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John Brown (May 9, 1800 – Dec. 2, 1859) was a white abolitionist who led a rebellion against slavery in the United States. Brown was born to a religious family from Connecticut who despised the institution of slavery. He fathered 20 children with various women from around the country.
Brown was constantly moving from one state to the next. In 1837, Brown was living in the Ohio town of Franklin Mills, where he came to know the work of abolitionist Elijah Lovejoy. That year was a major catalyst for Brown. At that time, he was bankrupt and struggling to get back on his feet. Lovejoy was murdered because of his abolitionist work on Nov. 7, 1837. According Southern Illinois University archives, his violent death greatly stimulated abolitionist feeling throughout the North. Brown proclaimed, “Here, before God, in the presence of these witnesses, from this time, I consecrate my life to the destruction of slavery!” | <urn:uuid:40a660e5-2df7-4d8c-97b2-313921768b02> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://atlantablackstar.com/2015/10/26/6-interesting-facts-john-brown-white-abolitionist-lead-slave-uprising/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00344.warc.gz | en | 0.981765 | 196 | 4.03125 | 4 | [
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0.042177215... | 6 | John Brown (May 9, 1800 – Dec. 2, 1859) was a white abolitionist who led a rebellion against slavery in the United States. Brown was born to a religious family from Connecticut who despised the institution of slavery. He fathered 20 children with various women from around the country.
Brown was constantly moving from one state to the next. In 1837, Brown was living in the Ohio town of Franklin Mills, where he came to know the work of abolitionist Elijah Lovejoy. That year was a major catalyst for Brown. At that time, he was bankrupt and struggling to get back on his feet. Lovejoy was murdered because of his abolitionist work on Nov. 7, 1837. According Southern Illinois University archives, his violent death greatly stimulated abolitionist feeling throughout the North. Brown proclaimed, “Here, before God, in the presence of these witnesses, from this time, I consecrate my life to the destruction of slavery!” | 211 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Probiotics, so often recently added to food, it turns out, really very useful, as recent studies have shown. By definition WHOprobiotics are bacteria with antagonistic activity that provide normal microflora. Another benefit that experts had not previously realized was the ability of these microorganisms to reduce the harmful effects of radiation.
The study was conducted on cancer patientsthat suffered radiation therapy. Researchers divided all subjects, and there were several hundred, into two groups. One of them took a sufficient amount of foods with probiotics, the other did not. After the treatment, the health of the first group was significantly better than the second. This was especially true for those patients who suffered from diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, cancer of the prostate gland, cervix, as well as many other organs.
Thus, experts strongly recommend that patients with cancer who are about to undergo radiation therapy saturate their body with probiotics. The following information was published in the official test report: "As a result of radiation epithelium can be destroyed, which leads to the spread of bacteria throughout the body. The consequences of this spread can be the most deplorable, up to sepsis".
According to experts, probiotics are generally needed by all people, regardless of whether they have any disease or not. This can significantly reduce the risk. If a person has never consumed such products, then before radiation therapy this should begin to be done: this way you can help your body cope with difficulties.
Researchers also added that today there is every reason to believe that probiotics can reduce harm and side effects even when you receive a really large dose of radiation that exceeds the dose with radiation therapy. It was even suggested that those affected by the Fukushima accident would significantly help reduce the incidence and mortality of eating probiotic foods. | <urn:uuid:707257f9-27c2-4f9c-a81c-dc2f1f3bdab4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://au.frankansell.com/7885-probiotics-against-radiation.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00263.warc.gz | en | 0.981413 | 367 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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-0.026558557525277... | 1 | Probiotics, so often recently added to food, it turns out, really very useful, as recent studies have shown. By definition WHOprobiotics are bacteria with antagonistic activity that provide normal microflora. Another benefit that experts had not previously realized was the ability of these microorganisms to reduce the harmful effects of radiation.
The study was conducted on cancer patientsthat suffered radiation therapy. Researchers divided all subjects, and there were several hundred, into two groups. One of them took a sufficient amount of foods with probiotics, the other did not. After the treatment, the health of the first group was significantly better than the second. This was especially true for those patients who suffered from diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, cancer of the prostate gland, cervix, as well as many other organs.
Thus, experts strongly recommend that patients with cancer who are about to undergo radiation therapy saturate their body with probiotics. The following information was published in the official test report: "As a result of radiation epithelium can be destroyed, which leads to the spread of bacteria throughout the body. The consequences of this spread can be the most deplorable, up to sepsis".
According to experts, probiotics are generally needed by all people, regardless of whether they have any disease or not. This can significantly reduce the risk. If a person has never consumed such products, then before radiation therapy this should begin to be done: this way you can help your body cope with difficulties.
Researchers also added that today there is every reason to believe that probiotics can reduce harm and side effects even when you receive a really large dose of radiation that exceeds the dose with radiation therapy. It was even suggested that those affected by the Fukushima accident would significantly help reduce the incidence and mortality of eating probiotic foods. | 364 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In Cisneros's "Straw Into Gold: The Metamorphosis of the Everyday," what do Cisneros's Latin American friends assume she can do?
The exposition of Cisernos's essay shows the assumptions that culture can impose on individuals. Cisneros's Latin American friends think that she can make tortillas because she is Mexican:
What I didn’t realize when they made this invitation was that I was supposed to be involved in preparing the meal. I guess they assumed I knew how to cook Mexican food because I am Mexican. They wanted specifically tortillas, though I’d never made a tortilla in my life.
In this setting, Cisneros's use of language is very important. She suggests that her friends "assumed" that she knew "how to cook Mexican food because" she is Mexican. The implication that she makes is that cultural notions of the good can play a significant role in how individuals are seen by others. At the same time, these cultural forces can shape what individuals do as well as their place in the world. Cisneros surprised herself in being able to make tortillas, in much the same way that she surprised herself with all that she has done throughout her life: "I’ve managed to do a lot of things in my life I didn’t think I was capable of and which many others didn’t think I was capable of either." In being able to challenge external perceptions and redefine them through her ability to make "straw into gold," Cisneros is able to take her Latin- American friends' assumptions and make them work for her benefit.
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | <urn:uuid:35111bbc-ce01-4d23-a07e-d2bfdb11e1ce> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/question-what-do-cisneross-latin-american-friends-473232?en_action=hh-question_click&en_label=hh-sidebar&en_category=internal_campaign | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00354.warc.gz | en | 0.983373 | 345 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.0726681202650... | 2 | In Cisneros's "Straw Into Gold: The Metamorphosis of the Everyday," what do Cisneros's Latin American friends assume she can do?
The exposition of Cisernos's essay shows the assumptions that culture can impose on individuals. Cisneros's Latin American friends think that she can make tortillas because she is Mexican:
What I didn’t realize when they made this invitation was that I was supposed to be involved in preparing the meal. I guess they assumed I knew how to cook Mexican food because I am Mexican. They wanted specifically tortillas, though I’d never made a tortilla in my life.
In this setting, Cisneros's use of language is very important. She suggests that her friends "assumed" that she knew "how to cook Mexican food because" she is Mexican. The implication that she makes is that cultural notions of the good can play a significant role in how individuals are seen by others. At the same time, these cultural forces can shape what individuals do as well as their place in the world. Cisneros surprised herself in being able to make tortillas, in much the same way that she surprised herself with all that she has done throughout her life: "I’ve managed to do a lot of things in my life I didn’t think I was capable of and which many others didn’t think I was capable of either." In being able to challenge external perceptions and redefine them through her ability to make "straw into gold," Cisneros is able to take her Latin- American friends' assumptions and make them work for her benefit.
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | 336 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Australia’s Aboriginal people were thought to have arrived here by boat from South East Asia during the last Ice Age, at least 50,000 years ago. However it wasn’t until 1770 that European Captain James Cook chartered the east coast and claimed it for Britain, and the new outpost was put to use as a penal colony.
By the 1820s, many soldiers, officers and emancipated convicts had turned land they received from the government into flourishing farms. News of Australia’s cheap land and bountiful work was bringing boatloads of adventurous migrants from Britain and when gold was discovered in Victoria in 1852, and in Western Australia 12 years later, hundreds of thousands of immigrants from Europe, America, and China flooded the country in search of fortune.
By 1860, more than a million non-Aboriginal people were living in Australia. Sadly the Aboriginal peoples’ traditional lifestyles and practices were being severely disrupted by the new settlement and the dispossession of land, as well as illness and death from introduced diseases.
On January 1 1901, the six states that made up Australia proclaimed themselves to be part of one nation, and the Commonwealth of Australia was formed. In the same ceremony, the first governor general was sworn in as the representative of the Queen, who remained head of state.
However massacres of Aborigines continued to go mostly unpunished into the 1920s, by which time it was official government policy to remove light-skinned Aboriginal children from their families and to sterilize young Aboriginal women. Many children of the "stolen generations" were brought up in white foster homes or church refuges and never reunited with their biological families, a process which sadly continued even into the 1970s.
