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The Effect of the First World War on Women's Rights
By 1918, when the war had ended, there had been a change of attitude
towards women and the right to vote. The Representation of the People
Act gave the vote to some women and before the war all attempts by the
women's movement to get the vote passed through Parliament had failed.
Therefore, the work done by women in the war (1914-1918) proved to be
very important in bringing about the change of attitudes towards women
and allowing some to vote. The work done by women in the war was a
short-term reason. Attitudes towards women and giving them the vote
had been changing for a long time before this. There had been
improvements in career and education opportunities for women and their
rights in the family. This indicated a change in attitude and
improvement in their status. The women's movement, the Suffragists and
Suffragettes, was also successful in keeping the issue in the public
eye, but had failed to get the vote. Thus there were many reasons why
attitudes were changing but work of women in the First World War was
probably the main one.
When war broke out in 1914, the Suffragists and Suffragettes stopped
their campaigning to concentrate on helping towards the war effort.
They 'filled in the gap' left by the men who went out to fight. The
women took over jobs that the men did before and it was this, which
changed men's view towards female suffrage. There had been a
'revolution in jobs' because women started to do jobs only men had
done before. Women had not been considered capable before and at first
it was strange for women to be having a totally different role. There
was a big shortage in labour due to the men leaving to fight and in
1916, Britain had up to 2 million workers fewer than they did. Women
were needed to keep the country going.
Women from all different backgrounds took over a variety of different
jobs. Examples were bus conductors, postal workers and the Women's
Land Army was formed in February 1917, to recruit women as farm
labourers. By 1914, 90% of the workers in post offices were women. The
number of women working in transport in 1914 was 18 000 and in 1918 it
was 117 000, which showed a large increase. The number of women
working in areas of work such as metals, chemicals, food and drink,
timber, transport and Government had all increased from 1914 to 1918.
Women working in metals particularly showed a very high increase, as
170 000 women were working in that area of work in 1914 and the number
had risen to 594 000 by 1918. 195 000 women had replaced the men's
jobs. All these areas of work had shown an increase greater than the
number of women that took over the men's jobs. Therefore it showed
that more job opportunities were becoming available for women and it
encouraged women to go out to work, which... | <urn:uuid:8334cbf0-4795-4ddf-bdfb-0e3d1b17ff03> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/the-effect-of-the-initial-world-war-on-females-s-rights | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00269.warc.gz | en | 0.988126 | 640 | 4.21875 | 4 | [
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0.2089871764... | 1 | The Effect of the First World War on Women's Rights
By 1918, when the war had ended, there had been a change of attitude
towards women and the right to vote. The Representation of the People
Act gave the vote to some women and before the war all attempts by the
women's movement to get the vote passed through Parliament had failed.
Therefore, the work done by women in the war (1914-1918) proved to be
very important in bringing about the change of attitudes towards women
and allowing some to vote. The work done by women in the war was a
short-term reason. Attitudes towards women and giving them the vote
had been changing for a long time before this. There had been
improvements in career and education opportunities for women and their
rights in the family. This indicated a change in attitude and
improvement in their status. The women's movement, the Suffragists and
Suffragettes, was also successful in keeping the issue in the public
eye, but had failed to get the vote. Thus there were many reasons why
attitudes were changing but work of women in the First World War was
probably the main one.
When war broke out in 1914, the Suffragists and Suffragettes stopped
their campaigning to concentrate on helping towards the war effort.
They 'filled in the gap' left by the men who went out to fight. The
women took over jobs that the men did before and it was this, which
changed men's view towards female suffrage. There had been a
'revolution in jobs' because women started to do jobs only men had
done before. Women had not been considered capable before and at first
it was strange for women to be having a totally different role. There
was a big shortage in labour due to the men leaving to fight and in
1916, Britain had up to 2 million workers fewer than they did. Women
were needed to keep the country going.
Women from all different backgrounds took over a variety of different
jobs. Examples were bus conductors, postal workers and the Women's
Land Army was formed in February 1917, to recruit women as farm
labourers. By 1914, 90% of the workers in post offices were women. The
number of women working in transport in 1914 was 18 000 and in 1918 it
was 117 000, which showed a large increase. The number of women
working in areas of work such as metals, chemicals, food and drink,
timber, transport and Government had all increased from 1914 to 1918.
Women working in metals particularly showed a very high increase, as
170 000 women were working in that area of work in 1914 and the number
had risen to 594 000 by 1918. 195 000 women had replaced the men's
jobs. All these areas of work had shown an increase greater than the
number of women that took over the men's jobs. Therefore it showed
that more job opportunities were becoming available for women and it
encouraged women to go out to work, which... | 708 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Comparisons Between Egypt and Mesopotamia The civilizations of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia have a number of commonalities. These civilizations occurred during roughly the same time period and were located in the same general part of the world, modern day North Africa and the Middle East respectively. There was much sharing of knowledge bases between both civilizations and the overall analysis of their respective and shared histories provides a unique platform to discuss the similarities and differences of these civilizations. The people of both civilizations had to cope with extremely harsh environments. Both Egypt and Mesopotamia are located in areas of the world which have intense summers with temperatures reaching well over 110...The end:
.....nstructed are still not completely known. The Egyptians also had a great knowledge base which could be construed as a body of scientific knowledge. Medicine, astronomy, and rudimentary chemistry were well known to them. The Egyptians and Mesopotamians introduced a system of medicine including diagnosis and treatment around the same time. As with many of the features of both cultures, there is considerable overlap which renders it difficult to determine as to which culture discovered a knowledge base first. It is well documented that these two civilizations had enormous contact with each other due to their relative proximity. Given the copious amounts of shared components, it is obvious why both civilizations developed some similar features. | <urn:uuid:9306702d-031b-4ddd-aa0c-9ac5a85880f3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.essayexpress.com/essay/comparisons-between-egypt-and-mesopotamia/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00221.warc.gz | en | 0.983173 | 262 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.136735886335372... | 2 | Comparisons Between Egypt and Mesopotamia The civilizations of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia have a number of commonalities. These civilizations occurred during roughly the same time period and were located in the same general part of the world, modern day North Africa and the Middle East respectively. There was much sharing of knowledge bases between both civilizations and the overall analysis of their respective and shared histories provides a unique platform to discuss the similarities and differences of these civilizations. The people of both civilizations had to cope with extremely harsh environments. Both Egypt and Mesopotamia are located in areas of the world which have intense summers with temperatures reaching well over 110...The end:
.....nstructed are still not completely known. The Egyptians also had a great knowledge base which could be construed as a body of scientific knowledge. Medicine, astronomy, and rudimentary chemistry were well known to them. The Egyptians and Mesopotamians introduced a system of medicine including diagnosis and treatment around the same time. As with many of the features of both cultures, there is considerable overlap which renders it difficult to determine as to which culture discovered a knowledge base first. It is well documented that these two civilizations had enormous contact with each other due to their relative proximity. Given the copious amounts of shared components, it is obvious why both civilizations developed some similar features. | 270 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Christian-History.org does not receive any personally identifiable information from the search bar below.
Pope Liberius (352–366), who was not yet "pope" except in the imagination of Roman Catholic historians, became bishop of Rome at a very difficult time.
In A.D. 352, the battle between the Arians and the Nicene party was in full swing. Supposedly put to rest at the Council of Nicea (and explained at that link for you), it did not end there at all. It continued to rage until the Council of Constantinople in 381, mostly over the term homoousios.
The conflict was made worse by the fact that Constantine's son, Constantius II, who became emperor of the eastern half of the Roman empire in 337, was converted to Arianism by Arius himself. Although orthodoxy had triumphed at Nicea (and orthodoxy it was), in the eastern Roman empire it was often trumped by Constantius' influence.
In 353, however, Constantius became sole ruler of the Roman empire, and he and the supporters of Arius were determined to see their influence on behalf of Arian doctrines grow.
As Constantius marched triumphantly into Rome in 355, he called for Liberius, the bishop of Rome, hoping to secure his assent to Arian doctrines. He hoped it would lead to a council in Italy, where the Nicene Creed could be overthrown.
Pope Liberius would have nothing of it, which enraged Constantius. He threatened to exile him to Thrace (northeastern Greece), and gave him two days to change his mind. Liberius wasn't moved at all. "There is no need of deliberation," Pope Liberius told him. "My conclusion has long been formed and decided. I am ready to go into exile."
Into exile he went.
For only two years.
The Roman Catholic Church refers to Pope Liberius' replacement as the antipope Felix II, but this has not always been so, and he deserves a better reputation.
For a long time, Felix was included on lists of popes as Pope Felix II. This happened because he was confused with a Roman martyr by the name of Felix. Now, though, the Roman Catholic Church rejects Felix as an actual pope and lists him as antipope because he was not properly ordained.
Antipope Felix II was promoted from the position of deacon. If the structure of the church in Rome had been then as it is now, this would have been an incredible promotion, skipping several major levels. Today, deacon sits below priest, bishop, archbishop, and cardinal, and it would take many years just to climb from deacon to cardinal, much less to achieve the papacy.
Things were not then as they are now, however. Felix was making a jump from deacon to bishop without becoming a priest (formerly elder or presbyter), and it was happening because the emperor ordained it.
Surprisingly, Sozomen, the 5th century historian, testifies that Felix II was not Arian!
Socrates Scholasticus, however, a historian of the same period as Sozomen, says that Felix was embraced Arianism before being ordained (Ecclesiastical History of Socrates Scholasticus II:37). He then hints that this may have been forced upon him.
One of the more fascinating stories about Pope Liberius is the way he handled his exile. Sozomen tells us:
This is a fascinating quote about money, but it is also an interesting statement about the battle between the Nicene party and the Arians. Pope Liberius points out that Christ is "in every way like his Father," but the word he uses is homoios, not homos.
These two words are part of the Arian–Nicene difference. Homoousios is what the Arian bishops objected to. Homoiousios would be a compromise, saying that the Son is of similar substance to the Father, rather than being of the same substance. Arian bishops would have rejected both terms, but "similar" in substance still allows the Son to be a creation of the Father. Arians could have lived with that terminology.
Was Pope Liberius offering a compromise in his letter? [Just a thought; there's no way to know the answer to that question]
In May, 357 Emperor Constantius was once again in Rome. When he arrived, the people of Rome clamored for the return of their exiled bishop. (Though according to Sozomen no one was complaining about the antipope Felix, either.)
Here the accounts of Sozomen and Socrates differ dramatically. Socrates says Liberius was reinstated against the will of the emperor and the people expelled Felix from the church. Sozomen says that Pope Liberius was urged "to confess that the Son is not of the same substance of the Father," and he assented due to the influence of bishops that he respected. Just a couple sentences later, however, he says that Liberius drew up a statement that all who affirm that the Son is not like the Father are excommunicated. He adds that the other bishops "partially approved."
Either way, Sozomen says the emperor assented to let Pope Liberius return due to satisfaction with a statement he signed, and Socrates said it was simply against the emperor's will.
Where they differ even more is on the antipope Felix II. Both say that it was the will of the emperor that both Felix and Liberius be bishop, but the people would have none of it. Socrates, however, said the antipope Felix II was forced into exile. Sozomen has a much more horrifying story:
It's bad enough to think this happened, though there are plenty of similar stories from the 4th century. What's possibly worse is Sozomen's comment on the event!
Whether the antipope Felix II was driven out or killed by the "Christians" of Rome we may never know. We do know that Pope Liberius held fast to the Nicene faith despite strong pressure from the Emperor of most of the western world and that he appears not to have loved the world. For this, he is to be commended.
My newest book, Rome's Audacious Claim, was released December 1! | <urn:uuid:2a6f7419-b527-4435-bde4-d395cf02025c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.christian-history.org/pope-liberius.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00411.warc.gz | en | 0.985459 | 1,299 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.318101167678... | 1 | Christian-History.org does not receive any personally identifiable information from the search bar below.
Pope Liberius (352–366), who was not yet "pope" except in the imagination of Roman Catholic historians, became bishop of Rome at a very difficult time.
In A.D. 352, the battle between the Arians and the Nicene party was in full swing. Supposedly put to rest at the Council of Nicea (and explained at that link for you), it did not end there at all. It continued to rage until the Council of Constantinople in 381, mostly over the term homoousios.
The conflict was made worse by the fact that Constantine's son, Constantius II, who became emperor of the eastern half of the Roman empire in 337, was converted to Arianism by Arius himself. Although orthodoxy had triumphed at Nicea (and orthodoxy it was), in the eastern Roman empire it was often trumped by Constantius' influence.
In 353, however, Constantius became sole ruler of the Roman empire, and he and the supporters of Arius were determined to see their influence on behalf of Arian doctrines grow.
As Constantius marched triumphantly into Rome in 355, he called for Liberius, the bishop of Rome, hoping to secure his assent to Arian doctrines. He hoped it would lead to a council in Italy, where the Nicene Creed could be overthrown.
Pope Liberius would have nothing of it, which enraged Constantius. He threatened to exile him to Thrace (northeastern Greece), and gave him two days to change his mind. Liberius wasn't moved at all. "There is no need of deliberation," Pope Liberius told him. "My conclusion has long been formed and decided. I am ready to go into exile."
Into exile he went.
For only two years.
The Roman Catholic Church refers to Pope Liberius' replacement as the antipope Felix II, but this has not always been so, and he deserves a better reputation.
For a long time, Felix was included on lists of popes as Pope Felix II. This happened because he was confused with a Roman martyr by the name of Felix. Now, though, the Roman Catholic Church rejects Felix as an actual pope and lists him as antipope because he was not properly ordained.
Antipope Felix II was promoted from the position of deacon. If the structure of the church in Rome had been then as it is now, this would have been an incredible promotion, skipping several major levels. Today, deacon sits below priest, bishop, archbishop, and cardinal, and it would take many years just to climb from deacon to cardinal, much less to achieve the papacy.
Things were not then as they are now, however. Felix was making a jump from deacon to bishop without becoming a priest (formerly elder or presbyter), and it was happening because the emperor ordained it.
Surprisingly, Sozomen, the 5th century historian, testifies that Felix II was not Arian!
Socrates Scholasticus, however, a historian of the same period as Sozomen, says that Felix was embraced Arianism before being ordained (Ecclesiastical History of Socrates Scholasticus II:37). He then hints that this may have been forced upon him.
One of the more fascinating stories about Pope Liberius is the way he handled his exile. Sozomen tells us:
This is a fascinating quote about money, but it is also an interesting statement about the battle between the Nicene party and the Arians. Pope Liberius points out that Christ is "in every way like his Father," but the word he uses is homoios, not homos.
These two words are part of the Arian–Nicene difference. Homoousios is what the Arian bishops objected to. Homoiousios would be a compromise, saying that the Son is of similar substance to the Father, rather than being of the same substance. Arian bishops would have rejected both terms, but "similar" in substance still allows the Son to be a creation of the Father. Arians could have lived with that terminology.
Was Pope Liberius offering a compromise in his letter? [Just a thought; there's no way to know the answer to that question]
In May, 357 Emperor Constantius was once again in Rome. When he arrived, the people of Rome clamored for the return of their exiled bishop. (Though according to Sozomen no one was complaining about the antipope Felix, either.)
Here the accounts of Sozomen and Socrates differ dramatically. Socrates says Liberius was reinstated against the will of the emperor and the people expelled Felix from the church. Sozomen says that Pope Liberius was urged "to confess that the Son is not of the same substance of the Father," and he assented due to the influence of bishops that he respected. Just a couple sentences later, however, he says that Liberius drew up a statement that all who affirm that the Son is not like the Father are excommunicated. He adds that the other bishops "partially approved."
Either way, Sozomen says the emperor assented to let Pope Liberius return due to satisfaction with a statement he signed, and Socrates said it was simply against the emperor's will.
Where they differ even more is on the antipope Felix II. Both say that it was the will of the emperor that both Felix and Liberius be bishop, but the people would have none of it. Socrates, however, said the antipope Felix II was forced into exile. Sozomen has a much more horrifying story:
It's bad enough to think this happened, though there are plenty of similar stories from the 4th century. What's possibly worse is Sozomen's comment on the event!
Whether the antipope Felix II was driven out or killed by the "Christians" of Rome we may never know. We do know that Pope Liberius held fast to the Nicene faith despite strong pressure from the Emperor of most of the western world and that he appears not to have loved the world. For this, he is to be commended.
My newest book, Rome's Audacious Claim, was released December 1! | 1,314 | ENGLISH | 1 |
When you are describing someone or even something, there can be many interpretations of what you are actually meaning so other people might take what you mean in a different way than what you had originally implied, which is why it is ideal to have a good grasp of the positive and negative forms of connotations.
Connotations are basically descriptions of people, places or things which can easily be perceived in a positive, negative and even neutral manner depending on how you used it on the context. This is in addition to the literal meaning of your words, which is known as denotation. So the difference between the two is that connotations are associated meanings while denotations are the literal meanings.
So now that we know what a connotation and by extent a denotation means, we can move on to learn more about positive and negative connotations. They make you rethink about the way you are about to speak about someone, something or someplace since you need to be sure you get your true intent across to those you are speaking with.
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Positive connotations are those descriptive words that imply positive meanings to those that you were speaking with, or have read what you have written.
Examples of positive connotations:
- Bold – if you proclaim that someone is bold, it would show them in a positive light and that they are not afraid to go to great lengths to see things through. Although it is also possible others could interpret this in a negative manner like seeing them as brash. But, they could more likely connote that they are cocky, annoying or are very overbearing instead of bold.
- Stylish – if someone is considered stylish then their sense of style is one that is highly respected, and they would often be sought after by many people who are looking for advice on how to improve their own style. The opposite of this would be if they consider that person to be faddish instead of stylish which would imply that they are just individuals who love to follow the hot trends, and do not actually have their own sense of style and it would not be long before they follow the next hot trend since fads would usually tend to die down quite fast.
- Strong-willed – this implies that the person is someone who is steadfast in their resolve and will not easily back down to conform to those that demand things from them. The negative version of this would have to be stubborn which implies that this person would not budge on their decisions no matter what, even if those very decisions are something that could be nearly impossible to achieve, are nonsensical in a logical manner, or are too demanding given the current capabilities of those around them.
Negative connotations are those descriptive words that imply negativity; like a blight that might bring about an implication to feel sorry for themselves for being what they are. Though there are words that have a sort of cool ring to them. In reality, these words are actually meant for belittling the receiver, and should normally be taken as an offense.
Examples of negative connotation:
- Scrawny – this would imply that the person is dangerously thin; that they look like they could be anorexic. Even if it is something that they have no control over due to their body’s metabolism or hormones affecting their overall physique, these people would still potentially be offended by it. The opposite of this would be if they are called thin which still has basically the same meaning, but people do not take this as an offense most of the time as compared to the term scrawny. People would even take this term as a compliment since it could show that they were fat before and have now become thin.
- Mushy – this implies that the person is someone who is very cheesy or far too emotional for their own good which makes them annoying and difficult to be with on a regular basis. The lighter version of this term would have to be sentimental which means that they are someone who can easily read the mood and they can easily show their emotions to other people which can make it easier to be around them as you would know if they would have any sort of hidden agenda or anything of the like.
- Hyperactive – this can imply that the person is someone who has a lot of energy to spend so much that keeping up with them is quite a hassle since there is a noticeable gap between both of your energy levels and staying with them just drains more of your stamina than doing physical exercises. The brighter side of this term would have to be energetic and while they basically mean the same thing the use of the term makes it sound like it is much more of a compliment rather than a derogatory term since it shows that they have an extra amount of energy to spend when it comes to doing activities or tasks that are assigned to them. Others would even look up to them since they show a kind of grit and tenacity when it comes to their execution of the stuff that they have to do.
- Lazy – this implies that the person is someone who is very lethargic especially when it comes to doing tasks that they have to do even if they are tasks that are entirely optional. These people would almost always look for the easy way out of doing anything so they would often look for alternatives on how to execute the task at hand in the laziest way possible and if not then they would just procrastinate and let time run out instead of actually using that time to do what they needed to do. A term that would show these people in a better light would be calm. The term calm would imply that these people are not fazed by the situation that is happening around them and that they are collected enough that they do not feel the need to panic or fret over it unlike many other individuals. These people are often the ones who make the most logical solutions out of most situations.
Connotations As Techniques
Connotations can also be used for literary works since they can create a more personal interpretation for the readers to analyze through the actual intent of the meanings would be up to the author’s discretion whether or not they would divulge if it is one or two meanings or they leave it open for interpretation.
Connotation In Poetry
Many times when you are reading poetry you can actually find many examples of connotation as you read through it, although it might be a bit tricky to spot them since poetry loves to play around with their meanings. When you do spot them, you may notice that their meanings are much more concentrated or enriched which would lead to having a more in-depth understanding while using lesser words. Connotations also have an effect of creating imagery for the readers since they happen to have a peculiar feeling to them which sets the mood or the tone of the poem, an incredible technique used by the poets. It is also a good practice to use less fancy words when writing poems and look for either the simple ones or the ones that best fit the theme of the poems since the most memorable poems are not the ones with the most high-class choice of word,s but the ones with the most impact in their meaning behind the words were chosen.
Connotation In Logical Terms
Connotation contrasts with denotation quite often, and it is also very evident in terms of logic. In logic, connotation may be thought of as the set of all possible referents while denotation is considered to be the set of all things that it is actually referring to. A good example of this would be if somebody called someone else a “pig”. In terms of denotation, a “pig” would refer to an omnivorous quadrupedal farm animal that barely has any hair on its body, it is mostly naked and loves to roll around mud holes. So in terms of connotation, when you say it to someone it would most likely imply that they are fat, ugly or uncivilized which would be very offensive. Although there is a slight possibility that it could actually be a compliment if the speaker could be highlighting the good points about being a “pig”. | <urn:uuid:c0190c56-e57d-4a73-9f81-a0105a3188f2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.examples.com/education/positive-and-negative-connotations.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00233.warc.gz | en | 0.982669 | 1,688 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.165241360664... | 2 | When you are describing someone or even something, there can be many interpretations of what you are actually meaning so other people might take what you mean in a different way than what you had originally implied, which is why it is ideal to have a good grasp of the positive and negative forms of connotations.
Connotations are basically descriptions of people, places or things which can easily be perceived in a positive, negative and even neutral manner depending on how you used it on the context. This is in addition to the literal meaning of your words, which is known as denotation. So the difference between the two is that connotations are associated meanings while denotations are the literal meanings.
So now that we know what a connotation and by extent a denotation means, we can move on to learn more about positive and negative connotations. They make you rethink about the way you are about to speak about someone, something or someplace since you need to be sure you get your true intent across to those you are speaking with.
100,000+ Designs, Documents Templates in PDF, Word, Excel, PSD, Google Docs, PowerPoint, InDesign, Apple Pages, Google Sheets, Publisher, Apple Numbers, Illustrator, Keynote. - START DOWNLOADING
Positive connotations are those descriptive words that imply positive meanings to those that you were speaking with, or have read what you have written.
Examples of positive connotations:
- Bold – if you proclaim that someone is bold, it would show them in a positive light and that they are not afraid to go to great lengths to see things through. Although it is also possible others could interpret this in a negative manner like seeing them as brash. But, they could more likely connote that they are cocky, annoying or are very overbearing instead of bold.
- Stylish – if someone is considered stylish then their sense of style is one that is highly respected, and they would often be sought after by many people who are looking for advice on how to improve their own style. The opposite of this would be if they consider that person to be faddish instead of stylish which would imply that they are just individuals who love to follow the hot trends, and do not actually have their own sense of style and it would not be long before they follow the next hot trend since fads would usually tend to die down quite fast.
- Strong-willed – this implies that the person is someone who is steadfast in their resolve and will not easily back down to conform to those that demand things from them. The negative version of this would have to be stubborn which implies that this person would not budge on their decisions no matter what, even if those very decisions are something that could be nearly impossible to achieve, are nonsensical in a logical manner, or are too demanding given the current capabilities of those around them.
Negative connotations are those descriptive words that imply negativity; like a blight that might bring about an implication to feel sorry for themselves for being what they are. Though there are words that have a sort of cool ring to them. In reality, these words are actually meant for belittling the receiver, and should normally be taken as an offense.
Examples of negative connotation:
- Scrawny – this would imply that the person is dangerously thin; that they look like they could be anorexic. Even if it is something that they have no control over due to their body’s metabolism or hormones affecting their overall physique, these people would still potentially be offended by it. The opposite of this would be if they are called thin which still has basically the same meaning, but people do not take this as an offense most of the time as compared to the term scrawny. People would even take this term as a compliment since it could show that they were fat before and have now become thin.
- Mushy – this implies that the person is someone who is very cheesy or far too emotional for their own good which makes them annoying and difficult to be with on a regular basis. The lighter version of this term would have to be sentimental which means that they are someone who can easily read the mood and they can easily show their emotions to other people which can make it easier to be around them as you would know if they would have any sort of hidden agenda or anything of the like.
- Hyperactive – this can imply that the person is someone who has a lot of energy to spend so much that keeping up with them is quite a hassle since there is a noticeable gap between both of your energy levels and staying with them just drains more of your stamina than doing physical exercises. The brighter side of this term would have to be energetic and while they basically mean the same thing the use of the term makes it sound like it is much more of a compliment rather than a derogatory term since it shows that they have an extra amount of energy to spend when it comes to doing activities or tasks that are assigned to them. Others would even look up to them since they show a kind of grit and tenacity when it comes to their execution of the stuff that they have to do.
- Lazy – this implies that the person is someone who is very lethargic especially when it comes to doing tasks that they have to do even if they are tasks that are entirely optional. These people would almost always look for the easy way out of doing anything so they would often look for alternatives on how to execute the task at hand in the laziest way possible and if not then they would just procrastinate and let time run out instead of actually using that time to do what they needed to do. A term that would show these people in a better light would be calm. The term calm would imply that these people are not fazed by the situation that is happening around them and that they are collected enough that they do not feel the need to panic or fret over it unlike many other individuals. These people are often the ones who make the most logical solutions out of most situations.
Connotations As Techniques
Connotations can also be used for literary works since they can create a more personal interpretation for the readers to analyze through the actual intent of the meanings would be up to the author’s discretion whether or not they would divulge if it is one or two meanings or they leave it open for interpretation.
Connotation In Poetry
Many times when you are reading poetry you can actually find many examples of connotation as you read through it, although it might be a bit tricky to spot them since poetry loves to play around with their meanings. When you do spot them, you may notice that their meanings are much more concentrated or enriched which would lead to having a more in-depth understanding while using lesser words. Connotations also have an effect of creating imagery for the readers since they happen to have a peculiar feeling to them which sets the mood or the tone of the poem, an incredible technique used by the poets. It is also a good practice to use less fancy words when writing poems and look for either the simple ones or the ones that best fit the theme of the poems since the most memorable poems are not the ones with the most high-class choice of word,s but the ones with the most impact in their meaning behind the words were chosen.
Connotation In Logical Terms
Connotation contrasts with denotation quite often, and it is also very evident in terms of logic. In logic, connotation may be thought of as the set of all possible referents while denotation is considered to be the set of all things that it is actually referring to. A good example of this would be if somebody called someone else a “pig”. In terms of denotation, a “pig” would refer to an omnivorous quadrupedal farm animal that barely has any hair on its body, it is mostly naked and loves to roll around mud holes. So in terms of connotation, when you say it to someone it would most likely imply that they are fat, ugly or uncivilized which would be very offensive. Although there is a slight possibility that it could actually be a compliment if the speaker could be highlighting the good points about being a “pig”. | 1,648 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The correct answer to this question is February 22. The first President of the United States is George Washington, and he was born on February 22, 1732. This date is the reason why we have President's Day. The day came about as a way to celebrate George Washington in his role as the first President of the United States.
The meaning of this day carried on until 1971, in which it became a day to celebrate all presidents who have served in the role. On this day, most of America takes a rest and do not work or attend school to honor those who have been leaders of the nation.
I'm a freelance Copywriter and well that explains everything!
C. Lucan, Copywriter, Literature Major, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Answered Dec 10, 2019
George Washington’s actual birthday is on February 11. He was born in the year 1731. There are still a lot of people who commemorate this day because they believe that George Washington has done a lot in order to change America from what it was to what it is right now.
For the longest time, Presidents Day was celebrated on February 11, but in order to commemorate all of the presidents that also served the United States after Washington, the celebration was changed to every third Monday of February. This means that the actual date may change year after year. In fact, the day that Presidents Day will be celebrated in the year 2020 is on February 17.
The actual birthday of George Washington is February 22, 1732. The birthday of George Washington has inspired the creation of President’s Day, but this is celebrated right now every third Monday of February instead of following a particular date.
George Washington is considered to be an important figure in America because he is America’s first president. He served the United States from 1789 to 1797. Before he became president, he was able to lead the Patriots to become independent.
A lot of people still want to commemorate him and what he did for America. As a result, most people do not have work on President’s Day.
Washington’s Birthday is a federal holiday celebrated in the United States. It is a holiday that is celebrated in honor of the first President of the United States of America, George Washington. George Washington was born on February 22, 1732.
Washington’s Birthday is also known as the President’s Holiday. It is celebrated on the third Monday of February.
Washington’s Birthday was first celebrated in the District of Columbia in 1880. It became an official holiday in 1885 when President Chester Arthur signed the billed to make it a federal holiday.
Most government institutions are closed from work to enjoy the day. Some private institutions are also closed on President Day; this includes private schools, banks, offices, and many more. | <urn:uuid:71574604-6863-4223-bafc-e38d4c91cbbb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.proprofs.com/discuss/q/1803366/what-is-washingtons-birthday | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00300.warc.gz | en | 0.984275 | 578 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.43717238306999207... | 8 | The correct answer to this question is February 22. The first President of the United States is George Washington, and he was born on February 22, 1732. This date is the reason why we have President's Day. The day came about as a way to celebrate George Washington in his role as the first President of the United States.
The meaning of this day carried on until 1971, in which it became a day to celebrate all presidents who have served in the role. On this day, most of America takes a rest and do not work or attend school to honor those who have been leaders of the nation.
I'm a freelance Copywriter and well that explains everything!
C. Lucan, Copywriter, Literature Major, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Answered Dec 10, 2019
George Washington’s actual birthday is on February 11. He was born in the year 1731. There are still a lot of people who commemorate this day because they believe that George Washington has done a lot in order to change America from what it was to what it is right now.
For the longest time, Presidents Day was celebrated on February 11, but in order to commemorate all of the presidents that also served the United States after Washington, the celebration was changed to every third Monday of February. This means that the actual date may change year after year. In fact, the day that Presidents Day will be celebrated in the year 2020 is on February 17.
The actual birthday of George Washington is February 22, 1732. The birthday of George Washington has inspired the creation of President’s Day, but this is celebrated right now every third Monday of February instead of following a particular date.
George Washington is considered to be an important figure in America because he is America’s first president. He served the United States from 1789 to 1797. Before he became president, he was able to lead the Patriots to become independent.
A lot of people still want to commemorate him and what he did for America. As a result, most people do not have work on President’s Day.
Washington’s Birthday is a federal holiday celebrated in the United States. It is a holiday that is celebrated in honor of the first President of the United States of America, George Washington. George Washington was born on February 22, 1732.
Washington’s Birthday is also known as the President’s Holiday. It is celebrated on the third Monday of February.
Washington’s Birthday was first celebrated in the District of Columbia in 1880. It became an official holiday in 1885 when President Chester Arthur signed the billed to make it a federal holiday.
Most government institutions are closed from work to enjoy the day. Some private institutions are also closed on President Day; this includes private schools, banks, offices, and many more. | 603 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It was not great generals. It was not robust emperors. Gladiators were the real superstars of Ancient Rome. These hunky men, enslaved to the business of fighting, were trained to engage in spectacular fights.
For the vast and ever-expanding Roman empire, they were an endless resource of happiness and entertainment.
Thanks to popular culture, we have a slightly distorted vision of who were the real Gladiators. Time to break down some of the myths.
Gladiators did not always fight to the death
Gladiatorial combat was clearly a precarious business, but those fighting men down in the arena did not necessarily have to fight themselves to death, especially not if both of them demonstrated great stamina and fighting skills.
If a gladiator had to die during every single match, then the ancient Romans would have been terrible leaders of the business, which was a lucrative one.
Gladiators took on lengthy preparations and they costed fortunes to train and maintain. Dying was not really an option for someone making a living out of the Coliseum games. A gladiator would pay off if he survived at least ten different combats.
The people who owned and managed the gladiators were called lanistae. Under their sponsorship, gladiators were provided with proper food and medicine. They were instructed not to kill, but to inflict a wound to the opponent.
Take a closer look here:
A majority of gladiators died before reaching 30 years of age, however. Sometimes the lanistae were bribed by noblemen to stage a death on the arena. The money they received compensated for the loss of their men.
Death rates also seem to have been tied with the overall mood of the empire. On ordinary days during the 1st century A.D., the fights resulted with a winner and a loser who often failed due to an injury or simply because their body gave up. Quite a small fraction of gladiators died during this century.
By the end of the next century, death rates soared, as did domestic affairs and conflicts in Rome.
Gladiators were able to obtain freedom
Another myth goes that those who became gladiators were bound to be one for life. This aspect of being a gladiator was also not so black and white.
Some of the best gladiators fought their way out to freedom. This was possible after achieving a series of victories in the matches. Those who obtained their freedom sometimes opted to become gladiator trainers themselves.
It was also not true that all gladiators were only enslaved people brought from all the different and distant Roman provinces. As the games evolved and as more people realized that fighting gladiator battles can bring them fortune and fame, commoners as well opted to become one.
Roughly a fifth of the gladiators produced in Ancient Rome should have come from the special gladiatorial schools–ludi gladiatori. A major predisposition to enter one of these schools was having a strong body.
During training, they were subjected to a special food regime in order to retain the best condition for their body. If they received a wound, they were immediately treated by a medicinal personnel.
At the end of the training, they also took an oath which said they will endure the pains of their combats, and that they are ready to be bound, beaten, and eventually slaughtered by their enemy’s sword.
A funerary practice paved the way to gladiatorial combats
Evidence suggests gladiator games originated from boorish forms of funerary practice.
The strange rite was known as munera and dictated that upper-class people enforced their slaves to combat until death.
This was done within the frames of the funeral. At the same time appeared also the venationes which engaged men in terrifying beast hunts.
The munera practice quickly took momentum and evolved into a form which understood a major public spectacle. The very first such funerary rite may have happened in 264 B.C. where a nobleman by the name of Brutus Pera instructed his sons in his will that they should host combats during his funeral.
A century later, the munera was so commonplace that one such event is said to have engaged over 70 men who nastily fought for several days over.
The earliest gladiators sported traditional Samnite outfit and weapons. As different casts of gladiators evolved, clothes and gear also began to differ, which brings us to the next point.
The image of the gladiator was not uniformed
Classifications are abundant enough. Gladiators were distinguished by their skill as much as for their fighting style. Everything played a role in which category a gladiator can be deemed.
Murmillo gladiators were often left to face a thraex or hoplomachus gladiator. The murmillo sported an outfit similar to that of a Roman legionary, and the latter two were Greek-fashioned. Their confrontation would have looked like a fight between a Roman and Greek soldier.
There were also those able to fight with two swords simultaneously–the dimachaerus type of gladiator, and those who hopped on a horse when in the battle ring–the equites.
On rare days, spectators in the theaters would also see women. Their matches were against other woman, but also sometimes against men. Dwarfs also fought. Any and everyone was used to make a good gladiator show.
Animals were rarely fought in arenas
Gladiator depictions in pop culture frequently also involve confrontations with all different kinds of beasts, but most of the time, animals were kept aside from combat arenas.
Gladiator versus animal fights came quite late in the day. This was because people eventually wanted to see something novel. Animals were there to spice up things when fights got a little bit boring.
While common confrontations included those with lions and tigers, there is one record which testifies the arena was once flooded on intention and the water was filled with creatures like crocodiles and sharks.
Combat scenes like this one remain rare, but more frequent were the casual exhibition and killings of animals in the Roman theaters.
It was often about species not native to the Italian peninsula such as lions, elephants or giraffes.
They were brought from conquered territories, like those in North Africa; were presented to the crowds and then subjected to bloodlust.
Gladiators were revered… in quite bizarre ways
Their names were written on walls. Their faces portrayed on paintings. Their bodies depicted in sculpture. For most of the time, it was women who revered gladiators for their virility though there are at least two known sculptures depicting women gladiators as well.
It’s extremely strange how far this gladiator adulation reached.
The blood of the gladiator was considered to be magical and their sweat, added in a perfume, promised to heat up things in the bedroom.
A downside was that in some societal circles, the figure of the gladiator was equivalent to that of a prostitute. The very word ‘gladiator’ was often used in a pejorative context.
After all, the Ancient Romans did have some double standards. When Emperor Caligula or Emperor Titus, made their steps into the fighting arena to confront a real gladiator, the scene was heavily moderated.
The opposing gladiators did not stand a chance to win against the emperor. They simply allowed the emperor to defeat them quite effortlessly and leave the field without a single scratch on their body.
Whatever worked to make a great show. | <urn:uuid:e3dc8230-710b-4a50-80e6-982a2d2e15f9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thevintagenews.com/2018/11/03/roman-gladiators/?utm_source=penultimate | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00015.warc.gz | en | 0.988758 | 1,553 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.3284118175506... | 7 | It was not great generals. It was not robust emperors. Gladiators were the real superstars of Ancient Rome. These hunky men, enslaved to the business of fighting, were trained to engage in spectacular fights.
For the vast and ever-expanding Roman empire, they were an endless resource of happiness and entertainment.
Thanks to popular culture, we have a slightly distorted vision of who were the real Gladiators. Time to break down some of the myths.
Gladiators did not always fight to the death
Gladiatorial combat was clearly a precarious business, but those fighting men down in the arena did not necessarily have to fight themselves to death, especially not if both of them demonstrated great stamina and fighting skills.
If a gladiator had to die during every single match, then the ancient Romans would have been terrible leaders of the business, which was a lucrative one.
Gladiators took on lengthy preparations and they costed fortunes to train and maintain. Dying was not really an option for someone making a living out of the Coliseum games. A gladiator would pay off if he survived at least ten different combats.
The people who owned and managed the gladiators were called lanistae. Under their sponsorship, gladiators were provided with proper food and medicine. They were instructed not to kill, but to inflict a wound to the opponent.
Take a closer look here:
A majority of gladiators died before reaching 30 years of age, however. Sometimes the lanistae were bribed by noblemen to stage a death on the arena. The money they received compensated for the loss of their men.
Death rates also seem to have been tied with the overall mood of the empire. On ordinary days during the 1st century A.D., the fights resulted with a winner and a loser who often failed due to an injury or simply because their body gave up. Quite a small fraction of gladiators died during this century.
By the end of the next century, death rates soared, as did domestic affairs and conflicts in Rome.
Gladiators were able to obtain freedom
Another myth goes that those who became gladiators were bound to be one for life. This aspect of being a gladiator was also not so black and white.
Some of the best gladiators fought their way out to freedom. This was possible after achieving a series of victories in the matches. Those who obtained their freedom sometimes opted to become gladiator trainers themselves.
It was also not true that all gladiators were only enslaved people brought from all the different and distant Roman provinces. As the games evolved and as more people realized that fighting gladiator battles can bring them fortune and fame, commoners as well opted to become one.
Roughly a fifth of the gladiators produced in Ancient Rome should have come from the special gladiatorial schools–ludi gladiatori. A major predisposition to enter one of these schools was having a strong body.
During training, they were subjected to a special food regime in order to retain the best condition for their body. If they received a wound, they were immediately treated by a medicinal personnel.
At the end of the training, they also took an oath which said they will endure the pains of their combats, and that they are ready to be bound, beaten, and eventually slaughtered by their enemy’s sword.
A funerary practice paved the way to gladiatorial combats
Evidence suggests gladiator games originated from boorish forms of funerary practice.
The strange rite was known as munera and dictated that upper-class people enforced their slaves to combat until death.
This was done within the frames of the funeral. At the same time appeared also the venationes which engaged men in terrifying beast hunts.
The munera practice quickly took momentum and evolved into a form which understood a major public spectacle. The very first such funerary rite may have happened in 264 B.C. where a nobleman by the name of Brutus Pera instructed his sons in his will that they should host combats during his funeral.
A century later, the munera was so commonplace that one such event is said to have engaged over 70 men who nastily fought for several days over.
The earliest gladiators sported traditional Samnite outfit and weapons. As different casts of gladiators evolved, clothes and gear also began to differ, which brings us to the next point.
The image of the gladiator was not uniformed
Classifications are abundant enough. Gladiators were distinguished by their skill as much as for their fighting style. Everything played a role in which category a gladiator can be deemed.
Murmillo gladiators were often left to face a thraex or hoplomachus gladiator. The murmillo sported an outfit similar to that of a Roman legionary, and the latter two were Greek-fashioned. Their confrontation would have looked like a fight between a Roman and Greek soldier.
There were also those able to fight with two swords simultaneously–the dimachaerus type of gladiator, and those who hopped on a horse when in the battle ring–the equites.
On rare days, spectators in the theaters would also see women. Their matches were against other woman, but also sometimes against men. Dwarfs also fought. Any and everyone was used to make a good gladiator show.
Animals were rarely fought in arenas
Gladiator depictions in pop culture frequently also involve confrontations with all different kinds of beasts, but most of the time, animals were kept aside from combat arenas.
Gladiator versus animal fights came quite late in the day. This was because people eventually wanted to see something novel. Animals were there to spice up things when fights got a little bit boring.
While common confrontations included those with lions and tigers, there is one record which testifies the arena was once flooded on intention and the water was filled with creatures like crocodiles and sharks.
Combat scenes like this one remain rare, but more frequent were the casual exhibition and killings of animals in the Roman theaters.
It was often about species not native to the Italian peninsula such as lions, elephants or giraffes.
They were brought from conquered territories, like those in North Africa; were presented to the crowds and then subjected to bloodlust.
Gladiators were revered… in quite bizarre ways
Their names were written on walls. Their faces portrayed on paintings. Their bodies depicted in sculpture. For most of the time, it was women who revered gladiators for their virility though there are at least two known sculptures depicting women gladiators as well.
It’s extremely strange how far this gladiator adulation reached.
The blood of the gladiator was considered to be magical and their sweat, added in a perfume, promised to heat up things in the bedroom.
A downside was that in some societal circles, the figure of the gladiator was equivalent to that of a prostitute. The very word ‘gladiator’ was often used in a pejorative context.
After all, the Ancient Romans did have some double standards. When Emperor Caligula or Emperor Titus, made their steps into the fighting arena to confront a real gladiator, the scene was heavily moderated.
The opposing gladiators did not stand a chance to win against the emperor. They simply allowed the emperor to defeat them quite effortlessly and leave the field without a single scratch on their body.
Whatever worked to make a great show. | 1,522 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The One and Only British Guiana 1c Magenta: Part I
Views : 1920
This old piece of red paper with cut corners is one of the most valuable stamps in the world - the British Guiana 1c Magenta issued in 1856. Its size is 27x30 mm, and it has the shape of an octagon. In 1856, this stamp was sold for as much as 1 cent, and in more than 100 years - for 280 thousand dollars.
History and Hypotheses
In February 1856, in one of the cities of British Guiana, a post office ran out of stamps and the delivery from London was delayed. The postal service employee received permission from the governor to issue a small batch of temporary stamps, which was then ordered from a local printing house. It is still not known whether both one-cent and four-cent stamps were issued or only the four-cent stamps. A hundred-year search was fruitless and it is not known whether other rare stamps with 1 cent value were issued. Three assumptions in terms of stamp’s origin were made:
1) the one-cent stamp was printed in a very small amount and only one piece is known to exist;
2) the stamp is a typographical error;
3) the stamp is fake.
The third assumption was dropped when in 1885, one famous expert declared that the stamp was authentic and then in 1891, Mr. Bacon gave a written guarantee of its authenticity. The second hypothesis was also rejected, since the stamps were manufactured under the control of officials. Moreover, the possibility of a mechanical misprint is excluded. Thus, the most probable cause was the assumption that the one-cent stamp was printed in small quantities (100-200 pieces). Experts suggest that only one stamp has been found because the stamps were made without gum and they were torn off at the opening of the letter.
In the center of the stamp, there is an image of a sailing ship, which served as a vignette for one of the sections in a local newspaper. A group of researchers found that the ship on the stamp is called Sandbach. It traveled between the islands of the West Indies and brought copra, tobacco, and sugar to the metropolis. Above the image, there is a motto printed with an error - "Damus petimus que vicissim" (“petimusque” should be written in one word). The ship and font are painted black on crimson red paper. In the upper left corner, you can see an inscription by hand, saying "EDW" - these are the initials of the post office clerk (it was also he who decided to cut off the four corners for unknown reasons). The cancellation mark is smudged, but it has been identified that it says "DEMERARA, AR. 4, 1856".
Read about the British Guiana's owners (teaser: dealers, syndicate, a convicted murderer, famous shoe designer) in Part II. | <urn:uuid:1ac79cdc-4faa-4f35-a2d6-dd41c3fe99e4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://oldbid.com/news/coins-stamps/the-one-and-only-british-guiana-1-magenta-part-i/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00320.warc.gz | en | 0.982506 | 616 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.3635479509830... | 1 | The One and Only British Guiana 1c Magenta: Part I
Views : 1920
This old piece of red paper with cut corners is one of the most valuable stamps in the world - the British Guiana 1c Magenta issued in 1856. Its size is 27x30 mm, and it has the shape of an octagon. In 1856, this stamp was sold for as much as 1 cent, and in more than 100 years - for 280 thousand dollars.
History and Hypotheses
In February 1856, in one of the cities of British Guiana, a post office ran out of stamps and the delivery from London was delayed. The postal service employee received permission from the governor to issue a small batch of temporary stamps, which was then ordered from a local printing house. It is still not known whether both one-cent and four-cent stamps were issued or only the four-cent stamps. A hundred-year search was fruitless and it is not known whether other rare stamps with 1 cent value were issued. Three assumptions in terms of stamp’s origin were made:
1) the one-cent stamp was printed in a very small amount and only one piece is known to exist;
2) the stamp is a typographical error;
3) the stamp is fake.
The third assumption was dropped when in 1885, one famous expert declared that the stamp was authentic and then in 1891, Mr. Bacon gave a written guarantee of its authenticity. The second hypothesis was also rejected, since the stamps were manufactured under the control of officials. Moreover, the possibility of a mechanical misprint is excluded. Thus, the most probable cause was the assumption that the one-cent stamp was printed in small quantities (100-200 pieces). Experts suggest that only one stamp has been found because the stamps were made without gum and they were torn off at the opening of the letter.
In the center of the stamp, there is an image of a sailing ship, which served as a vignette for one of the sections in a local newspaper. A group of researchers found that the ship on the stamp is called Sandbach. It traveled between the islands of the West Indies and brought copra, tobacco, and sugar to the metropolis. Above the image, there is a motto printed with an error - "Damus petimus que vicissim" (“petimusque” should be written in one word). The ship and font are painted black on crimson red paper. In the upper left corner, you can see an inscription by hand, saying "EDW" - these are the initials of the post office clerk (it was also he who decided to cut off the four corners for unknown reasons). The cancellation mark is smudged, but it has been identified that it says "DEMERARA, AR. 4, 1856".
Read about the British Guiana's owners (teaser: dealers, syndicate, a convicted murderer, famous shoe designer) in Part II. | 636 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Return of the sun
During pre-Christian times winter solstice was celebrated by countless different tribes across the northern hemisphere. In the agricultural world all pagan celebrations took place at the same time no matter what was the culture or the spoken language. This is why all pagan holidays celebrated in Europe take place at the same time with different names. People´s lives were connected to the land and to the change of seasons. Winter Solstice was an important event. It is the time when the sun is as far from the earth as possible and for many people of the past it meant that after winter solstice each day sun would get closer to the earth.
Compared to many other cultures celebrating winter solstice in Finland was rather small. In ancient Rome Winter Solstice was called Saturnalia in honor of the god Saturn. God of harvest and fertility. Winter Solstice was also celebrated by several tribes in Central Europe, Southern Europe, Baltic Countries and in other parts of Scandinavia. In Celtic mythology seasons are created by two nature gods: the oak king and the holly king. These two brothers were always competing with each others. They met twice in a year around Winter Solstice and Summer Solstice. During Summer Solstice Holly King won his brother and darkness would last longer each day and during Winter Solstice Oak King was the winner and there would be more day light each day. In ancient Egypt Winter Solstice was celebrated to honor the sun god Ra. He was believed to get ill during the winter and return back to his strength in winter solstice.
Colors of Winter
In ancient Finland biggest festival was Kekri which was a harvest festival that took place in the second week of November. Kekri was the highlight of the year and it was the "old" new year. Winter Solstice was also celebrated but it was not as big celebration as Kekri. Element of Winter Solstice was the earth and it was believed that during the winter earth was in deep sleep.
There are several colors connected to winter solstice:
Red is the color of goddess, life and blood.
Green symbolizes ever green trees, also health and wealth.
Gold represents the sun and the stars. It is also connected to summer, warmth, riches and several deities.
Silver represents the moon, winter, snow, mysteries and dreams.
In Finnish pagan wheel of the year Kekri began a time period called Jako-aika (the dividing time). Jako-aika was the darkest time of the year when all spirits, demons and dead could walk among the living. Winter Solstice was the highlight of Jako-aika. Time when these spirits were most dangerous. If sun appeared to the skies it was only up there for a moment. Many times people were afraid to leave their homes during winter solstice. Old folks stayed inside and told stories to the children. Stories from their childhood, legends from elves, gnomes and mythical creatures. Good food was part of the celebration and it was believed that during winter solstice one could stay up all nigh eating if they wanted to. Food was also taken outside to the spirit tree and was left as a sacrifice for the elves. People burned lots of candles and torches to keep evil spirits away. Custom that is still practiced in modern day Finland without any special spiritual meanings. Plays and games were part of winter solstice. It was a festival celebrated together with the family. Divination and fortune telling were also part of the festivities. Especially next years crop and possible births and marriages were popular subjects of divination. In Finnish language December Joulukuu(Christmas month) was known as Talvikuu (the winter month) all the way till 17th century when Lutheran church ordered Christmas to become a mandatory holiday for people to celebrate.
Louhi Goddess of the Moon and Winter
In Finnish folklore goddess Louhi was honored during winter solstice. Louhi was the goddess of magic, witchcraft and shamanism in ancient Finland and one of the most powerful deities in Finnish pantheon. Like many goddesses around the world because of her associations to witchcraft and especially to the power of womanhood Louhi was demonized by the church. Same happened to goddesses such Baba Yaga, Ragana, Hekate and Morgan Le Fay. Original name of Louhi was Loviatar. Her name is derived from Finnish expression langeta loveen which was a state where shaman entered into trance. Loviatar is believed to be the first goddess of the moon in Finnish mythology. Another aspect that ties her especially within the female powers (though she was worshiped by both male and female shamans) was that lovi is old Finnish word for vagina.
Mother of Wolves
Louhi´s sacred animal was the wolf. An animal who shared many of her qualities love for freedom and independence. Wolves are very family oriented animals. Since Louhi originated from Saami goddesses she was originally part of a bigger family union. Unfortunately same way as Louhi was demonized by the church so was the wolf. So called "wolf-hate" in Finland started in 18th century and the church paid for hunters to kill wolves. This was part of movement to convert people into Christianity and at the same time prove that the church had control over the nature same way it had control over the people.
Interestingly enough before church interference during winter solstice in Finland lambs were sacrificed for the wolves. It was believed that by doing this in the coming year wolves would not attack livestock.
Louhi represents deep wisdom and understanding. If you feel connection to Louhi or any other goddess of witchcraft Winter Solstice is excellent time for working with them and getting to know them. In Finnish folklore Winter Solstice represents sleeping earth and time of rest. If holiday season is stressing you out this is great time for self-examination and meditation.
Pronounced as Nee-na.
Artist, illustrator, writer, watercolorist and a folklorist. Gryffinclaw. Comes from Finland. Likes cats, tea and period dramas.
Please keep the comment section civil, respectful and connected to the topic at hand. Thank you. Spammy/rude/passive-agressive comments will be blocked and reported. | <urn:uuid:6f624c2b-1d84-4655-9107-6214ee0ca648> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.fairychamber.com/blog/winter-solstice-celebration-in-ancient-finland | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00521.warc.gz | en | 0.980154 | 1,272 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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0.31464505195617... | 2 | Return of the sun
During pre-Christian times winter solstice was celebrated by countless different tribes across the northern hemisphere. In the agricultural world all pagan celebrations took place at the same time no matter what was the culture or the spoken language. This is why all pagan holidays celebrated in Europe take place at the same time with different names. People´s lives were connected to the land and to the change of seasons. Winter Solstice was an important event. It is the time when the sun is as far from the earth as possible and for many people of the past it meant that after winter solstice each day sun would get closer to the earth.
Compared to many other cultures celebrating winter solstice in Finland was rather small. In ancient Rome Winter Solstice was called Saturnalia in honor of the god Saturn. God of harvest and fertility. Winter Solstice was also celebrated by several tribes in Central Europe, Southern Europe, Baltic Countries and in other parts of Scandinavia. In Celtic mythology seasons are created by two nature gods: the oak king and the holly king. These two brothers were always competing with each others. They met twice in a year around Winter Solstice and Summer Solstice. During Summer Solstice Holly King won his brother and darkness would last longer each day and during Winter Solstice Oak King was the winner and there would be more day light each day. In ancient Egypt Winter Solstice was celebrated to honor the sun god Ra. He was believed to get ill during the winter and return back to his strength in winter solstice.
Colors of Winter
In ancient Finland biggest festival was Kekri which was a harvest festival that took place in the second week of November. Kekri was the highlight of the year and it was the "old" new year. Winter Solstice was also celebrated but it was not as big celebration as Kekri. Element of Winter Solstice was the earth and it was believed that during the winter earth was in deep sleep.
There are several colors connected to winter solstice:
Red is the color of goddess, life and blood.
Green symbolizes ever green trees, also health and wealth.
Gold represents the sun and the stars. It is also connected to summer, warmth, riches and several deities.
Silver represents the moon, winter, snow, mysteries and dreams.
In Finnish pagan wheel of the year Kekri began a time period called Jako-aika (the dividing time). Jako-aika was the darkest time of the year when all spirits, demons and dead could walk among the living. Winter Solstice was the highlight of Jako-aika. Time when these spirits were most dangerous. If sun appeared to the skies it was only up there for a moment. Many times people were afraid to leave their homes during winter solstice. Old folks stayed inside and told stories to the children. Stories from their childhood, legends from elves, gnomes and mythical creatures. Good food was part of the celebration and it was believed that during winter solstice one could stay up all nigh eating if they wanted to. Food was also taken outside to the spirit tree and was left as a sacrifice for the elves. People burned lots of candles and torches to keep evil spirits away. Custom that is still practiced in modern day Finland without any special spiritual meanings. Plays and games were part of winter solstice. It was a festival celebrated together with the family. Divination and fortune telling were also part of the festivities. Especially next years crop and possible births and marriages were popular subjects of divination. In Finnish language December Joulukuu(Christmas month) was known as Talvikuu (the winter month) all the way till 17th century when Lutheran church ordered Christmas to become a mandatory holiday for people to celebrate.
Louhi Goddess of the Moon and Winter
In Finnish folklore goddess Louhi was honored during winter solstice. Louhi was the goddess of magic, witchcraft and shamanism in ancient Finland and one of the most powerful deities in Finnish pantheon. Like many goddesses around the world because of her associations to witchcraft and especially to the power of womanhood Louhi was demonized by the church. Same happened to goddesses such Baba Yaga, Ragana, Hekate and Morgan Le Fay. Original name of Louhi was Loviatar. Her name is derived from Finnish expression langeta loveen which was a state where shaman entered into trance. Loviatar is believed to be the first goddess of the moon in Finnish mythology. Another aspect that ties her especially within the female powers (though she was worshiped by both male and female shamans) was that lovi is old Finnish word for vagina.
Mother of Wolves
Louhi´s sacred animal was the wolf. An animal who shared many of her qualities love for freedom and independence. Wolves are very family oriented animals. Since Louhi originated from Saami goddesses she was originally part of a bigger family union. Unfortunately same way as Louhi was demonized by the church so was the wolf. So called "wolf-hate" in Finland started in 18th century and the church paid for hunters to kill wolves. This was part of movement to convert people into Christianity and at the same time prove that the church had control over the nature same way it had control over the people.
Interestingly enough before church interference during winter solstice in Finland lambs were sacrificed for the wolves. It was believed that by doing this in the coming year wolves would not attack livestock.
Louhi represents deep wisdom and understanding. If you feel connection to Louhi or any other goddess of witchcraft Winter Solstice is excellent time for working with them and getting to know them. In Finnish folklore Winter Solstice represents sleeping earth and time of rest. If holiday season is stressing you out this is great time for self-examination and meditation.
Pronounced as Nee-na.
Artist, illustrator, writer, watercolorist and a folklorist. Gryffinclaw. Comes from Finland. Likes cats, tea and period dramas.
Please keep the comment section civil, respectful and connected to the topic at hand. Thank you. Spammy/rude/passive-agressive comments will be blocked and reported. | 1,259 | ENGLISH | 1 |
West Africa recently suffered from one of the biggest ebola outbreaks they have ever seen, and it is all because ebola has mutated.
A study, published in the journal Cell has shown that ebola has mutated. It’s genes have altered, with a C gene becoming a T, which has made the disease even more infectious. This has caused massive problems and made it more difficult to control.
The virus has increased the number of people being affected by at least fourfold, making it all the more lethal.
Biologists raised concerns over the virus when it was noticed that despite efforts to sqaush, the virus was still continuing to infect people at an alarming rate.
The mutant version of the virus started in Ghana, before making its way through West Africa. It became so potent that it made its way to Texas, proving just how quickly this nasty virus can make its way around the world.
Vincent Racaniello, a virologist at Columbia University, says of the outbreak in West Africa.
“What’s frightening is the outbreak, which affected tens of thousands of people and killed many thousands of people. I think that’s very scary.”
The great thing, however, is that since the mutation has occurred, its actually likely it has been eradicated.
“That [mutant] virus, as far as we know, it’s not circulating anymore. It’s not causing infections anymore in people in West Africa.”
The mutant virus is likely gone for a variety of reasons. Partially because it has been discovered, and partially because whatever mutation occurred makes it impossible to infect animals. Because of this, the virus cannot be sent to animals to harbor for months or years before re-infecting someone with a bite or after being in contact with the animal.
While the mutation may have proved to deadly for thousands of people, it has also provided a form of self-sabatoge. Since the epidemic has left West Africa, there is no reason to believe that the mutant virus is lingering on with it. Instead, it’s now totally disappeared, and hopefully this means it won’t be back to rear its ugly head.
By the way, people who know what's coming are taking advantage of the up to 50% off savings on our storable food! | <urn:uuid:c13d0ee0-4b00-4548-8a23-09a1569e9219> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.infowars.com/mutant-ebola-behind-devastating-epidemic/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00133.warc.gz | en | 0.981547 | 485 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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-0.0022950237616... | 1 | West Africa recently suffered from one of the biggest ebola outbreaks they have ever seen, and it is all because ebola has mutated.
A study, published in the journal Cell has shown that ebola has mutated. It’s genes have altered, with a C gene becoming a T, which has made the disease even more infectious. This has caused massive problems and made it more difficult to control.
The virus has increased the number of people being affected by at least fourfold, making it all the more lethal.
Biologists raised concerns over the virus when it was noticed that despite efforts to sqaush, the virus was still continuing to infect people at an alarming rate.
The mutant version of the virus started in Ghana, before making its way through West Africa. It became so potent that it made its way to Texas, proving just how quickly this nasty virus can make its way around the world.
Vincent Racaniello, a virologist at Columbia University, says of the outbreak in West Africa.
“What’s frightening is the outbreak, which affected tens of thousands of people and killed many thousands of people. I think that’s very scary.”
The great thing, however, is that since the mutation has occurred, its actually likely it has been eradicated.
“That [mutant] virus, as far as we know, it’s not circulating anymore. It’s not causing infections anymore in people in West Africa.”
The mutant virus is likely gone for a variety of reasons. Partially because it has been discovered, and partially because whatever mutation occurred makes it impossible to infect animals. Because of this, the virus cannot be sent to animals to harbor for months or years before re-infecting someone with a bite or after being in contact with the animal.
While the mutation may have proved to deadly for thousands of people, it has also provided a form of self-sabatoge. Since the epidemic has left West Africa, there is no reason to believe that the mutant virus is lingering on with it. Instead, it’s now totally disappeared, and hopefully this means it won’t be back to rear its ugly head.
By the way, people who know what's coming are taking advantage of the up to 50% off savings on our storable food! | 454 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This little brass key could have saved everyone on the Titanic
The RMS Titanic wasn’t supposed to sink, but it did. The ship sank in the North Atlantic Ocean on April 15, 1912, claiming 1,522 lives. But could the tragedy have been prevented? It wasn’t until recently that researchers discovered the history behind an important artifact that could have changed RMS Titanic’s history — and saved thousands of lives.
The story behind the RMS Titanic
Contrary to a certain major motion picture that will remain unnamed, the events that took place on the RMS Titanic in April 1912 were not romantic. Frigid waters caused icebergs to drift in the area of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. Instead of responding to warning calls from other ships, the RMS Titanic pushed on toward their destination — the United States.
The decision sealed the fate of every passenger on board.
Iceberg! Straight ahead!
By the time lookouts, including Frederick Fleet, spotted an iceberg it was too late. The RMS Titanic was heading straight toward the jagged ice and the two eventually collided. But something could have helped Fleet with his job, if only he had the tool: a key.
This isn’t your ordinary key; it’s a remarkable artifact that fitted the locker that contained the crow’s nest binoculars. Fleet, who miraculously survived the disaster, later told officials that if he had binoculars, he could have seen the iceberg sooner and told Captain Edward John Smith to change the ship’s direction. The RMS Titanic would have had enough time to dodge the iceberg— saving everyone on the ship.
So, what happened?
What happened to this key, you might ask? It belonged to Second Officer David Blair, who was replaced with a more experienced officer shortly before the RMS Titanic departed Southampton. Blair mistakenly took the key with him when he left his job and forgot to hand it to his replacement, Charles Lightoller.
Talk about an unfortunate error. Blair later realized his mistake, but it was too late. The RMS Titanic was off to her disastrous fate, and no one could open the locker to retrieve the binoculars when they really needed them.
The key was recently discovered and is expected to be auctioned for at least $80,000. | <urn:uuid:5d3d42b1-4246-4bd9-ba06-f1c25e029cee> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.history101.com/little-brass-key-could-saved-titanic/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00021.warc.gz | en | 0.980901 | 480 | 3.890625 | 4 | [
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The RMS Titanic wasn’t supposed to sink, but it did. The ship sank in the North Atlantic Ocean on April 15, 1912, claiming 1,522 lives. But could the tragedy have been prevented? It wasn’t until recently that researchers discovered the history behind an important artifact that could have changed RMS Titanic’s history — and saved thousands of lives.
The story behind the RMS Titanic
Contrary to a certain major motion picture that will remain unnamed, the events that took place on the RMS Titanic in April 1912 were not romantic. Frigid waters caused icebergs to drift in the area of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. Instead of responding to warning calls from other ships, the RMS Titanic pushed on toward their destination — the United States.
The decision sealed the fate of every passenger on board.
Iceberg! Straight ahead!
By the time lookouts, including Frederick Fleet, spotted an iceberg it was too late. The RMS Titanic was heading straight toward the jagged ice and the two eventually collided. But something could have helped Fleet with his job, if only he had the tool: a key.
This isn’t your ordinary key; it’s a remarkable artifact that fitted the locker that contained the crow’s nest binoculars. Fleet, who miraculously survived the disaster, later told officials that if he had binoculars, he could have seen the iceberg sooner and told Captain Edward John Smith to change the ship’s direction. The RMS Titanic would have had enough time to dodge the iceberg— saving everyone on the ship.
So, what happened?
What happened to this key, you might ask? It belonged to Second Officer David Blair, who was replaced with a more experienced officer shortly before the RMS Titanic departed Southampton. Blair mistakenly took the key with him when he left his job and forgot to hand it to his replacement, Charles Lightoller.
Talk about an unfortunate error. Blair later realized his mistake, but it was too late. The RMS Titanic was off to her disastrous fate, and no one could open the locker to retrieve the binoculars when they really needed them.
The key was recently discovered and is expected to be auctioned for at least $80,000. | 464 | ENGLISH | 1 |
President William McKinley
A Minute in History: President William McKinley, Commissary Sergeant
A Minute in Commissary History: Narrated by DeCA Historian Dr. Peter Skirbunt, this video, “Bill McKinley and the Battle of Antietam,” relates how the commissary sergeant of the 23rd Ohio Volunteer Infantry risked his life to bring a hot meal to the men of his regiment during the Battle of Antietam, the bloodiest single day of the American Civil War. It concludes with some interesting facts about what happened to McKinley and his regimental commander after the war. This video is the 10th in a series of “A Minute of History” videos produced by the Defense Commissary.
William McKinley (January 29, 1843 – September 14, 1901)
He was the 25th President of the United States, serving from March 4, 1897 until his assassination in September 1901. McKinley led the nation to victory in the Spanish–American War, raised protective tariffs to promote American industry, and maintained the nation on the gold standard in a rejection of inflationary proposals. Though McKinley’s administration ended with his assassination, his presidency marked the beginning of a period of dominance by the Republican Party that lasted for more than a third of a century.
McKinley was the last President to have served in the Union Army during the American Civil War, beginning as a private and ending as a brevet major. After the war, he settled in Canton, Ohio, where he practiced law and married Ida Saxton. In 1876, he was elected to Congress, where he became the Republican Party’s expert on the protective tariff, which he promised would bring prosperity. His 1890 McKinley Tariff was highly controversial; which together with a Democratic redistricting aimed at gerrymanderinghim out of office, led to his defeat in the Democratic landslide of 1890. He was elected Ohio’s governor in 1891 and 1893, steering a moderate course between capital and labor interests. With the aid of his close adviser Mark Hanna, he secured the Republican nomination for president in 1896, amid a deep economic depression. He defeated his Democratic rival, William Jennings Bryan, after a front-porch campaign in which he advocated “sound money” (the gold standard unless altered by international agreement) and promised that high tariffs would restore prosperity.
Rapid economic growth marked McKinley’s presidency. He promoted the 1897 Dingley Tariff to protect manufacturers and factory workers from foreign competition, and in 1900, he secured the passage of the Gold Standard Act. McKinley hoped to persuade Spain to grant independence to rebellious Cuba without conflict, but when negotiation failed, he led the nation in the Spanish–American War of 1898; the U.S. victory was quick and decisive. As part of the peace settlement Spain turned over to the United States its main overseas colonies of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines; Cuba was promised independence but at that time remained under the control of the U.S. Army. The United States annexed the independent Republic of Hawaii in 1898 and it became a U.S. territory.
McKinley defeated Bryan again in the 1900 presidential election, in a campaign focused on imperialism, prosperity, and free silver. President McKinley was assassinated by an anarchist in September 1901, and was succeeded by Vice President Theodore Roosevelt. Historians regard McKinley’s 1896 victory as a realigning election, in which the political stalemate of the post-Civil War era gave way to the Republican-dominated Fourth Party System, which began with the Progressive Era. He is generally placed near the middle in rankings of American presidents.
Early life and family
William McKinley, Jr., was born in 1843 in Niles, Ohio, the seventh child of William and Nancy (Allison) McKinley. The McKinleys were of English and Scots-Irish descent and had settled in western Pennsylvania in the 18th century. There, the elder McKinley was born in Pine Township. The family moved to Ohio when the senior McKinley was a boy, settling in New Lisbon (now Lisbon). He met Nancy Allison there in 1829, and married her the same year. The Allison family was of mostly English blood and among Pennsylvania’s earliest settlers. The family trade on both sides was iron-making, and McKinley senior operated foundries in New Lisbon, Niles, Poland, and finally Canton, Ohio.
The McKinley household was, like many from Ohio’s Western Reserve, steeped in Whiggish and abolitionist sentiment. Religiously, the family was staunchly Methodist and young William followed in that tradition, becoming active in the local Methodist church at the age of sixteen. He was a lifelong pious Methodist. In 1852, the family moved from Niles to Poland so that their children could attend the better school there. Graduating in 1859, he enrolled the following year at Allegheny College in Meadville, Pennsylvania. He remained at Allegheny for only one year, returning home in 1860 after becoming ill and depressed. Although his health recovered, family finances declined and McKinley was unable to return to Allegheny, first working as a postal clerk and later taking a job teaching at a school near Poland.
Western Virginia and Antietam
Rutherford B. Hayes was McKinley’s mentor during the Civil War and afterward.
When the southern states seceded from the Union and the American Civil War began, thousands of men in Ohio volunteered for service. Among them were McKinley and his cousin, William McKinley Osbourne, who enlisted as privates in the newly formed Poland Guards in July 1861. The men left for Columbus where they were consolidated with other small units to form the 23rd Ohio Infantry. The men were unhappy to learn that, unlike Ohio’s earlier volunteer regiments, they would not be permitted to elect their officers; they would be designated by Ohio’s governor, William Dennison. Dennison appointed Colonel William Rosecrans as the commander of the regiment, and the men began training on the outskirts of Columbus. McKinley quickly took to the soldier’s life and wrote a series of letters to his hometown newspaper extolling the army and the Union cause. Delays in issuance of uniforms and weapons again brought the men into conflict with their officers, but Major Rutherford B. Hayes convinced them to accept what the government had issued them; his style in dealing with the men impressed McKinley, beginning an association and friendship that would last until Hayes’ death in 1893.
After a month of training, McKinley and the 23rd Ohio, now led by Colonel Eliakim P. Scammon, set out for western Virginia (today part of West Virginia) in June 1861 as a part of the Kanawha Division. McKinley initially thought Scammon was a martinet, but when the regiment finally saw battle, he came to appreciate the value of their relentless drilling. Their first contact with the enemy came in September when they drove back Confederate troops at Carnifex Ferry in present-day West Virginia. Three days after the battle, McKinley was assigned to duty in the brigade quartermaster office, where he worked both to supply his regiment, and as a clerk. In November, the regiment established winter quarters near Fayetteville (today in West Virginia). McKinley spent the winter substituting for acommissary sergeant who was ill, and in April 1862 he was promoted to that rank. The regiment resumed its advance that spring with Hayes in command (Scammon by then led the brigade) and fought several minor engagements against the rebel forces.
That September, McKinley’s regiment was called east to reinforce General John Pope‘s Army of Virginia at the Second Battle of Bull Run. Delayed in passing through Washington, D.C., the 23rd Ohio did not arrive in time for the battle, but joined the Army of the Potomac as it hurried north to cut off Robert E. Lee‘s Army of Northern Virginia as it advanced into Maryland. The 23rd was the first regiment to encounter the Confederates at the Battle of South Mountain on September 14. After severe losses, Union forces drove back the Confederates and continued to Sharpsburg, Maryland, where they engaged Lee’s army at the Battle of Antietam, one of the bloodiest battles of the war. The 23rd was also in the thick of the fighting at Antietam, and McKinley himself came under heavy fire when bringing rations to the men on the line. McKinley’s regiment again suffered many casualties, but the Army of the Potomac was victorious and the Confederates retreated into Virginia. The regiment was then detached from the Army of the Potomac and returned by train to western Virginia. | <urn:uuid:30513dbc-57cc-47f4-bebc-2f95b9777515> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://purehistory.org/president-william-mckinley/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00356.warc.gz | en | 0.980356 | 1,819 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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A Minute in History: President William McKinley, Commissary Sergeant
A Minute in Commissary History: Narrated by DeCA Historian Dr. Peter Skirbunt, this video, “Bill McKinley and the Battle of Antietam,” relates how the commissary sergeant of the 23rd Ohio Volunteer Infantry risked his life to bring a hot meal to the men of his regiment during the Battle of Antietam, the bloodiest single day of the American Civil War. It concludes with some interesting facts about what happened to McKinley and his regimental commander after the war. This video is the 10th in a series of “A Minute of History” videos produced by the Defense Commissary.
William McKinley (January 29, 1843 – September 14, 1901)
He was the 25th President of the United States, serving from March 4, 1897 until his assassination in September 1901. McKinley led the nation to victory in the Spanish–American War, raised protective tariffs to promote American industry, and maintained the nation on the gold standard in a rejection of inflationary proposals. Though McKinley’s administration ended with his assassination, his presidency marked the beginning of a period of dominance by the Republican Party that lasted for more than a third of a century.
McKinley was the last President to have served in the Union Army during the American Civil War, beginning as a private and ending as a brevet major. After the war, he settled in Canton, Ohio, where he practiced law and married Ida Saxton. In 1876, he was elected to Congress, where he became the Republican Party’s expert on the protective tariff, which he promised would bring prosperity. His 1890 McKinley Tariff was highly controversial; which together with a Democratic redistricting aimed at gerrymanderinghim out of office, led to his defeat in the Democratic landslide of 1890. He was elected Ohio’s governor in 1891 and 1893, steering a moderate course between capital and labor interests. With the aid of his close adviser Mark Hanna, he secured the Republican nomination for president in 1896, amid a deep economic depression. He defeated his Democratic rival, William Jennings Bryan, after a front-porch campaign in which he advocated “sound money” (the gold standard unless altered by international agreement) and promised that high tariffs would restore prosperity.
Rapid economic growth marked McKinley’s presidency. He promoted the 1897 Dingley Tariff to protect manufacturers and factory workers from foreign competition, and in 1900, he secured the passage of the Gold Standard Act. McKinley hoped to persuade Spain to grant independence to rebellious Cuba without conflict, but when negotiation failed, he led the nation in the Spanish–American War of 1898; the U.S. victory was quick and decisive. As part of the peace settlement Spain turned over to the United States its main overseas colonies of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines; Cuba was promised independence but at that time remained under the control of the U.S. Army. The United States annexed the independent Republic of Hawaii in 1898 and it became a U.S. territory.
McKinley defeated Bryan again in the 1900 presidential election, in a campaign focused on imperialism, prosperity, and free silver. President McKinley was assassinated by an anarchist in September 1901, and was succeeded by Vice President Theodore Roosevelt. Historians regard McKinley’s 1896 victory as a realigning election, in which the political stalemate of the post-Civil War era gave way to the Republican-dominated Fourth Party System, which began with the Progressive Era. He is generally placed near the middle in rankings of American presidents.
Early life and family
William McKinley, Jr., was born in 1843 in Niles, Ohio, the seventh child of William and Nancy (Allison) McKinley. The McKinleys were of English and Scots-Irish descent and had settled in western Pennsylvania in the 18th century. There, the elder McKinley was born in Pine Township. The family moved to Ohio when the senior McKinley was a boy, settling in New Lisbon (now Lisbon). He met Nancy Allison there in 1829, and married her the same year. The Allison family was of mostly English blood and among Pennsylvania’s earliest settlers. The family trade on both sides was iron-making, and McKinley senior operated foundries in New Lisbon, Niles, Poland, and finally Canton, Ohio.
The McKinley household was, like many from Ohio’s Western Reserve, steeped in Whiggish and abolitionist sentiment. Religiously, the family was staunchly Methodist and young William followed in that tradition, becoming active in the local Methodist church at the age of sixteen. He was a lifelong pious Methodist. In 1852, the family moved from Niles to Poland so that their children could attend the better school there. Graduating in 1859, he enrolled the following year at Allegheny College in Meadville, Pennsylvania. He remained at Allegheny for only one year, returning home in 1860 after becoming ill and depressed. Although his health recovered, family finances declined and McKinley was unable to return to Allegheny, first working as a postal clerk and later taking a job teaching at a school near Poland.
Western Virginia and Antietam
Rutherford B. Hayes was McKinley’s mentor during the Civil War and afterward.
When the southern states seceded from the Union and the American Civil War began, thousands of men in Ohio volunteered for service. Among them were McKinley and his cousin, William McKinley Osbourne, who enlisted as privates in the newly formed Poland Guards in July 1861. The men left for Columbus where they were consolidated with other small units to form the 23rd Ohio Infantry. The men were unhappy to learn that, unlike Ohio’s earlier volunteer regiments, they would not be permitted to elect their officers; they would be designated by Ohio’s governor, William Dennison. Dennison appointed Colonel William Rosecrans as the commander of the regiment, and the men began training on the outskirts of Columbus. McKinley quickly took to the soldier’s life and wrote a series of letters to his hometown newspaper extolling the army and the Union cause. Delays in issuance of uniforms and weapons again brought the men into conflict with their officers, but Major Rutherford B. Hayes convinced them to accept what the government had issued them; his style in dealing with the men impressed McKinley, beginning an association and friendship that would last until Hayes’ death in 1893.
After a month of training, McKinley and the 23rd Ohio, now led by Colonel Eliakim P. Scammon, set out for western Virginia (today part of West Virginia) in June 1861 as a part of the Kanawha Division. McKinley initially thought Scammon was a martinet, but when the regiment finally saw battle, he came to appreciate the value of their relentless drilling. Their first contact with the enemy came in September when they drove back Confederate troops at Carnifex Ferry in present-day West Virginia. Three days after the battle, McKinley was assigned to duty in the brigade quartermaster office, where he worked both to supply his regiment, and as a clerk. In November, the regiment established winter quarters near Fayetteville (today in West Virginia). McKinley spent the winter substituting for acommissary sergeant who was ill, and in April 1862 he was promoted to that rank. The regiment resumed its advance that spring with Hayes in command (Scammon by then led the brigade) and fought several minor engagements against the rebel forces.
That September, McKinley’s regiment was called east to reinforce General John Pope‘s Army of Virginia at the Second Battle of Bull Run. Delayed in passing through Washington, D.C., the 23rd Ohio did not arrive in time for the battle, but joined the Army of the Potomac as it hurried north to cut off Robert E. Lee‘s Army of Northern Virginia as it advanced into Maryland. The 23rd was the first regiment to encounter the Confederates at the Battle of South Mountain on September 14. After severe losses, Union forces drove back the Confederates and continued to Sharpsburg, Maryland, where they engaged Lee’s army at the Battle of Antietam, one of the bloodiest battles of the war. The 23rd was also in the thick of the fighting at Antietam, and McKinley himself came under heavy fire when bringing rations to the men on the line. McKinley’s regiment again suffered many casualties, but the Army of the Potomac was victorious and the Confederates retreated into Virginia. The regiment was then detached from the Army of the Potomac and returned by train to western Virginia. | 1,891 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Coins from Southern Rhodesia
The Colony of Southern Rhodesia, was a self-governing British Crown colony in southern Africa, later known as Rhodesia and today as Zimbabwe. During that time, the capital has remained the same, Salisbury, later changing its name to Harare. The colony was established on 1 October 1923, after it was annexed by the Crown on 12 September 1923. Up to this time, it was administered by the British South Africa Company. In 1953, it was merged into the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, which lasted until 1963. Southern Rhodesia then remained a British colony until 1980. During this time the white-minority government issued a Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) in 1965 and established Rhodesia, an unrecognized state. This changed in 1979 as it was reconstituted under indigenous African rule as Zimbabwe Rhodesia, which also failed. The British took interim control following the Lancaster House Agreement in December 1979, after which the country was granted internationally recognized independence as Zimbabwe on 18 April 1980. The first coins were issued in 1934 with only the nickel and silver coins showing the Bust of the British Monarch, and the half and one penny coins only the title. This currency mirrored the English Pound Sterling system with 12 Pennies to the Shilling and 20 Shillings to the Pound. The last coins were issued in 1952, before merging into Rhodesia Nyasaland. The name Rhodesia comes from Cecil John Rhodes and was given by Queen Victoria in honor of him. Up to that time, it was referred to as South Zambezia. It comprised 372,518 km² (143,830 square miles).
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The Colony of Southern Rhodesia, was a self-governing British Crown colony in southern Africa, later known as Rhodesia and today as Zimbabwe. During that time, the capital has remained the same, Salisbury, later changing its name to Harare. The colony was established on 1 October 1923, after it was annexed by the Crown on 12 September 1923. Up to this time, it was administered by the British South Africa Company. In 1953, it was merged into the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, which lasted until 1963. Southern Rhodesia then remained a British colony until 1980. During this time the white-minority government issued a Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) in 1965 and established Rhodesia, an unrecognized state. This changed in 1979 as it was reconstituted under indigenous African rule as Zimbabwe Rhodesia, which also failed. The British took interim control following the Lancaster House Agreement in December 1979, after which the country was granted internationally recognized independence as Zimbabwe on 18 April 1980. The first coins were issued in 1934 with only the nickel and silver coins showing the Bust of the British Monarch, and the half and one penny coins only the title. This currency mirrored the English Pound Sterling system with 12 Pennies to the Shilling and 20 Shillings to the Pound. The last coins were issued in 1952, before merging into Rhodesia Nyasaland. The name Rhodesia comes from Cecil John Rhodes and was given by Queen Victoria in honor of him. Up to that time, it was referred to as South Zambezia. It comprised 372,518 km² (143,830 square miles).
12 Pence = 1 Shilling • 20 Shillings = 1 Pound | 418 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Signers of the Declaration of Independence
Benjamin Harrison V(April 5, 1726 – April 24, 1791) was born at Berkeley Plantation on the James River in Virginia, about thirty-two miles southeast of Richmond. His parents were Benjamin Harrison IV and Ann Carter. The family had been in Virginia since the previous century. His parents built the manor house at Berkeley Plantation, which still stands.
Benjamin grew up in luxury, with a private tutor and attended the College of William and Mary. During his college years, an intense thunderstorm with sheets of lightning struck the manor house, killing his father on July 12, 1745, at age 51, as he shut an upstairs window. Benjamin was the eldest of ten children. Two sisters were also killed in the storm.
The tragic death interrupted his studies. He needed to return home at once to manage his father’s estate. He also got into a dispute with an official of the college that made retreat seem the better part of valor.
He was a tall man, with a forceful demeanor. Even at the tender age of nineteen, he assumed the mantle of family responsibility with uncommon prudence and judgment. At the age of twenty-three, he met and married Elizabeth Basset. The couple had eight children. Elizabeth died in 1792.
In 1764, at the age of thirty-eight, he was elected to the Virginia Burgesses. Because of his rotundity, joviality, love of good foods and wines, and fondness for luxury, he acquired the nickname “Falstaff of Congress.” He opposed the Stamp Acts, but was a somewhat reluctant patriot, opposing Patrick Henry’s calls for civil disobedience as a response to the Acts. As tensions with the Crown grew, Benjamin altered his position and joined those who sought independence. Between 1773 and 1776, he shared in the tasks of the Revolutionary conventions, the committee of correspondence, and the provincial congresses.
In 1774, Benjamin was appointed to the Continental Congress. He wasn’t known for fiery rhetoric on the floor, but rather as a facilitator, quietly working in the background. He was conservative, not in line with the radicals like John Adams, but so eager to participate in the Continental Congress that “he would have come on foot.” He gravitated toward John Hancock and those who followed him.
“As a member of the board of war, and as chairman of that board, an office which he retained until he left congress, he particularly distinguished himself. According to the testimony of a gentleman who was contemporary with him in congress, he was characterized for great firmness, good sense, and a peculiar sagacity in difficult and critical situations. In seasons of uncommon trial and anxiety, hee was always steady, cheerful, and undaunted.
Mr. Harrison was also often called to preside as chairman of the committee of the whole house, in which station he was extremely popular. He occupied the chair during the deliberations of congress on the dispatches of Washington, the settlement of commercial restrictions, the state of the colonies, the regulation of trade, and during the pendency of the momentous question of our national independence. By his correctness and impartiality, during the warm and animated debates which were had on questions growing out of these important subjects, he gained the general confidence and approbation of the house. “
He was again appointed to the Second Continental Congress, and was present at the signing on July 4. He is said to have remarked:colonialhall.org
“I shall have a great advantage over you, Mr. Gerry, when we are all hung for what we are now doing [signing the Declaration of Independence]. For the size and weight of my body I shall die in a few minutes, but from the lightness of your body you will dance in the air an hour or two before you are dead. “Benjamin Harrison, referring to Gerry of Massachusetts. Harrison was often derided for his size, weight, and delight in good food
Towards the close of the year 1777. Mr. Harrison resigned his seat in congress and returned to Virginia. He was soon after elected a member of the house of burgesses, of which body he was immediately chosen speaker, a station which he held until the year 1782.
In this latter year, Mr. Harrison was elected to the office of the chief magistrate of Virginia and became one of the most popular governors of his native state. To this office, he was twice re-elected. In 1785, having become ineligible by the provisions of the constitution, he returned to private life, carrying with him the universal esteem and approbation of his fellow citizens.
In 1788, when the new constitution of the United States was submitted to Virginia, he was returned a member of her convention. Of the first committee chosen by that body, that of privileges and elections, he was appointed chairman. Owing to advanced age, and physical maladies, he took no great part in the Constitutional debate, though he opposed its adoption without a Bill of Rights. He declined to run for re-election as chairman. Gout afflicted him greatly in these latter years and eventually caused his death in 1792. One of his children, William Henry Harrison, became the ninth president of the United States. | <urn:uuid:e08e6c61-aadd-4e98-b514-a8f4364488da> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://historicalnovelsrus.com/2020/01/14/did-you-know-benjamin-harrison/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00370.warc.gz | en | 0.988458 | 1,099 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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-0.093468829989... | 13 | Signers of the Declaration of Independence
Benjamin Harrison V(April 5, 1726 – April 24, 1791) was born at Berkeley Plantation on the James River in Virginia, about thirty-two miles southeast of Richmond. His parents were Benjamin Harrison IV and Ann Carter. The family had been in Virginia since the previous century. His parents built the manor house at Berkeley Plantation, which still stands.
Benjamin grew up in luxury, with a private tutor and attended the College of William and Mary. During his college years, an intense thunderstorm with sheets of lightning struck the manor house, killing his father on July 12, 1745, at age 51, as he shut an upstairs window. Benjamin was the eldest of ten children. Two sisters were also killed in the storm.
The tragic death interrupted his studies. He needed to return home at once to manage his father’s estate. He also got into a dispute with an official of the college that made retreat seem the better part of valor.
He was a tall man, with a forceful demeanor. Even at the tender age of nineteen, he assumed the mantle of family responsibility with uncommon prudence and judgment. At the age of twenty-three, he met and married Elizabeth Basset. The couple had eight children. Elizabeth died in 1792.
In 1764, at the age of thirty-eight, he was elected to the Virginia Burgesses. Because of his rotundity, joviality, love of good foods and wines, and fondness for luxury, he acquired the nickname “Falstaff of Congress.” He opposed the Stamp Acts, but was a somewhat reluctant patriot, opposing Patrick Henry’s calls for civil disobedience as a response to the Acts. As tensions with the Crown grew, Benjamin altered his position and joined those who sought independence. Between 1773 and 1776, he shared in the tasks of the Revolutionary conventions, the committee of correspondence, and the provincial congresses.
In 1774, Benjamin was appointed to the Continental Congress. He wasn’t known for fiery rhetoric on the floor, but rather as a facilitator, quietly working in the background. He was conservative, not in line with the radicals like John Adams, but so eager to participate in the Continental Congress that “he would have come on foot.” He gravitated toward John Hancock and those who followed him.
“As a member of the board of war, and as chairman of that board, an office which he retained until he left congress, he particularly distinguished himself. According to the testimony of a gentleman who was contemporary with him in congress, he was characterized for great firmness, good sense, and a peculiar sagacity in difficult and critical situations. In seasons of uncommon trial and anxiety, hee was always steady, cheerful, and undaunted.
Mr. Harrison was also often called to preside as chairman of the committee of the whole house, in which station he was extremely popular. He occupied the chair during the deliberations of congress on the dispatches of Washington, the settlement of commercial restrictions, the state of the colonies, the regulation of trade, and during the pendency of the momentous question of our national independence. By his correctness and impartiality, during the warm and animated debates which were had on questions growing out of these important subjects, he gained the general confidence and approbation of the house. “
He was again appointed to the Second Continental Congress, and was present at the signing on July 4. He is said to have remarked:colonialhall.org
“I shall have a great advantage over you, Mr. Gerry, when we are all hung for what we are now doing [signing the Declaration of Independence]. For the size and weight of my body I shall die in a few minutes, but from the lightness of your body you will dance in the air an hour or two before you are dead. “Benjamin Harrison, referring to Gerry of Massachusetts. Harrison was often derided for his size, weight, and delight in good food
Towards the close of the year 1777. Mr. Harrison resigned his seat in congress and returned to Virginia. He was soon after elected a member of the house of burgesses, of which body he was immediately chosen speaker, a station which he held until the year 1782.
In this latter year, Mr. Harrison was elected to the office of the chief magistrate of Virginia and became one of the most popular governors of his native state. To this office, he was twice re-elected. In 1785, having become ineligible by the provisions of the constitution, he returned to private life, carrying with him the universal esteem and approbation of his fellow citizens.
In 1788, when the new constitution of the United States was submitted to Virginia, he was returned a member of her convention. Of the first committee chosen by that body, that of privileges and elections, he was appointed chairman. Owing to advanced age, and physical maladies, he took no great part in the Constitutional debate, though he opposed its adoption without a Bill of Rights. He declined to run for re-election as chairman. Gout afflicted him greatly in these latter years and eventually caused his death in 1792. One of his children, William Henry Harrison, became the ninth president of the United States. | 1,115 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Edward Teach/Thatch, better known as Blackbeard, was a notorious pirate from England who went on to become one of history’s most infamous figures due to the adventures he undertook. There is very little information available about his childhood, but early records mention that he worked as a privateer (commissioned pirate) for the British Empire. The earliest records mention his conquests as a pirate during the War of the Spanish succession. His reputation grew and his crew was feared by all vessels. He later settled his base at North Carolina where he established his name. The rumors of a buried treasure attributed to his conquests continue to elude people as the treasure is yet to be found, and it possibly never existed. He became a notorious pirate due to his terrorizing manner and dictatorship. He was eventually killed in a conquest by the British Naval force, after which his body was decapitated and his skull was attached to the ship. His commanding stature became an inspiration for various books and movies, and his swashbuckling image keeps him alive in the popular culture.
- Blackbeard was born as Edward Teach, sometimes spelt as Thatch/Thack in Bristol. While the exact date remains unknown, he is estimated to have born in 1680. Little else is known about his early life as pirates generally adopted a pseudonym without revealing their past. It is therefore unlikely that his real name will ever be known.The global shifts in Britain’s colonies and the expansion of the slave trade proved pivotal for Bristol, an international sea port and the then second-largest city in England. His association with the sea and easy access to ports have led to the speculations that he might have been raised in Bristol.Early historians had traced a letter he possessed that was written by Tobias Knight, Chief Justice to the Province of Carolina, thus establishing the fact that he could read and write. Other suppositions indicate that he arrived in the Caribbean on a slave ship in the late 17th century.Author Charles Johnson hinted that Blackbeard might have worked as a sailor in Jamaica on private ships during the War of Spanish succession. His unmatched courage and bold personality peaked during this time and contributed to him gaining infamy as a pirate.Continue Reading BelowCareer
- Blackbeard went to the island of New Providence, a thriving pirate location cultivated by Henry Jennings, a privateer who had become a pirate. It is speculated that Blackbeard later followed Captain Benjamin Hornigold’s crew. The captain grew impressed with him and assigned him more individual tasks.Blackbeard set out for his own journey to the mainland in early 1717 and successfully managed to steal 100 barrels of wine in Bermuda. He later stole the cargo from ‘Betty’, another ship near Cape Charles.Hornigold mentored Blackbeard and finally asked him to command a ship by himself. The ship ‘Revenge’ was among the three of Hornigold’s ships. The duo soon emptied the cargo of ‘Robert’, from Philadelphia; and ‘Good Intent’, from Dublin.Hornigold later left the island after receiving the King’s pardon; Blackbeard remained in command at this juncture. He attacked ‘La Concorde’, a French captain’s slave-carrying vessel. He renamed it ‘Queen Anne’s Revenge’ and loaded it with 40 guns.After his initial conquests, he became unstoppable. The mighty ‘Great Allen’ and ‘Margaret’ are among the ships he looted. His reputation and his fierce looks made him one of the most feared pirates in the sea. However, despite popular opinion, there are no records of him murdering anyone he held captive.In 1718, he increased the size of his crew by taking over ‘Protestant Caesure’ and several other unnamed smaller vessels across the Bay of Honduras, Cuba, and Florida. He eventually steered his crew to Charles Town in South Carolina.The year of 1718 proved to be the most successful year for him, and he granted himself the rank of Commodore. At Charles Town, where the port had no guard, his crew stopped all vessels and ransacked their contents. He looted as many as 10 vessels here.His fleet sailed towards the Atlantic coast and hovered around Beaufort Inlet. His ships, ‘Queen Anne’s Revenge’ and ‘Adventure’, were damaged during this journey, leaving only ‘Revenge’ and other small sailing boats.Blackbeard heard of a royal pardon being offered and considered it around the time his ships were wrecked. After several guesswork and adventures, he and his crew finally received Governor Eden’s pardon in June 1718. He was asked to settle in Bath after this.Continue Reading BelowDespite receiving an official pardon, he returned to piracy within a couple of months, leading to an arrest warrant. He escaped the main waters by spending more time at Ocracoke Inlet along with Israel Hands, Calico Jack, and Robert Deal, other fabled criminals of the time.The Governor of Virginia Alexander Spotswood issued a proclamation, commanding all pirates to report to the authorities. He eventually joined hands with Governor Edward Mosely and Colonel Maurice Moore to hunt down Blackbeard in hope of eliminating him and finding his treasures.Blackbeard was finally found by Maynard’s crew, backed by Spotswood, in Ocracoke Island. However, the pirate won the initial battle before being surprised by the hidden crew in Maynard’s vessel. He was finally attacked repeatedly by many members of the crew and subsequently killed.The loot in his vessels was sold at an auction, and the prize money of £400 was split between HMS Lyme and HMS Pearl. His severed head was mounted on the ship’s bowsprit, and it was later hung from a tall pole near Hampton across James rivers. It stood there for the next couple of years, warning others of a similar fate if treaded his path.Family & Personal Life
- When Blackbeard received his pardon from Governor Eden, he settled down in Bath. He was rumored to have married Mary Ormond, the daughter of William Ormand, a plantation owner. It has been said that he offered his ship ‘Queen Anne’s Revenge’ as a gift to her.He was killed on 22 November, 1718 by the crew led by Lieutenant Robert Maynard in Ocracoke, North Carolina. When Maynard examined his body, he noted that Blackbeard was shot five times and cut over 20. He threw the corpse in the sea and suspend his head from the ship to receive his bounty.Blackbeard’s legacy continues in media and the popular culture today. Among the most famous retellings of his life are the movies, ‘Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides’ (2011) and ‘Pan’ (2015). BBC produced a miniseries titled, ‘Blackbeard’ (2005), which chronicled the pirate’s life.Several documentaries have paid homage to his courage, including BBC’s ‘Journeys to the Bottom of the Sea: Blackbeard's Revenge’, History Channel’s ‘Real Pirates of the Caribbean’ and PBS’s ‘Secrets of the Dead: Blackbeard's Lost Ship’.His charisma has crossed centuries and continues to interest people of all age groups. Videos games too have included him as a character. His character appears in ‘Assassin's Creed IV: Black Flag’ and ‘Pirates: The Legend of Black Kat’.Trivia
- Blackbeard was said to decorated himself with flaming matches and candles, and sometimes even hit flaming matches under his hat. This would make his appearance fierce and intimidating.
How To CiteArticle Title- Blackbeard BiographyAuthor- Editors, TheFamousPeople.comWebsite- TheFamousPeople.comURL- https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/blackbeard-8070.phpLast Updated- January 31, 2019
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0.25114616751... | 1 | Edward Teach/Thatch, better known as Blackbeard, was a notorious pirate from England who went on to become one of history’s most infamous figures due to the adventures he undertook. There is very little information available about his childhood, but early records mention that he worked as a privateer (commissioned pirate) for the British Empire. The earliest records mention his conquests as a pirate during the War of the Spanish succession. His reputation grew and his crew was feared by all vessels. He later settled his base at North Carolina where he established his name. The rumors of a buried treasure attributed to his conquests continue to elude people as the treasure is yet to be found, and it possibly never existed. He became a notorious pirate due to his terrorizing manner and dictatorship. He was eventually killed in a conquest by the British Naval force, after which his body was decapitated and his skull was attached to the ship. His commanding stature became an inspiration for various books and movies, and his swashbuckling image keeps him alive in the popular culture.
