passed by, and that was not set down in the accounts.”
William was often on the continent dealing with his widespread holdings. He died there in 1087 from injuries received while warring with Philip I of France. William was a man of great stature and had a tremendous voice. Such was the good order he established that, according to a quaint historian of his time, “any man, who was himself aught, might travel over the kingdom with a bosom of gold unmolested, and no man durst kill another, however great the injury he might have received from him.” He was succeeded in Normandy by his eldest son, Robert, and in England by his second son, William II, called William Rufus.
Encyclopaedia Britannica Online
- Anonymous5 years ago
William the Conqueror Facts
◾William the Conqueror was born in 1027, Falaise, Normandy
◾His father was Robert I, Duke of Normandy
◾His mother was Herleva
◾He was crowned on 25 December 1066 at Westminster Abbey, aged 38
◾He married Matilda of Flanders
◾He had ten children, most notably: Robert II Duke of Normandy, William II, Stephen Count of Blois, Henry I
◾He died on 9 September 1087 at Rouen, aged 59
◾He was the first Norman King of England
- 4 years ago
England's first Norman king, William I, was born in 1028, at Falaise Castle, the illegitimate son of Robert the Devil or the Magnificent, Duke of Normandy and Herleve, (sometimes called Arlette) the daughter of Fullbert, a tanner of Falaise. Before history renamed him the Conqueror he was more commonly known to his contemporaries as William the Bastard. Herleve was reported to have attracted Duke Robert with her dancing, in some accounts, he is said to have first caught sight of her while she was washing her linen in the castle moat. The Norman dynasty had been founded by Robert's ancestor Rollo or Hrolf the Ganger, a Viking raider chief, who was granted the duchy by Charles the Simple, King of France, in 911, at the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte, in exchange for feudal alliegiance and conversion to Christianity at which he took the baptismal name of Robert. William's mother, Herleve, also had a daughter, Adelaide, to Duke Robert. Although they had a long relationship, the gap in their social standing rendered marriage out of the question and Herleve was married off to one of Robert's vassals, Herluin, a knight. From this marriage, Herleve produced two further sons, Robert, who later became Count of Mortain and Odo, destined to become Bishop of Bayeux and also to play a part in England's history. There's more on the website. Have a nice day.
- 1 decade ago
1. His name was William.
2. He was a Conqueror.
- How do you think about the answers? You can sign in to vote the answer.
- 1 decade ago
William I otherwise known as William the Conquer was believed to be born 1027 or 1028.
He was French.
He was the only son of Robert I, Duke of Normandy.
He won the Battle of Hastings.
In 1087 in France, William burned Mantes (50 km west of Paris), besieging the town. However, he fell off his horse, suffering fatal abdominal injuries by the saddle pommel. On his deathbed, William divided his succession for his sons, sparking strife between them. Despite William's reluctance, his combative elder son Robert received the Duchy of Normandy, as Robert II. William Rufus (his third son) was next English king, as William II. William's youngest son Henry received 5,000 silver pounds, which would be earmarked to buy land. He also became King Henry I of England after William II died without issue. While on his deathbed, William pardoned many of his political adversaries, including Odo.
William died at age 59 at the Convent of St Gervais in Rouen, capital city of Normandie, France, on 9 September 1087. William was buried in the Abbaye-aux-Hommes, which he had erected, in Caen, Normandy.
According to some sources, a fire broke out during the funeral; the original owner of the land on which the church was built claimed he had not been paid yet, demanding 60 shillings, which William's son Henry had to pay on the spot; and, in a most unregal postmortem, William's corpulent body would not fit in the stone sarcophagus.
William's grave is currently marked by a marble slab with a Latin inscription; the slab dates from the early 19th century. The grave was defiled twice, once during the French Wars of Religion, when his bones were scattered across the town of Caen, and again during the French Revolution. Following those events, only William's left femur remains in the tomb and some skin particlesSource(s): http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_I_of_England General Knowledge.
- Anonymous1 decade ago
Watch " A history of Britain " by Simon Schama ( Episode 2 )
- Anonymous1 decade ago
He Conquered stuff. | 1,808 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Today was our last STEM session with Emma Chittick this year. The children were asked to use all of the knowledge and skills gained over the past couple of weeks to build something that would generate electricity. Everyone was raring to get started and it didn’t take long for their designs to take shape!
Some made wind turbines, some used solar cells, while some used both in the same structure. It was great to see the children interacting and problem solving together to try and achieve success. I was very proud to see everyone working so well as a team and providing support for each other. Well done P5/6!
This term we are looking at renewable energy so we invited Emma Chittick into our class to work on a few STEM projects linked to our learning. In week 1, the children were challenged to build a wind turbine using Lego. When their structures were ready, everyone had a trial run and were given time to make any necessary alterations to their design. It was very exciting waiting to see if it would turn with the wind from the fan! We measured how much electricity was produced from each design.
In week 2 the class were asked to build a structure with solar panels that would capture natural light and artificial light. This meant that they had to design a structure that could change the angle of the solar panel. Again, they were given a trial run, then a fair test with the same conditions for each group. During our testing, we quickly realised one disadvantage when relying on solar energy. The position of the sun moved as we were testing at our classroom windowsill, resulting in less direct natural sunlight for some of the tests.
Keep a look out for the final challenge next week! | <urn:uuid:bf1a6e03-2ef0-4ba4-83fa-7d19416eb775> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://blogs.glowscotland.org.uk/sh/dunrossnessp56/tag/technology/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00462.warc.gz | en | 0.98925 | 347 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.529657304286... | 2 | Today was our last STEM session with Emma Chittick this year. The children were asked to use all of the knowledge and skills gained over the past couple of weeks to build something that would generate electricity. Everyone was raring to get started and it didn’t take long for their designs to take shape!
Some made wind turbines, some used solar cells, while some used both in the same structure. It was great to see the children interacting and problem solving together to try and achieve success. I was very proud to see everyone working so well as a team and providing support for each other. Well done P5/6!
This term we are looking at renewable energy so we invited Emma Chittick into our class to work on a few STEM projects linked to our learning. In week 1, the children were challenged to build a wind turbine using Lego. When their structures were ready, everyone had a trial run and were given time to make any necessary alterations to their design. It was very exciting waiting to see if it would turn with the wind from the fan! We measured how much electricity was produced from each design.
In week 2 the class were asked to build a structure with solar panels that would capture natural light and artificial light. This meant that they had to design a structure that could change the angle of the solar panel. Again, they were given a trial run, then a fair test with the same conditions for each group. During our testing, we quickly realised one disadvantage when relying on solar energy. The position of the sun moved as we were testing at our classroom windowsill, resulting in less direct natural sunlight for some of the tests.
Keep a look out for the final challenge next week! | 343 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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