At the end of 2007, the first act to be carried on by the new Labour Government following a landslide victory in the general election was to officially apologize to those "stolen generations" of Aborigines.
Waves of immigration have continued to bring in millions of people since the end of World War II. Results from the census in 2001 showed that more than 4.1 million Australian residents, 22% of the population, were born overseas.
It looks like you are in United States
Would you like to:
"Excellent service throughout with great attention to detail and thoughtfulness. I believe Scott Dunn does deliver more than most high-end holiday companies and will go "the extra mile". | <urn:uuid:3f04ef1d-fdc2-415f-bc36-4d0442f9ce0b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.scottdunn.com/luxury-holidays/australasia/australasia/australia/history | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00260.warc.gz | en | 0.984523 | 496 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.473722547292... | 2 | Australia’s Aboriginal people were thought to have arrived here by boat from South East Asia during the last Ice Age, at least 50,000 years ago. However it wasn’t until 1770 that European Captain James Cook chartered the east coast and claimed it for Britain, and the new outpost was put to use as a penal colony.
By the 1820s, many soldiers, officers and emancipated convicts had turned land they received from the government into flourishing farms. News of Australia’s cheap land and bountiful work was bringing boatloads of adventurous migrants from Britain and when gold was discovered in Victoria in 1852, and in Western Australia 12 years later, hundreds of thousands of immigrants from Europe, America, and China flooded the country in search of fortune.
By 1860, more than a million non-Aboriginal people were living in Australia. Sadly the Aboriginal peoples’ traditional lifestyles and practices were being severely disrupted by the new settlement and the dispossession of land, as well as illness and death from introduced diseases.
On January 1 1901, the six states that made up Australia proclaimed themselves to be part of one nation, and the Commonwealth of Australia was formed. In the same ceremony, the first governor general was sworn in as the representative of the Queen, who remained head of state.
However massacres of Aborigines continued to go mostly unpunished into the 1920s, by which time it was official government policy to remove light-skinned Aboriginal children from their families and to sterilize young Aboriginal women. Many children of the "stolen generations" were brought up in white foster homes or church refuges and never reunited with their biological families, a process which sadly continued even into the 1970s.
At the end of 2007, the first act to be carried on by the new Labour Government following a landslide victory in the general election was to officially apologize to those "stolen generations" of Aborigines.
Waves of immigration have continued to bring in millions of people since the end of World War II. Results from the census in 2001 showed that more than 4.1 million Australian residents, 22% of the population, were born overseas.
It looks like you are in United States
Would you like to:
"Excellent service throughout with great attention to detail and thoughtfulness. I believe Scott Dunn does deliver more than most high-end holiday companies and will go "the extra mile". | 521 | ENGLISH | 1 |
King Leir and his youngest daughter, Queen Cordelia, were legendary rulers of the the Britons. Their story appeared in History of the Kings of Britain (Historia regum Britanniae) by Geoffrey of Monmouth in the 12th century and presented here is a retelling of that story.
Leir took the throne after the untimely death of his father, King Bladud, and founded the city of Kaerleir upon the river Soar, which later became Leicester. Both were named after him.
As he grew older, Leir began to consider what should be done with his kingdom when he died as he had no son. He did have three daughters, and decided he would marry them to suitable husbands and divide the kingdom between them. First, Leir decided to test each daughter’s love for him to decide who would receive the best parts of his inheritance. To do this he decided to ask each one how much they loved him.
A Test of Love
First he asked his eldest daughter, Goneril. Seeking solely to impress and flatter she told him she loved him more than her own soul. Pleased with her answer he told her,
“Since you have preferred my declining age before your own life, I will marry you, my dearest daughter, to whomsoever you shall make choice of, and give with you the third part of my kingdom.” (1)
Next, he called Regan, his second eldest daughter, to him and asked her the same question. Having seen how well her elder sister had been rewarded for her flattery she told him she loved him above all creatures. Again, Leir was impressed and pleased by the answer and told her that she would have a husband of her choice and receive one third of his kingdom.
Last he called to him his youngest and favourite daughter, Cordelia and asked her the same question. Cordelia had seen how easily the flattery of her sisters had impressed him but deciding that she would make a trial of his love for her told him,
“My, father, is there any daughter that can love her father more than duty requires? In my opinion, whoever pretends to it, must disguise her real sentiments under the veil of flattery. I have always loved you as a father, nor do I yet depart from my purposed duty; and if you insist to have something more extorted from me hear now the greatness of my affection, which I always bear you, and take this for a short answer to all your questions; look how much you have, so, much is your value, and so much do I love you.” (2)
This disappointed her father, who was seeking flattery, and did not appear to understand what she said. He told her angrily,
“Since you have so far despised my old age as not to think me worthy the love that your sister’s express for me, you shall have from me the like regard, and shall be excluded from any share with your sisters in my kingdom. Notwithstanding, I do not say but that since you are my daughter, I will marry you to some foreigner, if fortune offers you any such husband; but will never, I do assure you, make it my business to procure so honourable a match for you as for your sisters; because, though I have hitherto loved you more than them, you have in requital thought me less worthy of your affection than they.” (3)
His test complete he married Goneril to Maglaunus, the Duke of Albania, and Regan to Henuinus, the Duke of Cornwall. When he died they would get the rest of his kingdom between them and Cordelia would get nothing.
Across the sea in Gaul, Aganippus, the king of the Franks, was seeking a wife. Hearing of the beauty of Leir’s youngest daughter he sent emissaries to her father asking for her hand in marriage. Still angry with Cordelia he told them that he was willing to give his daughter, but without money or land. The emissaries returned to Aganippus with Leir’s answer, who told them to return to King Leir with the following message,
“That he had money and territories enough, as he possessed the third part of Gaul, and desired no more than his daughter only, that he might have heirs by her.” (4)
Leir agreed, and sent Cordelia to Gaul to wed King Aganippus.
Deposed and Humiliated
With age Leir grew weaker, and — seeing their chance — his son-in-laws, encouraged by his daughters, usurped the crown. An agreement was made that Maglaunus the husband of Goneril, was to give and maintain a house for him and provide a retinue of sixty knights. Goneril grew to begrudge her father his retinue and reduced their number to thirty.
Leir resented this and went to Regan, who had married Henuinus. They gave him a warm welcome and honourable reception but soon fell to quarrelling with him. Out of spite, Regan had her father’s retinue reduced to five.
Finding this an affront to his dignity and honour he returned to Goneril, seeking support, but she told him that if he wanted to stay with her he must dismiss all of his remaining retinue except for one. Leir was forced to comply, but now remembered Cordelia, whom he had scorned and sent over the sea penniless to marry King Aganippus. Reflecting on his own poverty he remembered his treatment of her and wondered how she would receive him. Nevertheless, believing he had no other choice, he travelled across the sea in the hope she would treat him more favourably than her sisters.
On board ship he was dismayed to find two princes were both given more respect and honour than he and bitterly complained,
“O irreversible decrees of the Fates, that never swerve from your stated course! Wwhy did you ever advance me to an unstable felicity, since the punishment of lost happiness is greater than the sense of present misery?
The remembrance of the time when vast numbers of men obsequiously attended me in the taking of cities and wasting the enemy’s countries, more deeply pierces my heart than the view of my present calamity, which has exposed me to the derision of those who were formerly prostrate at my feet. Oh! The enmity of fortune! (5)
At last he understood the words Cordelia had told him of her love for him. He bitterly regretted his treatment of his youngest daughter who had answered truthfully and not given false flattery.
With such thoughts of bitter reflection he arrived in Karitia where Cordelia was residing. Wasting no time he sent a messenger to her bearing tidings of his presence in the city and informing her of his poverty and the desperation and indignity of his present situation.
Cordelia, now a queen after her marriage to King Aganippus, was surprised by his arrival and deeply upset and shocked at the news of his impoverishment. She ensured he was well fed and lodged and provided him with forty men all suitably trained an attired to serve a royal master. She instructed that as soon as he was bathed rested and suitably attired befitting his kingly status she was to be informed.
Her instructions were carried out and in due course she and her father were reunited and reconciled. He told her how he had been mistreated by his two eldest daughters and their husbands and had come to seek her and her husband’s assistance in recovering his realm. Giving him a fitting reception for a king she and her husband promised all their power would be mobilised to return his kingdom to him.
Aganippus ordered his army be made ready for the invasion of Britain with King Leir at their head supported by King Aganippus and Queen Cordelia. Battle commenced and Leir was the victor, retaking his kingdom from his sons-in-law.
The Death of Leir and Cordelia
Leir was now a very old man and after ruling over the Britons for the second time soon passed away. Sadly, King Aganippus also passed away and Queen Cordelia became the ruler of the Britons. She buried her father in the city of Leicester in a chamber under the River Soar, which some say was originally a temple to the worship of the god Janus.