- Blackbeard was born as Edward Teach, sometimes spelt as Thatch/Thack in Bristol. While the exact date remains unknown, he is estimated to have born in 1680. Little else is known about his early life as pirates generally adopted a pseudonym without revealing their past. It is therefore unlikely that his real name will ever be known.The global shifts in Britain’s colonies and the expansion of the slave trade proved pivotal for Bristol, an international sea port and the then second-largest city in England. His association with the sea and easy access to ports have led to the speculations that he might have been raised in Bristol.Early historians had traced a letter he possessed that was written by Tobias Knight, Chief Justice to the Province of Carolina, thus establishing the fact that he could read and write. Other suppositions indicate that he arrived in the Caribbean on a slave ship in the late 17th century.Author Charles Johnson hinted that Blackbeard might have worked as a sailor in Jamaica on private ships during the War of Spanish succession. His unmatched courage and bold personality peaked during this time and contributed to him gaining infamy as a pirate.Continue Reading BelowCareer
- Blackbeard went to the island of New Providence, a thriving pirate location cultivated by Henry Jennings, a privateer who had become a pirate. It is speculated that Blackbeard later followed Captain Benjamin Hornigold’s crew. The captain grew impressed with him and assigned him more individual tasks.Blackbeard set out for his own journey to the mainland in early 1717 and successfully managed to steal 100 barrels of wine in Bermuda. He later stole the cargo from ‘Betty’, another ship near Cape Charles.Hornigold mentored Blackbeard and finally asked him to command a ship by himself. The ship ‘Revenge’ was among the three of Hornigold’s ships. The duo soon emptied the cargo of ‘Robert’, from Philadelphia; and ‘Good Intent’, from Dublin.Hornigold later left the island after receiving the King’s pardon; Blackbeard remained in command at this juncture. He attacked ‘La Concorde’, a French captain’s slave-carrying vessel. He renamed it ‘Queen Anne’s Revenge’ and loaded it with 40 guns.After his initial conquests, he became unstoppable. The mighty ‘Great Allen’ and ‘Margaret’ are among the ships he looted. His reputation and his fierce looks made him one of the most feared pirates in the sea. However, despite popular opinion, there are no records of him murdering anyone he held captive.In 1718, he increased the size of his crew by taking over ‘Protestant Caesure’ and several other unnamed smaller vessels across the Bay of Honduras, Cuba, and Florida. He eventually steered his crew to Charles Town in South Carolina.The year of 1718 proved to be the most successful year for him, and he granted himself the rank of Commodore. At Charles Town, where the port had no guard, his crew stopped all vessels and ransacked their contents. He looted as many as 10 vessels here.His fleet sailed towards the Atlantic coast and hovered around Beaufort Inlet. His ships, ‘Queen Anne’s Revenge’ and ‘Adventure’, were damaged during this journey, leaving only ‘Revenge’ and other small sailing boats.Blackbeard heard of a royal pardon being offered and considered it around the time his ships were wrecked. After several guesswork and adventures, he and his crew finally received Governor Eden’s pardon in June 1718. He was asked to settle in Bath after this.Continue Reading BelowDespite receiving an official pardon, he returned to piracy within a couple of months, leading to an arrest warrant. He escaped the main waters by spending more time at Ocracoke Inlet along with Israel Hands, Calico Jack, and Robert Deal, other fabled criminals of the time.The Governor of Virginia Alexander Spotswood issued a proclamation, commanding all pirates to report to the authorities. He eventually joined hands with Governor Edward Mosely and Colonel Maurice Moore to hunt down Blackbeard in hope of eliminating him and finding his treasures.Blackbeard was finally found by Maynard’s crew, backed by Spotswood, in Ocracoke Island. However, the pirate won the initial battle before being surprised by the hidden crew in Maynard’s vessel. He was finally attacked repeatedly by many members of the crew and subsequently killed.The loot in his vessels was sold at an auction, and the prize money of £400 was split between HMS Lyme and HMS Pearl. His severed head was mounted on the ship’s bowsprit, and it was later hung from a tall pole near Hampton across James rivers. It stood there for the next couple of years, warning others of a similar fate if treaded his path.Family & Personal Life
- When Blackbeard received his pardon from Governor Eden, he settled down in Bath. He was rumored to have married Mary Ormond, the daughter of William Ormand, a plantation owner. It has been said that he offered his ship ‘Queen Anne’s Revenge’ as a gift to her.He was killed on 22 November, 1718 by the crew led by Lieutenant Robert Maynard in Ocracoke, North Carolina. When Maynard examined his body, he noted that Blackbeard was shot five times and cut over 20. He threw the corpse in the sea and suspend his head from the ship to receive his bounty.Blackbeard’s legacy continues in media and the popular culture today. Among the most famous retellings of his life are the movies, ‘Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides’ (2011) and ‘Pan’ (2015). BBC produced a miniseries titled, ‘Blackbeard’ (2005), which chronicled the pirate’s life.Several documentaries have paid homage to his courage, including BBC’s ‘Journeys to the Bottom of the Sea: Blackbeard's Revenge’, History Channel’s ‘Real Pirates of the Caribbean’ and PBS’s ‘Secrets of the Dead: Blackbeard's Lost Ship’.His charisma has crossed centuries and continues to interest people of all age groups. Videos games too have included him as a character. His character appears in ‘Assassin's Creed IV: Black Flag’ and ‘Pirates: The Legend of Black Kat’.Trivia
- Blackbeard was said to decorated himself with flaming matches and candles, and sometimes even hit flaming matches under his hat. This would make his appearance fierce and intimidating.
How To CiteArticle Title- Blackbeard BiographyAuthor- Editors, TheFamousPeople.comWebsite- TheFamousPeople.comURL- https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/blackbeard-8070.phpLast Updated- January 31, 2019
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Why would Luke highlight the meeting between Mary and pregnant Elizabeth? He could have simply stated that Mary hurriedly visited and stayed with Elizabeth for about three months. Yet, he does not. He considers their meeting important enough to use up precious space in his narrative (a scroll) to record their meeting and greeting one another. What does all this mean for believers both in the first century AD and today?
First of all, we must understand that Mary’s greeting (Luke 1:40) wasn’t a simple “Hello!” Eastern culture demanded much more than that and took quite a long time by today’s standards. Rather, salutations in the Eastern culture were expressed with several embraces and bowing, even lying prostrate with one’s face to the ground was not uncommon (cf. Genesis 33:1-7). While she greeted Elizabeth, we should not expect that Mary was silent about the reason for her visit. No doubt she spoke of Gabriel’s words, including his telling her of Elizabeth’s pregnancy, which was to be a sign to Mary that she would bear the Messiah.
We often hear it taught that, because Elizabeth was filled with the Holy Spirit as soon as Mary began to greet her (Luke 1:41), God revealed to Elizabeth that Mary was pregnant with the Messiah. However, this doesn’t take into consideration that the scripture says Elizabeth was filled with the Holy Spirit after Mary was finished saluting her. That is, Elizabeth wasn’t filled until Mary was finished speaking. What did Mary say in her salutation? I can think of nothing except to tell Elizabeth the reason for her visit—i.e. the angel telling Mary what would occur to her and that Elizabeth was in her sixth month of pregnancy.
If we are to understand what Luke means by recording this meeting, we need to keep in mind that, although John was filled with the Holy Spirit from birth, yet he did not know that Jesus was the Messiah, until God showed him a sign (John 1:31-33). If John, who was filled with the Holy Spirit from birth until death and didn’t know Jesus was the Messiah without a sign from heaven, how did Elizabeth know Mary was the mother of the Messiah, unless a sign was in Mary’s greeting, about which the Holy Spirit inspired Elizabeth to believe and comment on with encouragement? We must not try to ascribe to Elizabeth what the scriptures fail to attribute to John, of whom Jesus testifies there was no greater prophet in all Israel (Matthew 11:11; Luke 7:28).
What meaning, therefore, lies behind this meeting? I suggest that it has to do with the ending of an era and the beginning of another. John represented the Old Covenant, but Jesus and the New Covenant were far superior. Notice in Luke 7:28, mentioned above, that the prophet John is placed in contrast to those in the Kingdom of God. When John understood that Jesus was the Messiah, he wanted Jesus to take over his ministry, and he (John) would serve him (Matthew 3:13-17), but Jesus denied his request, saying their ministries must be separate. The Law and the Prophets were until John, but, since the time of John, the Kingdom of God is preached (Luke 16:16).
Only Elizabeth’s greeting to Mary is recorded by Luke (Luke 1:41-45), but notice what she says. The babe leaped in Elizabeth’s womb after Mary was finished greeting Elizabeth (Luke 1:41, 44). She told Mary she was blessed among all women for the service she was called to perform, and the child that would be born of her was blessed (Luke 1:42). Moreover, Elizabeth considered it a great, undeserved honor that the mother of the Messiah would visit her (Luke 1:43; cf. 2Samuel 24:21), again pointing to the superior ministry of Jesus.
Finally, Elizabeth blessed Mary for believing the angel, declaring out of her own experience that the Lord would, indeed, perform all that was told to her (Luke 1:45), which calls into question when Mary conceived. Did she conceive immediately after Gabriel’s visit, or did she conceive when she was assured in seeing Elizabeth that the angel’s words could be believed? I hold to the latter.
Luke’s Gospel scroll comes to about 32 feet in length. “Luke–Acts may be closer to standard forms of Greco-Roman historical writing than are the other Gospels, which resemble ancient biography. Whereas Matthew, Mark and John wrote forms of ancient biography, Luke’s second volume shows that he wrote history as well. Luke and Acts are each roughly the same length as Matthew, with Mark one-half and John two-thirds that length, indicating scrolls of standardized lengths (Matthew, Luke and Acts were each close to the maximum length for scrolls, between thirty-two and thirty-five feet). “ [Keener, C. S., & InterVarsity Press. (1993). The IVP Bible background commentary : New Testament . Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press.]
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0.21146139502... | 1 | Why would Luke highlight the meeting between Mary and pregnant Elizabeth? He could have simply stated that Mary hurriedly visited and stayed with Elizabeth for about three months. Yet, he does not. He considers their meeting important enough to use up precious space in his narrative (a scroll) to record their meeting and greeting one another. What does all this mean for believers both in the first century AD and today?
First of all, we must understand that Mary’s greeting (Luke 1:40) wasn’t a simple “Hello!” Eastern culture demanded much more than that and took quite a long time by today’s standards. Rather, salutations in the Eastern culture were expressed with several embraces and bowing, even lying prostrate with one’s face to the ground was not uncommon (cf. Genesis 33:1-7). While she greeted Elizabeth, we should not expect that Mary was silent about the reason for her visit. No doubt she spoke of Gabriel’s words, including his telling her of Elizabeth’s pregnancy, which was to be a sign to Mary that she would bear the Messiah.
We often hear it taught that, because Elizabeth was filled with the Holy Spirit as soon as Mary began to greet her (Luke 1:41), God revealed to Elizabeth that Mary was pregnant with the Messiah. However, this doesn’t take into consideration that the scripture says Elizabeth was filled with the Holy Spirit after Mary was finished saluting her. That is, Elizabeth wasn’t filled until Mary was finished speaking. What did Mary say in her salutation? I can think of nothing except to tell Elizabeth the reason for her visit—i.e. the angel telling Mary what would occur to her and that Elizabeth was in her sixth month of pregnancy.
If we are to understand what Luke means by recording this meeting, we need to keep in mind that, although John was filled with the Holy Spirit from birth, yet he did not know that Jesus was the Messiah, until God showed him a sign (John 1:31-33). If John, who was filled with the Holy Spirit from birth until death and didn’t know Jesus was the Messiah without a sign from heaven, how did Elizabeth know Mary was the mother of the Messiah, unless a sign was in Mary’s greeting, about which the Holy Spirit inspired Elizabeth to believe and comment on with encouragement? We must not try to ascribe to Elizabeth what the scriptures fail to attribute to John, of whom Jesus testifies there was no greater prophet in all Israel (Matthew 11:11; Luke 7:28).
What meaning, therefore, lies behind this meeting? I suggest that it has to do with the ending of an era and the beginning of another. John represented the Old Covenant, but Jesus and the New Covenant were far superior. Notice in Luke 7:28, mentioned above, that the prophet John is placed in contrast to those in the Kingdom of God. When John understood that Jesus was the Messiah, he wanted Jesus to take over his ministry, and he (John) would serve him (Matthew 3:13-17), but Jesus denied his request, saying their ministries must be separate. The Law and the Prophets were until John, but, since the time of John, the Kingdom of God is preached (Luke 16:16).
Only Elizabeth’s greeting to Mary is recorded by Luke (Luke 1:41-45), but notice what she says. The babe leaped in Elizabeth’s womb after Mary was finished greeting Elizabeth (Luke 1:41, 44). She told Mary she was blessed among all women for the service she was called to perform, and the child that would be born of her was blessed (Luke 1:42). Moreover, Elizabeth considered it a great, undeserved honor that the mother of the Messiah would visit her (Luke 1:43; cf. 2Samuel 24:21), again pointing to the superior ministry of Jesus.
Finally, Elizabeth blessed Mary for believing the angel, declaring out of her own experience that the Lord would, indeed, perform all that was told to her (Luke 1:45), which calls into question when Mary conceived. Did she conceive immediately after Gabriel’s visit, or did she conceive when she was assured in seeing Elizabeth that the angel’s words could be believed? I hold to the latter.
Luke’s Gospel scroll comes to about 32 feet in length. “Luke–Acts may be closer to standard forms of Greco-Roman historical writing than are the other Gospels, which resemble ancient biography. Whereas Matthew, Mark and John wrote forms of ancient biography, Luke’s second volume shows that he wrote history as well. Luke and Acts are each roughly the same length as Matthew, with Mark one-half and John two-thirds that length, indicating scrolls of standardized lengths (Matthew, Luke and Acts were each close to the maximum length for scrolls, between thirty-two and thirty-five feet). “ [Keener, C. S., & InterVarsity Press. (1993). The IVP Bible background commentary : New Testament . Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press.]
See Barnes’ Notes on the Bible at Luke 10:4 | 1,075 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It seems clear that things had changed somewhat by the time that authors like Gregory of Tours wrote their works, and this makes it difficult to project their testimony back into the fifth century. The dynamics for change would appear, not surprisingly, to have lain in the ethnic nature of the armies, and in the late and immediately post-Roman system of paying the troops. Gradually, whatever the original details of the settlement, the soldiers paid in ‘thirds’ began to settle on the land, either converting an earlier right to revenue into one of ownership, or, perhaps, an initial grant of possessio into rights of dominium. One might expect this to be particularly common as the soldier in question grew older, married and began to think of settling down. In the late Roman Empire, military service had usually been an hereditary profession. In the early fifth century the empire had enacted that in some cases subsistence payments, made directly from tax-payers, might also be inherited by the sons of senior bodyguards. When military service became associated with an ethnic identity, this was underlined. The sons of Franks or Goths, for example, would be considered Frankish or Gothic too, and thus heirs to their fathers’ status, lands, obligations and privileges. Thus troops probably regarded their tertia as heritable too.
Soldiers also began to buy or otherwise acquire other lands to live on which they regarded as subject to the same exemptions. The tertia granted to barbarians, whether land or revenue, were tax exempt. Roman soldiers had been exempt from the capita, the poll-tax, in any case. The ‘barbarians’ who had become the army in the post-Roman west, regarded these exemptions not only as heritable but also as applicable to all their landed possessions. It would seem that a common political conflict in the sixth century arose between the army (whether it be known as ‘Goths’, ‘Franks’ or whatever) who wished to preserve the ‘logical’ extension of their privileges, and the kings, who attempted to retain the old system in its strict sense, and thus avoid the gradual dissipation of their tax base.
Hand in hand with these developments was the gradual adoption of ‘barbarian’ ethnicities by the free population. The acquisition of Frankish ethnicity in northern Gaul brought increasingly thorough exemption from taxation. It also brought legal privilege. Although a Frank would be liable to military service, this was, to all intents and purposes, a privilege, as the army was the political assembly. Good service brought rewards in royal patronage: grants of land or tax revenue, treasures, and offices in royal service. By about AD 600, Frankish ethnicity had become more or less universal north of the Loire. Those of the free population who had not managed to acquire this ethnic identity lost their free status as well, so that Romans in seventh-century Ripuarian Law are equated with the half-free, and are required to have a free Ripuarian (a Frank) speak for them at law. A similar process seems to have taken place in Visigothic Spain too – by the seventh century, Gothic identity became the norm.
The result of these processes was that by the later sixth century the social group from which the army was raised had become a class of landholders. The nature of service was not defined by landholding, and landholding was often a reward rather than a prerequisite for service, but the members of the army were nevertheless, on the whole, landowners. In some areas they were those who claimed a particular ethnic identity: Frankish in northern Gaul; Gothic in Spain.
A similar situation may have pertained in Italy after the Lombard invasion. The period immediately following the initial Lombard attack is very badly documented but it would seem from a rather garbled account in Paul the Deacon’s Historia Langobardorum that the Lombards adopted the system which had been in widespread use in western Europe up to that point; the Romans seem to have been divided amongst Lombard warriors as tributarii (tax-payers). However, this system would appear to have been short lived. There is no very clear indication of it in the earliest Lombard law-code (Rothari’s Edict of 643), although the king does describe the political community of the realm as the army.
This situation was not universal, however. A later sixth-century northern Gallic capitulary refers to Roman soldiers and some Romans at least continued to serve in Visigothic armies. In Aquitaine, Roman landholders had, by the sixth century, become subject to military service, this clearly being a development of the situation at the very end of the empire. Gregory of Tours’ Histories abound with references to the ‘men’ of particular civitates under arms. He refers to king Guntramn of Burgundy calling up those liable for military service, and punishing those who failed to turn up. The implication of his account is that landowners had become liable to military service whereas tenants were exempt. This body of landowners is probably what Gregory of Tours means when he talks of the populus of a civitas. It also seems that populus acquired a military sense in his writing, which is interesting, as the vernacular languages also came to use their words for ‘the people’ as a synonym for ‘the army’. Minor populus (‘the lesser people’) is used on one occasion to mean the rank and file of an army.
The army, as implicit in the foregoing discussion, was still raised by royal officers from old civil administrative units, normally the civitates but also its sub-divisions, the pagi. Gregory, in his Life of the Fathers, seems to refer to a man from the pagi on campaign. In some parts of Gaul, at least by the seventh century, the pagi had replaced the civitates as the basic units of administration.
As before, bodyguards remained the core of military forces. Sources refer to the personal retainers not only of kings but also of dukes, counts (and their wives) and even bishops. Such troops are, as mentioned, called bucellarii in Visigothic Spain, although the term saiones is also used. Once granted his weapons, a Gothic bucellarius was permitted to keep them for good. Any landed property he received, however, remained ultimately in the dominium of his patron. In Lombard Italy, by the seventh century at least, members of the royal retinue were known as gasindii. Such royal bodyguards were known as antrustiones in Merovingian Francia and as gardingi in Visigothic Spain, and are, in all cases, a slightly more complex category than might at first be expected. Although some at least may always have been in attendance on the royal person, by the time anything substantive can be said about them (in the seventh century) they seem to have been high-ranking, probably fairly experienced soldiers, in many cases found not at court but elsewhere in the kingdoms, commanding their own forces. By this time they seem to be a category of service aristocrat. Whether this had always been the case, or whether it was a transformation which had taken place since the sixth century, is difficult to establish. Merovingian evidence suggests the former alternative. In the sixth-century Gallic narrative sources such ‘old soldiers’, close to the king but only in attendance upon him intermittently, are referred to by a different term, leudes, and there are two Frankish references to spatharii – one of the terms for late Roman imperial guardsmen – who are certainly such palatine officers. This last term is also used in an earlier Burgundian source. However, early sixth-century Salic Law refers to two types of royal retainer: the member of the royal trustis or retinue (the antrustio), and the puer regis (king’s boy). The former is a powerful figure, with a high wergild, as a result of his connection with the king, but seems already to be commonly found away from the court. Often assumed to be a class of unfree or semi-free warriors, the pueri regis clearly simply represent a junior, lesser level of the royal bodyguard. The general picture would seem to be that young men were sent, or promoted, to serve in the royal bodyguard, where they would, in addition to serving as bodyguards, receive a military and probably administrative education. They would occasionally be sent out to enforce royal orders or administration in the kingdom. Gradually, good service would lead to more substantial rewards in land, titles and other valuables and the guardsman would move out from the court either to take up a military/administrative office (as a count or duke, for example) or settle on his lands as an antrustio (or gardingus or gasindius), returning to court for major occasions or for shorter spells of service, perhaps commanding and teaching the junior pueri. This pattern, of permanent service at court gradually giving way to a position as a landed aristocrat, remains common throughout the early medieval west. In Spain, King Theudis took the interesting step of raising a personal army of 2,000 slaves from the estates of his wealthy wife. Quite apart from providing him with a handy independent force, this seems to have been the forerunner of the extensive use, in Visigothic Spain, of personal retinues raised from slaves and other lowly inhabitants of one’s estates.
Discussion of the pueri introduces the point that age and position in the life cycle played a very significant role in the raising of early medieval armed forces. In the immediately post-Roman period it seems to have been particularly important. The process of male socialisation was a long one which began with legal majority between about twelve and fifteen, and did not end until the man married and began a family of his own, perhaps in his late twenties. The Latin term puer, as well as meaning ‘boy’ in the sense in which we would understand it today, could be used to mean any male who had not yet married and settled down. This is the sense in which it is used in the context of the pueri regis. Once he reached legal majority, it seems that a Frankish boy would be sent as an apprentice to an older male from another family, perhaps a royal officer or an ecclesiastical potentate. From there the puer might come to the notice of someone more powerful, even the king, and be transferred to their household. Such apprenticeships could clearly be hard on the young apprentice, who was expected to get his master’s permission before he could marry, an act which symbolised his change of status and release from the bonds of his apprenticeship. This career path, and military service, was thus an important engine of social mobility and opportunity.
As well as forming the retinues of older and more powerful figures, bound by what might be termed vertical ties to the latter, young warriors might also be bound by ‘horizontal’ ties into bands of contemporaries. Such warrior bands are probably those called contubernia in Salic Law, envisaged as involved in house-breakings and kidnappings, precisely the sort of errand on which pueri are often engaged in the narrative sources. The bands of young men within a royal or aristocratic household could be called a contubernium. Membership of such a band created long-lasting bonds and a group of young men could be called contubernales. Thus it seems likely that in many sixth-century armies, there was a division into older and younger warriors. Whether such warriors were formed into separate units, as in other age-based societies, is perhaps unlikely but far from impossible. This would be more likely in those areas north of the Loire where the social role of age appears to have been more significant.
The development of military service in Britain is even more difficult to establish. Here we must work largely from inferences from the archaeological evidence. Excavated cemeteries provide the primary form of evidence, but, as in Northern Gaul, furnished inhumation with weapons does not become common until the sixth century. In the fifth century, weapon burials seem to represent displays of prestige by the local aristocracy; they are fewer than would be the case in the sixth century. Clearly, military power was an important factor in local leadership. What is perhaps more interesting for our purposes is that in the middle quarters of the fifth century, south of the Thames, a style of metalwork became common which was descended from the official metalwork of the late Roman Empire, and in particular the late Roman army. This ‘Quoit Brooch Style’ is found on belt buckles, clearly continuing the Late Roman fashion for displaying power and rank through elaborate belt sets, and on some weaponry. This insular development of late Roman military fashions, and its use in burial rituals to demonstrate power, suggests that in Britain we may also be faced with a situation where a late Roman field army gradually evolved into the basis of a post-Roman kingdom, as in Northern Gaul, Aquitaine and Italy.
By the sixth century furnished inhumation had become much more common in lowland Britain. Recent work has shown that weapons, the primary symbols of masculinity, were used as symbols of age. Unlike in Gaul, male children were commonly buried with a spear. However, shields and other weapons tended to be acquired in the late teens and early twenties. Again, this implies that only at this age was it deemed appropriate to symbolise a man’s male identity with a full set of weaponry; the symbolic category of ‘warrior’ seems to have begun at this age, as in Gaul. The overall picture suggests that by the sixth century a system similar to that in Gaul was in place, where armies were levied from broadly defined categories of adult males. The right to symbolise one’s status through weapon-bearing seems to have been held quite widely. It seems likely that this weapon-bearing class may have been that which claimed an English identity. The construction of several substantial linear earthworks at this time implies that rulers could levy significant numbers of men through this system.
In the west and north of Britain, there is less evidence to help us. Gildas mentions, in connection with the employment of Saxon federates, hospites and the payment of annonae (food and other supplies raised as a tax), which would indicate a survival of Roman commissariat systems. However, the chronology of Gildas’ ‘historical section’ is notoriously difficult to establish, and he may actually be describing a late fourth-century situation. Though it is difficult to be sure of when Gildas was writing (estimates range from the late fifth to the mid-sixth centuries), we might at least state that when he did write he and his audience were familiar with such institutions. The construction or refortification of numerous hillforts, and the evidence found inside them of craft specialisation and industry suggests that magnates had considerable control of surplus and the ability to mobilise significant amounts of manpower. It would seem that, in the fifth and sixth centuries, the rulers of these areas were rather more powerful than those in the lowland zones. How armies were raised is difficult to know in any detail. From the available evidence we might suggest either that kings raised troops through an intermediary tier of lesser royal officers based in local hillforts, or conversely, that kings mustered armies by calling upon lesser local magnates whose power centred on these fortifications. The two alternatives are equally plausible from the data available, but have rather different implications for the relative strength of the kings; the first suggests powerful, centralised states with effective royal administration of local areas, whereas the second implies a more fragile situation where powerful independent lords would need to be bound into the polity through strategies such as the bestowal of prestigious gifts.
In the former ‘Free Germany’, similar points may be made from the cemetery evidence as were made for Anglo-Saxon England. In Alamannia, the archaeology suggests change between the fifth and sixth centuries. In the fifth century a number of fortified hilltop centres exist, similar to those in western and northern Britain. These largely appear to have been abandoned around AD 500. At the same time there is a change in the nature of the cemetery evidence. As elsewhere, furnished burial becomes more common within cemeteries. Some sixth-century sites imply that age played an important role in the levying of armies. Children are sometimes buried with arrowheads, and adolescents sometimes have a scramasax or a spear. The full weapon set is reserved for adults above the age of twenty, however. These changes in the archaeological record probably indicate a change in the nature of local authority in Alamannia, from a network of powerful independent local rulers to one wherein power was held by officers appointed by the Merovingian kings and their representatives.
Further north, it is difficult to say very much. The Saxons and Thuringians proved significant foes for Frankish armies in the fifth and sixth centuries. The Thuringians indeed established a fairly large kingdom and were deemed worthy of alliance by Theoderic of Italy until Clovis’ successors eliminated the realm in the earlier sixth century. This may have led to a situation analogous to that in Alamannia, with the removal of earlier power structures and the introduction of a state of affairs in which appeal to Merovingian authority was used as a basis for local power.
In Scandinavia we have only archaeological data to help us but these have been carefully recovered and studied. The Danish bog finds, which cease to be deposited around AD 500, have been studied and shown to represent armies largely made up of lightly armed infantrymen, led by a smaller number of better-equipped men, who possessed horses as part of their equipment. This suggests some stratification within the armies. However, one must be cautious in using this evidence in too straightforward a fashion. Throughout Scandinavia at this date, fortifications show an ability to organise significant amounts of manpower. In the west of Norway, a detailed study of large boathouses has revealed concentrations of such buildings which could house ten or more ships. Such numbers of vessels would need more manpower than the local population could furnish to put to sea. Taken in conjunction with neighbouring high-status settlements and burials, it seems that these clusters of prestigious sites reveal the centres of magnates who could call upon the manpower of more extended areas to raise naval forces. The mechanisms whereby this claim on manpower was articulated are not known.
Overall, in much of the west, the sixth century is a period when kings seem to have raised armies by a general levy on certain types of free landowner. In many areas this landowning class was defined by a claimed ethnicity (Frankish, Gothic, Lombard, Anglo-Saxon), which also represented a direct link with the king. Elsewhere the levy may simply have been on all landowners. Such a ‘horizontal’ levy was carried out by royal officers within the kingdom’s administrative districts, and focused on the household retainers of those royal officers. Thus in this situation the king retained a significant amount of power. The army was mobilised according to a general obligation to the king, an obligation complied with because attendance at the muster was one way in which claimed ethnic and other statuses were justified. Furthermore, the officers mobilising and commanding the troops were in many cases service aristocrats whose power and authority over other freemen depended entirely upon their tenure of royally bestowed office, and receipt of other forms of royal patronage. Even where, as for example in Aquitaine, the aristocrats who led the regional contingents came from independently wealthy noble families, they still competed for office, for it was largely their participation in royal administration which cemented and safeguarded their families’ local standing. In this context, the king held most of the aces, and could use the army effectively as a royal coercive force. This can be seen very clearly in sixth-century Merovingian Gaul, where the kings frequently called out armies to crush aristocratic dissent.
(Source: “Warfare and society in the barbarian West, 450–900”, by Guy Halsall)
Research-Selection for NovoScriptorium: Anastasius Philoponus | <urn:uuid:fcf5a4b3-f4c0-4ee1-adf0-8bf2cae9c22b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://novoscriptorium.com/2019/12/16/raising-an-army-in-post-roman-europe-the-later-sixth-century/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00111.warc.gz | en | 0.982689 | 4,250 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.3144274055... | 12 | It seems clear that things had changed somewhat by the time that authors like Gregory of Tours wrote their works, and this makes it difficult to project their testimony back into the fifth century. The dynamics for change would appear, not surprisingly, to have lain in the ethnic nature of the armies, and in the late and immediately post-Roman system of paying the troops. Gradually, whatever the original details of the settlement, the soldiers paid in ‘thirds’ began to settle on the land, either converting an earlier right to revenue into one of ownership, or, perhaps, an initial grant of possessio into rights of dominium. One might expect this to be particularly common as the soldier in question grew older, married and began to think of settling down. In the late Roman Empire, military service had usually been an hereditary profession. In the early fifth century the empire had enacted that in some cases subsistence payments, made directly from tax-payers, might also be inherited by the sons of senior bodyguards. When military service became associated with an ethnic identity, this was underlined. The sons of Franks or Goths, for example, would be considered Frankish or Gothic too, and thus heirs to their fathers’ status, lands, obligations and privileges. Thus troops probably regarded their tertia as heritable too.
Soldiers also began to buy or otherwise acquire other lands to live on which they regarded as subject to the same exemptions. The tertia granted to barbarians, whether land or revenue, were tax exempt. Roman soldiers had been exempt from the capita, the poll-tax, in any case. The ‘barbarians’ who had become the army in the post-Roman west, regarded these exemptions not only as heritable but also as applicable to all their landed possessions. It would seem that a common political conflict in the sixth century arose between the army (whether it be known as ‘Goths’, ‘Franks’ or whatever) who wished to preserve the ‘logical’ extension of their privileges, and the kings, who attempted to retain the old system in its strict sense, and thus avoid the gradual dissipation of their tax base.
Hand in hand with these developments was the gradual adoption of ‘barbarian’ ethnicities by the free population. The acquisition of Frankish ethnicity in northern Gaul brought increasingly thorough exemption from taxation. It also brought legal privilege. Although a Frank would be liable to military service, this was, to all intents and purposes, a privilege, as the army was the political assembly. Good service brought rewards in royal patronage: grants of land or tax revenue, treasures, and offices in royal service. By about AD 600, Frankish ethnicity had become more or less universal north of the Loire. Those of the free population who had not managed to acquire this ethnic identity lost their free status as well, so that Romans in seventh-century Ripuarian Law are equated with the half-free, and are required to have a free Ripuarian (a Frank) speak for them at law. A similar process seems to have taken place in Visigothic Spain too – by the seventh century, Gothic identity became the norm.
The result of these processes was that by the later sixth century the social group from which the army was raised had become a class of landholders. The nature of service was not defined by landholding, and landholding was often a reward rather than a prerequisite for service, but the members of the army were nevertheless, on the whole, landowners. In some areas they were those who claimed a particular ethnic identity: Frankish in northern Gaul; Gothic in Spain.
A similar situation may have pertained in Italy after the Lombard invasion. The period immediately following the initial Lombard attack is very badly documented but it would seem from a rather garbled account in Paul the Deacon’s Historia Langobardorum that the Lombards adopted the system which had been in widespread use in western Europe up to that point; the Romans seem to have been divided amongst Lombard warriors as tributarii (tax-payers). However, this system would appear to have been short lived. There is no very clear indication of it in the earliest Lombard law-code (Rothari’s Edict of 643), although the king does describe the political community of the realm as the army.
This situation was not universal, however. A later sixth-century northern Gallic capitulary refers to Roman soldiers and some Romans at least continued to serve in Visigothic armies. In Aquitaine, Roman landholders had, by the sixth century, become subject to military service, this clearly being a development of the situation at the very end of the empire. Gregory of Tours’ Histories abound with references to the ‘men’ of particular civitates under arms. He refers to king Guntramn of Burgundy calling up those liable for military service, and punishing those who failed to turn up. The implication of his account is that landowners had become liable to military service whereas tenants were exempt. This body of landowners is probably what Gregory of Tours means when he talks of the populus of a civitas. It also seems that populus acquired a military sense in his writing, which is interesting, as the vernacular languages also came to use their words for ‘the people’ as a synonym for ‘the army’. Minor populus (‘the lesser people’) is used on one occasion to mean the rank and file of an army.
The army, as implicit in the foregoing discussion, was still raised by royal officers from old civil administrative units, normally the civitates but also its sub-divisions, the pagi. Gregory, in his Life of the Fathers, seems to refer to a man from the pagi on campaign. In some parts of Gaul, at least by the seventh century, the pagi had replaced the civitates as the basic units of administration.
As before, bodyguards remained the core of military forces. Sources refer to the personal retainers not only of kings but also of dukes, counts (and their wives) and even bishops. Such troops are, as mentioned, called bucellarii in Visigothic Spain, although the term saiones is also used. Once granted his weapons, a Gothic bucellarius was permitted to keep them for good. Any landed property he received, however, remained ultimately in the dominium of his patron. In Lombard Italy, by the seventh century at least, members of the royal retinue were known as gasindii. Such royal bodyguards were known as antrustiones in Merovingian Francia and as gardingi in Visigothic Spain, and are, in all cases, a slightly more complex category than might at first be expected. Although some at least may always have been in attendance on the royal person, by the time anything substantive can be said about them (in the seventh century) they seem to have been high-ranking, probably fairly experienced soldiers, in many cases found not at court but elsewhere in the kingdoms, commanding their own forces. By this time they seem to be a category of service aristocrat. Whether this had always been the case, or whether it was a transformation which had taken place since the sixth century, is difficult to establish. Merovingian evidence suggests the former alternative. In the sixth-century Gallic narrative sources such ‘old soldiers’, close to the king but only in attendance upon him intermittently, are referred to by a different term, leudes, and there are two Frankish references to spatharii – one of the terms for late Roman imperial guardsmen – who are certainly such palatine officers. This last term is also used in an earlier Burgundian source. However, early sixth-century Salic Law refers to two types of royal retainer: the member of the royal trustis or retinue (the antrustio), and the puer regis (king’s boy). The former is a powerful figure, with a high wergild, as a result of his connection with the king, but seems already to be commonly found away from the court. Often assumed to be a class of unfree or semi-free warriors, the pueri regis clearly simply represent a junior, lesser level of the royal bodyguard. The general picture would seem to be that young men were sent, or promoted, to serve in the royal bodyguard, where they would, in addition to serving as bodyguards, receive a military and probably administrative education. They would occasionally be sent out to enforce royal orders or administration in the kingdom. Gradually, good service would lead to more substantial rewards in land, titles and other valuables and the guardsman would move out from the court either to take up a military/administrative office (as a count or duke, for example) or settle on his lands as an antrustio (or gardingus or gasindius), returning to court for major occasions or for shorter spells of service, perhaps commanding and teaching the junior pueri. This pattern, of permanent service at court gradually giving way to a position as a landed aristocrat, remains common throughout the early medieval west. In Spain, King Theudis took the interesting step of raising a personal army of 2,000 slaves from the estates of his wealthy wife. Quite apart from providing him with a handy independent force, this seems to have been the forerunner of the extensive use, in Visigothic Spain, of personal retinues raised from slaves and other lowly inhabitants of one’s estates.
Discussion of the pueri introduces the point that age and position in the life cycle played a very significant role in the raising of early medieval armed forces. In the immediately post-Roman period it seems to have been particularly important. The process of male socialisation was a long one which began with legal majority between about twelve and fifteen, and did not end until the man married and began a family of his own, perhaps in his late twenties. The Latin term puer, as well as meaning ‘boy’ in the sense in which we would understand it today, could be used to mean any male who had not yet married and settled down. This is the sense in which it is used in the context of the pueri regis. Once he reached legal majority, it seems that a Frankish boy would be sent as an apprentice to an older male from another family, perhaps a royal officer or an ecclesiastical potentate. From there the puer might come to the notice of someone more powerful, even the king, and be transferred to their household. Such apprenticeships could clearly be hard on the young apprentice, who was expected to get his master’s permission before he could marry, an act which symbolised his change of status and release from the bonds of his apprenticeship. This career path, and military service, was thus an important engine of social mobility and opportunity.
As well as forming the retinues of older and more powerful figures, bound by what might be termed vertical ties to the latter, young warriors might also be bound by ‘horizontal’ ties into bands of contemporaries. Such warrior bands are probably those called contubernia in Salic Law, envisaged as involved in house-breakings and kidnappings, precisely the sort of errand on which pueri are often engaged in the narrative sources. The bands of young men within a royal or aristocratic household could be called a contubernium. Membership of such a band created long-lasting bonds and a group of young men could be called contubernales. Thus it seems likely that in many sixth-century armies, there was a division into older and younger warriors. Whether such warriors were formed into separate units, as in other age-based societies, is perhaps unlikely but far from impossible. This would be more likely in those areas north of the Loire where the social role of age appears to have been more significant.
The development of military service in Britain is even more difficult to establish. Here we must work largely from inferences from the archaeological evidence. Excavated cemeteries provide the primary form of evidence, but, as in Northern Gaul, furnished inhumation with weapons does not become common until the sixth century. In the fifth century, weapon burials seem to represent displays of prestige by the local aristocracy; they are fewer than would be the case in the sixth century. Clearly, military power was an important factor in local leadership. What is perhaps more interesting for our purposes is that in the middle quarters of the fifth century, south of the Thames, a style of metalwork became common which was descended from the official metalwork of the late Roman Empire, and in particular the late Roman army. This ‘Quoit Brooch Style’ is found on belt buckles, clearly continuing the Late Roman fashion for displaying power and rank through elaborate belt sets, and on some weaponry. This insular development of late Roman military fashions, and its use in burial rituals to demonstrate power, suggests that in Britain we may also be faced with a situation where a late Roman field army gradually evolved into the basis of a post-Roman kingdom, as in Northern Gaul, Aquitaine and Italy.
By the sixth century furnished inhumation had become much more common in lowland Britain. Recent work has shown that weapons, the primary symbols of masculinity, were used as symbols of age. Unlike in Gaul, male children were commonly buried with a spear. However, shields and other weapons tended to be acquired in the late teens and early twenties. Again, this implies that only at this age was it deemed appropriate to symbolise a man’s male identity with a full set of weaponry; the symbolic category of ‘warrior’ seems to have begun at this age, as in Gaul. The overall picture suggests that by the sixth century a system similar to that in Gaul was in place, where armies were levied from broadly defined categories of adult males. The right to symbolise one’s status through weapon-bearing seems to have been held quite widely. It seems likely that this weapon-bearing class may have been that which claimed an English identity. The construction of several substantial linear earthworks at this time implies that rulers could levy significant numbers of men through this system.
In the west and north of Britain, there is less evidence to help us. Gildas mentions, in connection with the employment of Saxon federates, hospites and the payment of annonae (food and other supplies raised as a tax), which would indicate a survival of Roman commissariat systems. However, the chronology of Gildas’ ‘historical section’ is notoriously difficult to establish, and he may actually be describing a late fourth-century situation. Though it is difficult to be sure of when Gildas was writing (estimates range from the late fifth to the mid-sixth centuries), we might at least state that when he did write he and his audience were familiar with such institutions. The construction or refortification of numerous hillforts, and the evidence found inside them of craft specialisation and industry suggests that magnates had considerable control of surplus and the ability to mobilise significant amounts of manpower. It would seem that, in the fifth and sixth centuries, the rulers of these areas were rather more powerful than those in the lowland zones. How armies were raised is difficult to know in any detail. From the available evidence we might suggest either that kings raised troops through an intermediary tier of lesser royal officers based in local hillforts, or conversely, that kings mustered armies by calling upon lesser local magnates whose power centred on these fortifications. The two alternatives are equally plausible from the data available, but have rather different implications for the relative strength of the kings; the first suggests powerful, centralised states with effective royal administration of local areas, whereas the second implies a more fragile situation where powerful independent lords would need to be bound into the polity through strategies such as the bestowal of prestigious gifts.
In the former ‘Free Germany’, similar points may be made from the cemetery evidence as were made for Anglo-Saxon England. In Alamannia, the archaeology suggests change between the fifth and sixth centuries. In the fifth century a number of fortified hilltop centres exist, similar to those in western and northern Britain. These largely appear to have been abandoned around AD 500. At the same time there is a change in the nature of the cemetery evidence. As elsewhere, furnished burial becomes more common within cemeteries. Some sixth-century sites imply that age played an important role in the levying of armies. Children are sometimes buried with arrowheads, and adolescents sometimes have a scramasax or a spear. The full weapon set is reserved for adults above the age of twenty, however. These changes in the archaeological record probably indicate a change in the nature of local authority in Alamannia, from a network of powerful independent local rulers to one wherein power was held by officers appointed by the Merovingian kings and their representatives.
Further north, it is difficult to say very much. The Saxons and Thuringians proved significant foes for Frankish armies in the fifth and sixth centuries. The Thuringians indeed established a fairly large kingdom and were deemed worthy of alliance by Theoderic of Italy until Clovis’ successors eliminated the realm in the earlier sixth century. This may have led to a situation analogous to that in Alamannia, with the removal of earlier power structures and the introduction of a state of affairs in which appeal to Merovingian authority was used as a basis for local power.
In Scandinavia we have only archaeological data to help us but these have been carefully recovered and studied. The Danish bog finds, which cease to be deposited around AD 500, have been studied and shown to represent armies largely made up of lightly armed infantrymen, led by a smaller number of better-equipped men, who possessed horses as part of their equipment. This suggests some stratification within the armies. However, one must be cautious in using this evidence in too straightforward a fashion. Throughout Scandinavia at this date, fortifications show an ability to organise significant amounts of manpower. In the west of Norway, a detailed study of large boathouses has revealed concentrations of such buildings which could house ten or more ships. Such numbers of vessels would need more manpower than the local population could furnish to put to sea. Taken in conjunction with neighbouring high-status settlements and burials, it seems that these clusters of prestigious sites reveal the centres of magnates who could call upon the manpower of more extended areas to raise naval forces. The mechanisms whereby this claim on manpower was articulated are not known.
Overall, in much of the west, the sixth century is a period when kings seem to have raised armies by a general levy on certain types of free landowner. In many areas this landowning class was defined by a claimed ethnicity (Frankish, Gothic, Lombard, Anglo-Saxon), which also represented a direct link with the king. Elsewhere the levy may simply have been on all landowners. Such a ‘horizontal’ levy was carried out by royal officers within the kingdom’s administrative districts, and focused on the household retainers of those royal officers. Thus in this situation the king retained a significant amount of power. The army was mobilised according to a general obligation to the king, an obligation complied with because attendance at the muster was one way in which claimed ethnic and other statuses were justified. Furthermore, the officers mobilising and commanding the troops were in many cases service aristocrats whose power and authority over other freemen depended entirely upon their tenure of royally bestowed office, and receipt of other forms of royal patronage. Even where, as for example in Aquitaine, the aristocrats who led the regional contingents came from independently wealthy noble families, they still competed for office, for it was largely their participation in royal administration which cemented and safeguarded their families’ local standing. In this context, the king held most of the aces, and could use the army effectively as a royal coercive force. This can be seen very clearly in sixth-century Merovingian Gaul, where the kings frequently called out armies to crush aristocratic dissent.
(Source: “Warfare and society in the barbarian West, 450–900”, by Guy Halsall)
Research-Selection for NovoScriptorium: Anastasius Philoponus | 4,154 | ENGLISH | 1 |
NCERT Solutions for Class 11 Science English Chapter 1 The Summer Of The Beautiful White Horse are provided here with simple step-by-step explanations. These solutions for The Summer Of The Beautiful White Horse are extremely popular among Class 11 Science students for English The Summer Of The Beautiful White Horse Solutions come handy for quickly completing your homework and preparing for exams. All questions and answers from the NCERT Book of Class 11 Science English Chapter 1 are provided here for you for free. You will also love the ad-free experience on Meritnation’s NCERT Solutions. All NCERT Solutions for class Class 11 Science English are prepared by experts and are 100% accurate.
Page No 15:
'Have you come back?' said the woman.'I thought that no one had come back.' Does this statement give some clue about the story? If yes, what is it?
The quoted statement indicates that the two families knew each other. When the war was going on some people left their homes to take refuge in distant lands. Few people who remained there thought that those people who had left their land would never come back. That is why the woman feels surprised to see one of them returning back. Usually people care more for material things than for human beings. But it cannot be said of all human beings. The narrator and her mother were totally different in their nature. They were trusting and loving human beings. Thus, the given statement gives some clue about the story.
Page No 15:
The story is divided into pre-war and post-war times. What hardships do you think the girl underwent during these times?
The story, “The Address” is divided into pre-war and post-war times. There are clear indications of the hardships which the narrator, a young girl, had to undergo during these times. The girl came from a rich family. The family had a lot of valuable belongings. Then the war broke out. Mrs. Dorling renewed her contact and started visiting their house. She took away all their possessions on the ground that she wanted to save all their nice things in case they had to leave the place. After the war was over. Things became almost normal. Now the girl was living all alone in a rented house. She wanted to meet Mrs. Dorling and ask for the valuables. When she went to meet Mrs. Dorling she found that Mrs. Dorling was using her mother's things recklessly. Suddenly, she lost interest in the things that had belonged to a connection that no longer existed. She decided to leave it all behind and resolved to move on.
Page No 15:
Why did the narrator of the story want to forget the address?
The narrator went to the house of the lady who had kept many valuable items of her mother during the war days. The address of the lady helped her in searching out the house of the lady. But now she wanted to forget the address as after visiting the house of the lady she found how the belongings of her mother were kept in a strange manner. These had lost all their emotional value for the narrator. The narrator now lived in a small rented room. She had no place to keep all these things. The lady treated her very insolently. She even refused to recognise her. She did not let her come into the house. That was why she wanted to forget that address.
Page No 15:
'The Address' is a story of human predicament that follows war. Comment
The phenomenon of war brings lot of suffering for human beings. It brings with it death and destruction. It kills the feelings of love and sympathy. The story Address is based on this theme. The narrator's mother leaves all her valuable things with an acquintance during the war. The mother dies and many years later, the narrator comes to the woman to have a look at her mother's belongings. But the woman shows no human feelings towards her. Rather, she behaves in a very hard hearted manner. She doesnot even let the narrator come in and sit a while. She closes the door. Thus, we find that war leaves the world desolate not only on the physical level but also on the emotional and spiritual level.
View NCERT Solutions for all chapters of Class 11 | <urn:uuid:aef20f02-2648-4431-b986-8a0366b6de68> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.meritnation.com/cbse-class-11-science/english/snapshots-ncert-solutions/the-address/ncert-solutions/41_7_1345_2442_15_15219 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00534.warc.gz | en | 0.982039 | 864 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.1251654028892517,... | 2 | NCERT Solutions for Class 11 Science English Chapter 1 The Summer Of The Beautiful White Horse are provided here with simple step-by-step explanations. These solutions for The Summer Of The Beautiful White Horse are extremely popular among Class 11 Science students for English The Summer Of The Beautiful White Horse Solutions come handy for quickly completing your homework and preparing for exams. All questions and answers from the NCERT Book of Class 11 Science English Chapter 1 are provided here for you for free. You will also love the ad-free experience on Meritnation’s NCERT Solutions. All NCERT Solutions for class Class 11 Science English are prepared by experts and are 100% accurate.
Page No 15:
'Have you come back?' said the woman.'I thought that no one had come back.' Does this statement give some clue about the story? If yes, what is it?
The quoted statement indicates that the two families knew each other. When the war was going on some people left their homes to take refuge in distant lands. Few people who remained there thought that those people who had left their land would never come back. That is why the woman feels surprised to see one of them returning back. Usually people care more for material things than for human beings. But it cannot be said of all human beings. The narrator and her mother were totally different in their nature. They were trusting and loving human beings. Thus, the given statement gives some clue about the story.
Page No 15:
The story is divided into pre-war and post-war times. What hardships do you think the girl underwent during these times?
The story, “The Address” is divided into pre-war and post-war times. There are clear indications of the hardships which the narrator, a young girl, had to undergo during these times. The girl came from a rich family. The family had a lot of valuable belongings. Then the war broke out. Mrs. Dorling renewed her contact and started visiting their house. She took away all their possessions on the ground that she wanted to save all their nice things in case they had to leave the place. After the war was over. Things became almost normal. Now the girl was living all alone in a rented house. She wanted to meet Mrs. Dorling and ask for the valuables. When she went to meet Mrs. Dorling she found that Mrs. Dorling was using her mother's things recklessly. Suddenly, she lost interest in the things that had belonged to a connection that no longer existed. She decided to leave it all behind and resolved to move on.
Page No 15:
Why did the narrator of the story want to forget the address?
The narrator went to the house of the lady who had kept many valuable items of her mother during the war days. The address of the lady helped her in searching out the house of the lady. But now she wanted to forget the address as after visiting the house of the lady she found how the belongings of her mother were kept in a strange manner. These had lost all their emotional value for the narrator. The narrator now lived in a small rented room. She had no place to keep all these things. The lady treated her very insolently. She even refused to recognise her. She did not let her come into the house. That was why she wanted to forget that address.
Page No 15:
'The Address' is a story of human predicament that follows war. Comment
The phenomenon of war brings lot of suffering for human beings. It brings with it death and destruction. It kills the feelings of love and sympathy. The story Address is based on this theme. The narrator's mother leaves all her valuable things with an acquintance during the war. The mother dies and many years later, the narrator comes to the woman to have a look at her mother's belongings. But the woman shows no human feelings towards her. Rather, she behaves in a very hard hearted manner. She doesnot even let the narrator come in and sit a while. She closes the door. Thus, we find that war leaves the world desolate not only on the physical level but also on the emotional and spiritual level.
View NCERT Solutions for all chapters of Class 11 | 865 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On October 13th 2010, the world breathed a sigh of relief as 33 miners were rescued from the depths of a copper mine in San Jose, Chile. As a result of a cave-in, the 33 men were trapped 5 km from the entrance of the mine and 700m underground for a shocking 69 days. In a confined space similar in size to a one-bedroom apartment, at a temperature of around 32℃, the men only had 2 days worth of food supplies to begin with. After 17 days, rescuers finally made contact with them using a small drill hole through which they could pass notes and supplies. On the outside, countries all over the world were rallying to orchestrate a rescue mission.
The Life-Saving Capsule
The Fenix 2 capsule was created by the Chilean Navy in conjunction with engineers at NASA in order to rescue the Chilean miners. Each miner would be individually strapped into the capsule and pulled through a drilled tunnel for a painstaking 10-15 minutes. Engineers equipped the vessel with audio and video links so that they could communicate with each miner as they were being pulled above ground. They also had oxygen supplies and heart rate monitors built in, as well as a trap door and rope in case the unthinkable happened and the vessel got stuck mid-rescue. This was a true feat of engineering. However, the problem was that the actual tunnel through which the capsule was to be sent, was still months away from being completed.
Upon hearing that the miners wouldn’t be rescued until Christmas, a man named Brendan Fischer decided to offer help. Fischer is the owner of an American engineering company, named Center Rock, who are specialists in drilling holes for oil, gas and water. He knew that their machinery and team of experts would be capable of drilling the hole quicker.
There was an existing 5.5inch hole which had already been drilled by rescuers. Center Rock was capable of first widening this hole to 12 inches at which stage the hole could be further widened to 26 inches which would be big enough to fit the rescue capsule through.
At around a depth of 200m, the drill which Center Rock was using, stopped working. After speculation that they had hit a piece of iron in the mine, the drill line was pulled up above the ground and the rescue engineers discovered that the front end of the bit was missing. They then carried out a thorough analysis of the drill bit using engineering software simulations to ensure that calculations and stress-levels had been accurately calculated. Satisfied that they had resolved the issue, the engineers continued the rescue mission.
After a rescue mission lasting 22 hours in total, every single miner was retrieved safely from the depths of the mine whilst millions of people around the world watched a live stream online. The shift foreman, Luis Urzua was the final man to be rescued. Unbelievably, none of the miners emerged with life-threatening illnesses or health problems.
At Prime Engineering, we are inspired on a daily basis by the life-changing potential of engineering. This is what motivates us to strive towards a better world. We believe in designing and manufacturing the highest quality products which will solve even the greatest of challenges. To learn more about how we can help you, contact us today! | <urn:uuid:6e78e751-05ce-4129-9345-8c38027977ff> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.primeengineering.com.au/engineering-a-mine-rescue/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00307.warc.gz | en | 0.981697 | 661 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.11636692285537... | 4 | On October 13th 2010, the world breathed a sigh of relief as 33 miners were rescued from the depths of a copper mine in San Jose, Chile. As a result of a cave-in, the 33 men were trapped 5 km from the entrance of the mine and 700m underground for a shocking 69 days. In a confined space similar in size to a one-bedroom apartment, at a temperature of around 32℃, the men only had 2 days worth of food supplies to begin with. After 17 days, rescuers finally made contact with them using a small drill hole through which they could pass notes and supplies. On the outside, countries all over the world were rallying to orchestrate a rescue mission.
The Life-Saving Capsule
The Fenix 2 capsule was created by the Chilean Navy in conjunction with engineers at NASA in order to rescue the Chilean miners. Each miner would be individually strapped into the capsule and pulled through a drilled tunnel for a painstaking 10-15 minutes. Engineers equipped the vessel with audio and video links so that they could communicate with each miner as they were being pulled above ground. They also had oxygen supplies and heart rate monitors built in, as well as a trap door and rope in case the unthinkable happened and the vessel got stuck mid-rescue. This was a true feat of engineering. However, the problem was that the actual tunnel through which the capsule was to be sent, was still months away from being completed.
Upon hearing that the miners wouldn’t be rescued until Christmas, a man named Brendan Fischer decided to offer help. Fischer is the owner of an American engineering company, named Center Rock, who are specialists in drilling holes for oil, gas and water. He knew that their machinery and team of experts would be capable of drilling the hole quicker.
There was an existing 5.5inch hole which had already been drilled by rescuers. Center Rock was capable of first widening this hole to 12 inches at which stage the hole could be further widened to 26 inches which would be big enough to fit the rescue capsule through.
At around a depth of 200m, the drill which Center Rock was using, stopped working. After speculation that they had hit a piece of iron in the mine, the drill line was pulled up above the ground and the rescue engineers discovered that the front end of the bit was missing. They then carried out a thorough analysis of the drill bit using engineering software simulations to ensure that calculations and stress-levels had been accurately calculated. Satisfied that they had resolved the issue, the engineers continued the rescue mission.
After a rescue mission lasting 22 hours in total, every single miner was retrieved safely from the depths of the mine whilst millions of people around the world watched a live stream online. The shift foreman, Luis Urzua was the final man to be rescued. Unbelievably, none of the miners emerged with life-threatening illnesses or health problems.
At Prime Engineering, we are inspired on a daily basis by the life-changing potential of engineering. This is what motivates us to strive towards a better world. We believe in designing and manufacturing the highest quality products which will solve even the greatest of challenges. To learn more about how we can help you, contact us today! | 681 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Dinosaurs were a group of reptiles that first appeared some 243 to 233 million years ago. During the time they existed, they were divided into two groups: avian (those capable of flight) and non-avian (those who are not capable of flight). The word “dinosaur” first came into existence in 1841 after Sir Richard Owen, a paleontologist, used it to describe some fossil remains.
It is generally accepted that non-avian dinosaurs became extinct around 66 million years ago, most likely as a result of a meteor's impact on Earth. However, scientists still to this day disagree on whether or not the meteor had an instant or residual impact, the latter as a result of changed climate and overall living conditions.
Origins of Dinosaurs
Dinosaurs emerged during the middle to the later stages of the Triassic period, which was between 201 and 251 years ago. This emergence was just after the Permian–Triassic extinction, which was some 250 million years ago and destroyed around 95% of the life that was present on earth. The data on the first dinosaurs is scarce although some theories state that dinosaurs were tiny animals at first, which would help to explain why they were not dominant during their appearance. The dominant species that were not wiped out during the Permian–Triassic extinction were wiped out during the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event, which was around 200 million years ago. Eventually, after years of evolution and changes, dinosaurs went on to become the apex predators of their world until their extinction.
The Impact Event
One of the most widely accepted theories about the impact event appeared in 1980 from Walter Alvarez and his team. Alvarez argued that the impact event was most likely an asteroid that hit some 66 million years ago, which would coincide with the time of the extinction event. Despite the evidence to support this theory, scientists are unclear whether the asteroid was the cause of the extinction or it accelerated the process. In fact, even Alvarez, who passed away in 1988, agreed that other factors such as a drop in the level of the sea and the Indian Deccan Traps might have also played a part in the extinction.
About the Author
Ferdinand graduated in 2016 with a Bsc. Project Planning and Management. He enjoys writing about pretty much anything and has a soft spot for technology and advocating for world peace.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
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Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | <urn:uuid:56338ff1-a4f7-4f52-b3b1-5a5719b14289> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/when-did-dinosaurs-go-extinct.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00145.warc.gz | en | 0.980759 | 515 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
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0.3580448... | 2 | Dinosaurs were a group of reptiles that first appeared some 243 to 233 million years ago. During the time they existed, they were divided into two groups: avian (those capable of flight) and non-avian (those who are not capable of flight). The word “dinosaur” first came into existence in 1841 after Sir Richard Owen, a paleontologist, used it to describe some fossil remains.
It is generally accepted that non-avian dinosaurs became extinct around 66 million years ago, most likely as a result of a meteor's impact on Earth. However, scientists still to this day disagree on whether or not the meteor had an instant or residual impact, the latter as a result of changed climate and overall living conditions.
Origins of Dinosaurs
Dinosaurs emerged during the middle to the later stages of the Triassic period, which was between 201 and 251 years ago. This emergence was just after the Permian–Triassic extinction, which was some 250 million years ago and destroyed around 95% of the life that was present on earth. The data on the first dinosaurs is scarce although some theories state that dinosaurs were tiny animals at first, which would help to explain why they were not dominant during their appearance. The dominant species that were not wiped out during the Permian–Triassic extinction were wiped out during the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event, which was around 200 million years ago. Eventually, after years of evolution and changes, dinosaurs went on to become the apex predators of their world until their extinction.
The Impact Event
One of the most widely accepted theories about the impact event appeared in 1980 from Walter Alvarez and his team. Alvarez argued that the impact event was most likely an asteroid that hit some 66 million years ago, which would coincide with the time of the extinction event. Despite the evidence to support this theory, scientists are unclear whether the asteroid was the cause of the extinction or it accelerated the process. In fact, even Alvarez, who passed away in 1988, agreed that other factors such as a drop in the level of the sea and the Indian Deccan Traps might have also played a part in the extinction.
About the Author
Ferdinand graduated in 2016 with a Bsc. Project Planning and Management. He enjoys writing about pretty much anything and has a soft spot for technology and advocating for world peace.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 543 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Happy Birthday, Walter Reed
Major Walter Reed, M.D., was born on September 13, 1851, in Belroi, Gloucester County, Virginia.
Reed spent his childhood in Murfreesboro, North Carolina with his mother and her family while his father, a traveling Methodist minister, went on speaking tours. Reed went on to attend the University of Virginia and received his M.D. degree. He did this two months before his 18th birthday, making him the youngest-ever recipient of that degree from that university.
Reed went on to earn a second M.D. from New York University’s Bellevue Hospital Medical College in 1870. He then worked for the New York Board of Health until 1875. Unhappy with his position, he decided to join the US Army Medical Corps. After passing a 30-hour examination, he was enlisted to the medical corps as an assistant surgeon.
Reed spent the next 16 years at various outposts taking care of American military troops and their families as well as Native American tribes. At one point he cared for several hundred Apaches, including Geronimo. Working in these outposts, Reed witnessed unsanitary conditions and decided to study pathology and bacteriology as well.
Reed went on to join the staff of the George Washington University School of Medicine and the Army Medical School in Washington, DC, in 1893. There he served as professor of Bacteriology and Clinical Microscopy. In addition to teaching, he also worked on medical research projects and curated the Army Medical Museum.
In 1896, Reed earned significant recognition for his work as a medical investigator. At the time, enlisted men near the Potomac River were inflicted with yellow fever. Some thought it was from drinking the river water. But Reed discovered it was because they had been hiking through the local swampy woods at night.
Reed was then dispatched to Cuba to investigate the typhoid fever epidemic among US Army soldiers fighting in the Spanish-American War. His studies showed that it was the unsanitary conditions, especially in the field hospitals, that spread the infection.
In 1900, Reed returned to Cuba to study tropical diseases. Through his study of yellow fever (based largely on the work of Carlos Finlay), it was determined the disease was transmitted by mosquitoes and not by contact with those who were sick with the disease. Reed’s findings helped reduce the number of yellow fever cases. They not only discovered that a certain mosquito carried the disease, but they also developed a treatment. He made it possible to build the Panama Canal without the large loss of life that the French suffered when they attempted to construct a canal 20 years earlier.
Upon returning to the US, Reed spoke and wrote about yellow fever and received honorary degrees from Harvard and the University of Michigan. He died on November 22, 1902, due to complications from a ruptured appendix.
In the years since his death, many things have been named in his honor – an award, a tropical medicine course, and several medical centers.
Click here to see what else happened on This Day in History. | <urn:uuid:a2cfb450-cae5-4afe-ad67-0f2b3c00479e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mysticstamp.com/info/this-day-in-history-september-13-1851/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00136.warc.gz | en | 0.987491 | 635 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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... | 1 | Happy Birthday, Walter Reed
Major Walter Reed, M.D., was born on September 13, 1851, in Belroi, Gloucester County, Virginia.
Reed spent his childhood in Murfreesboro, North Carolina with his mother and her family while his father, a traveling Methodist minister, went on speaking tours. Reed went on to attend the University of Virginia and received his M.D. degree. He did this two months before his 18th birthday, making him the youngest-ever recipient of that degree from that university.
Reed went on to earn a second M.D. from New York University’s Bellevue Hospital Medical College in 1870. He then worked for the New York Board of Health until 1875. Unhappy with his position, he decided to join the US Army Medical Corps. After passing a 30-hour examination, he was enlisted to the medical corps as an assistant surgeon.
Reed spent the next 16 years at various outposts taking care of American military troops and their families as well as Native American tribes. At one point he cared for several hundred Apaches, including Geronimo. Working in these outposts, Reed witnessed unsanitary conditions and decided to study pathology and bacteriology as well.
Reed went on to join the staff of the George Washington University School of Medicine and the Army Medical School in Washington, DC, in 1893. There he served as professor of Bacteriology and Clinical Microscopy. In addition to teaching, he also worked on medical research projects and curated the Army Medical Museum.
In 1896, Reed earned significant recognition for his work as a medical investigator. At the time, enlisted men near the Potomac River were inflicted with yellow fever. Some thought it was from drinking the river water. But Reed discovered it was because they had been hiking through the local swampy woods at night.
Reed was then dispatched to Cuba to investigate the typhoid fever epidemic among US Army soldiers fighting in the Spanish-American War. His studies showed that it was the unsanitary conditions, especially in the field hospitals, that spread the infection.
In 1900, Reed returned to Cuba to study tropical diseases. Through his study of yellow fever (based largely on the work of Carlos Finlay), it was determined the disease was transmitted by mosquitoes and not by contact with those who were sick with the disease. Reed’s findings helped reduce the number of yellow fever cases. They not only discovered that a certain mosquito carried the disease, but they also developed a treatment. He made it possible to build the Panama Canal without the large loss of life that the French suffered when they attempted to construct a canal 20 years earlier.
Upon returning to the US, Reed spoke and wrote about yellow fever and received honorary degrees from Harvard and the University of Michigan. He died on November 22, 1902, due to complications from a ruptured appendix.
In the years since his death, many things have been named in his honor – an award, a tropical medicine course, and several medical centers.
Click here to see what else happened on This Day in History. | 652 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Courage is defined as the ability to conquer fear or despair. In both Beowulf and the Last Samurai, the heroes of each story had to fight obstacles and overcome fears to be victorious. Beowulf and the Samurai both showed unwavering courage and had honorable leadership skills.
Beowulf was a very courageous character because he always went into battles with no fears in mind and he never gave up. In the story of Beowulf, Grendel, who is a monster that has a hatred for humans, went to attack Beowulf, but when Beowulf fought back, Grendel was thinking that, “nowhere on Earth had he met a man whose hands were harder.” Beowulf showed him how strong he was by letting him have the full force of his brute. After Beowulf killed Grendel, he faced the fears of the fire-raging swamp where Grendel and his mother lived. He swam for hours through the dark swamp all the way to the bottom where Grendels mother discovered him. Grendels mom attacked Beowulf and when she had the upper hand, Beowulf was pinned down fighting for his life. He knew that he could beat her and took her sword from the wall that no ordinary man could pick up and he used all his strength swinging the sword into her neck slicing it through and killing her. Beowulf’s bravery helped him to defeat Grendel and his mother.
The Samurai were courageous people because they fought the Japanese using bows and arrows and swords when the Japanese used guns and explosives. The Japanese were trying to modernize and take away the Samurai culture, so when the Japanese attacked using guns and bombs, the Samurai fought back to the fullest of their ability. Because they wanted to keep their ways of life the same, the Samurai fought hard with bravery and never gave up knowing with just one bullet they could die. The Samurai were outnumbered but they believed in their culture so much, it meant fighting to their death.
Beowulf, the leader of the Geats, shows many qualities of a good leader because he has a high self-regard for...
Please join StudyMode to read the full document | <urn:uuid:762609be-71aa-44ac-883b-7506b4a20a1c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.studymode.com/essays/Beowulf-Vs-The-Last-Samurai-63614740.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00515.warc.gz | en | 0.98917 | 453 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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0.175315886735916... | 1 | Courage is defined as the ability to conquer fear or despair. In both Beowulf and the Last Samurai, the heroes of each story had to fight obstacles and overcome fears to be victorious. Beowulf and the Samurai both showed unwavering courage and had honorable leadership skills.
Beowulf was a very courageous character because he always went into battles with no fears in mind and he never gave up. In the story of Beowulf, Grendel, who is a monster that has a hatred for humans, went to attack Beowulf, but when Beowulf fought back, Grendel was thinking that, “nowhere on Earth had he met a man whose hands were harder.” Beowulf showed him how strong he was by letting him have the full force of his brute. After Beowulf killed Grendel, he faced the fears of the fire-raging swamp where Grendel and his mother lived. He swam for hours through the dark swamp all the way to the bottom where Grendels mother discovered him. Grendels mom attacked Beowulf and when she had the upper hand, Beowulf was pinned down fighting for his life. He knew that he could beat her and took her sword from the wall that no ordinary man could pick up and he used all his strength swinging the sword into her neck slicing it through and killing her. Beowulf’s bravery helped him to defeat Grendel and his mother.
The Samurai were courageous people because they fought the Japanese using bows and arrows and swords when the Japanese used guns and explosives. The Japanese were trying to modernize and take away the Samurai culture, so when the Japanese attacked using guns and bombs, the Samurai fought back to the fullest of their ability. Because they wanted to keep their ways of life the same, the Samurai fought hard with bravery and never gave up knowing with just one bullet they could die. The Samurai were outnumbered but they believed in their culture so much, it meant fighting to their death.
Beowulf, the leader of the Geats, shows many qualities of a good leader because he has a high self-regard for...
Please join StudyMode to read the full document | 444 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Pants are one of the most common fashion items for both men and women. However, even though they existed for quite a long time, we are not certain who created them. According to historians, they were first worn by Gauls who lived on territory of today’s France. During war with Gauls, Romans noticed that they had an important military advantage. These were the pants that provided great warmth during cold winters. So, in order to adapt, they started making their own pants made from leather. Given that Roman culture was spread all over the Europe, North Africa and Middle East, other nations also got introduced to this product. However, they didn’t catch up immediately.
During entire medieval period, people still wore clothes in the same manner Romans wore them: wrapped around their legs. However, under big, elegant dresses, people wore socks that went up to hips and they were attached to coat or jacket. Gothic fashion brought about new clothes, including pants. This also explains why we use this term in plural. At the beginning, they were opened from the front and from the behind and as jackets became shorter, new fashion item was required in order to compensate for this change. For this purpose, codpiece was created in 15th century and it became the most interesting item in the history of fashion. At the end of the 16th century, codpiece became part of the pants and this is when they acquired the shape that exists today.
During baroque, pants became shorter, just enough to cover person’s knees and they remained the same until 19th century when long trousers were made. These pants quickly became popular all over the world though sailors who wore them and introduced them to other cultures. They wore wide pants, which were quickly adopted by other countries. However, they also helped spread jeans. Given that textile was expensive, sailors made pants from denim. It was type of cloth that was used for sails and it was very durable. So, it shouldn’t surprise us that denim and jeans became the most important part of worker’s wardrobe.
Jeans were also made during Renaissance, in Genoa, Italy and they became quite popular in neighboring countries during late 19th century. Having in mind that they were blue, they became known as “blue de Genes” or Genoa blue. When British people started using them, the name turned into jeans. First women that wore this type of pants were coal miners from Scotland during mid-19th century. At that time, this was quite uncommon and it led to public outrage.
In time, women all over the world started wearing them for house choirs and this is how they became trendy. During 60s, there were a lot of civil rights movements. Among other, women requested liberty to dress as men. Finally, fashion creators started making jeans and pants for women. Nowadays, this is the crucial part of female wardrobe. You can find numerous styles and types of this product such as rave pants, baggy pants, Palazzo, Capri and many others. | <urn:uuid:352b729e-e9a9-4a26-a0b5-a9860e7442a4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://foodnservice.com/history-pants/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00467.warc.gz | en | 0.993557 | 626 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.26642957329750... | 3 | Pants are one of the most common fashion items for both men and women. However, even though they existed for quite a long time, we are not certain who created them. According to historians, they were first worn by Gauls who lived on territory of today’s France. During war with Gauls, Romans noticed that they had an important military advantage. These were the pants that provided great warmth during cold winters. So, in order to adapt, they started making their own pants made from leather. Given that Roman culture was spread all over the Europe, North Africa and Middle East, other nations also got introduced to this product. However, they didn’t catch up immediately.
During entire medieval period, people still wore clothes in the same manner Romans wore them: wrapped around their legs. However, under big, elegant dresses, people wore socks that went up to hips and they were attached to coat or jacket. Gothic fashion brought about new clothes, including pants. This also explains why we use this term in plural. At the beginning, they were opened from the front and from the behind and as jackets became shorter, new fashion item was required in order to compensate for this change. For this purpose, codpiece was created in 15th century and it became the most interesting item in the history of fashion. At the end of the 16th century, codpiece became part of the pants and this is when they acquired the shape that exists today.
During baroque, pants became shorter, just enough to cover person’s knees and they remained the same until 19th century when long trousers were made. These pants quickly became popular all over the world though sailors who wore them and introduced them to other cultures. They wore wide pants, which were quickly adopted by other countries. However, they also helped spread jeans. Given that textile was expensive, sailors made pants from denim. It was type of cloth that was used for sails and it was very durable. So, it shouldn’t surprise us that denim and jeans became the most important part of worker’s wardrobe.
Jeans were also made during Renaissance, in Genoa, Italy and they became quite popular in neighboring countries during late 19th century. Having in mind that they were blue, they became known as “blue de Genes” or Genoa blue. When British people started using them, the name turned into jeans. First women that wore this type of pants were coal miners from Scotland during mid-19th century. At that time, this was quite uncommon and it led to public outrage.
In time, women all over the world started wearing them for house choirs and this is how they became trendy. During 60s, there were a lot of civil rights movements. Among other, women requested liberty to dress as men. Finally, fashion creators started making jeans and pants for women. Nowadays, this is the crucial part of female wardrobe. You can find numerous styles and types of this product such as rave pants, baggy pants, Palazzo, Capri and many others. | 618 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Good point. The French were fighting a two front war.As for your question, Caesar conquered Gaul because Gaul was being invaded by Ariovistus, a Germanic Suevi, at the same time, and marauding Cimbrians and Teutons had also devastated much of southern Gaul, allowing the Romans to pour in from Italy without much resistance. Caesar invaded Gaul using precisely the excuse that Ariovistus was invading and the Aedui, a Celtic people allied with the Romans, requested their aid.
This is not a reason for why C conquered G in such a short time period but is a consequence of his conquering Gaul.Yet another reason, aside from Germanic rampages, is that Caesar straight up committed genocide. He killed about 1 million Gauls and enslaved a million more.
Good point, though crossing Alps did present difficulties.The French since Philip Augustus developed a standing navy or something close to it, and even after the Battle of Crecy where the English gained permanent territories in France, they still had to transport their troops by water and still did not control the whole French coast. It was therefore very difficult to keep control of France. The Romans didn't have this problem.
I've already discussed this above. The Romans did have more people but they had to use those people for defending others parts of the Empire.We have to add that France was far more populated than the whole of Britain, which scarcely numbered more than 5 million if that during the whole of the Middle Ages while the French by the Hundred Years War were almost triple that number. Gaul, meanwhile, was about as populated as Italy, being in the 5-6 million range while Italy was in the 6-7 million range, and that's not the entire empire of the Roman Republic, which at that point was approximating the 15 million range. | <urn:uuid:b5bdd2d7-f05e-41f2-aad8-e328542a99ac> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://historum.com/threads/why-did-caesar-conquer-france-in-8-years-but-the-english-failed-after-112-years.181919/page-2 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00049.warc.gz | en | 0.986023 | 373 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.44765615463256... | 1 | Good point. The French were fighting a two front war.As for your question, Caesar conquered Gaul because Gaul was being invaded by Ariovistus, a Germanic Suevi, at the same time, and marauding Cimbrians and Teutons had also devastated much of southern Gaul, allowing the Romans to pour in from Italy without much resistance. Caesar invaded Gaul using precisely the excuse that Ariovistus was invading and the Aedui, a Celtic people allied with the Romans, requested their aid.
This is not a reason for why C conquered G in such a short time period but is a consequence of his conquering Gaul.Yet another reason, aside from Germanic rampages, is that Caesar straight up committed genocide. He killed about 1 million Gauls and enslaved a million more.
Good point, though crossing Alps did present difficulties.The French since Philip Augustus developed a standing navy or something close to it, and even after the Battle of Crecy where the English gained permanent territories in France, they still had to transport their troops by water and still did not control the whole French coast. It was therefore very difficult to keep control of France. The Romans didn't have this problem.
I've already discussed this above. The Romans did have more people but they had to use those people for defending others parts of the Empire.We have to add that France was far more populated than the whole of Britain, which scarcely numbered more than 5 million if that during the whole of the Middle Ages while the French by the Hundred Years War were almost triple that number. Gaul, meanwhile, was about as populated as Italy, being in the 5-6 million range while Italy was in the 6-7 million range, and that's not the entire empire of the Roman Republic, which at that point was approximating the 15 million range. | 376 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Each country had their own spy organizations that tried to get secret information about their enemies such as troop movements, supplies, bunker locations, and new weapons. Why were spies important? Information on where the enemy planned to attack or a new weapon they had invented could help determine the outcome of a battle. If a spy could get a hold of this secret information, it could save thousands of lives.
This cast doubt on whether the Soviet treatment of Axis prisoners was therefore a war crime, although prisoners "were [not] treated even remotely in accordance with the Geneva Convention", resulting in the deaths of hundreds of thousands.
The tribunal held that the Hague Conventions which the Geneva Convention did not replace but only augmented, and unlike the convention, were ones that the Russian Empire had ratified and other customary laws of war, regarding the treatment of prisoners of war, were binding on all nations in a conflict whether they were signatories to the specific treaty or not.
It was an army of rapists". Polish women as well as Russian, Belorussian and Ukrainian slave laborers were also mass raped by the Red Army.
The Soviet war correspondent Vasily Grossman described: Japanese prisoners of war in World War II and Japanese prisoners of war in the Soviet Union Allied soldiers in Pacific and Asian theatres sometimes killed Japanese soldiers who were attempting to surrender or after they had surrendered.
A social historian of the Pacific War, John W. Dowerstates that "by the final years of the war against Japan, a truly vicious cycle had developed in which the Japanese reluctance to surrender had meshed horrifically with Allied disinterest in taking prisoners".
In fact, the Japanese Field Service Code said that surrender was not permissible. This was later justified on the grounds that rescued servicemen would have been rapidly landed at their military destination and promptly returned to active service.
The penalties given to members of the BCOF convicted of serious crimes were "not severe", however, and those imposed on Australians were often mitigated or quashed by Australian courts. Rummel says that Chinese peasants "often had no less to fear from their own soldiers than This was a deadly affair in which men were kidnapped for the army, rounded up indiscriminately by press-gangs or army units among those on the roads or in the towns and villages, or otherwise gathered together.
Many men, some the very young and old, were killed resisting or trying to escape. Once collected, they would be roped or chained together and marched, with little food or water, long distances to camp.
They often died or were killed along the way, sometimes less than 50 percent reaching camp alive.
Then recruit camp was no better, with hospitals resembling Nazi concentration camps Probably 3, died during the Sino-Japanese War; likely another 1, during the Civil War—4, dead in total. Just during conscription [emphasis added].
In one instance he recalled during the battle at Gorari that "the leading platoon captured five or seven Japanese and moved on to the next battle. The next platoon came along and bayoneted these Japanese. According to Richard Aldrich, who has published a study of the diaries kept by United States and Australian soldiers, they sometimes massacred prisoners of war.
Japanese who did become prisoners were killed on the spot or en route to prison compounds". That same year, efforts were taken by Allied high commanders to suppress "take no prisoners" attitudes, among their own personnel as these were affecting intelligence gathering and to encourage Japanese soldiers to surrender.
Ferguson adds that measures by Allied commanders to improve the ratio of Japanese prisoners to Japanese dead, resulted in it reaching 1: Nevertheless, taking no prisoners was still standard practice among US troops at the Battle of Okinawain April—June More important for most soldiers was the perception that prisoners would be killed by the enemy anyway, and so one might as well fight on.10 rows · Siviero was an Italian secret agent, art historian and intellectual, most notable for his important work in recovering artworks stolen from Italy during the Second World War as part of the 'Nazi plunder'.
Pino Lella: Lella led Jews fleeing Italy through the Alps into Switzerland to freedom. Allied war crimes include both alleged and legally proven violations of the laws of war by the Allies of World War II against either civilians or military personnel of the Axis powers..
At the end of World War II, many trials of Axis war criminals took place, most famously the Nuremberg Trials and Tokyo metin2sell.comr, in Europe, these tribunals were set .
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a conflict that took place between and that involved all the world’s major countries. Writer Steven Knight has said that his new film, Allied, is based on a story about World War II spies that he heard third-hand from an old girlfriend.
It could well have been more than an urban. This Baptist Community Ministries “Faith in Wartime” Presentation was part of the multi-day International Conference on World War II, titled “ Year Zero-Triumph and Tragedy.”.
There are more stories of heroism out of World War II than can ever fit in a school textbook, but hundreds of those stories are written down somewhere for those who want to find them. Over | <urn:uuid:fb0b1776-770c-417d-8667-d613a2890151> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://bifanin.metin2sell.com/spies-during-world-war-ii-18282vz.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00112.warc.gz | en | 0.984583 | 1,090 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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... | 1 | Each country had their own spy organizations that tried to get secret information about their enemies such as troop movements, supplies, bunker locations, and new weapons. Why were spies important? Information on where the enemy planned to attack or a new weapon they had invented could help determine the outcome of a battle. If a spy could get a hold of this secret information, it could save thousands of lives.
This cast doubt on whether the Soviet treatment of Axis prisoners was therefore a war crime, although prisoners "were [not] treated even remotely in accordance with the Geneva Convention", resulting in the deaths of hundreds of thousands.
The tribunal held that the Hague Conventions which the Geneva Convention did not replace but only augmented, and unlike the convention, were ones that the Russian Empire had ratified and other customary laws of war, regarding the treatment of prisoners of war, were binding on all nations in a conflict whether they were signatories to the specific treaty or not.
It was an army of rapists". Polish women as well as Russian, Belorussian and Ukrainian slave laborers were also mass raped by the Red Army.
The Soviet war correspondent Vasily Grossman described: Japanese prisoners of war in World War II and Japanese prisoners of war in the Soviet Union Allied soldiers in Pacific and Asian theatres sometimes killed Japanese soldiers who were attempting to surrender or after they had surrendered.
A social historian of the Pacific War, John W. Dowerstates that "by the final years of the war against Japan, a truly vicious cycle had developed in which the Japanese reluctance to surrender had meshed horrifically with Allied disinterest in taking prisoners".
In fact, the Japanese Field Service Code said that surrender was not permissible. This was later justified on the grounds that rescued servicemen would have been rapidly landed at their military destination and promptly returned to active service.
The penalties given to members of the BCOF convicted of serious crimes were "not severe", however, and those imposed on Australians were often mitigated or quashed by Australian courts. Rummel says that Chinese peasants "often had no less to fear from their own soldiers than This was a deadly affair in which men were kidnapped for the army, rounded up indiscriminately by press-gangs or army units among those on the roads or in the towns and villages, or otherwise gathered together.
Many men, some the very young and old, were killed resisting or trying to escape. Once collected, they would be roped or chained together and marched, with little food or water, long distances to camp.
They often died or were killed along the way, sometimes less than 50 percent reaching camp alive.
Then recruit camp was no better, with hospitals resembling Nazi concentration camps Probably 3, died during the Sino-Japanese War; likely another 1, during the Civil War—4, dead in total. Just during conscription [emphasis added].
In one instance he recalled during the battle at Gorari that "the leading platoon captured five or seven Japanese and moved on to the next battle. The next platoon came along and bayoneted these Japanese. According to Richard Aldrich, who has published a study of the diaries kept by United States and Australian soldiers, they sometimes massacred prisoners of war.
Japanese who did become prisoners were killed on the spot or en route to prison compounds". That same year, efforts were taken by Allied high commanders to suppress "take no prisoners" attitudes, among their own personnel as these were affecting intelligence gathering and to encourage Japanese soldiers to surrender.
Ferguson adds that measures by Allied commanders to improve the ratio of Japanese prisoners to Japanese dead, resulted in it reaching 1: Nevertheless, taking no prisoners was still standard practice among US troops at the Battle of Okinawain April—June More important for most soldiers was the perception that prisoners would be killed by the enemy anyway, and so one might as well fight on.10 rows · Siviero was an Italian secret agent, art historian and intellectual, most notable for his important work in recovering artworks stolen from Italy during the Second World War as part of the 'Nazi plunder'.
Pino Lella: Lella led Jews fleeing Italy through the Alps into Switzerland to freedom. Allied war crimes include both alleged and legally proven violations of the laws of war by the Allies of World War II against either civilians or military personnel of the Axis powers..
At the end of World War II, many trials of Axis war criminals took place, most famously the Nuremberg Trials and Tokyo metin2sell.comr, in Europe, these tribunals were set .
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a conflict that took place between and that involved all the world’s major countries. Writer Steven Knight has said that his new film, Allied, is based on a story about World War II spies that he heard third-hand from an old girlfriend.
It could well have been more than an urban. This Baptist Community Ministries “Faith in Wartime” Presentation was part of the multi-day International Conference on World War II, titled “ Year Zero-Triumph and Tragedy.”.
There are more stories of heroism out of World War II than can ever fit in a school textbook, but hundreds of those stories are written down somewhere for those who want to find them. Over | 1,074 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Probably the more wide spread and popular image of Isaac Newton is of him discovering the law of gravity after being hit on the head by a falling apple.
For many generations of school kids throughout the world the name Newton is associated with his laws of motion and that law of gravity, often with unpleasant thoughts of having to solve physics home work problem involving them. For many Newton is the ‘father of modern science’ or the ‘father of physics’ or in some way synonymous with the scientific revolution. Also for those worldwide, generations of school kids he was the inventor/discoverer of the bane of mathematics the calculus. In reality, as well as his most well known achievements in mathematics, astronomy and physics, Newton took a lively interest in a surprising range of topics and, never a dabbler, he invested the full power of his vast intellect in whatever he undertook to investigate.
Born in Woolsthorpe Manor on 25 December 1642, the son of a yeoman farmer, who died before he was born, Newton grew up in a strongly puritan environment and remained deeply religious throughout his entire, very long life. He devoted an immense amount of time and energy to studying the Bible that tradition claims he could recite off by heart. He would learn both Greek and Hebrew in order to further his theological studies. His religious views were anything but orthodox and he was in fact probably an Arian i.e. he denied the concept of the Trinity believing in a Unitarian concept of God instead. He would have normally been required to take holy orders in order to become a professor at Cambridge and even considered leaving the university because he was not prepared to do so. Through the assistance of Isaac Barrow he was granted a special dispensation and was thus able to accept the Lucasian Chair without having to take holy orders. Although he wrote many papers on his religious beliefs, including his belief that the Catholic Church had corrupted the text of the Bible in order to justify their belief in the Holy Trinity, he largely kept his heterodox religious views to himself, sharing them only with selected sympathetic correspondents.
His religious views played a central role in his scientific endeavours as he believed that he was uncovering God’s plan of the universe. He went further than this in that he believed that he, and he alone, had been chosen by God to reveal that plan. He was also a prisca theologian, who believed that Adam and the early generations of humanity had had perfect knowledge of God’s creation and that this knowledge had been lost down through the succeeding generations. He was not discovering the plans of God’s creation but rediscovering them.
Newton was also, like many others in the High Middle Ages and the Early Modern Period, a millennialist that is he believed in a second coming and the end of the world. This led to the second of his great intellectual passions, history. Newton was a Bible chronologist, who thought that if he could accurately determine the date of creation and thus the current age of the Earth then he could also determine the time of the second coming. In order to do this he devoted a lot to the study of history in order to establish the time and durations of the great civilisations based, of course, around an analysis of the Old Testament as a historical source. He also tried, as an astronomer, to tie historical descriptions of astronomical phenomena, eclipses etc., to mathematically determined dates of those phenomena. This led other chronologists to eagerly await access to Newton’s chronological writings after his death hoping that the great astronomer mathematician would provide solid scientific evidence for his historical dating scheme. On the whole those hopes were disappointed when Newton’s chronological manuscripts did finally see the light of day.
Newton’s prisca theological beliefs also led to another of his better-known intellectual activities his alchemical investigations. He believed that alchemy was the oldest of all the sciences and that if he could unravel the secrets of this arcane discipline then it would bring him closer to knowledge of God’s creation plan. You will often see the highly incorrect assertion that the scientist Newton only turned to the occult alchemy in his dotage, after his scientific creativity had been drained; this is far from the truth. Newton began his alchemical studies in about 1666 at the height of his intellectual powers. He built a hut in the gardens of Trinity College, which served as his laboratory and devoted the winter months of the next thirty years to the serious study of alchemy. He read and annotated hundreds of alchemical manuscripts, carried out numerous experiments and wrote his own thoughts on the subject none of which he ever published. On interesting side note to this intensive engagement is that he used the knowledge of chemical processes that he had won to develop new and better methods of assaying when he was running the Royal Mint later in life.
The years that Newton devoted to the study of alchemy were also the years that he devoted to the study of mathematics, physics and astronomy. Those people who reached a high enough level in mathematics in their own education usually know than Newton is credited with being the co-creator, together with Leibniz, of the calculus. What most people don’t realise is just how vast Newton’s output of creative mathematics was. The edited edition of his collected mathematical papers runs to eight very thick, large format volumes covering a very wide range of mathematical topics. His scientific crowning glory is, of course, his Principia Mathematica (1687) combining, as it does a definitive, uniform presentation of the physical mechanics that had been developed piecemeal over the preceding two centuries adding much that was new in the process, as well as a complete consistent heliocentric model of the solar system. With this one book he established himself as Europe’s number one physicist and number one astronomer. He second masterpiece was his Opticks, created and written largely before the mathematics, mechanics and astronomy but first published, due to negative reactions to his first papers on the subject, in 1704. It was of course in this period that Newton was also Lucasian Professor of mathematics at Cambridge University. This however was not that much of a burden, as Newton famously had virtually no students attending his lectures. Mathematics was not particularly popular at English universities during the seventeenth century.
In 1696 Newton left the world of academia, and to some extent his scientific investigations, to start a completely new career as a government servant, first as warden then later as comptroller of the Royal Mint in London. He obtained this appointment through the services of one of his former students, Charles Montagu, later 1st Earl of Halifax, one of the most powerful Whig politicians and for a time Chancellor of the Exchequer. Newton’s association with Montagu illustrates another aspect of his life that of politician. Newton was a member of the Whig Party, who sat as an MP for Cambridge University, the universities were their own parliamentary constituencies, at the convention to settle the revolution of 1689. This was however one activity where Newton remained very passive and did nothing to distinguish himself. In 1705 Montagu persuaded him to stand again and even arranged for him to be knightedto increase his chances of election but he lost the election and thus ended his active political career.
The job at the Royal Mint, which Newton desired because he thought being a mere university professor did not fit his status as a leading European intellectual, was actually normally considered a political sinecure, i.e. the office holder was not actually expected to do anything, just hold the title and collect the pay. Others would actually do the work. Newton was not a man for sinecures. He plunged right in taking over the day-to-day running of the mint. He personally supervised the recoining of the nation, a monstrous task, which Montague had introduced as a measure to combat the debasement of the English currency. Newton applied his scientific mind to modernising the Mint, introducing as indicated above, new methods of chemically assaying metals. One of the responsibilities of the Warden of the Mint was to track down and bring to trial coiners, i.e. those who forged coin of the realm, and clippers, i.e. those who clipped are shaved metal of the edges of coins. The milling of the edges of coins was introduced in Newton’s times to make life more difficult for clippers. Normally a Warden would employ others to track down these criminals, Newton took on the job himself working as a sort of seventeenth century gumshoe. He was very much a hands on boss and remained so until late in his life, when he began to hand over the reigns to John Conduit, the husband of his niece and housekeeper, Catherine Barton.
From 1704 onwards until his death, he was also President of the Royal Society, which he ruled in a very autocratic manner. Once again he was not prepared to be merely some sort of figurehead but was deeply engaged in shaping the society’s profile and business. In this role he also became a tourist attraction, foreign visitors to London attending meetings of the Royal Society in order to witness Sir Isaac Newton Europe’s greatest, living natural philosopher.
Although the term natural philosopher signifies what we would now call a scientist, Newton was also a philosopher in the true sense. Although, unlike Leibniz, he didn’t publish separate philosophical texts, his major works, the Principia Mathematica and the Opticks, both contain a lot of serious thoughts on the philosophy and methodology of science. He was also very much pulling the strings, as the puppet master, in the philosophical debate about Newton’s natural philosophy between Leibniz and Samuel Clarke, who acted as Newton’s mouth piece. Newton’s philosophical approach to science influenced, not necessarily positively, John Locke, David Hume and Immanuel Kant amongst others.
Last but perhaps by no means least there is an aspect to Newton that often gets overlooked, Newton the family man. This might seem like a contradiction in terms given that Newton lost his father before he was born and was abandoned as a small child by his mother, to be looked after by relatives, when she remarried. Newton, also, never married and had no children. However, he inherited the family’s not insubstantial holdings in Lincolnshire, they generated a yearly income of six hundred pounds at a time when the annual salary of the Astronomer Royal was one hundred pounds per annum. Newton brought his niece Catherine Barton to London to be his housekeeper and by no means treated her as a servant but as the lady of the house, who enjoyed the status of a lady in London’s high society. Newton also managed the family holdings personally and took good care of those members of his extended family living in Lincolnshire. Newton has acquired a historical reputation for being cantankerous and unfriendly but towards his extended family but also towards his scientific acolytes, the first so-called Newtonians, he could be and often was warm and generous.
Although the above is at best an inadequate sketch I hope I have made it clear that the real Isaac Newton was much more than a caricature of a scientist with an apple falling on his head. He was a theologian, historian, Bible chronologist, alchemist, mathematician, physicist, astronomer, public servant, detective, politician, society president, philosopher, farm manager and family man quite a lot for any individual. | <urn:uuid:ab10af71-e189-4458-abdf-667e56749e1d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://thonyc.wordpress.com/category/uncategorized/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00490.warc.gz | en | 0.98611 | 2,365 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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... | 4 | Probably the more wide spread and popular image of Isaac Newton is of him discovering the law of gravity after being hit on the head by a falling apple.
For many generations of school kids throughout the world the name Newton is associated with his laws of motion and that law of gravity, often with unpleasant thoughts of having to solve physics home work problem involving them. For many Newton is the ‘father of modern science’ or the ‘father of physics’ or in some way synonymous with the scientific revolution. Also for those worldwide, generations of school kids he was the inventor/discoverer of the bane of mathematics the calculus. In reality, as well as his most well known achievements in mathematics, astronomy and physics, Newton took a lively interest in a surprising range of topics and, never a dabbler, he invested the full power of his vast intellect in whatever he undertook to investigate.
Born in Woolsthorpe Manor on 25 December 1642, the son of a yeoman farmer, who died before he was born, Newton grew up in a strongly puritan environment and remained deeply religious throughout his entire, very long life. He devoted an immense amount of time and energy to studying the Bible that tradition claims he could recite off by heart. He would learn both Greek and Hebrew in order to further his theological studies. His religious views were anything but orthodox and he was in fact probably an Arian i.e. he denied the concept of the Trinity believing in a Unitarian concept of God instead. He would have normally been required to take holy orders in order to become a professor at Cambridge and even considered leaving the university because he was not prepared to do so. Through the assistance of Isaac Barrow he was granted a special dispensation and was thus able to accept the Lucasian Chair without having to take holy orders. Although he wrote many papers on his religious beliefs, including his belief that the Catholic Church had corrupted the text of the Bible in order to justify their belief in the Holy Trinity, he largely kept his heterodox religious views to himself, sharing them only with selected sympathetic correspondents.
His religious views played a central role in his scientific endeavours as he believed that he was uncovering God’s plan of the universe. He went further than this in that he believed that he, and he alone, had been chosen by God to reveal that plan. He was also a prisca theologian, who believed that Adam and the early generations of humanity had had perfect knowledge of God’s creation and that this knowledge had been lost down through the succeeding generations. He was not discovering the plans of God’s creation but rediscovering them.
Newton was also, like many others in the High Middle Ages and the Early Modern Period, a millennialist that is he believed in a second coming and the end of the world. This led to the second of his great intellectual passions, history. Newton was a Bible chronologist, who thought that if he could accurately determine the date of creation and thus the current age of the Earth then he could also determine the time of the second coming. In order to do this he devoted a lot to the study of history in order to establish the time and durations of the great civilisations based, of course, around an analysis of the Old Testament as a historical source. He also tried, as an astronomer, to tie historical descriptions of astronomical phenomena, eclipses etc., to mathematically determined dates of those phenomena. This led other chronologists to eagerly await access to Newton’s chronological writings after his death hoping that the great astronomer mathematician would provide solid scientific evidence for his historical dating scheme. On the whole those hopes were disappointed when Newton’s chronological manuscripts did finally see the light of day.
Newton’s prisca theological beliefs also led to another of his better-known intellectual activities his alchemical investigations. He believed that alchemy was the oldest of all the sciences and that if he could unravel the secrets of this arcane discipline then it would bring him closer to knowledge of God’s creation plan. You will often see the highly incorrect assertion that the scientist Newton only turned to the occult alchemy in his dotage, after his scientific creativity had been drained; this is far from the truth. Newton began his alchemical studies in about 1666 at the height of his intellectual powers. He built a hut in the gardens of Trinity College, which served as his laboratory and devoted the winter months of the next thirty years to the serious study of alchemy. He read and annotated hundreds of alchemical manuscripts, carried out numerous experiments and wrote his own thoughts on the subject none of which he ever published. On interesting side note to this intensive engagement is that he used the knowledge of chemical processes that he had won to develop new and better methods of assaying when he was running the Royal Mint later in life.
The years that Newton devoted to the study of alchemy were also the years that he devoted to the study of mathematics, physics and astronomy. Those people who reached a high enough level in mathematics in their own education usually know than Newton is credited with being the co-creator, together with Leibniz, of the calculus. What most people don’t realise is just how vast Newton’s output of creative mathematics was. The edited edition of his collected mathematical papers runs to eight very thick, large format volumes covering a very wide range of mathematical topics. His scientific crowning glory is, of course, his Principia Mathematica (1687) combining, as it does a definitive, uniform presentation of the physical mechanics that had been developed piecemeal over the preceding two centuries adding much that was new in the process, as well as a complete consistent heliocentric model of the solar system. With this one book he established himself as Europe’s number one physicist and number one astronomer. He second masterpiece was his Opticks, created and written largely before the mathematics, mechanics and astronomy but first published, due to negative reactions to his first papers on the subject, in 1704. It was of course in this period that Newton was also Lucasian Professor of mathematics at Cambridge University. This however was not that much of a burden, as Newton famously had virtually no students attending his lectures. Mathematics was not particularly popular at English universities during the seventeenth century.
In 1696 Newton left the world of academia, and to some extent his scientific investigations, to start a completely new career as a government servant, first as warden then later as comptroller of the Royal Mint in London. He obtained this appointment through the services of one of his former students, Charles Montagu, later 1st Earl of Halifax, one of the most powerful Whig politicians and for a time Chancellor of the Exchequer. Newton’s association with Montagu illustrates another aspect of his life that of politician. Newton was a member of the Whig Party, who sat as an MP for Cambridge University, the universities were their own parliamentary constituencies, at the convention to settle the revolution of 1689. This was however one activity where Newton remained very passive and did nothing to distinguish himself. In 1705 Montagu persuaded him to stand again and even arranged for him to be knightedto increase his chances of election but he lost the election and thus ended his active political career.
The job at the Royal Mint, which Newton desired because he thought being a mere university professor did not fit his status as a leading European intellectual, was actually normally considered a political sinecure, i.e. the office holder was not actually expected to do anything, just hold the title and collect the pay. Others would actually do the work. Newton was not a man for sinecures. He plunged right in taking over the day-to-day running of the mint. He personally supervised the recoining of the nation, a monstrous task, which Montague had introduced as a measure to combat the debasement of the English currency. Newton applied his scientific mind to modernising the Mint, introducing as indicated above, new methods of chemically assaying metals. One of the responsibilities of the Warden of the Mint was to track down and bring to trial coiners, i.e. those who forged coin of the realm, and clippers, i.e. those who clipped are shaved metal of the edges of coins. The milling of the edges of coins was introduced in Newton’s times to make life more difficult for clippers. Normally a Warden would employ others to track down these criminals, Newton took on the job himself working as a sort of seventeenth century gumshoe. He was very much a hands on boss and remained so until late in his life, when he began to hand over the reigns to John Conduit, the husband of his niece and housekeeper, Catherine Barton.