After five years of rule, the sons of her two elder sisters, Margan, the son of Maglaunus and Cunedagius, the son of Henuinus, resented being ruled by a woman and launched a rebellion laying waste great swathes of the realm. After several bloody battles they captured Cordelia and held her in prison. In grief and sorrow at the loss of her realm, she committed suicide.
The story of King Leir and Cordelia has inspired many works of art and literature through the ages the most famous being William Shakespeare’s tragedy, King Lear, which remains as popular as ever.
To read all the articles in this series, visit the British Legends Series page or select from the list below:
- British Legends: The Quest for the Holy Grail
- British Legends: The Founding of Britain: Brutus of Troy and the Prophecy of Diana
- British Legends: The Mabinogion – The Dream of Macsen Wledig
- British Legends: Gogmagog and the Giants of Albion
- British Legends: Treachery, Murder, Lust and Rowena: The Rule of Vortigern
- British Legends: The Origin of Albion and the Bloodlust of Albina and Her Sisters
- British Legends: The Lust of Uther Pendragon, Merlin’s Prophecy and the Making of a King
- British Legends: Aurelius Ambrosius, Legendary King of the Britons
- British Legends: Elen of the Hosts – Saint, Warrior Queen, Goddess of Sovereignty
- British Legends: Beowulf and the Great Flame Dragon
- British Legends: The Divine Tragedy of Guinevere
- British Legends: The Tragic Romance of Tristan and Isolde
- British Legends: Morgan le Fay – Magical Healer or Renegade Witch?
- British Legends: The Madness of Merlin (Part 1)
- British Legends: The Madness of Merlin (Part 2)
- British Legends: Warrior Women — The Battle of Britomart and Radigund the Amazon Queen
- Mythical Beasts: The Griffin, the Legendary King of All Creatures
- British Legends: King Lear and Cordelia – A Tale of Love and Foolishness
- British Legends: Wild Edric, the Wild Hunt and the Bride from the Otherworld
- British Legends: The Outlaws of Inglewood and the Feminine Influence
References & Further Reading
[PDF] History of the Kings of Britain – York University (1), (2), (3), p.29; (4), P.30; (5), P.31
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- Bat Myths and Folktales from Around the World - October 31, 2019 | <urn:uuid:7c6fabfb-cc3a-4cf1-b50a-97034a8c72fb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://folklorethursday.com/legends/british-legends-king-lear-and-cordelia-a-tale-of-love-and-foolishness/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00263.warc.gz | en | 0.984962 | 2,385 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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-0.0005127971... | 1 | King Leir and his youngest daughter, Queen Cordelia, were legendary rulers of the the Britons. Their story appeared in History of the Kings of Britain (Historia regum Britanniae) by Geoffrey of Monmouth in the 12th century and presented here is a retelling of that story.
Leir took the throne after the untimely death of his father, King Bladud, and founded the city of Kaerleir upon the river Soar, which later became Leicester. Both were named after him.
As he grew older, Leir began to consider what should be done with his kingdom when he died as he had no son. He did have three daughters, and decided he would marry them to suitable husbands and divide the kingdom between them. First, Leir decided to test each daughter’s love for him to decide who would receive the best parts of his inheritance. To do this he decided to ask each one how much they loved him.
A Test of Love
First he asked his eldest daughter, Goneril. Seeking solely to impress and flatter she told him she loved him more than her own soul. Pleased with her answer he told her,
“Since you have preferred my declining age before your own life, I will marry you, my dearest daughter, to whomsoever you shall make choice of, and give with you the third part of my kingdom.” (1)
Next, he called Regan, his second eldest daughter, to him and asked her the same question. Having seen how well her elder sister had been rewarded for her flattery she told him she loved him above all creatures. Again, Leir was impressed and pleased by the answer and told her that she would have a husband of her choice and receive one third of his kingdom.
Last he called to him his youngest and favourite daughter, Cordelia and asked her the same question. Cordelia had seen how easily the flattery of her sisters had impressed him but deciding that she would make a trial of his love for her told him,
“My, father, is there any daughter that can love her father more than duty requires? In my opinion, whoever pretends to it, must disguise her real sentiments under the veil of flattery. I have always loved you as a father, nor do I yet depart from my purposed duty; and if you insist to have something more extorted from me hear now the greatness of my affection, which I always bear you, and take this for a short answer to all your questions; look how much you have, so, much is your value, and so much do I love you.” (2)
This disappointed her father, who was seeking flattery, and did not appear to understand what she said. He told her angrily,
“Since you have so far despised my old age as not to think me worthy the love that your sister’s express for me, you shall have from me the like regard, and shall be excluded from any share with your sisters in my kingdom. Notwithstanding, I do not say but that since you are my daughter, I will marry you to some foreigner, if fortune offers you any such husband; but will never, I do assure you, make it my business to procure so honourable a match for you as for your sisters; because, though I have hitherto loved you more than them, you have in requital thought me less worthy of your affection than they.” (3)
His test complete he married Goneril to Maglaunus, the Duke of Albania, and Regan to Henuinus, the Duke of Cornwall. When he died they would get the rest of his kingdom between them and Cordelia would get nothing.
Across the sea in Gaul, Aganippus, the king of the Franks, was seeking a wife. Hearing of the beauty of Leir’s youngest daughter he sent emissaries to her father asking for her hand in marriage. Still angry with Cordelia he told them that he was willing to give his daughter, but without money or land. The emissaries returned to Aganippus with Leir’s answer, who told them to return to King Leir with the following message,
“That he had money and territories enough, as he possessed the third part of Gaul, and desired no more than his daughter only, that he might have heirs by her.” (4)
Leir agreed, and sent Cordelia to Gaul to wed King Aganippus.
Deposed and Humiliated
With age Leir grew weaker, and — seeing their chance — his son-in-laws, encouraged by his daughters, usurped the crown. An agreement was made that Maglaunus the husband of Goneril, was to give and maintain a house for him and provide a retinue of sixty knights. Goneril grew to begrudge her father his retinue and reduced their number to thirty.
Leir resented this and went to Regan, who had married Henuinus. They gave him a warm welcome and honourable reception but soon fell to quarrelling with him. Out of spite, Regan had her father’s retinue reduced to five.
Finding this an affront to his dignity and honour he returned to Goneril, seeking support, but she told him that if he wanted to stay with her he must dismiss all of his remaining retinue except for one. Leir was forced to comply, but now remembered Cordelia, whom he had scorned and sent over the sea penniless to marry King Aganippus. Reflecting on his own poverty he remembered his treatment of her and wondered how she would receive him. Nevertheless, believing he had no other choice, he travelled across the sea in the hope she would treat him more favourably than her sisters.
On board ship he was dismayed to find two princes were both given more respect and honour than he and bitterly complained,
“O irreversible decrees of the Fates, that never swerve from your stated course! Wwhy did you ever advance me to an unstable felicity, since the punishment of lost happiness is greater than the sense of present misery?
The remembrance of the time when vast numbers of men obsequiously attended me in the taking of cities and wasting the enemy’s countries, more deeply pierces my heart than the view of my present calamity, which has exposed me to the derision of those who were formerly prostrate at my feet. Oh! The enmity of fortune! (5)
At last he understood the words Cordelia had told him of her love for him. He bitterly regretted his treatment of his youngest daughter who had answered truthfully and not given false flattery.
With such thoughts of bitter reflection he arrived in Karitia where Cordelia was residing. Wasting no time he sent a messenger to her bearing tidings of his presence in the city and informing her of his poverty and the desperation and indignity of his present situation.
Cordelia, now a queen after her marriage to King Aganippus, was surprised by his arrival and deeply upset and shocked at the news of his impoverishment. She ensured he was well fed and lodged and provided him with forty men all suitably trained an attired to serve a royal master. She instructed that as soon as he was bathed rested and suitably attired befitting his kingly status she was to be informed.
Her instructions were carried out and in due course she and her father were reunited and reconciled. He told her how he had been mistreated by his two eldest daughters and their husbands and had come to seek her and her husband’s assistance in recovering his realm. Giving him a fitting reception for a king she and her husband promised all their power would be mobilised to return his kingdom to him.
Aganippus ordered his army be made ready for the invasion of Britain with King Leir at their head supported by King Aganippus and Queen Cordelia. Battle commenced and Leir was the victor, retaking his kingdom from his sons-in-law.
The Death of Leir and Cordelia
Leir was now a very old man and after ruling over the Britons for the second time soon passed away. Sadly, King Aganippus also passed away and Queen Cordelia became the ruler of the Britons. She buried her father in the city of Leicester in a chamber under the River Soar, which some say was originally a temple to the worship of the god Janus.
After five years of rule, the sons of her two elder sisters, Margan, the son of Maglaunus and Cunedagius, the son of Henuinus, resented being ruled by a woman and launched a rebellion laying waste great swathes of the realm. After several bloody battles they captured Cordelia and held her in prison. In grief and sorrow at the loss of her realm, she committed suicide.
The story of King Leir and Cordelia has inspired many works of art and literature through the ages the most famous being William Shakespeare’s tragedy, King Lear, which remains as popular as ever.
To read all the articles in this series, visit the British Legends Series page or select from the list below:
- British Legends: The Quest for the Holy Grail
- British Legends: The Founding of Britain: Brutus of Troy and the Prophecy of Diana
- British Legends: The Mabinogion – The Dream of Macsen Wledig
- British Legends: Gogmagog and the Giants of Albion
- British Legends: Treachery, Murder, Lust and Rowena: The Rule of Vortigern
- British Legends: The Origin of Albion and the Bloodlust of Albina and Her Sisters
- British Legends: The Lust of Uther Pendragon, Merlin’s Prophecy and the Making of a King
- British Legends: Aurelius Ambrosius, Legendary King of the Britons
- British Legends: Elen of the Hosts – Saint, Warrior Queen, Goddess of Sovereignty
- British Legends: Beowulf and the Great Flame Dragon
- British Legends: The Divine Tragedy of Guinevere
- British Legends: The Tragic Romance of Tristan and Isolde
- British Legends: Morgan le Fay – Magical Healer or Renegade Witch?
- British Legends: The Madness of Merlin (Part 1)
- British Legends: The Madness of Merlin (Part 2)
- British Legends: Warrior Women — The Battle of Britomart and Radigund the Amazon Queen
- Mythical Beasts: The Griffin, the Legendary King of All Creatures
- British Legends: King Lear and Cordelia – A Tale of Love and Foolishness
- British Legends: Wild Edric, the Wild Hunt and the Bride from the Otherworld
- British Legends: The Outlaws of Inglewood and the Feminine Influence
References & Further Reading
[PDF] History of the Kings of Britain – York University (1), (2), (3), p.29; (4), P.30; (5), P.31
Latest posts by zteve t evans (see all)
- Top 5 Winter Solstice Celebrations Around the World - December 19, 2019
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- Bat Myths and Folktales from Around the World - October 31, 2019 | 2,355 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Throughout several weeks, all SIA classes of 2nde in Language and Literature were given a project to complete by the 19th of December. The goal was to create a board game in relation to the studied text in class, Macbeth by William Shakespeare. Indeed, this board game helped the students to develop their creativity and prove their understanding of the text. In order to complete this task, the respective classes of Ms. De Renzy-Martin, Ms. Hecker and Ms. Switzer, were divided in small groups of 4 to 5 people and each of the groups had to come up with their own board game. Therefore, to accomplish this task and achieve top grades, specific criteria had to be reached such as:
-Creativity and awareness: Thought has been put into the game with creative questions, game pieces and game board. It must be visually pleasing with the use of many colors.
-Rules: The rules had to be clear, typed and edited for errors.
-Accuracy of Content: All information cards made for the game are correct.
–Knowledge gained: The game creation demonstrates a strong level of knowledge that could challenge anyone.
–Language: Correctly uses the English language: no spelling, grammar or wording mistakes.
When creating their board games, some groups were inspired by original games in contrast to some other groups who mixed ideas from different board games to create their own. For instance, one group recreated the ‘Pictionary’ game but each picked card was related to Macbeth.
At the end of the realization of each board game, all classes of 2nde SIA were gathered in one classroom to exchange their projects and play the games of each group. The classroom was divided into different stations that each had one game and the several students around. After a certain amount of time, each group would go the next station and so on. Two full hours from 10 to 12am were consecrated for this project. It was an opportunity for the students to explore different games, extend their imagination and knowledge while learning how to communicate with their fellow students. It was a great end to the year and the unit. | <urn:uuid:1fdd52bc-6b8a-4b57-a2f1-2793e98f20ae> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.lyceeshanghai.com/the-macbeth-board-game/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00336.warc.gz | en | 0.98333 | 441 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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0.3798272609... | 2 | Throughout several weeks, all SIA classes of 2nde in Language and Literature were given a project to complete by the 19th of December. The goal was to create a board game in relation to the studied text in class, Macbeth by William Shakespeare. Indeed, this board game helped the students to develop their creativity and prove their understanding of the text. In order to complete this task, the respective classes of Ms. De Renzy-Martin, Ms. Hecker and Ms. Switzer, were divided in small groups of 4 to 5 people and each of the groups had to come up with their own board game. Therefore, to accomplish this task and achieve top grades, specific criteria had to be reached such as:
-Creativity and awareness: Thought has been put into the game with creative questions, game pieces and game board. It must be visually pleasing with the use of many colors.
-Rules: The rules had to be clear, typed and edited for errors.
-Accuracy of Content: All information cards made for the game are correct.
–Knowledge gained: The game creation demonstrates a strong level of knowledge that could challenge anyone.
–Language: Correctly uses the English language: no spelling, grammar or wording mistakes.
When creating their board games, some groups were inspired by original games in contrast to some other groups who mixed ideas from different board games to create their own. For instance, one group recreated the ‘Pictionary’ game but each picked card was related to Macbeth.
At the end of the realization of each board game, all classes of 2nde SIA were gathered in one classroom to exchange their projects and play the games of each group. The classroom was divided into different stations that each had one game and the several students around. After a certain amount of time, each group would go the next station and so on. Two full hours from 10 to 12am were consecrated for this project. It was an opportunity for the students to explore different games, extend their imagination and knowledge while learning how to communicate with their fellow students. It was a great end to the year and the unit. | 436 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Essay aztec and inca civilizations
The Aztec were forceful, strategic and powerful. These three cultures make up part of what was Mesoamerica. There are many similarities in these cultures when it comes to art, architecture, and lifestyle.
The Mayans were excellent astronomers and mathematicians, the Aztecs were experienced warriors, and the Incas were skilled engineers. Soon their empires fell apart and the people of the empire just walked away.
Maya inca aztec map
I sat there for a few…. Women have played a prominent role in defining cultures; such is the case for Maya, Inca, and Aztec societies. Some of these accomplishments ranged from agriculture to architecture and on to writing and trade. Understanding how such an empire rose, ruled, and fell could be useful in understanding other ancient civilizations and could be applied in current governments The Aztecs centered themselves on Lake Texcoco, in the city of Tenochtitlan. The Aztec were very religious and obeyed their gods at all times. For example, the Mayans had created a calendar with three hundred sixty-five and a quarter days. These three cultures make up part of what was Mesoamerica. Soon their empires fell apart and the people of the empire just walked away. The Mayans were also well known for their new type of farming. The main two groups of people that comprised the Aztecs were the Mexica and the Nahuatl-speakers. The Incas, as did the other Latin empires, had invented a calendar that had days and was kept accurate by looking at the position of the stars, the moon, the planets, and the sun. They were also very good as carving rock to they would fit together perfectly, which was the main style of buildings there.
The Incan empire was long and skinny, so in order to maneuver around the terrain as quickly as possible, they made roads and bridges to connect the empires major cities, as shown in document five.
Although they shared cultural similarities such as their social structure, they also had their differences in military and religious rituals Each had their own fascinating ways of food production, governing system and culture.
They each had their own ways of growing their civilizations into what they needed to be successful. The Incas, down in the Andes Mountains, never came into contact with the Central American civilizations.
Related posts:. After we finished the reading I raised my hand intending to ask a question.
Essay aztec and inca civilizations
They came to Mexico in the early thirteenth century and from there they started to develop a social structure and government consisting of priests, kings, peasants, and soldiers. They had very advanced engineering skills, which led them to the building of extensive road systems. This system was described by Garciasco de la Vega in document four. Before, agrarian labor was seen as a male domineering field; however, studies of the Classic Maya culture indicates farming was a communal occupation. The Aztec and Inca were considered the two most powerful and influential empires in Mesoamerica and South America. At its peek the Inca Empire was the largest nation on Earth and remains the largest native state to have existed in the western hemisphere. The Mayans, Incas, and Aztecs built great and legendary civilizations in Mexico, Central America, and South America and with understanding these three we get a better understanding of the early life in these places. Although they shared cultural similarities such as their social structure, they also had their differences in military and religious rituals They each had their own ways of growing their civilizations into what they needed to be successful. Expeditions have revealed monuments of valiant, female sultan erected for display and iconography feminine in appearance. Each had their own fascinating ways of food production, governing system and culture. Under the rule of Itzcoatl, the Aztecs began their expansion
Innocent people were killed for no good reason, cities were massacred, civilizations were destroyed or forced to convert to Christianity. Would one be able to distinguish which piece came from which culture.
based on 53 review | <urn:uuid:47472db6-981b-4bbd-884b-4a827d474a00> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://hojuwirucypetam.dellrichards.com/essay-aztec-and-inca-civilizations275755926em.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00396.warc.gz | en | 0.98703 | 845 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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-0.0295270383358... | 1 | Essay aztec and inca civilizations
The Aztec were forceful, strategic and powerful. These three cultures make up part of what was Mesoamerica. There are many similarities in these cultures when it comes to art, architecture, and lifestyle.