From 1704 onwards until his death, he was also President of the Royal Society, which he ruled in a very autocratic manner. Once again he was not prepared to be merely some sort of figurehead but was deeply engaged in shaping the society’s profile and business. In this role he also became a tourist attraction, foreign visitors to London attending meetings of the Royal Society in order to witness Sir Isaac Newton Europe’s greatest, living natural philosopher.
Although the term natural philosopher signifies what we would now call a scientist, Newton was also a philosopher in the true sense. Although, unlike Leibniz, he didn’t publish separate philosophical texts, his major works, the Principia Mathematica and the Opticks, both contain a lot of serious thoughts on the philosophy and methodology of science. He was also very much pulling the strings, as the puppet master, in the philosophical debate about Newton’s natural philosophy between Leibniz and Samuel Clarke, who acted as Newton’s mouth piece. Newton’s philosophical approach to science influenced, not necessarily positively, John Locke, David Hume and Immanuel Kant amongst others.
Last but perhaps by no means least there is an aspect to Newton that often gets overlooked, Newton the family man. This might seem like a contradiction in terms given that Newton lost his father before he was born and was abandoned as a small child by his mother, to be looked after by relatives, when she remarried. Newton, also, never married and had no children. However, he inherited the family’s not insubstantial holdings in Lincolnshire, they generated a yearly income of six hundred pounds at a time when the annual salary of the Astronomer Royal was one hundred pounds per annum. Newton brought his niece Catherine Barton to London to be his housekeeper and by no means treated her as a servant but as the lady of the house, who enjoyed the status of a lady in London’s high society. Newton also managed the family holdings personally and took good care of those members of his extended family living in Lincolnshire. Newton has acquired a historical reputation for being cantankerous and unfriendly but towards his extended family but also towards his scientific acolytes, the first so-called Newtonians, he could be and often was warm and generous.
Although the above is at best an inadequate sketch I hope I have made it clear that the real Isaac Newton was much more than a caricature of a scientist with an apple falling on his head. He was a theologian, historian, Bible chronologist, alchemist, mathematician, physicist, astronomer, public servant, detective, politician, society president, philosopher, farm manager and family man quite a lot for any individual. | 2,327 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On this day in in 1917, future Duluth mayor Clarence R. Magney was born to Swedish immigrants in Trenton, Wisconsin. According to historian Walter Van Brunt, Magney’s father, Rev. Jonas Magney, was “brought to America in 1858 by his parents, who located at Center City, Minnesota, on a farm. Jonas Magney prepared himself for the profession of the ministry in the Lutheran Church, and made that his life occupation. He was a church builder, organizer and preacher at many points in Wisconsin and Minnesota. He died in Minnesota in 1910.” Clarence Magney came to Duluth in 1908 after finishing Harvard law school and was quickly recognized for his sharp legal mind, which propelled him into the mayor’s office as the U.S. entered the war in Europe. Historians wrote that while in office, Magney “gave a vigorous administration of municipal affairs throughout the critical period of the war, and showed every qualification for heading the government of one of the best cities in the northwest.” Despite his success, Magney would not complete his term in office, resigning as mayor September 15, 1920, to run for District Court Judge. He won the election and remained a judge for decades, serving as associate justice of the Minnesota Supreme Court from 1943 to 1953. Magney is the namesake of two parks, Judge C. R. Magney State Park in Cook County, Minnesota, north of Grand Marais and Duluth’s Magney-Snively Park near Spirit Mountain, named for the judge and Sam Snively, Magney’s successor in the Mayor’s office. Learn much more about Magney here. | <urn:uuid:1a349a87-4308-4489-8af6-cf849e36f6a6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://zenithcity.com/thisday/january-11-1883-birth-of-clarence-r-magney/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00061.warc.gz | en | 0.982187 | 348 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.05449932441115... | 4 | On this day in in 1917, future Duluth mayor Clarence R. Magney was born to Swedish immigrants in Trenton, Wisconsin. According to historian Walter Van Brunt, Magney’s father, Rev. Jonas Magney, was “brought to America in 1858 by his parents, who located at Center City, Minnesota, on a farm. Jonas Magney prepared himself for the profession of the ministry in the Lutheran Church, and made that his life occupation. He was a church builder, organizer and preacher at many points in Wisconsin and Minnesota. He died in Minnesota in 1910.” Clarence Magney came to Duluth in 1908 after finishing Harvard law school and was quickly recognized for his sharp legal mind, which propelled him into the mayor’s office as the U.S. entered the war in Europe. Historians wrote that while in office, Magney “gave a vigorous administration of municipal affairs throughout the critical period of the war, and showed every qualification for heading the government of one of the best cities in the northwest.” Despite his success, Magney would not complete his term in office, resigning as mayor September 15, 1920, to run for District Court Judge. He won the election and remained a judge for decades, serving as associate justice of the Minnesota Supreme Court from 1943 to 1953. Magney is the namesake of two parks, Judge C. R. Magney State Park in Cook County, Minnesota, north of Grand Marais and Duluth’s Magney-Snively Park near Spirit Mountain, named for the judge and Sam Snively, Magney’s successor in the Mayor’s office. Learn much more about Magney here. | 361 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Master's mate is an obsolete rating which was used by the Royal Navy, United States Navy and merchant services in both countries for a senior petty officer who assisted the master. Master's mates evolved into the modern rank of Sub-Lieutenant in the Royal Navy, while in the merchant service they evolved into the numbered mates or officers.
Originally, a master's mate was an experienced petty officer who assisted the master but was not in line for promotion to lieutenant. By the mid-eighteenth century, he was far more likely to be a superior midshipman, still waiting to pass his examination for lieutenant or to receive his commission, but taking rather more responsibility aboard ship. Six master's mates were allowed on a first rate, three on a third rate, and two on most frigates.
Master's mates were experienced seamen, and were usually selected from the ranks of the quartermasters, who they supervised, or from the ranks of midshipmen who wanted more responsibility aboard ship; they were less commonly selected from other mates of warrant officers and able seamen. Master's mates were allowed to command vessels, walk the quarterdeck, and mess in the gunroom with the other warrant officers.
Master's mates were responsible for fitting out the ship, and making sure they had all the sailing supplies necessary for the voyage. They hoisted and lowered the anchor, and docked and undocked the ship. They would examine the ship daily, notifying the master if there were problems with the sails, masts, ropes, or pulleys. They executed the orders of the master, and would command in his place if he was sick or absent.
Normally master's mates worked on a three-watch system, with the lieutenants, so that one served as the deputy to the lieutenant on each watch. Master's mates generally assisted the master in navigating the ship and directly supervised the quartermasters in steering the ship. The master's mate with the highest seniority was appointed the head of the midshipman's berth and was responsible for teaching mathematics, navigation, and sailing lore. Master's mates had to keep detailed logs similar to midshipmen. They were also responsible for the division of the crew that included the petty officers.
Second master was a rating introduced in 1753 that indicated a deputy master on 3rd rate ships of the line or larger. Master's mates also acted as Second Master of vessels too small to be allocated a warranted Master. They were paid significantly more than master's mates, £5 5s per month. A second master was generally a master's mate who had passed his examination for master and was deemed worthy of being master of a vessel. Second masters were given the first opportunity for master vacancies as they occurred.
Passed midshipmen awaiting promotion often elected to become master's mates. Though formally the rating did not lead to promotion to lieutenant, master's mates were paid more than any other rating and were the only ratings allowed to command any sort of vessel. A midshipman who became master's mate earned an increase in pay from £1 13s 6p to £3 16s per month, but initially reduced his chances at a commission. Over time, however, an appointment of master's mate became considered a normal part of the path to a commission; the situation caused some confusion during the last part of the 18th century, when two parallel roles - master's mates trying to become masters, and former midshipmen working toward a commission - held the same title and responsibilities aboard ship.
By the first years of the nineteenth century, the prefix "master's" was dropped for passed midshipman, to distinguish them from master's mates in the navigator's branch. In 1824 two further grades were also introduced, consisting of master's assistants and second-class volunteers. These corresponded to midshipmen and first-class volunteers respectively in the executive line. From this point, passed midshipmen had the rating master's mate, abbreviated as mate, and prospective masters had the rating master's assistant. These changes helped eliminate the confusion caused by the mingling of midshipmen in the navigator's branch. In 1838 a Royal Commission, presided over by the Duke of Wellington, recommended the institution of the rank of mate as an official step between midshipman and lieutenant.
By 1840 there were two completely separate "ladders" for promotion:
|Executive Branch||Master's (Navigation) Branch|
|First Class Volunteer||Second Class Volunteer|
In 1861 mate was abolished in favor of sub-lieutenant. This made no practical difference to the officers in question since they continued to receive the same pay as before. But the new title was more distinctive; it brought them into line with their opposite numbers in the Army and established them as commissioned officers. In 1867, master was renamed navigating-lieutenant, so at the same time second master was renamed navigating sub-lieutenant and the master's assistant was renamed navigating midshipman.
Mate was revived in 1913 for the accelerated promotion of promising ratings, and mates ranked with sub-lieutenants but messed separately. In 1931 the title was abandoned again, and mates were re-mustered as sub-lieutenants.
In the U.S. Navy, the rank of master's mate was established 1797 as a warrant officer rank, but it was disestablished in 1813. After 1843 no more warrants were issued but those who had been appointed continued to hold their office and received their pay. In 1865, it was replaced by the rating mate.
By an act of the United States Congress in 1906, the mates on the U.S. Navy retired list were promoted to the next higher grade if they had creditable American Civil War service, which most of them had. They were given warrant rank and rated with the lowest grade of warrant officer.
Master's mate was re-established in 1838 as a rating for experienced seamen, and was not considered a Warrant rank. At the same time sailing master was renamed master, master commandant was renamed commander, and some masters were commissioned as officers, formally "Master in line for Promotion" to distinguish them from the warrant masters who would not be promoted.
In 1865, master's Mate was changed to "mate", and the United States Secretary of the Navy was authorized to increase their pay and to rate them from Seaman to Ordinary Seaman who had enlisted in the naval service for not less than two years. The act of 15 July 1870 gave formal recognition to mates as part of the naval forces and their pay was fixed at $900 when at sea, $700 on shore duty, and $500 on leave or awaiting orders.
The quota of mates in the Navy was not fixed, but there was maximum of about 842 on 1 January 1865, during the Civil War. The Navy stopped making appointments to the rank of mate in 1870 but allowed those in serving in the position to remain in service. The U.S. Navy Register of Commissioned Officers of 1871 shows there were 130 mates on active duty as of January 1st. The number gradually diminished until 1 July 1894 when there were only 27 remaining.
The Navy resumed appointing mates in 1897 in limited quantities. The 1899 Register shows a total of 34 mates on active duty with 12 being appointed in 1870 or earlier, 6 in 1897 and 16 in 1898. The revival of the rank of mate was only temporary as most of the remaining mates were promoted to the warrant officer rank of Boatswain in 1899. In the Navy Register of 1903 only 7 mates were listed as being on active duty. The Navy started appointing mates that year and by January 1, 1907 there were 39 on active duty. The revival was short lived as by January 1, 1908 there were no mates on active duty.
Before 1 August 1894 there had been no authority for retirement of these men, but on that date a law was passed increasing the pay of those in the Navy and providing that they should have the same benefits of retirement as warrant officers. One purpose of the act was to make the retired pay of mates large enough to induce them to retire. By an act of Congress in 1906, the mates on the U.S. Navy retired list were promoted to the next higher grade if they had creditable Civil War service, which most of them had. They were given warrant rank and rated with the lowest grade of warrant officer. They were still called mates, but whether they were officers or enlisted men apparently was not clear. A year after the passage of this act the Attorney General of the United States published the legal opinion that mates "occupy the status of both officers in the Navy and enlisted men".
In the merchant service, master's mates were the officers immediately subordinate to the master and frequently divided by seniority into first, second, third (etc.) mate which evolved into the modern terms First Mate, Second Mate and Third Mate. Since the 1930s, there has been a tendency in the merchant service to replace mate with officer (e.g. First Officer). | <urn:uuid:db93120b-bf8b-474b-ad40-10e605a64e79> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://popflock.com/learn?s=Master's_mate | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00038.warc.gz | en | 0.989384 | 1,848 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.2631186842918... | 2 | Master's mate is an obsolete rating which was used by the Royal Navy, United States Navy and merchant services in both countries for a senior petty officer who assisted the master. Master's mates evolved into the modern rank of Sub-Lieutenant in the Royal Navy, while in the merchant service they evolved into the numbered mates or officers.
Originally, a master's mate was an experienced petty officer who assisted the master but was not in line for promotion to lieutenant. By the mid-eighteenth century, he was far more likely to be a superior midshipman, still waiting to pass his examination for lieutenant or to receive his commission, but taking rather more responsibility aboard ship. Six master's mates were allowed on a first rate, three on a third rate, and two on most frigates.
Master's mates were experienced seamen, and were usually selected from the ranks of the quartermasters, who they supervised, or from the ranks of midshipmen who wanted more responsibility aboard ship; they were less commonly selected from other mates of warrant officers and able seamen. Master's mates were allowed to command vessels, walk the quarterdeck, and mess in the gunroom with the other warrant officers.
Master's mates were responsible for fitting out the ship, and making sure they had all the sailing supplies necessary for the voyage. They hoisted and lowered the anchor, and docked and undocked the ship. They would examine the ship daily, notifying the master if there were problems with the sails, masts, ropes, or pulleys. They executed the orders of the master, and would command in his place if he was sick or absent.
Normally master's mates worked on a three-watch system, with the lieutenants, so that one served as the deputy to the lieutenant on each watch. Master's mates generally assisted the master in navigating the ship and directly supervised the quartermasters in steering the ship. The master's mate with the highest seniority was appointed the head of the midshipman's berth and was responsible for teaching mathematics, navigation, and sailing lore. Master's mates had to keep detailed logs similar to midshipmen. They were also responsible for the division of the crew that included the petty officers.
Second master was a rating introduced in 1753 that indicated a deputy master on 3rd rate ships of the line or larger. Master's mates also acted as Second Master of vessels too small to be allocated a warranted Master. They were paid significantly more than master's mates, £5 5s per month. A second master was generally a master's mate who had passed his examination for master and was deemed worthy of being master of a vessel. Second masters were given the first opportunity for master vacancies as they occurred.
Passed midshipmen awaiting promotion often elected to become master's mates. Though formally the rating did not lead to promotion to lieutenant, master's mates were paid more than any other rating and were the only ratings allowed to command any sort of vessel. A midshipman who became master's mate earned an increase in pay from £1 13s 6p to £3 16s per month, but initially reduced his chances at a commission. Over time, however, an appointment of master's mate became considered a normal part of the path to a commission; the situation caused some confusion during the last part of the 18th century, when two parallel roles - master's mates trying to become masters, and former midshipmen working toward a commission - held the same title and responsibilities aboard ship.
By the first years of the nineteenth century, the prefix "master's" was dropped for passed midshipman, to distinguish them from master's mates in the navigator's branch. In 1824 two further grades were also introduced, consisting of master's assistants and second-class volunteers. These corresponded to midshipmen and first-class volunteers respectively in the executive line. From this point, passed midshipmen had the rating master's mate, abbreviated as mate, and prospective masters had the rating master's assistant. These changes helped eliminate the confusion caused by the mingling of midshipmen in the navigator's branch. In 1838 a Royal Commission, presided over by the Duke of Wellington, recommended the institution of the rank of mate as an official step between midshipman and lieutenant.
By 1840 there were two completely separate "ladders" for promotion:
|Executive Branch||Master's (Navigation) Branch|
|First Class Volunteer||Second Class Volunteer|
In 1861 mate was abolished in favor of sub-lieutenant. This made no practical difference to the officers in question since they continued to receive the same pay as before. But the new title was more distinctive; it brought them into line with their opposite numbers in the Army and established them as commissioned officers. In 1867, master was renamed navigating-lieutenant, so at the same time second master was renamed navigating sub-lieutenant and the master's assistant was renamed navigating midshipman.
Mate was revived in 1913 for the accelerated promotion of promising ratings, and mates ranked with sub-lieutenants but messed separately. In 1931 the title was abandoned again, and mates were re-mustered as sub-lieutenants.
In the U.S. Navy, the rank of master's mate was established 1797 as a warrant officer rank, but it was disestablished in 1813. After 1843 no more warrants were issued but those who had been appointed continued to hold their office and received their pay. In 1865, it was replaced by the rating mate.
By an act of the United States Congress in 1906, the mates on the U.S. Navy retired list were promoted to the next higher grade if they had creditable American Civil War service, which most of them had. They were given warrant rank and rated with the lowest grade of warrant officer.
Master's mate was re-established in 1838 as a rating for experienced seamen, and was not considered a Warrant rank. At the same time sailing master was renamed master, master commandant was renamed commander, and some masters were commissioned as officers, formally "Master in line for Promotion" to distinguish them from the warrant masters who would not be promoted.
In 1865, master's Mate was changed to "mate", and the United States Secretary of the Navy was authorized to increase their pay and to rate them from Seaman to Ordinary Seaman who had enlisted in the naval service for not less than two years. The act of 15 July 1870 gave formal recognition to mates as part of the naval forces and their pay was fixed at $900 when at sea, $700 on shore duty, and $500 on leave or awaiting orders.
The quota of mates in the Navy was not fixed, but there was maximum of about 842 on 1 January 1865, during the Civil War. The Navy stopped making appointments to the rank of mate in 1870 but allowed those in serving in the position to remain in service. The U.S. Navy Register of Commissioned Officers of 1871 shows there were 130 mates on active duty as of January 1st. The number gradually diminished until 1 July 1894 when there were only 27 remaining.
The Navy resumed appointing mates in 1897 in limited quantities. The 1899 Register shows a total of 34 mates on active duty with 12 being appointed in 1870 or earlier, 6 in 1897 and 16 in 1898. The revival of the rank of mate was only temporary as most of the remaining mates were promoted to the warrant officer rank of Boatswain in 1899. In the Navy Register of 1903 only 7 mates were listed as being on active duty. The Navy started appointing mates that year and by January 1, 1907 there were 39 on active duty. The revival was short lived as by January 1, 1908 there were no mates on active duty.
Before 1 August 1894 there had been no authority for retirement of these men, but on that date a law was passed increasing the pay of those in the Navy and providing that they should have the same benefits of retirement as warrant officers. One purpose of the act was to make the retired pay of mates large enough to induce them to retire. By an act of Congress in 1906, the mates on the U.S. Navy retired list were promoted to the next higher grade if they had creditable Civil War service, which most of them had. They were given warrant rank and rated with the lowest grade of warrant officer. They were still called mates, but whether they were officers or enlisted men apparently was not clear. A year after the passage of this act the Attorney General of the United States published the legal opinion that mates "occupy the status of both officers in the Navy and enlisted men".
In the merchant service, master's mates were the officers immediately subordinate to the master and frequently divided by seniority into first, second, third (etc.) mate which evolved into the modern terms First Mate, Second Mate and Third Mate. Since the 1930s, there has been a tendency in the merchant service to replace mate with officer (e.g. First Officer). | 1,975 | ENGLISH | 1 |
July 18, 1940: FDR received his third presidential nominaton
Do you remember Franklin Delano Roosevelt? As America’s 32nd president, FDR is well-known for courageously leading the nation through the Great Depression and World War II. Regarded as a prolific historical figure, FDR was one of the only presidents to ever serve three terms. Find out what really happened on the day that FDR received his third presidential nomination.
On January 30, 1882, Roosevelt was born to a wealthy businessman and his wife in Hyde Park, New York. From 1911 to 1913, he was elected to serve as a senator for the state of New York. After his time as a senator, Roosevelt became the Navy’s assistant secretary from 1913 to 1920. In 1929, the ambitious politician was selected as the governor of the Big Apple, a position that he held until 1932. It was then that FDR first tried his hand at a presidential election. However, Roosevelt was beaten by his competitor Herbert Hoover.
The New Deal
When Roosevelt was first elected to the presidency on March 4, 1933, he enacted several important social programs for the United States. In fact, it was FDR’s idea to create the New Deal, a socioeconomic law that created jobs for people who were out of work during the Great Depression. After a successful first term, Roosevelt was reelected to the presidency when he crushed opponent Alf Landon in the 1936 election.
Second World War
The day was July 18, 1940, when Roosevelt received his third nomination for the presidency by the Democratic Party Convention in Chicago, Illinois. While some critiqued FDR’s choice to run for another term as president, Roosevelt persevered. In 1940, Roosevelt conquered his running mate Wendell Wilkie again, spending his third term leading the country to victory during World War II. On April 12, 1945, FDR passed away. | <urn:uuid:5be04178-b678-458f-8ac8-18258fc15305> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.history101.com/july-18-1940-fdr-received-third-presidential-nominaton/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00141.warc.gz | en | 0.988776 | 385 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.55991637706756... | 5 | July 18, 1940: FDR received his third presidential nominaton
Do you remember Franklin Delano Roosevelt? As America’s 32nd president, FDR is well-known for courageously leading the nation through the Great Depression and World War II. Regarded as a prolific historical figure, FDR was one of the only presidents to ever serve three terms. Find out what really happened on the day that FDR received his third presidential nomination.
On January 30, 1882, Roosevelt was born to a wealthy businessman and his wife in Hyde Park, New York. From 1911 to 1913, he was elected to serve as a senator for the state of New York. After his time as a senator, Roosevelt became the Navy’s assistant secretary from 1913 to 1920. In 1929, the ambitious politician was selected as the governor of the Big Apple, a position that he held until 1932. It was then that FDR first tried his hand at a presidential election. However, Roosevelt was beaten by his competitor Herbert Hoover.
The New Deal
When Roosevelt was first elected to the presidency on March 4, 1933, he enacted several important social programs for the United States. In fact, it was FDR’s idea to create the New Deal, a socioeconomic law that created jobs for people who were out of work during the Great Depression. After a successful first term, Roosevelt was reelected to the presidency when he crushed opponent Alf Landon in the 1936 election.
Second World War
The day was July 18, 1940, when Roosevelt received his third nomination for the presidency by the Democratic Party Convention in Chicago, Illinois. While some critiqued FDR’s choice to run for another term as president, Roosevelt persevered. In 1940, Roosevelt conquered his running mate Wendell Wilkie again, spending his third term leading the country to victory during World War II. On April 12, 1945, FDR passed away. | 442 | ENGLISH | 1 |
William the Conqueror (c. 1027-1087 CE), also known as William, Duke of Normandy and William the Bastard, led the Norman Conquest of England in 1066 CE when he defeated and killed his rival Harold Godwinson at the Battle of Hastings. Crowned King William I of England on Christmas Day 1066 CE, William would only secure his new realm after five years of hard battles against rebels and foreign invaders. Continuing to reign over Normandy, William's policies of land redistribution amongst the Norman elite ensured the history of both England and France would be inseparable in the following centuries. An accomplished diplomat, gifted military commander, and ruthless overlord, William died of natural causes in 1087 CE at Caen, Normandy where his tomb still lies.
Family & Personal Life
William was born in Falaise, Normandy c. 1027 CE. He was the illegitimate son of Duke Robert I of Normandy (1028-1035 CE), hence he is sometimes referred to as William the Bastard. William’s mother was Herleve of Falaise, daughter of a wealthy merchant in Rouen who also performed the duties of a chamberlain to the ducal court. William’s half-brothers (they shared the same mother) were Odo of Bayeux, the bishop of that city and future Earl of Kent, and Robert (future) Count of Mortain. In 1053 CE (or 1050 CE in some sources) William married Mathilda (d. 1083 CE), the daughter of the Count of Flanders and the niece of Henry I of France (r. 1031-1060 CE) in a marriage which conveniently cemented the burgeoning diplomatic relations between the three regions. Together they would have four sons and four (or five) daughters.
William of Poitiers, an informed but obviously pro-Norman contemporary, describes the young duke in the following glowing terms in his 11th-century CE chronicle, History of William the Conqueror:
Now at last the most joyful and longed-for gladness dawned for those especially who desired peace and justice. Our duke, already adult in sagacity and bodily strength if not in years, took up the arms of knighthood whereat a tremor ran through all France. Armed and mounted he had no equal in all Gaul. It was a sight at once both delightful and terrible to see him managing his horse, girt with sword, his shield gleaming, his helmet and his lance alike menacing.
(Allen Brown, 18)
The description may sound like a eulogy but it is perhaps significant that the seal of the duke was a knight on horseback, the first such device employed by a European ruler and much-copied thereafter. William had other talents besides military ones, though, as he would show throughout his career. The duke was a meticulous planner, a master of seizing political opportunities for maximum gain, and an able administrator. William was also a great lover of hunting, and the strict forest laws he would much later introduce into England were, in part, aimed at ensuring his beloved deer were not molested by poachers. William also had a reputation as a fine archer.
Duke of Normandy
When Duke Robert died in Asia Minor while on pilgrimage, William became the Duke of Normandy in 1035 CE. Fortunately for William, his father had already secured oaths of loyalty from his barons regarding his son as his chosen heir. In reality, though, William was still only a child and so a guardian ruled in his name, Gilbert of Brionne. In 1040 CE, a civil war broke out in Normandy when Gilbert was murdered and rebel barons sought to expand their own lands, often by building castles. It would take seven long years for William to sort out his dukedom but he could at least call on powerful friends, notably the Archbishop of Rouen, William’s uncle Mauger, and the powerful husband of his mother, Herluin de Conteville. Finally, in 1047 CE and with the help of Henry I - who sought to protect the vital trade routes through Normandy and the future of one of his vassals - the rebels suffered a significant defeat at Val-ès-Dunes near Caen. There were still more battles to come and some notable sieges, including a three-year effort against the castle of Brionne, held by Guy of Burgundy, which ended in success for William.
The next 20 years would see a great increase in the power of the dukedom, not without a struggle, but the years of war would train William into one of the most formidable military strategists and field commanders of the Middle Ages (and also one of the luckiest ones). Embarking on a sustained campaign of war and expansion, especially against long-time rivals like Flanders and Anjou, William used any method available, including terror and mutilations as well as arranged marriages of political convenience for key members of his inner circle, to eventually become the most powerful noble in France.
William was now almost too powerful and, in 1053 CE, the French king chose to side with the Norman duke’s uncle, William of Arques, then a rebel baron. The duke, though, attacked the enemy’s supply train, and his uncle was obliged to surrender. There had to be a robust defence of Normandy in 1054 CE when a French force, looking for revenge for the events of the previous year, invaded. The French army was defeated at Mortemer, and again, against the same enemy but with an even more emphatic result, at Varaville in 1057 CE. King Henry barely escaped with his life at Varaville; the French king, stranded from half his army by a river in flood was furious but he could do nothing to prevent a massacre. William was unstoppable. In the coming years, he added to his dukedom several notable personal dependencies, including the Channel Islands (aka Îles Normandes), and the duchies of Brittany and Maine. This, along with the death of Henry of France and the fact that his young son was under the guardianship of William’s father-in-law, Robert of Flanders, meant William’s duchy was secure from its neighbours. The duke’s ambitions could now extend beyond France.
William set his sights on the throne of England but, still technically a vassal to the King of France, he could not attack without some prior justification and diplomacy. The Norman barons also had to be persuaded of the value of invading England but the promise of land, titles, and riches proved sufficient motivation there.
William proposed a justification for his invasion of England with no less a claim than he was the rightful king. This claim was based on the Duke's relationship with Edward the Confessor, king of England from 1042 to 1066 CE. Count Richard I of Normandy was Edward’s grandfather and William’s great-grandfather. William put it around that Edward, without children of his own, had once promised the Norman he would be Edward's official heir. As it turned out, on his deathbed Edward selected the Anglo-Saxon Harold Godwinson, a member of the enormously powerful Godwine family and then the foremost military commander in England, as his successor.
In another twist to William’s claim (at least according to Norman chroniclers), Harold had visited Normandy c. 1064 CE, where he had been captured by Count Guy of Ponthieu and then handed over to William (who put him to good use in his battles to subdue Conan, the count of Brittany). A condition of Harold’s release was that Harold promised to become William’s vassal and prepare the way for an invasion. Thus, William felt wronged when Harold was crowned Harold II of England in January 1066 CE. The Anglo-Saxon sources dispute much of this story but it was enough to convince other European kings that William had some right to invade. In addition, William even received the blessing of the Papacy, which had been at loggerheads with England’s Archbishop of Canterbury for some years, refusing to acknowledge he had any right to the role. Convinced he had both right and God on his side, William made meticulous preparations for an invasion of southern England in the summer of 1066 CE.
The Norman Conquest of England
It must be said that William was rather lucky in his invasion of England because his enemy Harold II was obliged to face another invasion just a few weeks before the Conqueror arrived, this one by Harald Hardrada, the king of Norway (aka Harold III, r. 1046-1066 CE). Harold saw off Harald at the Battle of Stamford Bridge near York on 25 September 1066 CE and then marched south to face William’s army of 5-8000 men including 1-2,000 cavalry. The two armies, probably similarly sized, clashed at Hastings on 14 October. With archers and cavalry against Anglo-Saxon infantry, William was victorious and Harold was killed. When reinforcements arrived from Normandy, William marched on London, first taking such key strongholds as Romney, Dover, Winchester, and Canterbury. Many of the Anglo-Saxon nobles and the archbishop of Canterbury swore allegiance to their new king, who was crowned on Christmas day 1066 CE in Westminster Abbey.
Now William I of England and Duke of Normandy, the Conqueror had to fight on for five more years before England was fully subdued. Scorched earth tactics, building hundreds of motte and bailey castles, imprisonments and mutilations of rebels at such key cities as Exeter and York, the seeing off of two mini-invasions from Ireland by Harold’s sons, the quashing of a Danish-rebel force in East Anglia, and the complete redistribution of estates into the hands of loyal Normans, all ensured William did eventually secure his new realm. The church was restructured, with Norman bishops getting the plum jobs, many important religious centres were moved closer to cities, and new cathedrals were built such as those at Winchester, York, and Canterbury.
William might have got himself a rich new kingdom but he did not ignore his lands in France, and he frequently returned there, often leaving England to be ruled by his half-brother Odo of Bayeux, Earl of Kent and his close friend William FitzOsbern, Earl of Hereford. Indeed, sometimes William had to fight to maintain his lands in France, notably against Fulk, count of Anjou in 1073 CE. Philip I, king of France (r. 1060-1108 CE), also became ambitious to nibble at William’s dukedom and support rebels within it, notably in Brittany. There was, too, a failed rebellion in England in 1075 CE. Led by Ralph de Gael, this minor conspiracy was put down without William even having to leave Normandy. Still, it was a sign of the inherent strains involved in having to juggle both a kingdom and a dukedom with plenty of nobles ever-eager to expand their interests in one or the other or both territories.
Then William’s long run of military victories came to a sudden end. In 1077 CE the duke was defeated near Dol in Brittany. Within a year another rebellion broke out, this time led by William’s own eldest son Robert, who felt he was not being given enough power of his own. Again, Philip of France took the opportunity to destabilise the situation and gave a castle - Gerberoi on the border with Normandy - for Robert to use as a base. William attempted a siege of Gerberoi, but his son seems to have learned rather too well the ways of war from his father, and William was defeated in a field engagement. Fortunately, William and Robert were reconciled and the younger man was needed, too, as he was sent to repel the raids into Northumbria coming from Scotland in 1079 CE.
Far from being a mere warlord, William was an able administrator. In 1086-7 CE the king ordered a comprehensive survey and record of all the landowners, property, tenants, and serfs of England. After the changeover of the Anglo-Saxon elite to Normans and massive redistributions of estates, the king was likely interested to know who owned what in his kingdom. The findings of the survey would be assembled into a single document, the Domesday Book (actually two books because one, Little Domesday, seems to be a more detailed record which was never condensed into the format of the larger volume, Great Domesday). It may be that Domesday Book was compiled so that a new tax could be accurately levied and to ensure landowners provided the correct feudal military service expected of them. The record could then be a very useful tool to ultimately pay for an army in order to face the threat of a Danish invasion of England which had looked imminent in 1085 CE. Domesday Book, the most comprehensive survey ever undertaken in a medieval kingdom and an invaluable insight into many aspects of daily life in medieval England, is today kept in the UK National Archives, London. It remains one of William's greatest achievements.
Death & Legacy
Fortunately for William, the Danish invasion never materialised. Canute IV of Denmark (r. 1080-1086 CE), who was planning the escapade, was murdered as part of a rebellion that was fuelled by the king’s imposition of taxes and fines to pay for his invasion fleet and army. Then, out of the blue, disaster struck while William was attacking the town of Mantes in retaliation for its raids on Normandy. On 9 September 1087 CE, William died from illness, perhaps from an injury riding his horse and exacerbated by the obesity that afflicted him in later life. He was buried in St. Stephen’s monastery in Caen, which he himself had built, although the funeral had its problems: a fire in neighbouring houses interrupted the procession, a man shouted out during the ceremony that the cathedral had been built on his father’s lands without any compensation, and the sarcophagus was so small that when they tried to push the corpulent corpse in the stomach burst and filled the cathedral with a noxious smell.
According to one medieval manuscript, the king’s epitaph went as follows:
Who governed the proud Normans, by his firm hand
constrained the Bretons vanquished by his arms;
The warriors of Maine he curbed by valour,
Kept in obedience to his rule and right.
The great king lies here in this little urn,
So small a house serves for a mighty lord.
(De obitu Willelmi, Allen Brown, 49)
The anti-Norman Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (entry for 1087 CE) gives the following, perhaps more balanced summary of William’s reign:
This king William of whom we speak was a very wise man, and very powerful and more worshipful and stronger than any predecessor of his had been. He was gentle to the good men who loved God, and stern beyond all measure to those people who resisted his will.
(quoted in Allen Brown, 79)
After William’s death, his English kingdom was taken over by his son William II Rufus (r. 1087-1100 CE). Meanwhile, William’s other son, Robert Curthose, took over the family lands in Normandy. Both rulers would struggle to keep their respective domains from usurpers and ambitious nobles. England and Normandy would only be ruled again by a single monarch from 1106 CE, six years into the reign of Henry I of England (r. 1100-1135 CE), another son of William the Conqueror.
William the Conqueror, then, lived an eventful life of more or less non-stop warfare and travel between England and northern France. It is perhaps the subsequent interlocking history of these two countries where we see William’s greatest legacy, for good and bad. By joining the two together, mixing the ruling elites and greatly increasing trade, the political and cultural repercussions of William’s conquest of England would be felt for centuries to come. | <urn:uuid:76fb4bab-dcae-4a56-94b6-4f591eac5b6a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ancient.eu/William_the_Conqueror/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00165.warc.gz | en | 0.981655 | 3,368 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.03279822... | 6 | William the Conqueror (c. 1027-1087 CE), also known as William, Duke of Normandy and William the Bastard, led the Norman Conquest of England in 1066 CE when he defeated and killed his rival Harold Godwinson at the Battle of Hastings. Crowned King William I of England on Christmas Day 1066 CE, William would only secure his new realm after five years of hard battles against rebels and foreign invaders. Continuing to reign over Normandy, William's policies of land redistribution amongst the Norman elite ensured the history of both England and France would be inseparable in the following centuries. An accomplished diplomat, gifted military commander, and ruthless overlord, William died of natural causes in 1087 CE at Caen, Normandy where his tomb still lies.
Family & Personal Life
William was born in Falaise, Normandy c. 1027 CE. He was the illegitimate son of Duke Robert I of Normandy (1028-1035 CE), hence he is sometimes referred to as William the Bastard. William’s mother was Herleve of Falaise, daughter of a wealthy merchant in Rouen who also performed the duties of a chamberlain to the ducal court. William’s half-brothers (they shared the same mother) were Odo of Bayeux, the bishop of that city and future Earl of Kent, and Robert (future) Count of Mortain. In 1053 CE (or 1050 CE in some sources) William married Mathilda (d. 1083 CE), the daughter of the Count of Flanders and the niece of Henry I of France (r. 1031-1060 CE) in a marriage which conveniently cemented the burgeoning diplomatic relations between the three regions. Together they would have four sons and four (or five) daughters.
William of Poitiers, an informed but obviously pro-Norman contemporary, describes the young duke in the following glowing terms in his 11th-century CE chronicle, History of William the Conqueror:
Now at last the most joyful and longed-for gladness dawned for those especially who desired peace and justice. Our duke, already adult in sagacity and bodily strength if not in years, took up the arms of knighthood whereat a tremor ran through all France. Armed and mounted he had no equal in all Gaul. It was a sight at once both delightful and terrible to see him managing his horse, girt with sword, his shield gleaming, his helmet and his lance alike menacing.
(Allen Brown, 18)
The description may sound like a eulogy but it is perhaps significant that the seal of the duke was a knight on horseback, the first such device employed by a European ruler and much-copied thereafter. William had other talents besides military ones, though, as he would show throughout his career. The duke was a meticulous planner, a master of seizing political opportunities for maximum gain, and an able administrator. William was also a great lover of hunting, and the strict forest laws he would much later introduce into England were, in part, aimed at ensuring his beloved deer were not molested by poachers. William also had a reputation as a fine archer.
Duke of Normandy
When Duke Robert died in Asia Minor while on pilgrimage, William became the Duke of Normandy in 1035 CE. Fortunately for William, his father had already secured oaths of loyalty from his barons regarding his son as his chosen heir. In reality, though, William was still only a child and so a guardian ruled in his name, Gilbert of Brionne. In 1040 CE, a civil war broke out in Normandy when Gilbert was murdered and rebel barons sought to expand their own lands, often by building castles. It would take seven long years for William to sort out his dukedom but he could at least call on powerful friends, notably the Archbishop of Rouen, William’s uncle Mauger, and the powerful husband of his mother, Herluin de Conteville. Finally, in 1047 CE and with the help of Henry I - who sought to protect the vital trade routes through Normandy and the future of one of his vassals - the rebels suffered a significant defeat at Val-ès-Dunes near Caen. There were still more battles to come and some notable sieges, including a three-year effort against the castle of Brionne, held by Guy of Burgundy, which ended in success for William.
The next 20 years would see a great increase in the power of the dukedom, not without a struggle, but the years of war would train William into one of the most formidable military strategists and field commanders of the Middle Ages (and also one of the luckiest ones). Embarking on a sustained campaign of war and expansion, especially against long-time rivals like Flanders and Anjou, William used any method available, including terror and mutilations as well as arranged marriages of political convenience for key members of his inner circle, to eventually become the most powerful noble in France.
William was now almost too powerful and, in 1053 CE, the French king chose to side with the Norman duke’s uncle, William of Arques, then a rebel baron. The duke, though, attacked the enemy’s supply train, and his uncle was obliged to surrender. There had to be a robust defence of Normandy in 1054 CE when a French force, looking for revenge for the events of the previous year, invaded. The French army was defeated at Mortemer, and again, against the same enemy but with an even more emphatic result, at Varaville in 1057 CE. King Henry barely escaped with his life at Varaville; the French king, stranded from half his army by a river in flood was furious but he could do nothing to prevent a massacre. William was unstoppable. In the coming years, he added to his dukedom several notable personal dependencies, including the Channel Islands (aka Îles Normandes), and the duchies of Brittany and Maine. This, along with the death of Henry of France and the fact that his young son was under the guardianship of William’s father-in-law, Robert of Flanders, meant William’s duchy was secure from its neighbours. The duke’s ambitions could now extend beyond France.
William set his sights on the throne of England but, still technically a vassal to the King of France, he could not attack without some prior justification and diplomacy. The Norman barons also had to be persuaded of the value of invading England but the promise of land, titles, and riches proved sufficient motivation there.
William proposed a justification for his invasion of England with no less a claim than he was the rightful king. This claim was based on the Duke's relationship with Edward the Confessor, king of England from 1042 to 1066 CE. Count Richard I of Normandy was Edward’s grandfather and William’s great-grandfather. William put it around that Edward, without children of his own, had once promised the Norman he would be Edward's official heir. As it turned out, on his deathbed Edward selected the Anglo-Saxon Harold Godwinson, a member of the enormously powerful Godwine family and then the foremost military commander in England, as his successor.
In another twist to William’s claim (at least according to Norman chroniclers), Harold had visited Normandy c. 1064 CE, where he had been captured by Count Guy of Ponthieu and then handed over to William (who put him to good use in his battles to subdue Conan, the count of Brittany). A condition of Harold’s release was that Harold promised to become William’s vassal and prepare the way for an invasion. Thus, William felt wronged when Harold was crowned Harold II of England in January 1066 CE. The Anglo-Saxon sources dispute much of this story but it was enough to convince other European kings that William had some right to invade. In addition, William even received the blessing of the Papacy, which had been at loggerheads with England’s Archbishop of Canterbury for some years, refusing to acknowledge he had any right to the role. Convinced he had both right and God on his side, William made meticulous preparations for an invasion of southern England in the summer of 1066 CE.
The Norman Conquest of England
It must be said that William was rather lucky in his invasion of England because his enemy Harold II was obliged to face another invasion just a few weeks before the Conqueror arrived, this one by Harald Hardrada, the king of Norway (aka Harold III, r. 1046-1066 CE). Harold saw off Harald at the Battle of Stamford Bridge near York on 25 September 1066 CE and then marched south to face William’s army of 5-8000 men including 1-2,000 cavalry. The two armies, probably similarly sized, clashed at Hastings on 14 October. With archers and cavalry against Anglo-Saxon infantry, William was victorious and Harold was killed. When reinforcements arrived from Normandy, William marched on London, first taking such key strongholds as Romney, Dover, Winchester, and Canterbury. Many of the Anglo-Saxon nobles and the archbishop of Canterbury swore allegiance to their new king, who was crowned on Christmas day 1066 CE in Westminster Abbey.
Now William I of England and Duke of Normandy, the Conqueror had to fight on for five more years before England was fully subdued. Scorched earth tactics, building hundreds of motte and bailey castles, imprisonments and mutilations of rebels at such key cities as Exeter and York, the seeing off of two mini-invasions from Ireland by Harold’s sons, the quashing of a Danish-rebel force in East Anglia, and the complete redistribution of estates into the hands of loyal Normans, all ensured William did eventually secure his new realm. The church was restructured, with Norman bishops getting the plum jobs, many important religious centres were moved closer to cities, and new cathedrals were built such as those at Winchester, York, and Canterbury.
William might have got himself a rich new kingdom but he did not ignore his lands in France, and he frequently returned there, often leaving England to be ruled by his half-brother Odo of Bayeux, Earl of Kent and his close friend William FitzOsbern, Earl of Hereford. Indeed, sometimes William had to fight to maintain his lands in France, notably against Fulk, count of Anjou in 1073 CE. Philip I, king of France (r. 1060-1108 CE), also became ambitious to nibble at William’s dukedom and support rebels within it, notably in Brittany. There was, too, a failed rebellion in England in 1075 CE. Led by Ralph de Gael, this minor conspiracy was put down without William even having to leave Normandy. Still, it was a sign of the inherent strains involved in having to juggle both a kingdom and a dukedom with plenty of nobles ever-eager to expand their interests in one or the other or both territories.
Then William’s long run of military victories came to a sudden end. In 1077 CE the duke was defeated near Dol in Brittany. Within a year another rebellion broke out, this time led by William’s own eldest son Robert, who felt he was not being given enough power of his own. Again, Philip of France took the opportunity to destabilise the situation and gave a castle - Gerberoi on the border with Normandy - for Robert to use as a base. William attempted a siege of Gerberoi, but his son seems to have learned rather too well the ways of war from his father, and William was defeated in a field engagement. Fortunately, William and Robert were reconciled and the younger man was needed, too, as he was sent to repel the raids into Northumbria coming from Scotland in 1079 CE.
Far from being a mere warlord, William was an able administrator. In 1086-7 CE the king ordered a comprehensive survey and record of all the landowners, property, tenants, and serfs of England. After the changeover of the Anglo-Saxon elite to Normans and massive redistributions of estates, the king was likely interested to know who owned what in his kingdom. The findings of the survey would be assembled into a single document, the Domesday Book (actually two books because one, Little Domesday, seems to be a more detailed record which was never condensed into the format of the larger volume, Great Domesday). It may be that Domesday Book was compiled so that a new tax could be accurately levied and to ensure landowners provided the correct feudal military service expected of them. The record could then be a very useful tool to ultimately pay for an army in order to face the threat of a Danish invasion of England which had looked imminent in 1085 CE. Domesday Book, the most comprehensive survey ever undertaken in a medieval kingdom and an invaluable insight into many aspects of daily life in medieval England, is today kept in the UK National Archives, London. It remains one of William's greatest achievements.
Death & Legacy
Fortunately for William, the Danish invasion never materialised. Canute IV of Denmark (r. 1080-1086 CE), who was planning the escapade, was murdered as part of a rebellion that was fuelled by the king’s imposition of taxes and fines to pay for his invasion fleet and army. Then, out of the blue, disaster struck while William was attacking the town of Mantes in retaliation for its raids on Normandy. On 9 September 1087 CE, William died from illness, perhaps from an injury riding his horse and exacerbated by the obesity that afflicted him in later life. He was buried in St. Stephen’s monastery in Caen, which he himself had built, although the funeral had its problems: a fire in neighbouring houses interrupted the procession, a man shouted out during the ceremony that the cathedral had been built on his father’s lands without any compensation, and the sarcophagus was so small that when they tried to push the corpulent corpse in the stomach burst and filled the cathedral with a noxious smell.
According to one medieval manuscript, the king’s epitaph went as follows:
Who governed the proud Normans, by his firm hand
constrained the Bretons vanquished by his arms;
The warriors of Maine he curbed by valour,
Kept in obedience to his rule and right.
The great king lies here in this little urn,
So small a house serves for a mighty lord.
(De obitu Willelmi, Allen Brown, 49)
The anti-Norman Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (entry for 1087 CE) gives the following, perhaps more balanced summary of William’s reign:
This king William of whom we speak was a very wise man, and very powerful and more worshipful and stronger than any predecessor of his had been. He was gentle to the good men who loved God, and stern beyond all measure to those people who resisted his will.
(quoted in Allen Brown, 79)
After William’s death, his English kingdom was taken over by his son William II Rufus (r. 1087-1100 CE). Meanwhile, William’s other son, Robert Curthose, took over the family lands in Normandy. Both rulers would struggle to keep their respective domains from usurpers and ambitious nobles. England and Normandy would only be ruled again by a single monarch from 1106 CE, six years into the reign of Henry I of England (r. 1100-1135 CE), another son of William the Conqueror.
William the Conqueror, then, lived an eventful life of more or less non-stop warfare and travel between England and northern France. It is perhaps the subsequent interlocking history of these two countries where we see William’s greatest legacy, for good and bad. By joining the two together, mixing the ruling elites and greatly increasing trade, the political and cultural repercussions of William’s conquest of England would be felt for centuries to come. | 3,429 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Coming of the Maori
4 — The Life of the Community
The Life of the Community
Each family household required essential buildings for sleeping, cooking, and storing food. The sleeping house (whare puni) served as a dormitory for the entire family and was built to shut out the cold air. The cooking house (whare umu) sheltered the shallow oven pit (umu) with its pile of cooking stones, cover mats, and other utensils. Its end walls were more open than those of the sleeping house to allow the escape of smoke. It could be used by slaves and menials for sleeping but not by the family.
When the family expanded to include a number of households, an assembly house (whare hui) was needed to accommodate the increased number at family conclaves and to lodge visitors. This usually took the form of a larger sleeping house (whare puni) which served two purposes. In the daytime, the meetings were held in the open space before the house; in bad weather and at night, within it. Hence the saying,
Ko Tu ki te awotea, ko Tahu ki te po.
Tu in the daytime, Tahu in the evening.
Tu refers to the war god Tu, for virile speeches with active movements on the feet and war dances of welcome were exchanged outside, and Tahu (to light) personified the milder and quieter reception within the lighted house at night. The establishment of a guest house and a marae plaza before it marked the growth of family strength and prestige.
In the old-time fortified villages, the various families had their establishments arranged on the different terraces. The highest ranking chief had the privilege of occupying the topmost flat, and ample space had to be provided for the marae before his guest house. To maintain his prestige, his guest house was the largest and best carved in the village. The significance of the carved guest house (whare whakairo) is brought out in the story of Taharakau.page 374
Taharakau was a chief who lived in the Poverty Bay area and who excelled at repartee. He visited a chief of high rank who, for some error, was living in a poorly constructed house out in the wilderness. Jade has always been a chiefly possession, and the exile had a bunch of jade cloak pins (aurei) attached to the shoulder border of the cloak he was wearing. Shrugging his shoulder so that the jade ornaments jingled, he asked, "Taharakau, what are the signs of chieftainship?" Taharakau, ignoring the sound meant to prompt his reply, answered,
He whare whakairo i tu ki roto
i te pa tuwatawata!
Te whare i tu kt te koraha, he kai na te ahi.
A carved house standing in a fortified village!
The house standing in the open is food for the fire.
After the acceptance of Christianity and its gospel of peace, the villages moved down from the fortified hills to the more accessible flats but the arrangement of family units and the central carved guest house with its assembly marae followed the established pattern.
The guest house, carved or uncarved, served various social needs and various names were applied to the one structure. Structurally it was an enlarged sleeping house (whare puni). If carved, it was also a whare whakairo. It functioned variously as an assembly house (whare hui), a council chamber (whare runanga) and a guest house (whare manuhiri). As the prestige of the village as well as that of the chief was gauged somewhat by the meeting house, no effort or expense was spared in employing master craftsmen to expend their greatest skill in carving the various parts. The meeting houses formed the social focus of the tribe, hence they were generally named after tribal ancestors. When the people assembled within its walls for tribal discussions, the orators were justified when they said, "We have gathered together within the bosom of our ancestor." The carved meeting houses were a source of pride to the people and they gave an atmosphere to the village that nothing else could equal.
The term marae was applied to the plaza before the guest house. In the cultural development which took place in New Zealand, the meeting house and the marae became complementary to each other and one could not function adequately without the other. People were welcomed with speech, song, dance, and food on the marae in the daytime and were further welcomed, entertained, and lodged within the house at night. In many important villages, the marae received an individual personal name, Te Papaiouru before the carved meeting house of Tamatekapua at Ohinemutu, for example. The prestige of a marae was sometimes built up to such a height that people of inferior rank were not allowed to deliver speeches on them.page 375
Inasmuch as the welcome by speech on the marae had to be followed by a welcome with food, the marae could not maintain its prestige unless it was supported by storehouses plentifully stocked with food. Thus the storehouses formed a third element in the complex which administered to the social needs of the tribe, maintaining and increasing its reputation with outside people. In addition to household stores it was necessary to have a reserve supply to assist in the extra demands made by tribal gatherings and, above all, by the entertainment of visitors. The home people could live upon scanty rations in times of scarcity, but visitors had to receive the best or shame enveloped the community. Thus social gatherings which involved invitations to outside tribes were arranged to fit in with the time when the storehouses were full, and outside tribes arranged ceremonial visits to coincide with the local seasons of plenty. However, the storehouses had to be ever ready to deal with emergencies, such as deaths. In addition to the family storehouses, the chief had a special storehouse on piles (pataka) which was often more elaborately carved than the guest house. It was the symbol of hospitality and was often given a proper name. The storehouse of Te Heuheu of Tokaanu was named Hinana, and because it was always stocked with preserved pigeons (huahua) from the inland forests and with dried whitebait (inanga) from the inland sea of Lake Taupo, the following saying was applied to it:
Hinana ki uta, Hinana ki tat.
Hinana inland, Hinana to the sea.
The marae, the guest house, and the storehouse formed a triple complex by which the social prestige of a tribe rose or fell.
In Maori communities, mutual help was a fundamental expression of blood kinship as well as human kindness. Only the skilled craftsmen, such as builders, carvers, and tattooers received recompense in food and material goods for their labour. The general tasks requiring a number of people were accomplished by community co-operation without thought of pay.
In the cultivation of the sweet potato, the ground was prepared and the soil loosened at intervals with digging sticks (ko) wielded by men who worked in unison to a kind of drill. Plots termed mara were prepared in this way for each family. Families attended to the heaping up of the mounds in their own plots and the planting of the seed tubers which came from their own supplies. The subsequent weeding and final digging up of the crop was attended to by the owners of the plots, but when one family had completed their work, they helped their neighbours. Later, the Irish potato superseded the sweet potato as the principal crop. I remember when we had but one plough in my own village. That one implement page 376ploughed the ground into plots of equal length and width, and the owners of the plots planted their own seed and attended to the weeding, hoeing, and digging, always receiving assistance from those who were free to help. The land was tribal land, and the plots were designated to the individual families by the older men in authority. The crop was gathered in baskets after being sorted, the smaller tubers being kept for next season's seed. The supply was carted to the village by those in charge of the available carts, but each family attended to the storing of their own crop in their own store pits. There was community co-operation in labour where required, but there was individual ownership of the plots and the resulting crops.
When gatherings took place, the feeding of the assembly was automatically a community undertaking by the whole village. Able-bodied men brought in loads of extra firewood which were stacked by the cooking places of each household. Others brought in bundles of flax which were also distributed to the cooking places for plaiting into the circular receptacles, termed kono, for holding the cooked food. Each household drew the vegetables from their own store pits but the question of the flesh food (kinaki) to go with the vegetables was a more serious problem. If the season was right, men went out fishing and the supply was distributed to the cooking fires. The women of each household collected shell fish and echinoderms, the kind depending on the natural resources of the neighbouring coast. In modern times, pigs were killed and distributed and cattle were bought and butchered to supply any local deficiency in the flesh-food supply. Any bought foods were paid for out of the community chest. With cheerful activity on the part of all, everything was ready by the time the people and the visitors had arrived. Without any fuss or confusion, the various households allocated the various duties. Men chopped the wood and prepared the fires. Women scraped baskets full of potatoes and plaited piles of kono platters. If there were such delicacies as dried fish and preserved pigeons in the storehouses, these were ready to be served for some of the meals.
The preparations for a meal are interesting. This is what I saw in my own village over fifty years ago. A man, who happened to be a Moriori named Mana, had somehow become accepted as the public announcer of the village. He was very capable and when the time approached to commence cooking, he toured the village and saw that all the fires were set for lighting and the vegetables and flesh food at hand. He then stood in the middle of the village and yelled at the top of his voice, "Ka tahu" ("Light up"). The cry was repeated by the nearer fireplaces and spread outwards to each end of the village. The wood was already stacked in the oven pits with the stones arranged above them. The commander of each fire, usually a woman, applied a match, and soon the smoke of the cooking page 377fires arose throughout the village. As the wood burned down, the heated stones fell to the bottom of the shallow pit where they rested on live charcoal. Mana, when he saw that the correct time had elapsed, took up his central position and yelled, "Ka tao" ("Cook"). The assistants at the fires levelled the heated stones into an even bed with a wooden stake, removing any unburnt wood. Water was sprinkled over the stones, and as the steam arose, women poured in the scraped potatoes to above the level of plaited flax bands (paepae) placed around the circumference of the pit, added the fish or meat, sprinkled more water, and quickly covered the mound of food with plaited oven covers (tapora). Then earth was heaped over the covers to seal the oven and prevent the escape of steam. The tao process was under way.
The time allowed for cooking was an hour or more but it was better to be on the sure side, for an uncooked oven of food brought shame to the housewife. Mana was associated with our family, and I have heard him ask the women who presided over our oven, "Kua maoa?" ("Is it cooked?") On receiving an affirmative reply, he took up his position and yelled, "Ka hura" ("Uncover"). The assistants at each oven immediately scraped off the earth and carefully removed the mat covers, taking care not to allow any earth to fall on the food. The women quickly placed the cooked potatoes in the kono containers and put portions of fish or meat on the top of the vegetables. When a sufficient number of kono had been filled, the rest of the food was left in the oven for the workers.
In our village, the meeting-house, with its marae, was set on a rise with an open space extending to the public road in front. The houses stretched away from either side of the middle space. Women and girls, carrying a kono in each hand, assembled at the nearest house on either side of the central space. Mana, on receiving from either side a signal that all were present, yelled his final command, "Ka hari" ("Carry"). The women in two lines then marched slowly in single file towards the marae, the leading women singing songs, joined by the chorus behind them. Every now and then, a short posture dance was performed to enliven the march, there being a number of songs and dances specially composed for processions carrying food. The procession having reached the marae, the food was laid down before the guests who sat in small groups to permit their hosts to serve everyone. The only available liquid in those days was water, and young men acting as waiters stood by with buckets of water and tin pannikins ready to serve those who called, "He wai" ("Water").
Gatherings usually lasted some days, and the feeding of the people went on during the whole time without any trouble. The organization was perfect and there were always people ready to do the work cheerfully. To break the monotony, shell fish, preserved pigeons, or whatever delicacy was available were served on some days. The guests derived pleasure page 378while the hosts acquired prestige. When the guests returned home, the stay-at-homes asked, "He aha nga kai o te hui?" ("What were the foods at the gathering?"). Reputations rose or fell upon the reply. When particular local foods were abundant, guests were given a special distribution to take home. I remember receiving a string of dried clams (pipi) from relatives who had been away to a distant gathering.
We have often been accused of wastefulness in holding such gatherings in modern times, but our critics belong to a culture based on a money economy and they cannot realize that there are emotional values which the individualist cannot feel.
The ohu Custom
Co-operation in labour took the form of working bees, termed ohu, which were frequently organized for clearing bush land for cultivations. Sometimes they were arranged to promote social intercourse between two tribes. The tribe owning the land sent out an invitation to another tribe to clear the land for them. The home tribe provided the food and entertainment and the visiting ohu put forth their best efforts to gain the approval of their hosts. Such exchanges gave pleasure to both sides and served to maintain friendship between the two tribes.
A curious story is connected with the visit of a Ngati Tama ohu to clear some land for a Taranaki tribe south of the present New Plymouth. The ohu speedily completed its task with a large stone adze named Poutamawhiria, to which a certain amount of magic power was ascribed. The working party had been fed with choice mussels from a local reef. They were so good that the Ngati Tama priest with the ohu decided to steal a portion of the reef. He waded out secretly to the reef, cut off its northern end with the adze, Poutamawhiria, and by means of magic incantations, floated it back to his own territory, where it is now fixed in the sea as the mussel-bearing reef named Paroa. However, Poutamawhiria marked its disapproval of the theft by allowing a chip to break off from one corner of its cutting edge. Generations later the adze disappeared, but a description of it was handed down orally. It was of very black polished stone about 16 inches in length, and it had a chip off one corner of its cutting edge. One night a young girl of the Ngati Tama dreamt that Poutamawhiria had been found at the neighbouring village of Pukearuhe by a European farmer named Black. The girl was so insistent that her father, Te Kapinga, visited Mr Black's home, where, to his intense surprise, Mrs Black produced a large stone adze which her husband had found recently. It was of polished black basalt, the right length, and it had a chip off one corner of the cutting edge. Mr Black arrived and, after hearing the story, very generously gave it to Te Kapinga as the representative of the rightful heirs. The Ngati Tama and Ngati Mutunga tribes held a meeting at whichpage 379
Poutamawhiria was laid in state on a flaxen robe on the marae, and the people greeted its return with a welcome of tears. The finder was publicly thanked and given a suitable present. Later, on a visit, I was shown Poutamawhiria. I looked doubtingly, perhaps, at Te Kapinga, as I felt the chipped corner. "Well," he replied, "If you examine the Taranaki reef, you will see that its northern end is cut off clean and if you examine the Paroa reef you will find that its southern end is cut off clean. Now if you were to bring the two reefs together, you would find that the two cut ends would fit perfectly." Who am I to gainsay such proof?
The system of the ohu co-operative labour prevailed throughout Polynesia. The spirit of the ohu exists among the Maori to-day but the shift to a money economy and the changes in food and occupation render it difficult to recapture the full atmosphere of the past.
As the primary motive for the long sea voyages of the Polynesians was to find land for new homes, the original ownership of land was based on prior discovery and occupation. The first arrivals in New Zealand found no one to oppose their settlement, and they spread out without trouble. The second set of settlers, under Toi and Whatonga, were allowed to settle peaceably in the Bay of Plenty area, and intermarriage with the women of the first settlers gave their progeny the right to inherit from the female side. Even in this period, however, armed conflicts were frequent and groups which were strong enough did not hesitate to extinguish the rights of prior discovery and occupation by conquest. An invading army may resemble a tidal wave, which, after sweeping over the land, subsides without increasing the ocean's permanent domain. The war party which returns to its own land after slaying and looting, does not increase its tribal territory. Conquest is interesting historically, but it cannot establish ownership over the conquered territory, unless the conquerors remain in occupation. During the second settlement period, though there were some changes in ownership owing to conquest, there was more than enough land to allow the developing tribes to find new areas for peaceful prior occupation.
The third wave of people came definitely to colonize, and if the story of Kupe's discovery is true, they must have expected to find the land uninhabited. The manner in which the historic canoes selected different parts of the coast for landing indicates that they wished to avoid clashing with each other. They had a certain respect for prior discovery of material things as well as land, as evidenced by the story of the stranded whale at Whangaparaoa. The first arrivals tied a rope to the whale to indicate ownership and then went inland to view the country. The second arrivals scorched a rope over a fire to make it appear old and then passed it under page 380the previous tie. On this trickery they based a claim to prior discovery. Ihenga of the Arawa canoe used a similar subterfuge by placing scorched-leaf offerings on a shrine and so depriving Tuarotorua of the rightful ownership to the land on the shores of Lake Rotorua. Neither story may have occurred as related, but the very fact that they are recorded in traditional history indicates that the rights of prior discovery or occupation were recognized and a guilty conscience led to the use of subterfuge to overcome those rights.
The third settlers established themselves on different parts of the coast, built their houses and villages, and cleared the land for their cultivations. They came into conflict with the earlier inhabitants and extended their territory by the right of conquest and occupation. With increasing population, they spread along the coast line until they met the expanding families of other canoes. Argument and conflict ended in the establishment of boundaries in which rivers, streams, and ranges formed convenient landmarks. Some groups spread inland and occupied the large river valleys and the areas around the inland lakes. Coastal land had its appeal in food supplies of sea fish and marine shell fish, and the inland areas had assets of fresh-water fish and shell fish with rich supplies of forest birds. The historical record is crowded with countless wars over land and the main causes of mortality were summed up in the saying,
He wahine, he whenua i mate ai te tangata.
Women and land are the reasons why men die.
In newly discovered or newly acquired territory, chiefs sometimes utilized their privilege of personal tapu by invoking the custom termed taunaha (to bespeak). They publicly named desirable portions of land after some part of their bodies and so prevented others from claiming them. On the landing of the Arawa canoe, Tamatekapua named a promontory after his nose and two other chiefs named portions of land after their abdomens.
The title (take) to the ownership of land was based on two main claims: right of inheritance through ancestors (take tupuna) and right of inheritance through conquest (take raupatu). The right of prior discovery became historically merged in ancestral right. Conquest (raupatu) alone did not confer right of ownership unless it was followed by occupation. If the invading party retired, the survivors of the defeated tribe could return and still own their land. Occupation to establish a title had to be continuous, as idiomatically expressed by the term ahi ka, or lit fire. So long as a people occupied the land, they kept their fires going to cook their food. Conversely, the absence of fires showed that the land had been vacated. Even if a conquering tribe did not leave a holding party, they might claim the land subsequently if it remained unoccupied. However, if some of the page 381conquered people evaded the invaders and remained on the land to keep their fires alight, the right of ownership of the defeated people was not extinguished. When the Waikato confederation invaded Taranaki, they drove the Atiawa out of their territory and the Atiawa migrated south to establish homes in exile. Later, the Waikato tribes claimed ownership of the Taranaki territory by right of conquest. However it was proved conclusively that some families of the Atiawa had remained on the land and, by keeping their fires alight, had prevented the tribal rights of ownership from being extinguished. When conquered territory was occupied for some generations, the title by conquest became a historical event and the functioning title became that of ancestral inheritance (take tupuna).
A third and rarer title, termed tuku (to cede), included lands which were ceded in compliance with some custom, such as that of paying a raiding party (taua wahine) as recompense for the infidelity of a tribal woman to her husband. However, no matter what the title, the length of tenure of the land depended on the military strength of the people to hold it I once heard a Ngapuhi chief criticise the British for not observing the Treaty of Waitangi to the speaker's satisfaction. He held that as the Maori were the original owners of the land, the land should be returned to them. It so happened that the nearby land had been conquered by Rahiri, a noted ancestor of the Ngapuhi, and he had driven out the Ngati Pou who were the original owners. To create a diversion, I asked the orator what sort of treaty the Ngapuhi had given the Ngati Pou. An amusing discussion followed mainly directed towards proving the dissimilarity of the two events.
In the course of time, the principal tribes with their subtribes came to occupy definite areas with fixed boundaries. The love of their own territory developed to an absorbing degree, for tribal history was written over its hills and vales, its rivers, streams, and lakes, and upon its cliffs and shores. The earth and caves held the bones of their illustrious dead, and dirges and laments teemed with references to the love lavished upon the natural features of their home lands. The prestige of the tribe was associated with their marae sites and terraced hill forts, and their religious concepts were bound to their tuahu shrines. Captives in distant lands have begged for a pebble, a bunch of leaves, or a handful of earth from the home land that they might weep over a symbol of home. It is the everlasting hills of one's own deserted territory that welcome the wanderer home and it is the ceaseless crooning of the waves against a lone shore that perpetuates the sound of voices that are still.
With the love of home territory so strong, the desire to occupy other lands by conquest faded. The tribes continued to have their quarrels and feuds but war parties returned home with plunder and captives, after satisfying their desire for military glory. However, this period of land page 382stabilization was rudely shattered by the advent of Europeans and their introduction of firearms. The Ngapuhi in the North, armed with guns swept over the whole of the North Island but they returned without disturbing the existing distribution of tribal lands. The Waikato and King Country tribes drove Te Rauparaha and his valiant Ngati Toa out of their tribal lands at Kawhia and occupied them. One of the most touching laments in Maori poetry is Te Rauparaha's farewell to Kawhia. The Ngati Toa, still strong and unbeaten in spirit, marched south and dispossessed the tribes occupying the Otaki area near Wellington. Sections of the Ngati Raukawa and the Atiawa joined them and conquest with occupation spread north to Horowhenua, south to Wellington, and crossed Cook Strait to the Marlborough and Nelson districts. The Waikato confederation had followed up the conquest of Kawhia by invading Taranaki, but they rolled back without extinguishing the lighted fires (ahi ka) which preserved the right of ownership for those who were to return later. The Ngati Tama and Ngati Mutunga, who formed part of the Atiawa forces, occupied the shores of Wellington Harbour but, influenced by stories of the rich supplies of fish, shell fish, and sea birds at Chatham Islands, they crossed over and dispossessed the peaceful Moriori owners. Later, the Ngati Tama, Ngati Mutunga, and Atiawa returned to the Taranaki lands of the unextinguished fires, but sections remained in occupation of the conquered lands to the south. These post-European changes in the distribution of tribal lands may be directly attributed to the acquisition of firearms.
In the history of occupation which ultimately led to the fixing of tribal boundaries, the enlarging families, which became subtribes, spread to occupy plains and valleys for cultivation and hill tops for villages. They had adjusted their movements to the topographical nature of the country. In doing so, they established their rights to the localities which they occupied. Their system of community co-operation in cultivation and sharing the natural resources of their territory inhibited any trend towards individualism and the individual ownership of land. The land belonged to the subtribe and the tribe. It was owned by a number of people, for only numbers could hold it against outside conquest and occupation. The individual had his share in the common ownership, but he could not be said to own any particular portion in perpetuity. He had the use of particular portions and his neighbours respected his allotment as he respected theirs. He had the use of the land during his lifetime and his heirs had the use of it during their lifetime. Cultivations were made in a certain locality in one year and changed to another locality in another year. Even the sites of villages were changed at times. Maori lands occupied the same position as entailed estates and could not be alienated by individuals. Thus they formed a fluid asset which could be adjusted to meet the varying needs of succeeding generations.page 383
The advent of Europeans introduced a totally different system of land tenure, in which individualization of land with fixed boundaries for even small plots was the essential feature. In order to acquire land for themselves, they had to introduce the additional foreign innovation of alienation by sale. The early chiefs, bemused by the rattle of hoop iron and tin pannikins, sold large areas of tribal land for the cheap products of English factories. It has been said that the chiefs and the people thought that they were merely giving the newcomer the right to use the land, not realizing that they were parting with their tribal heritage forever. Probably this was true of the early sales.
The alienation of land became so alarming that the more thoughtful chiefs met, and their deliberations resulted in the Kotahitanga movement (Unity) to oppose the further sale of Maori lands. To add prestige to the movement, a chief from the Waikato tribes was finally selected as the head of the organization and given the borrowed title of king. When Wiremu Kingi of the Atiawa confederation was forced to resort to arms to oppose the alienation of tribal lands at Waitara by a forced sale, the Waikato tribes assisted in the war which ensued. However, in spite of opposition, native lands had to be acquired somehow for the many European settlers.
The Government, to salve its conscience by some form of legal procedure, set up the Native Land Court to administer land laws which attempted to give expression to Maori custom and usage. The claims of various tribes to their lands were investigated, and inheritance supported by genealogical evidence and tribal history was fully recognized. Lands no longer occupied, owing to the decrease in population caused by post-European wars and introduced diseases, were awarded on proof being adduced of previous occupation. Previous occupation was evidenced by the sites of old forts, named cultivations, burial places, and tribal history which recorded the names of the ancestral occupants. The tales of the conquests which led to occupation were told in detail, and the records of the Maori Land Court should contain rich material concerning tribal history. The fact that the land was held in common was recognized and the claimants submitted lists of owners in the block under investigation. The allocation of shares in a block to individuals or heads of families was influenced by social position in the tribe, the chiefs receiving more than those of lower rank. The boundaries of the blocks, defined according to native landmarks, and the total number of shares with their allocation to shareholders were fixed by the Court. The value per share in acreage was usually not known at the time, for the actual survey of the block, owing to an insufficient number of surveyors and the expense involved, lagged far behind the time of the Court's award.page 384
The Government then proceeded to purchase blocks of native land for European settlement, but the right of common ownership having been recognized by law, a majority of the shares had to be signed by their holders before the purchase could be made. The total purchase money was divided among the shareholders according to their shares. Subsequent surveys, in some instances, showed that the actual acreage was more than the estimated number of acres purchased. I do not know whether the Government reaped the benefit of the surplus or whether the shareholders received a post mortem dividend. In old land transactions, much depended on the amount of agitation raised by the erstwhile owners and the consideration received by their petitions to Parliament. Suffice it to say that large areas of native land were sold for a mess of pottage which was speedily gulped down. Looking back over the vista of wasteful years, one cannot help wishing that successive Governments had invested the proceeds of the sales of tribal lands in some trust from which annual payments of interest could have been paid. Had such been done, the descendants of our improvident ancestors would have continued to harvest the annual crops from their converted ancestral lands.
During the agitation for acquiring Maori lands for close farming, no thought seems to have occurred to our early legislators that the Maori owners might be educated to farm their own lands as efficiently as Europeans. Sir James Carroll, while Minister of Maori Affairs, tried to hold back some of the desired Maori land against the day when the owners would be sufficiently advanced to utilise it along European lines. This delaying action, disparagingly referred to as the taihoa policy, was anathematized by European buyers and adversely criticized by short-sighted owners willing to sell. However, delay without action could not survive indefinitely. The first action took place on the east coast in the territory of the Ngati Porou. Under the inspired leadership of Sir Apirana Ngata, M.P. for the Eastern Maori Electorate, remaining blocks of Maori land held in common were incorporated and administered as sheep stations by committees elected by the owners. The scheme proved a success and demonstrated the hitherto unbelieved fact that the Maori sheep farmers could be as good and better than some of their pakeha competitors. However, the Maori lands had been pared down in most districts to holdings not large enough for sheep farming and some of the sheep runs could be cut down profitably for closer settlement. Dairy farming had become the backbone of the Dominion and many Maori with small holdings in the Taranaki district and the South Island were making a living out of dairy farming. The agile mind of Apirana Ngata turned to dairy farming as a solution to the problem of the Maori making the most out of the little they had remaining. While Minister of Maori Affairs, he was able to inaugurate a policy of State aid in financing the breaking-in page 385of smaller areas of native land and stocking them as dairy farms to be managed by the Maori owners themselves. This was the first instance in which the State advanced funds to enable the Maori to make practical progress with their own lands, and it should be recognized that this over-long delayed act of justice was due to the courage and faith of a Maori in his own people.
In enacting laws to give expression to the customs of the past, complications were bound to occur. The Maori, as a member of a tribe, inherited shares in the different blocks that formerly comprised the tribal territory. In former days, his ancestors moved about and cultivated here to-day and there to-morrow without any inconvenience. In the present age, scattered holdings of a few acres here and a few acres there cannot be efficiently farmed by the same owner. If it were possible, however, to combine the scattered shares into one holding, the result would be a decent sized farm which could be worked with profit. To help on the dairy farming project, Ngata worked out a scheme of consolidation whereby owners could exchange their shares in different blocks and even buy some out so that the scattered holdings could be consolidated in one locality. The task was difficult, complicated, and tedious and could be accomplished only through Government aid. However, a number of dairy farms are now operating successfully through the consolidation scheme.
Another complication followed the conversion of the fluid use of land by the community to the fixed ownership by individual families. In former times, large and small families were merged together and individuals in each generation enjoyed equal rights to the usage of tribal territory. Now, the family is confined to a fixed portion with surveyed boundaries beyond which it cannot exude. Though the family may increase in number in each generation, the plot of family land remains the same in size, and, as each generation inherits from the preceding generation, the size and value of individual shares will progressively decrease to the infinitesimal.
Small areas of land with multiple owners were a problem. An individual shareholder with energy and ambition was deterred from putting his labour and money into farming the land because those who toiled not could claim an unearned share of his results. Under such circumstances, the easiest way to avoid conflict, was to lease the land to a European and divide the annual rent, no matter how small the individual shares might become. Another of the innovations introduced by the change in land tenure is the imposition of land tax, but more advanced cultures than that of the Maori have shared a similar reluctance to accept the inevitable.
The Maori can no longer be accused of holding large areas of unutilized land and so retarding settlement. Tribal territory, as such, has ceased to exist with the exception of small reserves enclosing the sites of villages page 386where tribal feeling can still find expression. The lands remaining to the Maori are far from being sufficient to enable them all to become farmers. Those who have lands have gone through a process of evolution and, against almost overwhelming odds, have reached the stage where they are endeavouring to make the best use of what they have. Those who have not must seek other avenues of livelihood. | <urn:uuid:b161a7a8-0cff-4380-adcb-d22d12f7cbaa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-BucTheC-t1-g1-t3-body1-d5.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00274.warc.gz | en | 0.981055 | 7,806 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.6857938766479492,... | 2 | The Coming of the Maori
4 — The Life of the Community
The Life of the Community
Each family household required essential buildings for sleeping, cooking, and storing food. The sleeping house (whare puni) served as a dormitory for the entire family and was built to shut out the cold air. The cooking house (whare umu) sheltered the shallow oven pit (umu) with its pile of cooking stones, cover mats, and other utensils. Its end walls were more open than those of the sleeping house to allow the escape of smoke. It could be used by slaves and menials for sleeping but not by the family.
When the family expanded to include a number of households, an assembly house (whare hui) was needed to accommodate the increased number at family conclaves and to lodge visitors. This usually took the form of a larger sleeping house (whare puni) which served two purposes. In the daytime, the meetings were held in the open space before the house; in bad weather and at night, within it. Hence the saying,
Ko Tu ki te awotea, ko Tahu ki te po.
Tu in the daytime, Tahu in the evening.
Tu refers to the war god Tu, for virile speeches with active movements on the feet and war dances of welcome were exchanged outside, and Tahu (to light) personified the milder and quieter reception within the lighted house at night. The establishment of a guest house and a marae plaza before it marked the growth of family strength and prestige.
In the old-time fortified villages, the various families had their establishments arranged on the different terraces. The highest ranking chief had the privilege of occupying the topmost flat, and ample space had to be provided for the marae before his guest house. To maintain his prestige, his guest house was the largest and best carved in the village. The significance of the carved guest house (whare whakairo) is brought out in the story of Taharakau.page 374
Taharakau was a chief who lived in the Poverty Bay area and who excelled at repartee. He visited a chief of high rank who, for some error, was living in a poorly constructed house out in the wilderness. Jade has always been a chiefly possession, and the exile had a bunch of jade cloak pins (aurei) attached to the shoulder border of the cloak he was wearing. Shrugging his shoulder so that the jade ornaments jingled, he asked, "Taharakau, what are the signs of chieftainship?" Taharakau, ignoring the sound meant to prompt his reply, answered,
He whare whakairo i tu ki roto
i te pa tuwatawata!
Te whare i tu kt te koraha, he kai na te ahi.
A carved house standing in a fortified village!
The house standing in the open is food for the fire.
After the acceptance of Christianity and its gospel of peace, the villages moved down from the fortified hills to the more accessible flats but the arrangement of family units and the central carved guest house with its assembly marae followed the established pattern.
The guest house, carved or uncarved, served various social needs and various names were applied to the one structure. Structurally it was an enlarged sleeping house (whare puni). If carved, it was also a whare whakairo. It functioned variously as an assembly house (whare hui), a council chamber (whare runanga) and a guest house (whare manuhiri). As the prestige of the village as well as that of the chief was gauged somewhat by the meeting house, no effort or expense was spared in employing master craftsmen to expend their greatest skill in carving the various parts. The meeting houses formed the social focus of the tribe, hence they were generally named after tribal ancestors. When the people assembled within its walls for tribal discussions, the orators were justified when they said, "We have gathered together within the bosom of our ancestor." The carved meeting houses were a source of pride to the people and they gave an atmosphere to the village that nothing else could equal.
The term marae was applied to the plaza before the guest house. In the cultural development which took place in New Zealand, the meeting house and the marae became complementary to each other and one could not function adequately without the other. People were welcomed with speech, song, dance, and food on the marae in the daytime and were further welcomed, entertained, and lodged within the house at night. In many important villages, the marae received an individual personal name, Te Papaiouru before the carved meeting house of Tamatekapua at Ohinemutu, for example. The prestige of a marae was sometimes built up to such a height that people of inferior rank were not allowed to deliver speeches on them.page 375
Inasmuch as the welcome by speech on the marae had to be followed by a welcome with food, the marae could not maintain its prestige unless it was supported by storehouses plentifully stocked with food. Thus the storehouses formed a third element in the complex which administered to the social needs of the tribe, maintaining and increasing its reputation with outside people. In addition to household stores it was necessary to have a reserve supply to assist in the extra demands made by tribal gatherings and, above all, by the entertainment of visitors. The home people could live upon scanty rations in times of scarcity, but visitors had to receive the best or shame enveloped the community. Thus social gatherings which involved invitations to outside tribes were arranged to fit in with the time when the storehouses were full, and outside tribes arranged ceremonial visits to coincide with the local seasons of plenty. However, the storehouses had to be ever ready to deal with emergencies, such as deaths. In addition to the family storehouses, the chief had a special storehouse on piles (pataka) which was often more elaborately carved than the guest house. It was the symbol of hospitality and was often given a proper name. The storehouse of Te Heuheu of Tokaanu was named Hinana, and because it was always stocked with preserved pigeons (huahua) from the inland forests and with dried whitebait (inanga) from the inland sea of Lake Taupo, the following saying was applied to it:
Hinana ki uta, Hinana ki tat.
Hinana inland, Hinana to the sea.
The marae, the guest house, and the storehouse formed a triple complex by which the social prestige of a tribe rose or fell.
In Maori communities, mutual help was a fundamental expression of blood kinship as well as human kindness. Only the skilled craftsmen, such as builders, carvers, and tattooers received recompense in food and material goods for their labour. The general tasks requiring a number of people were accomplished by community co-operation without thought of pay.
In the cultivation of the sweet potato, the ground was prepared and the soil loosened at intervals with digging sticks (ko) wielded by men who worked in unison to a kind of drill. Plots termed mara were prepared in this way for each family. Families attended to the heaping up of the mounds in their own plots and the planting of the seed tubers which came from their own supplies. The subsequent weeding and final digging up of the crop was attended to by the owners of the plots, but when one family had completed their work, they helped their neighbours. Later, the Irish potato superseded the sweet potato as the principal crop. I remember when we had but one plough in my own village. That one implement page 376ploughed the ground into plots of equal length and width, and the owners of the plots planted their own seed and attended to the weeding, hoeing, and digging, always receiving assistance from those who were free to help. The land was tribal land, and the plots were designated to the individual families by the older men in authority. The crop was gathered in baskets after being sorted, the smaller tubers being kept for next season's seed. The supply was carted to the village by those in charge of the available carts, but each family attended to the storing of their own crop in their own store pits. There was community co-operation in labour where required, but there was individual ownership of the plots and the resulting crops.
When gatherings took place, the feeding of the assembly was automatically a community undertaking by the whole village. Able-bodied men brought in loads of extra firewood which were stacked by the cooking places of each household. Others brought in bundles of flax which were also distributed to the cooking places for plaiting into the circular receptacles, termed kono, for holding the cooked food. Each household drew the vegetables from their own store pits but the question of the flesh food (kinaki) to go with the vegetables was a more serious problem. If the season was right, men went out fishing and the supply was distributed to the cooking fires. The women of each household collected shell fish and echinoderms, the kind depending on the natural resources of the neighbouring coast. In modern times, pigs were killed and distributed and cattle were bought and butchered to supply any local deficiency in the flesh-food supply. Any bought foods were paid for out of the community chest. With cheerful activity on the part of all, everything was ready by the time the people and the visitors had arrived. Without any fuss or confusion, the various households allocated the various duties. Men chopped the wood and prepared the fires. Women scraped baskets full of potatoes and plaited piles of kono platters. If there were such delicacies as dried fish and preserved pigeons in the storehouses, these were ready to be served for some of the meals.
The preparations for a meal are interesting. This is what I saw in my own village over fifty years ago. A man, who happened to be a Moriori named Mana, had somehow become accepted as the public announcer of the village. He was very capable and when the time approached to commence cooking, he toured the village and saw that all the fires were set for lighting and the vegetables and flesh food at hand. He then stood in the middle of the village and yelled at the top of his voice, "Ka tahu" ("Light up"). The cry was repeated by the nearer fireplaces and spread outwards to each end of the village. The wood was already stacked in the oven pits with the stones arranged above them. The commander of each fire, usually a woman, applied a match, and soon the smoke of the cooking page 377fires arose throughout the village. As the wood burned down, the heated stones fell to the bottom of the shallow pit where they rested on live charcoal. Mana, when he saw that the correct time had elapsed, took up his central position and yelled, "Ka tao" ("Cook"). The assistants at the fires levelled the heated stones into an even bed with a wooden stake, removing any unburnt wood. Water was sprinkled over the stones, and as the steam arose, women poured in the scraped potatoes to above the level of plaited flax bands (paepae) placed around the circumference of the pit, added the fish or meat, sprinkled more water, and quickly covered the mound of food with plaited oven covers (tapora). Then earth was heaped over the covers to seal the oven and prevent the escape of steam. The tao process was under way.
The time allowed for cooking was an hour or more but it was better to be on the sure side, for an uncooked oven of food brought shame to the housewife. Mana was associated with our family, and I have heard him ask the women who presided over our oven, "Kua maoa?" ("Is it cooked?") On receiving an affirmative reply, he took up his position and yelled, "Ka hura" ("Uncover"). The assistants at each oven immediately scraped off the earth and carefully removed the mat covers, taking care not to allow any earth to fall on the food. The women quickly placed the cooked potatoes in the kono containers and put portions of fish or meat on the top of the vegetables. When a sufficient number of kono had been filled, the rest of the food was left in the oven for the workers.
In our village, the meeting-house, with its marae, was set on a rise with an open space extending to the public road in front. The houses stretched away from either side of the middle space. Women and girls, carrying a kono in each hand, assembled at the nearest house on either side of the central space. Mana, on receiving from either side a signal that all were present, yelled his final command, "Ka hari" ("Carry"). The women in two lines then marched slowly in single file towards the marae, the leading women singing songs, joined by the chorus behind them. Every now and then, a short posture dance was performed to enliven the march, there being a number of songs and dances specially composed for processions carrying food. The procession having reached the marae, the food was laid down before the guests who sat in small groups to permit their hosts to serve everyone. The only available liquid in those days was water, and young men acting as waiters stood by with buckets of water and tin pannikins ready to serve those who called, "He wai" ("Water").
Gatherings usually lasted some days, and the feeding of the people went on during the whole time without any trouble. The organization was perfect and there were always people ready to do the work cheerfully. To break the monotony, shell fish, preserved pigeons, or whatever delicacy was available were served on some days. The guests derived pleasure page 378while the hosts acquired prestige. When the guests returned home, the stay-at-homes asked, "He aha nga kai o te hui?" ("What were the foods at the gathering?"). Reputations rose or fell upon the reply. When particular local foods were abundant, guests were given a special distribution to take home. I remember receiving a string of dried clams (pipi) from relatives who had been away to a distant gathering.
We have often been accused of wastefulness in holding such gatherings in modern times, but our critics belong to a culture based on a money economy and they cannot realize that there are emotional values which the individualist cannot feel.
The ohu Custom
Co-operation in labour took the form of working bees, termed ohu, which were frequently organized for clearing bush land for cultivations. Sometimes they were arranged to promote social intercourse between two tribes. The tribe owning the land sent out an invitation to another tribe to clear the land for them. The home tribe provided the food and entertainment and the visiting ohu put forth their best efforts to gain the approval of their hosts. Such exchanges gave pleasure to both sides and served to maintain friendship between the two tribes.
A curious story is connected with the visit of a Ngati Tama ohu to clear some land for a Taranaki tribe south of the present New Plymouth. The ohu speedily completed its task with a large stone adze named Poutamawhiria, to which a certain amount of magic power was ascribed. The working party had been fed with choice mussels from a local reef. They were so good that the Ngati Tama priest with the ohu decided to steal a portion of the reef. He waded out secretly to the reef, cut off its northern end with the adze, Poutamawhiria, and by means of magic incantations, floated it back to his own territory, where it is now fixed in the sea as the mussel-bearing reef named Paroa. However, Poutamawhiria marked its disapproval of the theft by allowing a chip to break off from one corner of its cutting edge. Generations later the adze disappeared, but a description of it was handed down orally. It was of very black polished stone about 16 inches in length, and it had a chip off one corner of its cutting edge. One night a young girl of the Ngati Tama dreamt that Poutamawhiria had been found at the neighbouring village of Pukearuhe by a European farmer named Black. The girl was so insistent that her father, Te Kapinga, visited Mr Black's home, where, to his intense surprise, Mrs Black produced a large stone adze which her husband had found recently. It was of polished black basalt, the right length, and it had a chip off one corner of the cutting edge. Mr Black arrived and, after hearing the story, very generously gave it to Te Kapinga as the representative of the rightful heirs. The Ngati Tama and Ngati Mutunga tribes held a meeting at whichpage 379
Poutamawhiria was laid in state on a flaxen robe on the marae, and the people greeted its return with a welcome of tears. The finder was publicly thanked and given a suitable present. Later, on a visit, I was shown Poutamawhiria. I looked doubtingly, perhaps, at Te Kapinga, as I felt the chipped corner. "Well," he replied, "If you examine the Taranaki reef, you will see that its northern end is cut off clean and if you examine the Paroa reef you will find that its southern end is cut off clean. Now if you were to bring the two reefs together, you would find that the two cut ends would fit perfectly." Who am I to gainsay such proof?
The system of the ohu co-operative labour prevailed throughout Polynesia. The spirit of the ohu exists among the Maori to-day but the shift to a money economy and the changes in food and occupation render it difficult to recapture the full atmosphere of the past.
As the primary motive for the long sea voyages of the Polynesians was to find land for new homes, the original ownership of land was based on prior discovery and occupation. The first arrivals in New Zealand found no one to oppose their settlement, and they spread out without trouble. The second set of settlers, under Toi and Whatonga, were allowed to settle peaceably in the Bay of Plenty area, and intermarriage with the women of the first settlers gave their progeny the right to inherit from the female side. Even in this period, however, armed conflicts were frequent and groups which were strong enough did not hesitate to extinguish the rights of prior discovery and occupation by conquest. An invading army may resemble a tidal wave, which, after sweeping over the land, subsides without increasing the ocean's permanent domain. The war party which returns to its own land after slaying and looting, does not increase its tribal territory. Conquest is interesting historically, but it cannot establish ownership over the conquered territory, unless the conquerors remain in occupation. During the second settlement period, though there were some changes in ownership owing to conquest, there was more than enough land to allow the developing tribes to find new areas for peaceful prior occupation.
The third wave of people came definitely to colonize, and if the story of Kupe's discovery is true, they must have expected to find the land uninhabited. The manner in which the historic canoes selected different parts of the coast for landing indicates that they wished to avoid clashing with each other. They had a certain respect for prior discovery of material things as well as land, as evidenced by the story of the stranded whale at Whangaparaoa. The first arrivals tied a rope to the whale to indicate ownership and then went inland to view the country. The second arrivals scorched a rope over a fire to make it appear old and then passed it under page 380the previous tie. On this trickery they based a claim to prior discovery. Ihenga of the Arawa canoe used a similar subterfuge by placing scorched-leaf offerings on a shrine and so depriving Tuarotorua of the rightful ownership to the land on the shores of Lake Rotorua. Neither story may have occurred as related, but the very fact that they are recorded in traditional history indicates that the rights of prior discovery or occupation were recognized and a guilty conscience led to the use of subterfuge to overcome those rights.
The third settlers established themselves on different parts of the coast, built their houses and villages, and cleared the land for their cultivations. They came into conflict with the earlier inhabitants and extended their territory by the right of conquest and occupation. With increasing population, they spread along the coast line until they met the expanding families of other canoes. Argument and conflict ended in the establishment of boundaries in which rivers, streams, and ranges formed convenient landmarks. Some groups spread inland and occupied the large river valleys and the areas around the inland lakes. Coastal land had its appeal in food supplies of sea fish and marine shell fish, and the inland areas had assets of fresh-water fish and shell fish with rich supplies of forest birds. The historical record is crowded with countless wars over land and the main causes of mortality were summed up in the saying,
He wahine, he whenua i mate ai te tangata.
Women and land are the reasons why men die.
In newly discovered or newly acquired territory, chiefs sometimes utilized their privilege of personal tapu by invoking the custom termed taunaha (to bespeak). They publicly named desirable portions of land after some part of their bodies and so prevented others from claiming them. On the landing of the Arawa canoe, Tamatekapua named a promontory after his nose and two other chiefs named portions of land after their abdomens.
The title (take) to the ownership of land was based on two main claims: right of inheritance through ancestors (take tupuna) and right of inheritance through conquest (take raupatu). The right of prior discovery became historically merged in ancestral right. Conquest (raupatu) alone did not confer right of ownership unless it was followed by occupation. If the invading party retired, the survivors of the defeated tribe could return and still own their land. Occupation to establish a title had to be continuous, as idiomatically expressed by the term ahi ka, or lit fire. So long as a people occupied the land, they kept their fires going to cook their food. Conversely, the absence of fires showed that the land had been vacated. Even if a conquering tribe did not leave a holding party, they might claim the land subsequently if it remained unoccupied. However, if some of the page 381conquered people evaded the invaders and remained on the land to keep their fires alight, the right of ownership of the defeated people was not extinguished. When the Waikato confederation invaded Taranaki, they drove the Atiawa out of their territory and the Atiawa migrated south to establish homes in exile. Later, the Waikato tribes claimed ownership of the Taranaki territory by right of conquest. However it was proved conclusively that some families of the Atiawa had remained on the land and, by keeping their fires alight, had prevented the tribal rights of ownership from being extinguished. When conquered territory was occupied for some generations, the title by conquest became a historical event and the functioning title became that of ancestral inheritance (take tupuna).
A third and rarer title, termed tuku (to cede), included lands which were ceded in compliance with some custom, such as that of paying a raiding party (taua wahine) as recompense for the infidelity of a tribal woman to her husband. However, no matter what the title, the length of tenure of the land depended on the military strength of the people to hold it I once heard a Ngapuhi chief criticise the British for not observing the Treaty of Waitangi to the speaker's satisfaction. He held that as the Maori were the original owners of the land, the land should be returned to them. It so happened that the nearby land had been conquered by Rahiri, a noted ancestor of the Ngapuhi, and he had driven out the Ngati Pou who were the original owners. To create a diversion, I asked the orator what sort of treaty the Ngapuhi had given the Ngati Pou. An amusing discussion followed mainly directed towards proving the dissimilarity of the two events.
In the course of time, the principal tribes with their subtribes came to occupy definite areas with fixed boundaries. The love of their own territory developed to an absorbing degree, for tribal history was written over its hills and vales, its rivers, streams, and lakes, and upon its cliffs and shores. The earth and caves held the bones of their illustrious dead, and dirges and laments teemed with references to the love lavished upon the natural features of their home lands. The prestige of the tribe was associated with their marae sites and terraced hill forts, and their religious concepts were bound to their tuahu shrines. Captives in distant lands have begged for a pebble, a bunch of leaves, or a handful of earth from the home land that they might weep over a symbol of home. It is the everlasting hills of one's own deserted territory that welcome the wanderer home and it is the ceaseless crooning of the waves against a lone shore that perpetuates the sound of voices that are still.
With the love of home territory so strong, the desire to occupy other lands by conquest faded. The tribes continued to have their quarrels and feuds but war parties returned home with plunder and captives, after satisfying their desire for military glory. However, this period of land page 382stabilization was rudely shattered by the advent of Europeans and their introduction of firearms. The Ngapuhi in the North, armed with guns swept over the whole of the North Island but they returned without disturbing the existing distribution of tribal lands. The Waikato and King Country tribes drove Te Rauparaha and his valiant Ngati Toa out of their tribal lands at Kawhia and occupied them. One of the most touching laments in Maori poetry is Te Rauparaha's farewell to Kawhia. The Ngati Toa, still strong and unbeaten in spirit, marched south and dispossessed the tribes occupying the Otaki area near Wellington. Sections of the Ngati Raukawa and the Atiawa joined them and conquest with occupation spread north to Horowhenua, south to Wellington, and crossed Cook Strait to the Marlborough and Nelson districts. The Waikato confederation had followed up the conquest of Kawhia by invading Taranaki, but they rolled back without extinguishing the lighted fires (ahi ka) which preserved the right of ownership for those who were to return later. The Ngati Tama and Ngati Mutunga, who formed part of the Atiawa forces, occupied the shores of Wellington Harbour but, influenced by stories of the rich supplies of fish, shell fish, and sea birds at Chatham Islands, they crossed over and dispossessed the peaceful Moriori owners. Later, the Ngati Tama, Ngati Mutunga, and Atiawa returned to the Taranaki lands of the unextinguished fires, but sections remained in occupation of the conquered lands to the south. These post-European changes in the distribution of tribal lands may be directly attributed to the acquisition of firearms.
In the history of occupation which ultimately led to the fixing of tribal boundaries, the enlarging families, which became subtribes, spread to occupy plains and valleys for cultivation and hill tops for villages. They had adjusted their movements to the topographical nature of the country. In doing so, they established their rights to the localities which they occupied. Their system of community co-operation in cultivation and sharing the natural resources of their territory inhibited any trend towards individualism and the individual ownership of land. The land belonged to the subtribe and the tribe. It was owned by a number of people, for only numbers could hold it against outside conquest and occupation. The individual had his share in the common ownership, but he could not be said to own any particular portion in perpetuity. He had the use of particular portions and his neighbours respected his allotment as he respected theirs. He had the use of the land during his lifetime and his heirs had the use of it during their lifetime. Cultivations were made in a certain locality in one year and changed to another locality in another year. Even the sites of villages were changed at times. Maori lands occupied the same position as entailed estates and could not be alienated by individuals. Thus they formed a fluid asset which could be adjusted to meet the varying needs of succeeding generations.page 383
The advent of Europeans introduced a totally different system of land tenure, in which individualization of land with fixed boundaries for even small plots was the essential feature. In order to acquire land for themselves, they had to introduce the additional foreign innovation of alienation by sale. The early chiefs, bemused by the rattle of hoop iron and tin pannikins, sold large areas of tribal land for the cheap products of English factories. It has been said that the chiefs and the people thought that they were merely giving the newcomer the right to use the land, not realizing that they were parting with their tribal heritage forever. Probably this was true of the early sales.
The alienation of land became so alarming that the more thoughtful chiefs met, and their deliberations resulted in the Kotahitanga movement (Unity) to oppose the further sale of Maori lands. To add prestige to the movement, a chief from the Waikato tribes was finally selected as the head of the organization and given the borrowed title of king. When Wiremu Kingi of the Atiawa confederation was forced to resort to arms to oppose the alienation of tribal lands at Waitara by a forced sale, the Waikato tribes assisted in the war which ensued. However, in spite of opposition, native lands had to be acquired somehow for the many European settlers.
The Government, to salve its conscience by some form of legal procedure, set up the Native Land Court to administer land laws which attempted to give expression to Maori custom and usage. The claims of various tribes to their lands were investigated, and inheritance supported by genealogical evidence and tribal history was fully recognized. Lands no longer occupied, owing to the decrease in population caused by post-European wars and introduced diseases, were awarded on proof being adduced of previous occupation. Previous occupation was evidenced by the sites of old forts, named cultivations, burial places, and tribal history which recorded the names of the ancestral occupants. The tales of the conquests which led to occupation were told in detail, and the records of the Maori Land Court should contain rich material concerning tribal history. The fact that the land was held in common was recognized and the claimants submitted lists of owners in the block under investigation. The allocation of shares in a block to individuals or heads of families was influenced by social position in the tribe, the chiefs receiving more than those of lower rank. The boundaries of the blocks, defined according to native landmarks, and the total number of shares with their allocation to shareholders were fixed by the Court. The value per share in acreage was usually not known at the time, for the actual survey of the block, owing to an insufficient number of surveyors and the expense involved, lagged far behind the time of the Court's award.page 384
The Government then proceeded to purchase blocks of native land for European settlement, but the right of common ownership having been recognized by law, a majority of the shares had to be signed by their holders before the purchase could be made. The total purchase money was divided among the shareholders according to their shares. Subsequent surveys, in some instances, showed that the actual acreage was more than the estimated number of acres purchased. I do not know whether the Government reaped the benefit of the surplus or whether the shareholders received a post mortem dividend. In old land transactions, much depended on the amount of agitation raised by the erstwhile owners and the consideration received by their petitions to Parliament. Suffice it to say that large areas of native land were sold for a mess of pottage which was speedily gulped down. Looking back over the vista of wasteful years, one cannot help wishing that successive Governments had invested the proceeds of the sales of tribal lands in some trust from which annual payments of interest could have been paid. Had such been done, the descendants of our improvident ancestors would have continued to harvest the annual crops from their converted ancestral lands.