The Mayans were excellent astronomers and mathematicians, the Aztecs were experienced warriors, and the Incas were skilled engineers. Soon their empires fell apart and the people of the empire just walked away.
Maya inca aztec map
I sat there for a few…. Women have played a prominent role in defining cultures; such is the case for Maya, Inca, and Aztec societies. Some of these accomplishments ranged from agriculture to architecture and on to writing and trade. Understanding how such an empire rose, ruled, and fell could be useful in understanding other ancient civilizations and could be applied in current governments The Aztecs centered themselves on Lake Texcoco, in the city of Tenochtitlan. The Aztec were very religious and obeyed their gods at all times. For example, the Mayans had created a calendar with three hundred sixty-five and a quarter days. These three cultures make up part of what was Mesoamerica. Soon their empires fell apart and the people of the empire just walked away. The Mayans were also well known for their new type of farming. The main two groups of people that comprised the Aztecs were the Mexica and the Nahuatl-speakers. The Incas, as did the other Latin empires, had invented a calendar that had days and was kept accurate by looking at the position of the stars, the moon, the planets, and the sun. They were also very good as carving rock to they would fit together perfectly, which was the main style of buildings there.
The Incan empire was long and skinny, so in order to maneuver around the terrain as quickly as possible, they made roads and bridges to connect the empires major cities, as shown in document five.
Although they shared cultural similarities such as their social structure, they also had their differences in military and religious rituals Each had their own fascinating ways of food production, governing system and culture.
They each had their own ways of growing their civilizations into what they needed to be successful. The Incas, down in the Andes Mountains, never came into contact with the Central American civilizations.
Related posts:. After we finished the reading I raised my hand intending to ask a question.
Essay aztec and inca civilizations
They came to Mexico in the early thirteenth century and from there they started to develop a social structure and government consisting of priests, kings, peasants, and soldiers. They had very advanced engineering skills, which led them to the building of extensive road systems. This system was described by Garciasco de la Vega in document four. Before, agrarian labor was seen as a male domineering field; however, studies of the Classic Maya culture indicates farming was a communal occupation. The Aztec and Inca were considered the two most powerful and influential empires in Mesoamerica and South America. At its peek the Inca Empire was the largest nation on Earth and remains the largest native state to have existed in the western hemisphere. The Mayans, Incas, and Aztecs built great and legendary civilizations in Mexico, Central America, and South America and with understanding these three we get a better understanding of the early life in these places. Although they shared cultural similarities such as their social structure, they also had their differences in military and religious rituals They each had their own ways of growing their civilizations into what they needed to be successful. Expeditions have revealed monuments of valiant, female sultan erected for display and iconography feminine in appearance. Each had their own fascinating ways of food production, governing system and culture. Under the rule of Itzcoatl, the Aztecs began their expansion
Innocent people were killed for no good reason, cities were massacred, civilizations were destroyed or forced to convert to Christianity. Would one be able to distinguish which piece came from which culture.
based on 53 review | 836 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Crocodiles were large, amphibious reptiles.
Carnivorous, water-dwelling reptiles, crocodiles lived in several countries worldwide, most notably in Egypt, where they hunted in rivers and lakes for fish, birds and larger prey, including humans. Crocodiles could reach lengths of up to thirty feet and were sometimes hunted for their leathery skin as well as their meat. The ancient Egyptians worshipped the crocodile as a symbol of the Nile River, in the form of a crocodile-headed man named Sobek. Alex O'Connell had encountered several crocodiles when he had fallen into the Nile River from a riverboat and had almost been taken by them. Crocodiles also resided in the Blue Nile river, which led out of Egypt and into Abyssinia. | <urn:uuid:3e6524b1-56db-4f3a-9b90-c2687818ce0a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mummy.fandom.com/wiki/Crocodile | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00395.warc.gz | en | 0.987039 | 160 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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-0.0376158244907856,... | 2 | Crocodiles were large, amphibious reptiles.
Carnivorous, water-dwelling reptiles, crocodiles lived in several countries worldwide, most notably in Egypt, where they hunted in rivers and lakes for fish, birds and larger prey, including humans. Crocodiles could reach lengths of up to thirty feet and were sometimes hunted for their leathery skin as well as their meat. The ancient Egyptians worshipped the crocodile as a symbol of the Nile River, in the form of a crocodile-headed man named Sobek. Alex O'Connell had encountered several crocodiles when he had fallen into the Nile River from a riverboat and had almost been taken by them. Crocodiles also resided in the Blue Nile river, which led out of Egypt and into Abyssinia. | 163 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Before the 1959 eruption of Kīlauea Iki, the area that is now designated Devastation Trail was covered by a dense rain forest.
Three months before the November 14 – December 20, 1959 eruption, the area was shaken by multiple earthquakes. At first the earthquakes were deep, originating about 55km below the volcano, but later they became shallow. On November 14 there were 10 times as many earthquakes as the day before, and the intensity of the earthquakes also increased.
By nightfall, the earthquakes stopped, and the eruption began. The fissure eruption produced fountains of lava which cascaded to the floor of the crater some 100 m below the erupting fissure. Forest fires were also noted.
Over the next few days, the lava fountains became higher and higher, eventually reaching a height of more than 500 meters. Erupting pumice started building a new cinder cone that was later named " Puʻu Puaʻi", (gushing hill). A lava lake also developed on the crater floor. | <urn:uuid:58a17da7-07e3-458e-a614-46c90aabae72> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wn.com/Devastation_Trail | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00506.warc.gz | en | 0.989357 | 219 | 4.03125 | 4 | [
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0.272148162126541... | 1 | Before the 1959 eruption of Kīlauea Iki, the area that is now designated Devastation Trail was covered by a dense rain forest.
Three months before the November 14 – December 20, 1959 eruption, the area was shaken by multiple earthquakes. At first the earthquakes were deep, originating about 55km below the volcano, but later they became shallow. On November 14 there were 10 times as many earthquakes as the day before, and the intensity of the earthquakes also increased.
By nightfall, the earthquakes stopped, and the eruption began. The fissure eruption produced fountains of lava which cascaded to the floor of the crater some 100 m below the erupting fissure. Forest fires were also noted.
Over the next few days, the lava fountains became higher and higher, eventually reaching a height of more than 500 meters. Erupting pumice started building a new cinder cone that was later named " Puʻu Puaʻi", (gushing hill). A lava lake also developed on the crater floor. | 234 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Less directly connected to the story of water is that of the Métis people, mostly but not entirely in Canada. A syncretic culture, that is, one made of two melded together, everyone agrees that in the old days the most obvious way to identify them was that you could hear them coming. Emerging mostly from alliances with trappers coming up the Mississippi complex from Louisiana or inland from Quebec -- both footprints left by the French -- and their wives from local tribes, they founded a wagon culture, living in homes they could take with them. They were an early "RV" people, like Gypsies, "Travelers". Because they had no access to metal, the giant-wheeled wagons traversed the rough prairie with much squealing noise.
Since the people had both First Nations relatives and white relatives, they gradually distributed themselves along a continuum from those who lived as the tribes did to those who settled in small towns. Some ended up not quite either and were left out when the reservations were defined because they were not sedentary liked reservations. Eventually, their distress caused them to be placed on the Blackfeet rez, American side, introducing competition for limited resources. Then Fort Belknap was dedicated to a reservation for them, but some had mixed with Blackfeet and stayed there.
Métis became stronger and better defined until they began to seem like a country of their own, called Red River Nation. The leaders, Louis Riel, and his cousin, Dumont, were charismatic, esp. Riel who had visions.
The earliest defined conflict between the Métis, who were simply there, and the English who had the paper law on their side, was in 1812 and involved Lord Selkirk, who had been given a land grant for the confluence of the Red and Assiniboine Rivers by the Hudson's Bay company, owners of "Rupert's Land," the whole Western half of Canada. The grief climaxed in the Seven Oaks Massacre in 1816. This time it was 21 settlers killed.
In 1869, the Hudson's Bay Company agreed to sell its territory to the new Dominion of Canada, which had been formed in 1867 by the uniting of four British colonies: Canada East (Quebec), Canada West (Ontario), New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia.
Louis David Riel (1844-85) was a Canadian politician, a founder of the province of Manitoba, and a political leader of the Métis people of the Canadian Prairies. He was an educated man and taught in Montana at the St. Peter's Mission School near Great Falls. He is said to have had one-eighth Indian blood, his paternal grandmother being a Franco-Chipewyan Métisse. (The variations of the word Metis all mean "mixed". Mestizo, Michif.)
As the group became more tightly organized and intense, they were facing the army of Canada. In 1883 Riel became a citizen of Montana. Returning to Canada, after a long dramatic struggle marked by battle, Riel became unstable and was hung with others. The British have always ended dissent this way.
The consequences of a violent end to a proposed country were in part that the Métis took refuge in Montana on the East slope, going up the valleys produced by snowmelt rivers. Their descendants remain. Some intermarried with Blackfeet and can be distinguished by the many French last names, though they are enrolled in the tribe. Their families are strong because of religious connections and that helps to hold the web together, along with the preservation of what were originally Euro elements like fiddle tunes and clog dancing, which made them lots of friends at dances and fairs.
in the Seventies a Métis grandfather who had grown up with Bob Scriver was trusted to "babysit" Bob's studio/home with its valuable contents when Scriver was gone. The conviction in the Scriver family was that Métis (whom they called "Cree") were more hard-working and reliable than Blackfeet. This man told me he was troubled that he didn't know what tribe he was and at that point I didn't know either. Métis had gone underground. The next time I was in Lethbridge I went to the used book store but only found a small book in French with a lot of pictures. I brought it to the man so I could say, "This is who you are. Maybe someone here knows French."
I didn't see this man after that, but then I found out that Joseph Kinsey Howard (1906-1951), "newspaper man, historian and Métis -- born in Iowa and raised in Lethbridge -- had already written about Montana. Aided by the support of Guggenheim Fellowships in 1947 and 1948, he devoted considerable effort to the writing of a history of Métis leader Louis Riel and his resistance movements against the Canadian government. The result of this project was the book Strange Empire: A Narrative of the Northwest, published posthumously in 1952." (Wikipedia) I mailed a copy to the man who wondered. Until his death, Howard and a small cluster of writers and professionals occupied summer cabins with Métis origins up Blackleaf Canyon. The local Métis presence persists in the area, including a cemetery and a demonstration cabin, made like an historical home with a loft and a baby cradle hammock over the adult bed, so dozing parents could reach up and set it rocking.
In Canada in 1982 the Métis were defined as an aboriginal people just like First Nations ("Indians") and Inuit ("Eskimos"). This gives them certain entitlements and protections, though not necessarily reservation-based functions. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Métis_in_Canada This entry is exhaustive in terms of both nature and place.
The Métis are fascinating because they are a dynamic recent enough in history and documented enough for us to think about how the organic, natural definitions of a people smash into the legal laws and treaties of a Euro-based culture. Accommodations have to be made but also some people will be hurt, left out, or even possibly lifted up by the confusion. They persist.
Certainly the individual people are vivid and their stories are full of drama. Peter Bowen in Montana is one of the best known among the novelists and benefits from their drama. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aiRkx-wTwnc | <urn:uuid:4f9ec8fd-7426-4771-b384-54ce8f53a308> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://prairiemary.blogspot.com/2018/08/wagon-culture.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00017.warc.gz | en | 0.982695 | 1,349 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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-0.1169616580009460... | 3 | Less directly connected to the story of water is that of the Métis people, mostly but not entirely in Canada. A syncretic culture, that is, one made of two melded together, everyone agrees that in the old days the most obvious way to identify them was that you could hear them coming. Emerging mostly from alliances with trappers coming up the Mississippi complex from Louisiana or inland from Quebec -- both footprints left by the French -- and their wives from local tribes, they founded a wagon culture, living in homes they could take with them. They were an early "RV" people, like Gypsies, "Travelers". Because they had no access to metal, the giant-wheeled wagons traversed the rough prairie with much squealing noise.
Since the people had both First Nations relatives and white relatives, they gradually distributed themselves along a continuum from those who lived as the tribes did to those who settled in small towns. Some ended up not quite either and were left out when the reservations were defined because they were not sedentary liked reservations. Eventually, their distress caused them to be placed on the Blackfeet rez, American side, introducing competition for limited resources. Then Fort Belknap was dedicated to a reservation for them, but some had mixed with Blackfeet and stayed there.
Métis became stronger and better defined until they began to seem like a country of their own, called Red River Nation. The leaders, Louis Riel, and his cousin, Dumont, were charismatic, esp. Riel who had visions.
The earliest defined conflict between the Métis, who were simply there, and the English who had the paper law on their side, was in 1812 and involved Lord Selkirk, who had been given a land grant for the confluence of the Red and Assiniboine Rivers by the Hudson's Bay company, owners of "Rupert's Land," the whole Western half of Canada. The grief climaxed in the Seven Oaks Massacre in 1816. This time it was 21 settlers killed.
In 1869, the Hudson's Bay Company agreed to sell its territory to the new Dominion of Canada, which had been formed in 1867 by the uniting of four British colonies: Canada East (Quebec), Canada West (Ontario), New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia.
Louis David Riel (1844-85) was a Canadian politician, a founder of the province of Manitoba, and a political leader of the Métis people of the Canadian Prairies. He was an educated man and taught in Montana at the St. Peter's Mission School near Great Falls. He is said to have had one-eighth Indian blood, his paternal grandmother being a Franco-Chipewyan Métisse. (The variations of the word Metis all mean "mixed". Mestizo, Michif.)
As the group became more tightly organized and intense, they were facing the army of Canada. In 1883 Riel became a citizen of Montana. Returning to Canada, after a long dramatic struggle marked by battle, Riel became unstable and was hung with others. The British have always ended dissent this way.
The consequences of a violent end to a proposed country were in part that the Métis took refuge in Montana on the East slope, going up the valleys produced by snowmelt rivers. Their descendants remain. Some intermarried with Blackfeet and can be distinguished by the many French last names, though they are enrolled in the tribe. Their families are strong because of religious connections and that helps to hold the web together, along with the preservation of what were originally Euro elements like fiddle tunes and clog dancing, which made them lots of friends at dances and fairs.
in the Seventies a Métis grandfather who had grown up with Bob Scriver was trusted to "babysit" Bob's studio/home with its valuable contents when Scriver was gone. The conviction in the Scriver family was that Métis (whom they called "Cree") were more hard-working and reliable than Blackfeet. This man told me he was troubled that he didn't know what tribe he was and at that point I didn't know either. Métis had gone underground. The next time I was in Lethbridge I went to the used book store but only found a small book in French with a lot of pictures. I brought it to the man so I could say, "This is who you are. Maybe someone here knows French."
I didn't see this man after that, but then I found out that Joseph Kinsey Howard (1906-1951), "newspaper man, historian and Métis -- born in Iowa and raised in Lethbridge -- had already written about Montana. Aided by the support of Guggenheim Fellowships in 1947 and 1948, he devoted considerable effort to the writing of a history of Métis leader Louis Riel and his resistance movements against the Canadian government. The result of this project was the book Strange Empire: A Narrative of the Northwest, published posthumously in 1952." (Wikipedia) I mailed a copy to the man who wondered. Until his death, Howard and a small cluster of writers and professionals occupied summer cabins with Métis origins up Blackleaf Canyon. The local Métis presence persists in the area, including a cemetery and a demonstration cabin, made like an historical home with a loft and a baby cradle hammock over the adult bed, so dozing parents could reach up and set it rocking.
In Canada in 1982 the Métis were defined as an aboriginal people just like First Nations ("Indians") and Inuit ("Eskimos"). This gives them certain entitlements and protections, though not necessarily reservation-based functions. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Métis_in_Canada This entry is exhaustive in terms of both nature and place.
The Métis are fascinating because they are a dynamic recent enough in history and documented enough for us to think about how the organic, natural definitions of a people smash into the legal laws and treaties of a Euro-based culture. Accommodations have to be made but also some people will be hurt, left out, or even possibly lifted up by the confusion. They persist.
Certainly the individual people are vivid and their stories are full of drama. Peter Bowen in Montana is one of the best known among the novelists and benefits from their drama. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aiRkx-wTwnc | 1,351 | ENGLISH | 1 |
rles Darwin Like many students, Charles Darwin was only intrested in topics that was intresting to him and although his father was a doctor, Darwin was very unintrested in medicine and he also couldnt stand the sight of surgery. He did eventually get a degree in Theology from Cambridge University, Although Theology was a minor intrest to him. What Darwin really liked to do was climb over hills, observe plants and animals, collecting new specimens, studying their structures, and categorizing his findings. In 1831, when Darwin was 22 years old, the British government sent her Majesty’s ship The Beagle on a 5 year expedition that would take them along the coastline of South America and then onward around the world. During the trip the Beagle would carry along a naturalist to observe and collect Geological and Biological specimens.
Thanks to a recomendation from one of Darwins old college professors, he was offered the position aboard the Beagle. The Beagle sailed to South America, making many stops along the coast. Here Darwin observed the plants and animals of the tropics and was stunned by the diversity of species compared with Europe. The most significant stop the Beagle made was the Galapagos Islands off the northwestern coast of South America. It was here that Darwin found huge populations of Tortoises; and he found out that diffrent islands were home to diffrent types of tortoises. He found that islands without tortoises, pricky pear cactus plants grew with their fruits spread all over the ground.