During the agitation for acquiring Maori lands for close farming, no thought seems to have occurred to our early legislators that the Maori owners might be educated to farm their own lands as efficiently as Europeans. Sir James Carroll, while Minister of Maori Affairs, tried to hold back some of the desired Maori land against the day when the owners would be sufficiently advanced to utilise it along European lines. This delaying action, disparagingly referred to as the taihoa policy, was anathematized by European buyers and adversely criticized by short-sighted owners willing to sell. However, delay without action could not survive indefinitely. The first action took place on the east coast in the territory of the Ngati Porou. Under the inspired leadership of Sir Apirana Ngata, M.P. for the Eastern Maori Electorate, remaining blocks of Maori land held in common were incorporated and administered as sheep stations by committees elected by the owners. The scheme proved a success and demonstrated the hitherto unbelieved fact that the Maori sheep farmers could be as good and better than some of their pakeha competitors. However, the Maori lands had been pared down in most districts to holdings not large enough for sheep farming and some of the sheep runs could be cut down profitably for closer settlement. Dairy farming had become the backbone of the Dominion and many Maori with small holdings in the Taranaki district and the South Island were making a living out of dairy farming. The agile mind of Apirana Ngata turned to dairy farming as a solution to the problem of the Maori making the most out of the little they had remaining. While Minister of Maori Affairs, he was able to inaugurate a policy of State aid in financing the breaking-in page 385of smaller areas of native land and stocking them as dairy farms to be managed by the Maori owners themselves. This was the first instance in which the State advanced funds to enable the Maori to make practical progress with their own lands, and it should be recognized that this over-long delayed act of justice was due to the courage and faith of a Maori in his own people.
In enacting laws to give expression to the customs of the past, complications were bound to occur. The Maori, as a member of a tribe, inherited shares in the different blocks that formerly comprised the tribal territory. In former days, his ancestors moved about and cultivated here to-day and there to-morrow without any inconvenience. In the present age, scattered holdings of a few acres here and a few acres there cannot be efficiently farmed by the same owner. If it were possible, however, to combine the scattered shares into one holding, the result would be a decent sized farm which could be worked with profit. To help on the dairy farming project, Ngata worked out a scheme of consolidation whereby owners could exchange their shares in different blocks and even buy some out so that the scattered holdings could be consolidated in one locality. The task was difficult, complicated, and tedious and could be accomplished only through Government aid. However, a number of dairy farms are now operating successfully through the consolidation scheme.
Another complication followed the conversion of the fluid use of land by the community to the fixed ownership by individual families. In former times, large and small families were merged together and individuals in each generation enjoyed equal rights to the usage of tribal territory. Now, the family is confined to a fixed portion with surveyed boundaries beyond which it cannot exude. Though the family may increase in number in each generation, the plot of family land remains the same in size, and, as each generation inherits from the preceding generation, the size and value of individual shares will progressively decrease to the infinitesimal.
Small areas of land with multiple owners were a problem. An individual shareholder with energy and ambition was deterred from putting his labour and money into farming the land because those who toiled not could claim an unearned share of his results. Under such circumstances, the easiest way to avoid conflict, was to lease the land to a European and divide the annual rent, no matter how small the individual shares might become. Another of the innovations introduced by the change in land tenure is the imposition of land tax, but more advanced cultures than that of the Maori have shared a similar reluctance to accept the inevitable.
The Maori can no longer be accused of holding large areas of unutilized land and so retarding settlement. Tribal territory, as such, has ceased to exist with the exception of small reserves enclosing the sites of villages page 386where tribal feeling can still find expression. The lands remaining to the Maori are far from being sufficient to enable them all to become farmers. Those who have lands have gone through a process of evolution and, against almost overwhelming odds, have reached the stage where they are endeavouring to make the best use of what they have. Those who have not must seek other avenues of livelihood. | 7,769 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Munich Conference was held on September 29th, 1938 in Germany. In advance, the Italian leader and Hitler produce an efficient plan to achieve a common strategy and negotiations. Czechoslovakia was not invited to the conference. Chamberlain and the French Leader did not create any plans prior to the conference. When the conference commenced the four leaders were friendly and amiable towards each other. Chamberlain attempted to endeavor Hitler’s decision on the terms of Czechoslovakia representation during their discussion. He failed to do so, thought he persuaded him to permit two Czechoslovakian representatives to be close in the next room without partaking in the conference. According to a prominent German field marshal, Édouard Daladier was strongly adamant of avoiding war at all costs stating “We won’t tolerate war over this, the Czechs will just have to give way. We will simply have to force them to the cession”. The agreement on September 29, 1938 was when all the four leaders agreed to decide the fate of Czechoslovakia by giving Germany Sudetenland.
The agreement was signed later on September 30th ,1938 after midnight. Later, the two Czechoslovakian representatives were authorized to meet with Daladier and Chamberlain. However, they could not meet Mussolini and Hitler. According to a source Chamberlain seemed to be weary, while Daladier appeared to be tense, they did not engage in prolonged discussion with them over this topic.
A man named Keitel was titled military governor of Sudetenland. The non-germans that lived in Sudetenland were displaced and given exactly 10 days to leave. Finally the Munich Conference consists of multiple negotiations. Hitler was stubborn and would not hold back on his demands on Sudetenland. This caused Chamberlain to follow the policy of appeasement and he gave in to Hitler on this problem; aiming for Hitler to discontinue create more demands. All the leaders came to the agreement to the annexation of Sudetenland to Germany. After, Chamberlain went back to Britain he stated that he successfully had achieved his goal; and stated “peace in our time.” After the conference, Hitler saw the newsreel of Chamberlain’s return to Heston Airport, Munich Agreement in hand, Hitler reportedly stated “Well, he seemed such a nice old gentleman, I thought I would give him my autograph as a souvenir. | <urn:uuid:e0d9a560-b7e7-40f5-ba39-a8c2f4e9e091> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://researchnetwork.net/the-munich-conference-was-held-on-september-29th-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00020.warc.gz | en | 0.981969 | 493 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.3311289846897... | 5 | The Munich Conference was held on September 29th, 1938 in Germany. In advance, the Italian leader and Hitler produce an efficient plan to achieve a common strategy and negotiations. Czechoslovakia was not invited to the conference. Chamberlain and the French Leader did not create any plans prior to the conference. When the conference commenced the four leaders were friendly and amiable towards each other. Chamberlain attempted to endeavor Hitler’s decision on the terms of Czechoslovakia representation during their discussion. He failed to do so, thought he persuaded him to permit two Czechoslovakian representatives to be close in the next room without partaking in the conference. According to a prominent German field marshal, Édouard Daladier was strongly adamant of avoiding war at all costs stating “We won’t tolerate war over this, the Czechs will just have to give way. We will simply have to force them to the cession”. The agreement on September 29, 1938 was when all the four leaders agreed to decide the fate of Czechoslovakia by giving Germany Sudetenland.
The agreement was signed later on September 30th ,1938 after midnight. Later, the two Czechoslovakian representatives were authorized to meet with Daladier and Chamberlain. However, they could not meet Mussolini and Hitler. According to a source Chamberlain seemed to be weary, while Daladier appeared to be tense, they did not engage in prolonged discussion with them over this topic.
A man named Keitel was titled military governor of Sudetenland. The non-germans that lived in Sudetenland were displaced and given exactly 10 days to leave. Finally the Munich Conference consists of multiple negotiations. Hitler was stubborn and would not hold back on his demands on Sudetenland. This caused Chamberlain to follow the policy of appeasement and he gave in to Hitler on this problem; aiming for Hitler to discontinue create more demands. All the leaders came to the agreement to the annexation of Sudetenland to Germany. After, Chamberlain went back to Britain he stated that he successfully had achieved his goal; and stated “peace in our time.” After the conference, Hitler saw the newsreel of Chamberlain’s return to Heston Airport, Munich Agreement in hand, Hitler reportedly stated “Well, he seemed such a nice old gentleman, I thought I would give him my autograph as a souvenir. | 500 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Quakerism started as part of the English Civil war period, 1640s. There were a variety of movements during the civil war period that were seeking address some of the disparities in English Societies: ecclesiastical, political, economic. Some of those groups were Diggers, Levellers, Muggletonians, 5th Monarchists, Seekers groups.
Some that were trying to seek reform within the church (the Puritans), some who had given up on the Church as a dead corpse and left and started their own chapels or conventicles, and Quakerism emerged out of that chaotic social, political, religious time.
George Fox was one of the leaders of that movement but he wasn't alone in that. He has become a major figure in understanding the origins of Quakerism. He became tired of what he saw as hypocrisy in the church of his youth and about the age of 19 he left the church and started wandering about seeking a direct spiritual experience that spoke to his condition and he didn't find it in any of the outward forms, didn't find it in any of the the clergy of the time, didn't find it in other authorities.
In 1647 he had an experience in which he heard a voice telling him, "there is One, even Christ Jesus who can speak to thy condition."
"And when I heard it my heart did leap for joy."
Which, in contemporary expressions would probably be: what he was seeking outside of himself as authority, he found available to himself within.
He then started sharing that message: that what you're seeking outside of yourself is available inside of yourself, and you can turn to that inward teacher, that prophet, priest, redeemer, lord within and be led into salvation and truth.
Quakerism spread from the initial insights of Fox and others who came out of this gumbo of seeking reform in the church of England in the 1640s and 50s initially by word of mouth. They would share their experience. Fox, for example, would go about the countryside sharing his understanding of the fact that Christ had come to teach the people directly, to direct them inwardly to God, to Christ their teacher and priest.
Sometimes he would speak to larger gatherings, but it wasn't until about 1652 that there were larger numbers of people who came to hear his message. Those folk then shared the message with others. Pretty soon they started going out two by two, sharing the gospel message and people came into convincement.
By the time Fox died in 1691 there were some 50,000 Quakers so in 40 or 50 years it spread, much of that coming out of that social milieu of protest and the seeking of reform and it really was one by one by one.
tags: Max Carter, Guilford College, Quakers, Quakerism, Friends Journal, Friends General Conference, Quaker Voluntary Service, Jon Watts, QuakerSpeak, George Fox | <urn:uuid:d9acaa25-7c97-4559-8b90-b0034db4d783> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CmL_GhnXSJQ&feature=share&list=PL-r97fEzGE2Th6OgcDQIY14jMi0wknb8u | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00390.warc.gz | en | 0.989246 | 604 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.2120294... | 1 | Quakerism started as part of the English Civil war period, 1640s. There were a variety of movements during the civil war period that were seeking address some of the disparities in English Societies: ecclesiastical, political, economic. Some of those groups were Diggers, Levellers, Muggletonians, 5th Monarchists, Seekers groups.
Some that were trying to seek reform within the church (the Puritans), some who had given up on the Church as a dead corpse and left and started their own chapels or conventicles, and Quakerism emerged out of that chaotic social, political, religious time.
George Fox was one of the leaders of that movement but he wasn't alone in that. He has become a major figure in understanding the origins of Quakerism. He became tired of what he saw as hypocrisy in the church of his youth and about the age of 19 he left the church and started wandering about seeking a direct spiritual experience that spoke to his condition and he didn't find it in any of the outward forms, didn't find it in any of the the clergy of the time, didn't find it in other authorities.
In 1647 he had an experience in which he heard a voice telling him, "there is One, even Christ Jesus who can speak to thy condition."
"And when I heard it my heart did leap for joy."
Which, in contemporary expressions would probably be: what he was seeking outside of himself as authority, he found available to himself within.
He then started sharing that message: that what you're seeking outside of yourself is available inside of yourself, and you can turn to that inward teacher, that prophet, priest, redeemer, lord within and be led into salvation and truth.
Quakerism spread from the initial insights of Fox and others who came out of this gumbo of seeking reform in the church of England in the 1640s and 50s initially by word of mouth. They would share their experience. Fox, for example, would go about the countryside sharing his understanding of the fact that Christ had come to teach the people directly, to direct them inwardly to God, to Christ their teacher and priest.
Sometimes he would speak to larger gatherings, but it wasn't until about 1652 that there were larger numbers of people who came to hear his message. Those folk then shared the message with others. Pretty soon they started going out two by two, sharing the gospel message and people came into convincement.
By the time Fox died in 1691 there were some 50,000 Quakers so in 40 or 50 years it spread, much of that coming out of that social milieu of protest and the seeking of reform and it really was one by one by one.
tags: Max Carter, Guilford College, Quakers, Quakerism, Friends Journal, Friends General Conference, Quaker Voluntary Service, Jon Watts, QuakerSpeak, George Fox | 621 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Outline: Adam and Eve; life of Jesus, believe in Him.
|Theme:||Son of God; Saviour of Sinful Men; Creation; Satan (the devil); Eternal / everlasting life|
|Audience:||Animist; Hindu; General; Jewish|
|Genre:||Bible Stories & Teac|
Scripts are basic guidelines for translation and recording into other languages. They should be adapted as necessary to make them understandable and relevant for each different culture and language. Some terms and concepts used may need more explanation or even be replaced or omitted completely.
In the beginning, God made all things. He made the world, the stars, the sun and moon. He made the trees, birds and animals. Afterwards God made a man and a woman, named Adam and Eve. They were altogether good. They loved to obey and please God.
Then one day Satan came to them. Satan is the one who rules over all that is evil. Adam and Eve listened to Satan and obeyed his words. When they did this they turned away from God. They disobeyed God. Satan put evil thoughts into their hearts. They were no longer good as before.
Adam and Eve refused God's Word, and after that all men and women who were born, also disobeyed God. All have followed the words of Satan.
God felt great sorrow and pity for all men and women. Why did He pity them? Because He knew that after they died, all who followed Satan would go to the place of Satan. This place is a place of darkness and pain.
God loved all men and women everywhere. There was only one way to help them. God would free them from Satan's power. How would God do this? How would He help them? He would send His Son into the world. His name is Jesus.
Jesus did not have one sin. He was altogether good. He lived with God in heaven, where it is only good. Jesus left His place in heaven and came to live among men and women. He was born on earth. Jesus is truly God, and He also became a man.
Jesus taught people about God. He did mighty works. Everyone saw that His words were true. But one day, Jesus was killed on a cross. Why did He die? He died to bear our punishment for our sins. And He died to break the power of Satan, who holds us fast in sin. After Jesus died, they buried Him. But He did not remain in the grave. On the third day He rose again and all saw that He was alive. After a few weeks, Jesus returned to heaven to His place with His Father God. His work was finished. Now He says to you and me, "I am strong to save you. I am able to set you free from following Satan. When you choose to turn to Me, I will change your bad heart and give you a heart that can love God and obey Him. Receive Me and you can belong to Me. All who follow Me can go to the place I have made for them in heaven. They will not have to go to the place of fire with Satan." Jesus says, "Follow Me and I will give you life that never ends. When you die I will take you to My good place." | <urn:uuid:8f352e39-fc96-4b31-a734-c9c407420977> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://globalrecordings.net/km/script/en/001 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00412.warc.gz | en | 0.98215 | 678 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.1784893572330... | 4 | Outline: Adam and Eve; life of Jesus, believe in Him.
|Theme:||Son of God; Saviour of Sinful Men; Creation; Satan (the devil); Eternal / everlasting life|
|Audience:||Animist; Hindu; General; Jewish|
|Genre:||Bible Stories & Teac|
Scripts are basic guidelines for translation and recording into other languages. They should be adapted as necessary to make them understandable and relevant for each different culture and language. Some terms and concepts used may need more explanation or even be replaced or omitted completely.
In the beginning, God made all things. He made the world, the stars, the sun and moon. He made the trees, birds and animals. Afterwards God made a man and a woman, named Adam and Eve. They were altogether good. They loved to obey and please God.
Then one day Satan came to them. Satan is the one who rules over all that is evil. Adam and Eve listened to Satan and obeyed his words. When they did this they turned away from God. They disobeyed God. Satan put evil thoughts into their hearts. They were no longer good as before.
Adam and Eve refused God's Word, and after that all men and women who were born, also disobeyed God. All have followed the words of Satan.
God felt great sorrow and pity for all men and women. Why did He pity them? Because He knew that after they died, all who followed Satan would go to the place of Satan. This place is a place of darkness and pain.
God loved all men and women everywhere. There was only one way to help them. God would free them from Satan's power. How would God do this? How would He help them? He would send His Son into the world. His name is Jesus.
Jesus did not have one sin. He was altogether good. He lived with God in heaven, where it is only good. Jesus left His place in heaven and came to live among men and women. He was born on earth. Jesus is truly God, and He also became a man.
Jesus taught people about God. He did mighty works. Everyone saw that His words were true. But one day, Jesus was killed on a cross. Why did He die? He died to bear our punishment for our sins. And He died to break the power of Satan, who holds us fast in sin. After Jesus died, they buried Him. But He did not remain in the grave. On the third day He rose again and all saw that He was alive. After a few weeks, Jesus returned to heaven to His place with His Father God. His work was finished. Now He says to you and me, "I am strong to save you. I am able to set you free from following Satan. When you choose to turn to Me, I will change your bad heart and give you a heart that can love God and obey Him. Receive Me and you can belong to Me. All who follow Me can go to the place I have made for them in heaven. They will not have to go to the place of fire with Satan." Jesus says, "Follow Me and I will give you life that never ends. When you die I will take you to My good place." | 663 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On May 31st, 1578, vineyard workers in Rome found a passageway that led into an extensive network of long-forgotten catacombs beneath the Via Salaria. The Coemeterium Jordanorum (Jordanian Cemetery) and surrounding catacombs were burial sites from the earliest days of Christianity, dating from between the first and fifth centuries AD.
By the time these catacombs were found, the Catholic Church had been struggling with the Reformation for decades. While certain human remains had been venerated as sacred relics for centuries*, Protestant Reformers rejected the practice of keeping relics as idolatry. Bodies were to return to dust, and that included the bodies of saints as well. Throughout the Reformation, countless relics were interred, vandalized, or destroyed.
With relics under scrutiny from Reformers, the issue was addressed at the Twenty-Fifth Session of the Council of Trent in 1563. The Council maintained that relics were an essential part of Catholic life, and they had a point—kept in local churches, relics were still important to communities. Though they were viewed as sacred, their origins were rightly questioned. Forgeries—random bones or other found items sold as sacred—were common and undermined the value of the remains as religious artifacts. To combat the sale of forgeries, the Council decided that going forward, all relics would have to be authenticated by the Church.
Relics had always been popular among the laity, and the transportation of new holy relics into German-speaking countries became a strategy of the Counter-Reformation. They needed to replace what had been destroyed, but where were they going to find more saints?
The discovery of the catacombs under the Via Salaria must have felt like an answer to a prayer. The catacombs held the remains of an estimated 750,000 people, including early Christians, Jews, and some pagan Romans. While cremation was more common among pagan Romans, Christians wanted to be buried to allow for the possibility of resurrection; though thousands were resurrected following their discovery, not one of them could have predicted what awaited them after death.
The Church needed relics, and they found them. The bodies of those believed to be Christian martyrs became known as the Katakombenheiligen, the Catacomb Saints. While they had not been canonized and their identities were unknown, these bodies were used to show the connection between the earliest Christians and the post-Reformation Church. They were to symbolize the essential truth of the Catholic doctrine through that connection, and to boost morale among the Catholic communities hurting following the looting of their churches.
But if their identities were unknown, how could they prove they were martyrs? Because they had died during a time of persecution, many were assumed to be martyrs, but depending on who was asked, there were some other signs as well—some believed the bones of martyrs smelled sweeter, while others claimed they had an otherworldly glow. Though the Church had resolved to use more scientific methods of identification following the Council of Trent, conditions in the catacombs were less than ideal. The newest bones were still more than a thousand years old at that point, and any identifying plaques or stones were long gone. Worse, many bodies had been moved over the years to protect them from looting invaders.
The bones that were found could not be positively identified as Christian, much less martyrs, so they relied on largely illegible engravings on the surrounding stones. Anytime they found a capital M—which could be there for any reason from names to common inscriptions—or a depiction of a palm frond, they took this as evidence they had found a martyr’s grave. During one investigation of another catacomb in the 1560s, an Augustinian monk concluded there were at most three identifiable martyrs down there, but by the following century, there were said to be up to 200,000.
As soon as they were found, the remains began to make their way north. It’s impossible to estimate just how many skeletons and individual bones were shipped to the German-speaking countries affected by the Reformation in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, but demand was so high that the Church had to create a new office to manage the excavation of the catacombs as well as starting the Sacred Congregation of Rites and Ceremonies to oversee the whole process. The saints’ popularity increased following the Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648); churches wanted to replace the relics that had been ransacked, and wealthier families also purchased them as symbols of piety.
They were certainly symbols of status. The skeletons were given Latin names and decorated from skull to metatarsal in gold and jewels. Decoration varied, but it was often extravagant. The jewels were real or expensive imitations, and the skeletons were dressed in robes of velvet and silk embroidered with gold thread. A few were even given silver plate armor.
As striking as the end result was, there was more to constructing the catacomb saints than decorating dead bodies. Bones that old required expert handling and reconstruction, so they were given to nuns who specialized in the preservation of relics. Many of their convents were known for their mastery of decorative arts, and the state of the Katakombenheiligen today is a testament to their skill and devotion.
Restoration and decoration was a delicate process that could take years to complete. Bones were strengthened with glue, painted, and protected with layers of nearly transparent silk gauze or tulle. Missing pieces were reconstructed with wax, wood, or papier-mâché. In the cases where skulls were missing or too badly damaged, they were replaced with ceramic or wood and plaster.
Given the time, resources, and dedication it would have taken to construct the saints, it is devastating to consider how few have survived to the present day. Viewed as morbid and embarrassing during the nineteenth century**, many were stripped of their jewels and hidden or destroyed. Of all of the catacomb saints that once filled Europe, only about ten percent remain, and few can be viewed by the public. Quite aside from their religious significance, they are stunning works of art and represent a part of history that, while potentially controversial to some, is nevertheless worth remembering.
On August 15th of every year, Roggenburg does just that. Every year, it holds a Leiberfest (Celebration of the Bodies) in order to display and honor the catacomb saints. Once common among towns that had them, Roggenburg’s annual Leiberfest is the last one in the world. During this festival, Roggenburg’s four Katakombenheiligen are brought out of storage and paraded through town on litters decorated with flowers. The three female saints–Laurentia, Severina, and Valeria–are carried by young women wearing white, and St Venatius is carried by young men in top hats and tails.
*This practice also occurs in many other world religions
**Yes, even the nineteenth century found them morbid
For more on the Katakombenheiligen, be sure to check out Paul Koudounaris’s Heavenly Bodies: Cult Treasures & Spectacular Saints from the Catacombs. Atlas Obscura also has a fun post about Roggenburg’s Leiberfest here. | <urn:uuid:5213e05f-d4bf-485b-9536-f5671e80798b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://dirtysexyhistory.com/tag/religious-art/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00000.warc.gz | en | 0.986795 | 1,530 | 4.09375 | 4 | [
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0.345970809... | 21 | On May 31st, 1578, vineyard workers in Rome found a passageway that led into an extensive network of long-forgotten catacombs beneath the Via Salaria. The Coemeterium Jordanorum (Jordanian Cemetery) and surrounding catacombs were burial sites from the earliest days of Christianity, dating from between the first and fifth centuries AD.
By the time these catacombs were found, the Catholic Church had been struggling with the Reformation for decades. While certain human remains had been venerated as sacred relics for centuries*, Protestant Reformers rejected the practice of keeping relics as idolatry. Bodies were to return to dust, and that included the bodies of saints as well. Throughout the Reformation, countless relics were interred, vandalized, or destroyed.
With relics under scrutiny from Reformers, the issue was addressed at the Twenty-Fifth Session of the Council of Trent in 1563. The Council maintained that relics were an essential part of Catholic life, and they had a point—kept in local churches, relics were still important to communities. Though they were viewed as sacred, their origins were rightly questioned. Forgeries—random bones or other found items sold as sacred—were common and undermined the value of the remains as religious artifacts. To combat the sale of forgeries, the Council decided that going forward, all relics would have to be authenticated by the Church.
Relics had always been popular among the laity, and the transportation of new holy relics into German-speaking countries became a strategy of the Counter-Reformation. They needed to replace what had been destroyed, but where were they going to find more saints?
The discovery of the catacombs under the Via Salaria must have felt like an answer to a prayer. The catacombs held the remains of an estimated 750,000 people, including early Christians, Jews, and some pagan Romans. While cremation was more common among pagan Romans, Christians wanted to be buried to allow for the possibility of resurrection; though thousands were resurrected following their discovery, not one of them could have predicted what awaited them after death.
The Church needed relics, and they found them. The bodies of those believed to be Christian martyrs became known as the Katakombenheiligen, the Catacomb Saints. While they had not been canonized and their identities were unknown, these bodies were used to show the connection between the earliest Christians and the post-Reformation Church. They were to symbolize the essential truth of the Catholic doctrine through that connection, and to boost morale among the Catholic communities hurting following the looting of their churches.
But if their identities were unknown, how could they prove they were martyrs? Because they had died during a time of persecution, many were assumed to be martyrs, but depending on who was asked, there were some other signs as well—some believed the bones of martyrs smelled sweeter, while others claimed they had an otherworldly glow. Though the Church had resolved to use more scientific methods of identification following the Council of Trent, conditions in the catacombs were less than ideal. The newest bones were still more than a thousand years old at that point, and any identifying plaques or stones were long gone. Worse, many bodies had been moved over the years to protect them from looting invaders.
The bones that were found could not be positively identified as Christian, much less martyrs, so they relied on largely illegible engravings on the surrounding stones. Anytime they found a capital M—which could be there for any reason from names to common inscriptions—or a depiction of a palm frond, they took this as evidence they had found a martyr’s grave. During one investigation of another catacomb in the 1560s, an Augustinian monk concluded there were at most three identifiable martyrs down there, but by the following century, there were said to be up to 200,000.
As soon as they were found, the remains began to make their way north. It’s impossible to estimate just how many skeletons and individual bones were shipped to the German-speaking countries affected by the Reformation in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, but demand was so high that the Church had to create a new office to manage the excavation of the catacombs as well as starting the Sacred Congregation of Rites and Ceremonies to oversee the whole process. The saints’ popularity increased following the Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648); churches wanted to replace the relics that had been ransacked, and wealthier families also purchased them as symbols of piety.
They were certainly symbols of status. The skeletons were given Latin names and decorated from skull to metatarsal in gold and jewels. Decoration varied, but it was often extravagant. The jewels were real or expensive imitations, and the skeletons were dressed in robes of velvet and silk embroidered with gold thread. A few were even given silver plate armor.
As striking as the end result was, there was more to constructing the catacomb saints than decorating dead bodies. Bones that old required expert handling and reconstruction, so they were given to nuns who specialized in the preservation of relics. Many of their convents were known for their mastery of decorative arts, and the state of the Katakombenheiligen today is a testament to their skill and devotion.
Restoration and decoration was a delicate process that could take years to complete. Bones were strengthened with glue, painted, and protected with layers of nearly transparent silk gauze or tulle. Missing pieces were reconstructed with wax, wood, or papier-mâché. In the cases where skulls were missing or too badly damaged, they were replaced with ceramic or wood and plaster.
Given the time, resources, and dedication it would have taken to construct the saints, it is devastating to consider how few have survived to the present day. Viewed as morbid and embarrassing during the nineteenth century**, many were stripped of their jewels and hidden or destroyed. Of all of the catacomb saints that once filled Europe, only about ten percent remain, and few can be viewed by the public. Quite aside from their religious significance, they are stunning works of art and represent a part of history that, while potentially controversial to some, is nevertheless worth remembering.
On August 15th of every year, Roggenburg does just that. Every year, it holds a Leiberfest (Celebration of the Bodies) in order to display and honor the catacomb saints. Once common among towns that had them, Roggenburg’s annual Leiberfest is the last one in the world. During this festival, Roggenburg’s four Katakombenheiligen are brought out of storage and paraded through town on litters decorated with flowers. The three female saints–Laurentia, Severina, and Valeria–are carried by young women wearing white, and St Venatius is carried by young men in top hats and tails.
*This practice also occurs in many other world religions
**Yes, even the nineteenth century found them morbid
For more on the Katakombenheiligen, be sure to check out Paul Koudounaris’s Heavenly Bodies: Cult Treasures & Spectacular Saints from the Catacombs. Atlas Obscura also has a fun post about Roggenburg’s Leiberfest here. | 1,517 | ENGLISH | 1 |
To Kill a Mockingbird
To Kill a Mockingbird is a novel by Harper Lee published in 1960. It was immediately successful, winning the Pulitzer Prize, and has become a classic of modern American literature. The plot and characters are loosely based on the author's observations of her family and neighbors, as well as on an event that occurred near her hometown in 1936, when she was 10 years old. The novel is renowned for its warmth and humor, despite dealing with the serious issues of rape and racial inequality. The narrator's father, Atticus Finch, has served as a moral hero for many readers and as a model of integrity for lawyers. One critic explains the novel's impact by writing, "In the twentieth century, To Kill a Mockingbird is probably the most widely read book dealing with race in America, and its protagonist, Atticus Finch, the most enduring fictional image of racial heroism."
Download [pdf] [prc]
Nguồn: My computer [Tớ down lâu quá giờ quên cái nguồn gốc rồi...Gomen...]
Permissions in this forum:You cannot reply to topics in this forum | <urn:uuid:26622181-c571-4427-96f7-cd1326bab8eb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://vnsharing.forumotion.net/t953-world-classic-to-kill-a-mocking-bird | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00323.warc.gz | en | 0.981237 | 259 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.22988207638263702... | 2 | To Kill a Mockingbird
To Kill a Mockingbird is a novel by Harper Lee published in 1960. It was immediately successful, winning the Pulitzer Prize, and has become a classic of modern American literature. The plot and characters are loosely based on the author's observations of her family and neighbors, as well as on an event that occurred near her hometown in 1936, when she was 10 years old. The novel is renowned for its warmth and humor, despite dealing with the serious issues of rape and racial inequality. The narrator's father, Atticus Finch, has served as a moral hero for many readers and as a model of integrity for lawyers. One critic explains the novel's impact by writing, "In the twentieth century, To Kill a Mockingbird is probably the most widely read book dealing with race in America, and its protagonist, Atticus Finch, the most enduring fictional image of racial heroism."
Download [pdf] [prc]
Nguồn: My computer [Tớ down lâu quá giờ quên cái nguồn gốc rồi...Gomen...]
Permissions in this forum:You cannot reply to topics in this forum | 236 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What is bullying? Bullying is the repeated use of negative words or actions by a more powerful person or group against a less powerful person, causing them distress or harm. There isn’t just 1 type of bullying there are several, that include cyber bullying, physical bullying and physiological bullying.
There have been a couple incidents in the media lately which include A 15-year-old boy was severely beaten in an attack at a Warrnambool school that was filmed by classmates. The boy had, been pushed into lockers and bins, and had banana squashed into his jumper. Warrnambool police said the two students involved in the latest assault, aged 15 and 13, now face criminal charges.
In another incident, a 12-year-old boy needed surgery to reconstruct his eye socket after being punched at a Noble Park school.
Also earlier this year, a 17-year-old girl suffered abuse by a group of students at Kerang Technical High School. Over 18 months, she was spat at, had chairs thrown at her and regularly had her schoolbag hidden. As a consequence, she suffered depression, eating disorders, and needed psychological treatment for depression.
There are ways to prevent these types of attacks. In the first incident in the attack at a Warrnambool school if there had been maybe a parent on duty acting as a… | <urn:uuid:d266422d-58b1-4c25-80fb-ffe1749d729f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.majortests.com/essay/Im-Not-Scared-607258.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00312.warc.gz | en | 0.9838 | 277 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.069279558956... | 1 | What is bullying? Bullying is the repeated use of negative words or actions by a more powerful person or group against a less powerful person, causing them distress or harm. There isn’t just 1 type of bullying there are several, that include cyber bullying, physical bullying and physiological bullying.
There have been a couple incidents in the media lately which include A 15-year-old boy was severely beaten in an attack at a Warrnambool school that was filmed by classmates. The boy had, been pushed into lockers and bins, and had banana squashed into his jumper. Warrnambool police said the two students involved in the latest assault, aged 15 and 13, now face criminal charges.
In another incident, a 12-year-old boy needed surgery to reconstruct his eye socket after being punched at a Noble Park school.
Also earlier this year, a 17-year-old girl suffered abuse by a group of students at Kerang Technical High School. Over 18 months, she was spat at, had chairs thrown at her and regularly had her schoolbag hidden. As a consequence, she suffered depression, eating disorders, and needed psychological treatment for depression.
There are ways to prevent these types of attacks. In the first incident in the attack at a Warrnambool school if there had been maybe a parent on duty acting as a… | 278 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The growing town of Windy Gap is located along a river that supports strong populations of salmon. This river has two dams on the river to generate power. One is several miles downstream and one is several miles upstream. Neighboring towns are requiring more power due to their recent growth in size and population. Therefore, it has become clear that more power is needed for the towns in that region, and it has been decided that it would make the most sense to locate a new power source near Windy Gap.
The residents of Windy Gap do not want a dam built on the river near their town. Even though they know the other two dams have fish ladders that have successfully allowed many salmon to pass through the dams unharmed, they are concerned that an additional set of ladders would begin to place too much stress on the fish, and it could affect their survival. They are also concerned because it will greatly affect the characteristics of the river. The proposed site of the dam is where wind surfers use the river, and it is a big business in Windy Gap. Business owners fear the dam could hurt the wind surfing industry. Finally, the people of Windy Gap value the beauty of their city and claim a big dam would be an eyesore in their community.
One suggestion is that instead of a building a dam, a wind farm could be constructed that would be host to several wind turbines. This would not affect the river and could be designed so that it does not impact the beauty of the surrounding area. The challenge, however, is that wind turbines generate less power than dams do. Supporters are hoping that engineers can design turbines that could provide enough power to their region.
In this project, you will construct a small wind turbine that maximizes energy output. You will use your experience with various blade variables, such as blade size, shape, material, quantity, and mass, to design and build the best possible turbine. The goal is to design a set of blades for a turbine that generate as much power as possible. During the project, you will work with your group to design, test, and then optimize your wind turbine blades. | <urn:uuid:800ab04b-96b9-46de-886b-858df7b08b13> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.vernier.com/experiment/elb-wind-11_project-power-up/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00386.warc.gz | en | 0.980926 | 434 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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-0.1466938108... | 9 | The growing town of Windy Gap is located along a river that supports strong populations of salmon. This river has two dams on the river to generate power. One is several miles downstream and one is several miles upstream. Neighboring towns are requiring more power due to their recent growth in size and population. Therefore, it has become clear that more power is needed for the towns in that region, and it has been decided that it would make the most sense to locate a new power source near Windy Gap.
The residents of Windy Gap do not want a dam built on the river near their town. Even though they know the other two dams have fish ladders that have successfully allowed many salmon to pass through the dams unharmed, they are concerned that an additional set of ladders would begin to place too much stress on the fish, and it could affect their survival. They are also concerned because it will greatly affect the characteristics of the river. The proposed site of the dam is where wind surfers use the river, and it is a big business in Windy Gap. Business owners fear the dam could hurt the wind surfing industry. Finally, the people of Windy Gap value the beauty of their city and claim a big dam would be an eyesore in their community.
One suggestion is that instead of a building a dam, a wind farm could be constructed that would be host to several wind turbines. This would not affect the river and could be designed so that it does not impact the beauty of the surrounding area. The challenge, however, is that wind turbines generate less power than dams do. Supporters are hoping that engineers can design turbines that could provide enough power to their region.
In this project, you will construct a small wind turbine that maximizes energy output. You will use your experience with various blade variables, such as blade size, shape, material, quantity, and mass, to design and build the best possible turbine. The goal is to design a set of blades for a turbine that generate as much power as possible. During the project, you will work with your group to design, test, and then optimize your wind turbine blades. | 432 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A Puritan lived a life with primary focus on serving God. They left religious persecution in England. They thought the New World would be a utopia, when the English Reformation had not gone far enough in reforming the doctrines and structure of the church; they wanted to purify their national church by eliminating every shred of Catholic influence. Their lifestyles were based on relative equality, with their primary settlement in the northern colonies.
There basic beliefs revolved around grace, plainness, unity, and divine mission. I will be discussing those beliefs with information that I have gathered and also from A Model Of Christian Charity, by John Winthrop. “For we must consider that we shall be as a city upon a hill, the eyes of all people are upon us” (A Model of Christian Charity, p. 35), one of the most famous quotes to stand out by him during this puritan era was the basis for which they all believed. Grace is freely given.
Humankind was inherently sinful and redemption could only be given by God; no amount of good deeds could redeem a soul. This was a main belief that built the structure of Puritanism. Everything should be free of decoration and design. The idea was to be as plain as possible, therefore not to take any focus off of God. This idea was shone in the structure of their simple worship services, clothing styles, and writing. For example, Winthrops style of writing was extremely plain and to the point, with no emotion or feeling involved.
For this end we must be knit together in this work as one man, we must entertain each other in brotherly affection, we must be willing to abridge ourselves of our superfluities for the supply of others’ necessities, we must uphold a familiar commerce together in all meekness, gentleness, patience, and liberality, we must delight in each other, make others’ conditions our own, rejoice together, mourn together, labor and suffer together, always having before our eyes our commission and community in the work, our community as members of the same body So shall we keep the unity of the spirit in the bond of peace” (p. 6).
These sentences were a model of how they were to be. Unity was a very important part of being a puritan, because that is what God wanted and expected from them. Winthrop was very strong on his beliefs of community that worked together. Lastly, a primary belief of Puritanism was that of a Divine Mission. The New World was to be settled for God, not for man.
They came to this land for religious freedom and focus on their savior. ” and that the Lord our God my bless us in the land whither we go to possess it Therefore let us choose life, that we, and our seed, may live, and by obeying His voice, and cleaving to Him, for He is our life and our prosperity” (p. 37).
Winthrop along with the many other Puritans of this time were very stong on the belief that God blessed them with this oppurtunity of access to this new world, therefore it was to be used to serve God. Puritans continued to live a life that was constantly striving to be pure. With these four points I have just discussed; grace, plainess, unity, and divine mission, Puritans lived a life very structured and orderly. | <urn:uuid:f010c514-ff92-42ff-bbc8-6067f234c82a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://googlebestbuy.com/to-be-a-puritan-essay/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00353.warc.gz | en | 0.980127 | 696 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.083557851... | 2 | A Puritan lived a life with primary focus on serving God. They left religious persecution in England. They thought the New World would be a utopia, when the English Reformation had not gone far enough in reforming the doctrines and structure of the church; they wanted to purify their national church by eliminating every shred of Catholic influence. Their lifestyles were based on relative equality, with their primary settlement in the northern colonies.
There basic beliefs revolved around grace, plainness, unity, and divine mission. I will be discussing those beliefs with information that I have gathered and also from A Model Of Christian Charity, by John Winthrop. “For we must consider that we shall be as a city upon a hill, the eyes of all people are upon us” (A Model of Christian Charity, p. 35), one of the most famous quotes to stand out by him during this puritan era was the basis for which they all believed. Grace is freely given.
Humankind was inherently sinful and redemption could only be given by God; no amount of good deeds could redeem a soul. This was a main belief that built the structure of Puritanism. Everything should be free of decoration and design. The idea was to be as plain as possible, therefore not to take any focus off of God. This idea was shone in the structure of their simple worship services, clothing styles, and writing. For example, Winthrops style of writing was extremely plain and to the point, with no emotion or feeling involved.
For this end we must be knit together in this work as one man, we must entertain each other in brotherly affection, we must be willing to abridge ourselves of our superfluities for the supply of others’ necessities, we must uphold a familiar commerce together in all meekness, gentleness, patience, and liberality, we must delight in each other, make others’ conditions our own, rejoice together, mourn together, labor and suffer together, always having before our eyes our commission and community in the work, our community as members of the same body So shall we keep the unity of the spirit in the bond of peace” (p. 6).
These sentences were a model of how they were to be. Unity was a very important part of being a puritan, because that is what God wanted and expected from them. Winthrop was very strong on his beliefs of community that worked together. Lastly, a primary belief of Puritanism was that of a Divine Mission. The New World was to be settled for God, not for man.
They came to this land for religious freedom and focus on their savior. ” and that the Lord our God my bless us in the land whither we go to possess it Therefore let us choose life, that we, and our seed, may live, and by obeying His voice, and cleaving to Him, for He is our life and our prosperity” (p. 37).
Winthrop along with the many other Puritans of this time were very stong on the belief that God blessed them with this oppurtunity of access to this new world, therefore it was to be used to serve God. Puritans continued to live a life that was constantly striving to be pure. With these four points I have just discussed; grace, plainess, unity, and divine mission, Puritans lived a life very structured and orderly. | 694 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Hanna Boise Global studies 1/6/20 Period 1
The Impact of Imperialism on The Modern World
Early 1600’s, small European ships landed on the shores of South Asia. At the time the Mughal Empire ruled, the Mughals were muslims of Afghan origin who skope a turkic language, they were culturally influenced by the persian. The Mughal Empire was more powerful than any country in europe at the time, they ruled over large amounts of deserts, rivers, and mountains. The Mughal Empire often shared power over these vast lands with regional leaders. The tradition of including regional leaders in governing encouraged differences in ethnicity and religious differences. After the 1700 The Mughal Empire started to decline in power and profits, the Europeans increased their persistence on the Mughal Empire to obtain more profitable revenue. This caused the regional nobles to seek military support for Europeans against other Europeans, local nobles, and the Mughals(Clearly). The Mughals were uninterested by traditional trade because they depended on revenue from taxing. By the 18th century the Mughal empire was nothing compared to its past younger self, they were unable to fight invaders off. The “empire” was brutally attacked multiple times over a long period of time, hundreds of thousands of people were killed. Modern day India was negatively impacted by imperialism. It’s been negatively impacted by imperialism, india it taken advantage of in the more recent years, for example india has “relaxed environmental laws”(case study: development in an emerging country-India) corporation leaders take advantage of them and they create lots of pollution.
India has one of the fastest growing economies in the world, but at the same time its economy is very unequal. The rich getting richer every day in india, and the poor stay the same. The poor struggling to find education, good healthcare, and to make minimum wage. This is all because of the uneven development in the economy, some places have better access to links to trade routes from the past. Even though they have one of the fastest growing economies they still have all theses people that are in poverty. India rarely taxes its wealthiest citizens, and healthcare is very highly promoted in India and it is very expensive, to most healthcare is a luxury that can’t afford it, which is most of India. 10% of India has 77% of the total wealth(case study: development in an emerging country-India). So as most of India could not afford healthcare the mortality rate for the poorest states is high then those in sub-Sahara Africa. The british came to india and took everything they had, when they finally became independent they still were in poverty, they were still poor and even though it was a good thing when they became independent they still were in such a bad state of poverty. The Mughal Empire was a very successful empire until about the 18th century when the british took lead over india and took advantage of the coastal area, it was a very unguarded area. India's history as the Mughal empire being overthrown and the separation of cultures led India to have an unequal economy in the modern day. One may say that it's the world's third largest economy and that in the last five years of the economy the citizens to be exact 90 million have escaped poverty and increased the overall quality of their lives do to the fast economic growth. In the past few years india has reached an all low to the poverty levels. | <urn:uuid:cf117ce6-24a8-4cf8-999d-4c5267d8f2ad> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://issuu.com/hanboise/docs/the_impact_of_imperialism_on_the_modern_world | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00171.warc.gz | en | 0.98099 | 728 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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-... | 1 | Hanna Boise Global studies 1/6/20 Period 1
The Impact of Imperialism on The Modern World
Early 1600’s, small European ships landed on the shores of South Asia. At the time the Mughal Empire ruled, the Mughals were muslims of Afghan origin who skope a turkic language, they were culturally influenced by the persian. The Mughal Empire was more powerful than any country in europe at the time, they ruled over large amounts of deserts, rivers, and mountains. The Mughal Empire often shared power over these vast lands with regional leaders. The tradition of including regional leaders in governing encouraged differences in ethnicity and religious differences. After the 1700 The Mughal Empire started to decline in power and profits, the Europeans increased their persistence on the Mughal Empire to obtain more profitable revenue. This caused the regional nobles to seek military support for Europeans against other Europeans, local nobles, and the Mughals(Clearly). The Mughals were uninterested by traditional trade because they depended on revenue from taxing. By the 18th century the Mughal empire was nothing compared to its past younger self, they were unable to fight invaders off. The “empire” was brutally attacked multiple times over a long period of time, hundreds of thousands of people were killed. Modern day India was negatively impacted by imperialism. It’s been negatively impacted by imperialism, india it taken advantage of in the more recent years, for example india has “relaxed environmental laws”(case study: development in an emerging country-India) corporation leaders take advantage of them and they create lots of pollution.
India has one of the fastest growing economies in the world, but at the same time its economy is very unequal. The rich getting richer every day in india, and the poor stay the same. The poor struggling to find education, good healthcare, and to make minimum wage. This is all because of the uneven development in the economy, some places have better access to links to trade routes from the past. Even though they have one of the fastest growing economies they still have all theses people that are in poverty. India rarely taxes its wealthiest citizens, and healthcare is very highly promoted in India and it is very expensive, to most healthcare is a luxury that can’t afford it, which is most of India. 10% of India has 77% of the total wealth(case study: development in an emerging country-India). So as most of India could not afford healthcare the mortality rate for the poorest states is high then those in sub-Sahara Africa. The british came to india and took everything they had, when they finally became independent they still were in poverty, they were still poor and even though it was a good thing when they became independent they still were in such a bad state of poverty. The Mughal Empire was a very successful empire until about the 18th century when the british took lead over india and took advantage of the coastal area, it was a very unguarded area. India's history as the Mughal empire being overthrown and the separation of cultures led India to have an unequal economy in the modern day. One may say that it's the world's third largest economy and that in the last five years of the economy the citizens to be exact 90 million have escaped poverty and increased the overall quality of their lives do to the fast economic growth. In the past few years india has reached an all low to the poverty levels. | 727 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Palestinian and Israeli conflict is the famous dispute between the Palestinians and the Israelis and it’s a dispute which is ongoing and a conflict which is explosive and continuing. It is one of the most sensitive and important issue discussed (Shah, 2000).
The term has been used as a reference for the same conflicts earlier phrases and this conflict is usually very wide ranging. International actions have been forced in the conflict due to violence that had resulted from the dispute. Besides the international actions, human rights and security concerns are also prompted.
This conflict has a great variety of thoughts and view in the societies and highlights the deep divisions of the Palestinians and the Israelis societies. The Israelis and the Palestinians have two different religions but this religion is not the reason for the conflict, its all about the land. Both groups knew the area as Palestine which they claimed. But after the 1948-49 war this land had been divided into three parts which were the West Bank, the state of Israel and the Gaza Strip. Issue There were many issues that had occurred between the Palestinians and Israelis. The West Bank and the Gaza strip had been occupied by the Israelis.
The Israelis were asked by the Palestinians to withdraw the land but the Israelis instead started to expand its settlements throughout the processes of peace and continue to do so today as well. In order to regain the Palestine for the Palestinian Arabs they demanded a tow state in the Gaza and the West Bank. The Israelis on the other hand refused to create a state as they believed that it would result in a base for the terror groups but in the final negotiations the Israelis agreed to create the state with very limited control to the Palestinians over its resources and its borders.
... entire Israeli-Palestinian peace in jeopardy. Despite the historical tensions of the Middle East, recent issues have arisen to intensify the conflict. Angry Palestinians protested ... the United States and Russia are given heavily financed housing in the settlements built on seized Palestinian land. By 1990, according to Israeli estimates ...
The refugee problem was another important issue in the conflict. There were about 726000 Palestinians who were forced to leave their homes in the war that had followed in 1948 (Gelvin, 2007).
The Palestinian refugees were about 4 million. The refugees were in poor conditions in the camps of Gaza and the West Bank. There was a Palestinian demand for sending the refugees back to their homes in Israel. The Israelis whereas opposed to this as they felt that there would be a majority of the Arab Palestinians and this would end the Israel being a Jewish Israeli state.
To the problem of the refugees mentioned above the answer of the Palestinians was of creating riots and destroy the Israelis by violence. By violence the Palestinians got hold of many of the areas of the Gaza Strip and the West Bank. And most of the population was in hold of the Palestinians. For the answer to this again the Israelis took a step which was of the Israeli Repression. They limited the flow of the Palestinian workers to Israel to prevent any terrorist activities from happening and there were strict border checks of these workers.
This greatly reduced the Palestinian standard of living. Those Palestinians who did come to work were humiliated or awaited for long hours at the check points. For any of the terror attacks at the checkpoints the Israelis starting firing at vehicles as a result of which many innocent civilians were put to death. The Israelis had launched the defensive Wall in the West bank operation and started reoccupying the territories in the West bank which were under the Palestinians.
There were further checkpoints made by the IDF (Israel Defense forces) and any of the towns were for long time periods kept in curfew and the disrupting daily life, education and work. The IDF had killed about 3500 Palestinians and had destroyed the Palestinian houses. The problems that the Palestinians had to go through because of the Israelis were also due to the reason that the Israelis wanted to ensure their security. Causes The Israel Palestine conflict causes are too complex. The entire area was known as the Palestine before even the Israelis entered.
... started the conflict, and they purposely drive ... (Carroll 16). The Palestinians have inflicted, or started the current Arab-Israeli conflict, and Israel is not the problem. The Palestinians are the aggressors, they ...
The place was not called Palestine at the time of the Ottoman Empire but it had been divided into separate parts which were called ‘Vilayets’ which were further subdivided into even smaller units known as the ‘Sanjaks’. This Palestine term was just used by the Muslims, Jews and Christians to just describe their likeness for that region. The place was conquered by the Europeans. This region then was named the Palestine under the British Administration ad the people there were given identity cards labeling their nationality as the Palestinians.
This was the time when the conflict arose between the Palestinians and the settlers of the Zionist who had been arriving from Russia and the Eastern Europe. The European settlers had a want to build a community of the Jewish people, though Israel wasn’t created then but only the want was enough to create a conflict between the European settlers and the Palestinian Arabs (Caplan, 2009).
The land that was owned by the Palestinian Arabs was taken away from them and they were evicted by the new owners of that land, the land that was brought by the European from the European Zionist funds.
This entire process gave rise to a conflict which had quite violent results. The time when Israel came into place during the years 1947 and 1948, many of the Palestinian residents were forced to leave their homes and were not allowed to return to their homelands. All these people became the Palestinian refugees and their troubles were the actual root to the conflict between the Israel and the Palestinian conflict. Solution The solution to this conflict which I can think of is for the Israel to become one state under the vote democratically and populated by both the Palestinians and the Israelis.
There are three reasons for me to choose this solution. Firstly, the Palestinians want to live back in their homeland and if they do they would feel satisfied and would have a feeling of achieving what they always wanted. The Palestinians always thought of getting back their country and live in their homeland. If they live with the Israelis it would make them feel optimistic about their children’s future. Their goal has always been to return to their homeland so if they would succeed in achieving their goal then they would stop violence.
The second reason is that of much less violence. As the Palestinians would be heard through the voting and them participating in the affairs of the government they would not create violence and blow off people to get heard. This would result in less fear and greater safety for the Israelis. Moreover, there would be no violence for retaliation from the Israeli terrorists. Lastly, the democratic government would be fair to both the groups as it would contain both the Israelis and the Palestinians.
... recognizes the Palestine Liberalization Organizations (PLO) * PLO recognized the right of existence of Israel. * Israeli agreed on the autonomy of the Palestinian occupied territories ... of this essay is to look into the ethnic conflict of Israel and Palestine and to reveal the basis of the issue as ...
To the citizens all the leaders would be fair if they’re elected otherwise they won’t be re-elected. For the leaders both the groups would vote and if one leader favors just one group then the other group would not vote for him. The Palestinian and Israeli leaders would have to be fair and equal no matter whatever religion they’re following (Homie, 2007).
Conclusion This conflict between the Israelis and Palestinians is a very sensitive issue and the solution which I think would work is that of Israel becoming a democratic state.
I believe this is the best solution as it’ll provide both the groups with a homeland and also allow them to participate in the government of their own. This can be an effective step towards peace. References Shah A. (2000).
Palestine and Israel Introduction. December 20, 2000. From www. globalissues. org Homie G. (2007).
A Solution to the Israeli Palestine Conflict. May 6, 2007. From www. newsflavor. com Gelvin J. L. (2007).
The Israel-Palestine conflict: one hundred years of war. Edition: New. Caplan N. (2009).
The Israel-Palestine conflict: contested histories. Wiley-Blackwell Publishers. | <urn:uuid:70c74147-016a-4bb4-ae42-3d39ec6e94da> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://educheer.com/essays/palestinian-and-israeli-conflict/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00536.warc.gz | en | 0.983015 | 1,698 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.5907983779907... | 1 | Palestinian and Israeli conflict is the famous dispute between the Palestinians and the Israelis and it’s a dispute which is ongoing and a conflict which is explosive and continuing. It is one of the most sensitive and important issue discussed (Shah, 2000).
The term has been used as a reference for the same conflicts earlier phrases and this conflict is usually very wide ranging. International actions have been forced in the conflict due to violence that had resulted from the dispute. Besides the international actions, human rights and security concerns are also prompted.
This conflict has a great variety of thoughts and view in the societies and highlights the deep divisions of the Palestinians and the Israelis societies. The Israelis and the Palestinians have two different religions but this religion is not the reason for the conflict, its all about the land. Both groups knew the area as Palestine which they claimed. But after the 1948-49 war this land had been divided into three parts which were the West Bank, the state of Israel and the Gaza Strip. Issue There were many issues that had occurred between the Palestinians and Israelis. The West Bank and the Gaza strip had been occupied by the Israelis.
The Israelis were asked by the Palestinians to withdraw the land but the Israelis instead started to expand its settlements throughout the processes of peace and continue to do so today as well. In order to regain the Palestine for the Palestinian Arabs they demanded a tow state in the Gaza and the West Bank. The Israelis on the other hand refused to create a state as they believed that it would result in a base for the terror groups but in the final negotiations the Israelis agreed to create the state with very limited control to the Palestinians over its resources and its borders.
... entire Israeli-Palestinian peace in jeopardy. Despite the historical tensions of the Middle East, recent issues have arisen to intensify the conflict. Angry Palestinians protested ... the United States and Russia are given heavily financed housing in the settlements built on seized Palestinian land. By 1990, according to Israeli estimates ...
The refugee problem was another important issue in the conflict. There were about 726000 Palestinians who were forced to leave their homes in the war that had followed in 1948 (Gelvin, 2007).
The Palestinian refugees were about 4 million. The refugees were in poor conditions in the camps of Gaza and the West Bank. There was a Palestinian demand for sending the refugees back to their homes in Israel. The Israelis whereas opposed to this as they felt that there would be a majority of the Arab Palestinians and this would end the Israel being a Jewish Israeli state.
To the problem of the refugees mentioned above the answer of the Palestinians was of creating riots and destroy the Israelis by violence. By violence the Palestinians got hold of many of the areas of the Gaza Strip and the West Bank. And most of the population was in hold of the Palestinians. For the answer to this again the Israelis took a step which was of the Israeli Repression. They limited the flow of the Palestinian workers to Israel to prevent any terrorist activities from happening and there were strict border checks of these workers.
This greatly reduced the Palestinian standard of living. Those Palestinians who did come to work were humiliated or awaited for long hours at the check points. For any of the terror attacks at the checkpoints the Israelis starting firing at vehicles as a result of which many innocent civilians were put to death. The Israelis had launched the defensive Wall in the West bank operation and started reoccupying the territories in the West bank which were under the Palestinians.
There were further checkpoints made by the IDF (Israel Defense forces) and any of the towns were for long time periods kept in curfew and the disrupting daily life, education and work. The IDF had killed about 3500 Palestinians and had destroyed the Palestinian houses. The problems that the Palestinians had to go through because of the Israelis were also due to the reason that the Israelis wanted to ensure their security. Causes The Israel Palestine conflict causes are too complex. The entire area was known as the Palestine before even the Israelis entered.
... started the conflict, and they purposely drive ... (Carroll 16). The Palestinians have inflicted, or started the current Arab-Israeli conflict, and Israel is not the problem. The Palestinians are the aggressors, they ...
The place was not called Palestine at the time of the Ottoman Empire but it had been divided into separate parts which were called ‘Vilayets’ which were further subdivided into even smaller units known as the ‘Sanjaks’. This Palestine term was just used by the Muslims, Jews and Christians to just describe their likeness for that region. The place was conquered by the Europeans. This region then was named the Palestine under the British Administration ad the people there were given identity cards labeling their nationality as the Palestinians.
This was the time when the conflict arose between the Palestinians and the settlers of the Zionist who had been arriving from Russia and the Eastern Europe. The European settlers had a want to build a community of the Jewish people, though Israel wasn’t created then but only the want was enough to create a conflict between the European settlers and the Palestinian Arabs (Caplan, 2009).
The land that was owned by the Palestinian Arabs was taken away from them and they were evicted by the new owners of that land, the land that was brought by the European from the European Zionist funds.
This entire process gave rise to a conflict which had quite violent results. The time when Israel came into place during the years 1947 and 1948, many of the Palestinian residents were forced to leave their homes and were not allowed to return to their homelands. All these people became the Palestinian refugees and their troubles were the actual root to the conflict between the Israel and the Palestinian conflict. Solution The solution to this conflict which I can think of is for the Israel to become one state under the vote democratically and populated by both the Palestinians and the Israelis.
There are three reasons for me to choose this solution. Firstly, the Palestinians want to live back in their homeland and if they do they would feel satisfied and would have a feeling of achieving what they always wanted. The Palestinians always thought of getting back their country and live in their homeland. If they live with the Israelis it would make them feel optimistic about their children’s future. Their goal has always been to return to their homeland so if they would succeed in achieving their goal then they would stop violence.
The second reason is that of much less violence. As the Palestinians would be heard through the voting and them participating in the affairs of the government they would not create violence and blow off people to get heard. This would result in less fear and greater safety for the Israelis. Moreover, there would be no violence for retaliation from the Israeli terrorists. Lastly, the democratic government would be fair to both the groups as it would contain both the Israelis and the Palestinians.
... recognizes the Palestine Liberalization Organizations (PLO) * PLO recognized the right of existence of Israel. * Israeli agreed on the autonomy of the Palestinian occupied territories ... of this essay is to look into the ethnic conflict of Israel and Palestine and to reveal the basis of the issue as ...
To the citizens all the leaders would be fair if they’re elected otherwise they won’t be re-elected. For the leaders both the groups would vote and if one leader favors just one group then the other group would not vote for him. The Palestinian and Israeli leaders would have to be fair and equal no matter whatever religion they’re following (Homie, 2007).
Conclusion This conflict between the Israelis and Palestinians is a very sensitive issue and the solution which I think would work is that of Israel becoming a democratic state.
I believe this is the best solution as it’ll provide both the groups with a homeland and also allow them to participate in the government of their own. This can be an effective step towards peace. References Shah A. (2000).
Palestine and Israel Introduction. December 20, 2000. From www. globalissues. org Homie G. (2007).
A Solution to the Israeli Palestine Conflict. May 6, 2007. From www. newsflavor. com Gelvin J. L. (2007).
The Israel-Palestine conflict: one hundred years of war. Edition: New. Caplan N. (2009).
The Israel-Palestine conflict: contested histories. Wiley-Blackwell Publishers. | 1,733 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Alaska Native Stories
Raven Transforming Into A Pine Needle
By Nick Alan Foote
Raven Transforming Into A Pine Needle was inspired by the story of Raven and the Box of Daylight. This Tlingit story of Raven's transformation to bring light into the world via the stars, moon, and sun holds great significance for the Tlingit people.
Raven and the Box of Daylight
There once was a time when the world was dark. The sky was always black -- no stars, no moon no sun, for they were being hidden away from the world by a greedy Chief. Raven devised a plan to transform himself into a pine needle and drop into the water where the chiefs daughter was drinking. She became pregnant with him, and gave birth; the Chief spoiled his grandson.
Raven would cry constantly, until the old chief finally gave him the box of stars to look at. Raven's tears stopped with his curiosity of the wooden box his grandfather placed in front of him. He examined the intricate star design painted around the outside of it.
After a few minutes. As soon as his grandpa turned his back Raven through the lid up and off of the box and an a trail of million light started to escaped through the chimney and into the night sky.
After the last star had exited the box, he later cried for the box of the moon, and the old man gave it to him after blocking the chimney. Raven played with it, rolled it out the door and let it escape into the sky. Raven finally began crying for the box of the sun, and the old man gave it to him.
Knowing that he wouldn't be able to roll it out the door or toss it up the chimney (because he is being watched), he waited until everyone is asleep, changed into his bird form, grasped the sun in his beak and flew out the chimney. Raven tossed the sun into the sky and daylight flooded the world for everyone to share. | <urn:uuid:d62d3f4a-7f7d-48cd-8af3-3a031255d0dc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://nickalanart.com/pages/alaska-native-stories | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00056.warc.gz | en | 0.984737 | 402 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.186968296766... | 11 | Alaska Native Stories
Raven Transforming Into A Pine Needle
By Nick Alan Foote
Raven Transforming Into A Pine Needle was inspired by the story of Raven and the Box of Daylight. This Tlingit story of Raven's transformation to bring light into the world via the stars, moon, and sun holds great significance for the Tlingit people.
Raven and the Box of Daylight
There once was a time when the world was dark. The sky was always black -- no stars, no moon no sun, for they were being hidden away from the world by a greedy Chief. Raven devised a plan to transform himself into a pine needle and drop into the water where the chiefs daughter was drinking. She became pregnant with him, and gave birth; the Chief spoiled his grandson.
Raven would cry constantly, until the old chief finally gave him the box of stars to look at. Raven's tears stopped with his curiosity of the wooden box his grandfather placed in front of him. He examined the intricate star design painted around the outside of it.
After a few minutes. As soon as his grandpa turned his back Raven through the lid up and off of the box and an a trail of million light started to escaped through the chimney and into the night sky.
After the last star had exited the box, he later cried for the box of the moon, and the old man gave it to him after blocking the chimney. Raven played with it, rolled it out the door and let it escape into the sky. Raven finally began crying for the box of the sun, and the old man gave it to him.
Knowing that he wouldn't be able to roll it out the door or toss it up the chimney (because he is being watched), he waited until everyone is asleep, changed into his bird form, grasped the sun in his beak and flew out the chimney. Raven tossed the sun into the sky and daylight flooded the world for everyone to share. | 398 | ENGLISH | 1 |
IHB’s Talking Hoosier History podcast team is excited to announce our 2020 release dates. New episodes will be available every six weeks on topics ranging from an indigenous prophet to the history relevance movement to Indiana suffragists. Here’s to a new year of Indiana history. Happy listening and learning!
Music has long played a vital role in not only American history but also American activism. Slave spirituals were key to enduring the brutality of slave life and provided not only relief but also coded communication. Frederick Douglass wrote in his autobiography Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, “The songs of the slave represent the sorrows of his heart; and he is relieved by them, only as an aching heart is relieved by its tears.” Similarly, music has been instrumental in a variety of modern 20th century movements such as the freedom songs of the Civil Rights Movement and feminist anthems of the Women’s Movement. All movements have their anthems. But what about when it comes to our actual national anthem, “The Star Spangled Banner”?
It seems unlikely that during the War of 1812, when Francis Scott Key penned the poem that would later become our national anthem, he could have foreseen the controversy over the song that would occur centuries later. Certainly, he could not have predicted black football players taking a knee during his now musical poem prior to a professional football game, for one, because Key could not envision an America where black people lived free. While he viewed slavery as sinful (despite owning slaves himself at various points in his life), he was an anti-abolitionist who also at times upheld slaveholder rights. He personally supported the idea of black people “returning to Africa” if they were freed from slavery.
His poem, set to the tune of an English drinking song, has been rife with controversy from the beginning. Many critics thought it too militaristic, too long, or even too hard to sing or to remember the complicated lyrics. It did not become the official anthem until 1931 during President Herbert Hoover’s tenure and there were many outspoken critics of the choice at the time and since (“America the Beautiful” has always been a fan favorite). But enough about Key.
In recent years, and regardless of how one feels about it, it is clear that our national anthem has been at the center of controversy in terms of its meaning and our reactions to it. The anthem is, for some, a sacrosanct representation of America and to question it, to kneel during it, has become an act of such disrespect as to dominate national dialogue for years. But clearly questions remain regarding the idea of ownership and interpretation of the anthem. If indeed the anthem belongs to Americans and represents us as a unit, how do we come to a common consensus in regards to it? Do we even need to? If so, which Americans get to determine our anthem’s meaning and how we should respond to it? Who gets to embody Americanism and Americanness, and who gets to make the decision about how we display our patriotism or call our country to be its best self?
These questions lead to a much less publicized yet incredibly important event that occurred in Indianapolis during the Gay Pride celebration called “Celebration on the Circle,” held at Monument Circle on Saturday June 29, 1991. The gay community had been steadily growing and becoming more open in Indianapolis during the 1980s and early 1990s. Yet, it was still dangerous in many ways to live openly as a gay man or lesbian in the Midwest at the time. The vibrant gay bar scene and activism of the city were working on changing that by the early 1990s, but it was a long row to hoe, one that has not fully been completed across the state of Indiana.
One important development, among many, of Indianapolis becoming a more welcoming community to LGBTQ folks was the founding and then performances of the Indianapolis Men’s Chorus. The Men’s Chorus was a gay men’s chorus founded by the non-profit Crossroads Performing Arts, Inc. Crossroads, whose steering committee was originally under the direction of Jim Luce, had been working since January 1990 to lay the groundwork for the Men’s Chorus with future goals to establish a Women’s Chorus and an instrumental group. Recruitment for the Men’s Chorus began in earnest by the end of March 1990, and the founding choral director, Michael Hayden, who was a music professor at Butler University, was hired in August 1990. Vocal auditions were held in late September and early October, and the Men’s Chorus began practicing in earnest on October 14. The group planned to formally debut in spring 1991, which they did at the historic Madame Walker Theater on Saturday June 8.
Crossroads’ mission was to “strengthen the spirit of pride within the gay/lesbian community, to build bridges of understanding with all people of Indiana, and to enable its audiences and the general public to perceive the gay/lesbian community and its members in a positive way.” It is not surprising then, that the newly formed Men’s Chorus was slated to perform at the Gay Pride celebration in Indianapolis in late June 1991, as part of their debut season. This was only the second Gay Pride event held at Monument Circle. Gay Pride events, hosted by various organizations such as Justice, Inc., had been held in the city in the past, but throughout the 1980s they were semi-closeted, meaning they were held in a hotel, bar or rented space that was not actually out in the public—it was deemed too dangerous to be that open. In 1988, however, the Pride celebration expanded with a festival held at the more public Indianapolis Sports Center. Approximately 175 people attended, and by the very next year, when the event moved to Westlake Park, the number had dramatically risen to 1,000.
Yet, the gay community still had real cause for concern, particularly as they began celebrating more openly and in highly visible spaces. In 1990, the Pride festivities continued to expand and moved to Monument Circle for an event dubbed “Celebration on the Circle.” Virulent anti-gay protesters from a variety of Indianapolis churches wanted to intimidate them off the streets and back into the closets. According to the Indianapolis Star, approximately 100 protesters were on the scene, “many of whom wore gas masks and shouted insults as they walked around Monument Circle.” One anti-gay demonstrator explained why they were at the Circle: “We are all Christians who are here because we don’t approve of what these people are doing, trying to turn Indianapolis into another gay capital like San Francisco…I find it objectionable that they want to take their unholy, unacceptable lifestyle to the center of the city.” Indeed, the Indianapolis Star described the rally as “a confrontation with fundamentalist anger.”
The climate was just as hostile or perhaps even more so for the second Pride event at the Circle. First off, in April 1991, city officials denied Justice, Inc. permission to hold the Pride rally at Monument Circle, and cited a temporary policy limiting “traffic disruption and police overtime as the reasons.” The Indiana Civil Liberties Union quickly planned to challenge the decision in court. Within weeks, Safety Director Joseph J. Shelton relented, stating, “The thing that really changed my mind about it is the fact that regardless of what we say or what we do, the outright appearance was that we were only imposing this restriction on this group… just because of the gay and lesbian organization.” After organizers were given the green light to host their event at the Circle, Pride attendees, including the Men’s Chorus singers, were still not exactly sure how they would be received by their own city and its citizens.
Hayden recalled having conversations with the singers about whether they wanted to perform at the Pride event and how the chorus wanted to be sensitive to its members’ differing levels of comfort. They were right to have concerns. Religious protesters, even angrier than at last year’s events, were in the mood for blood. And they arrived with baseball bats. Jim Luce wryly observed, “Because Jesus would have a baseball bat, right?”
Hayden and the Men’s Chorus, including Luce, walked into a hostile scene. As the 1991 Gay Pride event was getting ready to kick-off, approximately 40 protesters stormed the stage. Lt. Tom Bruno, of the Indianapolis Police Department’s traffic unit, described the protesters as being armed with “an attitude of confrontation.” As tensions mounted, John Aleshire, a spectator at Pride who later went on to chair the board of Crossroads Performing Arts, was unsettled by what was taking place before his eyes. He was both fearful of what was to come and felt helpless to stop it.
Right as the fundamentalist protesters and rally attendees including the Men’s Chorus, who had by then made their way onstage, seemed ready to clash, Michael Hayden, the chorus director, made a split-second decision. He somehow had the knowledge and foresight to choose the only song that could defuse the tension and make the bat-wielding Christians stop in their tracks. He looked at his men and said, “Sing the national anthem. Right now.” Pride attendees encircled the unwelcome protesters on the stage and assailed them with music. According to the Indianapolis Star, “it was a tense moment,” but as Aleshire recalled, “something magical happened.”
As the Men’s Chorus armed themselves with their voices, the protesters were taken aback. Luce described the scene: “It was fascinating to watch that group of people actively hating us while we were singing the National Anthem. I mean they actively hated us.” One onlooker later wrote, “Those who had wrapped their religion in Old Glory were hearing those ‘sissies’, ‘faggots’, and ‘moral degenerates’ demonstrating that the ugly protesters held no monopoly when it came to expressing their love of country.” And as Hayden queried, “What could they say? How could they protest America’s national anthem? There’s no way.”
Hayden in that moment understood what was at stake here: not only their right to be out in public as gay men and women, but their very Americanism. Hayden recalled thinking, “We’re Americans too. Shut up. We’re going to own this just like you. That flag represents us as well.” And the fundamentalists faced a choice as the notes of the “Star Spangled Banner” descended upon them: put their hands over their hearts as they had been taught that all loyal Americans should do when they hear our national anthem or charge full-force ahead at another group of patriotic Americans, nee Hoosiers, utilizing their right to celebrate in a public space. The protesters ultimately stopped and paid their respects to the anthem, and it was just enough pause to dull the escalating tension. In Hayden’s words, “We had sung them off the monument steps.”
After the protesters exited the stage, events were able to carry on without further disruption. No arrests were made and no violence occurred. Attendees were proud of how the Pride event transpired, but fear of being so openly exposed continued to permeate throughout the day.
Activists, particularly those with ties to the Men’s Chorus, remember with pride how they sang down the hatred using their own patriotism. Hayden described the Men’s Chorus singers as being these relatively young “homegrown” men, Hoosiers in their 20s and 30s who were “from these great families from Indiana.” And after the situation was defused, they started cheering and hugging each other, and processing what they had just done. The following month, Hayden wrote to his chorus to reflect on their experiences: “Seeing a man carry a ball bat or standing on the steps with them shouting in our faces just trying to enlist us to violence … and then this mighty male instrument opening its mouth and singing these ‘Christians’ right off the steps! Goliath has never seen a stronger David. I have never felt so proud to be gay, a musician, and what we know to be a true Christian in my entire life.”
Decades later, Hayden could still recall the emotions, power, and importance of what transpired that summer day. He reminisced, “We all felt it, and we knew we had done that with our voices and our national anthem.” Aleshire confirmed these feelings, “It proved to me, once again, that music is one of the most powerful forces to bring down walls and build bridges in their stead.”
Frederick Douglass, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass: An American Slave, Written by Himself, Edited with an Introduction by David W. Blight, (Bedford St. Martin’s, 2002). | <urn:uuid:42b65726-702a-4acc-99ec-e8fa4dc1863c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://blog.history.in.gov/author/michella/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00210.warc.gz | en | 0.982824 | 2,745 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.166902... | 2 | IHB’s Talking Hoosier History podcast team is excited to announce our 2020 release dates. New episodes will be available every six weeks on topics ranging from an indigenous prophet to the history relevance movement to Indiana suffragists. Here’s to a new year of Indiana history. Happy listening and learning!
Music has long played a vital role in not only American history but also American activism. Slave spirituals were key to enduring the brutality of slave life and provided not only relief but also coded communication. Frederick Douglass wrote in his autobiography Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, “The songs of the slave represent the sorrows of his heart; and he is relieved by them, only as an aching heart is relieved by its tears.” Similarly, music has been instrumental in a variety of modern 20th century movements such as the freedom songs of the Civil Rights Movement and feminist anthems of the Women’s Movement. All movements have their anthems. But what about when it comes to our actual national anthem, “The Star Spangled Banner”?
It seems unlikely that during the War of 1812, when Francis Scott Key penned the poem that would later become our national anthem, he could have foreseen the controversy over the song that would occur centuries later. Certainly, he could not have predicted black football players taking a knee during his now musical poem prior to a professional football game, for one, because Key could not envision an America where black people lived free. While he viewed slavery as sinful (despite owning slaves himself at various points in his life), he was an anti-abolitionist who also at times upheld slaveholder rights. He personally supported the idea of black people “returning to Africa” if they were freed from slavery.
His poem, set to the tune of an English drinking song, has been rife with controversy from the beginning. Many critics thought it too militaristic, too long, or even too hard to sing or to remember the complicated lyrics. It did not become the official anthem until 1931 during President Herbert Hoover’s tenure and there were many outspoken critics of the choice at the time and since (“America the Beautiful” has always been a fan favorite). But enough about Key.
In recent years, and regardless of how one feels about it, it is clear that our national anthem has been at the center of controversy in terms of its meaning and our reactions to it. The anthem is, for some, a sacrosanct representation of America and to question it, to kneel during it, has become an act of such disrespect as to dominate national dialogue for years. But clearly questions remain regarding the idea of ownership and interpretation of the anthem. If indeed the anthem belongs to Americans and represents us as a unit, how do we come to a common consensus in regards to it? Do we even need to? If so, which Americans get to determine our anthem’s meaning and how we should respond to it? Who gets to embody Americanism and Americanness, and who gets to make the decision about how we display our patriotism or call our country to be its best self?
These questions lead to a much less publicized yet incredibly important event that occurred in Indianapolis during the Gay Pride celebration called “Celebration on the Circle,” held at Monument Circle on Saturday June 29, 1991. The gay community had been steadily growing and becoming more open in Indianapolis during the 1980s and early 1990s. Yet, it was still dangerous in many ways to live openly as a gay man or lesbian in the Midwest at the time. The vibrant gay bar scene and activism of the city were working on changing that by the early 1990s, but it was a long row to hoe, one that has not fully been completed across the state of Indiana.
One important development, among many, of Indianapolis becoming a more welcoming community to LGBTQ folks was the founding and then performances of the Indianapolis Men’s Chorus. The Men’s Chorus was a gay men’s chorus founded by the non-profit Crossroads Performing Arts, Inc. Crossroads, whose steering committee was originally under the direction of Jim Luce, had been working since January 1990 to lay the groundwork for the Men’s Chorus with future goals to establish a Women’s Chorus and an instrumental group. Recruitment for the Men’s Chorus began in earnest by the end of March 1990, and the founding choral director, Michael Hayden, who was a music professor at Butler University, was hired in August 1990. Vocal auditions were held in late September and early October, and the Men’s Chorus began practicing in earnest on October 14. The group planned to formally debut in spring 1991, which they did at the historic Madame Walker Theater on Saturday June 8.
Crossroads’ mission was to “strengthen the spirit of pride within the gay/lesbian community, to build bridges of understanding with all people of Indiana, and to enable its audiences and the general public to perceive the gay/lesbian community and its members in a positive way.” It is not surprising then, that the newly formed Men’s Chorus was slated to perform at the Gay Pride celebration in Indianapolis in late June 1991, as part of their debut season. This was only the second Gay Pride event held at Monument Circle. Gay Pride events, hosted by various organizations such as Justice, Inc., had been held in the city in the past, but throughout the 1980s they were semi-closeted, meaning they were held in a hotel, bar or rented space that was not actually out in the public—it was deemed too dangerous to be that open. In 1988, however, the Pride celebration expanded with a festival held at the more public Indianapolis Sports Center. Approximately 175 people attended, and by the very next year, when the event moved to Westlake Park, the number had dramatically risen to 1,000.
Yet, the gay community still had real cause for concern, particularly as they began celebrating more openly and in highly visible spaces. In 1990, the Pride festivities continued to expand and moved to Monument Circle for an event dubbed “Celebration on the Circle.” Virulent anti-gay protesters from a variety of Indianapolis churches wanted to intimidate them off the streets and back into the closets. According to the Indianapolis Star, approximately 100 protesters were on the scene, “many of whom wore gas masks and shouted insults as they walked around Monument Circle.” One anti-gay demonstrator explained why they were at the Circle: “We are all Christians who are here because we don’t approve of what these people are doing, trying to turn Indianapolis into another gay capital like San Francisco…I find it objectionable that they want to take their unholy, unacceptable lifestyle to the center of the city.” Indeed, the Indianapolis Star described the rally as “a confrontation with fundamentalist anger.”
The climate was just as hostile or perhaps even more so for the second Pride event at the Circle. First off, in April 1991, city officials denied Justice, Inc. permission to hold the Pride rally at Monument Circle, and cited a temporary policy limiting “traffic disruption and police overtime as the reasons.” The Indiana Civil Liberties Union quickly planned to challenge the decision in court. Within weeks, Safety Director Joseph J. Shelton relented, stating, “The thing that really changed my mind about it is the fact that regardless of what we say or what we do, the outright appearance was that we were only imposing this restriction on this group… just because of the gay and lesbian organization.” After organizers were given the green light to host their event at the Circle, Pride attendees, including the Men’s Chorus singers, were still not exactly sure how they would be received by their own city and its citizens.
Hayden recalled having conversations with the singers about whether they wanted to perform at the Pride event and how the chorus wanted to be sensitive to its members’ differing levels of comfort. They were right to have concerns. Religious protesters, even angrier than at last year’s events, were in the mood for blood. And they arrived with baseball bats. Jim Luce wryly observed, “Because Jesus would have a baseball bat, right?”
Hayden and the Men’s Chorus, including Luce, walked into a hostile scene. As the 1991 Gay Pride event was getting ready to kick-off, approximately 40 protesters stormed the stage. Lt. Tom Bruno, of the Indianapolis Police Department’s traffic unit, described the protesters as being armed with “an attitude of confrontation.” As tensions mounted, John Aleshire, a spectator at Pride who later went on to chair the board of Crossroads Performing Arts, was unsettled by what was taking place before his eyes. He was both fearful of what was to come and felt helpless to stop it.
Right as the fundamentalist protesters and rally attendees including the Men’s Chorus, who had by then made their way onstage, seemed ready to clash, Michael Hayden, the chorus director, made a split-second decision. He somehow had the knowledge and foresight to choose the only song that could defuse the tension and make the bat-wielding Christians stop in their tracks. He looked at his men and said, “Sing the national anthem. Right now.” Pride attendees encircled the unwelcome protesters on the stage and assailed them with music. According to the Indianapolis Star, “it was a tense moment,” but as Aleshire recalled, “something magical happened.”
As the Men’s Chorus armed themselves with their voices, the protesters were taken aback. Luce described the scene: “It was fascinating to watch that group of people actively hating us while we were singing the National Anthem. I mean they actively hated us.” One onlooker later wrote, “Those who had wrapped their religion in Old Glory were hearing those ‘sissies’, ‘faggots’, and ‘moral degenerates’ demonstrating that the ugly protesters held no monopoly when it came to expressing their love of country.” And as Hayden queried, “What could they say? How could they protest America’s national anthem? There’s no way.”
Hayden in that moment understood what was at stake here: not only their right to be out in public as gay men and women, but their very Americanism. Hayden recalled thinking, “We’re Americans too. Shut up. We’re going to own this just like you. That flag represents us as well.” And the fundamentalists faced a choice as the notes of the “Star Spangled Banner” descended upon them: put their hands over their hearts as they had been taught that all loyal Americans should do when they hear our national anthem or charge full-force ahead at another group of patriotic Americans, nee Hoosiers, utilizing their right to celebrate in a public space. The protesters ultimately stopped and paid their respects to the anthem, and it was just enough pause to dull the escalating tension. In Hayden’s words, “We had sung them off the monument steps.”
After the protesters exited the stage, events were able to carry on without further disruption. No arrests were made and no violence occurred. Attendees were proud of how the Pride event transpired, but fear of being so openly exposed continued to permeate throughout the day.
Activists, particularly those with ties to the Men’s Chorus, remember with pride how they sang down the hatred using their own patriotism. Hayden described the Men’s Chorus singers as being these relatively young “homegrown” men, Hoosiers in their 20s and 30s who were “from these great families from Indiana.” And after the situation was defused, they started cheering and hugging each other, and processing what they had just done. The following month, Hayden wrote to his chorus to reflect on their experiences: “Seeing a man carry a ball bat or standing on the steps with them shouting in our faces just trying to enlist us to violence … and then this mighty male instrument opening its mouth and singing these ‘Christians’ right off the steps! Goliath has never seen a stronger David. I have never felt so proud to be gay, a musician, and what we know to be a true Christian in my entire life.”
Decades later, Hayden could still recall the emotions, power, and importance of what transpired that summer day. He reminisced, “We all felt it, and we knew we had done that with our voices and our national anthem.” Aleshire confirmed these feelings, “It proved to me, once again, that music is one of the most powerful forces to bring down walls and build bridges in their stead.”
Frederick Douglass, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass: An American Slave, Written by Himself, Edited with an Introduction by David W. Blight, (Bedford St. Martin’s, 2002). | 2,664 | ENGLISH | 1 |
History of sport
The history of sports probably extends as far back as the military training existence, to prove themselves fit and useful for army requirements, the best been chosen to serve and fight for the power in command. Team sports had most probably been developed to train and prove the capability to fight and work together as a team (army). Later sports has been also a useful way for people to increase their mastery of nature and the environment. The history of sport can teach us a great deal about social changes and about the nature of sport itself. Sport seems to involve the development and exercise of basic human skills for their own sake, in parallel with their being exercised for their usefulness. It also shows how society has changed its beliefs and therefore there are changes in rules. Of course, as one goes further back in history, dwindling evidence makes theories of the origins and purposes of sport more and more difficult to support. | <urn:uuid:6c1125ff-0267-4bc5-be14-3376034fa80a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studyres.com/concepts/12003/history-of-sport | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00371.warc.gz | en | 0.981376 | 182 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.0849712714552879... | 3 | History of sport
The history of sports probably extends as far back as the military training existence, to prove themselves fit and useful for army requirements, the best been chosen to serve and fight for the power in command. Team sports had most probably been developed to train and prove the capability to fight and work together as a team (army). Later sports has been also a useful way for people to increase their mastery of nature and the environment. The history of sport can teach us a great deal about social changes and about the nature of sport itself. Sport seems to involve the development and exercise of basic human skills for their own sake, in parallel with their being exercised for their usefulness. It also shows how society has changed its beliefs and therefore there are changes in rules. Of course, as one goes further back in history, dwindling evidence makes theories of the origins and purposes of sport more and more difficult to support. | 183 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Egypt vs. Sumer Egypt and Sumer were very different places, but they were also similar in some ways. One way that they were different is that they were very diverse in Science/technology. They also practiced very different religions. One way that they were similar is that they were both created by rivers. Ancient Egypt and Sumer were different in Science/Technology and the religion they practiced, but they were similar in Geographic ways. One of the main ways that they were different is that they were extremely diverse with Science/Technology. While Sumer invented the wheel, sail, and plow, Egypt created ginormous pyramids with Limestone. Sumer was the first to use the number system base 60, and they also were the creators of Geometry. Egypt was the first to use written numbers, and invented medicine and surgery. Most of these are still used in modern day life! Another way that they were different is that they practiced different religions. Sumer was polytheistic, which means they believed in many gods, about 3,000. In Egypt, all kings were seen as gods. Gods were all powerful and immortal, and the humans were servants in Sumer. While in Egypt pharaohs were referred to as “God-Kings.” In Sumer they believed that when someone passed away their souls went to a “land of no return.” Right around the corner in Egypt, they believed in Orisis, which meant that you could choose your afterlife when you died. The main way that these two places were similar is that they were both…
They use to think of themselves as being blessed by the Gods. On the other hand, Mesopotamia had a rough time dealing with intruders. They also suffered from great floods where a lot of crops were damaged, reducing the farming count for that year. Egypt also had problems with floods, but unlike Mesopotamia’s, the Egyptians floods generated fertile soil that doubled the amount of crops.
Despite being the only two civilizations that had a form of government and literary system, Egyptian culture separated…
Civilization along the Nile: Egypt
- Egypt= " the gift of the Nile "
- major crop= cotton
- Nile flows South to North and empties into the Mediterranean Sea
- 150 years ago= John Spekes found the source of the Nile which is Lake Victoria in Uganda (lake was named after Queen Victoria)
- Reasons Why it was Difficult to Invade Egypt
1. to the east and west= Sahara Desert
2. the Nile River had six huge waterfalls that would be tough to get through
- Ancient Egypt= "Kemet" which means the land…
It’s a setup
The reading for my text
Lets look together at
Vs.13 And Moses said unto the people, fear not stand still and see the salvation of the Lord which he will show to you today. For the Egyptians whom ye have seen today, ye shall see them again no more forever.
I came to this house today to prophesy, and I came to tell you that today is your day.
God said to tell you that today is a day of victory, today God is going to deal the death blow to an enemy that has been plaguing…
name Arab Republic of Egypt
Independence 28 February 1922 (from UK)
National holiday: Revolution Day, 23 July (1952)
Geography: Climate: hot and dry most of the year.
Area 997,739 sq km - 385,229 sq mi (3% arable, 97% desert)
The Nile River: The longest river in the world - 6695 Km (4,187 miles)
It gets its name from the Greek word “Nelios” meaning River Valley. It flows through nine countries: the White Nile flows Uganda, Sudan and Egypt. The Blue Nile starts in…
Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia are two very important cultures that shaped how we view life and what we do today. Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia have many similarities like their social class, they both had their own form of writing, and they both had very complex religions. Their social classes consisted of about 4 different types of people. Their writing was either Cuneiform or Hieroglyphics. They both had gods that they worshiped or hated. Both Egypt and Mesopotamia had differences but they are…
important impact in the world. One of them is Turkey, and the other one is Egypt. When you compare them, they seem like different countries but they have some things in common. So this essay will compare and contrast the similarities and differences between Turkey and Egypt in term of their geography, tourism, culture and entertainment.
First of all, there are some similarities and differences between Turkey and Egypt in their geographies. Both have the same time zone. In addition, these two…
The beginning of civilization itself was the most amazing event in earth’s history. It was a time where something that kind of looked like an ape started to think, more than any other creature up to that point, and until today. Its pretty incredible to think that these creatures banned together and started to create a unity that differs greatly than those that hunt in packs or sleep together. This was a unity that would grow to become known as civilization. What…
Battle for World Domination: Zeus vs. Osiris
The Ancient Egyptians and the Ancient Greeks both lived near the majestic island of Crete. The ancient Greeks lived to the north of the island in Europe, and the Egyptians lived to the south in Africa. Other than location, these ancient powers had other similarities and differences. Some of the similarities and differences can be categorized in 5 categories: food, shelter, religion, government and weapons. While only about 1000 miles apart, these highly…
Below them we have the peasants and servants. These are apart of tiers
seven and eight and are the lower class. They serve to everyone else and did not get to enjoy any
luxuries. Work was tough and life was not enjoyable. Now egypt is mainly broken into two
classes. You are either rich or you are poor.
In ancient Egypt, daily life revolved around the Nile river. The Nile had a yearly flooding
that lead to rich fertile land along it’s banks. This brought good harvest and wealth to the land.
Ancient Egyptians bui…
Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia
Egypt and Mesopotamia, although similar, are different as a result of one major natural resource: a river. Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia were an agricultural based society that believed in the existence of many deities; however, they differed in the aspect of how they evolved as an agricultural society and whether they feared or praised their gods.
Mesopotamia, also known as the Fertile Crescent, was located inside the Euphrates and Tigris River. The fertile land… | <urn:uuid:2e93e4f8-b056-4074-8433-38fd1711b3ec> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.majortests.com/essay/Egypt-Vs-570914.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00540.warc.gz | en | 0.984242 | 1,419 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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-0.2064927518... | 1 | Egypt vs. Sumer Egypt and Sumer were very different places, but they were also similar in some ways. One way that they were different is that they were very diverse in Science/technology. They also practiced very different religions. One way that they were similar is that they were both created by rivers. Ancient Egypt and Sumer were different in Science/Technology and the religion they practiced, but they were similar in Geographic ways. One of the main ways that they were different is that they were extremely diverse with Science/Technology. While Sumer invented the wheel, sail, and plow, Egypt created ginormous pyramids with Limestone. Sumer was the first to use the number system base 60, and they also were the creators of Geometry. Egypt was the first to use written numbers, and invented medicine and surgery. Most of these are still used in modern day life! Another way that they were different is that they practiced different religions. Sumer was polytheistic, which means they believed in many gods, about 3,000. In Egypt, all kings were seen as gods. Gods were all powerful and immortal, and the humans were servants in Sumer. While in Egypt pharaohs were referred to as “God-Kings.” In Sumer they believed that when someone passed away their souls went to a “land of no return.” Right around the corner in Egypt, they believed in Orisis, which meant that you could choose your afterlife when you died. The main way that these two places were similar is that they were both…
They use to think of themselves as being blessed by the Gods. On the other hand, Mesopotamia had a rough time dealing with intruders. They also suffered from great floods where a lot of crops were damaged, reducing the farming count for that year. Egypt also had problems with floods, but unlike Mesopotamia’s, the Egyptians floods generated fertile soil that doubled the amount of crops.
Despite being the only two civilizations that had a form of government and literary system, Egyptian culture separated…
Civilization along the Nile: Egypt
- Egypt= " the gift of the Nile "
- major crop= cotton
- Nile flows South to North and empties into the Mediterranean Sea
- 150 years ago= John Spekes found the source of the Nile which is Lake Victoria in Uganda (lake was named after Queen Victoria)
- Reasons Why it was Difficult to Invade Egypt
1. to the east and west= Sahara Desert
2. the Nile River had six huge waterfalls that would be tough to get through
- Ancient Egypt= "Kemet" which means the land…
It’s a setup
The reading for my text
Lets look together at
Vs.13 And Moses said unto the people, fear not stand still and see the salvation of the Lord which he will show to you today. For the Egyptians whom ye have seen today, ye shall see them again no more forever.
I came to this house today to prophesy, and I came to tell you that today is your day.
God said to tell you that today is a day of victory, today God is going to deal the death blow to an enemy that has been plaguing…
name Arab Republic of Egypt
Independence 28 February 1922 (from UK)
National holiday: Revolution Day, 23 July (1952)
Geography: Climate: hot and dry most of the year.
Area 997,739 sq km - 385,229 sq mi (3% arable, 97% desert)
The Nile River: The longest river in the world - 6695 Km (4,187 miles)
It gets its name from the Greek word “Nelios” meaning River Valley. It flows through nine countries: the White Nile flows Uganda, Sudan and Egypt. The Blue Nile starts in…
Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia are two very important cultures that shaped how we view life and what we do today. Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia have many similarities like their social class, they both had their own form of writing, and they both had very complex religions. Their social classes consisted of about 4 different types of people. Their writing was either Cuneiform or Hieroglyphics. They both had gods that they worshiped or hated. Both Egypt and Mesopotamia had differences but they are…
important impact in the world. One of them is Turkey, and the other one is Egypt. When you compare them, they seem like different countries but they have some things in common. So this essay will compare and contrast the similarities and differences between Turkey and Egypt in term of their geography, tourism, culture and entertainment.
First of all, there are some similarities and differences between Turkey and Egypt in their geographies. Both have the same time zone. In addition, these two…
The beginning of civilization itself was the most amazing event in earth’s history. It was a time where something that kind of looked like an ape started to think, more than any other creature up to that point, and until today. Its pretty incredible to think that these creatures banned together and started to create a unity that differs greatly than those that hunt in packs or sleep together. This was a unity that would grow to become known as civilization. What…
Battle for World Domination: Zeus vs. Osiris
The Ancient Egyptians and the Ancient Greeks both lived near the majestic island of Crete. The ancient Greeks lived to the north of the island in Europe, and the Egyptians lived to the south in Africa. Other than location, these ancient powers had other similarities and differences. Some of the similarities and differences can be categorized in 5 categories: food, shelter, religion, government and weapons. While only about 1000 miles apart, these highly…
Below them we have the peasants and servants. These are apart of tiers
seven and eight and are the lower class. They serve to everyone else and did not get to enjoy any
luxuries. Work was tough and life was not enjoyable. Now egypt is mainly broken into two
classes. You are either rich or you are poor.
In ancient Egypt, daily life revolved around the Nile river. The Nile had a yearly flooding
that lead to rich fertile land along it’s banks. This brought good harvest and wealth to the land.
Ancient Egyptians bui…
Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia
Egypt and Mesopotamia, although similar, are different as a result of one major natural resource: a river. Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia were an agricultural based society that believed in the existence of many deities; however, they differed in the aspect of how they evolved as an agricultural society and whether they feared or praised their gods.
Mesopotamia, also known as the Fertile Crescent, was located inside the Euphrates and Tigris River. The fertile land… | 1,433 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Eleanor of Provence was born around 1223 as the second daughter of Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Provence and Beatrice of Savoy. She and her three other sisters would all become Queens. Her eldest sister Margaret became Queen of France as the wife of Louis IX, King of France. Her third sister Sanchia became Queen of the Romans as the wife of Richard, King of the Romans and her fourth sister Beatrice became Queen of Sicily as the wife of Charles I, King of Sicily. Eleanor herself became Queen of England as the wife of King Henry III.
Not much is known about her childhood, but her later relationship with her sisters suggest that it was happy. When Margaret became Queen of France in 1234, Eleanor’s chances of making a grand match also increased. Her future husband, King Henry III, was quite a bit older than her – 16 years to be exact – and had been looking for a bride for a decade. Plans to marry Joan, Countess of Ponthieu came to nothing, and she ended up marrying King Ferdinand III of Castile. Eleanor was probably selected because she was now the sister-in-law of the King of France.
They were betrothed on 23 November 1235 when Eleanor was still only 12, and Henry was 28. Eleanor, accompanied by her uncle William of Savoy, landed at Dover in January 1236. She travelled on to Canterbury where she married Henry in person on 14 January at Canterbury Cathedral. The couple set out for London where Eleanor was crowned Queen of England on 20 January. Despite the age difference, Eleanor and Henry became quite close. Eleanor came to England with a large entourage, and hundreds of Savoyards visited England after Eleanor’s wedding to Henry. This influx of foreigners made Eleanor quite unpopular with the people.
It did not take long for Eleanor to fall pregnant and their eldest child – a son named Edward – was born on 16 June 1239. Four more children followed: Margaret (born 29 September 1240), Beatrice (born 25 June 1242), Edmund (born 16 January 1245) and Katherine (born 25 November 1253). Katherine suffered from an unspecified illness, and Henry had her image placed on the shrine of Edward the Confessor, hoping that she would be healed. Tragically, she would die young.
Eleanor and Henry had a close family life, and when their daughter Margaret became Queen of Scots and was close to delivering her first child, she travelled home to Windsor, and her mother was by her side when she gave birth. Their second daughter Beatrice left her children with Eleanor when she and her husband went on crusade.
Eleanor also did not shy away from politics, and in 1253, she was made joint regent with her brother-in-law Richard when Henry was on campaign in Gascony. Although measures taken during her regency were effective, they were not popular with the Londoners. Her regency ended when Henry summoned her to Gascony in 1254. She and her eldest son travelled on to Castile for his marriage to Eleanor of Castile – the daughter of the aforementioned Joan, Countess of Ponthieu. Eleanor rejoined Henry after the wedding, and they visited the French court where they met with her sister Margaret, but also her other sisters and her mother. When they returned to England in December 1254, they faced increased hostility from the barons.
The barons would eventually force some provisions of Henry, including the exile of the King’s half-siblings – the Lusignans. Tensions turned into a full-on civil war in 1263 when Henry refused to renew his commitment to the provisions. Henry and Eleanor were forced to seek the protection of the Tower of London. Henry surrendered to Simon de Montfort – the leader of the barons – on 16 July 1263 and handed over the government to him. It was probably Eleanor who persuaded her brother-in-law the King of France to mediate in the matter. They all sailed to France, but Henry and their eldest son returned to England before the matter was settled. Eleanor and their younger son refused to return while civil war raged on. They were still in France when they received the news that Henry and Edward were defeated at the Battles of Lewes in May 1264 and that they had both been captured. Eleanor turned her attention to raising more money for their cause. By the summer, she had raised an army, but bad weather prevented them from sailing. On 4 August 1265, Edward defeated Simon de Montfort in battle – killing him – and restoring his father to power. Eleanor immediately began making preparations for her return, and she landed in England on 1 November 1265.
Eleanor returned to a different England that the one she had left, but she remained influential during the last years of her husband’s reign. When her husband died on 16 November 1272 while Edward was away on crusade, she made sure her eldest son was proclaimed King. She was present in August 1274 with her grandchildren to welcome back Edward and his wife Eleanor from the Holy Land. In 1275, she lost her two surviving daughters in quick succession, Margaret died on 26 February 1275, followed by Beatrice on 24 March 1275.
Eleanor retired from court after becoming a widow, but she kept in touch with her son. She also became increasingly religious as she grew older. She became attached to Amesbury Abbey and two of her granddaughters – Eleanor of Brittany and Mary of England – became nuns there. On 7 July 1286 Eleanor herself took the veil, though she never did entirely live the life of a nun. She even secured a papal dispensation to retain her dower. She would spend the rest of her life at the abbey and died there on 24 June 1291. Upon her request, her heart was buried at Grey Friars Church with her daughter Beatrice while the rest of her remains were buried at Amesbury Abbey.1 | <urn:uuid:b7fbd49c-dcdd-4dae-a76f-c215268509b7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historyofroyalwomen.com/eleanor-of-provence/eleanor-of-provence/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00345.warc.gz | en | 0.9933 | 1,228 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.01773044... | 9 | Eleanor of Provence was born around 1223 as the second daughter of Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Provence and Beatrice of Savoy. She and her three other sisters would all become Queens. Her eldest sister Margaret became Queen of France as the wife of Louis IX, King of France. Her third sister Sanchia became Queen of the Romans as the wife of Richard, King of the Romans and her fourth sister Beatrice became Queen of Sicily as the wife of Charles I, King of Sicily. Eleanor herself became Queen of England as the wife of King Henry III.
Not much is known about her childhood, but her later relationship with her sisters suggest that it was happy. When Margaret became Queen of France in 1234, Eleanor’s chances of making a grand match also increased. Her future husband, King Henry III, was quite a bit older than her – 16 years to be exact – and had been looking for a bride for a decade. Plans to marry Joan, Countess of Ponthieu came to nothing, and she ended up marrying King Ferdinand III of Castile. Eleanor was probably selected because she was now the sister-in-law of the King of France.
They were betrothed on 23 November 1235 when Eleanor was still only 12, and Henry was 28. Eleanor, accompanied by her uncle William of Savoy, landed at Dover in January 1236. She travelled on to Canterbury where she married Henry in person on 14 January at Canterbury Cathedral. The couple set out for London where Eleanor was crowned Queen of England on 20 January. Despite the age difference, Eleanor and Henry became quite close. Eleanor came to England with a large entourage, and hundreds of Savoyards visited England after Eleanor’s wedding to Henry. This influx of foreigners made Eleanor quite unpopular with the people.
It did not take long for Eleanor to fall pregnant and their eldest child – a son named Edward – was born on 16 June 1239. Four more children followed: Margaret (born 29 September 1240), Beatrice (born 25 June 1242), Edmund (born 16 January 1245) and Katherine (born 25 November 1253). Katherine suffered from an unspecified illness, and Henry had her image placed on the shrine of Edward the Confessor, hoping that she would be healed. Tragically, she would die young.
Eleanor and Henry had a close family life, and when their daughter Margaret became Queen of Scots and was close to delivering her first child, she travelled home to Windsor, and her mother was by her side when she gave birth. Their second daughter Beatrice left her children with Eleanor when she and her husband went on crusade.
Eleanor also did not shy away from politics, and in 1253, she was made joint regent with her brother-in-law Richard when Henry was on campaign in Gascony. Although measures taken during her regency were effective, they were not popular with the Londoners. Her regency ended when Henry summoned her to Gascony in 1254. She and her eldest son travelled on to Castile for his marriage to Eleanor of Castile – the daughter of the aforementioned Joan, Countess of Ponthieu. Eleanor rejoined Henry after the wedding, and they visited the French court where they met with her sister Margaret, but also her other sisters and her mother. When they returned to England in December 1254, they faced increased hostility from the barons.
The barons would eventually force some provisions of Henry, including the exile of the King’s half-siblings – the Lusignans. Tensions turned into a full-on civil war in 1263 when Henry refused to renew his commitment to the provisions. Henry and Eleanor were forced to seek the protection of the Tower of London. Henry surrendered to Simon de Montfort – the leader of the barons – on 16 July 1263 and handed over the government to him. It was probably Eleanor who persuaded her brother-in-law the King of France to mediate in the matter. They all sailed to France, but Henry and their eldest son returned to England before the matter was settled. Eleanor and their younger son refused to return while civil war raged on. They were still in France when they received the news that Henry and Edward were defeated at the Battles of Lewes in May 1264 and that they had both been captured. Eleanor turned her attention to raising more money for their cause. By the summer, she had raised an army, but bad weather prevented them from sailing. On 4 August 1265, Edward defeated Simon de Montfort in battle – killing him – and restoring his father to power. Eleanor immediately began making preparations for her return, and she landed in England on 1 November 1265.
Eleanor returned to a different England that the one she had left, but she remained influential during the last years of her husband’s reign. When her husband died on 16 November 1272 while Edward was away on crusade, she made sure her eldest son was proclaimed King. She was present in August 1274 with her grandchildren to welcome back Edward and his wife Eleanor from the Holy Land. In 1275, she lost her two surviving daughters in quick succession, Margaret died on 26 February 1275, followed by Beatrice on 24 March 1275.
Eleanor retired from court after becoming a widow, but she kept in touch with her son. She also became increasingly religious as she grew older. She became attached to Amesbury Abbey and two of her granddaughters – Eleanor of Brittany and Mary of England – became nuns there. On 7 July 1286 Eleanor herself took the veil, though she never did entirely live the life of a nun. She even secured a papal dispensation to retain her dower. She would spend the rest of her life at the abbey and died there on 24 June 1291. Upon her request, her heart was buried at Grey Friars Church with her daughter Beatrice while the rest of her remains were buried at Amesbury Abbey.1 | 1,316 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On a hot August day in 1704, the Rice boys were working with their fathers to spread flax in a field in what is now Westborough, Mass. Suddenly a party of about 10 Indians rushed down from the wooded hill nearby and seized five of the Rice boys.
The Indians bashed 5-year-old Nahor Rice’s brains out on a rock. They carried off four others, aged 7 to 10, while everyone else escaped to the garrison house of Thomas Rice.
Queen Anne’s War had broken out, one of the French and Indian wars fought over domination of North America. During the war, French and Indians raided frontier towns in New England. Six months before Indians captured the Rice boys, the raid on Deerfield, Mass., left 47 dead and 112 captured. The Indians marched the captives through the snow to Canada.
The Rice boys mirrored the fate of the Deerfield captives. Some were ransomed, or redeemed, through the efforts of their families and Dutch traders. Others, like 7-year-old Eunice Williams, assimilated with the Indians and refused to return to their homes.
The Thomas Rice Boys
Asher Rice, 10, and his brother Adonijah, 8, were sons of Thomas Rice.
Silas, 9, and Timothy, 7, were the sons of Edmund Rice, a second cousin of Thomas Rice.
The Rice family tried desperately to redeem their boys. They enlisted the help of a Col. Lydius, a Dutch merchant in Albany.
Thomas sold his home to pay for his sons’ ransom. Asher, the oldest, had the hardest time assimilating with the Indians. Four years after his capture, Asher returned home, ‘so broken by the shock he had received at the time of his seizure that he never fully recovered from it.’
He developed eccentricities. Wrote Westborough historian Herman Packard De Forest,
“He spent a great deal of effort in making a gristmill on a new plan, so that the upper stone should be fixed, while the lower one revolved. This, he insisted, was the only natural way, for in the human mouth, which was evidently the original corn-mill, it was the lower jaw that did the work.”
Asher Rice retained some of the habits he picked up during his four years in captivity, but he dreaded the return of the Indians. Throughout his life he built stockades, long after the danger had passed. His father built him a house in 1720, and he married and had a son.
His brother Adonijah was never redeemed, but he did leave the Indians at some point. Adonijah was given the Indian name Asaundugooton. He married a French woman, then a Dutch woman, and owned a farm near Montreal.
The Edmund Rice Boys
Silas and Timothy grew up with the Indians and completely forgot how to speak English. Their father tried to redeem the boys, traveling to Canada in 1707. He met with no success. The boys preferred to stay with their Indian families.
Edmund Rice died in 1726, the same year he wrote a will that said, “if Almighty Power should work that deliverance for my two sons Silas and Timothy out of their captivity, which we indeed of ourselves can have little prospect of, and bring them home, they shall receive five pounds each.”
Timothy was adopted by a Kahnawake chief who had been converted to Catholicism.
Rev. Ebenezer Parkman, a Westborough minister, recorded Timothy’s history in 1769.
“Timothy had much recommended himself to the Indians by his own superior talents; his penetration, courage, strength & warlike spirit; for which he was much celebrated,” wrote Parkman.
His name was Oughtzorongoughton.
The youngest of the Rice boys, Timothy, became a Kahnawake clan chief and married an Indian woman, Catherine Osennenhawe. They had at least one son, named Pierre.
Eventually, in 1740, Timothy returned to his home in Westborough with an interpreter, a Mr. Tarbell, who had also been captured by Indians from Groton, Mass.
“They arrived here Sept. 15th. They view’d the house where Mr. Rice dwelt, & the Place from whence the children above spoke of, were captivated; of both which he retained a clear Remembrance; as he did likewise of Several elderly persons who were then living,” wrote DeForest.
Massachusetts Gov. Jonathan Belcher sent for Tarbell and Rice, and they visited him in Boston.
Silas Rice married an Indian girl named Marie Tsiakohawi; he was called Jacques Tannahorens. They had five children. A granddaughter married the grandson of Eunice Williams.
According to one source, in 1900 Silas had at least 1,350 descendants, a large portion of all the Iroquois in Canada and the United States.
This story about the Rice boys was updated in 2019. The image of the historic marker By Innapoy – I took this photo, CC BY 3.0, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=28895668 | <urn:uuid:0e5583bd-aae3-4c13-a031-d864e5308d85> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.newenglandhistoricalsociety.com/four-rice-boys-captured-indians-1704-three-rice-boys-decide-stay/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00223.warc.gz | en | 0.982841 | 1,100 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.385444819927... | 1 | On a hot August day in 1704, the Rice boys were working with their fathers to spread flax in a field in what is now Westborough, Mass. Suddenly a party of about 10 Indians rushed down from the wooded hill nearby and seized five of the Rice boys.
The Indians bashed 5-year-old Nahor Rice’s brains out on a rock. They carried off four others, aged 7 to 10, while everyone else escaped to the garrison house of Thomas Rice.
Queen Anne’s War had broken out, one of the French and Indian wars fought over domination of North America. During the war, French and Indians raided frontier towns in New England. Six months before Indians captured the Rice boys, the raid on Deerfield, Mass., left 47 dead and 112 captured. The Indians marched the captives through the snow to Canada.
The Rice boys mirrored the fate of the Deerfield captives. Some were ransomed, or redeemed, through the efforts of their families and Dutch traders. Others, like 7-year-old Eunice Williams, assimilated with the Indians and refused to return to their homes.
The Thomas Rice Boys
Asher Rice, 10, and his brother Adonijah, 8, were sons of Thomas Rice.
Silas, 9, and Timothy, 7, were the sons of Edmund Rice, a second cousin of Thomas Rice.
The Rice family tried desperately to redeem their boys. They enlisted the help of a Col. Lydius, a Dutch merchant in Albany.
Thomas sold his home to pay for his sons’ ransom. Asher, the oldest, had the hardest time assimilating with the Indians. Four years after his capture, Asher returned home, ‘so broken by the shock he had received at the time of his seizure that he never fully recovered from it.’
He developed eccentricities. Wrote Westborough historian Herman Packard De Forest,
“He spent a great deal of effort in making a gristmill on a new plan, so that the upper stone should be fixed, while the lower one revolved. This, he insisted, was the only natural way, for in the human mouth, which was evidently the original corn-mill, it was the lower jaw that did the work.”
Asher Rice retained some of the habits he picked up during his four years in captivity, but he dreaded the return of the Indians. Throughout his life he built stockades, long after the danger had passed. His father built him a house in 1720, and he married and had a son.
His brother Adonijah was never redeemed, but he did leave the Indians at some point. Adonijah was given the Indian name Asaundugooton. He married a French woman, then a Dutch woman, and owned a farm near Montreal.
The Edmund Rice Boys
Silas and Timothy grew up with the Indians and completely forgot how to speak English. Their father tried to redeem the boys, traveling to Canada in 1707. He met with no success. The boys preferred to stay with their Indian families.
Edmund Rice died in 1726, the same year he wrote a will that said, “if Almighty Power should work that deliverance for my two sons Silas and Timothy out of their captivity, which we indeed of ourselves can have little prospect of, and bring them home, they shall receive five pounds each.”
Timothy was adopted by a Kahnawake chief who had been converted to Catholicism.
Rev. Ebenezer Parkman, a Westborough minister, recorded Timothy’s history in 1769.
“Timothy had much recommended himself to the Indians by his own superior talents; his penetration, courage, strength & warlike spirit; for which he was much celebrated,” wrote Parkman.
His name was Oughtzorongoughton.
The youngest of the Rice boys, Timothy, became a Kahnawake clan chief and married an Indian woman, Catherine Osennenhawe. They had at least one son, named Pierre.
Eventually, in 1740, Timothy returned to his home in Westborough with an interpreter, a Mr. Tarbell, who had also been captured by Indians from Groton, Mass.
“They arrived here Sept. 15th. They view’d the house where Mr. Rice dwelt, & the Place from whence the children above spoke of, were captivated; of both which he retained a clear Remembrance; as he did likewise of Several elderly persons who were then living,” wrote DeForest.
Massachusetts Gov. Jonathan Belcher sent for Tarbell and Rice, and they visited him in Boston.
Silas Rice married an Indian girl named Marie Tsiakohawi; he was called Jacques Tannahorens. They had five children. A granddaughter married the grandson of Eunice Williams.
According to one source, in 1900 Silas had at least 1,350 descendants, a large portion of all the Iroquois in Canada and the United States.
This story about the Rice boys was updated in 2019. The image of the historic marker By Innapoy – I took this photo, CC BY 3.0, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=28895668 | 1,105 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Royal Navy’s employment of black mariners and maritime workers, 1754–1783
The Royal Navy has been portrayed as an institution that embodied liberty, regularly employing and relying upon blacks to keep its vessels afloat and to implement Britain’s blue water policy. Despite the critical role black naval seamen played, their employment was shaped more by regional practices than by Admiralty edicts. The result was that blacks were often treated inequitably. Black seamen had less access to pension benefits and were not promoted in the same numbers as working-class white seamen. In England and New York, blacks were largely kept out of royal dockyards and received less favourable compensation than whites. In contrast, while blacks were employed in great numbers in the slave-based economies of Antigua and Senegambia, they were largely barred from highly skilled maritime artisan work. In sum, blacks’ experiences in the Royal Navy were varied and were more influenced by local conditions than by edicts from London. | <urn:uuid:78112d17-4015-410d-ab4f-3a9cb6483a32> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://thekeep.eiu.edu/history_fac/130/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00385.warc.gz | en | 0.989963 | 204 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
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0.19471035897... | 6 | The Royal Navy’s employment of black mariners and maritime workers, 1754–1783
The Royal Navy has been portrayed as an institution that embodied liberty, regularly employing and relying upon blacks to keep its vessels afloat and to implement Britain’s blue water policy. Despite the critical role black naval seamen played, their employment was shaped more by regional practices than by Admiralty edicts. The result was that blacks were often treated inequitably. Black seamen had less access to pension benefits and were not promoted in the same numbers as working-class white seamen. In England and New York, blacks were largely kept out of royal dockyards and received less favourable compensation than whites. In contrast, while blacks were employed in great numbers in the slave-based economies of Antigua and Senegambia, they were largely barred from highly skilled maritime artisan work. In sum, blacks’ experiences in the Royal Navy were varied and were more influenced by local conditions than by edicts from London. | 202 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A Midsummer Night’s Dream was greatly affected by the time in which it was written. A few of these affects will be discussed in this essay, including how the language was affected by the time, how the religious beliefs of that time affected the climax, and how the views of the monarchy gave the story its foundation and set the play into motion.
In the original version of A Midsummer Night’s Dream Shakespeare used words like thee and thou. He also used phrases that now seem foreign to us. Some of those phrases include “Why, get you gone; who is’t that hinders you?” which Hermia said in Act III, scene ii in A Midsummer Night’s Dream. Instead of saying that, most people now say, “Well then, go! Who’s stopping you?” We say this because that is what is common and what is expected these days just like in Shakespeare’s time the first version of the phrase was what was expected.
People in Shakespeare’s time believed that May Day and Midsummer Day were very important days. The two days both symbolize love, fertility, and a harmless delirium or ecstasy. Shakespeare incorporated May Day into his play by scheduling four important events on May Day. First, Theseus and Hippolyta plan to be married on May Day. Second, Hermia must give her decision about marrying Demitrious on that day. Third, the craftsmen plan to present their play that day. Fourth, May Day is a special time for the faeries. Therefore all four levels of the plot reached their climax on May Day.
... off leaving the happy couples to their celebration. Twelfth Night is one of Shakespeares transvestites comedies, a play that features female protagonists ... play met the expectations of the varied audience of Shakespeares time. It was entertaining for the lower class, whose members loved ... as young men. It is important to remember that in Shakespeares day, all the parts were played by men, so Viola ...
Although the English monarchy is not present during most of the play it still plays a very important role. The Monarchy is portrayed in the play as being unyielding yet not uncaring. This view of the Monarchy is very much how the Queen was viewed at that time. The Duke was unyielding and said that Hermia had to do her father’s wishes or face the consequences. The Duke was also caring when he asked her to reconsider for her sake and do what her father wants because it would be a better life for her. When the Duke said that she had to obey her father, die, or become a nun, it made Hermia and Lysander’s love seem all the more precious, and all the more dire that they get married. In many ways the Duke caused the entire play to set into motion.
The time in which A Midsummer Night’s Dream was written affected it in many different aspects. This essay only includes a few of them. If the Monarchy had been viewed differently or had the idea of love and faeries been viewed differently the play may have not been so popular or it may not have existed at all. Our times and our views affect the work we produce and how it is viewed. I believe Shakespeare was very lucky to have lived during his time and that we are very lucky to be reading about it through his eyes. | <urn:uuid:9fc43b95-acb6-4047-bafc-96b43dd873f4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://educheer.com/essays/a-midsummer-night-s-dream-3/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00379.warc.gz | en | 0.989334 | 714 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.07266507297754... | 1 | A Midsummer Night’s Dream was greatly affected by the time in which it was written. A few of these affects will be discussed in this essay, including how the language was affected by the time, how the religious beliefs of that time affected the climax, and how the views of the monarchy gave the story its foundation and set the play into motion.
In the original version of A Midsummer Night’s Dream Shakespeare used words like thee and thou. He also used phrases that now seem foreign to us. Some of those phrases include “Why, get you gone; who is’t that hinders you?” which Hermia said in Act III, scene ii in A Midsummer Night’s Dream. Instead of saying that, most people now say, “Well then, go! Who’s stopping you?” We say this because that is what is common and what is expected these days just like in Shakespeare’s time the first version of the phrase was what was expected.
People in Shakespeare’s time believed that May Day and Midsummer Day were very important days. The two days both symbolize love, fertility, and a harmless delirium or ecstasy. Shakespeare incorporated May Day into his play by scheduling four important events on May Day. First, Theseus and Hippolyta plan to be married on May Day. Second, Hermia must give her decision about marrying Demitrious on that day. Third, the craftsmen plan to present their play that day. Fourth, May Day is a special time for the faeries. Therefore all four levels of the plot reached their climax on May Day.
... off leaving the happy couples to their celebration. Twelfth Night is one of Shakespeares transvestites comedies, a play that features female protagonists ... play met the expectations of the varied audience of Shakespeares time. It was entertaining for the lower class, whose members loved ... as young men. It is important to remember that in Shakespeares day, all the parts were played by men, so Viola ...
Although the English monarchy is not present during most of the play it still plays a very important role. The Monarchy is portrayed in the play as being unyielding yet not uncaring. This view of the Monarchy is very much how the Queen was viewed at that time. The Duke was unyielding and said that Hermia had to do her father’s wishes or face the consequences. The Duke was also caring when he asked her to reconsider for her sake and do what her father wants because it would be a better life for her. When the Duke said that she had to obey her father, die, or become a nun, it made Hermia and Lysander’s love seem all the more precious, and all the more dire that they get married. In many ways the Duke caused the entire play to set into motion.
The time in which A Midsummer Night’s Dream was written affected it in many different aspects. This essay only includes a few of them. If the Monarchy had been viewed differently or had the idea of love and faeries been viewed differently the play may have not been so popular or it may not have existed at all. Our times and our views affect the work we produce and how it is viewed. I believe Shakespeare was very lucky to have lived during his time and that we are very lucky to be reading about it through his eyes. | 682 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This ewer is categorised as Cizhou ware, a term used to define a wide range of Chinese ceramics produced between the 11th and 14th centuries, throughout the northern Chinese provinces of Hebei, Henan and Shaanxi. Although Cizhou ceramics were produced in many kilns using a variety of techniques, most are made from sturdy, high-fired clays (stoneware) with black and white surface decoration. Unlike the refined celadon and Jun wares made for the imperial court, Cizhou wares were considered ‘popular’ ceramics, which were made for domestic use. The stoneware body of this example was first covered in thick white slip to create the ribbed surface, and then coated a second time with an iron glaze to produce the lustrous black effect.
This ewer bears some resemblance to the form of the first teapots produced in China in the 16th century. Prior to the creation of the teapot, ewers were used to store foods, but also to serve warm wine or pour hot water into bowls of powdered tea, which was then whisked with a bamboo brush to create a thick, frothy drink. When the use of powdered tea gave way to the fashion for brewing loose leaf tea from around 1300, it is likely that ewers were initially used to brew the tea leaves and therefore came to inform teapot design. | <urn:uuid:ad2405e2-af61-4635-b211-c64e59ac064c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://chitracollection.com/collection/ewer/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00334.warc.gz | en | 0.980812 | 296 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.35146701335... | 12 | This ewer is categorised as Cizhou ware, a term used to define a wide range of Chinese ceramics produced between the 11th and 14th centuries, throughout the northern Chinese provinces of Hebei, Henan and Shaanxi. Although Cizhou ceramics were produced in many kilns using a variety of techniques, most are made from sturdy, high-fired clays (stoneware) with black and white surface decoration. Unlike the refined celadon and Jun wares made for the imperial court, Cizhou wares were considered ‘popular’ ceramics, which were made for domestic use. The stoneware body of this example was first covered in thick white slip to create the ribbed surface, and then coated a second time with an iron glaze to produce the lustrous black effect.
This ewer bears some resemblance to the form of the first teapots produced in China in the 16th century. Prior to the creation of the teapot, ewers were used to store foods, but also to serve warm wine or pour hot water into bowls of powdered tea, which was then whisked with a bamboo brush to create a thick, frothy drink. When the use of powdered tea gave way to the fashion for brewing loose leaf tea from around 1300, it is likely that ewers were initially used to brew the tea leaves and therefore came to inform teapot design. | 292 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Our Earth is full of natural and manmade wonders that are still not understood by science completely. In this article, 10 most mysterious and rare artifacts have been presented which have historical importance and also something for you to think and explore.
London Hammer – A Hammer Much Older Than The History Of Humans
In 1936, a strange rock was found by a person who went outdoor for a walk. The thing that grabbed his attention to the rock was a handle of wood sticking-out from the rock. He picked-up that rock and brought it at home for checking what is inside the rock. He crack-opened the rock and found that a hammer with a wooden handle was inside that rock. He was amazed and met with some archeologists for analyzing the rock and hammer. Upon analyzing the rock and hammer, archeologists found that the rock was around 400 million years old and the hammer that it encased was more than 500 million years old. They also found that the iron of the hammer was around 96% pure and that amount of purity and hammer shape along with the wooden handle was not possible for nature alone to make it!
Antikythera Mechanism – Most Extraordinary Mechanical Computer From Ancient Greek Time
The Antikythera mechanism was an astronomical instrument that was found from the ocean in a shipwreck near Antikythera Island. The extraordinary thing about this mechanism is that it was a very complex design that was only possible with 18th-century technology. Furthermore, scientists have found no clue of the existence of such a mechanism in Greek writings. According to a professor from Cardiff University, “This mechanism so advance of its time that it should not even exist”. Scientists have considered this mechanism as the first mechanical computer.
Dropa Stone Discs – Mysterious Stone Discs That Are Kept Confidential
In 1938, Dr. Chi Pu Tei set on an expedition towards the Bayan Har Mountains (formerly “Bayan-Kara-Ula”) in Qinghai Province of China. He explored several caves and found a cave that showed signs of a past civilization. Upon further exploration of the cave, he found several hundred discs made of stone. The discs were around 1 foot in diameter with a circular hole in their center. The discs also had spiral-shaped bumps which are believed to be hieroglyphics (pictures representing a word).
The discs were further studied by a researcher, Tsun Um Nui, who concluded that the hieroglyphics on the discs tell the story about people, called Dropa, whose spaceships were crashed in the mountains! Of course, the story looks more like science fiction than reality. But, these discs were also requested by Russia for the study, and several of them were sent by China to Moscow. Russian researchers said that, when they analyzed the Dropa Stone discs, a kind of humming sound was coming from discs. The research was halted and since then there is no record of Dropa stone discs.
Baghdad Battery – 2,000 Years Old Artifact Resembling With Electric Battery
Baghdad Battery, as its name suggests, is an artifact that is around 2,000 years old that resembles an electric battery. It was found in an exploration of the ruins near the city of Baghdad in Iraq. Baghdad battery is actually the set of 3 artifacts, which are a clay vessel, an oxidized rod made of iron, and a copper cylinder. The materials and the structure of Baghdad battery match the working of a galvanic cell. One of the members of the research team even suggested that people used this device for electroplating silver materials with gold. However, there are many critics to this artifact who say that the Baghdad Battery was simply a storage vessel.
Piri Reis Map – An Extraordinary and Mysterious Map
Piri Reis, also known as Ahmed Muhiddin Piri, was an extraordinary Turkish Naval Admiral and geographer. He had drawn a map of the known world in 1513 on the skin of gazelle in which he showed Europe, North Africa, Antarctica, and several islands. The map was buried in history after his death until it was again discovered by some historians. The historians who discovered the map were amazed to see that, the map has shown the topography of Antarctica when it was not covered with ice. Furthermore, Antarctica was discovered in 1840, but the map shows Piri Reis was the first to discover Antarctica. The question is that the last time Antarctica was without ice is about 6000 years ago, then how did Piri Reis had drawn Antarctica without ice around 500 years ago with reasonable accuracy?
Sacsayhuaman walls – The Walls Made By Carving The Stones
One of the most extraordinary walls had been constructed in Sacsayhuaman located in Cusco (or Cuzco) in Peru. The most interesting thing about the walls is that these are constructed without the use of any cement. The blocks are just carved and placed in such a way that there is no gap between the joints. Some scientists for the research purpose tried to insert a knife between the joints of blocks but they couldn’t. The Sacsayhuaman walls were constructed during the period 15th century when the Inca Empire ruled that region. It is very difficult to believe how such kinds of walls were built by people who previously considered ignorant.
Sea Of Galilee Boat – Jesus Boat
A boat was discovered by two brothers from the Sea of Galilee in Israel during an archeological expedition. When the boat was analyzed by the experts, they concluded that the boat was around 2000 years old – about the time of Jesus Christ. The boat became very important for the Christian because it belonged to the time of Jesus. Many experts even concluded that this type of boat was used by Jesus and his followers. During analysis, it was found that the boat was made from the cedar tree and its various parts were joined with nails and tree sap.
150,000 Years Old Iron Pipes
In the Mount Baigong in China, several piping systems were discovered during an expedition. Few samples of the pipes were brought to the Beijing Institute of Geology for analysis. It was found that the pipes were nearly 150,000 years old. The pipes were radioactive and contained iron during their initial observation at a smeltery. A geologist Zheng Jiandong gave a conclusion that maybe the magma from nearby volcanoes have filled the pipe-shaped fissures during a volcanic eruption and formed the pipes in the mountain.
Saqqara Bird – 2,200 Old Wooden Bird Resembling With A Glider
A 2,200 years old wooden bird was discovered from Saqqara, Egypt in 1898 from a tomb. The wooden bird artifact on the first look gives the impression of being a toy for kids. But, when researchers look carefully at the Saqqara bird, they found that the tail of the bird doesn’t resemble any bird on the Earth. But, it resembles with gliders that could fly and need control of flight in the air. Of course, this artifact could not fly, but the question is that, was there any bigger model of Saqqara bird that could fly?
Nazca Lines – More Than 1,300 Old Mega Drawings
Nazca lines are very large drawings of animals, plants, and symbols that were found in 1930. These drawings are located in Southern Peru and cover an area of 1,000 square kilometers. Some figures in Nazca drawings are more than 400 kilometers in length. You can see these drawings while flying high in an airplane. One of the mysterious things about these drawings is how Nazca people living between 1 CE to 700 CE managed to draw such large figures with good accuracy, and for whom? | <urn:uuid:13d2019f-7561-4782-867d-eb3ff6824234> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://toptenscience.com/mysterious-and-rare-artifacts/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00148.warc.gz | en | 0.983852 | 1,580 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.18069769442081... | 10 | Our Earth is full of natural and manmade wonders that are still not understood by science completely. In this article, 10 most mysterious and rare artifacts have been presented which have historical importance and also something for you to think and explore.
London Hammer – A Hammer Much Older Than The History Of Humans
In 1936, a strange rock was found by a person who went outdoor for a walk. The thing that grabbed his attention to the rock was a handle of wood sticking-out from the rock. He picked-up that rock and brought it at home for checking what is inside the rock. He crack-opened the rock and found that a hammer with a wooden handle was inside that rock. He was amazed and met with some archeologists for analyzing the rock and hammer. Upon analyzing the rock and hammer, archeologists found that the rock was around 400 million years old and the hammer that it encased was more than 500 million years old. They also found that the iron of the hammer was around 96% pure and that amount of purity and hammer shape along with the wooden handle was not possible for nature alone to make it!
Antikythera Mechanism – Most Extraordinary Mechanical Computer From Ancient Greek Time
The Antikythera mechanism was an astronomical instrument that was found from the ocean in a shipwreck near Antikythera Island. The extraordinary thing about this mechanism is that it was a very complex design that was only possible with 18th-century technology. Furthermore, scientists have found no clue of the existence of such a mechanism in Greek writings. According to a professor from Cardiff University, “This mechanism so advance of its time that it should not even exist”. Scientists have considered this mechanism as the first mechanical computer.
Dropa Stone Discs – Mysterious Stone Discs That Are Kept Confidential
In 1938, Dr. Chi Pu Tei set on an expedition towards the Bayan Har Mountains (formerly “Bayan-Kara-Ula”) in Qinghai Province of China. He explored several caves and found a cave that showed signs of a past civilization. Upon further exploration of the cave, he found several hundred discs made of stone. The discs were around 1 foot in diameter with a circular hole in their center. The discs also had spiral-shaped bumps which are believed to be hieroglyphics (pictures representing a word).
The discs were further studied by a researcher, Tsun Um Nui, who concluded that the hieroglyphics on the discs tell the story about people, called Dropa, whose spaceships were crashed in the mountains! Of course, the story looks more like science fiction than reality. But, these discs were also requested by Russia for the study, and several of them were sent by China to Moscow. Russian researchers said that, when they analyzed the Dropa Stone discs, a kind of humming sound was coming from discs. The research was halted and since then there is no record of Dropa stone discs.
Baghdad Battery – 2,000 Years Old Artifact Resembling With Electric Battery
Baghdad Battery, as its name suggests, is an artifact that is around 2,000 years old that resembles an electric battery. It was found in an exploration of the ruins near the city of Baghdad in Iraq. Baghdad battery is actually the set of 3 artifacts, which are a clay vessel, an oxidized rod made of iron, and a copper cylinder. The materials and the structure of Baghdad battery match the working of a galvanic cell. One of the members of the research team even suggested that people used this device for electroplating silver materials with gold. However, there are many critics to this artifact who say that the Baghdad Battery was simply a storage vessel.
Piri Reis Map – An Extraordinary and Mysterious Map
Piri Reis, also known as Ahmed Muhiddin Piri, was an extraordinary Turkish Naval Admiral and geographer. He had drawn a map of the known world in 1513 on the skin of gazelle in which he showed Europe, North Africa, Antarctica, and several islands. The map was buried in history after his death until it was again discovered by some historians. The historians who discovered the map were amazed to see that, the map has shown the topography of Antarctica when it was not covered with ice. Furthermore, Antarctica was discovered in 1840, but the map shows Piri Reis was the first to discover Antarctica. The question is that the last time Antarctica was without ice is about 6000 years ago, then how did Piri Reis had drawn Antarctica without ice around 500 years ago with reasonable accuracy?
Sacsayhuaman walls – The Walls Made By Carving The Stones
One of the most extraordinary walls had been constructed in Sacsayhuaman located in Cusco (or Cuzco) in Peru. The most interesting thing about the walls is that these are constructed without the use of any cement. The blocks are just carved and placed in such a way that there is no gap between the joints. Some scientists for the research purpose tried to insert a knife between the joints of blocks but they couldn’t. The Sacsayhuaman walls were constructed during the period 15th century when the Inca Empire ruled that region. It is very difficult to believe how such kinds of walls were built by people who previously considered ignorant.
Sea Of Galilee Boat – Jesus Boat
A boat was discovered by two brothers from the Sea of Galilee in Israel during an archeological expedition. When the boat was analyzed by the experts, they concluded that the boat was around 2000 years old – about the time of Jesus Christ. The boat became very important for the Christian because it belonged to the time of Jesus. Many experts even concluded that this type of boat was used by Jesus and his followers. During analysis, it was found that the boat was made from the cedar tree and its various parts were joined with nails and tree sap.
150,000 Years Old Iron Pipes
In the Mount Baigong in China, several piping systems were discovered during an expedition. Few samples of the pipes were brought to the Beijing Institute of Geology for analysis. It was found that the pipes were nearly 150,000 years old. The pipes were radioactive and contained iron during their initial observation at a smeltery. A geologist Zheng Jiandong gave a conclusion that maybe the magma from nearby volcanoes have filled the pipe-shaped fissures during a volcanic eruption and formed the pipes in the mountain.
Saqqara Bird – 2,200 Old Wooden Bird Resembling With A Glider
A 2,200 years old wooden bird was discovered from Saqqara, Egypt in 1898 from a tomb. The wooden bird artifact on the first look gives the impression of being a toy for kids. But, when researchers look carefully at the Saqqara bird, they found that the tail of the bird doesn’t resemble any bird on the Earth. But, it resembles with gliders that could fly and need control of flight in the air. Of course, this artifact could not fly, but the question is that, was there any bigger model of Saqqara bird that could fly?
Nazca Lines – More Than 1,300 Old Mega Drawings
Nazca lines are very large drawings of animals, plants, and symbols that were found in 1930. These drawings are located in Southern Peru and cover an area of 1,000 square kilometers. Some figures in Nazca drawings are more than 400 kilometers in length. You can see these drawings while flying high in an airplane. One of the mysterious things about these drawings is how Nazca people living between 1 CE to 700 CE managed to draw such large figures with good accuracy, and for whom? | 1,640 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Story Of The Lost City Of Pompeii
John Martin's painting The Destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Source: (Wikimedia Commons).
In the south of Italy near the Bay of Naples there stood a city that went extinct but at that moment became immortal to history. The Roman city of Pompeii is a wonder of archaeology where new discoveries are occurring even after centuries of excavation.
Pompeii was a Roman city with a long history. Archaeologist believe that the site was inhabited as early as the 10th century B.C. Pompeii grew steadily as a focal point for the agricultural lands enriched by volcanic soils of Mount Vesuvius a few miles to the north. It was well-located on the Sarno River next to the sea. The town grew to be a mixture of Greek, Etruscan, and Samnites. These people were eventually granted Roman citizenship as the colony of Colonia Cornelia Veneria Pompeianorum in 80 B.C. Latin became the official language, replacing the native Oscan, the tongue of the Samnites.
Pompeii was affluent enough by the first century A.D. that it sported architecture of high quality and served as a resort town along with the neighboring town of Herculaneum. The wealthy lived at large villas with views of the Bay of Naples such as the 40,000 square foot Villa of Diomedes. One of the main sites included a temple to the goddess Venus, which seems to have been the chief deity for the city. The city also boasted five public bath complexes, the oldest and most elaborate of which were the Stabian baths. At the beginning of the first century A.D., the baths were equipped with running water from an aqueduct rather than the use of a well. The baths included hot rooms with heated floors and walls, cold rooms, cold baths, and hot baths. The complex was on the cutting edge of bathing technology — something very important to the Romans.
Another building of importance to the Romans was the theater. Pompeii had two, a larger theater for Greco-Roman plays and a smaller one for poetry and music. The city also had a number of public and private gardens. Archaeologists have been surprised at the amount of space devoted to gardens and its accompanying small religious shrines. Aside from the arts, Pompeii had extensive brothels decorated in what would generally be considered today's lewd images.
Pompeii’s ten to twenty thousand people were fed during the first century A.D. by a number of commercial bakeries. They also were active in political life, often writing graffiti with messages to support a political candidate or to advertise a gladiatorial game or other services. Interestingly, graffiti in Pompeii was not in the same sense as contemporary graffiti — undesirable — but was a form of effective communication. And where there is life there is death with the Romans being interred at the nearby Porta Nola Necropolis.
Pompeii’s region of Campania is an area of seismic intensity. Pompeii had seen a major earthquake in 62 A.D. followed by smaller ones, but the city had managed to substantially recover from it. There was no sign of distress by the population except that they built sturdier buildings as proof against earthquakes. In fact, the Stabian baths were enlarged and enhanced.
Then in 79 A.D., Mount Vesuvius erupted. The actual date of the eruption is debated. The traditional date is August 24 to 25 but recent hypotheses contend it may have been in October of November. Regardless, the only written eyewitness account to the disaster was by Pliny the Younger, who wrote of it about thirty years after the fact.
At about 1:00 pm, a great cloud began to loom over the land. Pliny, who was with his uncle, Pliny the Elder, who was in command of a Roman fleet at nearby Misenum, went with him to look at the phenomenon. He wrote, “In places it looked white, elsewhere blotched and dirty, according to the amount of soil and ashes it carried with it.” It immediately became apparent that a disaster was at hand, and Pliny the Elder started up rescue operations, launching ships to evacuate the people of Pompeii.
Pliny the Younger described the scene as ships neared the shore, “Ashes were already falling, hotter and thicker as the ships drew near, followed by bits of pumice and blackened stones, charred and cracked by the flames: then suddenly they were in shallow water, and the shore was blocked by the debris from the mountain…. Meanwhile, on Mount Vesuvius broad sheets of fire and leaping flames blazed at several points, their bright glare emphasized by the darkness of night.”
And dark it was too as the volcanic cloud swept over them. Pliny recorded, “You could hear the shrieks of women, the wailing of infants, and the shouting of men; some were calling their parents, others their children or their wives, trying to recognize them by their voices. People bewailed their own fate or that of their relatives, and there were some who prayed for death in their terror of dying. Many besought the aid of the gods, but still more imagined there were no gods left, and that the universe was plunged into eternal darkness forevermore.”
Vesuvius erupted over a period of 18 hours. Pyroclastic flows ran at 70 miles an hour with temperatures of up to 700 degrees. Pumice rained from the sky. By the time it was done, ash and debris Pompeii and Herculaneum. Pliny the Elder would die from the Vesuvius’s eruption along with several thousand of the Pompeiians. The cause of death was from heat surge or suffocation, buried in the hot ash. Pliny the Elder himself most likely died of an asthmatic attack or heart attack. As for the city itself, it lost access to the Sarno River and shifted further inland.
Efforts to restore the city came to nothing and Pompeii was soon largely forgotten. Then in 1592 and 1738, Pompeii and Herculaneum were rediscovered, respectively. The first scientific excavations were conducted in the 18th and 19th centuries. The benefit of Pompeii to historians is that it is a city buried in time (it certainly wasn’t frozen). People and animals were buried in situ and did not have time to remove their belongings. In fact, it was during the 19th century that archaeologists realized that voids in the ash layers they were finding were where bodies had fallen. They were able to reconstruct these forms by injecting the gaps with plaster. Excavation continues to this day as new areas of the city are opened up and lower strata are explored.
All of this tells us much about Roman daily life from the period which is not available from other sources. As items and architecture which were perfectly preserved being buried in ash. As artifacts become exposed to the elements the speed of decay quickly increases. The lost city of Pompeii is, therefore, a UNESCO World Heritage site and covers over 525,000 square yards. This window to the past is also one of the world’s most popular tourist attractions with well over 2 million visits per year.
Like it? Share with your friends! | <urn:uuid:6d3307dc-b058-4ef8-bc54-8e2f6399182d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://curioushistorian.com/the-story-of-the-lost-city-of-pompeii | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00502.warc.gz | en | 0.986348 | 1,527 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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John Martin's painting The Destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Source: (Wikimedia Commons).
In the south of Italy near the Bay of Naples there stood a city that went extinct but at that moment became immortal to history. The Roman city of Pompeii is a wonder of archaeology where new discoveries are occurring even after centuries of excavation.
Pompeii was a Roman city with a long history. Archaeologist believe that the site was inhabited as early as the 10th century B.C. Pompeii grew steadily as a focal point for the agricultural lands enriched by volcanic soils of Mount Vesuvius a few miles to the north. It was well-located on the Sarno River next to the sea. The town grew to be a mixture of Greek, Etruscan, and Samnites. These people were eventually granted Roman citizenship as the colony of Colonia Cornelia Veneria Pompeianorum in 80 B.C. Latin became the official language, replacing the native Oscan, the tongue of the Samnites.
Pompeii was affluent enough by the first century A.D. that it sported architecture of high quality and served as a resort town along with the neighboring town of Herculaneum. The wealthy lived at large villas with views of the Bay of Naples such as the 40,000 square foot Villa of Diomedes. One of the main sites included a temple to the goddess Venus, which seems to have been the chief deity for the city. The city also boasted five public bath complexes, the oldest and most elaborate of which were the Stabian baths. At the beginning of the first century A.D., the baths were equipped with running water from an aqueduct rather than the use of a well. The baths included hot rooms with heated floors and walls, cold rooms, cold baths, and hot baths. The complex was on the cutting edge of bathing technology — something very important to the Romans.
Another building of importance to the Romans was the theater. Pompeii had two, a larger theater for Greco-Roman plays and a smaller one for poetry and music. The city also had a number of public and private gardens. Archaeologists have been surprised at the amount of space devoted to gardens and its accompanying small religious shrines. Aside from the arts, Pompeii had extensive brothels decorated in what would generally be considered today's lewd images.
Pompeii’s ten to twenty thousand people were fed during the first century A.D. by a number of commercial bakeries. They also were active in political life, often writing graffiti with messages to support a political candidate or to advertise a gladiatorial game or other services. Interestingly, graffiti in Pompeii was not in the same sense as contemporary graffiti — undesirable — but was a form of effective communication. And where there is life there is death with the Romans being interred at the nearby Porta Nola Necropolis.
Pompeii’s region of Campania is an area of seismic intensity. Pompeii had seen a major earthquake in 62 A.D. followed by smaller ones, but the city had managed to substantially recover from it. There was no sign of distress by the population except that they built sturdier buildings as proof against earthquakes. In fact, the Stabian baths were enlarged and enhanced.
Then in 79 A.D., Mount Vesuvius erupted. The actual date of the eruption is debated. The traditional date is August 24 to 25 but recent hypotheses contend it may have been in October of November. Regardless, the only written eyewitness account to the disaster was by Pliny the Younger, who wrote of it about thirty years after the fact.
At about 1:00 pm, a great cloud began to loom over the land. Pliny, who was with his uncle, Pliny the Elder, who was in command of a Roman fleet at nearby Misenum, went with him to look at the phenomenon. He wrote, “In places it looked white, elsewhere blotched and dirty, according to the amount of soil and ashes it carried with it.” It immediately became apparent that a disaster was at hand, and Pliny the Elder started up rescue operations, launching ships to evacuate the people of Pompeii.
Pliny the Younger described the scene as ships neared the shore, “Ashes were already falling, hotter and thicker as the ships drew near, followed by bits of pumice and blackened stones, charred and cracked by the flames: then suddenly they were in shallow water, and the shore was blocked by the debris from the mountain…. Meanwhile, on Mount Vesuvius broad sheets of fire and leaping flames blazed at several points, their bright glare emphasized by the darkness of night.”
And dark it was too as the volcanic cloud swept over them. Pliny recorded, “You could hear the shrieks of women, the wailing of infants, and the shouting of men; some were calling their parents, others their children or their wives, trying to recognize them by their voices. People bewailed their own fate or that of their relatives, and there were some who prayed for death in their terror of dying. Many besought the aid of the gods, but still more imagined there were no gods left, and that the universe was plunged into eternal darkness forevermore.”
Vesuvius erupted over a period of 18 hours. Pyroclastic flows ran at 70 miles an hour with temperatures of up to 700 degrees. Pumice rained from the sky. By the time it was done, ash and debris Pompeii and Herculaneum. Pliny the Elder would die from the Vesuvius’s eruption along with several thousand of the Pompeiians. The cause of death was from heat surge or suffocation, buried in the hot ash. Pliny the Elder himself most likely died of an asthmatic attack or heart attack. As for the city itself, it lost access to the Sarno River and shifted further inland.
Efforts to restore the city came to nothing and Pompeii was soon largely forgotten. Then in 1592 and 1738, Pompeii and Herculaneum were rediscovered, respectively. The first scientific excavations were conducted in the 18th and 19th centuries. The benefit of Pompeii to historians is that it is a city buried in time (it certainly wasn’t frozen). People and animals were buried in situ and did not have time to remove their belongings. In fact, it was during the 19th century that archaeologists realized that voids in the ash layers they were finding were where bodies had fallen. They were able to reconstruct these forms by injecting the gaps with plaster. Excavation continues to this day as new areas of the city are opened up and lower strata are explored.
All of this tells us much about Roman daily life from the period which is not available from other sources. As items and architecture which were perfectly preserved being buried in ash. As artifacts become exposed to the elements the speed of decay quickly increases. The lost city of Pompeii is, therefore, a UNESCO World Heritage site and covers over 525,000 square yards. This window to the past is also one of the world’s most popular tourist attractions with well over 2 million visits per year.
Like it? Share with your friends! | 1,533 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Prospero as Shakespeare Essay Example
Written during the early 17th century, around 1610-1611 by William Shakespeare, The Tempest is among Shakespeare’s most praised as well as criticized stage plays. It is also Shakespeare’s last dramatic piece which he penned all by himself since he wrote later on more plays, but with the help and assistance of others.
Different and distinct from Shakespeare’s well known tragedies, such as Macbeth, King Lear, and Romeo and Juliet, The Tempest is a stage play revolving around the themes of magic, appeasement, absolution, and the confidence in the future to guarantee such ceasefire. Nevertheless, even though the central theme and subject of forgiveness is apparent, there are many issues that are still, up to this day, being debated and discussed. Among these issues is the congruity of Prospero’s feelings, thoughts and ideas, the protagonist of the play, and that of Shakespeare’s. The underlying question remains: did Shakespeare really represent the character of Prospero, the protagonist of the play, as himself?
A lot of people and critics consider that since it was Shakespeare’s final literary piece of work written solely by himself, the feelings of the protagonist Prospero seem to reflect and resound his own. Early critics saw Prospero as an exemplification and image of Shakespeare himself. At the end of the play Prospero finally abandoned and gave up his ‘art’ – this also is parallel to Shakespeare’s life. At that moment he wrote down those very words, it was as though he was signing off his final farewell and departure to his ‘art,’ the stage.
Exasperated by sorrow and torment, Prospero in the play demonstrates his quality of strength and endurance. It is not until the very end of the play that he finally displays and shows his strong character of terrible, in-depth wide-ranging power. At this point of the story, Prospero has now become the great and irresistible magician, having been able to develop his ‘art.’ This can be compared to the success, fame and ‘power’ Shakespeare had possessed for so long. Prospero’s magic with sorcery can be compared to Shakespeare’s magic with words.
In summary, William Shakespeares own character and spirit flows and pours over the character of Prospero. Consequently, the great magician not only represents the noble and great-minded man that Shakespeare was, but also epitomizes the artistically defined literary genius that he was.
Furthermore, just as Prospero was finally able to experience absolution, at the end of Shakespeare’s career of a writer and director of stage productions and literary work, he appeared to have been able to resolve his inward and personal struggles and battles by holding back his violent and belligerent compulsions and by turning out to be exceedingly modest, humble, and quiet.
More important is the fact that instead of constantly looking for the bloody and physical vengeance that could have transformed the play into a tragedy just like the bulk of Shakespeare’s written work, Prospero finally finds himself realizing that our human nature has the capacity and ability to extend forgiveness and mercy to those who have wronged us. At the end, Prospero has changed his character of a bitter man into a more merciful and forgiving human being. After Prospero learns about the condition of those that survived the terrible shipwreck, he states, “the rarer action is / In virtue than in vengeance” (5.1.2).
At this point of the story, it shows the parallelism in Shakespeare’s time in his career wherein William Shakespeare has become a household name due to the many great works he has written, especially his tragedies which have catapulted his career into greater heights as time passed by. The tragedies he has written, such as Romeo and Juliet, Julius Caesar, Antony and Cleopatra, Othello and Titus Andronicus were for the most part centered in violence, suffering and death as a ‘resolution.’ However, in The Tempest, Shakespeare has created a character who, instead of holding on to the sword to solve his problems, decides to forgive and show mercy to those who opposed him, even to those who have betrayed and tuned their backs against him in the worst way possible.
Does this ultimately mean that Shakespeare has finally lost his strength, determination and his ‘magic’? Has he renounced his ‘art’ as Prospero has? That is still the question people continue to ask to this very day.
Shakespeare, William. The Tempest. Champaign, Ill.: Project Gutenberg, 199. Print. | <urn:uuid:ecc896c6-c487-40cb-8389-c2b42afec509> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://summarystory.com/the-tempest/prospero-as-shakespeare-essay/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00393.warc.gz | en | 0.980741 | 968 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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Written during the early 17th century, around 1610-1611 by William Shakespeare, The Tempest is among Shakespeare’s most praised as well as criticized stage plays. It is also Shakespeare’s last dramatic piece which he penned all by himself since he wrote later on more plays, but with the help and assistance of others.
Different and distinct from Shakespeare’s well known tragedies, such as Macbeth, King Lear, and Romeo and Juliet, The Tempest is a stage play revolving around the themes of magic, appeasement, absolution, and the confidence in the future to guarantee such ceasefire. Nevertheless, even though the central theme and subject of forgiveness is apparent, there are many issues that are still, up to this day, being debated and discussed. Among these issues is the congruity of Prospero’s feelings, thoughts and ideas, the protagonist of the play, and that of Shakespeare’s. The underlying question remains: did Shakespeare really represent the character of Prospero, the protagonist of the play, as himself?
A lot of people and critics consider that since it was Shakespeare’s final literary piece of work written solely by himself, the feelings of the protagonist Prospero seem to reflect and resound his own. Early critics saw Prospero as an exemplification and image of Shakespeare himself. At the end of the play Prospero finally abandoned and gave up his ‘art’ – this also is parallel to Shakespeare’s life. At that moment he wrote down those very words, it was as though he was signing off his final farewell and departure to his ‘art,’ the stage.
Exasperated by sorrow and torment, Prospero in the play demonstrates his quality of strength and endurance. It is not until the very end of the play that he finally displays and shows his strong character of terrible, in-depth wide-ranging power. At this point of the story, Prospero has now become the great and irresistible magician, having been able to develop his ‘art.’ This can be compared to the success, fame and ‘power’ Shakespeare had possessed for so long. Prospero’s magic with sorcery can be compared to Shakespeare’s magic with words.
In summary, William Shakespeares own character and spirit flows and pours over the character of Prospero. Consequently, the great magician not only represents the noble and great-minded man that Shakespeare was, but also epitomizes the artistically defined literary genius that he was.
Furthermore, just as Prospero was finally able to experience absolution, at the end of Shakespeare’s career of a writer and director of stage productions and literary work, he appeared to have been able to resolve his inward and personal struggles and battles by holding back his violent and belligerent compulsions and by turning out to be exceedingly modest, humble, and quiet.
More important is the fact that instead of constantly looking for the bloody and physical vengeance that could have transformed the play into a tragedy just like the bulk of Shakespeare’s written work, Prospero finally finds himself realizing that our human nature has the capacity and ability to extend forgiveness and mercy to those who have wronged us. At the end, Prospero has changed his character of a bitter man into a more merciful and forgiving human being. After Prospero learns about the condition of those that survived the terrible shipwreck, he states, “the rarer action is / In virtue than in vengeance” (5.1.2).
At this point of the story, it shows the parallelism in Shakespeare’s time in his career wherein William Shakespeare has become a household name due to the many great works he has written, especially his tragedies which have catapulted his career into greater heights as time passed by. The tragedies he has written, such as Romeo and Juliet, Julius Caesar, Antony and Cleopatra, Othello and Titus Andronicus were for the most part centered in violence, suffering and death as a ‘resolution.’ However, in The Tempest, Shakespeare has created a character who, instead of holding on to the sword to solve his problems, decides to forgive and show mercy to those who opposed him, even to those who have betrayed and tuned their backs against him in the worst way possible.
Does this ultimately mean that Shakespeare has finally lost his strength, determination and his ‘magic’? Has he renounced his ‘art’ as Prospero has? That is still the question people continue to ask to this very day.
Shakespeare, William. The Tempest. Champaign, Ill.: Project Gutenberg, 199. Print. | 928 | ENGLISH | 1 |
IRELAND has been subjected to three major famines. The first serious food shortages occurred between 1740 and ’41. This period is known as the forgotten famine. But we weren’t the only ones to suffer during those years, as the effects of a prolonged spell of extremely cold weather were felt all over Europe. It is also felt, although the issue is in dispute, that this mini-ice-age could have been responsible for wiping out or suppressing diseases such as the plague, cholera and smallpox across the continent. In Ireland, it was the sheer bitter cold that destroyed the main sources of food, causing our first serious famine. This period became known as the final serious cold spell of the little ice age. Particularly severe cold spells occurred in 1650, 1770 and 1850 – the latter being part of the tail end of the Great Famine.
When we hear about climate change today, we should reflect on the past and realise that what happened then and what is happening now have a lot in common. And this famine period we are recalling should provide a stark reminder of nature’s awesome power. The Icelandic volcano eruption in 2010 and the disruption it caused was not dissimilar to what occurred in 1740-41.
The story begins in 1739 when a volcano on the Kamchatca peninsula in Russia erupted, pumping millions of tonnes of smoke, ash and dust into the atmosphere. In Japan, both MountTarumae and MountAsahi did likewise. The previous three decades had experienced pretty normal weather conditions and the population at that time would not have been aware of these eruptions or the effects they would have on climate change or what was in store between December 1739 and September 1741. So let’s look at those years, which are often called Arctic Ireland.
The first signs of climate change in Ireland saw an extremely violent storm blowing in from the east, beginning on 29 December 1739. Nowadays we know what to expect when we experience an easterly windflow, but the winds of this storm brought a bitter, penetrating cold, and although the wind would die away after a few days, there was no relief from the cold. It intensified all through January, causing rivers and lakes to freeze-over almost immediately. The Shannon, the Liffey, Lough Neagh and Lough Corrib were all affected – nowhere escaped this freeze. And neither did Britain or most of Europe.
This was a novelty for the population Ireland, with people not realising what was to follow. The pleasant, benign weather of the 1730s led individuals and organisations to organise banquets, music, dances and other forms of entertainment on the ice, many with fatal consequences, however. Hard as it is to believe, there is evidence of a hurling match being played on the ice outside Portumna, CountyGalway. Records, though scant and unfinished in most cases, show that people were using the frozen lakes and rivers as shortcuts, and although more than a foot-and-a-half of ice prevailed in most areas, there were also places where it was no more than wafer-thin. In these spots it would often disintegrate when weight was applied, resulting in the loss of many lives. Among those recorded lost in this manner was a group of 20 mourners attending a funeral. They either drowned or rapidly froze to death when the ice gave way beneath them. Records do not mention the location of this incident but confirm that it did take place. Daytime temperatures of zero to -12° Celsius were widespread, with Ireland under a vast area of high pressure, which ran from Russia to Italy and all points in between.
While the Great Famine favoured urban dwellers, this was not the case with this one. In the beginning, townspeople had to live in iced-up homes with no way of heating them. But it was less onerous for country people. They had access to turf, which reached hugely inflated prices. All machinery used in the processing of food was frozen solid, so no harvesting was possible. It was down to what you could forage as to whether you could feed yourself.
Clergy from all denominations solicited food from the upper classes and distributed most of it to those suffering in the urban areas. The potato crop was frozen solid in the ground and could not be saved unless planted deeply or in peat. Even then, most of what was taken out was unusable and inedible due to the damage caused, meaning there would be no seed to plant the next crop.
The spring of 1740 was drought-like, which reduced cereal and other crops to less than half the usual production, with prices going sky high. The weather pattern was unpredictable, too, with severe cold winds compounded by heavy snow in May. By mid-summer, the country was in chaos, but somehow, turf was harvested and brought home. As animals became victims, with sheep and cattle dying from a combination of hunger and atrocious weather, rural dwellers were now feeling the effects as much as urban folk. They began moving to the towns which, by now, were better supplied than the countryside.
Blizzards swept the nation in August and September, with heavy snow in October, meaning the rivers and lakes were again frozen. In December, there was more snow – this time over two feet of it. Then, ten days later, there was a thaw, but the rising temperatures caused more flooding. By now, diseases such as typhus, dysentery and, above all, starvation were claiming the lives of thousands as a full-blown famine took hold. The total death toll would exceed 400,000, while some who have studied the sparse records put the figure at 40% of a population of two-and-a-half-million. Whichever figure you look at, the 1740 famine cost more lives per capita than the Great Famine of 1847, when more than a million would die out of a population of 8,175,174, as registered in the census of 1841.
The first half of 1741 saw the highest fatality rate. This period is known as “the year of the slaughter”. It would take up to 50 years to recover and, once again, the population was further decimated by emigration. The period around Christmas 1740 saw widespread rioting over lack of food and the high cost of what was available, while many who had stockpiles of food held on to it. There were some notable exceptions. The then lord mayor of Dublin, Samuel Cooke, tried to find a way to bring costs down. One of the people he consulted was the Church of Ireland archbishop of Armagh and primate of all-Ireland Hugh Boulter. The archbishop set up an emergency food programme for the poor of Dublin at his own expense. The widow of William Connolly, who built Castletown House, distributed cash and food from her own resources. Many others did likewise. They also created unnecessary jobs to aid the poor, giving them an incentive to carry on.
With normal weather returning in July 1741 and shipments of grain and food beginning to arrive at ports, food became abundant, and although the autumn harvest was mixed, at last there was enough to feed everyone. This was the end of the famine, with weather and crop production returning to normal.
Ireland experienced severe winters in other years, most notably in 1783 and ’86, which might be attributed to volcanic eruptions in Iceland; and again in 1816, when an eruption of Mount Tambora on the island of Sumbawa in Indonesia altered weather patterns all over the world. Ireland’s last famine (known as the “mini-famine” or an Gorta Beag) happened in 1879. This was more about hunger than lives lost. Once more, weather patterns were responsible, with summers either too wet or too dry and winters too mild or too cold, which led to a series of total crop failures or poor returns over a number of years, most notably in 1885, 1887-88 and ’89 into ’90.
If we go back to the Great Famine, some excuses for the disaster suggested that Ireland was over-populated. But this can be countered with the fact that we also had a huge food surplus, which was proven by the amounts exported to Britain during that time. Perhaps if the population had been fed the surplus food, many of the million who starved to death and those who died on the coffin ships would have survived.
We know the potato crop failed but every other crop was saved in abundance, and rather than using it to feed the Irish poor, it was taken across the sea to where it was not really needed. Connaught was most affected by the 1879 failure. However, this time, Britain did respond quickly. By now, a railroad service covered the country, so it was possible to transport food to where it was needed in just a matter of days. Another bonus was that since the Great Famine, land had been redistributed in a fairer manner, while emigrants working abroad were sending support to their beleaguered families back home. It was the failure of the 1879 cereal crops that caused shortages, leading to the situation being defined as a famine. Many moved from the rural areas into towns, but with the return of normal crops in 1780, they quickly returned to their lands.
You will read more about the revival of religion and the Land League during this period than the famine. The biggest news story of the time was the apparitions of the Blessed Virgin Mary, St Joseph and St John the Evangelist at Knock, CountyMayo on 21 August 1879. That is another story in its own right, which we will visit sometime in the future. | <urn:uuid:e578382d-70a8-4348-b8e6-79defa3319ba> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://carlow-nationalist.ie/2013/06/04/irelands-forgotten-famine/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00510.warc.gz | en | 0.984326 | 2,012 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.2640821635723... | 2 | IRELAND has been subjected to three major famines. The first serious food shortages occurred between 1740 and ’41. This period is known as the forgotten famine. But we weren’t the only ones to suffer during those years, as the effects of a prolonged spell of extremely cold weather were felt all over Europe. It is also felt, although the issue is in dispute, that this mini-ice-age could have been responsible for wiping out or suppressing diseases such as the plague, cholera and smallpox across the continent. In Ireland, it was the sheer bitter cold that destroyed the main sources of food, causing our first serious famine. This period became known as the final serious cold spell of the little ice age. Particularly severe cold spells occurred in 1650, 1770 and 1850 – the latter being part of the tail end of the Great Famine.
When we hear about climate change today, we should reflect on the past and realise that what happened then and what is happening now have a lot in common. And this famine period we are recalling should provide a stark reminder of nature’s awesome power. The Icelandic volcano eruption in 2010 and the disruption it caused was not dissimilar to what occurred in 1740-41.
The story begins in 1739 when a volcano on the Kamchatca peninsula in Russia erupted, pumping millions of tonnes of smoke, ash and dust into the atmosphere. In Japan, both MountTarumae and MountAsahi did likewise. The previous three decades had experienced pretty normal weather conditions and the population at that time would not have been aware of these eruptions or the effects they would have on climate change or what was in store between December 1739 and September 1741. So let’s look at those years, which are often called Arctic Ireland.
The first signs of climate change in Ireland saw an extremely violent storm blowing in from the east, beginning on 29 December 1739. Nowadays we know what to expect when we experience an easterly windflow, but the winds of this storm brought a bitter, penetrating cold, and although the wind would die away after a few days, there was no relief from the cold. It intensified all through January, causing rivers and lakes to freeze-over almost immediately. The Shannon, the Liffey, Lough Neagh and Lough Corrib were all affected – nowhere escaped this freeze. And neither did Britain or most of Europe.
This was a novelty for the population Ireland, with people not realising what was to follow. The pleasant, benign weather of the 1730s led individuals and organisations to organise banquets, music, dances and other forms of entertainment on the ice, many with fatal consequences, however. Hard as it is to believe, there is evidence of a hurling match being played on the ice outside Portumna, CountyGalway. Records, though scant and unfinished in most cases, show that people were using the frozen lakes and rivers as shortcuts, and although more than a foot-and-a-half of ice prevailed in most areas, there were also places where it was no more than wafer-thin. In these spots it would often disintegrate when weight was applied, resulting in the loss of many lives. Among those recorded lost in this manner was a group of 20 mourners attending a funeral. They either drowned or rapidly froze to death when the ice gave way beneath them. Records do not mention the location of this incident but confirm that it did take place. Daytime temperatures of zero to -12° Celsius were widespread, with Ireland under a vast area of high pressure, which ran from Russia to Italy and all points in between.
While the Great Famine favoured urban dwellers, this was not the case with this one. In the beginning, townspeople had to live in iced-up homes with no way of heating them. But it was less onerous for country people. They had access to turf, which reached hugely inflated prices. All machinery used in the processing of food was frozen solid, so no harvesting was possible. It was down to what you could forage as to whether you could feed yourself.
Clergy from all denominations solicited food from the upper classes and distributed most of it to those suffering in the urban areas. The potato crop was frozen solid in the ground and could not be saved unless planted deeply or in peat. Even then, most of what was taken out was unusable and inedible due to the damage caused, meaning there would be no seed to plant the next crop.
The spring of 1740 was drought-like, which reduced cereal and other crops to less than half the usual production, with prices going sky high. The weather pattern was unpredictable, too, with severe cold winds compounded by heavy snow in May. By mid-summer, the country was in chaos, but somehow, turf was harvested and brought home. As animals became victims, with sheep and cattle dying from a combination of hunger and atrocious weather, rural dwellers were now feeling the effects as much as urban folk. They began moving to the towns which, by now, were better supplied than the countryside.
Blizzards swept the nation in August and September, with heavy snow in October, meaning the rivers and lakes were again frozen. In December, there was more snow – this time over two feet of it. Then, ten days later, there was a thaw, but the rising temperatures caused more flooding. By now, diseases such as typhus, dysentery and, above all, starvation were claiming the lives of thousands as a full-blown famine took hold. The total death toll would exceed 400,000, while some who have studied the sparse records put the figure at 40% of a population of two-and-a-half-million. Whichever figure you look at, the 1740 famine cost more lives per capita than the Great Famine of 1847, when more than a million would die out of a population of 8,175,174, as registered in the census of 1841.
The first half of 1741 saw the highest fatality rate. This period is known as “the year of the slaughter”. It would take up to 50 years to recover and, once again, the population was further decimated by emigration. The period around Christmas 1740 saw widespread rioting over lack of food and the high cost of what was available, while many who had stockpiles of food held on to it. There were some notable exceptions. The then lord mayor of Dublin, Samuel Cooke, tried to find a way to bring costs down. One of the people he consulted was the Church of Ireland archbishop of Armagh and primate of all-Ireland Hugh Boulter. The archbishop set up an emergency food programme for the poor of Dublin at his own expense. The widow of William Connolly, who built Castletown House, distributed cash and food from her own resources. Many others did likewise. They also created unnecessary jobs to aid the poor, giving them an incentive to carry on.
With normal weather returning in July 1741 and shipments of grain and food beginning to arrive at ports, food became abundant, and although the autumn harvest was mixed, at last there was enough to feed everyone. This was the end of the famine, with weather and crop production returning to normal.
Ireland experienced severe winters in other years, most notably in 1783 and ’86, which might be attributed to volcanic eruptions in Iceland; and again in 1816, when an eruption of Mount Tambora on the island of Sumbawa in Indonesia altered weather patterns all over the world. Ireland’s last famine (known as the “mini-famine” or an Gorta Beag) happened in 1879. This was more about hunger than lives lost. Once more, weather patterns were responsible, with summers either too wet or too dry and winters too mild or too cold, which led to a series of total crop failures or poor returns over a number of years, most notably in 1885, 1887-88 and ’89 into ’90.
If we go back to the Great Famine, some excuses for the disaster suggested that Ireland was over-populated. But this can be countered with the fact that we also had a huge food surplus, which was proven by the amounts exported to Britain during that time. Perhaps if the population had been fed the surplus food, many of the million who starved to death and those who died on the coffin ships would have survived.
We know the potato crop failed but every other crop was saved in abundance, and rather than using it to feed the Irish poor, it was taken across the sea to where it was not really needed. Connaught was most affected by the 1879 failure. However, this time, Britain did respond quickly. By now, a railroad service covered the country, so it was possible to transport food to where it was needed in just a matter of days. Another bonus was that since the Great Famine, land had been redistributed in a fairer manner, while emigrants working abroad were sending support to their beleaguered families back home. It was the failure of the 1879 cereal crops that caused shortages, leading to the situation being defined as a famine. Many moved from the rural areas into towns, but with the return of normal crops in 1780, they quickly returned to their lands.
You will read more about the revival of religion and the Land League during this period than the famine. The biggest news story of the time was the apparitions of the Blessed Virgin Mary, St Joseph and St John the Evangelist at Knock, CountyMayo on 21 August 1879. That is another story in its own right, which we will visit sometime in the future. | 2,079 | ENGLISH | 1 |
John Brown was a man of action — a man who would not be deterred from his mission of abolishing slavery. On October 16, 1859, he led 21 men on a raid of the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia. His plan to arm slaves with the weapons he and his men seized from the arsenal was thwarted, however, by local farmers, militiamen, and Marines led by Robert E. Lee. Within 36 hours of the attack, most of Brown’s men had been killed or captured.
John Brown was born into a deeply religious family in Torrington, Connecticut, in 1800. Led by a father who was vehemently opposed to slavery, the family moved to northern Ohio when John was five, to a district that would become known for its antislavery views. Continue reading
Freed American slaves established country of Liberia, on the west coast of Africa, 1824. Â After the struggle for liberty in the American Revolution, free and enslaved African Americans faced continued hardship and inequality. A number of white Americans, for a variety of reasons, joined them in their efforts to resolve this complex problem.
One possible solution (advocated at a time when the assimilation of free blacks into American society seemed out of the question) was the complete separation of white and black Americans. Some voices called for the return of African Americans to the land of their forebears. Continue reading
On a December day in 1747 Briton Hammon, a slave to Major John Winslow of Marshfield, Massachusetts, walked out of town with, as he put it, `an Intention to go a voyage to sea.’ Tucked into the sandy bight of Cape Cod Bay, some thirty miles south of Boston, and reeking of tidal flats and Stockholm tar, Marshfield was a minor star in the galaxy of Britain’s commercial empire, and only a short walk from Plymouth, where Hammon shipped himself the next day `on board of a Sloop, Capt. John Howland, Master, bound to Jamaica and the Bay’ of Campeche for logwood.
Experienced at shipboard work, as were approximately 25 percent of the male slaves in coastal Massachusetts during the 1740s, Hammon had not run away. But like all black people in early America who wrought freedom where they could, nurtured it warily, and understood it as partial and ambiguous at best, Hammon seized the moment. Â Continue reading
In 1634 Matthias de Sousa and John Price were picked up on the island of Barbados by two small ships that were sailing towards the Chesapeake Bay. Neither of the men had any money to pay for their voyage, so they agreed to work for up to seven years in order to repay the debt. Once their term of service was over, they were both to be declared freemen. Not much is known about the life of John Price after the seven years of service, but there is some documented records concerning Matthias de Sousa.
Matthias de Sousa was a passenger on the Dove when it landed on St. Clemens Island on March 25, 1634. “He was an aide to Father White, the Jesuit priest who came with the founding company of the state of Maryland.” Continue reading
A senior aide to Martin Luther King, Jr., in the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) during the 1960s, Andrew Young had a meditative temperament that shaped his views as a proponent of nonviolent resistance. By the time he was sworn in to Congress in 1973, Young was committed to bringing King’s vision of civil rights to the nation and the world.1Â Â His experiences in the grass-roots politics of the civil rights movement, combined with his diplomatic perspective and attitude, allowed Young to take principled but pragmatic stands for his constituents.
Andrew Jackson Young, Jr., was born in New Orleans, Louisiana, to Andrew and Daisy Fuller Young. His father was a dentist and his mother was a schoolteacher. Â Continue reading | <urn:uuid:5a3652fc-28f3-4415-95d9-a417a421835f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://blackusa.com/page/2 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00057.warc.gz | en | 0.980082 | 834 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.202638998627... | 1 | John Brown was a man of action — a man who would not be deterred from his mission of abolishing slavery. On October 16, 1859, he led 21 men on a raid of the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia. His plan to arm slaves with the weapons he and his men seized from the arsenal was thwarted, however, by local farmers, militiamen, and Marines led by Robert E. Lee. Within 36 hours of the attack, most of Brown’s men had been killed or captured.
John Brown was born into a deeply religious family in Torrington, Connecticut, in 1800. Led by a father who was vehemently opposed to slavery, the family moved to northern Ohio when John was five, to a district that would become known for its antislavery views. Continue reading
Freed American slaves established country of Liberia, on the west coast of Africa, 1824. Â After the struggle for liberty in the American Revolution, free and enslaved African Americans faced continued hardship and inequality. A number of white Americans, for a variety of reasons, joined them in their efforts to resolve this complex problem.
One possible solution (advocated at a time when the assimilation of free blacks into American society seemed out of the question) was the complete separation of white and black Americans. Some voices called for the return of African Americans to the land of their forebears. Continue reading
On a December day in 1747 Briton Hammon, a slave to Major John Winslow of Marshfield, Massachusetts, walked out of town with, as he put it, `an Intention to go a voyage to sea.’ Tucked into the sandy bight of Cape Cod Bay, some thirty miles south of Boston, and reeking of tidal flats and Stockholm tar, Marshfield was a minor star in the galaxy of Britain’s commercial empire, and only a short walk from Plymouth, where Hammon shipped himself the next day `on board of a Sloop, Capt. John Howland, Master, bound to Jamaica and the Bay’ of Campeche for logwood.
Experienced at shipboard work, as were approximately 25 percent of the male slaves in coastal Massachusetts during the 1740s, Hammon had not run away. But like all black people in early America who wrought freedom where they could, nurtured it warily, and understood it as partial and ambiguous at best, Hammon seized the moment. Â Continue reading
In 1634 Matthias de Sousa and John Price were picked up on the island of Barbados by two small ships that were sailing towards the Chesapeake Bay. Neither of the men had any money to pay for their voyage, so they agreed to work for up to seven years in order to repay the debt. Once their term of service was over, they were both to be declared freemen. Not much is known about the life of John Price after the seven years of service, but there is some documented records concerning Matthias de Sousa.
Matthias de Sousa was a passenger on the Dove when it landed on St. Clemens Island on March 25, 1634. “He was an aide to Father White, the Jesuit priest who came with the founding company of the state of Maryland.” Continue reading
A senior aide to Martin Luther King, Jr., in the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) during the 1960s, Andrew Young had a meditative temperament that shaped his views as a proponent of nonviolent resistance. By the time he was sworn in to Congress in 1973, Young was committed to bringing King’s vision of civil rights to the nation and the world.1Â Â His experiences in the grass-roots politics of the civil rights movement, combined with his diplomatic perspective and attitude, allowed Young to take principled but pragmatic stands for his constituents.
Andrew Jackson Young, Jr., was born in New Orleans, Louisiana, to Andrew and Daisy Fuller Young. His father was a dentist and his mother was a schoolteacher. Â Continue reading | 855 | ENGLISH | 1 |
(Last Updated on : 11/04/2012)
The Sakya tribe acquired great importance in Indian history because of the fact that Lord Buddha was born among them. Before the birth of the founder of Buddhism
, the Sakyas were comparatively less known; yet in the rugged fastnesses of the lower Himalayas, they had already built up a remarkable though not a very powerful group. The Sakyas of Kapilavastu
claimed to be Kshatriyas. The origin of the Sakyas is traced back to King Okkaka, i.e. Iksvaku. According to some records the Sakya family is traced back to Mahasammata.
The record in Mahavatsu says that that the Sakyas resided in a cave of a hill and the Jataka story relates that they had received the name Koliya because of having resided in the hollow of a Koli or jujube tree. In the Mahavastu the Sakyas are called adityabandhus or 'kinsmen of the sun'. This refers to their descent from the solar dynasty to which the Iksvakus belonged. The Mahavastu also speaks of King Suddhodana
, father of the Buddha, as born in the Iksvaku family. The Sakyas were Kshatriyas of the Gotama gotra, as is seen from the fact that Lord Buddha
had the surname Gotama, while others who also belonged to the same race, bore the Gotra
name of Vasistha. It has been said that the gotra of a Kshatriya family was derived from the gotra name of the purohita or family priest; so evidently the Sakyas had adopted the Gotamas as their priests at an early date. Kapilavastu
was the capital of the Sakyas. Sometimes it is also known by the name Kapilapura. It is said that Kapilavastu is surrounded by seven walls. Mention is made of several other Sakya towns besides Kapilavastu. They are namely Chatuma, Samagama, Ulumpa, Devadaha, Sakkara, Shavati, and Khomadussa.
It is stated in the Jataka that the Sakyas did not do obeisance to Siddhartha on the ground as he was younger in age, but were afterwards made to do so on seeing' a miracle performed by him. As far as Sakya law is concerned it is said that Sakyas allowed a man only one wife. The Sakyas had a special constitution. They were a small tribe and very proud of their birth. They would not give one of their girls in marriage even to such a powerful prince as Pasenadi of Kosala. Among such a people, marriage was generally confined within the tribe itself, and the number of marriageable girls being limited, many adult males would have to go without a wife if polygamy prevailed. Hence the law had grown up among them limiting the number of wives to one. But the Sakyas had no objection to polygamy on religious grounds.
'The Sakyas were desperate in the matters of birth. When a Sakya child was born, it was carried to the temple of Isvaradeva to be presented to the god. The Sakyas contracted marriages within their own tribe, and even their ruling house did not enter into matrimonial alliance with any of the numerous princely houses in India, unlike the royal houses of Kosala
and Videha. Historical records say that when the marriage of Prince Siddhartha was decided upon at the council of five hundred Sakya elders, it was mandatory to select a bride for him from among themselves. Thus it can be said that the clannish custom among the Sakyas perhaps gave rise to the idea that they married their sisters.
The learning of one or other of the arts was incumbent upon every Sakya youth, for, as we have seen, no father would give his daughter in marriage to an idler or ignoramus. There was also a school for archery at Kapilavastu, where the Sakyas were trained. The Sakyas being a Kshatriya tribe were devoted to warlike pursuits, and were surrounded on all sides by warlike tribes thus the school of archery was necessarily a flourishing institution in the Sakya kingom.
The minds of the Sakya royal princes and nobles were so enlightened by Lord Buddha that they were able to realise the perfect fruit of righteousness. The administrative and judicial business of the Sakya clan was carried out in their santhagara or Council-Hall at Kapilavastu. Kula or clan sovereignty was predominant among the Sakyas. Kula, which was more extensive than tie family among the Sakyas was the lowest political unit amongst the Sakyas. | <urn:uuid:dd91a84a-9843-4316-94c0-c83f2011cd37> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.indianetzone.com/46/sakya_tribe.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00461.warc.gz | en | 0.986219 | 1,009 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.309055745601... | 1 | (Last Updated on : 11/04/2012)
The Sakya tribe acquired great importance in Indian history because of the fact that Lord Buddha was born among them. Before the birth of the founder of Buddhism
, the Sakyas were comparatively less known; yet in the rugged fastnesses of the lower Himalayas, they had already built up a remarkable though not a very powerful group. The Sakyas of Kapilavastu
claimed to be Kshatriyas. The origin of the Sakyas is traced back to King Okkaka, i.e. Iksvaku. According to some records the Sakya family is traced back to Mahasammata.
The record in Mahavatsu says that that the Sakyas resided in a cave of a hill and the Jataka story relates that they had received the name Koliya because of having resided in the hollow of a Koli or jujube tree. In the Mahavastu the Sakyas are called adityabandhus or 'kinsmen of the sun'. This refers to their descent from the solar dynasty to which the Iksvakus belonged. The Mahavastu also speaks of King Suddhodana
, father of the Buddha, as born in the Iksvaku family. The Sakyas were Kshatriyas of the Gotama gotra, as is seen from the fact that Lord Buddha
had the surname Gotama, while others who also belonged to the same race, bore the Gotra
name of Vasistha. It has been said that the gotra of a Kshatriya family was derived from the gotra name of the purohita or family priest; so evidently the Sakyas had adopted the Gotamas as their priests at an early date. Kapilavastu
was the capital of the Sakyas. Sometimes it is also known by the name Kapilapura. It is said that Kapilavastu is surrounded by seven walls. Mention is made of several other Sakya towns besides Kapilavastu. They are namely Chatuma, Samagama, Ulumpa, Devadaha, Sakkara, Shavati, and Khomadussa.
It is stated in the Jataka that the Sakyas did not do obeisance to Siddhartha on the ground as he was younger in age, but were afterwards made to do so on seeing' a miracle performed by him. As far as Sakya law is concerned it is said that Sakyas allowed a man only one wife. The Sakyas had a special constitution. They were a small tribe and very proud of their birth. They would not give one of their girls in marriage even to such a powerful prince as Pasenadi of Kosala. Among such a people, marriage was generally confined within the tribe itself, and the number of marriageable girls being limited, many adult males would have to go without a wife if polygamy prevailed. Hence the law had grown up among them limiting the number of wives to one. But the Sakyas had no objection to polygamy on religious grounds.
'The Sakyas were desperate in the matters of birth. When a Sakya child was born, it was carried to the temple of Isvaradeva to be presented to the god. The Sakyas contracted marriages within their own tribe, and even their ruling house did not enter into matrimonial alliance with any of the numerous princely houses in India, unlike the royal houses of Kosala
and Videha. Historical records say that when the marriage of Prince Siddhartha was decided upon at the council of five hundred Sakya elders, it was mandatory to select a bride for him from among themselves. Thus it can be said that the clannish custom among the Sakyas perhaps gave rise to the idea that they married their sisters.
The learning of one or other of the arts was incumbent upon every Sakya youth, for, as we have seen, no father would give his daughter in marriage to an idler or ignoramus. There was also a school for archery at Kapilavastu, where the Sakyas were trained. The Sakyas being a Kshatriya tribe were devoted to warlike pursuits, and were surrounded on all sides by warlike tribes thus the school of archery was necessarily a flourishing institution in the Sakya kingom.
The minds of the Sakya royal princes and nobles were so enlightened by Lord Buddha that they were able to realise the perfect fruit of righteousness. The administrative and judicial business of the Sakya clan was carried out in their santhagara or Council-Hall at Kapilavastu. Kula or clan sovereignty was predominant among the Sakyas. Kula, which was more extensive than tie family among the Sakyas was the lowest political unit amongst the Sakyas. | 1,013 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During the 1920s, most women were still expected to stay at power and verbalism after the children. Those women who did work, found they had two jobs, employee and housewife. Many women worked to pretend independence and equality for women. Canadian women benefited from the courageous acts of several leadership who challenged the legal restrictions that limited womans rights in this country. Nellie McClung was an active fighter for women rights in Canada during the 1920s. After McClungs election to the Manitoba legislature in 1921, she began to reform conditions for the rights of Canadian women. McClung and a group known as the Alberta Five survive women the right to be appointed to the Canadian Senate. Agnes Macphail ran for office in 1921, became the beginning(a) female member of the House of Commons. Macphail held the seat for 19 years. Agnes Macphail fought diligently for womens rights and social welfare legislation. In 1916 in Alberta, Emily murphy became the prim ary woman magistrate in the British Empire. stump spuds trying on was challenged. under the law, women were non considered persons, and therefore couldnt become judges. In 1921, the Montreal Womens Club asked Prime look Arthur Meighen to appoint Murphy to the Senate. Meighen refused on the grounds one had to be a person to be a Senator.
In 1927, Murphy took her case to the courts for a ruling. The domineering Court of Canada govern that at the time the British North American Act was completed, a woman was not considered to be a person. Murphy thus took her case to the British Privy Council in London, England, which was higher than the compulsive Court ! at that time. In 1929, the British Privy Council command that women were in fact persons under the law. The objection to Emily Murphy designation was later... If you want to get a full essay, order it on our website: OrderCustomPaper.com
If you want to get a full essay, visit our page: write my paper | <urn:uuid:167db3db-c122-4f9a-9a54-e23e224b50ea> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://research-paper-topics.blogspot.com/2013/12/womens-rights-and-how-several-women-in.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00004.warc.gz | en | 0.984307 | 414 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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-0.31005382537841... | 1 | During the 1920s, most women were still expected to stay at power and verbalism after the children. Those women who did work, found they had two jobs, employee and housewife. Many women worked to pretend independence and equality for women. Canadian women benefited from the courageous acts of several leadership who challenged the legal restrictions that limited womans rights in this country. Nellie McClung was an active fighter for women rights in Canada during the 1920s. After McClungs election to the Manitoba legislature in 1921, she began to reform conditions for the rights of Canadian women. McClung and a group known as the Alberta Five survive women the right to be appointed to the Canadian Senate. Agnes Macphail ran for office in 1921, became the beginning(a) female member of the House of Commons. Macphail held the seat for 19 years. Agnes Macphail fought diligently for womens rights and social welfare legislation. In 1916 in Alberta, Emily murphy became the prim ary woman magistrate in the British Empire. stump spuds trying on was challenged. under the law, women were non considered persons, and therefore couldnt become judges. In 1921, the Montreal Womens Club asked Prime look Arthur Meighen to appoint Murphy to the Senate. Meighen refused on the grounds one had to be a person to be a Senator.
In 1927, Murphy took her case to the courts for a ruling. The domineering Court of Canada govern that at the time the British North American Act was completed, a woman was not considered to be a person. Murphy thus took her case to the British Privy Council in London, England, which was higher than the compulsive Court ! at that time. In 1929, the British Privy Council command that women were in fact persons under the law. The objection to Emily Murphy designation was later... If you want to get a full essay, order it on our website: OrderCustomPaper.com
If you want to get a full essay, visit our page: write my paper | 440 | ENGLISH | 1 |
As AC motors
speed depends on the frequency of the voltage that it is powered by, using a motor that was built for 60 Hz in a 50 Hz mains would decrease the speed by about 20% (a drop of one sixth, the difference between 50 and 60 Hz), thus its cooling fan would do its job less efficiently. Also, the motor would be less efficient: a fan powered by it would move less air, a pump would pump less fluids, etc. The motors power rating (HP or kW) would also drop by one sixth and the motor would heat up more. A 60 Hz motor that can be run at 50 Hz would have to have an improved cooling and be more heat-resistant (improved internal insulation). Of course, motors built especially for 50 Hz would not have these drawbacks. | <urn:uuid:dd63ebc9-ad63-4a43-a0ba-9a9b3273a9ab> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mrosupply.com/motors/ac-motors/50-hertz-motors/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00474.warc.gz | en | 0.982356 | 163 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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speed depends on the frequency of the voltage that it is powered by, using a motor that was built for 60 Hz in a 50 Hz mains would decrease the speed by about 20% (a drop of one sixth, the difference between 50 and 60 Hz), thus its cooling fan would do its job less efficiently. Also, the motor would be less efficient: a fan powered by it would move less air, a pump would pump less fluids, etc. The motors power rating (HP or kW) would also drop by one sixth and the motor would heat up more. A 60 Hz motor that can be run at 50 Hz would have to have an improved cooling and be more heat-resistant (improved internal insulation). Of course, motors built especially for 50 Hz would not have these drawbacks. | 177 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Benjamin Franklin was not just one of the most instrumental founding fathers of America, but a true polymath, a person who specializes in a variety of fields. Franklin was a printer, political theorist, politician, postmaster, scientist, inventor, satirist, civic activist, statesman, and diplomat. He truly was a thinker, innovator, and yet a man of action. Ben Franklin was one of the most intelligent people in the history of the world. Yet Franklin wanted to teach and spread his knowledge. There was many times, especially early in his life when he made mistakes and suffered hardships. Franklin was able to overcome these challenges. This greatly affected Franklin’s life as self-improvement became a model for which he lived his life by. Self-improvement is prevalent throughout his entire autobiography. Franklin did have a sense of pride, but he also was a pragmatist and always looked toward the greater good. With all of his knowledge and experience, Benjamin Franklin’s story is a great model to help guide people to a improved life.
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Self-improvement becomes an overlying theme straight from part one of Franklin’s autobiography. It is important to note that the first part of the book is to notify his son, William of his past. William was a loyalist, and he and his father had a falling out during the colonists rebellion against Britain. So Franklin starts with his son, of whose relationship has been damaged tragically. So the autobiography itself becomes a way to improve Franklin’s relationship with his son, and perhaps to make up for his shortcomings as a father.
This itself seems to imply from early in his life Franklin did indeed suffer some hardships. Born into a middle-lower class family, Franklin demonstrated a talent for industry at a young age. He was a very talented writer and began sending anonymous essay to his brother’s press. But when his brother found out he put Franklin’s writing to a stop, and made him sign indenture papers, forcing Franklin to work for James until his contract was up.
However when the two had another disagreement Franklin left anyways. However, Franklin knew that James would not produce the indenture papers because James had got into trouble with the colonial assembly. Franklin admits, "It was not fair in me to take this Advantage… and this I therefore reckon one of the first Errata of my life."sup> Franklin admits his mistake, the first step to not making the same mistake twice. This is one example of self-improvement.
However, Part 2 of the autobiography is by far the most dedicated of any parts of the book to self-improvement. Franklin catalogues his attempt to perfect 13 different virtues: temperance, silence, order, resolution, frugality, industry, sincerity, Justice, moderation, cleanliness, tranquility, chastity, and humility. The entirety of part of the book is dedicated to self-improvement. Franklin marks a black spot in a journal for each offense against each virtue. Franklin explains how one can better improve themselves on each virtue. Franklin legitimately tries to help the reader realize these virtues endeavors in a method to help the reader improve on them. Franklin is not just a self-promoting egomaniac. He states that he has flaws without question, “I was surpris'd to find myself so much fuller of faults than I had imagined; but I had the satisfaction of seeing them diminish”. Here Franklin admits his shortcomings and yet acknowledges the value of improving oneself.
A note on self-improvement and the arrogance of Franklin. It does seem that Franklin was a bit prideful for a number of reasons. Firstly the whole basis of self-improvement set forth by himself implies that he recognizes his own rise from humble beginnings to an elated, wealthy, prestigious position in which he eventually achieved. Secondly, he mentions it personally in his autobiography that complete humility is totally impossible. Franklin was after all only human. Franklin was not disproportionately proud, since his talents were great and his achievements monumental.
Next, Part 3 of the book deals mostly with history and Franklin’s life. Self-improvement is does not seem overtly mentioned in this part of the book. However, there is a more implicit example of self-improvement and the generosity of Franklin. In 1740, Franklin invented the Franklin stove, but he refused to get a patent on the invention. Franklin’s reasoning was that he wanted it for the good of the people. This is more evidence that Franklin was in fact a righteous man, and not a self absorbed man who was only after personal gain.
Franklin begins the story with his son, and ends the story with his son. There is no doubt that Franklin felt bad about the souring relationship between him and William. Once again Franklin expresses his love for his son and the yearning for a renewed relationship. This also expresses, either implicitly or subconsciously, the shortcomings Franklin felt as a father. He could not quell the quarrel between himself and William, and therefore missed all the years of being a father to his son. This demonstrates the importance Franklin felt towards self-improvement. He was constantly trying to improve the relationship between himself and his son.
Benjamin Franklin sets out not only to give a detailed explanation of his life, but also to help those who cared to read it. Franklin was a righteous and successful man, but he was legitimately trying to help his readers. Franklin did not enter his endeavors purely for self benefit, as is seen with his refusal for a patent of the Franklin Stove. Self-improvement played a tremendous role throughout Franklin’s life, from his childhood, through his career, his role as a father, as well as his role as a founding father for the United States. Franklin attempts to guide the reader to a better life through self-improvement. Franklin outlines thirteen virtues of which to practice and master. And even he himself acknowledges that perfection is impossible. However he outlines these virtues in Part 2 so that the reader may be able to improve their own life. Franklin successfully give the reader an outline to his life, an outline to American history in the 18th century, and an outline to live a fuller more successful and happier life through self-improvement.
Benjamin Franklin is one of the most accomplished people of the last 2,000 years, and perhaps in the history of the human race. He was a hard worker, benevolent philosopher, a statesman, inventor, scientist, diplomat, and all-around genius. He was at times prideful but that pride was indeed in proportion to all of his great accomplishments and civic duties. Franklin’s greatest ambitions were to spread freedom, peace, and the pursuit of happiness. Franklin suffered many hardships in his life that he was able to overcome. And through his experiences he was able to provide generations of people a model of self-improvement in which they could follow. Benjamin Franklin’s memoirs are a gift for generations to come, to help guide, educate, the people of today into a more righteous world for tomorrow.
Most popular orders | <urn:uuid:a8ad3603-373d-4098-b172-a97ae117b029> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://essaysexperts.com/essays/history/benjamin-franklin-1.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00452.warc.gz | en | 0.987704 | 1,506 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.12314091622829437... | 1 | Benjamin Franklin was not just one of the most instrumental founding fathers of America, but a true polymath, a person who specializes in a variety of fields. Franklin was a printer, political theorist, politician, postmaster, scientist, inventor, satirist, civic activist, statesman, and diplomat. He truly was a thinker, innovator, and yet a man of action. Ben Franklin was one of the most intelligent people in the history of the world. Yet Franklin wanted to teach and spread his knowledge. There was many times, especially early in his life when he made mistakes and suffered hardships. Franklin was able to overcome these challenges. This greatly affected Franklin’s life as self-improvement became a model for which he lived his life by. Self-improvement is prevalent throughout his entire autobiography. Franklin did have a sense of pride, but he also was a pragmatist and always looked toward the greater good. With all of his knowledge and experience, Benjamin Franklin’s story is a great model to help guide people to a improved life.
First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service
- Your research paper is written by a PhD professor
- Your requirements and targets are always met
- You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment
- You get a chance to become an excellent student!
Self-improvement becomes an overlying theme straight from part one of Franklin’s autobiography. It is important to note that the first part of the book is to notify his son, William of his past. William was a loyalist, and he and his father had a falling out during the colonists rebellion against Britain. So Franklin starts with his son, of whose relationship has been damaged tragically. So the autobiography itself becomes a way to improve Franklin’s relationship with his son, and perhaps to make up for his shortcomings as a father.
This itself seems to imply from early in his life Franklin did indeed suffer some hardships. Born into a middle-lower class family, Franklin demonstrated a talent for industry at a young age. He was a very talented writer and began sending anonymous essay to his brother’s press. But when his brother found out he put Franklin’s writing to a stop, and made him sign indenture papers, forcing Franklin to work for James until his contract was up.
However when the two had another disagreement Franklin left anyways. However, Franklin knew that James would not produce the indenture papers because James had got into trouble with the colonial assembly. Franklin admits, "It was not fair in me to take this Advantage… and this I therefore reckon one of the first Errata of my life."sup> Franklin admits his mistake, the first step to not making the same mistake twice. This is one example of self-improvement.
However, Part 2 of the autobiography is by far the most dedicated of any parts of the book to self-improvement. Franklin catalogues his attempt to perfect 13 different virtues: temperance, silence, order, resolution, frugality, industry, sincerity, Justice, moderation, cleanliness, tranquility, chastity, and humility. The entirety of part of the book is dedicated to self-improvement. Franklin marks a black spot in a journal for each offense against each virtue. Franklin explains how one can better improve themselves on each virtue. Franklin legitimately tries to help the reader realize these virtues endeavors in a method to help the reader improve on them. Franklin is not just a self-promoting egomaniac. He states that he has flaws without question, “I was surpris'd to find myself so much fuller of faults than I had imagined; but I had the satisfaction of seeing them diminish”. Here Franklin admits his shortcomings and yet acknowledges the value of improving oneself.
A note on self-improvement and the arrogance of Franklin. It does seem that Franklin was a bit prideful for a number of reasons. Firstly the whole basis of self-improvement set forth by himself implies that he recognizes his own rise from humble beginnings to an elated, wealthy, prestigious position in which he eventually achieved. Secondly, he mentions it personally in his autobiography that complete humility is totally impossible. Franklin was after all only human. Franklin was not disproportionately proud, since his talents were great and his achievements monumental.
Next, Part 3 of the book deals mostly with history and Franklin’s life. Self-improvement is does not seem overtly mentioned in this part of the book. However, there is a more implicit example of self-improvement and the generosity of Franklin. In 1740, Franklin invented the Franklin stove, but he refused to get a patent on the invention. Franklin’s reasoning was that he wanted it for the good of the people. This is more evidence that Franklin was in fact a righteous man, and not a self absorbed man who was only after personal gain.
Franklin begins the story with his son, and ends the story with his son. There is no doubt that Franklin felt bad about the souring relationship between him and William. Once again Franklin expresses his love for his son and the yearning for a renewed relationship. This also expresses, either implicitly or subconsciously, the shortcomings Franklin felt as a father. He could not quell the quarrel between himself and William, and therefore missed all the years of being a father to his son. This demonstrates the importance Franklin felt towards self-improvement. He was constantly trying to improve the relationship between himself and his son.
Benjamin Franklin sets out not only to give a detailed explanation of his life, but also to help those who cared to read it. Franklin was a righteous and successful man, but he was legitimately trying to help his readers. Franklin did not enter his endeavors purely for self benefit, as is seen with his refusal for a patent of the Franklin Stove. Self-improvement played a tremendous role throughout Franklin’s life, from his childhood, through his career, his role as a father, as well as his role as a founding father for the United States. Franklin attempts to guide the reader to a better life through self-improvement. Franklin outlines thirteen virtues of which to practice and master. And even he himself acknowledges that perfection is impossible. However he outlines these virtues in Part 2 so that the reader may be able to improve their own life. Franklin successfully give the reader an outline to his life, an outline to American history in the 18th century, and an outline to live a fuller more successful and happier life through self-improvement.
Benjamin Franklin is one of the most accomplished people of the last 2,000 years, and perhaps in the history of the human race. He was a hard worker, benevolent philosopher, a statesman, inventor, scientist, diplomat, and all-around genius. He was at times prideful but that pride was indeed in proportion to all of his great accomplishments and civic duties. Franklin’s greatest ambitions were to spread freedom, peace, and the pursuit of happiness. Franklin suffered many hardships in his life that he was able to overcome. And through his experiences he was able to provide generations of people a model of self-improvement in which they could follow. Benjamin Franklin’s memoirs are a gift for generations to come, to help guide, educate, the people of today into a more righteous world for tomorrow.