And on Islands that had lots of tortoises, the prickly pears grew really thick, tall, bearing the fruit high above the tortoises reach. He wondered if the differences in the two plants were from being isolated from one another on seperate islands. In 1836, Darwin returned to England after his 5 year expedition. He became established as one of the best naturalists of his time. But Darwin sought to prove his idea of evolution with simple examples.
Darwin maintained that seperate species evolve as a result of Natural Selection, or survival of the fittest. Darwin never said that human beings evolved from apes. He said that all life began with molecules acting on each other. So from the first single celled organism all life came. One single organism, by many diffrent molecules could make many diffrent species of animals.
It was in this way that he stated Ape and Man are similar by each having similar life beginning. Darwin’s theories caused people to begin to question where they actually came from. His response was the book on the origin of species. In his book he addressed the concerns of the people. He said It is interesting to contemplate an entangled bank, clothed with many plants of many kinds, with birds singing in the bushes, with various insects flitting about, and with worms crawling through the damp earth, and to reflect that these elaborately constructed forms have all been produced by laws acting around us. These laws, taken in the highes sense, being growth with reproduction; Inheritance and Variability; a Ratio of Increase so high as to lead to a strugle for life, and as a consequence to Natural Selection, entailing Divergence of charector and extinction of less-improved forms. There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one, and that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed laws of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most beauthiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved. By, Mike M. | <urn:uuid:15305057-6fcf-403a-808d-71791289ace6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://thewop.org/rles-darwin/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00533.warc.gz | en | 0.98399 | 746 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.08803123980760... | 3 | rles Darwin Like many students, Charles Darwin was only intrested in topics that was intresting to him and although his father was a doctor, Darwin was very unintrested in medicine and he also couldnt stand the sight of surgery. He did eventually get a degree in Theology from Cambridge University, Although Theology was a minor intrest to him. What Darwin really liked to do was climb over hills, observe plants and animals, collecting new specimens, studying their structures, and categorizing his findings. In 1831, when Darwin was 22 years old, the British government sent her Majesty’s ship The Beagle on a 5 year expedition that would take them along the coastline of South America and then onward around the world. During the trip the Beagle would carry along a naturalist to observe and collect Geological and Biological specimens.
Thanks to a recomendation from one of Darwins old college professors, he was offered the position aboard the Beagle. The Beagle sailed to South America, making many stops along the coast. Here Darwin observed the plants and animals of the tropics and was stunned by the diversity of species compared with Europe. The most significant stop the Beagle made was the Galapagos Islands off the northwestern coast of South America. It was here that Darwin found huge populations of Tortoises; and he found out that diffrent islands were home to diffrent types of tortoises. He found that islands without tortoises, pricky pear cactus plants grew with their fruits spread all over the ground.
And on Islands that had lots of tortoises, the prickly pears grew really thick, tall, bearing the fruit high above the tortoises reach. He wondered if the differences in the two plants were from being isolated from one another on seperate islands. In 1836, Darwin returned to England after his 5 year expedition. He became established as one of the best naturalists of his time. But Darwin sought to prove his idea of evolution with simple examples.
Darwin maintained that seperate species evolve as a result of Natural Selection, or survival of the fittest. Darwin never said that human beings evolved from apes. He said that all life began with molecules acting on each other. So from the first single celled organism all life came. One single organism, by many diffrent molecules could make many diffrent species of animals.
It was in this way that he stated Ape and Man are similar by each having similar life beginning. Darwin’s theories caused people to begin to question where they actually came from. His response was the book on the origin of species. In his book he addressed the concerns of the people. He said It is interesting to contemplate an entangled bank, clothed with many plants of many kinds, with birds singing in the bushes, with various insects flitting about, and with worms crawling through the damp earth, and to reflect that these elaborately constructed forms have all been produced by laws acting around us. These laws, taken in the highes sense, being growth with reproduction; Inheritance and Variability; a Ratio of Increase so high as to lead to a strugle for life, and as a consequence to Natural Selection, entailing Divergence of charector and extinction of less-improved forms. There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one, and that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed laws of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most beauthiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved. By, Mike M. | 747 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Submitted by Jamie Rozek , Buffalo, New York
Idea posted January 15, 2002
I don't have time to type out lessons at the moment, but I will give you some ideas on what I have done to integrate with other academic areas.
I think as music educators, this should become one of our prime focuses outside of teaching music. Integrating disciplines is one of the best arguments for keeping Music Education in the schools.
The third graders were working on a unit about creativity in music. At the end of the unit, they had a special assessment. We listened to the first two verses of a ballad called "Don Gato." If you know this song, you know that the first two verses don't hold a great deal of information to the rest of the story. So, they listened to this, and we discussed the story so far. Their assignment was to go home over the weekend and finish the story of Don Gato, writing at least two paragraphs.
This assignment did a great many things for them: 1. They had to read and analyze a piece of music as a literary work. 2. They had to think outside the box, given very few parameters. 3. They had to apply their language arts lessons, as I was adamant about proper grammar and sentence structure.
Of course, at first, they groaned about this. However, by the next class, they were extremely excited... They had their own story. After I had them all turned in, we listened to the rest of the song. They were amazed to hear how different or how alike to the remainder of the story their stories were. A great discussion came out of it. This is a lesson I have enjoyed doing.
Another activity that involved writing was a rap. We were studying rhythm and beat, and began studying rap music. What is great about rap music is that it has that steady beat that you can REALLY feel, while the rhythm is spoken. It really lays it out for them, and they understand the difference between the two so much better.
We have three third grade classes. Each one of them came up with their own rap. It was a democratic decision. A few students offered suggestions on a topic, and the rest of the class voted on the topics suggested. After that, we discussed rhyming and its importance to rap. We discussed syllables, and they figured out how to fit the different lines of the verses into a syllable structure. It was incredible how they all worked that out together. The greatest part for them was performing it for themselves. When they heard how it sounded with a rap track behind it, they were extremely excited.
Here's what they got out of this activity: 1. Understood the difference between beat and rhythm. 2. Learned about rhyming words and their importance to music. 3. National Standards: Singing alone and with others a wide repertoire of music. 4. Composing and improvising. 5. Grammar was also reinforced. (Does this sound right? How can we make it sound better?)
These are two great lessons where they were very much engaged. I would suggest it. When you discuss rhythm and time signatures, math can be brought into the picture. Time signatures are merely fractions. With rhythm, you can do multiplication, division, and addition. I like to use money to discuss note values. With older grades, instead of money I use the division aspect. I always start at the top, with the whole note and work my way down.
Almost EVERY lesson you do can be incorporated with another subject. Just about eveything I do has some sort of history lesson in it. The Internet has been an invaluable resource for this.
I hope this helps out! | <urn:uuid:a8aff675-37db-489a-8d0e-2306716bb9a7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.musick8.com/html/ideadisplay.php?ibid=114 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00120.warc.gz | en | 0.985957 | 763 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.2464519143104553... | 2 | Submitted by Jamie Rozek , Buffalo, New York
Idea posted January 15, 2002
I don't have time to type out lessons at the moment, but I will give you some ideas on what I have done to integrate with other academic areas.
I think as music educators, this should become one of our prime focuses outside of teaching music. Integrating disciplines is one of the best arguments for keeping Music Education in the schools.
The third graders were working on a unit about creativity in music. At the end of the unit, they had a special assessment. We listened to the first two verses of a ballad called "Don Gato." If you know this song, you know that the first two verses don't hold a great deal of information to the rest of the story. So, they listened to this, and we discussed the story so far. Their assignment was to go home over the weekend and finish the story of Don Gato, writing at least two paragraphs.
This assignment did a great many things for them: 1. They had to read and analyze a piece of music as a literary work. 2. They had to think outside the box, given very few parameters. 3. They had to apply their language arts lessons, as I was adamant about proper grammar and sentence structure.
Of course, at first, they groaned about this. However, by the next class, they were extremely excited... They had their own story. After I had them all turned in, we listened to the rest of the song. They were amazed to hear how different or how alike to the remainder of the story their stories were. A great discussion came out of it. This is a lesson I have enjoyed doing.
Another activity that involved writing was a rap. We were studying rhythm and beat, and began studying rap music. What is great about rap music is that it has that steady beat that you can REALLY feel, while the rhythm is spoken. It really lays it out for them, and they understand the difference between the two so much better.
We have three third grade classes. Each one of them came up with their own rap. It was a democratic decision. A few students offered suggestions on a topic, and the rest of the class voted on the topics suggested. After that, we discussed rhyming and its importance to rap. We discussed syllables, and they figured out how to fit the different lines of the verses into a syllable structure. It was incredible how they all worked that out together. The greatest part for them was performing it for themselves. When they heard how it sounded with a rap track behind it, they were extremely excited.
Here's what they got out of this activity: 1. Understood the difference between beat and rhythm. 2. Learned about rhyming words and their importance to music. 3. National Standards: Singing alone and with others a wide repertoire of music. 4. Composing and improvising. 5. Grammar was also reinforced. (Does this sound right? How can we make it sound better?)