Most popular orders | 1,487 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Roman Change over Time
Around 55 C.E. Christianity and Judaism began to occupy Roman culture. During the transportation of a Jewish prisoner named Paul of Tarsus to Rome, it can be seen that religion was just one of the major concerns during this time. Founded in the eighth century B.C.E., Rome was originally a small city-state ruled by one king. Eventually, Rome established itself as the dominant power in the Mediterranean basin by instituting an aristocratic republic government. Roman civilization changed drastically politically, economically, and culturally during the last centuries of the classical era, (100-600 C.E.), although some factors remained the same. The Roman forum was a political and civic center filled with temples and public buildings where leading citizens tended to government business that was built at the heart of the city. Rome also instituted a republican constitution that entrusted executive responsibilities to two consuls who exerted civil and military power. The Senate ratified all major decisions and along with the consuls, represented the interests of the patricians. This caused constant tension between the wealthy classes and common people, the plebeians.
Patricians continued to dominate Rome, although the plebeians did receive some governmental rights. They had tribunes, which had the power to intervene in political matters and veto measures they considered were unfair. The plebeians gained the right to hold almost all state offices and became eligible to have one of the consuls represent them during fourth century, B.C.E. These compromises eased tensions between classes, but did not solve all political crises. The Romans would appoint a dictator when faced with military of civil issues.
Imperial expansion brought wealth and power to Rome; however, that created some problems as well as benefits. Unequal wealth distribution created more class tensions, and the need to administer conquered lands created difficulties. During the first century B.C.E. and the first century C.E., Roman leaders steadily dismantled the republican constitution and enforced a centralized imperial form of government. Conquered lands were usually given to the wealthy families, which had large plantations known as latifundia. Social conflict and civil war broke out among the social classes during the first and second centuries B.C.E.
Long after the chaos of Rome, an era of peace facilitated economic and political integration during the third century C.E. Augustus brought peace to Rome and the empire by ending the civil disturbances. His reign launched the era known as pax romana, or Roman peace, which lasted about two and a half centuries. As a result of low political setbacks, Romans could focus their attention elsewhere. They began to build roads, which became a major advance for transportation. These factors encouraged trade, which helped many cities flourish. The Romans exercised a strictly patriarchal society and made extensive use of slave labor.
Agricultural production was the economic foundation of the Roman Empire. It also underwent transformation with the empire’s expansion. Many latifundia owners concentrated on exporting their goods, instead of planting crops for local use. Grain was exported to many large cities around the empire, and was one of the easiest crops to cultivate due to favorable prices and relatively cheap production. Just some of the regions Rome traded with include Greece, Syria and Palestine, Gaul, and Spain. Much of the profit from Mediterranean trade flowed to Rome, where it fueled outstanding urban development.
Romans built many attractions to serve locals and tourists. Not only did they have elaborate plumbing and sewage systems, but almost all towns had public baths including hot and cold rooms, swimming pools, and gymnasia. For entertainment there were massive circuses, amphitheatres, and stadiums where they held competitive games often that ended in battles to the death between gladiators, or humans and wild animals. The Roman Colosseum, which opened in 80 C.E. held about 50,000 spectators.
Although Rome was based mainly on the “Pater Familias” patriarchal rule, women had influence on their families. They helped select marriage partners for their children, and often played large roles in managing finances. Slavery was very common in Rome, but over time, slaves gained more rights and could even work themselves out of slavery by being loyal. It was common, though not mandatory, for masters to free slaves after they reached thirty years of age.
Religion was a major portion of Roman culture during the classical era. Paul of Tarsus, as mentioned earlier, was the principal figure in expanding Christianity beyond Judaism. He attracted high urban masses, and his doctrine called for high moral standards and faith before all else. He promised a glorious future for all who observed faith that Jesus was their savior. While on his travels seeking converts, he was executed by the mid-first century C.E. Christians refused to view the emperor as a god, and Roman imperial authorities attempted to eliminate Christianity, but by 300 C.E. Rome had a sizable Christian population. By the third century C.E., Christianity had become the most dynamic and influential religious faith in the Mediterranean basin.
Roman civilization changed politically and created a structure that administered lands as far as Mesopotamia. Trade networks helped Rome and other cities gain more products they could not produce themselves and created a much more modern idea of trade. Women gained more rights, and religion spread widely; which heightened curiosity and increased knowledge. Religious authority continued to influence cultural development, much like Confucianism and Buddhism in classical China and India. | <urn:uuid:ed970d84-f5ee-49d8-b814-8be1686de9ab> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.studymode.com/essays/Roman-Change-Over-Time-1508073.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00299.warc.gz | en | 0.980099 | 1,114 | 4.3125 | 4 | [
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0.23387660086154... | 2 | Roman Change over Time
Around 55 C.E. Christianity and Judaism began to occupy Roman culture. During the transportation of a Jewish prisoner named Paul of Tarsus to Rome, it can be seen that religion was just one of the major concerns during this time. Founded in the eighth century B.C.E., Rome was originally a small city-state ruled by one king. Eventually, Rome established itself as the dominant power in the Mediterranean basin by instituting an aristocratic republic government. Roman civilization changed drastically politically, economically, and culturally during the last centuries of the classical era, (100-600 C.E.), although some factors remained the same. The Roman forum was a political and civic center filled with temples and public buildings where leading citizens tended to government business that was built at the heart of the city. Rome also instituted a republican constitution that entrusted executive responsibilities to two consuls who exerted civil and military power. The Senate ratified all major decisions and along with the consuls, represented the interests of the patricians. This caused constant tension between the wealthy classes and common people, the plebeians.
Patricians continued to dominate Rome, although the plebeians did receive some governmental rights. They had tribunes, which had the power to intervene in political matters and veto measures they considered were unfair. The plebeians gained the right to hold almost all state offices and became eligible to have one of the consuls represent them during fourth century, B.C.E. These compromises eased tensions between classes, but did not solve all political crises. The Romans would appoint a dictator when faced with military of civil issues.
Imperial expansion brought wealth and power to Rome; however, that created some problems as well as benefits. Unequal wealth distribution created more class tensions, and the need to administer conquered lands created difficulties. During the first century B.C.E. and the first century C.E., Roman leaders steadily dismantled the republican constitution and enforced a centralized imperial form of government. Conquered lands were usually given to the wealthy families, which had large plantations known as latifundia. Social conflict and civil war broke out among the social classes during the first and second centuries B.C.E.
Long after the chaos of Rome, an era of peace facilitated economic and political integration during the third century C.E. Augustus brought peace to Rome and the empire by ending the civil disturbances. His reign launched the era known as pax romana, or Roman peace, which lasted about two and a half centuries. As a result of low political setbacks, Romans could focus their attention elsewhere. They began to build roads, which became a major advance for transportation. These factors encouraged trade, which helped many cities flourish. The Romans exercised a strictly patriarchal society and made extensive use of slave labor.
Agricultural production was the economic foundation of the Roman Empire. It also underwent transformation with the empire’s expansion. Many latifundia owners concentrated on exporting their goods, instead of planting crops for local use. Grain was exported to many large cities around the empire, and was one of the easiest crops to cultivate due to favorable prices and relatively cheap production. Just some of the regions Rome traded with include Greece, Syria and Palestine, Gaul, and Spain. Much of the profit from Mediterranean trade flowed to Rome, where it fueled outstanding urban development.
Romans built many attractions to serve locals and tourists. Not only did they have elaborate plumbing and sewage systems, but almost all towns had public baths including hot and cold rooms, swimming pools, and gymnasia. For entertainment there were massive circuses, amphitheatres, and stadiums where they held competitive games often that ended in battles to the death between gladiators, or humans and wild animals. The Roman Colosseum, which opened in 80 C.E. held about 50,000 spectators.
Although Rome was based mainly on the “Pater Familias” patriarchal rule, women had influence on their families. They helped select marriage partners for their children, and often played large roles in managing finances. Slavery was very common in Rome, but over time, slaves gained more rights and could even work themselves out of slavery by being loyal. It was common, though not mandatory, for masters to free slaves after they reached thirty years of age.
Religion was a major portion of Roman culture during the classical era. Paul of Tarsus, as mentioned earlier, was the principal figure in expanding Christianity beyond Judaism. He attracted high urban masses, and his doctrine called for high moral standards and faith before all else. He promised a glorious future for all who observed faith that Jesus was their savior. While on his travels seeking converts, he was executed by the mid-first century C.E. Christians refused to view the emperor as a god, and Roman imperial authorities attempted to eliminate Christianity, but by 300 C.E. Rome had a sizable Christian population. By the third century C.E., Christianity had become the most dynamic and influential religious faith in the Mediterranean basin.
Roman civilization changed politically and created a structure that administered lands as far as Mesopotamia. Trade networks helped Rome and other cities gain more products they could not produce themselves and created a much more modern idea of trade. Women gained more rights, and religion spread widely; which heightened curiosity and increased knowledge. Religious authority continued to influence cultural development, much like Confucianism and Buddhism in classical China and India. | 1,104 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Scarlet Letter Project Based on the Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne Rachel McNicklePd AB
Nathaniel Hawthorne Nathaniel Hawthorne was born in Salem, Massachusetts on July 4th, 1804. Nathaniel’s original last name was “Hathorne” which he later changed to “Hawthorne” to separate himself of his family’s history. Nathaniel’s father passed away when Nathaniel was young which caused his mother to become very protective and push him towards isolated activites. This led Nathaniel to writing. Nathaniel went on to attend Bowdoin College in 1825. After graduating college, he settled in Salem. In 1842, Nathaniel married Sophia Peabody. The couple then moved to Concord, Massachusetts and eventually had three children together, Una, Julian, and Rose. Once settled, Nathaniel continued writing. Hawthorne wrote many successful short stories including “"My Kinsman, Major Molineux", "Roger Malvin's Burial", and "Young Goodman Brown“. Upon his return to Salem in 1845 and was appointed a position of the Boston Custom House by President James Polk. When Zachary Taylor became president, Nathaniel was removed. Due to this, he dedicated all of his time to his now-famous novel, The Scarlet Letter. This novel was a complete success and is said to be an “inevitable read for most high school English classes.” The book’s success drove Hawthorne to a life of writing. He went on to write multiple other novels such as The Blithedale Romance. Sadly, Nathaniel Hawthorne passed away on May 19, 1964 in Plymouth, New Hampshire. He had suffered a long illness and was buried in Concord, Massachusetts. http://www.pbs.org/wnet/americannovel/timeline/hawthorne.html http://www.egs.edu/library/nathaniel-hawthorne/biography/ http://www.gradesaver.com/author/hawthorne/ http://www.dosomething.org/tipsandtools/book-review-scarlet-letter
Character Profile: Hester Prynne Hester Prynne is the protagonist of The Scarlet Letter. Hester is a young woman married to an elderly man named Roger Chillingworth. Roger Chillingworth sends his wife, Hester, to Boston, Massachusetts to find a home for the couple where they can start fresh. Roger was to stay back and finish a few things and then follow Hester when he was done. However, Roger failed to come to America after her. While in Boston, Hester meets and falls in love with Reverend Arthur Dimmesdale. They have an affair which results in pregnancy and the birth of her daughter, Pearl. Hester is then publicly punished on the scaffold for committing adultery. She wears a scarlet letter “A” for punishment of her sin. Hester embraces her letter and stitches it with gold. When she was asked who the man was, she refuses to tell. Hester is then put in jail, and finally Roger returns. Roger poses as a doctor who is supposed to visit Hester in jail . There Hester tells Roger, “thou knowest that I was frank with thee. I felt no love, nor feigned any.” (Page 69). Hester married Roger because it was convenient (Page 69). Her true love was for Dimmesdale. Once she is released from jail, Hester and Pearl move to the outskirts of town. She remains strong while the town alienates her. She also fights for the right to keep her daughter. Hester is an independent women, who supports herself and her daughter by selling her work as a seamstress to people as important as the governor. Hester also donates her work to the poor members of town. She “had no selfish ends, nor lived in any measure for her own profit and enjoyment…” (Page 234)
Conflict Analysis Hester Prynne faces many conflicts during The Scarlet Letter as an adulteress. She faces is the risk of losing her daughter, Pearl. This conflict takes place in the Governor’s mansion in the presence of Reverend Wilson and Dimmesdale. The Governor informs Hester that Pearl may be taken from her because the townspeople feel Hester is not fit to be a mother. He states, “The point hath been weightily discussed, whether we, that are of authority and influence, do well discharge our consciences by trusting an immortal soul, such as there is in yonder child, to the guidance of one who hath stumbled and fallen, amid the pitfalls of this world…” He continues, “Were it not, thinkest thou, for thy little one’s temporal and eternal welfare that she be taken out of thy charge…?’ ” (Page 101) They believe Pearl should be raised by someone else. Hester instantly makes her case at the thought of having Pearl taken from her. Hester believes that Pearl should not be taken away. She believes that she can be a great mother to her daughter and teach Pearl from her mistakes so that she never makes the same. Hester looks at Dimmesdale, and he talks the Governor into letting Pearl live with Hester. He believed that Pearl would be raised better under the circumstances. The conflict is motivation for Hester to be a better mother to Pearl. This conflict also demonstrates the bond between Hester and Dimmesdale. Although, the day ended well for Hester, it could’ve taken a turn for the wrong. By speaking for Hester, Dimmesdale could’ve revealed himself as Pearl’s father.
Theme When I think of something being destroyed I tend to think of a fire or a tornado, but I fail to recognize that it is not only physical things that destroy a person. An important theme of The Scarlet Letter is revenge and hatred can destroy truly destroy someone. Dimmesdale acted as coward in the novel and did not confess his sin. However, when Roger Chillingworth came to town, he made sure that Dimmesdale would be properly punished. The hate that Roger had for Dimmesdale became apparent to the reader of the novel. “The intellect of Roger Chillingworth had now a sufficiently plain path before it. It was not, indeed, precisely that which he had laid out for himself to tread. Calm, gentle, passionless, as he appeared, there was yet, we fear, a quiet depth of malice, hitherto latent, but active now, in this unfortunate old man, which led him to imagine a more intimate revenge than any mortal had ever wreaked upon an enemy.” (Page 127) Roger had come off as a calm man, but now his hatred had changed him. Dimmesdale could no longer take the guilt he was feeling, or knowing that Roger was seeking revenge. He couldn’t bear the idea of living if everyone knew his sin and hated him for it. This all together destroyed Dimmesdale in the end. The Scarlet Letter had many themes, but I believe one of the more important themes was revenge and hatred can destroy someone. Dimmesdale could not live with his sin anymore. In the end, it all took a toll on Dimmesdale. Now, the time I think of destruction, revenge and hatred will be the first to come to mind.
My Personal Reflection The Scarlet Letter would not have been my first choice of reading. However, I came to enjoy the novel. I liked that The Scarlet Letter had an interesting plot and a large amount of symbolism. I also enjoyed the book’s characters. The book contained characters and situations that were easy to relate to like Hester being alienated or Dimmesdale feeling cowardly. I did not like the dialect of the people in the book. It made it more complicated to understand. The Scarlet Letter taught me that going against what others think isn’t the end of the world. It taught me to do what I want and stand by my decision no matter what others say. Hester had committed adultery and although she was judged by the entire town, she remained strong and did not give in to them. Hester’s character was defined by how she reacted to the community, which was in an honorable way. Her character has taught to ignore things that aren’t positive. I can easily relate to Hester in this novel. Hester had went against the crowd and done something that no one else had done. In certain situations, I am like Hester. I enjoy being different and standing apart sometimes. People may say terrible things, but I try to act how Hester did and ignore them. I am also like Hester because she was independent. Although sometimes I have to depend on my parents, I try to be as independent as possible. I would recommend this novel to young teenagers. High school is a hard time for many kids because of bullying. Many kids are made fun of, judged, or left out everyday at school which is exactly what happened to Hester. I believe by reading this novel, they can witness how Hester handled herself and use her as an example next time they are bullied. | <urn:uuid:fd8dbc21-2267-44b4-881d-b54e0edd5926> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.slideserve.com/joshwa/scarlet-letter-project | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00105.warc.gz | en | 0.983116 | 1,905 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.17249733209609985,... | 1 | Scarlet Letter Project Based on the Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne Rachel McNicklePd AB
Nathaniel Hawthorne Nathaniel Hawthorne was born in Salem, Massachusetts on July 4th, 1804. Nathaniel’s original last name was “Hathorne” which he later changed to “Hawthorne” to separate himself of his family’s history. Nathaniel’s father passed away when Nathaniel was young which caused his mother to become very protective and push him towards isolated activites. This led Nathaniel to writing. Nathaniel went on to attend Bowdoin College in 1825. After graduating college, he settled in Salem. In 1842, Nathaniel married Sophia Peabody. The couple then moved to Concord, Massachusetts and eventually had three children together, Una, Julian, and Rose. Once settled, Nathaniel continued writing. Hawthorne wrote many successful short stories including “"My Kinsman, Major Molineux", "Roger Malvin's Burial", and "Young Goodman Brown“. Upon his return to Salem in 1845 and was appointed a position of the Boston Custom House by President James Polk. When Zachary Taylor became president, Nathaniel was removed. Due to this, he dedicated all of his time to his now-famous novel, The Scarlet Letter. This novel was a complete success and is said to be an “inevitable read for most high school English classes.” The book’s success drove Hawthorne to a life of writing. He went on to write multiple other novels such as The Blithedale Romance. Sadly, Nathaniel Hawthorne passed away on May 19, 1964 in Plymouth, New Hampshire. He had suffered a long illness and was buried in Concord, Massachusetts. http://www.pbs.org/wnet/americannovel/timeline/hawthorne.html http://www.egs.edu/library/nathaniel-hawthorne/biography/ http://www.gradesaver.com/author/hawthorne/ http://www.dosomething.org/tipsandtools/book-review-scarlet-letter
Character Profile: Hester Prynne Hester Prynne is the protagonist of The Scarlet Letter. Hester is a young woman married to an elderly man named Roger Chillingworth. Roger Chillingworth sends his wife, Hester, to Boston, Massachusetts to find a home for the couple where they can start fresh. Roger was to stay back and finish a few things and then follow Hester when he was done. However, Roger failed to come to America after her. While in Boston, Hester meets and falls in love with Reverend Arthur Dimmesdale. They have an affair which results in pregnancy and the birth of her daughter, Pearl. Hester is then publicly punished on the scaffold for committing adultery. She wears a scarlet letter “A” for punishment of her sin. Hester embraces her letter and stitches it with gold. When she was asked who the man was, she refuses to tell. Hester is then put in jail, and finally Roger returns. Roger poses as a doctor who is supposed to visit Hester in jail . There Hester tells Roger, “thou knowest that I was frank with thee. I felt no love, nor feigned any.” (Page 69). Hester married Roger because it was convenient (Page 69). Her true love was for Dimmesdale. Once she is released from jail, Hester and Pearl move to the outskirts of town. She remains strong while the town alienates her. She also fights for the right to keep her daughter. Hester is an independent women, who supports herself and her daughter by selling her work as a seamstress to people as important as the governor. Hester also donates her work to the poor members of town. She “had no selfish ends, nor lived in any measure for her own profit and enjoyment…” (Page 234)
Conflict Analysis Hester Prynne faces many conflicts during The Scarlet Letter as an adulteress. She faces is the risk of losing her daughter, Pearl. This conflict takes place in the Governor’s mansion in the presence of Reverend Wilson and Dimmesdale. The Governor informs Hester that Pearl may be taken from her because the townspeople feel Hester is not fit to be a mother. He states, “The point hath been weightily discussed, whether we, that are of authority and influence, do well discharge our consciences by trusting an immortal soul, such as there is in yonder child, to the guidance of one who hath stumbled and fallen, amid the pitfalls of this world…” He continues, “Were it not, thinkest thou, for thy little one’s temporal and eternal welfare that she be taken out of thy charge…?’ ” (Page 101) They believe Pearl should be raised by someone else. Hester instantly makes her case at the thought of having Pearl taken from her. Hester believes that Pearl should not be taken away. She believes that she can be a great mother to her daughter and teach Pearl from her mistakes so that she never makes the same. Hester looks at Dimmesdale, and he talks the Governor into letting Pearl live with Hester. He believed that Pearl would be raised better under the circumstances. The conflict is motivation for Hester to be a better mother to Pearl. This conflict also demonstrates the bond between Hester and Dimmesdale. Although, the day ended well for Hester, it could’ve taken a turn for the wrong. By speaking for Hester, Dimmesdale could’ve revealed himself as Pearl’s father.
Theme When I think of something being destroyed I tend to think of a fire or a tornado, but I fail to recognize that it is not only physical things that destroy a person. An important theme of The Scarlet Letter is revenge and hatred can destroy truly destroy someone. Dimmesdale acted as coward in the novel and did not confess his sin. However, when Roger Chillingworth came to town, he made sure that Dimmesdale would be properly punished. The hate that Roger had for Dimmesdale became apparent to the reader of the novel. “The intellect of Roger Chillingworth had now a sufficiently plain path before it. It was not, indeed, precisely that which he had laid out for himself to tread. Calm, gentle, passionless, as he appeared, there was yet, we fear, a quiet depth of malice, hitherto latent, but active now, in this unfortunate old man, which led him to imagine a more intimate revenge than any mortal had ever wreaked upon an enemy.” (Page 127) Roger had come off as a calm man, but now his hatred had changed him. Dimmesdale could no longer take the guilt he was feeling, or knowing that Roger was seeking revenge. He couldn’t bear the idea of living if everyone knew his sin and hated him for it. This all together destroyed Dimmesdale in the end. The Scarlet Letter had many themes, but I believe one of the more important themes was revenge and hatred can destroy someone. Dimmesdale could not live with his sin anymore. In the end, it all took a toll on Dimmesdale. Now, the time I think of destruction, revenge and hatred will be the first to come to mind.
My Personal Reflection The Scarlet Letter would not have been my first choice of reading. However, I came to enjoy the novel. I liked that The Scarlet Letter had an interesting plot and a large amount of symbolism. I also enjoyed the book’s characters. The book contained characters and situations that were easy to relate to like Hester being alienated or Dimmesdale feeling cowardly. I did not like the dialect of the people in the book. It made it more complicated to understand. The Scarlet Letter taught me that going against what others think isn’t the end of the world. It taught me to do what I want and stand by my decision no matter what others say. Hester had committed adultery and although she was judged by the entire town, she remained strong and did not give in to them. Hester’s character was defined by how she reacted to the community, which was in an honorable way. Her character has taught to ignore things that aren’t positive. I can easily relate to Hester in this novel. Hester had went against the crowd and done something that no one else had done. In certain situations, I am like Hester. I enjoy being different and standing apart sometimes. People may say terrible things, but I try to act how Hester did and ignore them. I am also like Hester because she was independent. Although sometimes I have to depend on my parents, I try to be as independent as possible. I would recommend this novel to young teenagers. High school is a hard time for many kids because of bullying. Many kids are made fun of, judged, or left out everyday at school which is exactly what happened to Hester. I believe by reading this novel, they can witness how Hester handled herself and use her as an example next time they are bullied. | 1,880 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Unit 5 P2-Life Factors
Huntington's disease is a degenerative disease that usually builds up in adulthood. It influences all areas of development. First of all, it has a direct impact on physical development mainly because it causes the sufferer to lose control of their very own muscles meaning they have to make use of a wheel seat to even more around. As a result of this they can be dependent on other folks. It also has an effect on emotional development as it can have got a negative impact on cognitive operations and can likewise cause psychiatric problems. This may cause the sufferer to be angry and upset. Additionally, it has an impact on their sociable development; while the sufferer is restricted in their movements that they find it hard to go out and therefore some might stay at home meaning they cannot have all the interpersonal interactions that they desire. Also, because of their decrease of muscle control it might be hard for their carer to understand these people when they speak which could cause them one more level of isolation. Lastly this impacts all their intellectual development as they cannot always contact their carer about what they wish to do. This could cause the sufferer for being bored.
Cystic fibrosis is actually a life shorter form disease that affects lungs and digestive system, rendering it hard to breathe and digest food. Due to this, that affects most aspects of a sufferer's lifestyle. For example , physical development is usually affected because the sufferer won't be able to do as much work out as somebody who doesn't have the situation because they find it harder to inhale. Sufferers also need to follow a stringent diet meaning they are certainly not meant to take in certain foods that they find hard to digest. This means that they may not increase as much as their peers who don't have the disorder. This therefore may also affect their cultural and mental development because they may think left out because they can't constantly do the same things as their friends and therefore may lack confidence and may find it hard to make close friends. Though this... | <urn:uuid:6b8a0f6e-9b3c-4388-991b-2c84e2051d25> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://herbieduo.com/unit-5-p2-life-elements/79753-unit-5-p2-life-factors-essay.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00378.warc.gz | en | 0.980871 | 413 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.24232268333435... | 1 | Unit 5 P2-Life Factors
Huntington's disease is a degenerative disease that usually builds up in adulthood. It influences all areas of development. First of all, it has a direct impact on physical development mainly because it causes the sufferer to lose control of their very own muscles meaning they have to make use of a wheel seat to even more around. As a result of this they can be dependent on other folks. It also has an effect on emotional development as it can have got a negative impact on cognitive operations and can likewise cause psychiatric problems. This may cause the sufferer to be angry and upset. Additionally, it has an impact on their sociable development; while the sufferer is restricted in their movements that they find it hard to go out and therefore some might stay at home meaning they cannot have all the interpersonal interactions that they desire. Also, because of their decrease of muscle control it might be hard for their carer to understand these people when they speak which could cause them one more level of isolation. Lastly this impacts all their intellectual development as they cannot always contact their carer about what they wish to do. This could cause the sufferer for being bored.
Cystic fibrosis is actually a life shorter form disease that affects lungs and digestive system, rendering it hard to breathe and digest food. Due to this, that affects most aspects of a sufferer's lifestyle. For example , physical development is usually affected because the sufferer won't be able to do as much work out as somebody who doesn't have the situation because they find it harder to inhale. Sufferers also need to follow a stringent diet meaning they are certainly not meant to take in certain foods that they find hard to digest. This means that they may not increase as much as their peers who don't have the disorder. This therefore may also affect their cultural and mental development because they may think left out because they can't constantly do the same things as their friends and therefore may lack confidence and may find it hard to make close friends. Though this... | 414 | ENGLISH | 1 |
ASK DOCTOR DOROTHY PASTENSE FULLSTOP: SOME QUICK QUESTIONS
How do you do reported speech with conditionals?
This question has rather important now we have the feature and quizzes regarding conditionals.
First, if you did not already know, reported speech is when we talk about something that was said in the past and we are telling somebody about it now. For example, 'I like tennis'. What did he say? He said he liked tennis. (NOT: He said I like tennis. This is known as direct speech.)
Now it confuses students when it comes to reporting on conditionals as this can change the form from a particular conditional to another. (See the book for a [not too detailed] explanation on conditionals.) But in true TEE style, we will try to explain how it is done.
So we will start with the zero conditional:
Fred: If you, Belinda, have a lot of money, you can buy a car.
Fred said that if Belinda has a lot of money, she can buy a car. (This was and still is true)
Fred said that if Belinda had a lot of money, she could buy a car. (This is talking about something said in the past which was true at the time of speaking.)
The first conditional:
Louise: If we don't hurry, the shop will close and we won't be able to buy any milk.
Louise said that if they don't hurry, the shop will close and they won't be able to buy any milk. (This was reported almost immediately: the shop is still open and it is still possible to buy some milk)
Louise said that if they didn't hurry, the shop would close and they wouldn't be able to buy any milk. (This was reported a while ago, and what has been said may now be out of date, with the possible result being that the shop is now closed and there is no milk.)
The second conditional:
Clara: If I won the lottery, I would buy a boat. (Which could happen in the future)
Clara said that if she won the lottery, she would buy a boat. (What she said was true. She still might win the lottery and still might buy a boat)
Clara said that if she had won the lottery, she would have bought a boat. (This was reported a while ago and is now out of date. She had not won the lottery at the time of her speaking. It may be unlikely, but she may have won something since she said this)
With the third conditional there is no change in the form. The unreal past situation does not change after reporting it. So for example: If I had known it was half price, I would have bought it, simply becomes Brian said that if he had known it was half price, he would have bought it.
If an intelligent creature, or citizen, from the planet Mars is a Martian, then what is a citizen of Earth?
You really want me to answer that? Aren't there more interesting things about the English language we can discuss?
Oh well, here we go.
This one is purely a matter of opinion and I'm sure some will disagree on the name we should give for humans from the planet Earth . I personally don't want to be referred to as an 'Earthling' or 'Earther' - these just sound a bit too sci-fi (don't get me wrong, I like Sci-fi), and is also a bit anglocentric. But so is the word Martian, so perhaps I can't really use that as an argument.
There are two contenders. One is Gaian (which seems to have its roots in... oh you read it for yourself), and the other, which has its roots from Latin and is commonly used in popular fiction and TV is Terran. Many Western languages are Latin-based, and so would perhaps make it a popular choice.
So a human from Earth, or a citizen of Earth, (Latin name: Terra) is a Terran.
Well, it just sounds so much better than Earthling. | <urn:uuid:1a89e092-8eee-4834-8ac1-945d32f554b4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.typicalerrorsinenglish.com/quick-questions | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00104.warc.gz | en | 0.992087 | 865 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.3167662... | 5 | ASK DOCTOR DOROTHY PASTENSE FULLSTOP: SOME QUICK QUESTIONS
How do you do reported speech with conditionals?
This question has rather important now we have the feature and quizzes regarding conditionals.
First, if you did not already know, reported speech is when we talk about something that was said in the past and we are telling somebody about it now. For example, 'I like tennis'. What did he say? He said he liked tennis. (NOT: He said I like tennis. This is known as direct speech.)
Now it confuses students when it comes to reporting on conditionals as this can change the form from a particular conditional to another. (See the book for a [not too detailed] explanation on conditionals.) But in true TEE style, we will try to explain how it is done.
So we will start with the zero conditional:
Fred: If you, Belinda, have a lot of money, you can buy a car.
Fred said that if Belinda has a lot of money, she can buy a car. (This was and still is true)
Fred said that if Belinda had a lot of money, she could buy a car. (This is talking about something said in the past which was true at the time of speaking.)
The first conditional:
Louise: If we don't hurry, the shop will close and we won't be able to buy any milk.
Louise said that if they don't hurry, the shop will close and they won't be able to buy any milk. (This was reported almost immediately: the shop is still open and it is still possible to buy some milk)
Louise said that if they didn't hurry, the shop would close and they wouldn't be able to buy any milk. (This was reported a while ago, and what has been said may now be out of date, with the possible result being that the shop is now closed and there is no milk.)
The second conditional:
Clara: If I won the lottery, I would buy a boat. (Which could happen in the future)
Clara said that if she won the lottery, she would buy a boat. (What she said was true. She still might win the lottery and still might buy a boat)
Clara said that if she had won the lottery, she would have bought a boat. (This was reported a while ago and is now out of date. She had not won the lottery at the time of her speaking. It may be unlikely, but she may have won something since she said this)
With the third conditional there is no change in the form. The unreal past situation does not change after reporting it. So for example: If I had known it was half price, I would have bought it, simply becomes Brian said that if he had known it was half price, he would have bought it.
If an intelligent creature, or citizen, from the planet Mars is a Martian, then what is a citizen of Earth?
You really want me to answer that? Aren't there more interesting things about the English language we can discuss?
Oh well, here we go.
This one is purely a matter of opinion and I'm sure some will disagree on the name we should give for humans from the planet Earth . I personally don't want to be referred to as an 'Earthling' or 'Earther' - these just sound a bit too sci-fi (don't get me wrong, I like Sci-fi), and is also a bit anglocentric. But so is the word Martian, so perhaps I can't really use that as an argument.
There are two contenders. One is Gaian (which seems to have its roots in... oh you read it for yourself), and the other, which has its roots from Latin and is commonly used in popular fiction and TV is Terran. Many Western languages are Latin-based, and so would perhaps make it a popular choice.
So a human from Earth, or a citizen of Earth, (Latin name: Terra) is a Terran.
Well, it just sounds so much better than Earthling. | 835 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Johannes Erwin Eugen Rommel (15 November 1891 – 14 October 1944) was a German general and military theorist. Popularly known as the Desert Fox, he served as field marshal in the Wehrmacht (Defense Force) of Nazi Germany during World War II, as well as serving in the Reichswehr of the Weimar Republic, and the army of Imperial Germany.
Rommel was a highly decorated officer in World War I and was awarded the Pour le Mérite for his actions on the Italian Front. In 1937 he published his classic book on military tactics, Infantry Attacks, drawing on his experiences from World War I. In World War II, he distinguished himself as the commander of the 7th Panzer Division during the 1940 invasion of France. His leadership of German and Italian forces in the North African campaign established his reputation as one of the most able tank commanders of the war, and earned him the nickname der Wüstenfuchs, “the Desert Fox”. Among his British adversaries he had a reputation for chivalry, and his phrase “war without hate” has been used to describe the North African campaign. He later commanded the German forces opposing the Allied cross-channel invasion of Normandy in June 1944.
Rommel supported the Nazi seizure of power and Adolf Hitler, although his reluctant stance towards antisemitism and Nazi ideology and his level of knowledge of the Holocaust remain matters of debate among scholars. In 1944, Rommel was implicated in the 20 July plot to assassinate Hitler. Due to Rommel’s status as a national hero, Hitler desired to eliminate him quietly instead of immediately executing him, as many other plotters were. Rommel was given a choice between committing suicide, in return for assurances that his reputation would remain intact and that his family would not be persecuted following his death, or facing a trial that would result in his disgrace and execution; he chose the former and committed suicide using a cyanide pill. Rommel was given a state funeral, and it was announced that he had succumbed to his injuries from the strafing of his staff car in Normandy.
Rommel has become a larger-than-life figure in both Allied and Nazi propaganda, and in postwar popular culture, with numerous authors considering him an apolitical, brilliant commander and a victim of the Third Reich although this assessment is contested by other authors as the Rommel myth. Rommel’s reputation for conducting a clean war was used in the interest of the West German rearmament and reconciliation between the former enemies – the United Kingdom and the United States on one side and the new Federal Republic of Germany on the other. Several of Rommel’s former subordinates, notably his chief of staff Hans Speidel, played key roles in German rearmament and integration into NATO in the postwar era. The German Army’s largest military base, the Field Marshal Rommel Barracks, Augustdorf, is named in his honour. | <urn:uuid:d3cd4033-e449-4916-8cc0-9bf732db18db> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://goodquotes.me/authors/erwin-rommel/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00441.warc.gz | en | 0.987254 | 602 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.71257638931... | 2 | Johannes Erwin Eugen Rommel (15 November 1891 – 14 October 1944) was a German general and military theorist. Popularly known as the Desert Fox, he served as field marshal in the Wehrmacht (Defense Force) of Nazi Germany during World War II, as well as serving in the Reichswehr of the Weimar Republic, and the army of Imperial Germany.
Rommel was a highly decorated officer in World War I and was awarded the Pour le Mérite for his actions on the Italian Front. In 1937 he published his classic book on military tactics, Infantry Attacks, drawing on his experiences from World War I. In World War II, he distinguished himself as the commander of the 7th Panzer Division during the 1940 invasion of France. His leadership of German and Italian forces in the North African campaign established his reputation as one of the most able tank commanders of the war, and earned him the nickname der Wüstenfuchs, “the Desert Fox”. Among his British adversaries he had a reputation for chivalry, and his phrase “war without hate” has been used to describe the North African campaign. He later commanded the German forces opposing the Allied cross-channel invasion of Normandy in June 1944.
Rommel supported the Nazi seizure of power and Adolf Hitler, although his reluctant stance towards antisemitism and Nazi ideology and his level of knowledge of the Holocaust remain matters of debate among scholars. In 1944, Rommel was implicated in the 20 July plot to assassinate Hitler. Due to Rommel’s status as a national hero, Hitler desired to eliminate him quietly instead of immediately executing him, as many other plotters were. Rommel was given a choice between committing suicide, in return for assurances that his reputation would remain intact and that his family would not be persecuted following his death, or facing a trial that would result in his disgrace and execution; he chose the former and committed suicide using a cyanide pill. Rommel was given a state funeral, and it was announced that he had succumbed to his injuries from the strafing of his staff car in Normandy.
Rommel has become a larger-than-life figure in both Allied and Nazi propaganda, and in postwar popular culture, with numerous authors considering him an apolitical, brilliant commander and a victim of the Third Reich although this assessment is contested by other authors as the Rommel myth. Rommel’s reputation for conducting a clean war was used in the interest of the West German rearmament and reconciliation between the former enemies – the United Kingdom and the United States on one side and the new Federal Republic of Germany on the other. Several of Rommel’s former subordinates, notably his chief of staff Hans Speidel, played key roles in German rearmament and integration into NATO in the postwar era. The German Army’s largest military base, the Field Marshal Rommel Barracks, Augustdorf, is named in his honour. | 626 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Post on 30-Dec-2015
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DESCRIPTIONR.M.S. Titanic. By Leah McHugh. Why Titanic was built?. - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
BY LEAH MCHUGHR.M.S. Titanic
Why Titanic was built?In 1908 White Star Line employed shipbuilders Haarland and Wolfe to make the biggest ship in the world when their rivals Cunard Line built Mauretania and Lusitania. The shipyard and port in Belfast, Ireland where Titanic was built had previously been swamp and wasteland. The designer of the ship was Thomas Andrews and his plans were drawn on linen.
White Star Line V Cunard Line When White Star Line found out that their rivals built two huge ships, straight away they wanted to build a faster and bigger ship than their rivals, which showed how intense their rivalry was. They decided to build two ships: The Olympic and The Titanic.
Titanic Facts1. The R.M.S. Titanic was the biggest ship in the world at that time.2. It took millions of man hours to make.3. It was built in Belfast, Ireland.4.It was supposed to travel from Southampton to Queenstown to Cherbourg to New York but failed.5. It was referred to as the Unsinkable, Queen of the Ocean and the Floating Palace.6.There were nine decks and fully laden it weighed 67 tonnes
Titanic Facts (2)7. It would fit three and half thousand passengers and crew on it.8. It had two engines each the size of a two storey building.9.It was 883 feet long which was 90 foot longer than Cunard Lines Mauretania and Lusitania.10. It took 180 minutes to sink and 1500 people died.
First ClassThe first class passengers on board Titanic were very wealthy. Most of the space on board was given to them. They had great facilities including a swimming pool, turkish baths, squash courts and they were allowed use Morse Code.There was also a grand staircase near where their orchestra played beautiful music.
Second ClassThe second class passengers on the Titanic were what we would consider today to be the middle class. The passengers in second class were mostly professionals: teachers, doctors, professors and authours.Many of these passengers would have traveled as first class on other ships. A second class ticket at that time cost approximately 13 to 79 pounds.
Third classThird class passengers were in what was termed steerage. They were mostly emigrants moving to the United States to start a better life. A third class ticket ranged from seven to forty pounds. Childrens tickets were three pounds.
The JourneyTitanic was sailing from Southampton to America and it stopped at Queenstown and Cherbourg. 2,224 passengers and crew were on board.
People InvolvedCaptain Edward Smith Bruce Ismay (Managing director of White Star Line)Thomas Andrews (Ships designer)William Pirrie (Chairprson of Harland and Wolfe)
The SinkingTragically on Titanics maiden voyage it hit an iceberg on the way to America, It was only 500 miles away from Newfoundland. Tragically, the ship Californian which was quite close by, ignored several emergency flares from Titanic. The iceberg hit the starboard (right hand) side of Titanic which caused ruptures in the ship and water to flow through the compartments. Ultimately, the ship snapped in half and sank with over 1500 people on board. Initially, as was the protocol, women and children were only allowed on lifeboats. Although it emerged that sneaky White Start Line Chairman J.Bruce Ismay managed to hop on to one. | <urn:uuid:1b51c229-0ba8-41e7-8224-6a65d754c6f4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://vdocuments.mx/rms-titanic-56851038e9ae9.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00542.warc.gz | en | 0.983714 | 762 | 4.0625 | 4 | [
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Embed Size (px)
DESCRIPTIONR.M.S. Titanic. By Leah McHugh. Why Titanic was built?. - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
BY LEAH MCHUGHR.M.S. Titanic
Why Titanic was built?In 1908 White Star Line employed shipbuilders Haarland and Wolfe to make the biggest ship in the world when their rivals Cunard Line built Mauretania and Lusitania. The shipyard and port in Belfast, Ireland where Titanic was built had previously been swamp and wasteland. The designer of the ship was Thomas Andrews and his plans were drawn on linen.
White Star Line V Cunard Line When White Star Line found out that their rivals built two huge ships, straight away they wanted to build a faster and bigger ship than their rivals, which showed how intense their rivalry was. They decided to build two ships: The Olympic and The Titanic.
Titanic Facts1. The R.M.S. Titanic was the biggest ship in the world at that time.2. It took millions of man hours to make.3. It was built in Belfast, Ireland.4.It was supposed to travel from Southampton to Queenstown to Cherbourg to New York but failed.5. It was referred to as the Unsinkable, Queen of the Ocean and the Floating Palace.6.There were nine decks and fully laden it weighed 67 tonnes
Titanic Facts (2)7. It would fit three and half thousand passengers and crew on it.8. It had two engines each the size of a two storey building.9.It was 883 feet long which was 90 foot longer than Cunard Lines Mauretania and Lusitania.10. It took 180 minutes to sink and 1500 people died.
First ClassThe first class passengers on board Titanic were very wealthy. Most of the space on board was given to them. They had great facilities including a swimming pool, turkish baths, squash courts and they were allowed use Morse Code.There was also a grand staircase near where their orchestra played beautiful music.
Second ClassThe second class passengers on the Titanic were what we would consider today to be the middle class. The passengers in second class were mostly professionals: teachers, doctors, professors and authours.Many of these passengers would have traveled as first class on other ships. A second class ticket at that time cost approximately 13 to 79 pounds.
Third classThird class passengers were in what was termed steerage. They were mostly emigrants moving to the United States to start a better life. A third class ticket ranged from seven to forty pounds. Childrens tickets were three pounds.
The JourneyTitanic was sailing from Southampton to America and it stopped at Queenstown and Cherbourg. 2,224 passengers and crew were on board.
People InvolvedCaptain Edward Smith Bruce Ismay (Managing director of White Star Line)Thomas Andrews (Ships designer)William Pirrie (Chairprson of Harland and Wolfe)
The SinkingTragically on Titanics maiden voyage it hit an iceberg on the way to America, It was only 500 miles away from Newfoundland. Tragically, the ship Californian which was quite close by, ignored several emergency flares from Titanic. The iceberg hit the starboard (right hand) side of Titanic which caused ruptures in the ship and water to flow through the compartments. Ultimately, the ship snapped in half and sank with over 1500 people on board. Initially, as was the protocol, women and children were only allowed on lifeboats. Although it emerged that sneaky White Start Line Chairman J.Bruce Ismay managed to hop on to one. | 773 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Girolamo Cardano was a sixteenth century mathematician and physician who made an important adaptation to the design of the camera obscura. He was born on September 24, 1501 in Pavia, Italy, the illegitimate son of a prominent lawyer. He was sickly and impoverished in his youth, but managed to receive an education at universities in Pavia and Padua. He was refused admittance to the College of Physicians at Milan due to his heritage, but was awarded a degree in medicine in 1524 from the University of Padua.
Cardano received an appointment as mathematics chair at Milan in 1532, but continued to practice medicine. He gained a reputation for disagreeing with contemporary medical practices, but was eventually accepted into the school that had previously rejected him and much later was appointed rector of the college. Cardano published a wide variety of works in the medical field, covering such diverse topics as how to teach the deaf and the blind, how to treat syphilis, and how to determine one's character based upon facial expression. Over the years, he became one of the most well known physicians in Europe and accepted a professorship in medicine at the University of Pavia in 1543.
In mathematics, Cardano was equally successful. In 1539, two of his books on arithmetic were published, and, in 1545, Ars magica, the first notable work on algebra, was released. He was one of the first mathematicians to recognize the existence of square roots of negative numbers, now referred to as imaginary numbers, but was also an avid gambler. His interest in dice, cards, and games of chance led to his early development of probability theory. His systematic study and computations were published in Liber de ludo aleae, almost a hundred years before any other important publications on the subject.
Cardano's most popular works during his lifetime, however, were De subtilitate libri, published in 1550, and its follow-up De subtilitate rerum, published in 1557. The works covered a wide array of topics and contained natural history, anecdotes, physical experiments, and inventions. It was in De subtilitate libri that Cardano made his primary contribution to optics. Within the work, he described the use of a bi-convex lens in conjunction with a camera obscura, the earliest known mention of such a design. He also included detailed descriptions of the improved images he was able to achieve with the configuration, which increased both sharpness and intensity.
Despite a successful career and the publication of over 200 works, Cardano's life was filled with turmoil. He married Lucia Bandarini in 1531, but she died in 1546, leaving Cardano the sole caretaker of three children. His eldest son, who was on the track to becoming a successful physician like his father, was convicted of poisoning his wife and beheaded in 1560. The tragic chain of events was extremely distressful to Cardano, who was further affected when he lost his teaching position because of the scandal. He was, however, offered a position at the University of Bologna and soon relocated to begin work there.
Yet, Cardano's troubles were not over. He suffered another great loss in 1565 when his ardent student and collaborator Ludovico Ferrari died from poisoning. Then, in 1570, Cardano himself became the center of controversy for casting the horoscope of Jesus Christ and attributing the events of his life to the stars. He was convicted of heresy and imprisoned. To gain his release, he was forced to promise to give up teaching and his long career abruptly came to an end. Upon the advice of friends, he moved to Rome, where he lived a quiet life until September 21, 1576 when he died, just three days before his seventy-fifth birthday.
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Visit the websites of our partners in education: | <urn:uuid:22eb1a40-cb17-4c53-92d9-a75f5cb07b80> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/cardano.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00473.warc.gz | en | 0.986922 | 936 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.56076157093048... | 1 | Girolamo Cardano was a sixteenth century mathematician and physician who made an important adaptation to the design of the camera obscura. He was born on September 24, 1501 in Pavia, Italy, the illegitimate son of a prominent lawyer. He was sickly and impoverished in his youth, but managed to receive an education at universities in Pavia and Padua. He was refused admittance to the College of Physicians at Milan due to his heritage, but was awarded a degree in medicine in 1524 from the University of Padua.
Cardano received an appointment as mathematics chair at Milan in 1532, but continued to practice medicine. He gained a reputation for disagreeing with contemporary medical practices, but was eventually accepted into the school that had previously rejected him and much later was appointed rector of the college. Cardano published a wide variety of works in the medical field, covering such diverse topics as how to teach the deaf and the blind, how to treat syphilis, and how to determine one's character based upon facial expression. Over the years, he became one of the most well known physicians in Europe and accepted a professorship in medicine at the University of Pavia in 1543.
In mathematics, Cardano was equally successful. In 1539, two of his books on arithmetic were published, and, in 1545, Ars magica, the first notable work on algebra, was released. He was one of the first mathematicians to recognize the existence of square roots of negative numbers, now referred to as imaginary numbers, but was also an avid gambler. His interest in dice, cards, and games of chance led to his early development of probability theory. His systematic study and computations were published in Liber de ludo aleae, almost a hundred years before any other important publications on the subject.
Cardano's most popular works during his lifetime, however, were De subtilitate libri, published in 1550, and its follow-up De subtilitate rerum, published in 1557. The works covered a wide array of topics and contained natural history, anecdotes, physical experiments, and inventions. It was in De subtilitate libri that Cardano made his primary contribution to optics. Within the work, he described the use of a bi-convex lens in conjunction with a camera obscura, the earliest known mention of such a design. He also included detailed descriptions of the improved images he was able to achieve with the configuration, which increased both sharpness and intensity.
Despite a successful career and the publication of over 200 works, Cardano's life was filled with turmoil. He married Lucia Bandarini in 1531, but she died in 1546, leaving Cardano the sole caretaker of three children. His eldest son, who was on the track to becoming a successful physician like his father, was convicted of poisoning his wife and beheaded in 1560. The tragic chain of events was extremely distressful to Cardano, who was further affected when he lost his teaching position because of the scandal. He was, however, offered a position at the University of Bologna and soon relocated to begin work there.
Yet, Cardano's troubles were not over. He suffered another great loss in 1565 when his ardent student and collaborator Ludovico Ferrari died from poisoning. Then, in 1570, Cardano himself became the center of controversy for casting the horoscope of Jesus Christ and attributing the events of his life to the stars. He was convicted of heresy and imprisoned. To gain his release, he was forced to promise to give up teaching and his long career abruptly came to an end. Upon the advice of friends, he moved to Rome, where he lived a quiet life until September 21, 1576 when he died, just three days before his seventy-fifth birthday.
BACK TO PIONEERS IN OPTICS
Questions or comments? Send us an email.
© 1995-2019 by
Michael W. Davidson
and The Florida State University.
All Rights Reserved. No images, graphics, software, scripts, or applets may be reproduced or used in any manner without permission from the copyright holders. Use of this website means you agree to all of the Legal Terms and Conditions set forth by the owners.
This website is maintained by our
Graphics & Web Programming Team
in collaboration with Optical Microscopy at the
National High Magnetic Field Laboratory.
Last Modification Friday, Nov 13, 2015 at 01:19 PM
Access Count Since March 11, 2003: 42205
Visit the websites of our partners in education: | 1,000 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The period of Turner was also the period of Watercolour, particularly within the UK where it was becoming seen as a valuable artistic medium within it's own right. This artist's skills with watercolour enabled him to achieve a rare vibrancy along with the transparency effects synonymous with watercolour. He put this to good use in creating landscape scenes from beautiful spots in Britain and Italy, leaving his career as a combination of English meadows and Venetian lagoons. The qualities found within his work as well as the sheer volume of Turner watercolours has meant that this medium has been addressed specfically in some recent exhibitions. An interest in watercolours remains despite an abundance of oil-based artists in the present day.
Some of Turner's watercolours would be used as the basis for engravings, predominantly English landscapes and illustrations for various publications. Walter Scott, Lord Byron and Samuel Rogers all made use of his work within their own. His drawings would also appear in some prints of the Bible. The apparent simplicity of the watercolour medium fools many into forgetting of the exceptional skill used by artists like Turner to represent accurately the subject matter with correct composition and pictorial effect. Whilst his work within watercolours was initially downplayed, there is now substantial momentum behind his paintings here.
Many of these artworks were termed "finished watercolours". It is a form of drawing which held multiple benefits during the era of Turner - they were highly suitable for public exhibitions across the UK, they would also prove popular as commissioned pieces because of the impact that they could also have in a private residence and finally, as discussed earlier, they could be reproduced multiple times through engravings. Durer's engravings and Rembrandt's etchings provide some of the finest examples in this artistic medium, but for Turner they were less significant than his work with oils and watercolours.
It was these finished watercolours which attracted attention to his career in this medium during his own lifetime, with watercolour sketches and studies only appearing later. As more research has been completed into his productive career, more and more study pieces and unfinished artworks have been discovered and documented.
Prior to the use of watercolours by Turner and several other significant British artists, around the late 1780s, it had previously been used predominantly in other forms of employment such as topography and architecture.
This medium provided many with an opportunity to quickly produce impressive work but without the issues surrounding oils, such as porting instruments inconveniently around. Oils would also require long periods to dry (hence the arrival of acrylics) which was not suitable to some of the uses listed here.
Turner himself, for example, loved to carry his sketchbooks with him and make use of any spontaneous artistic urges that might crop up during his travels. The combination of pencil and watercolour allowed him control of colour and detail, and also quickly put together study pieces which might be expanded upon at a more convenient location.
Commercially, watercolours were soon to draw interest from exhibition curators, being very easy to store and transport compared to the other notable mediums of that time. They can also be produced more quickly and to order, thus ideal for an exhibition based on a specific theme.
Also as famous British names would take to this growing art medium, exhibitions would feel obliged to reflect increase its prominence across their content. One frequent request was for artists like to Turner to record various locations that were significant to the customer, such as from their recent travels. To create each one in oils would be expensive and very time consuming.
Towards the end of the 18th century his reputation for watercolours was fully established and he held 60 orders for future work at one point in 1899. Several years later he would even have an empty studio, such was the incerasing demand for his work.
Early orders for his work came from the likes of Edward Lascelles of Hareqood, William Beckford of Fonthill, Sir Richard Colt Hoare of Stourhead and Walter Ramsden Fawkes of Farnley Hall. Aristocracy and landed gentry dominated the circles of the rich until the following century, with them being joined by wealthy businessmen and professionals.
Watercolour Techniques used by Joseph Mallord William Turner
The early influences on Turner through watercolour was Thomas Malton Jr, Edward Dayes, Thomas Hearne, John Robert Cozens, Thomas Girtin and Michael Angelo Rooker. The latter, who lived from 1746 - 1801 is considered to have had the greatest impact on a young William.
It was as early as 1792 that the young budding artist first came in contact with the work of Rooker, through Battle Abbey in a Royal Academy Exhibition. It was the way in which he captured elements of architecture through watercolour that particularly excited Turner.
Christ Church, Oxford is one of the earliest examples of Rooker-influenced work from Turner, using a similar approach to capturing detail across masonry as he had witnessed in the earlier exhibition. The confidence that this young artist uses these new techniques is extrordinary and marks him out as someone who would continue to push the boundaries of watercolour techniques throughout his career.
Turner would use a technique known as the 'scale practice' for his watercolours and also for some of his later oil paintings. This would involve spreading individual tones across his painting before moving on to his darker tones. This was more efficient than layering one item of the painting at a time and then moving on to the next. This was not only quicker for individual paintings, but could also be used to create a conveyor-belt of multiple artworks, quickly boosting the artist's income.
The decision to follow this path of production explains how artist Turner was able to produce 1,800 finished watercolours and thousands of rougher pieces alongside all his other work with oil and pencil.
References: Elements of this content were adapted from Turner - The Great Watercolours, published by the Royal Academy of Arts, London, 2000. | <urn:uuid:efca07e2-713d-4bb6-a4af-a694bee5813a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.williamturner.org/watercolours/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00139.warc.gz | en | 0.9876 | 1,240 | 4 | 4 | [
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0.156998842... | 2 | The period of Turner was also the period of Watercolour, particularly within the UK where it was becoming seen as a valuable artistic medium within it's own right. This artist's skills with watercolour enabled him to achieve a rare vibrancy along with the transparency effects synonymous with watercolour. He put this to good use in creating landscape scenes from beautiful spots in Britain and Italy, leaving his career as a combination of English meadows and Venetian lagoons. The qualities found within his work as well as the sheer volume of Turner watercolours has meant that this medium has been addressed specfically in some recent exhibitions. An interest in watercolours remains despite an abundance of oil-based artists in the present day.
Some of Turner's watercolours would be used as the basis for engravings, predominantly English landscapes and illustrations for various publications. Walter Scott, Lord Byron and Samuel Rogers all made use of his work within their own. His drawings would also appear in some prints of the Bible. The apparent simplicity of the watercolour medium fools many into forgetting of the exceptional skill used by artists like Turner to represent accurately the subject matter with correct composition and pictorial effect. Whilst his work within watercolours was initially downplayed, there is now substantial momentum behind his paintings here.
Many of these artworks were termed "finished watercolours". It is a form of drawing which held multiple benefits during the era of Turner - they were highly suitable for public exhibitions across the UK, they would also prove popular as commissioned pieces because of the impact that they could also have in a private residence and finally, as discussed earlier, they could be reproduced multiple times through engravings. Durer's engravings and Rembrandt's etchings provide some of the finest examples in this artistic medium, but for Turner they were less significant than his work with oils and watercolours.
It was these finished watercolours which attracted attention to his career in this medium during his own lifetime, with watercolour sketches and studies only appearing later. As more research has been completed into his productive career, more and more study pieces and unfinished artworks have been discovered and documented.
Prior to the use of watercolours by Turner and several other significant British artists, around the late 1780s, it had previously been used predominantly in other forms of employment such as topography and architecture.
This medium provided many with an opportunity to quickly produce impressive work but without the issues surrounding oils, such as porting instruments inconveniently around. Oils would also require long periods to dry (hence the arrival of acrylics) which was not suitable to some of the uses listed here.
Turner himself, for example, loved to carry his sketchbooks with him and make use of any spontaneous artistic urges that might crop up during his travels. The combination of pencil and watercolour allowed him control of colour and detail, and also quickly put together study pieces which might be expanded upon at a more convenient location.
Commercially, watercolours were soon to draw interest from exhibition curators, being very easy to store and transport compared to the other notable mediums of that time. They can also be produced more quickly and to order, thus ideal for an exhibition based on a specific theme.
Also as famous British names would take to this growing art medium, exhibitions would feel obliged to reflect increase its prominence across their content. One frequent request was for artists like to Turner to record various locations that were significant to the customer, such as from their recent travels. To create each one in oils would be expensive and very time consuming.
Towards the end of the 18th century his reputation for watercolours was fully established and he held 60 orders for future work at one point in 1899. Several years later he would even have an empty studio, such was the incerasing demand for his work.
Early orders for his work came from the likes of Edward Lascelles of Hareqood, William Beckford of Fonthill, Sir Richard Colt Hoare of Stourhead and Walter Ramsden Fawkes of Farnley Hall. Aristocracy and landed gentry dominated the circles of the rich until the following century, with them being joined by wealthy businessmen and professionals.
Watercolour Techniques used by Joseph Mallord William Turner
The early influences on Turner through watercolour was Thomas Malton Jr, Edward Dayes, Thomas Hearne, John Robert Cozens, Thomas Girtin and Michael Angelo Rooker. The latter, who lived from 1746 - 1801 is considered to have had the greatest impact on a young William.
It was as early as 1792 that the young budding artist first came in contact with the work of Rooker, through Battle Abbey in a Royal Academy Exhibition. It was the way in which he captured elements of architecture through watercolour that particularly excited Turner.
Christ Church, Oxford is one of the earliest examples of Rooker-influenced work from Turner, using a similar approach to capturing detail across masonry as he had witnessed in the earlier exhibition. The confidence that this young artist uses these new techniques is extrordinary and marks him out as someone who would continue to push the boundaries of watercolour techniques throughout his career.
Turner would use a technique known as the 'scale practice' for his watercolours and also for some of his later oil paintings. This would involve spreading individual tones across his painting before moving on to his darker tones. This was more efficient than layering one item of the painting at a time and then moving on to the next. This was not only quicker for individual paintings, but could also be used to create a conveyor-belt of multiple artworks, quickly boosting the artist's income.
The decision to follow this path of production explains how artist Turner was able to produce 1,800 finished watercolours and thousands of rougher pieces alongside all his other work with oil and pencil.
References: Elements of this content were adapted from Turner - The Great Watercolours, published by the Royal Academy of Arts, London, 2000. | 1,244 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Google Definition of ‘’Civil Rights’’- “the rights of citizens to political and social freedom and equality.”
My Definition of ‘’Civil Rights”- “governmental and society liberties that are communal among all citizens.”
When the United States of America was starting to become its very own country it had a lot of conflict on slavery and if African-Americans shall receive the rights that the whites did. It overall led into a war but I will be explaining the rights, scenarios, and struggles that were occurring back them. During the 1800’s to the 20th century, African Americans where slaves and they did not have rights as citizens, even if they were born in America. As tension rose between the north and south and as they began to spread apart, the thought of having slaves was a no! South wanted slaves and they wanted to keep them but the north disagreed. The fact that everyone is created equally, that everyone should be treated as fair as the next, that there was indeed no significant race, everyone deserved freedom and the pursuit of happiness is what the north contemplated about.
You may wonder or ask why didn’t the presidents that didn’t believe slavery was right end it so early. The reason is because slavery was a big thing back then, it brought a lot money into the South and it was also going to be a hard thing to fight. Some presidents thought that they didn’t have constitutional power or the right to abolish slavery. Also during that time the constitution was being written, an agreement was need to be made between all the states and they all had their disagreements about slavery. The government would not have been formed if they thought about ending slavery because not all the states were going to agree and every state needed to come to a consensus. But as time went by African Americans thought that it was erroneous and that they should have rights as citizens as well, so they started protesting.
During that time, events were transpiring for instance “lynch mobs”. A “lynch mob,” is when a group of dissenters kills or attacks a person that is believed to have committed a crime, or based on their race. About 2500 blacks and 1300 whites were lynched in the south between the years 1882 and 1968. It wasn’t only done because people had a different skin tone, it was also done based on what religion you practiced, or if you had broken a social order, which is a rule amongst society that you just don’t break at all. For example a white woman having an affair with a black man. That was considered wrong and people were often killed for that or a white person going to a black person’s house, it was even considered inapt for a white person to converse with a black person. Lynching included shooting, burning at the stake, but predominantly hanging. As racism escalated, black people wanted it to end.
There was also a series of laws called the “Jim Crow Laws,” that segregated public places between white people and African Americans. They banned blacks and... | <urn:uuid:abf21623-e2e2-488e-8d54-429b2424d1ec> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/civil-rights-government-and-society | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00341.warc.gz | en | 0.99156 | 644 | 4.1875 | 4 | [
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0.0925808399... | 1 | Google Definition of ‘’Civil Rights’’- “the rights of citizens to political and social freedom and equality.”
My Definition of ‘’Civil Rights”- “governmental and society liberties that are communal among all citizens.”
When the United States of America was starting to become its very own country it had a lot of conflict on slavery and if African-Americans shall receive the rights that the whites did. It overall led into a war but I will be explaining the rights, scenarios, and struggles that were occurring back them. During the 1800’s to the 20th century, African Americans where slaves and they did not have rights as citizens, even if they were born in America. As tension rose between the north and south and as they began to spread apart, the thought of having slaves was a no! South wanted slaves and they wanted to keep them but the north disagreed. The fact that everyone is created equally, that everyone should be treated as fair as the next, that there was indeed no significant race, everyone deserved freedom and the pursuit of happiness is what the north contemplated about.
You may wonder or ask why didn’t the presidents that didn’t believe slavery was right end it so early. The reason is because slavery was a big thing back then, it brought a lot money into the South and it was also going to be a hard thing to fight. Some presidents thought that they didn’t have constitutional power or the right to abolish slavery. Also during that time the constitution was being written, an agreement was need to be made between all the states and they all had their disagreements about slavery. The government would not have been formed if they thought about ending slavery because not all the states were going to agree and every state needed to come to a consensus. But as time went by African Americans thought that it was erroneous and that they should have rights as citizens as well, so they started protesting.
During that time, events were transpiring for instance “lynch mobs”. A “lynch mob,” is when a group of dissenters kills or attacks a person that is believed to have committed a crime, or based on their race. About 2500 blacks and 1300 whites were lynched in the south between the years 1882 and 1968. It wasn’t only done because people had a different skin tone, it was also done based on what religion you practiced, or if you had broken a social order, which is a rule amongst society that you just don’t break at all. For example a white woman having an affair with a black man. That was considered wrong and people were often killed for that or a white person going to a black person’s house, it was even considered inapt for a white person to converse with a black person. Lynching included shooting, burning at the stake, but predominantly hanging. As racism escalated, black people wanted it to end.
There was also a series of laws called the “Jim Crow Laws,” that segregated public places between white people and African Americans. They banned blacks and... | 623 | ENGLISH | 1 |
BiographyThomas Hart Benton was a major American artist from Missouri. His paintings are famous for showing ordinary people doing common things. He drew and painted portraits, landscapes, and scenes of people at work in farms, factories, and busy cities. His best-known works are public murals, or scenes on the inside walls of buildings. Benton’s murals are lively records of life in America from pioneer times onward.
From about 1912 to 1935, Thomas Hart Benton lived and worked in New York City. He painted during the summer months on Martha’s Vineyard, Massachusetts. He married Rita Piacenza in 1922. Together, they had two children, Thomas Piacenza (T. P.) and Jessie.In 1924, Benton came back to Missouri to visit his father who was very sick. This visit changed Benton’s life. His interests became clearer. He took pride in his Midwestern roots and began painting ordinary Americans not often shown in art. He started making drawing trips that took him across America. He visited steel mills, coal mines, and logging camps. He floated down rivers in canoes. He watched workers picking cotton in the South. He observed everything he could about ordinary American life during the 1920s and 1930s and recorded what he saw in his sketches. He then used his sketches as the basis for his paintings and murals. Benton built small clay models, or maquettes, for each painting. Then he painted his scenes while looking at his clay models. Thomas Hart Benton became the leader of a movement in American art called regionalism. He based his art on personal observation. He showed working people in all regions of America, including poor, rural areas. Benton called attention to problems that he thought all Americans should know about. Benton’s style of painting made common people into heroes. He gave them big bodies with lots of muscles and painted them using deep, rich colors. Benton also painted villains into his pictures. The villains were usually rich and powerful people Benton did not respect because they got ahead by taking advantage of others.
Not everyone liked Benton's work. Some people thought he was too outspoken about politics and art. Many Americans, however, truly admired Benton’s work and ideas. Various organizations hired him to create public art. One of his most famous murals is A Social History of Missouri. It is in the state capitol in Jefferson City, Missouri.
In September of 1935, Benton moved to Kansas City, Missouri. He lived there and worked in his studio until his death on January 19, 1975. He kept painting to the end of his life. His paintings and murals can be seen in books as well as museums and public buildings across America.
Source of Biography
Related artworkWest Texas | <urn:uuid:3093ccf8-4595-47b4-a4ae-c1a3cc95ef9c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://fac.luther.edu/search/index.php/Detail/entities/988 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00102.warc.gz | en | 0.988372 | 575 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.140077605843... | 5 | BiographyThomas Hart Benton was a major American artist from Missouri. His paintings are famous for showing ordinary people doing common things. He drew and painted portraits, landscapes, and scenes of people at work in farms, factories, and busy cities. His best-known works are public murals, or scenes on the inside walls of buildings. Benton’s murals are lively records of life in America from pioneer times onward.
From about 1912 to 1935, Thomas Hart Benton lived and worked in New York City. He painted during the summer months on Martha’s Vineyard, Massachusetts. He married Rita Piacenza in 1922. Together, they had two children, Thomas Piacenza (T. P.) and Jessie.In 1924, Benton came back to Missouri to visit his father who was very sick. This visit changed Benton’s life. His interests became clearer. He took pride in his Midwestern roots and began painting ordinary Americans not often shown in art. He started making drawing trips that took him across America. He visited steel mills, coal mines, and logging camps. He floated down rivers in canoes. He watched workers picking cotton in the South. He observed everything he could about ordinary American life during the 1920s and 1930s and recorded what he saw in his sketches. He then used his sketches as the basis for his paintings and murals. Benton built small clay models, or maquettes, for each painting. Then he painted his scenes while looking at his clay models. Thomas Hart Benton became the leader of a movement in American art called regionalism. He based his art on personal observation. He showed working people in all regions of America, including poor, rural areas. Benton called attention to problems that he thought all Americans should know about. Benton’s style of painting made common people into heroes. He gave them big bodies with lots of muscles and painted them using deep, rich colors. Benton also painted villains into his pictures. The villains were usually rich and powerful people Benton did not respect because they got ahead by taking advantage of others.
Not everyone liked Benton's work. Some people thought he was too outspoken about politics and art. Many Americans, however, truly admired Benton’s work and ideas. Various organizations hired him to create public art. One of his most famous murals is A Social History of Missouri. It is in the state capitol in Jefferson City, Missouri.
In September of 1935, Benton moved to Kansas City, Missouri. He lived there and worked in his studio until his death on January 19, 1975. He kept painting to the end of his life. His paintings and murals can be seen in books as well as museums and public buildings across America.
Source of Biography
Related artworkWest Texas | 578 | ENGLISH | 1 |
(Natural News) Experts warn parents to be careful when buying food and drinks for their kids. Researchers at the University of Glasgow in the U.K. found that many children's food and drinks like fruit-based snacks, juices, yogurts, cereals and ready-to-eat meals marketed as "healthy" in the U.K. are not actually as healthy as claimed.
The researchers found that of the 332 products investigated from supermarkets, 41 percent were less healthy than they were marketed to be. These products included juices, cereal bars, cereals, fruit snacks, and yogurts. Aside from making health claims, these products used cartoons, toys, and other such promotions to attract young consumers.
They noted that parents trying to feed their children healthy foods were being deceived by food labels claiming the products are nutritious, but which were actually packed with sugar or salt. Such products – most of which were fruit-based drinks and snacks – had labels that say, "no added sugars."
Many products also made claims about containing "one of five a day" fruits and vegetables, but most did not contain the recommended portion size of 80 g. The researchers warned that such health claims have created a "health halo," misleading parents from the fact that many such snacks were full of sugar. They also warned that the heavy use of cartoons as a marketing ploy have greatly contributed to the childhood obesity crisis. (Related: 7 Sneaky Food Marketing Strategies Designed to Trick You.)
The researchers found that cereal bars contained the highest content of energy and saturated fat, while cereals had the most salt. Results from nutritional profiling tests also showed that many yogurts were less healthy than claimed, containing high saturated fat and low fiber.
Additionally, fruit snacks were found to have the highest sugar content, averaging 48 g per 100 g. Most fruit snacks also made the five-a-day claim, which could be misleading or confusing for parents. Forty-two percent of the products tested said they had at least one portion of five-a-day of fruits or vegetables – however, 3/4 of those did not really contain what they claimed. There is no exact portion size recommended for children, but 62.3 percent of products which made the claim did not even contain 40 g of fruits or vegetables.
With regards to fruit juices, the serving size for most exceeded the recommended 150 mL for fruit juice. Yet, the fruit and vegetable portions for most products did not meet the recommended portion size.
Additionally, almost a quarter of the products – mostly fruit-based drinks and snacks – claimed no added sugars in them, but half had concentrated juice or fruit puree as added ingredients. This could mislead consumers who might not realize that they were still loaded with natural sugars that could also contribute to weight gain.
"Prepacked foods targeted to children can be consumed as part of a 'healthy' diet, yet their health and nutrition claims remain questionable," said the researchers.
The fight against childhood obesity
The researchers stressed the need for stricter regulations for food labeling, marketing techniques, and product content to lessen the risk of obesity, especially now that childhood obesity has become endemic. The consumption of less nutritious foods may affect children's health in the long run. | <urn:uuid:974edbb0-7625-444f-992e-f6e402e9bacd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.freedomsphoenix.com/News/272390-2019-11-26-buyer-beware-healthy-childrens-foods-are-not-as-healthy-as.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00391.warc.gz | en | 0.983498 | 658 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.08079996705055... | 2 | (Natural News) Experts warn parents to be careful when buying food and drinks for their kids. Researchers at the University of Glasgow in the U.K. found that many children's food and drinks like fruit-based snacks, juices, yogurts, cereals and ready-to-eat meals marketed as "healthy" in the U.K. are not actually as healthy as claimed.
The researchers found that of the 332 products investigated from supermarkets, 41 percent were less healthy than they were marketed to be. These products included juices, cereal bars, cereals, fruit snacks, and yogurts. Aside from making health claims, these products used cartoons, toys, and other such promotions to attract young consumers.
They noted that parents trying to feed their children healthy foods were being deceived by food labels claiming the products are nutritious, but which were actually packed with sugar or salt. Such products – most of which were fruit-based drinks and snacks – had labels that say, "no added sugars."
Many products also made claims about containing "one of five a day" fruits and vegetables, but most did not contain the recommended portion size of 80 g. The researchers warned that such health claims have created a "health halo," misleading parents from the fact that many such snacks were full of sugar. They also warned that the heavy use of cartoons as a marketing ploy have greatly contributed to the childhood obesity crisis. (Related: 7 Sneaky Food Marketing Strategies Designed to Trick You.)
The researchers found that cereal bars contained the highest content of energy and saturated fat, while cereals had the most salt. Results from nutritional profiling tests also showed that many yogurts were less healthy than claimed, containing high saturated fat and low fiber.
Additionally, fruit snacks were found to have the highest sugar content, averaging 48 g per 100 g. Most fruit snacks also made the five-a-day claim, which could be misleading or confusing for parents. Forty-two percent of the products tested said they had at least one portion of five-a-day of fruits or vegetables – however, 3/4 of those did not really contain what they claimed. There is no exact portion size recommended for children, but 62.3 percent of products which made the claim did not even contain 40 g of fruits or vegetables.
With regards to fruit juices, the serving size for most exceeded the recommended 150 mL for fruit juice. Yet, the fruit and vegetable portions for most products did not meet the recommended portion size.
Additionally, almost a quarter of the products – mostly fruit-based drinks and snacks – claimed no added sugars in them, but half had concentrated juice or fruit puree as added ingredients. This could mislead consumers who might not realize that they were still loaded with natural sugars that could also contribute to weight gain.
"Prepacked foods targeted to children can be consumed as part of a 'healthy' diet, yet their health and nutrition claims remain questionable," said the researchers.
The fight against childhood obesity
The researchers stressed the need for stricter regulations for food labeling, marketing techniques, and product content to lessen the risk of obesity, especially now that childhood obesity has become endemic. The consumption of less nutritious foods may affect children's health in the long run. | 660 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Spanish Armada sailed from Spain in July 1588. The Spanish Armada’s task was to overthrow protestant England lead by Queen Elizabeth I. The Spanish Armada proved to be an expensive disaster for the Spanish but for the English it was a celebrated victory making Sir Francis Drake even more of a hero than he already was and even having an impact on Tudor Christmas celebrations!
Why did Spain want to overthrow Elizabeth? There were a number of reasons.
at the time of Elizabeth, Spain controlled what was called the Spanish Netherlands. This consisted of modern day Holland and Belgium. In particular, Holland wanted its independence. They did not like being made to be Catholic; in fact, Protestant ideas had taken root in Holland and many of those in Holland were secret Protestants. If they had publicly stated their Protestant beliefs, their lives would have been in danger. Spain used a religious secret police called the Inquisition to hunt out Protestants. However, during Elizabeth’s reign, the English had been helping the Dutch Protestants in Holland. This greatly angered the king of Spain – Philip II – who wanted to stop this. He had for a short time been married to Elizabeth’s half-sister, Mary, and when they were married, England was Catholic. With England under his control, Philip could control the English Channel and his ships could have an easy passage from Spain to the Spanish Netherlands. Spanish troops stationed there could be easily supplied.
also English ‘sea-dogs’ had been causing a great deal of damage to Spain’s trade in silver. Men such as Sir Francis Drake attacked Spanish shipping off of the West Indies and Spain lost a vast sum of money when the ships carrying silver sunk or had their cargo captured by Drake. To the English, Drake was a hero but to the Spanish he was nothing more than a pirate who, in their view, was allowed to do what he did with the full knowledge of the queen. This the Spanish could not accept.
In 1587, Mary, Queen of Scots, was executed in England on the orders of Elizabeth. Mary, Queen of Scots, was a Catholic and Philip II believed that he had a duty to ensure no more Catholics were arrested in England and that no more should be executed. Mary, Queen of Scots, had also made it clear that if she became queen of England, Philip should inherit the throne after her death.
Hence his decision to attack and invade England.
The story of the Spanish Armada is one of mistakes all the way through. Even before the Armada sailed, serious problems were encountered:
|Problem 1||In 1587, Drake attacked Cadiz harbour and destroyed or damaged a number of ships that were being prepared by the Spanish for the Armada|
||The stores put on board the new ships rotted as the barrels that contained the food and water were made of new wood which was still damp. This rotted the food and made the water sour.|
|Problem 3||The plan was to get to the Spanish Netherlands, pick up Spanish soldiers who were stationed there and invade England’s south coast. But there was no obvious port to pick up the soldiers in the Netherlands.|
|Problem 4||Spain’s Lord High Admiral was the famous Santa Cruz. He was a respected and successful admiral. He died in 1586. The admiral chosen by Philip to lead the Armada after Cruz’s death was a very rich and successful general called the Duke of Medina Sidonia. Though a good general, Medina Sidonia had never been to sea before and when he did get on board his ship, he got seasick. Why did King Philip select a man who had never been to sea before to lead the world’s then largest naval fleet?|
|Problem 5||The Armada first sailed in April 1588. It hit a terrible storm and many ships were damaged. They had to return to port to get repaired.|
With all that had been going on, it was very difficult for the Spanish to keep the Armada a secret. In fact, they were keen to let the English know about the Armada as it was felt that the English would be terrified at the news of such a large fleet of naval ships attacking them.
The organisation to get the Armada ready was huge. Cannons, guns, gunpowder, swords and many other weapons of war were needed and Spain bought them from whoever would sell to them. A number of merchant ships had to be converted to be naval ships but the Armada (or the “Great Enterprise” as Philip called it) also contained ships that simply carried things rather than fought at sea. These ships carried amongst other items:
|11 million pounds (in weight) of ships biscuits||11,000 pairs of sandals|
|40,000 gallons of olive oil||5,000 pairs of shoes|
|14,000 barrels of wine||180 priests|
|600,000 pounds of salted pork||728 servants|
The Armada sailed on July 19th 1588. The fleet of 130 ships – including 22 fighting galleons – sailed in a crescent shape. This was not unusual as most fleets sailed in this shape as it offered the ships in that fleet the most protection. The larger but slower galleons were in the middle of the crescent and they were protected by faster but smaller boats surrounding them. Smaller ships known as zabras and pataches supplied the galleons. The Armada faced little opposition as it approached the coast of Cornwall on July 29th, 1588. It is said that Cornish fishermen fishing off the Lizard watched the Armada pass!
However, London was warned that the Armada was nearing England’s coastline. Communications in the C16th were very poor yet the English had developed a way of informing London when the Armada was first seen. Beacons were lit along the coast. As soon as one beacon was seen, the next further along the coast was lit. When the beacons reached Beachy Head in Sussex, they went inland and towards London. In this way, London was quickly made aware that the Armada was approaching England.
As the Armada sailed up the English Channel, it was attacked by an English force lead by Sir Francis Drake. He was stationed in Plymouth. It is said that when Drake was informed of the Armada’s approach, he replied that he had time to finish the game of bowls he was playing on Plymouth Hoe and time to defeat the Armada. It is possible that he knew that the tide of the River Tamar in Plymouth was against him, so that he could not get his ships out of Devonport – therefore, he knew that he could finish his game of bowls because his ships were dependent on the tide to move. If the tide was coming in, his ships had to stay tied up. If the tide was going out, then he had the freedom to move his ships into the Channel. Whatever the truth, what is true is that Drake and his men did very little damage to the Armada as it passed up the English Channel. What the English did do was waste a lot of ammunition firing at the Armada and not having much of an impact as the Spanish ships had well built hulls that proved to be solid.
Sir Francis Drake
As the Armada sailed up the English Channel, the attacks by Drake’s Plymouth fleet proved to be very ineffective. With the exception of two galleons, the Armada remained relatively unscathed.
However, Medina Sidonia was facing problems of his own – the Armada was running low on ammunition. The one advantage the Spanish had at this time was the weather. On August 4th, a strong wind caused the Channel to become a lot more rough and the smaller English ships suffered from this whereas the Spanish used the wind to move quickly to the European coastline where they would pick up Spanish troops ready for the invasion of England.
Throughout the whole of its journey from Spain to the east side of the English Channel, the Armada faced few problems from the English Navy. Even though we knew of its approach, we could do little while it kept in its crescent formation.
But it hit real problems when it had to stop to pick up troops in mainland Europe. While the Armada kept its crescent shape it was very difficult for the English Navy to attack it. Once it stopped, it lost its crescent shape and left it open to attack. Medina Sidonia learned to his horror that there was no port deep enough near to where the Spanish troops were for him to stop his fleet. The best he could do was to harbour at Gravelines near modern day Calais on July 27th 1588, and then wait for the troops to arrive.
Sir Francis Drake is given the credit for what happened next but an Italian called Giambelli should also receive credit for building the “Hell Burners” for the English. Eight old ships were loaded up with anything that could burn well. These floating bombs were set to drift during the night into the resting Armada. The Armada was a fully armed fleet. Each ship was carrying gunpowder and the ships were made of wood with canvas sails. If they caught fire, each ship would not have a chance. Knowing about “Hell Burners”, the Spanish put lookouts on each boat. They spotted the on-fire ships coming in, but what could they do?
As the Armada saw the on fire ships approaching, each ship of the Armada attempted to break out of Gravelines to save itself – but in the dark. Only one Spanish ship was lost but the crescent shape disappeared and the Armada was now vulnerable to attack.
The English did attack but they were bravely fought off by the Spanish. Four Spanish galleons stood their ground and fought Drake. The Spanish were outnumbered ten to one. Three of these galleons were sunk and 600 men were killed and 800 wounded. But they had stopped the English from attacking the rest of the Armada and worsening weather also helped the Armada to escape. Medina Sidonia later wrote that the Armada was “saved by the weather, by God’s mercy…”
However, the English fleet blocked off any chance the Armada had of going back down the English Channel. Therefore, when the Armada reassembled into a fleet, it could only go up the east coast of England and then around the north of Scotland. From here the Armada could sail past the western Irish coast and back to Spain.
However, their supplies on board were not enough for such a journey and many of the crews were reduced to eating rope for survival. Fresh water quickly disappeared and the crews could not drink sea water. To add to their troubles, as the Armada sailed around the north of Scotland in mid-September, it hit a one of the worst storms in history which damaged many ships.
Those ships that survived this storm, headed for Ireland. Here they were convinced they would get help and supplies. Why did they think this? Ireland was still Catholic and the Catholic Spanish sailors believed that those with the same religion would help them. They were wrong. The Armada harboured in what is now called Armada Bay, south of Galway. Those sailors who went ashore were attacked and killed. The Irish, Catholic or not, still saw the Spanish as invaders. Those who survived the storms, the Irish, the lack of food etc. still had to fear disease as scurvy, dysentery and fever killed many who were already in a weakened state.
Figures do vary but it is thought that only 67 ships out of 130 returned to Spain – a loss rate of nearly 50%. Over 20,000 Spanish sailors and soldiers were killed. Throughout the whole campaign, the English lost no ships and only 100 men in battle. However, over 7,000 English sailors died from disease (dysentery and typhus mostly) during the time the Armada was in English water. Also those English sailors who survived and fought against the Armada were poorly treated by the English government. Many were given only enough money for the journey to their home and some received only part of their pay. The overall commander of the English Navy, Lord Howard of Effingham, was shocked claiming that “I would rather have never a penny in the world, than they (his sailors) should lack….” With this, he used his own money to pay his sailors.
Who was to blame for this defeat?
Many in Spain blamed Medina Sidonia but King Philip II was not one of these. He blamed its failure on the weather saying “I sent you out to war with men, not with the wind and waves.”
To some extent the English agreed as a medal was struck to honour the victory. On it were the words “God blew and they were scattered.”
Why did the English win?
1. They were near to their naval ports and did not have to travel far to fight the Armada.
2. The English had many advantages with regards to the ships they used. The Spanish put their hope in the power of the galleons. The English used smaller but faster ships. However, they could do little to penetrate the crescent shape of the Armada even though they had powerful cannons on board.
3. The Spanish had different tactics to the English. The English wanted to sink the Spanish ships whereas the Spanish wanted to board our ships and then capture them. To do this they would have to come up alongside our ships leaving them exposed to a broadside from English cannons on our ships.
4. Our ships, being smaller than the Spanish galleons, were more manoeuvrable which was a valuable advantage.
5. The biggest reason for the victory of the English, was the fatal error in the plan of the Spanish. While it sailed in a crescent shape, the Armada was relatively safe. But part of its plan was to stop, pick up sailors and then sail to England. The simple fact that the plan involved stopping the Armada, meant that it was fatally flawed. Warships on the move and in formation gave the Armada protection. Once the ships were still, they were open to attack.
The victory over the Armada was to make Sir Francis Drake a very famous man. The victory was even remembered at Christmas when Elizabeth ordered that everybody should have goose on Xmas Day as that was the meal she had eaten on the evening that she learned that her navy had beaten the Armada. | <urn:uuid:d8e6a346-0519-4d8c-837e-3e72d4b94533> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/tudor-england/the-spanish-armada/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00072.warc.gz | en | 0.992076 | 2,997 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.28276538848... | 8 | The Spanish Armada sailed from Spain in July 1588. The Spanish Armada’s task was to overthrow protestant England lead by Queen Elizabeth I. The Spanish Armada proved to be an expensive disaster for the Spanish but for the English it was a celebrated victory making Sir Francis Drake even more of a hero than he already was and even having an impact on Tudor Christmas celebrations!
Why did Spain want to overthrow Elizabeth? There were a number of reasons.
at the time of Elizabeth, Spain controlled what was called the Spanish Netherlands. This consisted of modern day Holland and Belgium. In particular, Holland wanted its independence. They did not like being made to be Catholic; in fact, Protestant ideas had taken root in Holland and many of those in Holland were secret Protestants. If they had publicly stated their Protestant beliefs, their lives would have been in danger. Spain used a religious secret police called the Inquisition to hunt out Protestants. However, during Elizabeth’s reign, the English had been helping the Dutch Protestants in Holland. This greatly angered the king of Spain – Philip II – who wanted to stop this. He had for a short time been married to Elizabeth’s half-sister, Mary, and when they were married, England was Catholic. With England under his control, Philip could control the English Channel and his ships could have an easy passage from Spain to the Spanish Netherlands. Spanish troops stationed there could be easily supplied.
also English ‘sea-dogs’ had been causing a great deal of damage to Spain’s trade in silver. Men such as Sir Francis Drake attacked Spanish shipping off of the West Indies and Spain lost a vast sum of money when the ships carrying silver sunk or had their cargo captured by Drake. To the English, Drake was a hero but to the Spanish he was nothing more than a pirate who, in their view, was allowed to do what he did with the full knowledge of the queen. This the Spanish could not accept.
In 1587, Mary, Queen of Scots, was executed in England on the orders of Elizabeth. Mary, Queen of Scots, was a Catholic and Philip II believed that he had a duty to ensure no more Catholics were arrested in England and that no more should be executed. Mary, Queen of Scots, had also made it clear that if she became queen of England, Philip should inherit the throne after her death.
Hence his decision to attack and invade England.
The story of the Spanish Armada is one of mistakes all the way through. Even before the Armada sailed, serious problems were encountered:
|Problem 1||In 1587, Drake attacked Cadiz harbour and destroyed or damaged a number of ships that were being prepared by the Spanish for the Armada|
||The stores put on board the new ships rotted as the barrels that contained the food and water were made of new wood which was still damp. This rotted the food and made the water sour.|
|Problem 3||The plan was to get to the Spanish Netherlands, pick up Spanish soldiers who were stationed there and invade England’s south coast. But there was no obvious port to pick up the soldiers in the Netherlands.|
|Problem 4||Spain’s Lord High Admiral was the famous Santa Cruz. He was a respected and successful admiral. He died in 1586. The admiral chosen by Philip to lead the Armada after Cruz’s death was a very rich and successful general called the Duke of Medina Sidonia. Though a good general, Medina Sidonia had never been to sea before and when he did get on board his ship, he got seasick. Why did King Philip select a man who had never been to sea before to lead the world’s then largest naval fleet?|
|Problem 5||The Armada first sailed in April 1588. It hit a terrible storm and many ships were damaged. They had to return to port to get repaired.|
With all that had been going on, it was very difficult for the Spanish to keep the Armada a secret. In fact, they were keen to let the English know about the Armada as it was felt that the English would be terrified at the news of such a large fleet of naval ships attacking them.
The organisation to get the Armada ready was huge. Cannons, guns, gunpowder, swords and many other weapons of war were needed and Spain bought them from whoever would sell to them. A number of merchant ships had to be converted to be naval ships but the Armada (or the “Great Enterprise” as Philip called it) also contained ships that simply carried things rather than fought at sea. These ships carried amongst other items:
|11 million pounds (in weight) of ships biscuits||11,000 pairs of sandals|
|40,000 gallons of olive oil||5,000 pairs of shoes|
|14,000 barrels of wine||180 priests|
|600,000 pounds of salted pork||728 servants|
The Armada sailed on July 19th 1588. The fleet of 130 ships – including 22 fighting galleons – sailed in a crescent shape. This was not unusual as most fleets sailed in this shape as it offered the ships in that fleet the most protection. The larger but slower galleons were in the middle of the crescent and they were protected by faster but smaller boats surrounding them. Smaller ships known as zabras and pataches supplied the galleons. The Armada faced little opposition as it approached the coast of Cornwall on July 29th, 1588. It is said that Cornish fishermen fishing off the Lizard watched the Armada pass!
However, London was warned that the Armada was nearing England’s coastline. Communications in the C16th were very poor yet the English had developed a way of informing London when the Armada was first seen. Beacons were lit along the coast. As soon as one beacon was seen, the next further along the coast was lit. When the beacons reached Beachy Head in Sussex, they went inland and towards London. In this way, London was quickly made aware that the Armada was approaching England.
As the Armada sailed up the English Channel, it was attacked by an English force lead by Sir Francis Drake. He was stationed in Plymouth. It is said that when Drake was informed of the Armada’s approach, he replied that he had time to finish the game of bowls he was playing on Plymouth Hoe and time to defeat the Armada. It is possible that he knew that the tide of the River Tamar in Plymouth was against him, so that he could not get his ships out of Devonport – therefore, he knew that he could finish his game of bowls because his ships were dependent on the tide to move. If the tide was coming in, his ships had to stay tied up. If the tide was going out, then he had the freedom to move his ships into the Channel. Whatever the truth, what is true is that Drake and his men did very little damage to the Armada as it passed up the English Channel. What the English did do was waste a lot of ammunition firing at the Armada and not having much of an impact as the Spanish ships had well built hulls that proved to be solid.
Sir Francis Drake
As the Armada sailed up the English Channel, the attacks by Drake’s Plymouth fleet proved to be very ineffective. With the exception of two galleons, the Armada remained relatively unscathed.
However, Medina Sidonia was facing problems of his own – the Armada was running low on ammunition. The one advantage the Spanish had at this time was the weather. On August 4th, a strong wind caused the Channel to become a lot more rough and the smaller English ships suffered from this whereas the Spanish used the wind to move quickly to the European coastline where they would pick up Spanish troops ready for the invasion of England.
Throughout the whole of its journey from Spain to the east side of the English Channel, the Armada faced few problems from the English Navy. Even though we knew of its approach, we could do little while it kept in its crescent formation.
But it hit real problems when it had to stop to pick up troops in mainland Europe. While the Armada kept its crescent shape it was very difficult for the English Navy to attack it. Once it stopped, it lost its crescent shape and left it open to attack. Medina Sidonia learned to his horror that there was no port deep enough near to where the Spanish troops were for him to stop his fleet. The best he could do was to harbour at Gravelines near modern day Calais on July 27th 1588, and then wait for the troops to arrive.
Sir Francis Drake is given the credit for what happened next but an Italian called Giambelli should also receive credit for building the “Hell Burners” for the English. Eight old ships were loaded up with anything that could burn well. These floating bombs were set to drift during the night into the resting Armada. The Armada was a fully armed fleet. Each ship was carrying gunpowder and the ships were made of wood with canvas sails. If they caught fire, each ship would not have a chance. Knowing about “Hell Burners”, the Spanish put lookouts on each boat. They spotted the on-fire ships coming in, but what could they do?
As the Armada saw the on fire ships approaching, each ship of the Armada attempted to break out of Gravelines to save itself – but in the dark. Only one Spanish ship was lost but the crescent shape disappeared and the Armada was now vulnerable to attack.
The English did attack but they were bravely fought off by the Spanish. Four Spanish galleons stood their ground and fought Drake. The Spanish were outnumbered ten to one. Three of these galleons were sunk and 600 men were killed and 800 wounded. But they had stopped the English from attacking the rest of the Armada and worsening weather also helped the Armada to escape. Medina Sidonia later wrote that the Armada was “saved by the weather, by God’s mercy…”
However, the English fleet blocked off any chance the Armada had of going back down the English Channel. Therefore, when the Armada reassembled into a fleet, it could only go up the east coast of England and then around the north of Scotland. From here the Armada could sail past the western Irish coast and back to Spain.
However, their supplies on board were not enough for such a journey and many of the crews were reduced to eating rope for survival. Fresh water quickly disappeared and the crews could not drink sea water. To add to their troubles, as the Armada sailed around the north of Scotland in mid-September, it hit a one of the worst storms in history which damaged many ships.
Those ships that survived this storm, headed for Ireland. Here they were convinced they would get help and supplies. Why did they think this? Ireland was still Catholic and the Catholic Spanish sailors believed that those with the same religion would help them. They were wrong. The Armada harboured in what is now called Armada Bay, south of Galway. Those sailors who went ashore were attacked and killed. The Irish, Catholic or not, still saw the Spanish as invaders. Those who survived the storms, the Irish, the lack of food etc. still had to fear disease as scurvy, dysentery and fever killed many who were already in a weakened state.
Figures do vary but it is thought that only 67 ships out of 130 returned to Spain – a loss rate of nearly 50%. Over 20,000 Spanish sailors and soldiers were killed. Throughout the whole campaign, the English lost no ships and only 100 men in battle. However, over 7,000 English sailors died from disease (dysentery and typhus mostly) during the time the Armada was in English water. Also those English sailors who survived and fought against the Armada were poorly treated by the English government. Many were given only enough money for the journey to their home and some received only part of their pay. The overall commander of the English Navy, Lord Howard of Effingham, was shocked claiming that “I would rather have never a penny in the world, than they (his sailors) should lack….” With this, he used his own money to pay his sailors.
Who was to blame for this defeat?
Many in Spain blamed Medina Sidonia but King Philip II was not one of these. He blamed its failure on the weather saying “I sent you out to war with men, not with the wind and waves.”
To some extent the English agreed as a medal was struck to honour the victory. On it were the words “God blew and they were scattered.”
Why did the English win?
1. They were near to their naval ports and did not have to travel far to fight the Armada.
2. The English had many advantages with regards to the ships they used. The Spanish put their hope in the power of the galleons. The English used smaller but faster ships. However, they could do little to penetrate the crescent shape of the Armada even though they had powerful cannons on board.
3. The Spanish had different tactics to the English. The English wanted to sink the Spanish ships whereas the Spanish wanted to board our ships and then capture them. To do this they would have to come up alongside our ships leaving them exposed to a broadside from English cannons on our ships.
4. Our ships, being smaller than the Spanish galleons, were more manoeuvrable which was a valuable advantage.
5. The biggest reason for the victory of the English, was the fatal error in the plan of the Spanish. While it sailed in a crescent shape, the Armada was relatively safe. But part of its plan was to stop, pick up sailors and then sail to England. The simple fact that the plan involved stopping the Armada, meant that it was fatally flawed. Warships on the move and in formation gave the Armada protection. Once the ships were still, they were open to attack.
The victory over the Armada was to make Sir Francis Drake a very famous man. The victory was even remembered at Christmas when Elizabeth ordered that everybody should have goose on Xmas Day as that was the meal she had eaten on the evening that she learned that her navy had beaten the Armada. | 3,007 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Ancient Roman empire made lasting footprints in Italy and across Europe, the likes of which can still be seen today in architectural feats like the Pantheon and Hadrian’s Wall. Although this famous regime spent almost 500 years as a republic, it is perhaps best remembered for the subsequent string of infamous emperors which transformed Rome into the perilous force that dominated the Mediterranean. Some of the names—like Augustus, Caligula, and Nero—have bled into the mainstream as much quoted characters from classic times. However, there are several other emperors that changed the face of Rome, whether for better or worse.
Scroll down to learn about seven fascinating Roman emperors: a few good, many bad, and a couple downright mad.
Augustus (Reigned from 27 BCE – 14 CE)
Augustus (63 BCE – 14 CE) is best remembered for being the first Roman emperor. Originally born Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, Augustus assumed his name when he claimed the title of emperor in 27 BCE. The circumstances around Augustus’s ascension were bloody, troubled times. As the great-nephew of Julius Caesar, Augustus promised to avenge his death, which meant battling Marc Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE. Afterward, there was no one left to challenge Augustus’s title and he reigned securely.
Overall, Augustus is remembered as one of the good Roman emperors. He brought the empire from the brink of chaos with the death of Julius Caesar into a prosperous and financially stable empire. Augustus helped facilitate many reforms, including new buildings, the Praetorian Guard, a police force, and fire brigade. Additionally, without inner turmoil, the empire was able to focus its efforts on expanding its territory into Germany and Spain. It was through Augustus’s reign that the 200-year PAX ROMANA (Peace throughout the Roman Empire) began.
Tiberius (Reigned from 14 – 37 CE)
Succeeding Augustus as the second Roman emperor was Tiberius Claudius Nero, known simply as Tiberius (42 BCE – 37 AD). Although he was not the desired heir to Augustus’s title, through a series of unfortunate deaths, Tiberius—Augustus’s stepson—was eventually adopted as full son and heir. Tiberius was 56 years old when he finally became emperor in 14 CE.
Overall, Tiberius has a mixed reputation. His legacy as a general is star-studded—and he further expanded Roman territory into Dalmatia, Pannonia, Raetia, and parts of Germany. In spite of this, Tiberius was described as having a dark, paranoid countenance. Even Pliny the Elder referred to him as “the gloomiest of men” in his writings. In fact, Tiberius often acted as a tyrant, particularly with the Senate, even having dozens of senators executed. Towards the end of his reign, Tiberius retired to his villa on Capri and led a debauched life while neglecting command of Rome to Praetorian prefect Sejanus.
Caligula (Reigned from 37 – 41 CE)
Caligula (12 – 41 CE) is a name that is almost synonymous with the idea of a ruler gone mad. However, when he first assumed the role of emperor in 37 CE following Tiberius, Caligula was very beloved. For the first six months, it is believed that Caligula was a benevolent young emperor.
Soon enough, though, as Caligula became accustomed to money and power, he began to descend into tyranny and madness. Among his many grievances was trying to increase the powers of the emperor, indulging in expensive luxuries while neglecting the Roman people, and executing close family members out of fear and paranoia. There were also several accusations of debauchery. Caligula’s despotism was ended after five years with his assassination by officers of the Praetorian Guard.
Nero (Reigned from 54 – 68 CE)
Emperor Nero (37 – 68 CE) is another character with a heinous reputation. However, like Caligula, Nero had a slow start to tyranny. Actually, Nero assumed the title of emperor in 54 CE when he was still a teenager and was dependent on the calculated guidance of his mother, Agrippina the Younger. Nero’s first five years were a very stable time for Rome. Scullard writes that Agrippina “meant to rule through her son,” so this brief window of cultural prosperity was likely thanks to her.
Events took a turn for a worse after Nero was convinced that his mother was plotting to murder him, and he had her assassinated. This action drastically altered Nero, and he retreated into lavish spending and delusions of grandeur. Like some of his predecessors, Nero also fell into deep paranoia, and executed many of those closest to him without restraint.
All of these twists and turns culminated in the Great Fire of Rome from July 18-19, 64 CE. Most sources believe that Nero started the fire, as he wanted enough space to build his “Golden House,” which included a 30-meter-tall (98-feet-tall) statue of himself. Nero, in turn, accused Christians of starting the fire, resulting in the arrest of many. Although it was unlikely Nero ever played the fiddle while Rome burned, he may as well have.
Vespasian (Reigned from 69 – 79 CE)
Vespasian (9 – 79 CE) was the succeeding emperor to Nero’s reign of chaos, and had his work cut out for him. Actually, Vespasian was the first emperor to come from an equestrian family, who steadily rose through the senate. He is regarded as one of the good Roman emperors, for returning peace and growth to Rome after Nero’s assassination. Vespasian began many architectural projects, including the Roman Colosseum, and provided monetary compensation for writers like Pliny the Elder and Tacitus.
Trajan (Reigned from 98 – 117 CE)Emperor Trajan (53 – 117 CE) is often regarded as one of the greatest Roman emperors. He was even officially declared by the Senate as optimus princeps, or “best ruler.” Under his reign, Rome reached its greatest territorial extent, covering more than 1 million square miles throughout Europe, Africa, and Asia with a population of almost 57 million people.
Trajan was the first emperor not born in Italy, and originally from Spain. He began his career in the military, earning the love and respect of the Roman people. As emperor, Trajan then led the conquering of Dacia and a large part of the Parthian Empire. Additionally, Trajan developed ambitious building projects like Trajan’s Forum and Trajan’s Column.
Hadrian (Reigned from 117 – 138 CE)
Hadrian (76 – 138 CE) had the advantage of inheriting a powerful and wealthy empire from Trajan, granting him a fortuitous start to his reign. Instead of pursuing further expansion as the senate wanted him to do, Hadrian spent his efforts on investing in the already large, complicated empire of, by this point, many diverse peoples.
Hadrian’s Wall was constructed under his watch, and it marked the northern limit of Rome’s border in Britannia. Greek architecture was a life-long passion for Hadrian, which can be seen in his own building projects. Hadrian ordered the construction of dozens of lavish temples and baths across the Roman empire. Most famous of which is probably the Pantheon, which Hadrian had rebuilt after the earlier temple by Marcus Agrippa had burned down. | <urn:uuid:91165396-ecb9-483b-8f12-e3c89048925b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mymodernmet.com/ancient-roman-emperors/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00116.warc.gz | en | 0.981882 | 1,615 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.37660050392150... | 2 | The Ancient Roman empire made lasting footprints in Italy and across Europe, the likes of which can still be seen today in architectural feats like the Pantheon and Hadrian’s Wall. Although this famous regime spent almost 500 years as a republic, it is perhaps best remembered for the subsequent string of infamous emperors which transformed Rome into the perilous force that dominated the Mediterranean. Some of the names—like Augustus, Caligula, and Nero—have bled into the mainstream as much quoted characters from classic times. However, there are several other emperors that changed the face of Rome, whether for better or worse.
Scroll down to learn about seven fascinating Roman emperors: a few good, many bad, and a couple downright mad.
Augustus (Reigned from 27 BCE – 14 CE)
Augustus (63 BCE – 14 CE) is best remembered for being the first Roman emperor. Originally born Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, Augustus assumed his name when he claimed the title of emperor in 27 BCE. The circumstances around Augustus’s ascension were bloody, troubled times. As the great-nephew of Julius Caesar, Augustus promised to avenge his death, which meant battling Marc Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE. Afterward, there was no one left to challenge Augustus’s title and he reigned securely.
Overall, Augustus is remembered as one of the good Roman emperors. He brought the empire from the brink of chaos with the death of Julius Caesar into a prosperous and financially stable empire. Augustus helped facilitate many reforms, including new buildings, the Praetorian Guard, a police force, and fire brigade. Additionally, without inner turmoil, the empire was able to focus its efforts on expanding its territory into Germany and Spain. It was through Augustus’s reign that the 200-year PAX ROMANA (Peace throughout the Roman Empire) began.
Tiberius (Reigned from 14 – 37 CE)
Succeeding Augustus as the second Roman emperor was Tiberius Claudius Nero, known simply as Tiberius (42 BCE – 37 AD). Although he was not the desired heir to Augustus’s title, through a series of unfortunate deaths, Tiberius—Augustus’s stepson—was eventually adopted as full son and heir. Tiberius was 56 years old when he finally became emperor in 14 CE.
Overall, Tiberius has a mixed reputation. His legacy as a general is star-studded—and he further expanded Roman territory into Dalmatia, Pannonia, Raetia, and parts of Germany. In spite of this, Tiberius was described as having a dark, paranoid countenance. Even Pliny the Elder referred to him as “the gloomiest of men” in his writings. In fact, Tiberius often acted as a tyrant, particularly with the Senate, even having dozens of senators executed. Towards the end of his reign, Tiberius retired to his villa on Capri and led a debauched life while neglecting command of Rome to Praetorian prefect Sejanus.
Caligula (Reigned from 37 – 41 CE)
Caligula (12 – 41 CE) is a name that is almost synonymous with the idea of a ruler gone mad. However, when he first assumed the role of emperor in 37 CE following Tiberius, Caligula was very beloved. For the first six months, it is believed that Caligula was a benevolent young emperor.
Soon enough, though, as Caligula became accustomed to money and power, he began to descend into tyranny and madness. Among his many grievances was trying to increase the powers of the emperor, indulging in expensive luxuries while neglecting the Roman people, and executing close family members out of fear and paranoia. There were also several accusations of debauchery. Caligula’s despotism was ended after five years with his assassination by officers of the Praetorian Guard.
Nero (Reigned from 54 – 68 CE)
Emperor Nero (37 – 68 CE) is another character with a heinous reputation. However, like Caligula, Nero had a slow start to tyranny. Actually, Nero assumed the title of emperor in 54 CE when he was still a teenager and was dependent on the calculated guidance of his mother, Agrippina the Younger. Nero’s first five years were a very stable time for Rome. Scullard writes that Agrippina “meant to rule through her son,” so this brief window of cultural prosperity was likely thanks to her.
Events took a turn for a worse after Nero was convinced that his mother was plotting to murder him, and he had her assassinated. This action drastically altered Nero, and he retreated into lavish spending and delusions of grandeur. Like some of his predecessors, Nero also fell into deep paranoia, and executed many of those closest to him without restraint.
All of these twists and turns culminated in the Great Fire of Rome from July 18-19, 64 CE. Most sources believe that Nero started the fire, as he wanted enough space to build his “Golden House,” which included a 30-meter-tall (98-feet-tall) statue of himself. Nero, in turn, accused Christians of starting the fire, resulting in the arrest of many. Although it was unlikely Nero ever played the fiddle while Rome burned, he may as well have.
Vespasian (Reigned from 69 – 79 CE)
Vespasian (9 – 79 CE) was the succeeding emperor to Nero’s reign of chaos, and had his work cut out for him. Actually, Vespasian was the first emperor to come from an equestrian family, who steadily rose through the senate. He is regarded as one of the good Roman emperors, for returning peace and growth to Rome after Nero’s assassination. Vespasian began many architectural projects, including the Roman Colosseum, and provided monetary compensation for writers like Pliny the Elder and Tacitus.
Trajan (Reigned from 98 – 117 CE)Emperor Trajan (53 – 117 CE) is often regarded as one of the greatest Roman emperors. He was even officially declared by the Senate as optimus princeps, or “best ruler.” Under his reign, Rome reached its greatest territorial extent, covering more than 1 million square miles throughout Europe, Africa, and Asia with a population of almost 57 million people.
Trajan was the first emperor not born in Italy, and originally from Spain. He began his career in the military, earning the love and respect of the Roman people. As emperor, Trajan then led the conquering of Dacia and a large part of the Parthian Empire. Additionally, Trajan developed ambitious building projects like Trajan’s Forum and Trajan’s Column.
Hadrian (Reigned from 117 – 138 CE)
Hadrian (76 – 138 CE) had the advantage of inheriting a powerful and wealthy empire from Trajan, granting him a fortuitous start to his reign. Instead of pursuing further expansion as the senate wanted him to do, Hadrian spent his efforts on investing in the already large, complicated empire of, by this point, many diverse peoples.
Hadrian’s Wall was constructed under his watch, and it marked the northern limit of Rome’s border in Britannia. Greek architecture was a life-long passion for Hadrian, which can be seen in his own building projects. Hadrian ordered the construction of dozens of lavish temples and baths across the Roman empire. Most famous of which is probably the Pantheon, which Hadrian had rebuilt after the earlier temple by Marcus Agrippa had burned down. | 1,657 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The problem I was researching was the fastest way to get from one place to another, my hypothesis was that the shortest way was the fastest, which is a straight line. I thought that it was a straight line and not a steep line with a sharp turn because even though it accelerates more than a straight line the distance after the sharp turn will cause it to slow down. In this experiment, I spent most of the time planning out designs for the structure and the layout of how I will conduct my experiment. The most crucial thing about this experiment was all the variables. One variable I knew would impact the outcome the most is friction. Friction could cause major changes to the end result because if I had used materials with a lot of friction the times would be longer. I used a marble sphere because marble would have minimal rolling friction while going down the tracks made of foam board. Another variable in the experiment was the accuracy of the cuts made on the board. Accuracy could impact this experiment because if the cuts were not as close to perfect as possible by a human hand the size, the slopes, and the bumps could become more visible and more of a danger to a near perfect outcome. The size could impact the experiment by changing the times of the balls. It would change the times because at first, I had planned on making the straight line track 9”x18”. I tried it out on that track but I did not see a distinct variation between the 3 tracks. I felt as if the tracks would not give me data that I could compare and be satisfied with the results. I increased the size to 12”x24”. After this increase, the times became more distinct and noticeable. The final variable in this experiment was weight. I had used multiple materials before I had finally decided to use foam and marble. My first material I used was cardboard for the track and metal balls. The balls fell off the drop off of the steep line too fast denting the cardboard and changing the shape of the track. What I mean by changing the shape of the track is the dents made by the weight of the ball hitting the cardboard caused the balls to fall off from the dent. | <urn:uuid:92d96d60-a323-42e3-8263-b4eb0a8a8165> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ameliahensley.com/the-the-times-of-the-balls-it/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00289.warc.gz | en | 0.981086 | 442 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
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0.1551585644483... | 2 | The problem I was researching was the fastest way to get from one place to another, my hypothesis was that the shortest way was the fastest, which is a straight line. I thought that it was a straight line and not a steep line with a sharp turn because even though it accelerates more than a straight line the distance after the sharp turn will cause it to slow down. In this experiment, I spent most of the time planning out designs for the structure and the layout of how I will conduct my experiment. The most crucial thing about this experiment was all the variables. One variable I knew would impact the outcome the most is friction. Friction could cause major changes to the end result because if I had used materials with a lot of friction the times would be longer. I used a marble sphere because marble would have minimal rolling friction while going down the tracks made of foam board. Another variable in the experiment was the accuracy of the cuts made on the board. Accuracy could impact this experiment because if the cuts were not as close to perfect as possible by a human hand the size, the slopes, and the bumps could become more visible and more of a danger to a near perfect outcome. The size could impact the experiment by changing the times of the balls. It would change the times because at first, I had planned on making the straight line track 9”x18”. I tried it out on that track but I did not see a distinct variation between the 3 tracks. I felt as if the tracks would not give me data that I could compare and be satisfied with the results. I increased the size to 12”x24”. After this increase, the times became more distinct and noticeable. The final variable in this experiment was weight. I had used multiple materials before I had finally decided to use foam and marble. My first material I used was cardboard for the track and metal balls. The balls fell off the drop off of the steep line too fast denting the cardboard and changing the shape of the track. What I mean by changing the shape of the track is the dents made by the weight of the ball hitting the cardboard caused the balls to fall off from the dent. | 442 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Master Singers (Ger. Meutertanger), a class of minstrels who flourished in Germany during the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries. They were generally of burgher extraction, and in the reign of the emperor Charles IV. were formed into regular corporations, for admission to which a course of apprenticeship was required. Their chief seats were the imperial cities, and they flourished most at Nuremberg. The compositions of the members, consisting chiefly of devotional and Scriptural pieces, were subjected to a peculiar code of laws, and the main faults to be avoided, 32 in number, were distinguished by particular names. At public contests in Nuremberg, a board of four judges, called Merkcr, sat to hear the poems recited or sung, and mark the faults in each. The first compared the recitation with the text of the Bible lying before him, the second criticised the prosody, the third the rhymes, and the fourth the tunes. He who had the fewest marks received the prize, and the successful competitors were thereupon permitted to receive apprentices. These corporations began to decline in the 17th century, and have been succeeded in modern times by the Licderkranzt, Sanger-bunde, and other singing societies. | <urn:uuid:6343aacf-adc9-4d22-b683-3d177c5476fd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://chestofbooks.com/reference/American-Cyclopaedia-7/Master-Singers-Ger-Meutertanger.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00388.warc.gz | en | 0.981195 | 264 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
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-0.121970087... | 4 | Master Singers (Ger. Meutertanger), a class of minstrels who flourished in Germany during the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries. They were generally of burgher extraction, and in the reign of the emperor Charles IV. were formed into regular corporations, for admission to which a course of apprenticeship was required. Their chief seats were the imperial cities, and they flourished most at Nuremberg. The compositions of the members, consisting chiefly of devotional and Scriptural pieces, were subjected to a peculiar code of laws, and the main faults to be avoided, 32 in number, were distinguished by particular names. At public contests in Nuremberg, a board of four judges, called Merkcr, sat to hear the poems recited or sung, and mark the faults in each. The first compared the recitation with the text of the Bible lying before him, the second criticised the prosody, the third the rhymes, and the fourth the tunes. He who had the fewest marks received the prize, and the successful competitors were thereupon permitted to receive apprentices. These corporations began to decline in the 17th century, and have been succeeded in modern times by the Licderkranzt, Sanger-bunde, and other singing societies. | 275 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Piqua Shawnee is a tribe of the Indian American descent who are natives of the United States. Although there aren't many left, the Shawnee are still recognized by history and some of their culture is being brought to light even in recent times. However, their numbers are low nowadays and not many states recognize their history in law.
Nowadays, many descendants of the Piqua Shawnee still call the state of Alabama their home. Given that there were many tribes which ended up separating, the current groups of the Piqua Shawnee sometimes have differing family stories. Some of them avoided walking down a trail of tears while others hid in swamps and the Cumberland mountains. According to history, it is clear that most of these tribes didn't agree with the Andrew Jackson removal policy.
A huge number of the Piqua Shawnee People didn't escape removal. However, some of them did and immediately after the turmoil had settled, some of them returned to their families. Many of the families got lost and this erased years of history. Some groups, however, chose to relocate in rural places where the government didn't bring much scrutiny and the neighbors were comfortable with them around. This group shared their history with the family and this got passed down to present day Shawnee.
The dark background that led to the destruction of the structure of the Shawnee tribe is what led many of those who remained to try as hard to pass down their culture to the newer generations. Nowadays, the group consists of several cultures who live in Northern America, specifically the United States and Canada. The majority of Piqua Shawnee live in Alabama with some members in Kentucky, Tennessee, Maryland, Missouri, Indiana, South Carolina, and Texas. Since they are dispersed, they organize at least 4 meetings a year to reconnect and share their culture. Learn more about Shawnee tribes at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shawnee,_Oklahoma.
The Piqua Shawnee do have a governing structure within themselves. They have a principal chief and a second chief, who are the heads of their tribal government. The government is maintained by the Tribal Council, which is composed on clan mothers and chiefs and has an advisory body known as a clan of elders. All the issues are usually debated and then presented before the clan for their consideration and deliberation. The council is tasked with matters concerning dispute and attempts to seek a consensus on tribal matters to enable the tribe live as one, click here to know more! | <urn:uuid:d49a004a-4677-4018-8392-a921be66bb1f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://piquashawneetribes.site123.me/blog/the-current-state-of-the-piqua-shawnee-tribe | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00504.warc.gz | en | 0.981503 | 511 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.161635652184486... | 1 | The Piqua Shawnee is a tribe of the Indian American descent who are natives of the United States. Although there aren't many left, the Shawnee are still recognized by history and some of their culture is being brought to light even in recent times. However, their numbers are low nowadays and not many states recognize their history in law.
Nowadays, many descendants of the Piqua Shawnee still call the state of Alabama their home. Given that there were many tribes which ended up separating, the current groups of the Piqua Shawnee sometimes have differing family stories. Some of them avoided walking down a trail of tears while others hid in swamps and the Cumberland mountains. According to history, it is clear that most of these tribes didn't agree with the Andrew Jackson removal policy.
A huge number of the Piqua Shawnee People didn't escape removal. However, some of them did and immediately after the turmoil had settled, some of them returned to their families. Many of the families got lost and this erased years of history. Some groups, however, chose to relocate in rural places where the government didn't bring much scrutiny and the neighbors were comfortable with them around. This group shared their history with the family and this got passed down to present day Shawnee.
The dark background that led to the destruction of the structure of the Shawnee tribe is what led many of those who remained to try as hard to pass down their culture to the newer generations. Nowadays, the group consists of several cultures who live in Northern America, specifically the United States and Canada. The majority of Piqua Shawnee live in Alabama with some members in Kentucky, Tennessee, Maryland, Missouri, Indiana, South Carolina, and Texas. Since they are dispersed, they organize at least 4 meetings a year to reconnect and share their culture. Learn more about Shawnee tribes at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shawnee,_Oklahoma.
The Piqua Shawnee do have a governing structure within themselves. They have a principal chief and a second chief, who are the heads of their tribal government. The government is maintained by the Tribal Council, which is composed on clan mothers and chiefs and has an advisory body known as a clan of elders. All the issues are usually debated and then presented before the clan for their consideration and deliberation. The council is tasked with matters concerning dispute and attempts to seek a consensus on tribal matters to enable the tribe live as one, click here to know more! | 502 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Mapping Bikini Atoll
Photos courtesy of Art Trembanis December 10, 2019
UD researchers involved in underwater mapping of the nuclear test sites in Pacific
While standing on a small ship near Bikini Atoll in the Marshall Islands during the summer of 2019, University of Delaware Professor Art Trembanis looked up and realized that if he had been in that spot 73 years ago, he would have been engulfed in a humongous atomic mushroom cloud.
It was in that idyllic and, more importantly, remote central Pacific island that the United States conducted a series of nuclear weapons tests in the 1940s and 1950s that sunk warships, tanks and other vehicles as part of a simulated nuclear battlefield. Twelve wrecks, some of them as large as the passenger liner Titanic, now lie in the 180 foot-deep waters of Bikini Lagoon.
In June, Trembanis led a team tasked by SEARCH, a cultural resource management firm, with conducting an underwater mapping effort to locate and characterize the ghost fleet that sits on the bottom of the Pacific as well as the landscape of the atoll in general.
Trembanis, associate professor in UD’s College of Earth, Ocean and Environment, said that Bikini Atoll has been a fascinating subject for many oceanographers and he jumped at the chance to characterize the sunken ships.
“I think for all oceanographers, it’s a site that you immediately connect with and know about,” said Trembanis. “There are not many places you can go and try to map something in a unique way. This was definitely the case here. There are just so many shipwrecks, and each one is different.”
Previous mapping effort
The work done by the team is a first-ever detailed look at the simulated nuclear battlefield at the bottom of Bikini Lagoon. It builds on data initially collected by the U.S. Navy in 1946-1947, and by a team led by the U.S. National Park Service, which worked with the Navy and the U.S. Department of Energy in 1989-1990 to relocate and map the wrecks, work documented by archaeologist James Delgado, now senior vice president of SEARCH.
“While our maps were good, and based on many long hours in the water, they were not enough,” Delgado said. “We needed a more accurate map that could only be done when sonar and survey technology caught up with our needs as scientists.”
When an opportunity arose to go to Bikini to reassess the wrecks, Delgado and Michael Brennan, a maritime archeologist with SEARCH, knew that Trembanis and his team at the University were the right people for the task. They reached out to ask if Trembanis would lead the mapping effort for the study. Trembanis, who knew Delgado’s work through the archaeologist’s book Ghost Fleet: The Sunken Ships of Bikini Atoll, was eager to join the effort.
To help with the work, Trembanis recruited Carter DuVal, who received his doctorate from UD and is now a postdoc at the Naval Research Laboratories Stennis Space Center, and Grant Otto, who graduated from UD in 2018 and now works in Trembanis’ lab as an engineering technician and field specialist. Their role was to provide the overall data points for the locations of the ships on the seafloor, as well as to take into account how the seafloor itself and the craters left by the explosions may have changed over the years.
Brennan said that having worked with Trembanis and DuVal on prior projects, he knew the expertise and professionalism they could bring to the mapping effort.
“I knew that they were a team that could deliver what we needed and they certainly did,” said Brennan. “We ended up with a fantastic landscape map of Bikini and the team delivered on what we needed to get done.”
Searching with sonar
Though the 1989-1990 effort produced a breadth of information, it was limited because it only had a dive team that couldn’t explore the far reaches of the ocean floor and weren’t sure of the exact locations of some of the underwater targets. In addition, sonar technology and modern techniques and equipment had not been an option for the team three decades ago.
Using sonar that provided three-dimensional scans of the seafloor as they moved, Brennan, Trembanis and the team swept large swaths of the seafloor to get the general outline of the ships and other marine debris. Trembanis said they were able to map an overall view of the area in about a day and a half at the beginning of the research, work that Delgado said was especially important.
“In short order, the team produced a detailed, three-dimensional map of the simulated nuclear battlefield, with every ship accurately pinpointed,” Delgado said. “This is the largest undersea battlefield surveyed and mapped, and it is a game changer in assessing major events that have left a profound footprint on the seafloor. What Art and the team have done is given the world its first-ever look beneath the sea into the heart of an atomic explosion and its aftermath.”
At Bikini, Trembanis and Brennan then directed the expedition dive team that they worked with to the exact locations of certain targets for follow up work and photography.
“We sort of did the advance scouting,” said Trembanis. “We’d find, ‘Ok, here’s where the ship is. Here’s the bow, here’s the stern, here’s where you want to focus.’ ”
One of the difficulties of working in an area as remote as Bikini was that the team members had to figure out how to rig their sonar equipment to a boat that they had only seen through pictures.
“I had to build the mount for the boat’s sonar that we used based on a few pictures that we had,” said Otto. “We came up with ideas to make a few things prefabricated as much as we could and then have a few adjustable parts. It was definitely a different challenge.”
In addition, the team had to bring Geiger counters along with them and wear dosimeters to ensure that they were not being exposed to dangerous levels of radiation. All of the researchers were fine, but there are still lingering issues on the island because of radiation and the native Bikinians who were displaced before the tests are still not allowed to move back to their homes yet.
Getting to the area took six days. Several flights were required to get the team to Majuro, which is more than 2,000 miles southwest of Hawaii. Then there was a 60-hour ride on a boat to Bikini.
DuVal said that the team worked well together to overcome the obstacles involved in bringing equipment halfway around the world.
“If you had pulled anybody out of this team, we probably wouldn’t have had the success that we had,” said DuVal. “That’s the way you want it. We got a good crew together and were able to get good data because of it.”
Trembanis credited the work of DuVal and Otto with allowing them to get such high-quality data.
“They not only had to operate the sonar and gather the data, but we were processing it in real time,” said Trembanis. “We knew we pretty much had one shot at this, and they did such a remarkable job.”
Trembanis said that as soon as the team arrived, they began mapping the site of Operation Crossroads, which was a pair of nuclear weapon tests — known as Able and Baker — conducted in July 1946, and getting a detailed map of the wrecks. In Test Able, the weapon was dropped from a B-29 bomber and exploded above the water, according to a U.S. Department of Energy website that explains the history of the Manhattan Project. In Test Baker, the weapon was detonated 90-feet below the surface.
“There was very much an interest in doing detailed work on a subset of the ships, but if you’re going to focus on the trees, you have to know the layout of the forest,” said Trembanis. “Nobody had done that before so that was exciting and new.”
Brennan was interested to see how the ships were oriented in relation to each other and to see if the crater left by Test Baker was still visible or if it had been filled in. He said he was surprised to learn the crater was still prominent, rather than filled in by sediment over the last 70 years.
The Japanese cruiser Sakawa, sunk during Test Able and blasted into the seabed by Test Baker, had sunk so far into the seafloor that the earlier dive team completely passed it over. Using the sonar system, however, the researchers were able to pick it up.
All of the researchers agreed that they would love to go back and explore more of the smaller targets on the seafloor that they didn’t have the time to investigate further: anchors used to hold target ships in place and the test equipment, military vehicles and aircraft placed on the ships to see what the effects of atomic weapons would be.
“When people think of that photo with the mushroom cloud, that’s where we were. You see how dwarfed these massive ships were by that blast,” said Trembanis. “In many ways, I was struck by it being this idyllic, beautiful Pacific island and I thought ‘This was the site of the most violent explosions on the planet.’ It’s still very much a puzzle, and we’d love to be able to go back.” | <urn:uuid:06d0fb8e-d1bd-4866-9ae9-e5f039064213> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.udel.edu/udaily/2019/december/underwater-mapping-of-Bikini-Atoll-nuclear-fleet/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00411.warc.gz | en | 0.982983 | 2,102 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.6326878666877... | 9 | Mapping Bikini Atoll
Photos courtesy of Art Trembanis December 10, 2019
UD researchers involved in underwater mapping of the nuclear test sites in Pacific
While standing on a small ship near Bikini Atoll in the Marshall Islands during the summer of 2019, University of Delaware Professor Art Trembanis looked up and realized that if he had been in that spot 73 years ago, he would have been engulfed in a humongous atomic mushroom cloud.
It was in that idyllic and, more importantly, remote central Pacific island that the United States conducted a series of nuclear weapons tests in the 1940s and 1950s that sunk warships, tanks and other vehicles as part of a simulated nuclear battlefield. Twelve wrecks, some of them as large as the passenger liner Titanic, now lie in the 180 foot-deep waters of Bikini Lagoon.
In June, Trembanis led a team tasked by SEARCH, a cultural resource management firm, with conducting an underwater mapping effort to locate and characterize the ghost fleet that sits on the bottom of the Pacific as well as the landscape of the atoll in general.
Trembanis, associate professor in UD’s College of Earth, Ocean and Environment, said that Bikini Atoll has been a fascinating subject for many oceanographers and he jumped at the chance to characterize the sunken ships.
“I think for all oceanographers, it’s a site that you immediately connect with and know about,” said Trembanis. “There are not many places you can go and try to map something in a unique way. This was definitely the case here. There are just so many shipwrecks, and each one is different.”
Previous mapping effort
The work done by the team is a first-ever detailed look at the simulated nuclear battlefield at the bottom of Bikini Lagoon. It builds on data initially collected by the U.S. Navy in 1946-1947, and by a team led by the U.S. National Park Service, which worked with the Navy and the U.S. Department of Energy in 1989-1990 to relocate and map the wrecks, work documented by archaeologist James Delgado, now senior vice president of SEARCH.
“While our maps were good, and based on many long hours in the water, they were not enough,” Delgado said. “We needed a more accurate map that could only be done when sonar and survey technology caught up with our needs as scientists.”
When an opportunity arose to go to Bikini to reassess the wrecks, Delgado and Michael Brennan, a maritime archeologist with SEARCH, knew that Trembanis and his team at the University were the right people for the task. They reached out to ask if Trembanis would lead the mapping effort for the study. Trembanis, who knew Delgado’s work through the archaeologist’s book Ghost Fleet: The Sunken Ships of Bikini Atoll, was eager to join the effort.
To help with the work, Trembanis recruited Carter DuVal, who received his doctorate from UD and is now a postdoc at the Naval Research Laboratories Stennis Space Center, and Grant Otto, who graduated from UD in 2018 and now works in Trembanis’ lab as an engineering technician and field specialist. Their role was to provide the overall data points for the locations of the ships on the seafloor, as well as to take into account how the seafloor itself and the craters left by the explosions may have changed over the years.
Brennan said that having worked with Trembanis and DuVal on prior projects, he knew the expertise and professionalism they could bring to the mapping effort.
“I knew that they were a team that could deliver what we needed and they certainly did,” said Brennan. “We ended up with a fantastic landscape map of Bikini and the team delivered on what we needed to get done.”
Searching with sonar
Though the 1989-1990 effort produced a breadth of information, it was limited because it only had a dive team that couldn’t explore the far reaches of the ocean floor and weren’t sure of the exact locations of some of the underwater targets. In addition, sonar technology and modern techniques and equipment had not been an option for the team three decades ago.
Using sonar that provided three-dimensional scans of the seafloor as they moved, Brennan, Trembanis and the team swept large swaths of the seafloor to get the general outline of the ships and other marine debris. Trembanis said they were able to map an overall view of the area in about a day and a half at the beginning of the research, work that Delgado said was especially important.
“In short order, the team produced a detailed, three-dimensional map of the simulated nuclear battlefield, with every ship accurately pinpointed,” Delgado said. “This is the largest undersea battlefield surveyed and mapped, and it is a game changer in assessing major events that have left a profound footprint on the seafloor. What Art and the team have done is given the world its first-ever look beneath the sea into the heart of an atomic explosion and its aftermath.”
At Bikini, Trembanis and Brennan then directed the expedition dive team that they worked with to the exact locations of certain targets for follow up work and photography.
“We sort of did the advance scouting,” said Trembanis. “We’d find, ‘Ok, here’s where the ship is. Here’s the bow, here’s the stern, here’s where you want to focus.’ ”
One of the difficulties of working in an area as remote as Bikini was that the team members had to figure out how to rig their sonar equipment to a boat that they had only seen through pictures.
“I had to build the mount for the boat’s sonar that we used based on a few pictures that we had,” said Otto. “We came up with ideas to make a few things prefabricated as much as we could and then have a few adjustable parts. It was definitely a different challenge.”
In addition, the team had to bring Geiger counters along with them and wear dosimeters to ensure that they were not being exposed to dangerous levels of radiation. All of the researchers were fine, but there are still lingering issues on the island because of radiation and the native Bikinians who were displaced before the tests are still not allowed to move back to their homes yet.
Getting to the area took six days. Several flights were required to get the team to Majuro, which is more than 2,000 miles southwest of Hawaii. Then there was a 60-hour ride on a boat to Bikini.
DuVal said that the team worked well together to overcome the obstacles involved in bringing equipment halfway around the world.
“If you had pulled anybody out of this team, we probably wouldn’t have had the success that we had,” said DuVal. “That’s the way you want it. We got a good crew together and were able to get good data because of it.”
Trembanis credited the work of DuVal and Otto with allowing them to get such high-quality data.
“They not only had to operate the sonar and gather the data, but we were processing it in real time,” said Trembanis. “We knew we pretty much had one shot at this, and they did such a remarkable job.”
Trembanis said that as soon as the team arrived, they began mapping the site of Operation Crossroads, which was a pair of nuclear weapon tests — known as Able and Baker — conducted in July 1946, and getting a detailed map of the wrecks. In Test Able, the weapon was dropped from a B-29 bomber and exploded above the water, according to a U.S. Department of Energy website that explains the history of the Manhattan Project. In Test Baker, the weapon was detonated 90-feet below the surface.
“There was very much an interest in doing detailed work on a subset of the ships, but if you’re going to focus on the trees, you have to know the layout of the forest,” said Trembanis. “Nobody had done that before so that was exciting and new.”
Brennan was interested to see how the ships were oriented in relation to each other and to see if the crater left by Test Baker was still visible or if it had been filled in. He said he was surprised to learn the crater was still prominent, rather than filled in by sediment over the last 70 years.
The Japanese cruiser Sakawa, sunk during Test Able and blasted into the seabed by Test Baker, had sunk so far into the seafloor that the earlier dive team completely passed it over. Using the sonar system, however, the researchers were able to pick it up.
All of the researchers agreed that they would love to go back and explore more of the smaller targets on the seafloor that they didn’t have the time to investigate further: anchors used to hold target ships in place and the test equipment, military vehicles and aircraft placed on the ships to see what the effects of atomic weapons would be.
“When people think of that photo with the mushroom cloud, that’s where we were. You see how dwarfed these massive ships were by that blast,” said Trembanis. “In many ways, I was struck by it being this idyllic, beautiful Pacific island and I thought ‘This was the site of the most violent explosions on the planet.’ It’s still very much a puzzle, and we’d love to be able to go back.” | 1,989 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Cash-coins were introduced in 618 AD, and remained in circulation until the early 20th century. They weighed 5 shu, 3.25 grams. However, due to the casting techniques with which they were produced, the weight of the coins could vary considerably.
The purchasing power of one single coin was low. Larger payments that involved high numbers of cash-coins, were therefore transacted according to the total weight of the coins. Except for small errands – the purchase of bread at the baker, or of a bowl of tea at the street vendor – coins changed hands strung on strings. There were strings of 100, 500 and 1000 coins. Since it was impossible to verify the number of coins on a string with each transaction, the strings were weighed, and in this way their adequacy checked. | <urn:uuid:d206d4e0-fbd4-4fed-a6c1-787f3cafa23c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://moneymuseum.com/en/coins?id=983 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00107.warc.gz | en | 0.987209 | 165 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.1419536620... | 11 | Cash-coins were introduced in 618 AD, and remained in circulation until the early 20th century. They weighed 5 shu, 3.25 grams. However, due to the casting techniques with which they were produced, the weight of the coins could vary considerably.
The purchasing power of one single coin was low. Larger payments that involved high numbers of cash-coins, were therefore transacted according to the total weight of the coins. Except for small errands – the purchase of bread at the baker, or of a bowl of tea at the street vendor – coins changed hands strung on strings. There were strings of 100, 500 and 1000 coins. Since it was impossible to verify the number of coins on a string with each transaction, the strings were weighed, and in this way their adequacy checked. | 180 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The year is 1390 CE, and life is hard. The plague has killed nearly half the people in your city. What are the kings, queens, and nobility doing about it? Not much—they're fighting wars that seem endless.
It used to be that the Church tried to help. These days, though, its leaders seem too busy with politics to care about regular people. If you lived in this time, what would you do?
In the city of Florence, people began thinking in new ways. The city leaders wanted their culture to be like those of ancient Greece and Rome. They thought life could be richer. It could be full of art, poetry, music, and history. People should know about many subjects, they thought—not just their own trade. It's as if they said, “Society should be reborn!”
The word renaissance is French for “rebirth” or “reawakening.” Let’s explore how the Renaissance began. | <urn:uuid:89d6d686-bee6-4646-855f-8acaaced00ab> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://online.kidsdiscover.com/unit/renaissance-and-reformation/topic/the-cradle-of-the-renaissance/1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00422.warc.gz | en | 0.985159 | 206 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.1205422133... | 2 | The year is 1390 CE, and life is hard. The plague has killed nearly half the people in your city. What are the kings, queens, and nobility doing about it? Not much—they're fighting wars that seem endless.
It used to be that the Church tried to help. These days, though, its leaders seem too busy with politics to care about regular people. If you lived in this time, what would you do?
In the city of Florence, people began thinking in new ways. The city leaders wanted their culture to be like those of ancient Greece and Rome. They thought life could be richer. It could be full of art, poetry, music, and history. People should know about many subjects, they thought—not just their own trade. It's as if they said, “Society should be reborn!”
The word renaissance is French for “rebirth” or “reawakening.” Let’s explore how the Renaissance began. | 198 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Apollo 11 at 50: How parts of the moon landed at Cornell
Late on July 20, 1969, 34-year-old Elizabeth Bilson, her husband and their young daughter gathered around the television set in their Ithaca home, watching Neil Armstrong take his first steps on lunar soil.
"It was so fascinating," she said. "I was totally glued to the TV, and I found it incredible, the whole thing."
She didn't know that night how the next few months would unfold; how she'd take a job with Cornell University, and be part of a select team of scientists chosen to examine and test samples of the soil on which Armstrong walked.
Bilson, who has a Ph.D in chemistry, had just moved to Ithaca from Illinois — her husband, Malcolm, had been offered a job in Cornell University's music department.
She had no background in geology but soon found herself working with the likes of astrophysicist Thomas Gold, who died in 2004.
"I didn't know what to expect," she said. "I just completely was in awe."
It was a few months later, maybe October — 50 years later, the details are hazy — when Bilson started work on the samples brought back from the moon, testing the reflectivity of the dust and rock samples, the electrical conductivity and power absorption in order to make sense of the lunar surface.
"It was all based on theory," Bilson said of lunar knowledge before Apollo 11. "It was not really known."
Over the course of several years, Bilson became director of the laboratory, and the team found answers to many of the world's questions about the moon.
Through chemical testing, they determined the dust particles were enriched in layers of iron, which made them darker and less reflective to the light hitting the moon. The team measured the soil's electrical properties, and devised methods for measuring frequencies, attenuation and particle size.
They were responsible, Bilson said, for every gram of the tiny dot particles and little rock samples, sawed off from bigger rocks, Cornell was given. Their portion of the lunar particles — they had been dispersed among less than 200 scientists across the world — was kept under lock and key 24/7.
"If you didn't use a proper key, the police came," Bilson said. "A couple of times we did forget, and they did come. It was very scary."
It was challenging work requiring expert care, and it didn't end with Apollo 11.
"There was one mission after another," she said. "At that time, already there was talking of going to other planets, especially to Mars and later to the outer planets. That took many, many, many years of exploration and excitement. The moon was just the beginning."
Bilson went on to be Cornell's administrative director of space sciences and has since retired.
It had been a long time since she'd thought much about her Apollo 11 work. Then 10 years ago, there was a celebration for the mission's 40th anniversary, and it all came flooding back.
"That was very special," she said. "That brought back all the memories."
Cornell will host "From the Moon to Mars and Beyond" at 2 p.m. Saturday in Call Auditorium, Kennedy Hall, a program including lectures and a panel with scientists discussing the long-term future of space exploration. | <urn:uuid:0d46ed81-19bf-4030-8d26-473362f809c1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ithacajournal.com/story/news/local/2019/07/18/apollo-11-50-cornell-chemist-recalls-lunar-moon-dust-research/1733379001/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00236.warc.gz | en | 0.989157 | 705 | 3.921875 | 4 | [
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0.5349549651... | 7 | Apollo 11 at 50: How parts of the moon landed at Cornell
Late on July 20, 1969, 34-year-old Elizabeth Bilson, her husband and their young daughter gathered around the television set in their Ithaca home, watching Neil Armstrong take his first steps on lunar soil.
"It was so fascinating," she said. "I was totally glued to the TV, and I found it incredible, the whole thing."
She didn't know that night how the next few months would unfold; how she'd take a job with Cornell University, and be part of a select team of scientists chosen to examine and test samples of the soil on which Armstrong walked.
Bilson, who has a Ph.D in chemistry, had just moved to Ithaca from Illinois — her husband, Malcolm, had been offered a job in Cornell University's music department.
She had no background in geology but soon found herself working with the likes of astrophysicist Thomas Gold, who died in 2004.
"I didn't know what to expect," she said. "I just completely was in awe."
It was a few months later, maybe October — 50 years later, the details are hazy — when Bilson started work on the samples brought back from the moon, testing the reflectivity of the dust and rock samples, the electrical conductivity and power absorption in order to make sense of the lunar surface.
"It was all based on theory," Bilson said of lunar knowledge before Apollo 11. "It was not really known."
Over the course of several years, Bilson became director of the laboratory, and the team found answers to many of the world's questions about the moon.
Through chemical testing, they determined the dust particles were enriched in layers of iron, which made them darker and less reflective to the light hitting the moon. The team measured the soil's electrical properties, and devised methods for measuring frequencies, attenuation and particle size.
They were responsible, Bilson said, for every gram of the tiny dot particles and little rock samples, sawed off from bigger rocks, Cornell was given. Their portion of the lunar particles — they had been dispersed among less than 200 scientists across the world — was kept under lock and key 24/7.
"If you didn't use a proper key, the police came," Bilson said. "A couple of times we did forget, and they did come. It was very scary."
It was challenging work requiring expert care, and it didn't end with Apollo 11.
"There was one mission after another," she said. "At that time, already there was talking of going to other planets, especially to Mars and later to the outer planets. That took many, many, many years of exploration and excitement. The moon was just the beginning."
Bilson went on to be Cornell's administrative director of space sciences and has since retired.
It had been a long time since she'd thought much about her Apollo 11 work. Then 10 years ago, there was a celebration for the mission's 40th anniversary, and it all came flooding back.
"That was very special," she said. "That brought back all the memories."
Cornell will host "From the Moon to Mars and Beyond" at 2 p.m. Saturday in Call Auditorium, Kennedy Hall, a program including lectures and a panel with scientists discussing the long-term future of space exploration. | 710 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Vladimir Lenin Regarded as one of the greatest revolutionary leaders in history, Vladimir Lenin was the founder of the Russian Communist Party, the leader of the Bolshevik Revolution, and the first head of the Soviet State. Lenin was the leader of the radical socialist Bolshevik Party later renamed the Communist Partywhich seized power in the October phase of the Russian Revolution of
Lenin was born in a small rural town on the Volga River called Simbirsk on April 10, Marx and Engels were the two inventors of Communism, who were well educated upper-class members of society that believed in social change.
Alexander Ulyanov was publicly hanged that same year. He first demonstrated his beliefs at a protest at Kazan University, for which he was promptly expelled. He was allowed to continue his studies by himself and eventually got his degree in law in As Lenin began to work as a lawyer and write his many pamphlets, a storm began to brew in his mind regarding the impending revolution.
Lenin, like others in the socialist party, wanted social and economic equality for the proletariat, or working class. He also wanted a more just government that was governed by the proletariat as opposed to the aristocrats who had been in power for years.
Many protests happened near his place of work in St. Petersburg, as it was a university town and full of young, idealistic minds. Lenin actively participated in many protests and gained a devoted following. This did not go unnoticed, as many times Lenin was arrested for speaking against the tsar.
These infractions were trumped by his eventual banishment for actions against the tsar to western Siberia and then to Munich.
For most of his exile he traveled across Europe and spoke at rallies and socialist meetings. Lenin returned to his homeland to help in the revolution, in which he was elected to lead the local Socialist party. After the bloody battles, he resumed his exile until the next revolution in His drive to overthrow the provisional government and start a communist Russia is apparent in his many pamphlets: His goal, through much death and bloodshed, was reached.
In OctoberLenin and the Bolsheviks took power and became the de facto leaders of Russia. This massive power-shift changed Russia and the world for the next century.
Lenin worked extremely hard for his county. He is said to have worked long days in ill health, and even did work after the strokes that would eventually kill him Reed 5.In Marxist philosophy, Leninism is the body o poleetical theory for the democratic organisation o a revolutionary vanguard pairty, an the achievement o a direct-democracy dictatorship o the proletariat, as poleetical prelude tae the establishment o benjaminpohle.compit bi, an namit for, the Roushie revolutionary Vladimir Lenin, Leninism comprises political an socialist economic theories.
- welcome to the wonderful world of soviet books.
- this site attempts to catalogue the amazing books in english, hindi and other indian languages, published the soviet union (ussr).
Leninism is the political theory for the organisation of a revolutionary vanguard party and the achievement of a dictatorship of the proletariat as political prelude to the establishment of socialism..
Developed by and named for the Russian revolutionary Vladimir Lenin, Leninism comprises socialist political and economic theories, developed from Marxism and Lenin's interpretations of Marxist.
Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, better known by the alias Lenin (22 April – 21 January ), was a Russian communist revolutionary, politician and political theorist. He served as head of government of Soviet Russia from to and of the Soviet Union from to Nationality: Russian Empire.
Ferdinand Magellan was the leader of the first expedition to circumnavigate the real world. He was the first European to sail across the Pacific Ocean and discovered a route by which ships could sail a complete circle around the world.
Vladimir Lenin in Vladimir Illich Ulyanov (later known as Lenin) was born in Simbirsk, Russia, on 10th April, His father, Ilya Ulyanov, a local schools inspector, held conservative views and was a devout member of the Russian Orthodox Church. | <urn:uuid:fd592ecf-9f09-4ac9-aaca-31cd066bd0f9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://giremuvafela.benjaminpohle.com/achievement-of-vladimir-lenin-35084kb.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00214.warc.gz | en | 0.984726 | 856 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.11673075705766678... | 1 | Vladimir Lenin Regarded as one of the greatest revolutionary leaders in history, Vladimir Lenin was the founder of the Russian Communist Party, the leader of the Bolshevik Revolution, and the first head of the Soviet State. Lenin was the leader of the radical socialist Bolshevik Party later renamed the Communist Partywhich seized power in the October phase of the Russian Revolution of
Lenin was born in a small rural town on the Volga River called Simbirsk on April 10, Marx and Engels were the two inventors of Communism, who were well educated upper-class members of society that believed in social change.
Alexander Ulyanov was publicly hanged that same year. He first demonstrated his beliefs at a protest at Kazan University, for which he was promptly expelled. He was allowed to continue his studies by himself and eventually got his degree in law in As Lenin began to work as a lawyer and write his many pamphlets, a storm began to brew in his mind regarding the impending revolution.
Lenin, like others in the socialist party, wanted social and economic equality for the proletariat, or working class. He also wanted a more just government that was governed by the proletariat as opposed to the aristocrats who had been in power for years.
Many protests happened near his place of work in St. Petersburg, as it was a university town and full of young, idealistic minds. Lenin actively participated in many protests and gained a devoted following. This did not go unnoticed, as many times Lenin was arrested for speaking against the tsar.
These infractions were trumped by his eventual banishment for actions against the tsar to western Siberia and then to Munich.
For most of his exile he traveled across Europe and spoke at rallies and socialist meetings. Lenin returned to his homeland to help in the revolution, in which he was elected to lead the local Socialist party. After the bloody battles, he resumed his exile until the next revolution in His drive to overthrow the provisional government and start a communist Russia is apparent in his many pamphlets: His goal, through much death and bloodshed, was reached.
In OctoberLenin and the Bolsheviks took power and became the de facto leaders of Russia. This massive power-shift changed Russia and the world for the next century.
Lenin worked extremely hard for his county. He is said to have worked long days in ill health, and even did work after the strokes that would eventually kill him Reed 5.In Marxist philosophy, Leninism is the body o poleetical theory for the democratic organisation o a revolutionary vanguard pairty, an the achievement o a direct-democracy dictatorship o the proletariat, as poleetical prelude tae the establishment o benjaminpohle.compit bi, an namit for, the Roushie revolutionary Vladimir Lenin, Leninism comprises political an socialist economic theories.
- welcome to the wonderful world of soviet books.
- this site attempts to catalogue the amazing books in english, hindi and other indian languages, published the soviet union (ussr).
Leninism is the political theory for the organisation of a revolutionary vanguard party and the achievement of a dictatorship of the proletariat as political prelude to the establishment of socialism..
Developed by and named for the Russian revolutionary Vladimir Lenin, Leninism comprises socialist political and economic theories, developed from Marxism and Lenin's interpretations of Marxist.
Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, better known by the alias Lenin (22 April – 21 January ), was a Russian communist revolutionary, politician and political theorist. He served as head of government of Soviet Russia from to and of the Soviet Union from to Nationality: Russian Empire.
Ferdinand Magellan was the leader of the first expedition to circumnavigate the real world. He was the first European to sail across the Pacific Ocean and discovered a route by which ships could sail a complete circle around the world.
Vladimir Lenin in Vladimir Illich Ulyanov (later known as Lenin) was born in Simbirsk, Russia, on 10th April, His father, Ilya Ulyanov, a local schools inspector, held conservative views and was a devout member of the Russian Orthodox Church. | 850 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Cynisca was born around 440 BC in the ancient Greek city of Sparta and was the daughter of the Eurypontid king of Sparta, Archidamus II, and Eupoleia. She was also the sister of the later king of Sparta, Agesilaus II. She is said to have been a tomboy, an expert equestrian and very wealthy, the perfect qualifications for a successful trainer. She was exceedingly ambitious to succeed at the Olympic Games and the first woman to breed horses and win an Olympic victory, according to Pausanias.
Her name means 'female puppy' in Ancient Greek. She was named after her grandfather Zeuxidamus, who was called Cyniscos. It is possible that this name related to a specific kind of dog in Sparta, the female bloodhounds which were famous for their ability to find their quarries by their scent.
While most women in the ancient Greek world were kept in seclusion and forbidden to learn any kind of skills in sports, riding or hunting, Spartan women by contrast were brought up from girlhood to excel at these things so as to produce strong children, by going through early training similar to that of their brothers.
The ancient Olympic Games were almost entirely male-only and women were forbidden even to set foot in the main stadium at Olympia, where running events and combat sports were held. Women were allowed to enter only the equestrian events, not by running but by owning and training the horses. Cynisca employed men and entered her team at the Olympics, where it won in the four-horse chariot racing (tethrippon Greek: τέθριππον) twice, in 396 BC and again in 392 BC. The irony is that she probably didn't see her victories.
There have been some speculations over the motives of Agesilaus in directing his sister to join the equestrian competitions. One explanation is that he wanted to rekindle the warlike spirit in the Spartan society, which had given ground for the sake of a win in the Olympic Games. Another possible reason is that Agesilaus wanted to display Cynisca's abilities, or promote women generally.
According to Xenophon, she was encouraged to breed horses and compete in the Games, by her brother Agesilaus II, in an attempt to discredit the sport. He viewed success in chariot racing as a victory without merit, which was only a mark of wealth and lavish outlay due to the involvement of the horses' owner, while in the other events the decisive factor was a man's bravery and virtue. By having a woman win, he hoped to show the sport to be unmanly, but Cynisca's victories did not stop wealthy Spartans engaging in the sport.
However, Cynisca was honored by having a bronze statue of a chariot and horses, a charioteer and a statue of herself in the Temple of Zeus in Olympia, by the side of the statue of Troilus, made by Apelleas, and an inscription written declaring that she was the only female to win the wreath in the chariot events at the Olympic Games. The first person in the inscription indicates that Cynisca was willing to push herself forward and Xenophon says that this inscription was Agesilaus' idea. In addition to this, a hero-shrine of Cynisca was erected in Sparta at Plane-tree Grove, where religious ceremonies were held. Only Spartan kings were graced in this way and Cynisca was the first woman to receive this honor. The inscription from Olympia (c. 390-380 BC) reads:
Cynisca's win in the Olympics had a great impact on the ancient Greek world as other women, not only Lacedaemonians, later won the chariot racing, including Euryleonis, Belistiche, Zeuxo, Encrateia and Hermione, Timareta, Theodota (both from Elis) and Cassia. However, none of them was more distinguished for their victories than she was. Zoe Karelli, a modern Greek poet, wrote a poem for Cynisca's love for the horses and her Olympic win which made her name famous in Greek history. This Spartan princess is frequently used until today as a symbolic figure of the social rise of woman. | <urn:uuid:0712db73-376f-48e9-8700-34bb4fdc7564> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.theinfolist.com/php/SummaryGet.php?FindGo=Cynisca | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00299.warc.gz | en | 0.984767 | 893 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.05185035243630... | 1 | Cynisca was born around 440 BC in the ancient Greek city of Sparta and was the daughter of the Eurypontid king of Sparta, Archidamus II, and Eupoleia. She was also the sister of the later king of Sparta, Agesilaus II. She is said to have been a tomboy, an expert equestrian and very wealthy, the perfect qualifications for a successful trainer. She was exceedingly ambitious to succeed at the Olympic Games and the first woman to breed horses and win an Olympic victory, according to Pausanias.
Her name means 'female puppy' in Ancient Greek. She was named after her grandfather Zeuxidamus, who was called Cyniscos. It is possible that this name related to a specific kind of dog in Sparta, the female bloodhounds which were famous for their ability to find their quarries by their scent.
While most women in the ancient Greek world were kept in seclusion and forbidden to learn any kind of skills in sports, riding or hunting, Spartan women by contrast were brought up from girlhood to excel at these things so as to produce strong children, by going through early training similar to that of their brothers.
The ancient Olympic Games were almost entirely male-only and women were forbidden even to set foot in the main stadium at Olympia, where running events and combat sports were held. Women were allowed to enter only the equestrian events, not by running but by owning and training the horses. Cynisca employed men and entered her team at the Olympics, where it won in the four-horse chariot racing (tethrippon Greek: τέθριππον) twice, in 396 BC and again in 392 BC. The irony is that she probably didn't see her victories.
There have been some speculations over the motives of Agesilaus in directing his sister to join the equestrian competitions. One explanation is that he wanted to rekindle the warlike spirit in the Spartan society, which had given ground for the sake of a win in the Olympic Games. Another possible reason is that Agesilaus wanted to display Cynisca's abilities, or promote women generally.
According to Xenophon, she was encouraged to breed horses and compete in the Games, by her brother Agesilaus II, in an attempt to discredit the sport. He viewed success in chariot racing as a victory without merit, which was only a mark of wealth and lavish outlay due to the involvement of the horses' owner, while in the other events the decisive factor was a man's bravery and virtue. By having a woman win, he hoped to show the sport to be unmanly, but Cynisca's victories did not stop wealthy Spartans engaging in the sport.
However, Cynisca was honored by having a bronze statue of a chariot and horses, a charioteer and a statue of herself in the Temple of Zeus in Olympia, by the side of the statue of Troilus, made by Apelleas, and an inscription written declaring that she was the only female to win the wreath in the chariot events at the Olympic Games. The first person in the inscription indicates that Cynisca was willing to push herself forward and Xenophon says that this inscription was Agesilaus' idea. In addition to this, a hero-shrine of Cynisca was erected in Sparta at Plane-tree Grove, where religious ceremonies were held. Only Spartan kings were graced in this way and Cynisca was the first woman to receive this honor. The inscription from Olympia (c. 390-380 BC) reads:
Cynisca's win in the Olympics had a great impact on the ancient Greek world as other women, not only Lacedaemonians, later won the chariot racing, including Euryleonis, Belistiche, Zeuxo, Encrateia and Hermione, Timareta, Theodota (both from Elis) and Cassia. However, none of them was more distinguished for their victories than she was. Zoe Karelli, a modern Greek poet, wrote a poem for Cynisca's love for the horses and her Olympic win which made her name famous in Greek history. This Spartan princess is frequently used until today as a symbolic figure of the social rise of woman. | 904 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Viking Age ran from 800 AD to 1050 AD. The Vikings were those who lived in what we now know as Denmark, Norway and Sweden, for a period of about 300 years from around late 790 to around 1100 AD. The term Viking actually means pirate, which is certainly the way that we perceive them – raping and pillaging them all the way across the country. Or did they? The Vikings may have carried out raids and used slaves, but they also farmed and fished.
The Vikings at the British Museum
Yesterday, I went to see the Vikings Exhibition at the British Museum in London. The BM has a history of putting on excellent exhibitions with specific focus.
The Viking influx into Britain started when a raiding party attacked the monastery at Lindisfarne, an island off the coast of Northumberland in 793 AD. They stayed in Britain from then until William the Conqueror popped across the channel in 1066.
Central to the exhibition at the British Museum is the remains of a 37 metre long warship from around 1025AD. Sadly, being made of wood, much of the ship had rotted, but the reconstruction gives a good impression of what the ship would have been like, perhaps like the one in the photograph below. No-one knows for sure, but the resources that would have gone into the building of the ship indicate that is was owned by someone wealthy, maybe King Cnut (Canute) himself. This is the longest Viking ship ever discovered.
|The Oxford Illustrated History of the Vikings|
With settlements stretching across a vast expanse and with legends of their exploits extending even farther, the Vikings were the most far-flung and feared people of their time....
|Northmen: The Viking Saga, AD 793-1241|
From Finland to Newfoundland and Jelling to Jerusalem, follow in the wake of the Vikings―a transformative story of a people that begins with paganism and ends in Christendom. In...
|The Sea Wolves: A History of the Vikings|
In AD 793 Norse warriors struck the English isle of Lindisfarne and laid waste to it. Wave after wave of Norse ‘sea-wolves’ followed in search of plunder, land, or a glorious de...
One of the other fascinating exhibits contained the remnants a mass grave containing the skeletons of Viking warriors. They had all been beheaded – one skeleton shows the fingers on one hand severed where the individual had clearly been trying to shield himself from the sword or whatever was being used to behead him. The exhibition even showed how two of the individuals would have had difficulty walking, one because of earlier break to his thigh bone, the other because of a condition that the owner would have had since childhood.
It seems that the archetypical portrayal of Vikings wearing horned helmets is not true; they were generally plain, close fitting helmets, with little or no adornment, but they did wear tightly knitted chain mail. The men also typically wore trousers with lots of fabric in them, which had to be clipped up to stop them getting in the way.
Elsewhere were displays of beautifully made and ornate jewellery. There was a huge gold collar that had been intricately woven and was clearly a status symbol, but also believed to have been a source of funds too. It would have sat quite neatly on each of my shoulders, so probably not very comfortable to wear, but stunning to see! Other pieces of jewellery contained glass beads, jet and amber.
Interestingly, Dublin became one of the most important Viking towns, as did York. These towns were allowed to issue their own coinage. In heavily settled areas, there are still place names that link back to the Viking heritage. Town names such as Scunthorpe (-thorpe was associated with settlements on poor land), Selby or Whitby (-by is associated with the first places in which the Vikings settled), Caistor and Snape are just a few of those names remaining. Most of eastern Norfolk and the country between Cumberland and Northumbria right down to the Midlands was settled by the Vikings.
We now know that the Vikings did have their war-like elements, and didn’t always win the battle, but many of them were fishermen, farmers and hunters. They traded with huge areas of the world, travelling as far as North America in the west and Russia in the east, even having an influence in Islamic society.
This exhibition ran at the British Museum up until 22 June 2014, so is unfortunately now closed, but it's always worth taking a look at the website at www.britishmuseum.org to see what's coming up next.
The British Museum is open daily, from 10:00 to 17:30 (20:30 on Fridays). Although entry to the museum is free, this exhibition is £16.50 for adults, less for other age groups.
The museum is located at Great Russell Street, WC1B 3DG. | <urn:uuid:cf891bf6-4ffe-443f-92d2-fcd4aa170229> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wizzley.com/the-vikings-at-the-british-museum/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00395.warc.gz | en | 0.983443 | 1,022 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.18552519381... | 1 | The Viking Age ran from 800 AD to 1050 AD. The Vikings were those who lived in what we now know as Denmark, Norway and Sweden, for a period of about 300 years from around late 790 to around 1100 AD. The term Viking actually means pirate, which is certainly the way that we perceive them – raping and pillaging them all the way across the country. Or did they? The Vikings may have carried out raids and used slaves, but they also farmed and fished.
The Vikings at the British Museum
Yesterday, I went to see the Vikings Exhibition at the British Museum in London. The BM has a history of putting on excellent exhibitions with specific focus.
The Viking influx into Britain started when a raiding party attacked the monastery at Lindisfarne, an island off the coast of Northumberland in 793 AD. They stayed in Britain from then until William the Conqueror popped across the channel in 1066.
Central to the exhibition at the British Museum is the remains of a 37 metre long warship from around 1025AD. Sadly, being made of wood, much of the ship had rotted, but the reconstruction gives a good impression of what the ship would have been like, perhaps like the one in the photograph below. No-one knows for sure, but the resources that would have gone into the building of the ship indicate that is was owned by someone wealthy, maybe King Cnut (Canute) himself. This is the longest Viking ship ever discovered.
|The Oxford Illustrated History of the Vikings|
With settlements stretching across a vast expanse and with legends of their exploits extending even farther, the Vikings were the most far-flung and feared people of their time....
|Northmen: The Viking Saga, AD 793-1241|
From Finland to Newfoundland and Jelling to Jerusalem, follow in the wake of the Vikings―a transformative story of a people that begins with paganism and ends in Christendom. In...
|The Sea Wolves: A History of the Vikings|
In AD 793 Norse warriors struck the English isle of Lindisfarne and laid waste to it. Wave after wave of Norse ‘sea-wolves’ followed in search of plunder, land, or a glorious de...
One of the other fascinating exhibits contained the remnants a mass grave containing the skeletons of Viking warriors. They had all been beheaded – one skeleton shows the fingers on one hand severed where the individual had clearly been trying to shield himself from the sword or whatever was being used to behead him. The exhibition even showed how two of the individuals would have had difficulty walking, one because of earlier break to his thigh bone, the other because of a condition that the owner would have had since childhood.
It seems that the archetypical portrayal of Vikings wearing horned helmets is not true; they were generally plain, close fitting helmets, with little or no adornment, but they did wear tightly knitted chain mail. The men also typically wore trousers with lots of fabric in them, which had to be clipped up to stop them getting in the way.
Elsewhere were displays of beautifully made and ornate jewellery. There was a huge gold collar that had been intricately woven and was clearly a status symbol, but also believed to have been a source of funds too. It would have sat quite neatly on each of my shoulders, so probably not very comfortable to wear, but stunning to see! Other pieces of jewellery contained glass beads, jet and amber.
Interestingly, Dublin became one of the most important Viking towns, as did York. These towns were allowed to issue their own coinage. In heavily settled areas, there are still place names that link back to the Viking heritage. Town names such as Scunthorpe (-thorpe was associated with settlements on poor land), Selby or Whitby (-by is associated with the first places in which the Vikings settled), Caistor and Snape are just a few of those names remaining. Most of eastern Norfolk and the country between Cumberland and Northumbria right down to the Midlands was settled by the Vikings.
We now know that the Vikings did have their war-like elements, and didn’t always win the battle, but many of them were fishermen, farmers and hunters. They traded with huge areas of the world, travelling as far as North America in the west and Russia in the east, even having an influence in Islamic society.
This exhibition ran at the British Museum up until 22 June 2014, so is unfortunately now closed, but it's always worth taking a look at the website at www.britishmuseum.org to see what's coming up next.
The British Museum is open daily, from 10:00 to 17:30 (20:30 on Fridays). Although entry to the museum is free, this exhibition is £16.50 for adults, less for other age groups.
The museum is located at Great Russell Street, WC1B 3DG. | 1,043 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Prague History – World War Two
Last Updated: 10262 viewswith
World War Two in Prague Walking Tour
Remember that I do my own World War Two walking tour which covers all of the events as it affected Prague from 1938 to 1945. It includes central characters like Kurt Von Neurath, Reinhard Heydrich, Karl Herman Frank and Adolf Eichmann. It shows you and explains various memorials, it explains the life and destruction of the Jewish population, Operation Anthropoid, the Prague Uprising and pictures from the past.
After six months of Czechoslovakia, minus its border regions and known as Bohemia and Moravia was occupied by the Nazis. Slovakia had ceded from Czechoslovakia the day before – on March 14, 1939 – to form an “independent” Nazi state, and thus very short work indeed was made of the former Czechoslovakia. Overnight, everyone had to start driving on the right side of the road.
The Czechoslovak President, Edward Benes, and other government politicians had already fled abroad – mostly to France and to Britain (those that were in France went to Britain when France was occupied). These leaders’ political campaign to represent Czechoslovakia’s interests was an uphill battle at first, as western European powers still favoured the policy of appeasement at that time.
On October 28, 1939 – which would have been the 21st anniversary of the Czechoslovak Declaration of Independence had Czechoslovakia not ceased to exist – popular celebrations turned into massive demonstrations of protest against the German occupation. A young medical student, Jan Opletal, was fatally wounded in the incident. His funeral, on November 15, 1939 turned into yet another spontaneous demonstration. In 1939, the Nazis reacted to the student demonstration by sentencing nine student leaders to death on November 17th (fifty years later, on November 17, 1989, a march by students to commemorate this event helped bring about the fall of Communism), by closing the Czech universities, and by sending some 1,200 university students to concentration and labor camps. The Nazi regime was very cruel and strict, and active resistance was harshly punished. Not surprisingly, then, the Czech and Slovak resistance movements were small. Yet they were very dedicated, very determined, and often surprisingly successful, especially in the field of sabotage.
By July 1940, however, Great Britain recognized President Benes as the leader of the provisional “free Czechoslovak government in exile.” In addition to the London centre of the provisional government, the Moscow Communist centre – where politicians who favoured the Soviet political system had fled – also played an important role in the Czechoslovak resistance movement during the war. Unfortunately, many of the Czechs and Slovaks who had chosen to go to Moscow spent at least part of the war years in Russian Gulags as suspected spies. Czechoslovak pilots in England’s RAF were particularly distinguished fighters (even if they were initially segregated from regular troops for the same reason) and they would play a fundamental role in the Battle of Britain.
During the war, Czechoslovak army units fighting abroad often parachuted foreign-trained Czech and Slovak soldiers into occupied Czech territory to perform special assignments. The most significant of these special assignments was the assassination in 1942, of Reinhard Heydrich – the German Reichsprotektor of Bohemia and Moravia and one of the architects of the “Final Solution.” Amazingly he survived the bomb blast that destroyed his car but, was poisoned by the horse hair used to make the padding for the seats, which lodged in his body as a result of the explosion.
His assassination by Czechoslovak parachutists on May 27, 1942 set off a reign of terror throughout the Czech lands. Martial law was declared and the Nazis conducted house-to-house searches looking for the parachutists and the members of the Czech resistance movement who had helped them. More than 1,600 people were executed and more were sent to concentration camps in the period immediately following the assassination.
The terror reached its height with the annihilation of the village of Lidice, where 173 men were executed and the women and children of the village were sent to concentration camps. A few weeks later, the village of Lezaky, where the Nazis killed 54 men, women and children, was also razed to the ground. By the time this terror – known as the “Heydrichiada” – was over, the Nazis had damaged the resistance movement so much that it was only able to resume its activities at the very end of the war.
The resistance movements in Czechoslovakia culminated in the Slovak National Uprising of 1944 – which was brutally put down – and in the Prague Uprising in the Czech lands in May of 1945 – which started just a few days before foreign armies arrived to officially liberate the city. | <urn:uuid:a495706c-d864-476c-9621-cdbe468b7f24> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://livingprague.com/prague-history/prague-world-war-two/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00163.warc.gz | en | 0.984594 | 996 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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Last Updated: 10262 viewswith
World War Two in Prague Walking Tour
Remember that I do my own World War Two walking tour which covers all of the events as it affected Prague from 1938 to 1945. It includes central characters like Kurt Von Neurath, Reinhard Heydrich, Karl Herman Frank and Adolf Eichmann. It shows you and explains various memorials, it explains the life and destruction of the Jewish population, Operation Anthropoid, the Prague Uprising and pictures from the past.
After six months of Czechoslovakia, minus its border regions and known as Bohemia and Moravia was occupied by the Nazis. Slovakia had ceded from Czechoslovakia the day before – on March 14, 1939 – to form an “independent” Nazi state, and thus very short work indeed was made of the former Czechoslovakia. Overnight, everyone had to start driving on the right side of the road.
The Czechoslovak President, Edward Benes, and other government politicians had already fled abroad – mostly to France and to Britain (those that were in France went to Britain when France was occupied). These leaders’ political campaign to represent Czechoslovakia’s interests was an uphill battle at first, as western European powers still favoured the policy of appeasement at that time.
On October 28, 1939 – which would have been the 21st anniversary of the Czechoslovak Declaration of Independence had Czechoslovakia not ceased to exist – popular celebrations turned into massive demonstrations of protest against the German occupation. A young medical student, Jan Opletal, was fatally wounded in the incident. His funeral, on November 15, 1939 turned into yet another spontaneous demonstration. In 1939, the Nazis reacted to the student demonstration by sentencing nine student leaders to death on November 17th (fifty years later, on November 17, 1989, a march by students to commemorate this event helped bring about the fall of Communism), by closing the Czech universities, and by sending some 1,200 university students to concentration and labor camps. The Nazi regime was very cruel and strict, and active resistance was harshly punished. Not surprisingly, then, the Czech and Slovak resistance movements were small. Yet they were very dedicated, very determined, and often surprisingly successful, especially in the field of sabotage.
By July 1940, however, Great Britain recognized President Benes as the leader of the provisional “free Czechoslovak government in exile.” In addition to the London centre of the provisional government, the Moscow Communist centre – where politicians who favoured the Soviet political system had fled – also played an important role in the Czechoslovak resistance movement during the war. Unfortunately, many of the Czechs and Slovaks who had chosen to go to Moscow spent at least part of the war years in Russian Gulags as suspected spies. Czechoslovak pilots in England’s RAF were particularly distinguished fighters (even if they were initially segregated from regular troops for the same reason) and they would play a fundamental role in the Battle of Britain.
During the war, Czechoslovak army units fighting abroad often parachuted foreign-trained Czech and Slovak soldiers into occupied Czech territory to perform special assignments. The most significant of these special assignments was the assassination in 1942, of Reinhard Heydrich – the German Reichsprotektor of Bohemia and Moravia and one of the architects of the “Final Solution.” Amazingly he survived the bomb blast that destroyed his car but, was poisoned by the horse hair used to make the padding for the seats, which lodged in his body as a result of the explosion.
His assassination by Czechoslovak parachutists on May 27, 1942 set off a reign of terror throughout the Czech lands. Martial law was declared and the Nazis conducted house-to-house searches looking for the parachutists and the members of the Czech resistance movement who had helped them. More than 1,600 people were executed and more were sent to concentration camps in the period immediately following the assassination.
The terror reached its height with the annihilation of the village of Lidice, where 173 men were executed and the women and children of the village were sent to concentration camps. A few weeks later, the village of Lezaky, where the Nazis killed 54 men, women and children, was also razed to the ground. By the time this terror – known as the “Heydrichiada” – was over, the Nazis had damaged the resistance movement so much that it was only able to resume its activities at the very end of the war.
The resistance movements in Czechoslovakia culminated in the Slovak National Uprising of 1944 – which was brutally put down – and in the Prague Uprising in the Czech lands in May of 1945 – which started just a few days before foreign armies arrived to officially liberate the city. | 1,053 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Anne Moody’s Coming of Age in the Mississippi Essay
?At the start of the book a naive, young and innocent African American girl lived life almost oblivious to the socially constructed issue of race. She did not see the difference of skin color and believed it was perfectly normal to socialize with whites. As far as she was concerned raced did not exist. This view was quickly altered and changed as the little girl named Essie-Mae Moody grew up fast in a society dominated by racial boundaries involving whites, blacks and a hierarchy of people who had parts of both.
Essie’s first encounter with race which initiated her first change, from being oblivious to being confused, occurred early in life. When she was young, she was friends with and often played with white children. This all changed when an unknowing Essie-Mae tried to sit with her white friends in a white’s only section of a movie theatre. After being harshly corrected of her errors by her mother her eyes were opened for the first time to a world with race. “I knew that we were going to separate schools and all, but I never knew why. ”1 At this point her innocence was lost and confusion took hold of her.
At this point she realized the bigger picture, that she and her friends were different because of their skin color. “I had never really thought of them as white before. Now all of a sudden they were white, and their whiteness made them better than me. ”2 Essie-Mae also realized at this point that whites had nicer and better things, everything was better for someone who was white. Her confusion continued to increase as she questioned the racial differences. She didn’t understand how looks alone did not make someone white, as was with her white skinned “black” relatives. If it wasn’t the straight hair and the white skin that made you white, then what was it? ”3 The racial hierarchy was not only comprised of blacks and whites, which Essie-Mae Moody discovered at a young age. In between white and black were all shades of people, some almost flaunted their white qualities and lighter skin, and even acted superior to those of darker shades even among relatives. However, Essie didn’t understand why “… they hated Mama and for no reason at all other than the fact that she was a couple of shades darker than other members of their family. 4 Her mother was not the only victim unfortunately. Essie-Mae herself was even ignored in public by lighter skinned members of her extended family. Essie-Mae Moody’s confused outlook towards race took a new view after having interactions with and working for various whites. Some whites treated her as if there was no existence of race at all, while others treated her poorly and tried to enforce racial boundaries at every opportunity. One example of this occurred when she worked for Linda Jean Jenkins. Mrs. Jenkins treated Essie with the respect that she deserved and treated her more as a friend than hired help.
This positive experience however, was tainted by the actions of Mrs. Burke, Linda Jean’s mother. Mrs. Burke took every opportunity to try and make her “racial superiority” known, almost trying to counteract her daughter’s more open minded views and actions. 5 Through this experience Essie gave the impression that some whites were kind like Linda Jean, but others could be evil as was Mrs. Burke. The next feeling towards whites Essie-Mae had as time passed was one of fear. This fear was created by the murder of Emmitt Till. His death marked the first time in her life that she realized whites killed blacks because of race.
When Essie had asked who killed African Americans in the past her mother told her, “An evil spirit killed him. You gotta be a good girl or it will kill you too. ”6 When she finally realized that the evil spirit was actually whites she began to be afraid of them. When she was younger she did not know that race based killings existed, but once enlightened she began to fear and the last part of her innocence was lost. 7 “Before Emmit Till’s murder, I had known fear of hunger, hell and the Devil. But now there was a new fear known to me- the fear of being killed just because I was black.
This was the worst of my fears. ”8 This fear was also given life because she was not aware of what criteria or actions could cause an African American to be killed. She came to the conclusion that being black was enough. 9 “I was fifteen years old when I began to hate people. I hated the white men who murdered Emmitt Till and I hated all the other whites who were responsible for countless murders…and those I vaguely remembered from childhood. ”10 The section of the book that this quote comes from shows an attitude toward race that Essie-Mae retains for a significant amount of time.
Her feelings were characterized by anger. As the story progresses it comes to be known that Essie does not solely blame the whites. She considered the black community just as guilty for allowing the atrocities to occur. At this point in time Essie-Mae showed that she did not blame just one side of the racial spectrum; she blamed everyone for their part in contributing to the problem. 11 Her anger eventually transformed into hatred as more atrocities occurred that involved the killings of African Americans. The major event that caused Essie-Mae Moody to hate was the murder of Samuel O’Quinn.
This murder was the straw that broke the camel’s back in relation to Essie’s shift to saying she hated whites. His death reminded her of all the other killings she had buried away inside of her that were waiting to explode. She was even more angry that she wanted to take direct action against what was happening but did not know what to do or how to do it. At one point she said, “I wanted to take my savings, buy a machine gun, and walk down the main street in Centreville cutting down every white person I saw. ”12 This hate resulted in her resentment towards whites altogether.
Her resentment was typified by her actions and feelings toward one of her white employers. “When I was at work I hardly spoke to Mrs. Hunt. Because she was part of Centreville’s white community and didn’t condemn what they were doing, I considered her as guilty as the ones who did the killing. ”13 Essie-Mae later began to attribute household problems and domestic disputes of African Americans to whites. Essie agreed with Emma when she blamed whites for how “…they had set things up making it almost impossible for the Negro men to earn a living. ” At this point Essie’s feelings towards whites was the most negative it would reach.
The final view that Essie holds towards whites was one of pity. For long she was confused by whites, was angry with whites and ultimately hated them. However, this attitude was very different. Essie got to a point where she concluded that southern whites where sick. She could not understand why they would kill to retain their way of life. 14 This is when her hatred began to dissipate. “Before the sit-in, I had always hated whites in Mississippi. Now I knew it was impossible for me to hate sickness. The whites had a disease, an incurable disease in its final stage. ”15 | <urn:uuid:09dd43b0-1eb4-44a5-ae6f-43b802800311> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://niagarafallshypnosiscenter.com/anne-moodys-coming-of-age-in-the-mississippi/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00506.warc.gz | en | 0.991068 | 1,556 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.2288951724... | 3 | Anne Moody’s Coming of Age in the Mississippi Essay
?At the start of the book a naive, young and innocent African American girl lived life almost oblivious to the socially constructed issue of race. She did not see the difference of skin color and believed it was perfectly normal to socialize with whites. As far as she was concerned raced did not exist. This view was quickly altered and changed as the little girl named Essie-Mae Moody grew up fast in a society dominated by racial boundaries involving whites, blacks and a hierarchy of people who had parts of both.
Essie’s first encounter with race which initiated her first change, from being oblivious to being confused, occurred early in life. When she was young, she was friends with and often played with white children. This all changed when an unknowing Essie-Mae tried to sit with her white friends in a white’s only section of a movie theatre. After being harshly corrected of her errors by her mother her eyes were opened for the first time to a world with race. “I knew that we were going to separate schools and all, but I never knew why. ”1 At this point her innocence was lost and confusion took hold of her.
At this point she realized the bigger picture, that she and her friends were different because of their skin color. “I had never really thought of them as white before. Now all of a sudden they were white, and their whiteness made them better than me. ”2 Essie-Mae also realized at this point that whites had nicer and better things, everything was better for someone who was white. Her confusion continued to increase as she questioned the racial differences. She didn’t understand how looks alone did not make someone white, as was with her white skinned “black” relatives. If it wasn’t the straight hair and the white skin that made you white, then what was it? ”3 The racial hierarchy was not only comprised of blacks and whites, which Essie-Mae Moody discovered at a young age. In between white and black were all shades of people, some almost flaunted their white qualities and lighter skin, and even acted superior to those of darker shades even among relatives. However, Essie didn’t understand why “… they hated Mama and for no reason at all other than the fact that she was a couple of shades darker than other members of their family. 4 Her mother was not the only victim unfortunately. Essie-Mae herself was even ignored in public by lighter skinned members of her extended family. Essie-Mae Moody’s confused outlook towards race took a new view after having interactions with and working for various whites. Some whites treated her as if there was no existence of race at all, while others treated her poorly and tried to enforce racial boundaries at every opportunity. One example of this occurred when she worked for Linda Jean Jenkins. Mrs. Jenkins treated Essie with the respect that she deserved and treated her more as a friend than hired help.
This positive experience however, was tainted by the actions of Mrs. Burke, Linda Jean’s mother. Mrs. Burke took every opportunity to try and make her “racial superiority” known, almost trying to counteract her daughter’s more open minded views and actions. 5 Through this experience Essie gave the impression that some whites were kind like Linda Jean, but others could be evil as was Mrs. Burke. The next feeling towards whites Essie-Mae had as time passed was one of fear. This fear was created by the murder of Emmitt Till. His death marked the first time in her life that she realized whites killed blacks because of race.
When Essie had asked who killed African Americans in the past her mother told her, “An evil spirit killed him. You gotta be a good girl or it will kill you too. ”6 When she finally realized that the evil spirit was actually whites she began to be afraid of them. When she was younger she did not know that race based killings existed, but once enlightened she began to fear and the last part of her innocence was lost. 7 “Before Emmit Till’s murder, I had known fear of hunger, hell and the Devil. But now there was a new fear known to me- the fear of being killed just because I was black.
This was the worst of my fears. ”8 This fear was also given life because she was not aware of what criteria or actions could cause an African American to be killed. She came to the conclusion that being black was enough. 9 “I was fifteen years old when I began to hate people. I hated the white men who murdered Emmitt Till and I hated all the other whites who were responsible for countless murders…and those I vaguely remembered from childhood. ”10 The section of the book that this quote comes from shows an attitude toward race that Essie-Mae retains for a significant amount of time.
Her feelings were characterized by anger. As the story progresses it comes to be known that Essie does not solely blame the whites. She considered the black community just as guilty for allowing the atrocities to occur. At this point in time Essie-Mae showed that she did not blame just one side of the racial spectrum; she blamed everyone for their part in contributing to the problem. 11 Her anger eventually transformed into hatred as more atrocities occurred that involved the killings of African Americans. The major event that caused Essie-Mae Moody to hate was the murder of Samuel O’Quinn.
This murder was the straw that broke the camel’s back in relation to Essie’s shift to saying she hated whites. His death reminded her of all the other killings she had buried away inside of her that were waiting to explode. She was even more angry that she wanted to take direct action against what was happening but did not know what to do or how to do it. At one point she said, “I wanted to take my savings, buy a machine gun, and walk down the main street in Centreville cutting down every white person I saw. ”12 This hate resulted in her resentment towards whites altogether.
Her resentment was typified by her actions and feelings toward one of her white employers. “When I was at work I hardly spoke to Mrs. Hunt. Because she was part of Centreville’s white community and didn’t condemn what they were doing, I considered her as guilty as the ones who did the killing. ”13 Essie-Mae later began to attribute household problems and domestic disputes of African Americans to whites. Essie agreed with Emma when she blamed whites for how “…they had set things up making it almost impossible for the Negro men to earn a living. ” At this point Essie’s feelings towards whites was the most negative it would reach.
The final view that Essie holds towards whites was one of pity. For long she was confused by whites, was angry with whites and ultimately hated them. However, this attitude was very different. Essie got to a point where she concluded that southern whites where sick. She could not understand why they would kill to retain their way of life. 14 This is when her hatred began to dissipate. “Before the sit-in, I had always hated whites in Mississippi. Now I knew it was impossible for me to hate sickness. The whites had a disease, an incurable disease in its final stage. ”15 | 1,493 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Is Odysseus a Hero Essay Example
During the Trojan war, Odysseus, a great hero, considers the war and how it is impacting him, his life, and his family. As stated in Homer's Odyssey, Odysseus is one of the most cunning and imaginative warriors that the Greeks have, and he knows that any decision he makes will impact how he is perceived as a hero. All of his motivations and decisions are carefully scrutinized by his comrades, and any decision or action that he takes could have a direct affect on the outcome of the war. He also knows that he is a great Greek hero and that the Greeks hold value in their heroes, so he doesn't want to disappoint them. Odysseus experiences first hand what it means to be a hero and how his motivations and decisions affect his role as a great Greek hero. Throughout the epic, Odysseus faces many challenges, but he eventually prevails and returns to his home in Ithaka. He also has a direct impact on how the Greeks perceive heroes and what they value in a hero. In Odyssey this can be seen many times. So, when analyzing the decisions that Odysseus made, it can be seen that his motivations and decisions affected his role as a hero and impacted the Greek view on heroism.
One way that Odysseus' role as a hero was impacted is through Odysseus' motivations when acting upon a problem. One example of this can be seen when Odysseus wants to go to the Kyklops' island. He wanted to investigate out of curiosity and he is motivated to do so through his need to discover who or what lives on the island and what goods they have to offer to him. Odysseus states, "...and find out what the mainland natives are -/ for they they may be wild savages, and lawless, or hospitable and god fearing men'" (Homer 9.187-189). He also states that he will bring only his own crew with him, and that the rest of the men will stay behind (Homer 9.184-186). Unfortunately, this adventure led to catastrophe, and Odysseus lost four of his men (Homer 9.313-337). As Odysseus is expressing his need to go to the Kyklopses' island to find out who inhabits it, he is affecting his role as a hero through his motivations. By deciding to venture out, Odysseus is putting not only his own life in jeopardy, but he is risking the lives of his men, too. After this adventure, Odysseus ends up losing four of his men. Their deaths in particular had a direct impact on Odysseus' heroic role in Odyssey. Odysseus was motivated to embark on the journey to the Kyklopses' island solely out of curiosity and arrogance. This ultimately led to the adventure having been pointless and having the death of his men hold no purpose whatsoever. A hero should know that the lives of his men are held in his hand and should not be willing to compromise their safety for a journey that was fueled by an emotion such as curiosity. In the case of Journeying to the Kyklopses' island, it can be seen that Odysseus' motivations to embark on this journey ultimately led to his role as a hero being impacted in a negative way. Although this had a negative impact on how Odysseus is perceived, the Greeks still viewed him as a hero due to his other heroic qualities. Another example of Odysseus' motivations impacting his role as a hero can be seen in the ways in which Odysseus attempted to gather information from the Trojans during the Trojan War. During this time, Odysseus was greatly motivated to collect information from the Trojans regarding their battle strategies and plans. To do this, he decided to dress up as a household slave and attempt to slip unnoticed into the Trojan base. He did this and went unnoticed by all except for Meleláos who took him to his home and promised not to tell the Trojans that he was there. Odysseus then left the city, but was able to find out information about the Trojans that he was able to share with his army (Homer 4.252-285). Odysseus' motivation to gather information from the Trojans led him to risk his life for a cause that he believed in. By doing this, he impacted his role as a hero in a very positive way. Only a true and devoted hero would have been willing to risk his life in order to serve his cause. When going in the city to spy and try to discover the Trojan's plans, Odysseus did not falter, and he was ultimately successful. In this example, it can be seen that Odysseus' motivations had the ability to impact his role as a hero in a very positive way. So, through this evidence, it can be seen that Odysseus' motivations when deciding to embark on an adventure can truly affect his role as a hero.
Odysseus' Decisions And Their Impact
Besides being impacted by Odysseus' motivations when completing a task, in Homer's Odyssey, Odysseus' decisions also impact his role as a hero throughout the epic. An example of Odysseus' decisions impacting his role as a hero can be seen when Odysseus decided to raid the land of Ísmaros, but was unable to control his men after the raid. After the raid, Odysseus stated that he told his crew, "'Back, and quickly! Out to sea again'" (Homer 9.50-51). Before he told his men that they needed to retreat, he had landed on Ísmaros, but had abused their hospitality by raiding their city and enslaving their women (Homer 9.44-49). At first, Odysseus and his men caught the citizens by surprise, but they soon realized that they needed to gather an army. At this point, Odysseus realized that he and his men needed to leave before the citizens could arrange an attack back on them, but Odysseus was unable to command his men to leave. This ultimately resulted in a battle in which the lives of many of his men were lost (Homer 9.42-73). Due to Odysseus' decision to raid the island of Ísmaros, many of his men lost their lives. As their leader, Odysseus was responsible for the lives of these men, and they trusted him to guide them home with their lives intact. When Odysseus decided to raid Ísmaros without a cause, he was putting the lives of his men at risk unnecessarily. This decision affected the way that Odysseus was perceived as a hero. Losing men always impacts the way that people feel about their heroes, and this unnecessary loss of life impacted Odysseus. It made Odysseus look like a bit of a weak hero. If he could have been able to control his men, Odysseus would have been able to prevent their untimely deaths. So, because he was unable to control his men, Odysseus' decision to act and invade Ísmaros affected how he is perceived as a hero. Another example of Odysseus' decisions impacting how he is viewed as a hero can be seen when Odysseus protects his men from Helen of Troy's teasing and calling when they are hiding inside the Trojan Horse while waiting to strike. By preventing the men from leaving the horse, Odysseus saves their lives. When Meneláos tells Telémakhos about Odysseus' adventures; one of the stories that he tells him is this story. Meneláos states that, "'inside a hollow horse, where we were waiting... three times you [Helen] walked around it [the horse], patting it everywhere, and called the name of our fighters... Odysseus fought us down, despite our craving'" (Homer 293-306). From this, it can be seen that Helen knew that the men were in the horse and that she was trying to lure them out to their deaths. If Odysseus had not acted upon the situation and physically held the men back, their entire plan would have been ruined and many lives would have been lost. So, in this case, Odysseus' decisions impacted his role as a hero in a very positive way due to the fact that his witt and quick thinking saved the lives of him and his men. Overall, it can be seen that Odysseus' decisions, both negatively and positively affected his role as a hero as he is considered by the Greek people.
Odysseus' Motivations and Decisions
Besides impacting Odysseus' role as a hero, Odysseus' motivations and decisions also had an effect on the Greek view of heroism. When considering heroes, the Greeks greatly valued skills such as bravery, strength, and valor. Odysseus was a great Greek hero, but he was very intelligent and cunning. Since Odysseus had traits that were not usually seen as heroic at that time, all of his motivations and the decisions that he made had an impact on the Greek view on heroism and allowed the Greeks to consider the meaning of heroism in a new way. One example of Odysseus' motivations impacting how the Greeks viewed heroism can be found when looking at how the minstrel Demódokos sang about and praised Odysseus. In his song, he told of how Odysseus came up with the idea of the Trojan Horse and how many men are in awe of his greatness and consider him to be an almighty hero. The minstrel also sang about how Odysseus was a fierce fighter and seemed almost to fight like Arês, the War God himself (Homer 8.533-558). From this, it can be seen how highly the Greeks revered Odysseus, so much so that they even considered him to be godlike in some aspects. In Demódokos' song, he sings mainly about one of Odysseus' major accomplishments, the creation and success of the Trojan Horse. At that time, this was one of the greatest accomplishments, and it really affected how people viewed heroism. From this incident, they realized that cunning and skill were just as important, if not more important than bravery and strength. This realization brought about by Odysseus had an extreme impact on the Greek view on heroism. An example of Odysseus' decisions impacting the Greek view on heroism can be found when Odysseus and his men land on the island of the Lotus Eaters. While they are on this island, Odysseus sent three men to investigate the island. While they were investigating, the Lotus Eaters gave them the Lotus flower. This made them want to stay on the island forever and lose themselves there. Once Odysseus found out what had happened, he immediately went to rescue his men (Homer 9.86-112). He stated, "I drove them, all three wailing, to the ships, / tied them down under their rowing benches, / and called to the rest" (Homer 9.105-107). After finding out what had happened to his men, Odysseus could have just left them on the island where they would have been under a spell, but content, for the rest of their lives. Instead, Odysseus acted upon the problem and physically dragged them back to the ship and tied them down in order to rescue them from the enchanting island. By doing this, Odysseus clearly embodied the theme of loyalty that can be found in Odyssey. In this epic, loyalty is a main theme and the Greeks greatly value loyalty. Odysseus showed loyalty to his men by rescuing them even though they didn't want to be rescued. From this encounter, the Greeks saw that Odysseus greatly valued loyalty, so they began to see loyalty as a characteristic that a great hero would exhibit. So, it can be seen that Odysseus' decisions and motivations impacted the Greek view on heroism, specifically allowing them to see more value in traits such as intelligence and loyalty.
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- Why is Education Important | <urn:uuid:eebd0d4e-02f0-487e-8d1b-69f1eb13957c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://samples.essaytopicsmasters.com/evaluation/is-odysseus-a-hero-essay-example | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00298.warc.gz | en | 0.986247 | 2,673 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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During the Trojan war, Odysseus, a great hero, considers the war and how it is impacting him, his life, and his family. As stated in Homer's Odyssey, Odysseus is one of the most cunning and imaginative warriors that the Greeks have, and he knows that any decision he makes will impact how he is perceived as a hero. All of his motivations and decisions are carefully scrutinized by his comrades, and any decision or action that he takes could have a direct affect on the outcome of the war. He also knows that he is a great Greek hero and that the Greeks hold value in their heroes, so he doesn't want to disappoint them. Odysseus experiences first hand what it means to be a hero and how his motivations and decisions affect his role as a great Greek hero. Throughout the epic, Odysseus faces many challenges, but he eventually prevails and returns to his home in Ithaka. He also has a direct impact on how the Greeks perceive heroes and what they value in a hero. In Odyssey this can be seen many times. So, when analyzing the decisions that Odysseus made, it can be seen that his motivations and decisions affected his role as a hero and impacted the Greek view on heroism.
One way that Odysseus' role as a hero was impacted is through Odysseus' motivations when acting upon a problem. One example of this can be seen when Odysseus wants to go to the Kyklops' island. He wanted to investigate out of curiosity and he is motivated to do so through his need to discover who or what lives on the island and what goods they have to offer to him. Odysseus states, "...and find out what the mainland natives are -/ for they they may be wild savages, and lawless, or hospitable and god fearing men'" (Homer 9.187-189). He also states that he will bring only his own crew with him, and that the rest of the men will stay behind (Homer 9.184-186). Unfortunately, this adventure led to catastrophe, and Odysseus lost four of his men (Homer 9.313-337). As Odysseus is expressing his need to go to the Kyklopses' island to find out who inhabits it, he is affecting his role as a hero through his motivations. By deciding to venture out, Odysseus is putting not only his own life in jeopardy, but he is risking the lives of his men, too. After this adventure, Odysseus ends up losing four of his men. Their deaths in particular had a direct impact on Odysseus' heroic role in Odyssey. Odysseus was motivated to embark on the journey to the Kyklopses' island solely out of curiosity and arrogance. This ultimately led to the adventure having been pointless and having the death of his men hold no purpose whatsoever. A hero should know that the lives of his men are held in his hand and should not be willing to compromise their safety for a journey that was fueled by an emotion such as curiosity. In the case of Journeying to the Kyklopses' island, it can be seen that Odysseus' motivations to embark on this journey ultimately led to his role as a hero being impacted in a negative way. Although this had a negative impact on how Odysseus is perceived, the Greeks still viewed him as a hero due to his other heroic qualities. Another example of Odysseus' motivations impacting his role as a hero can be seen in the ways in which Odysseus attempted to gather information from the Trojans during the Trojan War. During this time, Odysseus was greatly motivated to collect information from the Trojans regarding their battle strategies and plans. To do this, he decided to dress up as a household slave and attempt to slip unnoticed into the Trojan base. He did this and went unnoticed by all except for Meleláos who took him to his home and promised not to tell the Trojans that he was there. Odysseus then left the city, but was able to find out information about the Trojans that he was able to share with his army (Homer 4.252-285). Odysseus' motivation to gather information from the Trojans led him to risk his life for a cause that he believed in. By doing this, he impacted his role as a hero in a very positive way. Only a true and devoted hero would have been willing to risk his life in order to serve his cause. When going in the city to spy and try to discover the Trojan's plans, Odysseus did not falter, and he was ultimately successful. In this example, it can be seen that Odysseus' motivations had the ability to impact his role as a hero in a very positive way. So, through this evidence, it can be seen that Odysseus' motivations when deciding to embark on an adventure can truly affect his role as a hero.
Odysseus' Decisions And Their Impact
Besides being impacted by Odysseus' motivations when completing a task, in Homer's Odyssey, Odysseus' decisions also impact his role as a hero throughout the epic. An example of Odysseus' decisions impacting his role as a hero can be seen when Odysseus decided to raid the land of Ísmaros, but was unable to control his men after the raid. After the raid, Odysseus stated that he told his crew, "'Back, and quickly! Out to sea again'" (Homer 9.50-51). Before he told his men that they needed to retreat, he had landed on Ísmaros, but had abused their hospitality by raiding their city and enslaving their women (Homer 9.44-49). At first, Odysseus and his men caught the citizens by surprise, but they soon realized that they needed to gather an army. At this point, Odysseus realized that he and his men needed to leave before the citizens could arrange an attack back on them, but Odysseus was unable to command his men to leave. This ultimately resulted in a battle in which the lives of many of his men were lost (Homer 9.42-73). Due to Odysseus' decision to raid the island of Ísmaros, many of his men lost their lives. As their leader, Odysseus was responsible for the lives of these men, and they trusted him to guide them home with their lives intact. When Odysseus decided to raid Ísmaros without a cause, he was putting the lives of his men at risk unnecessarily. This decision affected the way that Odysseus was perceived as a hero. Losing men always impacts the way that people feel about their heroes, and this unnecessary loss of life impacted Odysseus. It made Odysseus look like a bit of a weak hero. If he could have been able to control his men, Odysseus would have been able to prevent their untimely deaths. So, because he was unable to control his men, Odysseus' decision to act and invade Ísmaros affected how he is perceived as a hero. Another example of Odysseus' decisions impacting how he is viewed as a hero can be seen when Odysseus protects his men from Helen of Troy's teasing and calling when they are hiding inside the Trojan Horse while waiting to strike. By preventing the men from leaving the horse, Odysseus saves their lives. When Meneláos tells Telémakhos about Odysseus' adventures; one of the stories that he tells him is this story. Meneláos states that, "'inside a hollow horse, where we were waiting... three times you [Helen] walked around it [the horse], patting it everywhere, and called the name of our fighters... Odysseus fought us down, despite our craving'" (Homer 293-306). From this, it can be seen that Helen knew that the men were in the horse and that she was trying to lure them out to their deaths. If Odysseus had not acted upon the situation and physically held the men back, their entire plan would have been ruined and many lives would have been lost. So, in this case, Odysseus' decisions impacted his role as a hero in a very positive way due to the fact that his witt and quick thinking saved the lives of him and his men. Overall, it can be seen that Odysseus' decisions, both negatively and positively affected his role as a hero as he is considered by the Greek people.
Odysseus' Motivations and Decisions
Besides impacting Odysseus' role as a hero, Odysseus' motivations and decisions also had an effect on the Greek view of heroism. When considering heroes, the Greeks greatly valued skills such as bravery, strength, and valor. Odysseus was a great Greek hero, but he was very intelligent and cunning. Since Odysseus had traits that were not usually seen as heroic at that time, all of his motivations and the decisions that he made had an impact on the Greek view on heroism and allowed the Greeks to consider the meaning of heroism in a new way. One example of Odysseus' motivations impacting how the Greeks viewed heroism can be found when looking at how the minstrel Demódokos sang about and praised Odysseus. In his song, he told of how Odysseus came up with the idea of the Trojan Horse and how many men are in awe of his greatness and consider him to be an almighty hero. The minstrel also sang about how Odysseus was a fierce fighter and seemed almost to fight like Arês, the War God himself (Homer 8.533-558). From this, it can be seen how highly the Greeks revered Odysseus, so much so that they even considered him to be godlike in some aspects. In Demódokos' song, he sings mainly about one of Odysseus' major accomplishments, the creation and success of the Trojan Horse. At that time, this was one of the greatest accomplishments, and it really affected how people viewed heroism. From this incident, they realized that cunning and skill were just as important, if not more important than bravery and strength. This realization brought about by Odysseus had an extreme impact on the Greek view on heroism. An example of Odysseus' decisions impacting the Greek view on heroism can be found when Odysseus and his men land on the island of the Lotus Eaters. While they are on this island, Odysseus sent three men to investigate the island. While they were investigating, the Lotus Eaters gave them the Lotus flower. This made them want to stay on the island forever and lose themselves there. Once Odysseus found out what had happened, he immediately went to rescue his men (Homer 9.86-112). He stated, "I drove them, all three wailing, to the ships, / tied them down under their rowing benches, / and called to the rest" (Homer 9.105-107). After finding out what had happened to his men, Odysseus could have just left them on the island where they would have been under a spell, but content, for the rest of their lives. Instead, Odysseus acted upon the problem and physically dragged them back to the ship and tied them down in order to rescue them from the enchanting island. By doing this, Odysseus clearly embodied the theme of loyalty that can be found in Odyssey. In this epic, loyalty is a main theme and the Greeks greatly value loyalty. Odysseus showed loyalty to his men by rescuing them even though they didn't want to be rescued. From this encounter, the Greeks saw that Odysseus greatly valued loyalty, so they began to see loyalty as a characteristic that a great hero would exhibit. So, it can be seen that Odysseus' decisions and motivations impacted the Greek view on heroism, specifically allowing them to see more value in traits such as intelligence and loyalty.
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- Why is Education Important | 2,709 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Battle of Britain was a very unusual battle. It didn’t happen on land or sea like most battles, it happened in the air! Imagine hundreds of planes shooting at each other in the sky. The people that lived in the towns and cities below were very scared.
A big war was happening in the world. It was called World War II. Countries all around the world were fighting in it.
The war started because the leader of Germany, Adolf Hitler, was invading other countries. He wanted to take over Great Britain. His plan was called 'Operation Sea Lion'.
There was just one problem, Great Britain is surrounded by sea! How could the Germans get into the country? If they went by boat, they would have to fight Great Britain’s navy (the army that protects the sea). That would be difficult because the British Navy was very good. The Germans needed another plan, so they decided to attack by air.
The attacks started on July 10th, 1940 and lasted many months. German planes attacked British ships and planes. Afterwards, they attacked towns and cities.
Thousands of people died and London was destroyed but Great Britain won and the battle was over in October 1941. | <urn:uuid:cfe07a3e-1002-4d18-a206-05d80d5f50a2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://primaryleap.co.uk/activity/battle-of-britain | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00245.warc.gz | en | 0.992254 | 245 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.312584280... | 3 | The Battle of Britain was a very unusual battle. It didn’t happen on land or sea like most battles, it happened in the air! Imagine hundreds of planes shooting at each other in the sky. The people that lived in the towns and cities below were very scared.
A big war was happening in the world. It was called World War II. Countries all around the world were fighting in it.
The war started because the leader of Germany, Adolf Hitler, was invading other countries. He wanted to take over Great Britain. His plan was called 'Operation Sea Lion'.
There was just one problem, Great Britain is surrounded by sea! How could the Germans get into the country? If they went by boat, they would have to fight Great Britain’s navy (the army that protects the sea). That would be difficult because the British Navy was very good. The Germans needed another plan, so they decided to attack by air.
The attacks started on July 10th, 1940 and lasted many months. German planes attacked British ships and planes. Afterwards, they attacked towns and cities.
Thousands of people died and London was destroyed but Great Britain won and the battle was over in October 1941. | 246 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The ancient Aztecs believed in many gods, and each god had a job. For example, the sun god brought up the sun. If the sun god was unhappy, he would refuse to bring out the sun and all the crops would die. The Aztecs spent an enormous amount of time making sure that all their gods were happy, time they could have spent gathering food or making needed goods.
The Aztecs solved that problem by assigned the job of keeping their many gods happy to their priests. The people still prayed. But it was the priests with the power to keep the gods happy. The priests believed the only way to keep so many gods happy all at once was to offer the gods human sacrifice. While some people collected food and made goods, Aztec warriors spent their time capturing people from neighboring tribes, people to give to the priests, so the priests would have someone to sacrifice besides Aztec children.
As you can imagine, this did not make the Aztecs popular with their neighbors. The other tribes in an area would even combine forces if that's what it took to rid their neighborhood of the awful Aztecs. Nobody wanted them around.
For about 200 years, the Aztecs were shoved from place to place, never welcome, always on the move.
But the Aztecs had a legend. They believed their god of sun and war had visited their priests long ago, and had promised the priests that one day a priest would spot an eagle, perched on a cactus, holding a snake. This would be the signal that they had found their home. This is where they were supposed to settle down and build a city. Part of the legend was that they were supposed to settle down peacefully, at least for a while, to give themselves times to build strength.
Believe it or not, one day, a priest saw an eagle, perched on a cactus, holding a snake in its mouth! He could not believe his eyes. He ran back to the Aztec camp to tell his people what he had seen. This happened in the Valley of Mexico, along the swampy shores of Lake Texcoco.
Legend says that the Aztec people hurried to the swampy shore of the lake to see this wonderful sight for themselves. As they watched, the cactus grew into an island. The Aztecs settled down on that island. They named the island Tenochtitlan, "The Place of the Prickly Pear Cactus".
- Back to genus Opuntia
- Succulentopedia: Browse succulents by Scientific Name, Common Name, Genus, Family, USDA Hardiness Zone, Origin, or cacti by Genus
Subscribe now and be up to date with our latest news and updates. | <urn:uuid:a9f2bd24-089b-43f3-82d5-9af8109d5099> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://worldofsucculents.com/place-prickly-pear-cactus/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00084.warc.gz | en | 0.987567 | 568 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.241647094... | 6 | The ancient Aztecs believed in many gods, and each god had a job. For example, the sun god brought up the sun. If the sun god was unhappy, he would refuse to bring out the sun and all the crops would die. The Aztecs spent an enormous amount of time making sure that all their gods were happy, time they could have spent gathering food or making needed goods.
The Aztecs solved that problem by assigned the job of keeping their many gods happy to their priests. The people still prayed. But it was the priests with the power to keep the gods happy. The priests believed the only way to keep so many gods happy all at once was to offer the gods human sacrifice. While some people collected food and made goods, Aztec warriors spent their time capturing people from neighboring tribes, people to give to the priests, so the priests would have someone to sacrifice besides Aztec children.
As you can imagine, this did not make the Aztecs popular with their neighbors. The other tribes in an area would even combine forces if that's what it took to rid their neighborhood of the awful Aztecs. Nobody wanted them around.
For about 200 years, the Aztecs were shoved from place to place, never welcome, always on the move.
But the Aztecs had a legend. They believed their god of sun and war had visited their priests long ago, and had promised the priests that one day a priest would spot an eagle, perched on a cactus, holding a snake. This would be the signal that they had found their home. This is where they were supposed to settle down and build a city. Part of the legend was that they were supposed to settle down peacefully, at least for a while, to give themselves times to build strength.
Believe it or not, one day, a priest saw an eagle, perched on a cactus, holding a snake in its mouth! He could not believe his eyes. He ran back to the Aztec camp to tell his people what he had seen. This happened in the Valley of Mexico, along the swampy shores of Lake Texcoco.
Legend says that the Aztec people hurried to the swampy shore of the lake to see this wonderful sight for themselves. As they watched, the cactus grew into an island. The Aztecs settled down on that island. They named the island Tenochtitlan, "The Place of the Prickly Pear Cactus".
- Back to genus Opuntia
- Succulentopedia: Browse succulents by Scientific Name, Common Name, Genus, Family, USDA Hardiness Zone, Origin, or cacti by Genus
Subscribe now and be up to date with our latest news and updates. | 564 | ENGLISH | 1 |
History Of The Quarter
In one case we do have a somewhat good story of how the first quarter was authorized along with various other denominations. The first quarter was authorized in 1792, but it wasn’t until 1796 that the first quarters were actually minted. A combination of factors that kept the quarter from being minted in 1792.
Going from being authorized to actually being struck is not always as easy as it might seem to be. In 1792 the U.S. government was starting coin production from scratch. The first thing that was needed was a physical place to produce the new coins. At the time the U.S. coins were authorized the Mint was merely a dream. It took time to bring this entity into physical existence.
The capital of the U.S. was in Philadelphia. This was the location of the very first U.S. Mint. Once the Mint was built, there was still the problem the problem of getting it up and running. One hurdle was that officials were required by law to post a bond before any gold or silver coins could be struck. The first bond amount was set at $10,000, which in 1793 represented a substantial amount of money for the times. This bond was intended to be a guarantee of the honesty of the Mint officials.
The bond amount was too much and the would-be officials balked at the requirement. Thomas Jefferson had to step in and attempted to solve the quandary, which took up more precious time. Meanwhile the only coins that were seeing production were copper large cents and half cents. The officials were able to handle the smaller bond amounts for these denominations.
In 1794, the bond issue was settled and gold and silver coin production could proceed. Even though the Philadelphia Mint was new, priorities had to be set, because the facility had a very limited production capacity. The first priority was to produce silver dollars. This turned out to be an odd choice because the production equipment was not going to be available until the next year.
It wasn’t until 1796 that production on the first quarters was begun. Thomas Jefferson was long gone from his post as Secretary of State. By this time he was running for President against John Adams. 6,146 quarters were struck for the year of 1796 although it is believed that some of this number may have been struck in 1797.
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Content copyright © 2019 by Gary Eggleston. All rights reserved.
This content was written by Gary Eggleston. If you wish to use this content in any manner, you need written permission. Contact Gary Eggleston for details. | <urn:uuid:651de2d5-a0c1-418a-b283-76d7bb67936b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bellaonline.com/article.asp?id=181106 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00132.warc.gz | en | 0.989552 | 542 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.20296922326087... | 2 | History Of The Quarter
In one case we do have a somewhat good story of how the first quarter was authorized along with various other denominations. The first quarter was authorized in 1792, but it wasn’t until 1796 that the first quarters were actually minted. A combination of factors that kept the quarter from being minted in 1792.
Going from being authorized to actually being struck is not always as easy as it might seem to be. In 1792 the U.S. government was starting coin production from scratch. The first thing that was needed was a physical place to produce the new coins. At the time the U.S. coins were authorized the Mint was merely a dream. It took time to bring this entity into physical existence.
The capital of the U.S. was in Philadelphia. This was the location of the very first U.S. Mint. Once the Mint was built, there was still the problem the problem of getting it up and running. One hurdle was that officials were required by law to post a bond before any gold or silver coins could be struck. The first bond amount was set at $10,000, which in 1793 represented a substantial amount of money for the times. This bond was intended to be a guarantee of the honesty of the Mint officials.
The bond amount was too much and the would-be officials balked at the requirement. Thomas Jefferson had to step in and attempted to solve the quandary, which took up more precious time. Meanwhile the only coins that were seeing production were copper large cents and half cents. The officials were able to handle the smaller bond amounts for these denominations.
In 1794, the bond issue was settled and gold and silver coin production could proceed. Even though the Philadelphia Mint was new, priorities had to be set, because the facility had a very limited production capacity. The first priority was to produce silver dollars. This turned out to be an odd choice because the production equipment was not going to be available until the next year.
It wasn’t until 1796 that production on the first quarters was begun. Thomas Jefferson was long gone from his post as Secretary of State. By this time he was running for President against John Adams. 6,146 quarters were struck for the year of 1796 although it is believed that some of this number may have been struck in 1797.
Editor's Picks Articles
Top Ten Articles
Content copyright © 2019 by Gary Eggleston. All rights reserved.
This content was written by Gary Eggleston. If you wish to use this content in any manner, you need written permission. Contact Gary Eggleston for details. | 564 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Christoph von Schmid
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Writer of children's stories and educator, b. at Dinkelsbuehl, in Bavaria, 15 Aug., 1768; d. at Augsburg in 1854. He studied theology at Dillingen, and, having been ordained priest in 1791, served as assistant in several parishes till 1796, when he was placed at the head of a large school in Thannhausen on the Mindel, where he taught for many years. He soon began writing books for children, of which the earliest was "First Lessons about God for the Little Ones", written in words of one syllable; next, a "Bible History for Children", a work which became very popular far beyond the confines of Bavaria ; and, lastly, his famous stories for children. From 1816 to 1826 he was parish priest at Oberstadion in Würtemberg. In the latter year he was appointed canon of the Cathedral of Augsburg, where he died of cholera in his eighty-seventh year. In 1841 he began the publication of a complete edition in twenty-four volumes of his scattered writings. In the introduction he tells his readers how his stories were written. They were not composed for an unknown public, and in a mercenary spirit, but for children, among whom the author daily moved, and were not at first meant for publication. To enforce his lessons in religious instruction, he sought to illustrate them by examples taken from Christian antiquity, from legends, and other sources. Usually a story or a chapter was read to the children after school hours as a reward, on condition that they should write it down at home. He thus became familiar with the range of thought and the speech of children, and was careful to speak their language rather than that of books. He was able to observe with his own eyes what it was that impressed the minds and hearts of children both of tender and of riper years. Their manner of repeating the stories also helped him.
He was the pioneer writer of books for children, and his great merits are fully acknowledged by both Catholic and Protestant writers on pedagogics. His stories have been translated into twenty-four languages, and to this day he is regarded in Germany as the prince of story-writers for the young. He is the greatest educator Bavaria produced in the eighteenth century, and ranks, both as to theory and practice, with the most celebrated of modern educators. Canon Schmid was the ideal of a mild, charitable, unselfish man, of childlike simplicity of character, a devout Catholic priest, whose virtues are mirrored in his writings. On 3 September, 1901, Thannhausen unveiled the bronze statue of the celebrated story-writer and educator.
Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. All materials contained on this site, whether written, audible or visual are the exclusive property of Catholic Online and are protected under U.S. and International copyright laws, © Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. Any unauthorized use, without prior written consent of Catholic Online is strictly forbidden and prohibited.
Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law. | <urn:uuid:908bf7f5-3e77-4326-b453-15ee603a4c99> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.catholic.org/encyclopedia/view.php?id=10577 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00094.warc.gz | en | 0.982313 | 697 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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Writer of children's stories and educator, b. at Dinkelsbuehl, in Bavaria, 15 Aug., 1768; d. at Augsburg in 1854. He studied theology at Dillingen, and, having been ordained priest in 1791, served as assistant in several parishes till 1796, when he was placed at the head of a large school in Thannhausen on the Mindel, where he taught for many years. He soon began writing books for children, of which the earliest was "First Lessons about God for the Little Ones", written in words of one syllable; next, a "Bible History for Children", a work which became very popular far beyond the confines of Bavaria ; and, lastly, his famous stories for children. From 1816 to 1826 he was parish priest at Oberstadion in Würtemberg. In the latter year he was appointed canon of the Cathedral of Augsburg, where he died of cholera in his eighty-seventh year. In 1841 he began the publication of a complete edition in twenty-four volumes of his scattered writings. In the introduction he tells his readers how his stories were written. They were not composed for an unknown public, and in a mercenary spirit, but for children, among whom the author daily moved, and were not at first meant for publication. To enforce his lessons in religious instruction, he sought to illustrate them by examples taken from Christian antiquity, from legends, and other sources. Usually a story or a chapter was read to the children after school hours as a reward, on condition that they should write it down at home. He thus became familiar with the range of thought and the speech of children, and was careful to speak their language rather than that of books. He was able to observe with his own eyes what it was that impressed the minds and hearts of children both of tender and of riper years. Their manner of repeating the stories also helped him.
He was the pioneer writer of books for children, and his great merits are fully acknowledged by both Catholic and Protestant writers on pedagogics. His stories have been translated into twenty-four languages, and to this day he is regarded in Germany as the prince of story-writers for the young. He is the greatest educator Bavaria produced in the eighteenth century, and ranks, both as to theory and practice, with the most celebrated of modern educators. Canon Schmid was the ideal of a mild, charitable, unselfish man, of childlike simplicity of character, a devout Catholic priest, whose virtues are mirrored in his writings. On 3 September, 1901, Thannhausen unveiled the bronze statue of the celebrated story-writer and educator.
Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. All materials contained on this site, whether written, audible or visual are the exclusive property of Catholic Online and are protected under U.S. and International copyright laws, © Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. Any unauthorized use, without prior written consent of Catholic Online is strictly forbidden and prohibited.
Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law. | 731 | ENGLISH | 1 |
We have found out that this group works best when we stay busy.
Today we did a math activity with candy corn. Who doesnt LOVE candy corn ? We counted to ten and looked at leaves with numbers on them. The children were given candy corn and they places the correct number of candy corn on their leaf. Being able to count to ten and being able to correctly count out ten pieces of candy or grapes is two different things. It is more important to be able to correctly count out 5 grapes correctly than count to 100. At home you can help your child with this by counting things you are playing with or eating ? As you give them a snack ask them how many they would like and help them count them out. Point to each one slowly and methodically as you count.
We also talked about the terms heavy and light. We lifted our pumpkins and talked about which one was heavy and which one was light . Is the heavy pumpkin lighter or heavier than my car ? Is the light pumpkin heavier or lighter than a block ?
Pumpkin pie in a cup ! YUM ! The kids made it and they liked it ! | <urn:uuid:3c3fe498-f6ff-4937-98b8-49f6860d1c31> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://siloampreschool.com/2014/10/light-or-heavy-pumpkins/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00040.warc.gz | en | 0.982583 | 229 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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0.32356783747673... | 7 | We have found out that this group works best when we stay busy.
Today we did a math activity with candy corn. Who doesnt LOVE candy corn ? We counted to ten and looked at leaves with numbers on them. The children were given candy corn and they places the correct number of candy corn on their leaf. Being able to count to ten and being able to correctly count out ten pieces of candy or grapes is two different things. It is more important to be able to correctly count out 5 grapes correctly than count to 100. At home you can help your child with this by counting things you are playing with or eating ? As you give them a snack ask them how many they would like and help them count them out. Point to each one slowly and methodically as you count.
We also talked about the terms heavy and light. We lifted our pumpkins and talked about which one was heavy and which one was light . Is the heavy pumpkin lighter or heavier than my car ? Is the light pumpkin heavier or lighter than a block ?
Pumpkin pie in a cup ! YUM ! The kids made it and they liked it ! | 230 | ENGLISH | 1 |
(Last Updated on : 18-04-2016)
Basketball in India
started its journey almost more than a hundred and thirty years ago. The history of Basketball is not that much old, as it was invented by a Canadian physician named Dr. James Naismith, in the year 1891. He is popularly known as the inventor of basketball and hence called as "The Father of Basketball" all over the world. He had the concept of Basketball in his mind since his school days and he used to play a game named 'duck-on-a-rock' outside his one-room schoolhouse. The game was about attempting to knock a 'duck' off the top of a large rock by tossing another rock at it. This game is believed to be the ancestor of Basketball.
Invention of Basketball
Dr. Naismith attended the McGill University in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, after completing his school education. At the completion of his college education, he served as McGill's Athletic Director and then he moved on to the YMCA Training School in Springfield. This is the place in Massachusetts, USA where Dr. Naismith invented Basketball in 1891. While working as physician in Springfield, he was trying to find a sport that would be suitable to play inside, during the Massachusetts winter. Naismith actually wanted to create such a game for his students that will need skill instead of only strength. He also needed the game to be played indoors in a small space. Once Dr. Naismith invented the game of Basketball and wrote down some basic rules for playing the game, his students played Basketball with a soccer ball and used two peach baskets as goals.
First Basketball Match in India
The first ever Basketball match in the history of Basketball was played on 20th January, 1892. The name 'Basket ball' was suggested by one of his students and the game became quite popular instantly. The game of Basketball was introduced to a number of nations by the YMCA movement during the year of 1893. The first ever inter-collegiate match took place in America in the year 1895 and in 1896; the first collegiate Basketball match was played, with 5 players in each team. In India, basketball started its journey from 1930. The first Indian National Championship for men was conducted in 1934 in New Delhi.
Formation of Basketball Federation of India
Basketball Federation of India is the governing and controlling body of Basketball in India. Basketball Federation of India is responsible for the development and promotion of Basketball at all levels.
Management of Basketball Federation of India
Basketball Federation of India manages all the national level basketball operations in India. It is involved in organizing training camps and national tournaments, and in preparing Indian teams for both men and women international competitions in various age categories.
Non Popularity of Basketball in India
However, though it was interesting to play, the Basketball players soon faced some serious problems that they had to solve, without much delay. The main problem was that, as they were using two peach baskets as goals, whenever the ball was thrown into the basket, the players couldn't get it down without climbing up a ladder. So, they decided to cut holes at the bottom of the baskets in order to play faster, as the ball will fall through the hole easily. The players followed this process till the year 1906, when metal hoops with backboards replaced the peach baskets.
Rise of the Popularity of Basketball in India
With the increasing popularity of Basketball in different countries of the world, the need of founding a governing body started to be felt by many. National Basketball associations started to be formed in many nations, among which, England, America, India etc were the forerunners.
Introduction of Basketball in Olympics
Basketball was introduced as an official game in the 1936 Berlin Olympic Games, and this event is considered as one of the most memorable occasions in the history of Basketball. With this, the popularity of the sport started to increase at a very high speed. Basketball got its first television coverage in 1940 when the college games were being held.
Establishment of National Basketball Association (NBA)
The year 1949 saw the establishment of the National Basketball Association (NBA) that is one of the most powerful governing bodies for Basketball in the world, at present. The NBA was formed in America with eight teams as its members and another organisation named the American Basketball Association (ABA) was also established in 1967. However, the ABA only lasted about nine years, due to serious financial problems. In the present scenario, Basketball is being played all over the world and it has also become one of the most popular games that the people watch and play. | <urn:uuid:e4dd912a-f1fd-4e30-bffe-13a7f35bff44> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.indianetzone.com/5/history_basketball.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00048.warc.gz | en | 0.985895 | 950 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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Basketball in India
started its journey almost more than a hundred and thirty years ago. The history of Basketball is not that much old, as it was invented by a Canadian physician named Dr. James Naismith, in the year 1891. He is popularly known as the inventor of basketball and hence called as "The Father of Basketball" all over the world. He had the concept of Basketball in his mind since his school days and he used to play a game named 'duck-on-a-rock' outside his one-room schoolhouse. The game was about attempting to knock a 'duck' off the top of a large rock by tossing another rock at it. This game is believed to be the ancestor of Basketball.
Invention of Basketball
Dr. Naismith attended the McGill University in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, after completing his school education. At the completion of his college education, he served as McGill's Athletic Director and then he moved on to the YMCA Training School in Springfield. This is the place in Massachusetts, USA where Dr. Naismith invented Basketball in 1891. While working as physician in Springfield, he was trying to find a sport that would be suitable to play inside, during the Massachusetts winter. Naismith actually wanted to create such a game for his students that will need skill instead of only strength. He also needed the game to be played indoors in a small space. Once Dr. Naismith invented the game of Basketball and wrote down some basic rules for playing the game, his students played Basketball with a soccer ball and used two peach baskets as goals.
First Basketball Match in India
The first ever Basketball match in the history of Basketball was played on 20th January, 1892. The name 'Basket ball' was suggested by one of his students and the game became quite popular instantly. The game of Basketball was introduced to a number of nations by the YMCA movement during the year of 1893. The first ever inter-collegiate match took place in America in the year 1895 and in 1896; the first collegiate Basketball match was played, with 5 players in each team. In India, basketball started its journey from 1930. The first Indian National Championship for men was conducted in 1934 in New Delhi.
Formation of Basketball Federation of India
Basketball Federation of India is the governing and controlling body of Basketball in India. Basketball Federation of India is responsible for the development and promotion of Basketball at all levels.
Management of Basketball Federation of India
Basketball Federation of India manages all the national level basketball operations in India. It is involved in organizing training camps and national tournaments, and in preparing Indian teams for both men and women international competitions in various age categories.
Non Popularity of Basketball in India
However, though it was interesting to play, the Basketball players soon faced some serious problems that they had to solve, without much delay. The main problem was that, as they were using two peach baskets as goals, whenever the ball was thrown into the basket, the players couldn't get it down without climbing up a ladder. So, they decided to cut holes at the bottom of the baskets in order to play faster, as the ball will fall through the hole easily. The players followed this process till the year 1906, when metal hoops with backboards replaced the peach baskets.
Rise of the Popularity of Basketball in India
With the increasing popularity of Basketball in different countries of the world, the need of founding a governing body started to be felt by many. National Basketball associations started to be formed in many nations, among which, England, America, India etc were the forerunners.
Introduction of Basketball in Olympics
Basketball was introduced as an official game in the 1936 Berlin Olympic Games, and this event is considered as one of the most memorable occasions in the history of Basketball. With this, the popularity of the sport started to increase at a very high speed. Basketball got its first television coverage in 1940 when the college games were being held.
Establishment of National Basketball Association (NBA)
The year 1949 saw the establishment of the National Basketball Association (NBA) that is one of the most powerful governing bodies for Basketball in the world, at present. The NBA was formed in America with eight teams as its members and another organisation named the American Basketball Association (ABA) was also established in 1967. However, the ABA only lasted about nine years, due to serious financial problems. In the present scenario, Basketball is being played all over the world and it has also become one of the most popular games that the people watch and play. | 990 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Plural voting is the practice whereby one person might be able to vote multiple times in an election. It is not to be confused with a plurality voting system which does not necessarily involve plural voting. Weighted voting is a generalisation of plural voting.
In the United Kingdom, up to 1948, people affiliated with a university were allowed a vote in both a university constituency and their home constituency, and property owners could vote both in the constituency where their property lay and that in which they lived, if the two were different. In 1892 George Shaw-Lefevre MP stated
"I have myself five votes for five different constituencies--not that I have sought the votes by purchasing property for that purpose; but they have come to me accidentally on account of holding property in different places. Two are occupation votes, two freehold votes, and one is for a University. But I know many who have a great many more votes than five. I think it was Sir Robert Fowler, a late Member of this House, who used to boast that he had no fewer than thirteen votes in different constituencies, and that he was able at one General Election to record them all. Then there is the well-known case of the Oxford tutor--a man who had eighteen different qualifications, and, at the Election of 1874, voted in respect of these different qualifications eighteen times. But this case pales before one I heard of recently. A clergyman of the Church of England, who has a hobby for acquiring qualifications in different constituencies, has been able to obtain fifty votes in different places, and I was informed that at a certain General Election he contrived to vote in no fewer than forty different places."
The Representation of the People Act 1918, Section 8(1), provided that "a man shall not vote at a general election ... for more than one constituency for which he is registered by virtue of other qualifications [than a residence qualification] of whatever kind, and a woman shall not vote at a general election ... for more than one constituency for which she is registered by virtue of any other qualification [than a local government qualification].". As a result, no-one could vote more than twice at a general election. After 1910, the Liberal Government was intent on passing a Plural Voting Bill that sought to prevent electors who appeared on the electoral register more than once from voting more than once. Liberal and Unionist Headquarters were in agreement that 29 seats were won by Unionists in December 1910 because of plural voting. However, before the bill could pass through Parliament, the Great War started and the bill was shelved. These practices were finally abolished for parliamentary elections by the Representation of the People Act 1948, which first applied in the 1950 General Election. However, plural voting for local government elections continued until it was abolished, outside the City of London, by the Representation of the People Act 1969. It still exists in the City of London - see City_of_London#Elections.
Until the Electoral Law Act 1968 took effect in 1969, the Queen's University, Belfast constituency was retained in the Parliament of Northern Ireland and owners of businesses were allowed to cast more than one vote in parliamentary elections. Tim Pat Coogan wrote on this subject:
Limited companies and occupiers of premises with a rateable valuation of £10 could appoint nominees - as could companies for each £10 of their valuations - under a system of plural voting, which even allowed such votes to be cast in another constituency ...
Plural voting also existed in local government elections in Northern Ireland, as in the rest of the United Kingdom (see above).
In Belgium, plural voting was introduced in 1893 and applied for elections from 1894 to 1919 as a way to limit the impact of universal suffrage.
For municipal elections, a fourth vote was granted to family heads who paid a fixed level of electoral tax, or whose cadastral income was at least of 150 francs.
The Local Government (Dublin) Act 1930, passed by the Cumann na nGaedheal government, provided that Dublin City Council would comprise 30 popularly elected "ordinary members" and five "commercial members" elected by business ratepayers (individuals or corporate persons). The commercial members were elected by single transferable vote in a single five-member constituency, with each elector casting between one and six ballots depending on the rate they paid. The commercial members were abolished in 1935 by the Fianna Fáil government.
University constituencies still exist in Seanad Éireann, the upper house of the Oireachtas (the Irish legislature). Graduates of the University of Dublin and National University of Ireland are entitled to vote in these constituencies in addition to exercising their normal vote for Dáil Éireann, the lower house of the Oireachtas.
It has been proposed that a parent should get a vote for each dependent child, to increase the birth rate or to increase the importance of long-term planning as an election issue. This was proposed in France in 1871 by Louis Henri de Gueydon; in the UK in 2003 by Demos, and in 2007 by Dutch economist Lans Bovenberg. It is a policy of the Christian Party of Austria and has been proposed by some members of Law and Justice in Poland. | <urn:uuid:2ab4fbca-54ae-48ce-92e0-f7072eac8fa4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.popflock.com/learn?s=Plural_voting | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00201.warc.gz | en | 0.980567 | 1,074 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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-0.10703145712... | 1 | Plural voting is the practice whereby one person might be able to vote multiple times in an election. It is not to be confused with a plurality voting system which does not necessarily involve plural voting. Weighted voting is a generalisation of plural voting.
In the United Kingdom, up to 1948, people affiliated with a university were allowed a vote in both a university constituency and their home constituency, and property owners could vote both in the constituency where their property lay and that in which they lived, if the two were different. In 1892 George Shaw-Lefevre MP stated
"I have myself five votes for five different constituencies--not that I have sought the votes by purchasing property for that purpose; but they have come to me accidentally on account of holding property in different places. Two are occupation votes, two freehold votes, and one is for a University. But I know many who have a great many more votes than five. I think it was Sir Robert Fowler, a late Member of this House, who used to boast that he had no fewer than thirteen votes in different constituencies, and that he was able at one General Election to record them all. Then there is the well-known case of the Oxford tutor--a man who had eighteen different qualifications, and, at the Election of 1874, voted in respect of these different qualifications eighteen times. But this case pales before one I heard of recently. A clergyman of the Church of England, who has a hobby for acquiring qualifications in different constituencies, has been able to obtain fifty votes in different places, and I was informed that at a certain General Election he contrived to vote in no fewer than forty different places."
The Representation of the People Act 1918, Section 8(1), provided that "a man shall not vote at a general election ... for more than one constituency for which he is registered by virtue of other qualifications [than a residence qualification] of whatever kind, and a woman shall not vote at a general election ... for more than one constituency for which she is registered by virtue of any other qualification [than a local government qualification].". As a result, no-one could vote more than twice at a general election. After 1910, the Liberal Government was intent on passing a Plural Voting Bill that sought to prevent electors who appeared on the electoral register more than once from voting more than once. Liberal and Unionist Headquarters were in agreement that 29 seats were won by Unionists in December 1910 because of plural voting. However, before the bill could pass through Parliament, the Great War started and the bill was shelved. These practices were finally abolished for parliamentary elections by the Representation of the People Act 1948, which first applied in the 1950 General Election. However, plural voting for local government elections continued until it was abolished, outside the City of London, by the Representation of the People Act 1969. It still exists in the City of London - see City_of_London#Elections.
Until the Electoral Law Act 1968 took effect in 1969, the Queen's University, Belfast constituency was retained in the Parliament of Northern Ireland and owners of businesses were allowed to cast more than one vote in parliamentary elections. Tim Pat Coogan wrote on this subject:
Limited companies and occupiers of premises with a rateable valuation of £10 could appoint nominees - as could companies for each £10 of their valuations - under a system of plural voting, which even allowed such votes to be cast in another constituency ...
Plural voting also existed in local government elections in Northern Ireland, as in the rest of the United Kingdom (see above).
In Belgium, plural voting was introduced in 1893 and applied for elections from 1894 to 1919 as a way to limit the impact of universal suffrage.
For municipal elections, a fourth vote was granted to family heads who paid a fixed level of electoral tax, or whose cadastral income was at least of 150 francs.
The Local Government (Dublin) Act 1930, passed by the Cumann na nGaedheal government, provided that Dublin City Council would comprise 30 popularly elected "ordinary members" and five "commercial members" elected by business ratepayers (individuals or corporate persons). The commercial members were elected by single transferable vote in a single five-member constituency, with each elector casting between one and six ballots depending on the rate they paid. The commercial members were abolished in 1935 by the Fianna Fáil government.
University constituencies still exist in Seanad Éireann, the upper house of the Oireachtas (the Irish legislature). Graduates of the University of Dublin and National University of Ireland are entitled to vote in these constituencies in addition to exercising their normal vote for Dáil Éireann, the lower house of the Oireachtas.
It has been proposed that a parent should get a vote for each dependent child, to increase the birth rate or to increase the importance of long-term planning as an election issue. This was proposed in France in 1871 by Louis Henri de Gueydon; in the UK in 2003 by Demos, and in 2007 by Dutch economist Lans Bovenberg. It is a policy of the Christian Party of Austria and has been proposed by some members of Law and Justice in Poland. | 1,142 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The ancient Greeks considered Pindar to be one of their greatest poets. Although he lived and worked in a time of war and rivalry among the Greek city-states*, his talent and fame made him a celebrity throughout the Greek world and protected him from the worst of the conflict. Pindar wrote choral lyrics, which were poems sung by choruses, with accompanying music and dance. The composer of choral lyrics created all elements of the performance—words, music, and dance. By the time Pindar wrote his poetry, the choral lyric was becoming a traditional art form. Pindar brought that tradition to its highest point.
* city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory
The Poet from Boeotia. Pindar was born in a village near the city of Thebes, in a part of Greece called Boeotia. Although he later traveled widely and lived in other places, he was always known as a Boeotian. Pindar spent much of his life in Thebes. For several centuries after his death, a building in Thebes was identified as “Pindar’s house.” According to legend, when Alexander the Great invaded and destroyed Thebes, he ordered his soldiers not to burn the house where the great poet had once lived.
Little is known about Pindar’s life or his family background. He probably came from an aristocratic* family, since the ideas and values that he expressed in his poems were those of the traditional rural nobility of his time. Pindar received his education and musical training in Athens, an important center of artistic activity in the late 500s and 400s B.C. According to accounts of his life that were written over a century after his death, Pindar married and had two daughters and a son. He may have spent some time at Delphi, a city important to the Greeks as a religious center and the host of one of the four great Panhellenic* festivals.
The earliest of Pindar’s surviving poems is dated from 498 B.C. Although Pindar was only about 20 years old at the time, the poem is the work of a skilled and confident poet. He soon became established as a successful composer of choral lyrics. As a professional poet, Pindar had clients from all over the Greek world. Some of his clients were kings or rulers. Others were wealthy or aristocratic patrons* of the arts who hired Pindar to write choral lyrics for particular occasions, such as a festival, wedding, or the funeral of an important person.
One of Pindar’s clients was Hieron, the ruler of the Greek colony of Syracuse on the island of Sicily. Hieron commissioned several poems from Pindar, and some versions of Pindar’s life say that the poet lived in Syracuse for several years in the 470s B.C. as Hieron’s guest. The city of Athens also commissioned several poems from Pindar. In one of them, Pindar praises the beauties of “violet-crowned” Athens. According to legend, the Athenians were so pleased with the lyric that they rewarded Pindar with the very handsome sum of 10,000 drachmas. When Thebes and Athens went to war in the 450s and 440s B.C., Pindar’s fellow Thebans made him pay a fine as punishment for his earlier praise of Athens. Some of Pindar’s later poems express his loyalty to Thebes and his pride in being Boeotian. Scholars have suggested that in these poems Pindar was assuring the people of Boeotia that, although he had won fame in other regions, he was still one of them. He shared their determination to remain independent of Athens, which had already tried once to conquer Boeotia.
* aristocratic referring to people of the highest social class
* Panhellenic referring to all of Greece or to all Greek people
* patron special guardian, protector; or supporter
Pindar’s last dated poem was composed in 446 B.C., although he may have continued to write until his death. More than 100 years after Pindar’s death, scholars at the Library of Alexandria collected his lyrics into 17 books. The poems fell into many categories, including hymns, funeral songs, songs to accompany processions or parades, songs of praise, and victory odes*. Of all Pindar’s poems, only 44 victory odes survive to the present day. More accurately, only the words survive—the music and the dancing that accompanied them have been lost.
* ode lyric poem often addressed to a person or an object
The Victory Odes. Pindar wrote his victory odes, also called epinician odes, to honor winners at the Greek games. Athletes and musicians from all over the Greek world competed for glory at these events. The four largest competitions were the Pythian, Nemean, Isthmian, and Olympic games,each held every two or four years. Because Pindar composed odes for the victors of all four of the major games, his surviving poems are grouped into four volumes—Pythian, Nemean, Isthmian, and Olympian.
A victory in one of these games brought glory not just to the person who won the prize but also to the city in which the winner lived. Since the rulers, governments, or citizens’ committees of those cities commissioned Pindar to write the victory ode, each poem celebrated a city’s history, achievements, and beauties, as well as a particular individual’s talents and efforts.
Most victory odes contain certain similar elements. The poet described the winner and the nature of the event he won. Next, the poem might mention other victors in the winner’s family or in the city’s history. The poet would probably also refer to gods, heroes*, and other mythological or legendary figures who had some connection with either the event or the athlete’s home city.
One distinctive feature of Pindar’s odes is their solemn, religious tone. Pindar’s victory odes contain expressions of great gratitude and awe toward the gods. They reflect the poet’s deep attachment to the traditional religious beliefs and legends of the ancient Greeks:
The race of the gods is one thing, that of men, quite another.
We both get our breath from Earth, our common mother.
Yet the powers of the two races are wholly different, so that one of them is nothing-
while the bronze heaven of the gods stays secure forever.
(Nemean 6.1 -4)
The odes also reveal that Pindar admired those willing to struggle, suffer, and sacrifice in a noble cause. A victor was touched by the gods, and he shared their glory. Pindar spent little time describing the athlete’s training, performance, or victory. To him, these details were unimportant. What mattered was that the athlete’s struggle made him a noble, heroic figure, worthy of comparison to the kings and heroes of legend:
But we can become something like the immortal gods
through greatness—greatness of mind or greatness of body—
though we don’t know from day to day, or night to
night, what course fate has drawn for us to run our race.
(See also Games, Greek; Literature, Greek; Poetry, Greek and Hellenistic.)
* hero in mythology, a person of great strength or ability, often descended from a god
IMITATING THE MASTER
The Roman poet Horace warned that anyone who tried to copy Pindar was doomed to fall in failure like the Greek mythological figure Icarus. Icarus had fallen on wax wings into the sea when he had dared to fly too close to the sun. Despite Horace's warning, European poets many hundreds of years later continued to admire, and to some degree imitate, the structure and imagery of Pindar's odes. |ohn Milton's On the Morning of Christ's Nativity, John Dryden's Alexander's Feast and Ode for St Cecilia's Day, and Thomas Gray's Progress of Poesy all reflect the influence of the Greek master on English poetry of the 1600s and 1700s. | <urn:uuid:08fda196-492d-4cc6-995a-dc0c808ae2ac> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://erenow.net/ancient/ancient-greece-and-rome-an-encyclopedia-for-students-4-volume-set/351.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00454.warc.gz | en | 0.983213 | 1,758 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.310975313186... | 4 | The ancient Greeks considered Pindar to be one of their greatest poets. Although he lived and worked in a time of war and rivalry among the Greek city-states*, his talent and fame made him a celebrity throughout the Greek world and protected him from the worst of the conflict. Pindar wrote choral lyrics, which were poems sung by choruses, with accompanying music and dance. The composer of choral lyrics created all elements of the performance—words, music, and dance. By the time Pindar wrote his poetry, the choral lyric was becoming a traditional art form. Pindar brought that tradition to its highest point.
* city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory
The Poet from Boeotia. Pindar was born in a village near the city of Thebes, in a part of Greece called Boeotia. Although he later traveled widely and lived in other places, he was always known as a Boeotian. Pindar spent much of his life in Thebes. For several centuries after his death, a building in Thebes was identified as “Pindar’s house.” According to legend, when Alexander the Great invaded and destroyed Thebes, he ordered his soldiers not to burn the house where the great poet had once lived.
Little is known about Pindar’s life or his family background. He probably came from an aristocratic* family, since the ideas and values that he expressed in his poems were those of the traditional rural nobility of his time. Pindar received his education and musical training in Athens, an important center of artistic activity in the late 500s and 400s B.C. According to accounts of his life that were written over a century after his death, Pindar married and had two daughters and a son. He may have spent some time at Delphi, a city important to the Greeks as a religious center and the host of one of the four great Panhellenic* festivals.
The earliest of Pindar’s surviving poems is dated from 498 B.C. Although Pindar was only about 20 years old at the time, the poem is the work of a skilled and confident poet. He soon became established as a successful composer of choral lyrics. As a professional poet, Pindar had clients from all over the Greek world. Some of his clients were kings or rulers. Others were wealthy or aristocratic patrons* of the arts who hired Pindar to write choral lyrics for particular occasions, such as a festival, wedding, or the funeral of an important person.
One of Pindar’s clients was Hieron, the ruler of the Greek colony of Syracuse on the island of Sicily. Hieron commissioned several poems from Pindar, and some versions of Pindar’s life say that the poet lived in Syracuse for several years in the 470s B.C. as Hieron’s guest. The city of Athens also commissioned several poems from Pindar. In one of them, Pindar praises the beauties of “violet-crowned” Athens. According to legend, the Athenians were so pleased with the lyric that they rewarded Pindar with the very handsome sum of 10,000 drachmas. When Thebes and Athens went to war in the 450s and 440s B.C., Pindar’s fellow Thebans made him pay a fine as punishment for his earlier praise of Athens. Some of Pindar’s later poems express his loyalty to Thebes and his pride in being Boeotian. Scholars have suggested that in these poems Pindar was assuring the people of Boeotia that, although he had won fame in other regions, he was still one of them. He shared their determination to remain independent of Athens, which had already tried once to conquer Boeotia.
* aristocratic referring to people of the highest social class
* Panhellenic referring to all of Greece or to all Greek people
* patron special guardian, protector; or supporter
Pindar’s last dated poem was composed in 446 B.C., although he may have continued to write until his death. More than 100 years after Pindar’s death, scholars at the Library of Alexandria collected his lyrics into 17 books. The poems fell into many categories, including hymns, funeral songs, songs to accompany processions or parades, songs of praise, and victory odes*. Of all Pindar’s poems, only 44 victory odes survive to the present day. More accurately, only the words survive—the music and the dancing that accompanied them have been lost.
* ode lyric poem often addressed to a person or an object
The Victory Odes. Pindar wrote his victory odes, also called epinician odes, to honor winners at the Greek games. Athletes and musicians from all over the Greek world competed for glory at these events. The four largest competitions were the Pythian, Nemean, Isthmian, and Olympic games,each held every two or four years. Because Pindar composed odes for the victors of all four of the major games, his surviving poems are grouped into four volumes—Pythian, Nemean, Isthmian, and Olympian.
A victory in one of these games brought glory not just to the person who won the prize but also to the city in which the winner lived. Since the rulers, governments, or citizens’ committees of those cities commissioned Pindar to write the victory ode, each poem celebrated a city’s history, achievements, and beauties, as well as a particular individual’s talents and efforts.
Most victory odes contain certain similar elements. The poet described the winner and the nature of the event he won. Next, the poem might mention other victors in the winner’s family or in the city’s history. The poet would probably also refer to gods, heroes*, and other mythological or legendary figures who had some connection with either the event or the athlete’s home city.
One distinctive feature of Pindar’s odes is their solemn, religious tone. Pindar’s victory odes contain expressions of great gratitude and awe toward the gods. They reflect the poet’s deep attachment to the traditional religious beliefs and legends of the ancient Greeks:
The race of the gods is one thing, that of men, quite another.
We both get our breath from Earth, our common mother.
Yet the powers of the two races are wholly different, so that one of them is nothing-
while the bronze heaven of the gods stays secure forever.
(Nemean 6.1 -4)
The odes also reveal that Pindar admired those willing to struggle, suffer, and sacrifice in a noble cause. A victor was touched by the gods, and he shared their glory. Pindar spent little time describing the athlete’s training, performance, or victory. To him, these details were unimportant. What mattered was that the athlete’s struggle made him a noble, heroic figure, worthy of comparison to the kings and heroes of legend:
But we can become something like the immortal gods
through greatness—greatness of mind or greatness of body—
though we don’t know from day to day, or night to
night, what course fate has drawn for us to run our race.
(See also Games, Greek; Literature, Greek; Poetry, Greek and Hellenistic.)
* hero in mythology, a person of great strength or ability, often descended from a god
IMITATING THE MASTER
The Roman poet Horace warned that anyone who tried to copy Pindar was doomed to fall in failure like the Greek mythological figure Icarus. Icarus had fallen on wax wings into the sea when he had dared to fly too close to the sun. Despite Horace's warning, European poets many hundreds of years later continued to admire, and to some degree imitate, the structure and imagery of Pindar's odes. |ohn Milton's On the Morning of Christ's Nativity, John Dryden's Alexander's Feast and Ode for St Cecilia's Day, and Thomas Gray's Progress of Poesy all reflect the influence of the Greek master on English poetry of the 1600s and 1700s. | 1,726 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Red Throated Loon is a very common visitor to the Pacific Northwest Coast. They only reach up to 65 cm long and are the smallest species of all known Loon species in the wild. They are very good at flying with speeds of up to almost 80 km per hour and they can fly for a very long period of time. They are very beautiful.
They have a gray coloring on top and white on the bottom of the body. As you can guess from the name, they also have a reddish patch on the throat. However, it isn’t present all year long, but only during mating. They are often mistaken for other types of loons when that coloration is missing. Their small size should help you identify them though.
The Red-Throated Loon is found throughout Northern America. They live mainly along the water and will very seldom be seen on land. They migrate each year to the north to nest in the spring. They tend to stay very close to the shoreline as they migrate.
The feet on the Red-Throated Loon are located very far back so they have a difficult time walking on land. They do cover ground though after breeding to get to the water by pushing with their feet while sliding on their breast. They are able to take flight from land though when startled, they are the only species of Loon that is able to do this.
They go through a molting period when they can’t fly. This molt is in the late summer months.
They use various forms of vocalization to communicate. They will send out sounds to identify habitat as they approach the water. They give warning calls if they are disturbed to ward off people and predators. They will also offer a low pitch warbling sound for calling mates or to interact with their young.
They consume a variety of foods including fish and crustaceans. The Red-Throated Loon prefers fish though and that is the item they will always eat if it is there. They will turn to insects, plants, and other debris when necessary though in order to get enough food to eat.
They often dive to get fish right out of the water. They have an amazing vision that allows them to see fish from a very far distance. They can dive up to 25 meters below the surface of the water. They are able to stay under the water for up to 1 minute at a time.
Breeding takes place mainly in the Arctic region. The pairs are very careful about determining who they will mate with. They often keep the same mate for several years but they can change who they mate with. Both parents will guard the eggs and help to ensure that they are able to mature. The female lays two eggs and incubates them for about 26 days.
When the young arrive the female stays with them while the male brings back food for all of them. | <urn:uuid:bd1a333f-52b2-403e-a799-e20571f6f615> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://gohiking.ca/animals/birds/seabirds/red-throated-loon/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00467.warc.gz | en | 0.982117 | 590 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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-0.134593531489372... | 1 | The Red Throated Loon is a very common visitor to the Pacific Northwest Coast. They only reach up to 65 cm long and are the smallest species of all known Loon species in the wild. They are very good at flying with speeds of up to almost 80 km per hour and they can fly for a very long period of time. They are very beautiful.
They have a gray coloring on top and white on the bottom of the body. As you can guess from the name, they also have a reddish patch on the throat. However, it isn’t present all year long, but only during mating. They are often mistaken for other types of loons when that coloration is missing. Their small size should help you identify them though.
The Red-Throated Loon is found throughout Northern America. They live mainly along the water and will very seldom be seen on land. They migrate each year to the north to nest in the spring. They tend to stay very close to the shoreline as they migrate.
The feet on the Red-Throated Loon are located very far back so they have a difficult time walking on land. They do cover ground though after breeding to get to the water by pushing with their feet while sliding on their breast. They are able to take flight from land though when startled, they are the only species of Loon that is able to do this.
They go through a molting period when they can’t fly. This molt is in the late summer months.
They use various forms of vocalization to communicate. They will send out sounds to identify habitat as they approach the water. They give warning calls if they are disturbed to ward off people and predators. They will also offer a low pitch warbling sound for calling mates or to interact with their young.
They consume a variety of foods including fish and crustaceans. The Red-Throated Loon prefers fish though and that is the item they will always eat if it is there. They will turn to insects, plants, and other debris when necessary though in order to get enough food to eat.
They often dive to get fish right out of the water. They have an amazing vision that allows them to see fish from a very far distance. They can dive up to 25 meters below the surface of the water. They are able to stay under the water for up to 1 minute at a time.
Breeding takes place mainly in the Arctic region. The pairs are very careful about determining who they will mate with. They often keep the same mate for several years but they can change who they mate with. Both parents will guard the eggs and help to ensure that they are able to mature. The female lays two eggs and incubates them for about 26 days.
When the young arrive the female stays with them while the male brings back food for all of them. | 582 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Basketball, a classic sport favoured by many, but have you ever wondered how the sport came to be? We did, and we found some really cool facts about the evolution of Basketball!
The game was first invented in 1891 by a 30-year-old Canadian doctor, James Naismith. Originally, a peach basket or box was used as the net and was attached to an elevated structure, typically balconies… so a ladder was imperative at all games in order to retrieve the ball. A soccer ball was initially the ball of choice but was found ineffective for dribbling or bouncing. In 1894 the first basketball was engineered but underwent many revisions before it became the basketball that we know today. The design of the net was also later revised by adding a rim in 1893 and netting in 1912.
The game was traditionally governed by 13 rules and structured around three concepts: pass, score and defend. The simplicity of the game eventually started to lose the interest of players so more complex rules were introduced. Today there are over 100 strict rules and regulations in professional and amateur basketball leagues.
During the early years of the sport, the number of players on a team was not defined. Some games were played with up to 50 people on each team! In 1897 it was decided that teams of exactly 5 players worked best. The role of a coach wasn’t utilized until 1949. It was then that they were allowed to attend games and converse with the team during timeouts.
Isn’t it interesting how what was once a basic idea that consisted of only a soccer ball and peach basket ended up developing into a sport now played worldwide? During your child’s time at Sports Discovery Camp they will get to create their own sport. Maybe their imagination will lead to a global phenomenon too! | <urn:uuid:386a24ea-e931-48d0-af46-fb6fb373bc5e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://blog.sportsdiscoverycamp.ca/blog/evolution-of-sports-basketball | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00307.warc.gz | en | 0.991301 | 365 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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-0.01376575604081... | 1 | Basketball, a classic sport favoured by many, but have you ever wondered how the sport came to be? We did, and we found some really cool facts about the evolution of Basketball!
The game was first invented in 1891 by a 30-year-old Canadian doctor, James Naismith. Originally, a peach basket or box was used as the net and was attached to an elevated structure, typically balconies… so a ladder was imperative at all games in order to retrieve the ball. A soccer ball was initially the ball of choice but was found ineffective for dribbling or bouncing. In 1894 the first basketball was engineered but underwent many revisions before it became the basketball that we know today. The design of the net was also later revised by adding a rim in 1893 and netting in 1912.
The game was traditionally governed by 13 rules and structured around three concepts: pass, score and defend. The simplicity of the game eventually started to lose the interest of players so more complex rules were introduced. Today there are over 100 strict rules and regulations in professional and amateur basketball leagues.
During the early years of the sport, the number of players on a team was not defined. Some games were played with up to 50 people on each team! In 1897 it was decided that teams of exactly 5 players worked best. The role of a coach wasn’t utilized until 1949. It was then that they were allowed to attend games and converse with the team during timeouts.
Isn’t it interesting how what was once a basic idea that consisted of only a soccer ball and peach basket ended up developing into a sport now played worldwide? During your child’s time at Sports Discovery Camp they will get to create their own sport. Maybe their imagination will lead to a global phenomenon too! | 383 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What is the meaning of the phrase “like father, like son”? It means that someone resembles their parents, either in terms of appearance or because of their behavior.
Example: Barbara was at the grocery store with her grandson. As they were shopping, someone nearby tripped and dropped their bags of food all over the ground. Her grandson ran over to help. After he returned, Barbara told him: “That was kind of you, Walter. Your father is the same way, you know. Like father, like son, as the saying goes.”
In other words, she was saying that Walter was similar to his dad; they are both kind to people, willing to help others.
The Origin Of “Like Father, Like Son”
When a child is acting like their mom or dad, someone might use the proverb “like father, like son.” Or they might say “like mother, like daughter,” which pretty much means the same thing.
Why do people say that? Because children share similarities with their parents, not only in how they look, but also in the way they behave. This happens because they inherit traits from their mother and father. However, there’s another factor at play here besides genes. As a child grows up, they are also influenced by what they see their parents saying and doing. The end result is that once the child reaches adulthood, the personality and qualities they have will probably be close to that of their parents (hence the phrase).
Anyways, let’s talk about the origin of this proverb. This phrase (the “like mother, like daughter” version) appears in the Bible. For example, at Ezekiel 16:44, it reads:
“Look! Everyone who uses proverbs will apply this proverb to you: ‘Like mother, like daughter!’ “
Example Sentences Of “Like Father, Like Son”
- When things go wrong, Rob is easily frustrated. Unfortunately, like father, like son, this was also true for his older child.
- Taylor needed some new clothes, so his dad took him shopping. As they entered the store, the dad politely held the door open for someone. The son noticed, so when the following week came and they returned to the same store, like father, like son, the boy also held the door open for someone.
Note: The origin for many common idioms cannot be said with a certainty, so what’s provided in such cases are theories that may be plausible to how a phrase originated. However, what if no explanation is given?
Well, at the very least, there will be a quote on the page. These quotes usually come from newspapers, poems, or books that were written centuries ago. Their purpose is to give the reader an idea for how old the saying is. It does not necessarily mean that the phrase originated from that source. | <urn:uuid:c0e8651f-f8a5-43b2-ac5e-7f5f8e94a33c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://knowyourphrase.com/like-father-like-son | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00028.warc.gz | en | 0.983586 | 610 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.126727700233... | 1 | What is the meaning of the phrase “like father, like son”? It means that someone resembles their parents, either in terms of appearance or because of their behavior.
Example: Barbara was at the grocery store with her grandson. As they were shopping, someone nearby tripped and dropped their bags of food all over the ground. Her grandson ran over to help. After he returned, Barbara told him: “That was kind of you, Walter. Your father is the same way, you know. Like father, like son, as the saying goes.”
In other words, she was saying that Walter was similar to his dad; they are both kind to people, willing to help others.
The Origin Of “Like Father, Like Son”
When a child is acting like their mom or dad, someone might use the proverb “like father, like son.” Or they might say “like mother, like daughter,” which pretty much means the same thing.
Why do people say that? Because children share similarities with their parents, not only in how they look, but also in the way they behave. This happens because they inherit traits from their mother and father. However, there’s another factor at play here besides genes. As a child grows up, they are also influenced by what they see their parents saying and doing. The end result is that once the child reaches adulthood, the personality and qualities they have will probably be close to that of their parents (hence the phrase).
Anyways, let’s talk about the origin of this proverb. This phrase (the “like mother, like daughter” version) appears in the Bible. For example, at Ezekiel 16:44, it reads:
“Look! Everyone who uses proverbs will apply this proverb to you: ‘Like mother, like daughter!’ “
Example Sentences Of “Like Father, Like Son”
- When things go wrong, Rob is easily frustrated. Unfortunately, like father, like son, this was also true for his older child.
- Taylor needed some new clothes, so his dad took him shopping. As they entered the store, the dad politely held the door open for someone. The son noticed, so when the following week came and they returned to the same store, like father, like son, the boy also held the door open for someone.
Note: The origin for many common idioms cannot be said with a certainty, so what’s provided in such cases are theories that may be plausible to how a phrase originated. However, what if no explanation is given?
Well, at the very least, there will be a quote on the page. These quotes usually come from newspapers, poems, or books that were written centuries ago. Their purpose is to give the reader an idea for how old the saying is. It does not necessarily mean that the phrase originated from that source. | 574 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Waiting for answer This question has not been answered yet. You can hire a professional tutor to get the answer.
Write a 2 pages paper on learning about disability culture. Learning about Disability Culture LEARNING ABOUT DISABILITY CULTURE Prior to learning about disability culture, I had had experiences with y
Write a 2 pages paper on learning about disability culture. Learning about Disability Culture LEARNING ABOUT DISABILITY CULTURE Prior to learning about disability culture, I had had experiences with young children with disabilities working for a charity organization in my hometown. However, my exposure to disabilities in adults was limited, and I found the introduction to this group quite informative. Some of the ideas that I had never considered included the fact that manifestation of disability in adulthood differs significantly from that in children (Stone, 2009). While I did understand that the better adaptation processes of adults enabled them to compensate for disability, I learnt with interest that disabilities manifest in various ways for different adult development stages. This I found to be consisted with mainstream culture in society, which holds that people change and develop as they go through their lifespan. I have also learnt that disabilities take various forms and that how one disabled person may behave is not the same as how others may behave. In addition, it was interesting to note that some people with disabilities find the term to be discriminatory, and a hindrance, especially as some feel that they go through the same issues as able-bodied people and achieve similar results (Stone, 2009).
Probably the most important information gathered during the learning activities was that individuals cannot outgrow their disabilities. While this ultimately makes sense, my time volunteering to work with disabled children has made me not question what they will become when they grow up. I agree with the contention that those with disabilities, especially learning disabilities, normally have ability or abilities that can outshine their disabilities (Stone, 2009). Whether because of natural gifts or as devices for compensation and adaptation, these other abilities are dependent on the disabled persons. I enjoyed a video that we watched during one of the classes, in which a man working with a group of community leaders told them about what life and school is like for children who are disabled was an informative activity. One of his illustrations actually struck me when he contended that expecting something from those with disabilities who are not capable of accomplishing the set task is commonplace in society and in school, which I agreed with. In addition, this problem has been found to lie with societal ignorance, rather than with individuals suffering from a disability (Stone, 2009). There is a need for society to be concerned and educated about working with disabled people.
People with disabilities also have to overcome issues and obstacles that are beyond whatever disability they have. This is especially in reference to the expectations of society from them, as well as the behavior of society towards them (Riddell & Watson, 2013). I have learnt that overcoming disability as one grows up is a difficult challenge, as well as the fact that the general public and school systems make it even harder for people with disabilities to function. However, it still amazes me that so many people with disabilities have managed to accomplish so much. As well as their struggle against low self-esteem that is either because of ill treatment from society or self-consciousness, I was also drawn to the many levels of struggle that people with disabilities go through. However, the most critical issue identified was discrimination, even with all the laws passed in Congress to make the workplace conducive for people with disability (Riddell & Watson, 2013). Overall, by learning about discrimination, we can get to understand the various abilities that these individuals have and viewing them as abilities, rather than focusing on their disabilities.
Riddell, S., & Watson, N. (2013). Disability, culture and identity. Harlow: Pearson/Prentice Hall.
Stone, J. H. (2009). Culture and Disability: Providing culturally competent services. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications. | <urn:uuid:c16e1c53-1186-4bb1-82a9-13054f1d7f37> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studydaddy.com/question/write-a-2-pages-paper-on-learning-about-disability-culture-learning-about-disabi | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00425.warc.gz | en | 0.982513 | 804 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.1840922981500625... | 2 | Waiting for answer This question has not been answered yet. You can hire a professional tutor to get the answer.
Write a 2 pages paper on learning about disability culture. Learning about Disability Culture LEARNING ABOUT DISABILITY CULTURE Prior to learning about disability culture, I had had experiences with y
Write a 2 pages paper on learning about disability culture. Learning about Disability Culture LEARNING ABOUT DISABILITY CULTURE Prior to learning about disability culture, I had had experiences with young children with disabilities working for a charity organization in my hometown. However, my exposure to disabilities in adults was limited, and I found the introduction to this group quite informative. Some of the ideas that I had never considered included the fact that manifestation of disability in adulthood differs significantly from that in children (Stone, 2009). While I did understand that the better adaptation processes of adults enabled them to compensate for disability, I learnt with interest that disabilities manifest in various ways for different adult development stages. This I found to be consisted with mainstream culture in society, which holds that people change and develop as they go through their lifespan. I have also learnt that disabilities take various forms and that how one disabled person may behave is not the same as how others may behave. In addition, it was interesting to note that some people with disabilities find the term to be discriminatory, and a hindrance, especially as some feel that they go through the same issues as able-bodied people and achieve similar results (Stone, 2009).
Probably the most important information gathered during the learning activities was that individuals cannot outgrow their disabilities. While this ultimately makes sense, my time volunteering to work with disabled children has made me not question what they will become when they grow up. I agree with the contention that those with disabilities, especially learning disabilities, normally have ability or abilities that can outshine their disabilities (Stone, 2009). Whether because of natural gifts or as devices for compensation and adaptation, these other abilities are dependent on the disabled persons. I enjoyed a video that we watched during one of the classes, in which a man working with a group of community leaders told them about what life and school is like for children who are disabled was an informative activity. One of his illustrations actually struck me when he contended that expecting something from those with disabilities who are not capable of accomplishing the set task is commonplace in society and in school, which I agreed with. In addition, this problem has been found to lie with societal ignorance, rather than with individuals suffering from a disability (Stone, 2009). There is a need for society to be concerned and educated about working with disabled people.
People with disabilities also have to overcome issues and obstacles that are beyond whatever disability they have. This is especially in reference to the expectations of society from them, as well as the behavior of society towards them (Riddell & Watson, 2013). I have learnt that overcoming disability as one grows up is a difficult challenge, as well as the fact that the general public and school systems make it even harder for people with disabilities to function. However, it still amazes me that so many people with disabilities have managed to accomplish so much. As well as their struggle against low self-esteem that is either because of ill treatment from society or self-consciousness, I was also drawn to the many levels of struggle that people with disabilities go through. However, the most critical issue identified was discrimination, even with all the laws passed in Congress to make the workplace conducive for people with disability (Riddell & Watson, 2013). Overall, by learning about discrimination, we can get to understand the various abilities that these individuals have and viewing them as abilities, rather than focusing on their disabilities.
Riddell, S., & Watson, N. (2013). Disability, culture and identity. Harlow: Pearson/Prentice Hall.
Stone, J. H. (2009). Culture and Disability: Providing culturally competent services. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications. | 824 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus
The Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (121-180) was a convinced Stoic philosopher, and at his accession there was widespread rejoicing that at last Plato's dream of a philosopher-king had become reality.
Born Marcus Annius Verus on April 26, 121, of a noble family originally Spanish, Marcus Aurelius grew up close to the center of power. When he was a child, the emperor Hadrian noticed him and punned on his name, Verus ("True"), calling him Verissimus ("Truest") for his uprightness. In his final arrangement Hadrian, who had difficulty in choosing a successor, destined Marcus for ultimate rule, for when he adopted Marcus's uncle by marriage, Antoninus (soon to be known as Antoninus Pius), he had Antoninus adopt Marcus Aurelius along with the young Lucius Ceionius Commodus, later called Lucius Verus.
Youth and Accession
Marcus Aurelius had an excellent education, numbering among his tutors M. Cornelius Fronto, the rhetorician; the very wealthy Herodes Atticus, whose Odeon still stands in Athens; Plutarch's grandson Sextus of Chaeronea; and Diognetus, the painter and Stoic philosopher. Under Diognetus's influence young Marcus became a precocious Stoic at the age of 11 and remained a devoted follower of stoicism for the rest of his life.
Antoninus Pius was that rarity among emperors, one who had his acknowledged heir beside him throughout his reign. He had the title Caesar conferred on Marcus in 139, only a year after his own accession, and betrothed him to his own daughter Faustina; Marcus and Faustina were married probably in 140. Through the reign of Antoninus (138-161) Marcus worked most closely with him.
Though Antoninus at his death seems to have designated Marcus as sole heir, Marcus insisted that his adoptive brother Verus also be given full power. Thus for the first time Rome had two exactly equal emperors, colleagues like the consuls of old. That this arrangement, which had sometimes caused trouble even with merely annual magistrates, did not produce friction between lifetime equals was due in large measure to the good nature of Verus and his deference to Marcus's seniority in years and judgment.
The reign opened with floods on the Tiber and a variety of other natural disasters, but the overshadowing problem was the Eastern question. Parthia, the only large, organized power that Rome faced, was always a rival for dominance in Armenia, and now, in 162, Parthia attacked, defeated the Romans in Cappadocia, and overran the rich province of Syria. Marcus Aurelius, for reasons which still are not entirely clear, remained at Rome and sent Verus to take charge of the war in the East. Verus was no soldier, but Marcus supplied him with able subordinates, and the war went well though slowly; the Roman counteroffensive did not get under way until 163, but then Armenia was occupied and a vassal king installed.
In 164 three Roman armies, one headed by the able Avidius Cassius, cleared northern Mesopotamia; in 165 southern Mesopotamia and the chief Parthian capitals were taken; finally, in 166, Media was overrun. But in late 165 a terrible plague broke out among the Roman troops, a plague which they were to carry back with them and which would carry off a quarter or more of the population of the empire. Rome recalled its armies with Parthia defeated but not conquered. Nevertheless, Marcus and Verus celebrated a magnificent triumph.
The Parthian War had ended none too soon, for the German War, which was to run with only the briefest of intervals for the rest of the reign, had already begun. Another of those great waves of unrest which occasionally troubled the barbarians beyond the frontier was setting the Germans in motion, and in 167 a group of tribes crossed the Danube, destroyed a Roman army, and actually besieged Aquileia in Italy. The danger was critical, for the plague was raging, particularly in the army camps, and the imperial treasury, always short of money, was worse off than usual.
Marcus raised new legions, even accepting slaves and gladiators, auctioned off furnishings from the imperial palaces to raise funds, and in 168 went with Verus to the front. Verus died in early 169, and Marcus was left to face the war alone. The barbarians were driven back, but still the war dragged on in a mixture of victories and defeats, with Marcus living mainly at the front, sometimes on the Danube, sometimes on the Rhine as the focus of crisis shifted. Gradually the Romans gained the upper hand, and by 175 we are told that Marcus was intending to annex the lands of the tribes nearest the frontier when he was suddenly forced to call off the war because of the revolt of Avidius Cassius in the East.
Revolt of Avidius Cassius
After distinguished service in the Parthian War, Avidius Cassius, himself a Syrian, had been made governor of Syria and, with the deepening of the German crisis, had gradually been raised to the position almost of viceroy for the entire East. In 175 Marcus grew sick, and rumor went round that he was dying or dead; partly for this reason Avidius was hailed emperor and accepted by most of the East, including Egypt—Rome's granary—thus threatening Rome itself with famine. Marcus had to break off the war in Germany with less than total victory and hurry eastward.
Cassius was murdered after only 3 months, and the immediate danger passed; but Marcus could not avoid showing himself in the East and making a fairly extended sojourn there. He exhibited his customary leniency in dealing with Cassius's supporters and returned to Rome in late 176, where he celebrated a splendid triumph with his son Commodus, who was soon given the title Augustus and made an equal sharer of power. Thus through his own act Marcus Aurelius ended his reign as he had begun it, with a partner his equal in power but not in virtue.
In 177 began a serious persecution of the Christians. Much ink has been spilled trying to reconcile Marcus's kindness and high principles with his evident hostility toward the Christians; but the fact remains that he considered the Christians to be dangerous fanatics, subversive alike of society and the state—and on the evidence available to him, how should he not? Then, too, if his persecution was more severe than those that went before, this was partly because the Christians were more numerous and more visible than before.
Renewed German War and Death
The German War erupted again in 177, and Marcus shortly returned to the front. Once again he had the war almost won; but his death, which occurred on March 17, 180, precluded final victory over the Germans. He was given a grand funeral and deified, and memorials of him are yet visible in Rome—the column celebrating his German victories in the Piazza Colonna and his equestrian statue where Michelangelo placed it on the Capitoline.
Marcus Aurelius's reign was marked by near, rather than complete, success and marred both by his fondness for sharing power with unworthy partners and by a willingness to forgive carried at times beyond the point of prudence in one responsible for the well-being of millions; but there can be no question of his personal goodness or of the greatness of his soul.
The reason for which Marcus Aurelius deservedly is most remembered is the collection of his thoughts or reflections, usually entitled the Meditations. Apparently jotted down from time to time as inclination or opportunity offered, the thoughts form no organized system of philosophy; rather, they are the record of a spirit whose principles were elevated above the somewhat grim rectitude of stoicism by a warm love of mankind and a philosophy closely akin to religion.
To Marcus, happiness was to be achieved by living "according to nature," in harmony with the principle which ordered the universe; the serenity of one who so lived could not be really affected by the buffetings of fate. Since the Meditations were composed in bits, they are best read so; they are to be savored rather than downed at a gulp.
There is no good surviving ancient treatment of Marcus Aurelius. His life is included in the collection known as The Scriptores Historiae Augustae (trans., 3 vols., 1921-1932), and his reign in the fragments of books 70-71 in the general history of Cassius Dio. Otherwise there are his own Meditations and the surviving letters he exchanged with his old tutor Fronto. Among modern works are Henry Dwight Sedgwick, Marcus Aurelius: A Biography (1921); C. Clayton Dove, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus: His Life and Times (1930); Arthur Spencer Loat Farquharson, Marcus Aurelius: His Life and His World (1951), a posthumous work dealing with Marcus's youth up to his accession; and Anthony Birley's full and interesting Marcus Aurelius (1966). □
The Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius (121–180) was a Stoic philosopher. Stoicism was a complex philosophy that advised people to find happiness by living in harmony with the universe and by doing their part to better the world—without worries about fate or about things they were unable to control. When Marcus Aurelius became emperor there was widespread celebration that Plato's dream of a philosopherking had become reality at last.
Born into privilege
Born Marcus Annius Verus on April 26, 121, of a noble family, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus grew up close to the center of power. When he was a child, the emperor Hadrian (76–138) noticed him and made a word play on his name, Verus (meaning "true"), by calling him Verissimus (meaning "truest") for his strong sense of morals. Hadrian had difficulty choosing an emperor to follow him, but placed Marcus on the path to rule. When he adopted Marcus's uncle by marriage, Antoninus Pius (86–161), he arranged for Antoninus to adopt Marcus Aurelius along with the young Lucius Verus (130–169).
Marcus Aurelius had an extraordinary education. Among his tutors was Diognetus, a painter and Stoic philosopher. Marcus studied subjects such as poetry and law, and generally was an excellent student. But philosophy was Marcus's main interest. Under Diognetus's influence, young Marcus became a Stoic at the age of eleven and remained a dedicated follower of stoicism for the rest of his life.
Rise to emperor
Antoninus Pius, only a year after he became emperor, had the title Caesar placed on Marcus in 139. His daughter Faustina probably married Marcus in 140. Throughout the reign of Antoninus (ruled 138–161), Marcus worked closely with him.
When Antoninus died and Marcus became emperor, he insisted that Verus also be given full power. Thus, for the first time, Rome had two equal emperors. The reason this arrangement did not produce conflict between lifetime equals was due in large part to the good nature of Verus and his acceptance of Marcus's seniority in years and judgment.
When Verus and Marcus first became joint emperors of Rome they faced the problem of war in the East. Parthia (located in present-day Iran) was always a rival for power in Armenia, and in 162 Parthia attacked. Marcus Aurelius remained in Rome and sent Verus to take charge of the war. Although Verus was not a trained soldier, the war carried on smoothly. But in late 165 a plague, or very contagious disease, broke out among the Roman troops. They carried it back with them and the plague killed a quarter or more of the population of the Roman Empire. Rome recalled its armies from Parthia, defeated but not conquered. Nevertheless, Marcus and Verus celebrated a great triumph.
The Parthian War had ended none too soon, for the German War had already begun. In 167 a group of tribes crossed the Danube River, destroyed a Roman army, and successfully conquered a city in Italy. The danger was critical, for the plague was raging, particularly in the army camps. Also, the Roman treasury, always short of money, was worse off than usual.
Marcus raised new armies and funds and in 168 went with Verus to the battlefront. Verus died in early 169, and Marcus was left to face the war alone. The Germans were driven back, but the war dragged on, with Marcus mainly at the battlefront. Gradually the Romans gained the upper hand. But by 175 Marcus had to call off the war because of the revolt of Avidius Cassius in the East.
Revolt of Avidius Cassius
After his service in the Parthian War, Avidius Cassius, a Syrian, had been made governor of Syria and held great power. In 175 Marcus grew sick and it was rumored that he was either dying or dead. Partly for this reason Avidius was hailed emperor and accepted by most of the East. Marcus had to break off the war in Germany and hurry eastward.
Cassius was murdered three months later and his body was sent back to Rome in late 176. The German War started again in 177, and Marcus returned to the battlefront. Once again he was winning the war. However, Marcus died on March 17, 180—never to see the final victory over the Germans.
Marcus Aurelius is most remembered for the collection of his thoughts or reflections usually entitled The Meditations. Apparently written down from time to time, the thoughts form no organized system of philosophy. Rather, they are the record of a person whose principles were noble, who had a warm love of humankind, and who had a philosophy similar to religion. To Marcus, happiness was to be achieved by living "according to nature," in harmony with the principle that ordered the universe; the peace of mind of such a person could not be affected by life's difficulties.
For More Information
Birley, Anthony. Marcus Aurelius: A Biography. Rev. ed. London: Routledge, 2000.
Farquharson, Arthur S. L. Marcus Aurelius: His Life and His World. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1975.
Emperor, stoic philosopher
Student of Philosophy. Originally named Marcus Annius Verus, the future emperor called Marcus Aurelius was raised by his grandfather and mother. He was attracted to the study of philosophy when he was only twelve years old. Epictetus was a great influence on him, which is evident in his work commonly called the Meditations, though probably called by him Notes to Himself. This was probably a kind of philosophic diary, not intended for publication, which probably was written as an older man and possibly during his campaigns against the Germanic tribes. He seems also to have incorporated elements of Platonism. In fact, the diary was lost and recovered only in the fourth century c.e. Like Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius was concerned with the making of moral choices in life and with the role of divine providence in events. He believed that one is to avoid those things that distract him from making correct choices, including power and glory, which are transitory anyway, and to forego his personal satisfaction for the sake of a greater good.
Philosopher Emperor. Aurelius became co-emperor, along with his half brother Lucius, when Antoninus died in 161. The new emperors were immediately faced with revolts in the borderlands and sent armies to quell the disturbances. Lucius, then known as Verus, died of plague while both emperors were leading Roman armies in Dacia. After several serious military setbacks, the Romans were able to push northern incursions out of Italy, but Aurelius had spent much treasure in the effort. He spent nearly the rest of his rule dealing with warfare in the borders, until his death in the north in 180.
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Marcus Aurelius Antoninus
The Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (121-180) was a convinced Stoic philosopher, and at his accession there was widespread rejoicing that at last Plato's dream of a philosopher-king had become reality.
Born Marcus Annius Verus on April 26, 121, of a noble family originally Spanish, Marcus Aurelius grew up close to the center of power. When he was a child, the emperor Hadrian noticed him and punned on his name, Verus ("True"), calling him Verissimus ("Truest") for his uprightness. In his final arrangement Hadrian, who had difficulty in choosing a successor, destined Marcus for ultimate rule, for when he adopted Marcus's uncle by marriage, Antoninus (soon to be known as Antoninus Pius), he had Antoninus adopt Marcus Aurelius along with the young Lucius Ceionius Commodus, later called Lucius Verus.
Youth and Accession
Marcus Aurelius had an excellent education, numbering among his tutors M. Cornelius Fronto, the rhetorician; the very wealthy Herodes Atticus, whose Odeon still stands in Athens; Plutarch's grandson Sextus of Chaeronea; and Diognetus, the painter and Stoic philosopher. Under Diognetus's influence young Marcus became a precocious Stoic at the age of 11 and remained a devoted follower of stoicism for the rest of his life.
Antoninus Pius was that rarity among emperors, one who had his acknowledged heir beside him throughout his reign. He had the title Caesar conferred on Marcus in 139, only a year after his own accession, and betrothed him to his own daughter Faustina; Marcus and Faustina were married probably in 140. Through the reign of Antoninus (138-161) Marcus worked most closely with him.
Though Antoninus at his death seems to have designated Marcus as sole heir, Marcus insisted that his adoptive brother Verus also be given full power. Thus for the first time Rome had two exactly equal emperors, colleagues like the consuls of old. That this arrangement, which had sometimes caused trouble even with merely annual magistrates, did not produce friction between lifetime equals was due in large measure to the good nature of Verus and his deference to Marcus's seniority in years and judgment.
The reign opened with floods on the Tiber and a variety of other natural disasters, but the overshadowing problem was the Eastern question. Parthia, the only large, organized power that Rome faced, was always a rival for dominance in Armenia, and now, in 162, Parthia attacked, defeated the Romans in Cappadocia, and overran the rich province of Syria. Marcus Aurelius, for reasons which still are not entirely clear, remained at Rome and sent Verus to take charge of the war in the East. Verus was no soldier, but Marcus supplied him with able subordinates, and the war went well though slowly; the Roman counteroffensive did not get under way until 163, but then Armenia was occupied and a vassal king installed.
In 164 three Roman armies, one headed by the able Avidius Cassius, cleared northern Mesopotamia; in 165 southern Mesopotamia and the chief Parthian capitals were taken; finally, in 166, Media was overrun. But in late 165 a terrible plague broke out among the Roman troops, a plague which they were to carry back with them and which would carry off a quarter or more of the population of the empire. Rome recalled its armies with Parthia defeated but not conquered. Nevertheless, Marcus and Verus celebrated a magnificent triumph.
The Parthian War had ended none too soon, for the German War, which was to run with only the briefest of intervals for the rest of the reign, had already begun. Another of those great waves of unrest which occasionally troubled the barbarians beyond the frontier was setting the Germans in motion, and in 167 a group of tribes crossed the Danube, destroyed a Roman army, and actually besieged Aquileia in Italy. The danger was critical, for the plague was raging, particularly in the army camps, and the imperial treasury, always short of money, was worse off than usual.
Marcus raised new legions, even accepting slaves and gladiators, auctioned off furnishings from the imperial palaces to raise funds, and in 168 went with Verus to the front. Verus died in early 169, and Marcus was left to face the war alone. The barbarians were driven back, but still the war dragged on in a mixture of victories and defeats, with Marcus living mainly at the front, sometimes on the Danube, sometimes on the Rhine as the focus of crisis shifted. Gradually the Romans gained the upper hand, and by 175 we are told that Marcus was intending to annex the lands of the tribes nearest the frontier when he was suddenly forced to call off the war because of the revolt of Avidius Cassius in the East.
Revolt of Avidius Cassius
After distinguished service in the Parthian War, Avidius Cassius, himself a Syrian, had been made governor of Syria and, with the deepening of the German crisis, had gradually been raised to the position almost of viceroy for the entire East. In 175 Marcus grew sick, and rumor went round that he was dying or dead; partly for this reason Avidius was hailed emperor and accepted by most of the East, including Egypt—Rome's granary—thus threatening Rome itself with famine. Marcus had to break off the war in Germany with less than total victory and hurry eastward.
Cassius was murdered after only 3 months, and the immediate danger passed; but Marcus could not avoid showing himself in the East and making a fairly extended sojourn there. He exhibited his customary leniency in dealing with Cassius's supporters and returned to Rome in late 176, where he celebrated a splendid triumph with his son Commodus, who was soon given the title Augustus and made an equal sharer of power. Thus through his own act Marcus Aurelius ended his reign as he had begun it, with a partner his equal in power but not in virtue.
In 177 began a serious persecution of the Christians. Much ink has been spilled trying to reconcile Marcus's kindness and high principles with his evident hostility toward the Christians; but the fact remains that he considered the Christians to be dangerous fanatics, subversive alike of society and the state—and on the evidence available to him, how should he not? Then, too, if his persecution was more severe than those that went before, this was partly because the Christians were more numerous and more visible than before.
Renewed German War and Death
The German War erupted again in 177, and Marcus shortly returned to the front. Once again he had the war almost won; but his death, which occurred on March 17, 180, precluded final victory over the Germans. He was given a grand funeral and deified, and memorials of him are yet visible in Rome—the column celebrating his German victories in the Piazza Colonna and his equestrian statue where Michelangelo placed it on the Capitoline.
Marcus Aurelius's reign was marked by near, rather than complete, success and marred both by his fondness for sharing power with unworthy partners and by a willingness to forgive carried at times beyond the point of prudence in one responsible for the well-being of millions; but there can be no question of his personal goodness or of the greatness of his soul.
The reason for which Marcus Aurelius deservedly is most remembered is the collection of his thoughts or reflections, usually entitled the Meditations. Apparently jotted down from time to time as inclination or opportunity offered, the thoughts form no organized system of philosophy; rather, they are the record of a spirit whose principles were elevated above the somewhat grim rectitude of stoicism by a warm love of mankind and a philosophy closely akin to religion.
To Marcus, happiness was to be achieved by living "according to nature," in harmony with the principle which ordered the universe; the serenity of one who so lived could not be really affected by the buffetings of fate. Since the Meditations were composed in bits, they are best read so; they are to be savored rather than downed at a gulp.
There is no good surviving ancient treatment of Marcus Aurelius. His life is included in the collection known as The Scriptores Historiae Augustae (trans., 3 vols., 1921-1932), and his reign in the fragments of books 70-71 in the general history of Cassius Dio. Otherwise there are his own Meditations and the surviving letters he exchanged with his old tutor Fronto. Among modern works are Henry Dwight Sedgwick, Marcus Aurelius: A Biography (1921); C. Clayton Dove, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus: His Life and Times (1930); Arthur Spencer Loat Farquharson, Marcus Aurelius: His Life and His World (1951), a posthumous work dealing with Marcus's youth up to his accession; and Anthony Birley's full and interesting Marcus Aurelius (1966). □
The Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius (121–180) was a Stoic philosopher. Stoicism was a complex philosophy that advised people to find happiness by living in harmony with the universe and by doing their part to better the world—without worries about fate or about things they were unable to control. When Marcus Aurelius became emperor there was widespread celebration that Plato's dream of a philosopherking had become reality at last.
Born into privilege
Born Marcus Annius Verus on April 26, 121, of a noble family, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus grew up close to the center of power. When he was a child, the emperor Hadrian (76–138) noticed him and made a word play on his name, Verus (meaning "true"), by calling him Verissimus (meaning "truest") for his strong sense of morals. Hadrian had difficulty choosing an emperor to follow him, but placed Marcus on the path to rule. When he adopted Marcus's uncle by marriage, Antoninus Pius (86–161), he arranged for Antoninus to adopt Marcus Aurelius along with the young Lucius Verus (130–169).
Marcus Aurelius had an extraordinary education. Among his tutors was Diognetus, a painter and Stoic philosopher. Marcus studied subjects such as poetry and law, and generally was an excellent student. But philosophy was Marcus's main interest. Under Diognetus's influence, young Marcus became a Stoic at the age of eleven and remained a dedicated follower of stoicism for the rest of his life.
Rise to emperor
Antoninus Pius, only a year after he became emperor, had the title Caesar placed on Marcus in 139. His daughter Faustina probably married Marcus in 140. Throughout the reign of Antoninus (ruled 138–161), Marcus worked closely with him.
When Antoninus died and Marcus became emperor, he insisted that Verus also be given full power. Thus, for the first time, Rome had two equal emperors. The reason this arrangement did not produce conflict between lifetime equals was due in large part to the good nature of Verus and his acceptance of Marcus's seniority in years and judgment.
When Verus and Marcus first became joint emperors of Rome they faced the problem of war in the East. Parthia (located in present-day Iran) was always a rival for power in Armenia, and in 162 Parthia attacked. Marcus Aurelius remained in Rome and sent Verus to take charge of the war. Although Verus was not a trained soldier, the war carried on smoothly. But in late 165 a plague, or very contagious disease, broke out among the Roman troops. They carried it back with them and the plague killed a quarter or more of the population of the Roman Empire. Rome recalled its armies from Parthia, defeated but not conquered. Nevertheless, Marcus and Verus celebrated a great triumph.
The Parthian War had ended none too soon, for the German War had already begun. In 167 a group of tribes crossed the Danube River, destroyed a Roman army, and successfully conquered a city in Italy. The danger was critical, for the plague was raging, particularly in the army camps. Also, the Roman treasury, always short of money, was worse off than usual.
Marcus raised new armies and funds and in 168 went with Verus to the battlefront. Verus died in early 169, and Marcus was left to face the war alone. The Germans were driven back, but the war dragged on, with Marcus mainly at the battlefront. Gradually the Romans gained the upper hand. But by 175 Marcus had to call off the war because of the revolt of Avidius Cassius in the East.
Revolt of Avidius Cassius
After his service in the Parthian War, Avidius Cassius, a Syrian, had been made governor of Syria and held great power. In 175 Marcus grew sick and it was rumored that he was either dying or dead. Partly for this reason Avidius was hailed emperor and accepted by most of the East. Marcus had to break off the war in Germany and hurry eastward.
Cassius was murdered three months later and his body was sent back to Rome in late 176. The German War started again in 177, and Marcus returned to the battlefront. Once again he was winning the war. However, Marcus died on March 17, 180—never to see the final victory over the Germans.
Marcus Aurelius is most remembered for the collection of his thoughts or reflections usually entitled The Meditations. Apparently written down from time to time, the thoughts form no organized system of philosophy. Rather, they are the record of a person whose principles were noble, who had a warm love of humankind, and who had a philosophy similar to religion. To Marcus, happiness was to be achieved by living "according to nature," in harmony with the principle that ordered the universe; the peace of mind of such a person could not be affected by life's difficulties.
For More Information
Birley, Anthony. Marcus Aurelius: A Biography. Rev. ed. London: Routledge, 2000.
Farquharson, Arthur S. L. Marcus Aurelius: His Life and His World. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1975.
Emperor, stoic philosopher
Student of Philosophy. Originally named Marcus Annius Verus, the future emperor called Marcus Aurelius was raised by his grandfather and mother. He was attracted to the study of philosophy when he was only twelve years old. Epictetus was a great influence on him, which is evident in his work commonly called the Meditations, though probably called by him Notes to Himself. This was probably a kind of philosophic diary, not intended for publication, which probably was written as an older man and possibly during his campaigns against the Germanic tribes. He seems also to have incorporated elements of Platonism. In fact, the diary was lost and recovered only in the fourth century c.e. Like Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius was concerned with the making of moral choices in life and with the role of divine providence in events. He believed that one is to avoid those things that distract him from making correct choices, including power and glory, which are transitory anyway, and to forego his personal satisfaction for the sake of a greater good.
Philosopher Emperor. Aurelius became co-emperor, along with his half brother Lucius, when Antoninus died in 161. The new emperors were immediately faced with revolts in the borderlands and sent armies to quell the disturbances. Lucius, then known as Verus, died of plague while both emperors were leading Roman armies in Dacia. After several serious military setbacks, the Romans were able to push northern incursions out of Italy, but Aurelius had spent much treasure in the effort. He spent nearly the rest of his rule dealing with warfare in the borders, until his death in the north in 180.
Mark Forstater, The Spiritual Exercises of Marcus Aurelius (New York: Harper-Collins, 2000). | 3,511 | ENGLISH | 1 |
TW Viewpoint | George Washington: The Battle of MonongahelaMay 30, 2018 | Jonathan Riley
With the sudden increase of sexual harassment claims against influential personalities, the question must be asked: "How did individuals of such low character come to prominence in the first place?" Does character even matter anymore?
George Washington was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. Without his efforts both on and off the battlefield, America would not be the country it is today. Yet this was very nearly the case as Washington faced almost certain death at the Battle of Monongahela.
In July of 1755 at the beginning of the French and Indian war, British forces, led by General Edward Braddock, were attacked ten miles east of the present day city of Pittsburgh. The largely outnumbered French and Indian soldiers still managed to deal a crushing defeat to the British in the favoured terrain of the wooded Indian hunting grounds. Among the 1,300 British soldiers was a rear guard of Virginians led by a young Colonel George Washington. Washington helped co-ordinate a retreat of the surviving British soldiers. Commissioned officers were the primary targets for gunfire and two of Washington's horses were shot out from under him as he remained exposed to almost continuous gunfire. Just over a week later Washington wrote a letter to his brother John where he recounted that "...by the All-powerful Dispensations of Providence, I have been protected beyond all human probability or expectation; for I had four Bullets through my Coat, and two Horses shot under me; yet escaped unhurt, altho Death was leveling my Companions on every side of me!"
Almost sixteen years later, in October 1770, Washington was travelling to the Ohio River Valley. His personal physician Dr. James Craik was present and attested to an encounter between Washington and a local Indian leader, Chief Red Hawk. An interpreter stepped forward and informed Washington that "...the chief was a very great man among the northwestern tribes, and the same who commanded the Indians on the fall of Braddock, sixteen years before." Through his interpreter Red Hawk went on to tell Washington how his warriors were ordered to target him directly but upon witnessing that none of their shots had any effect and believing that a great spirit was protecting him, they reportedly ceased fire. Red Hawk himself claimed to have shot at Washington 11 times, without success. He then said of Washington, that "he will become the chief of nations, and a people yet unborn, will hail him as the father of a mighty empire!"
Was Washington miraculously protected? Had he died that July day in 1755, would the world we live in today be a different place? Would the United States of America still have risen to prominence without this founding father?
When General Edward Braddock died of his wounds a few days after the battle, he uttered some of his last words in Washington's ear, rhetorically asking "Who would have thought?" Indeed, who would have thought, that a young Colonel in the British forces would be miraculously preserved during the defeat suffered at Monongahela, to then later lead the way in bringing about the most powerful nation the world has ever seen? | <urn:uuid:ed0e3347-fc17-49b2-b41b-cae42bf8e639> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.lcgcanada.org/viewpoint/george-washington-monongahela.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00396.warc.gz | en | 0.984432 | 639 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.34768599271774... | 9 | TW Viewpoint | George Washington: The Battle of MonongahelaMay 30, 2018 | Jonathan Riley
With the sudden increase of sexual harassment claims against influential personalities, the question must be asked: "How did individuals of such low character come to prominence in the first place?" Does character even matter anymore?
George Washington was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. Without his efforts both on and off the battlefield, America would not be the country it is today. Yet this was very nearly the case as Washington faced almost certain death at the Battle of Monongahela.
In July of 1755 at the beginning of the French and Indian war, British forces, led by General Edward Braddock, were attacked ten miles east of the present day city of Pittsburgh. The largely outnumbered French and Indian soldiers still managed to deal a crushing defeat to the British in the favoured terrain of the wooded Indian hunting grounds. Among the 1,300 British soldiers was a rear guard of Virginians led by a young Colonel George Washington. Washington helped co-ordinate a retreat of the surviving British soldiers. Commissioned officers were the primary targets for gunfire and two of Washington's horses were shot out from under him as he remained exposed to almost continuous gunfire. Just over a week later Washington wrote a letter to his brother John where he recounted that "...by the All-powerful Dispensations of Providence, I have been protected beyond all human probability or expectation; for I had four Bullets through my Coat, and two Horses shot under me; yet escaped unhurt, altho Death was leveling my Companions on every side of me!"
Almost sixteen years later, in October 1770, Washington was travelling to the Ohio River Valley. His personal physician Dr. James Craik was present and attested to an encounter between Washington and a local Indian leader, Chief Red Hawk. An interpreter stepped forward and informed Washington that "...the chief was a very great man among the northwestern tribes, and the same who commanded the Indians on the fall of Braddock, sixteen years before." Through his interpreter Red Hawk went on to tell Washington how his warriors were ordered to target him directly but upon witnessing that none of their shots had any effect and believing that a great spirit was protecting him, they reportedly ceased fire. Red Hawk himself claimed to have shot at Washington 11 times, without success. He then said of Washington, that "he will become the chief of nations, and a people yet unborn, will hail him as the father of a mighty empire!"
Was Washington miraculously protected? Had he died that July day in 1755, would the world we live in today be a different place? Would the United States of America still have risen to prominence without this founding father?
When General Edward Braddock died of his wounds a few days after the battle, he uttered some of his last words in Washington's ear, rhetorically asking "Who would have thought?" Indeed, who would have thought, that a young Colonel in the British forces would be miraculously preserved during the defeat suffered at Monongahela, to then later lead the way in bringing about the most powerful nation the world has ever seen? | 660 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Modoc War in the United States. Original front page from the Illustrated London News, dated May 31st. 1873, recording the outcome of the Modoc War, including the supposed scalp of chief ‘Scar-faced Charlie.’
The Modoc War (also known as the Lava Beds War) was an armed conflict between the Native American Modoc people and the United States Army in northeastern California and southeastern Oregon from 1872 to 1873. Kintpuash—Captain Jack led 52 warriors in a band of more than 150 Modoc people who left the Klamath Reservation. Occupying defensive positions throughout the lava beds south of Tule Lake (in present-day Lava Beds National Monument), those few warriors resisted for months the more numerous United States Army forces sent against them, which were reinforced with artillery. In April 1873 at a peace commission meeting, Captain Jack and others killed General Edward Canby and Rev. Eleazer Thomas, and wounded two others, mistakenly believing this would encourage the Americans to leave. They fled back to the lava beds. After U.S. forces were reinforced, some Modoc warriors surrendered and Captain Jack and the last of his band were captured. Jack and five warriors were tried for the murders of the two peace commissioners. Jack and three warriors were executed and two others sentenced to life in prison. The remaining 153 of the band were sent to Indian Territory (pre-statehood Oklahoma), where they were held as prisoners of war until 1909, settled on reservation land with the Shawnee. Some at that point were allowed to return to the Klamath Reservation in Oregon. Most Modoc (and their descendants) stayed in what became the state of Oklahoma. They achieved separate federal recognition and were granted some land in Oklahoma. | <urn:uuid:8c1d3b85-a1ab-47df-b865-0c5f353d72b7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mapsandantiqueprints.com/shop/antique-prints/modoc-war-antique-print/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00078.warc.gz | en | 0.980922 | 362 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.3913495242595672... | 2 | Modoc War in the United States. Original front page from the Illustrated London News, dated May 31st. 1873, recording the outcome of the Modoc War, including the supposed scalp of chief ‘Scar-faced Charlie.’
The Modoc War (also known as the Lava Beds War) was an armed conflict between the Native American Modoc people and the United States Army in northeastern California and southeastern Oregon from 1872 to 1873. Kintpuash—Captain Jack led 52 warriors in a band of more than 150 Modoc people who left the Klamath Reservation. Occupying defensive positions throughout the lava beds south of Tule Lake (in present-day Lava Beds National Monument), those few warriors resisted for months the more numerous United States Army forces sent against them, which were reinforced with artillery. In April 1873 at a peace commission meeting, Captain Jack and others killed General Edward Canby and Rev. Eleazer Thomas, and wounded two others, mistakenly believing this would encourage the Americans to leave. They fled back to the lava beds. After U.S. forces were reinforced, some Modoc warriors surrendered and Captain Jack and the last of his band were captured. Jack and five warriors were tried for the murders of the two peace commissioners. Jack and three warriors were executed and two others sentenced to life in prison. The remaining 153 of the band were sent to Indian Territory (pre-statehood Oklahoma), where they were held as prisoners of war until 1909, settled on reservation land with the Shawnee. Some at that point were allowed to return to the Klamath Reservation in Oregon. Most Modoc (and their descendants) stayed in what became the state of Oklahoma. They achieved separate federal recognition and were granted some land in Oklahoma. | 377 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Although the Civil War abolished slavery, a sense of white supremacy still prevailed and many inhabitants in the United States were still persecuted for their ethnicity. Some African Americans benefited economically but were still at a disadvantage due to racial segregation and inequality. Laws bounded them and forced blacks to be completely separate from white society. African Americans even had their own facilities, schools, transportation, seats and telephone booths. President Truman became the first president to try to end segregation by trying to reinstate the Fair Employment Practices Committee, to establish a civil rights commission, and to deny federal aid to states that participated in racial segregation of any kind. The Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka case along with influential leaders such as Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King Jr., emphasized the need for civil liberties, while events such as Rosa Park's seat refusal, Montgomery Bus Boycott, Women's Political Caucus, and the establishment of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee sparked the onset of the Civil Right's Movement. .
Truman attempted to end racial discrimination by re-establishing the Fair Employment Practices Committee, civil rights commission and the refuting of federal aid to states that support and partake in racial segregation thus establishing the Fair Deal program. The Fair Deal program was never enacted due to its inability to gain support from the South although it was fully backed by the North. Though these legislatures did not pass, it succeeded in the way that it promoted the ideology by promoting debate on the issues of civil equality as well as civil liberties. On July 26, 1948 President Truman signed an order that outlawed segregation between soldiers in the war. This order in return created the Executive Order 9981, President's Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Services, and Order 9980, which became known as the Fair Employment Board that restricted employers to discriminate against it's employees. | <urn:uuid:7b28ab92-15a4-4288-b44d-a00abc4608bc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/209195.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00076.warc.gz | en | 0.980265 | 367 | 4.53125 | 5 | [
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0.34867092967... | 5 | Although the Civil War abolished slavery, a sense of white supremacy still prevailed and many inhabitants in the United States were still persecuted for their ethnicity. Some African Americans benefited economically but were still at a disadvantage due to racial segregation and inequality. Laws bounded them and forced blacks to be completely separate from white society. African Americans even had their own facilities, schools, transportation, seats and telephone booths. President Truman became the first president to try to end segregation by trying to reinstate the Fair Employment Practices Committee, to establish a civil rights commission, and to deny federal aid to states that participated in racial segregation of any kind. The Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka case along with influential leaders such as Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King Jr., emphasized the need for civil liberties, while events such as Rosa Park's seat refusal, Montgomery Bus Boycott, Women's Political Caucus, and the establishment of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee sparked the onset of the Civil Right's Movement. .
Truman attempted to end racial discrimination by re-establishing the Fair Employment Practices Committee, civil rights commission and the refuting of federal aid to states that support and partake in racial segregation thus establishing the Fair Deal program. The Fair Deal program was never enacted due to its inability to gain support from the South although it was fully backed by the North. Though these legislatures did not pass, it succeeded in the way that it promoted the ideology by promoting debate on the issues of civil equality as well as civil liberties. On July 26, 1948 President Truman signed an order that outlawed segregation between soldiers in the war. This order in return created the Executive Order 9981, President's Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Services, and Order 9980, which became known as the Fair Employment Board that restricted employers to discriminate against it's employees. | 381 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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