These are two great lessons where they were very much engaged. I would suggest it. When you discuss rhythm and time signatures, math can be brought into the picture. Time signatures are merely fractions. With rhythm, you can do multiplication, division, and addition. I like to use money to discuss note values. With older grades, instead of money I use the division aspect. I always start at the top, with the whole note and work my way down.
Almost EVERY lesson you do can be incorporated with another subject. Just about eveything I do has some sort of history lesson in it. The Internet has been an invaluable resource for this.
I hope this helps out! | 767 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The evolution of humankind has long been a subject of fascination for people. Many expeditions have been launched to find the answers, each success leading to more questions and theories. These expeditions have traced the beginnings of human evolution to the continent of Africa, where many finds have helped to trace the origins of the human species. In 1974, what would become known as the oldest human fossil was found in Ethiopia by Professor Donald Johanson and Tom Gray…
After assembling the bones that were found, determining the gender to be female, she was dubbed with the name Lucy and classified as Australopithecus afarensis. While she was found to have many of the characteristics of a chimpanzee, although her structure proved her to be bipedal, and she “walked slightly bow legged” (Lambert 99).. Lucy is estimated at around three million years old. Anything older than that has eluded experts, as no fossil evidence has yet to be found. Australopithecines are differentiated from the next step in the chain of human evolution by looking at a few different traits.
The brains of these ancestors of the human race were very small, and during their period of existence, grew very little. Their faces were ape-like, their cheekbones quite pronounced and their jaws jutted forward, much like apes. Their teeth indicated more of a vegetarian diet, and “the enamel of the molars was incredibly thick” (Angela 64). Also, the males of that species were quite a bit larger than the females. The next step down the path of human evolution is the species known as Homo habilis, or “skilled man. ” It was around 2.
2 million years ago that this species first made an appearance, This species may or may not be a descendant of Australopithecus, but Homo Sapiens Neanderthalensis Page 2 of 4 they were certainly a more evolved people. The brains were larger, the faces less ape-like, the teeth more like those of the people of today, and there are signs that these people ore permanently in an upright position than the Australopithecines. While the Australopithecines were mostly vegetarian, Homo habilis appears to have been more dependent on meat.
They most likely started as scavengers, watching for vultures and others in order to find their meat. However, this would have evolved into a hunting life, requiring an increased need for tools and the ability to put together complex strategies for hunting. Mental capabilities became at least as important as physical, which their increased brain size shows. It was perhaps 1. 6 to 1. 8 million years ago that we find the appearance of Homo erectus. This species marks the first evidence of people migrating, as evidence of erectus is found not only in Africa, but also in Europe and Asia.
It also marks the first time in human evolution that the capacity for language is found. Homo erectus was a species that certainly different than its predecessors. It was taller, and the spine was different as well. The actual structure resembled modern man more than had those species that came before, although they were likely more flexible, which is indicated by the presence of six floating ribs instead of modern man’s two. The brow was heavier, and the forehead flatter. The eyes were likely set farther apart, and the mandible very large.
It was around 300,000 years ago that Homo sapiens neanderthalensis made its appearance. The first fossils of this species, “a thick skullcap with a sloping forehead, and several limb bones,” (Johanson, Johanson, and Edgar) were found in the Neander Valley in West Germany in 1856. . This species shows a definite progression toward the Homo Sapiens Neanderthalensis Page 3 of 4 human of today, although still had its differences. The biggest physical difference between neanderthalensis and those previous to it was found in the size of the brain.
The volume increased by significant amount, although the physical appearance was only slightly changed. They were quite a bit stockier than modern man, and were very muscular. They averaged around five feet tall in height, with short forearms and legs. Unlike those before them, the brow of the Neanderthals was arched and not flat. The skull itself was quite large, indicating a large brain size, and there was a bump at the back of the skull. However, while the skull was thicker than those of humans today, it was thinner than that of those who came before.
The species of neanderthalensis was the most intelligent up to that point, which can be seen in the way they adapted to their environment and found food. Research shows that they had weapons that were far more advanced than those of previous species, and they skillfully adapted their hunting strategies depending upon the prey they hunted. They also adapted tools suited to the skinning of the animal and the tanning of its hide, although research shows that they did not exhibit much advancement in this area throughout their existence.
The Neanderthals were quite a social people as well. Evidence shows that the members of Neanderthal society helped and supported each other, which led to the survival of people who would not have lasted in the times before them. The group became important during this time, which can be seen most vividly by the new practice of burying the dead, something that had not before been done. In the times before, bodies had been left to the scavengers, but the new social traits of the Neanderthal changed this practice. Many graves have been found, some with burial goods sharing the grave with
Homo Sapiens Neanderthalensis Page 3 of 4 the deceased. Leakey states that “Self-awareness and death-awareness flow together” (270), and postulates that this might well be a “continuation of the language development we infer for earlier periods in the record” (270). These facts indicate a definite progression toward the more advanced species that followed it. Regardless, the concern for the fate of the dead was a far cry from the beliefs of those who came before, exhibiting the social, and possibly religious, evolution of the species.
It is in the disappearance of the Neanderthal were the biggest mystery comes. Any traces of these people just suddenly disappeared sooner than 35,000 years ago, and all that can be found after that are Homo sapiens sapiens. There is no evidence that demonstrates how and why they disappeared; they simply did so. Some postulate that some catastrophic fate befell the species, while others insist that they simply evolved into the final stage of human evolution. Perhaps someday evidence will be found proving one theory or another, but until then, we can only wonder at their fate.
The evolution of the human being from the Australopithecines to what we are today was a long road with many questions still to be answered. It is possible that other species of humans may be found to fill in the blanks between the ancestors of the human race, but it is just as possible that we will never know. There are still questions to be answered about the evidence that has already been found, and the more new fossils that are discovered, the better the chances at finding the truth to the great mysteries regarding the ancestors of today’s modern human.
Angela, Piero and Alberto Angela. The Extraordinary Story of Human Origins. Buffalo: Prometheus Books, 1993. Johanson, Donald, Lenora Johanson, and Blake Edgar. Ancestors: In Search of Human Origins. New York: Villard Books, 1994. Lambert, David and the Diagram Group. The Field Guide to Early Man. New York: Facts On File, Inc. , 1987. Leakey, Richard and Roger Lewin. Origins Reconsidered. New York: Doubleday, 1992. | <urn:uuid:186f303c-2eba-4fb3-9ccd-7cdc1f9d963c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://custom-essays-writings.com/homo-sapiens-neanderthalensis | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00364.warc.gz | en | 0.981001 | 1,610 | 3.828125 | 4 | [
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0.1735406219959259,... | 11 | The evolution of humankind has long been a subject of fascination for people. Many expeditions have been launched to find the answers, each success leading to more questions and theories. These expeditions have traced the beginnings of human evolution to the continent of Africa, where many finds have helped to trace the origins of the human species. In 1974, what would become known as the oldest human fossil was found in Ethiopia by Professor Donald Johanson and Tom Gray…
After assembling the bones that were found, determining the gender to be female, she was dubbed with the name Lucy and classified as Australopithecus afarensis. While she was found to have many of the characteristics of a chimpanzee, although her structure proved her to be bipedal, and she “walked slightly bow legged” (Lambert 99).. Lucy is estimated at around three million years old. Anything older than that has eluded experts, as no fossil evidence has yet to be found. Australopithecines are differentiated from the next step in the chain of human evolution by looking at a few different traits.
The brains of these ancestors of the human race were very small, and during their period of existence, grew very little. Their faces were ape-like, their cheekbones quite pronounced and their jaws jutted forward, much like apes. Their teeth indicated more of a vegetarian diet, and “the enamel of the molars was incredibly thick” (Angela 64). Also, the males of that species were quite a bit larger than the females. The next step down the path of human evolution is the species known as Homo habilis, or “skilled man. ” It was around 2.
2 million years ago that this species first made an appearance, This species may or may not be a descendant of Australopithecus, but Homo Sapiens Neanderthalensis Page 2 of 4 they were certainly a more evolved people. The brains were larger, the faces less ape-like, the teeth more like those of the people of today, and there are signs that these people ore permanently in an upright position than the Australopithecines. While the Australopithecines were mostly vegetarian, Homo habilis appears to have been more dependent on meat.
They most likely started as scavengers, watching for vultures and others in order to find their meat. However, this would have evolved into a hunting life, requiring an increased need for tools and the ability to put together complex strategies for hunting. Mental capabilities became at least as important as physical, which their increased brain size shows. It was perhaps 1. 6 to 1. 8 million years ago that we find the appearance of Homo erectus. This species marks the first evidence of people migrating, as evidence of erectus is found not only in Africa, but also in Europe and Asia.
It also marks the first time in human evolution that the capacity for language is found. Homo erectus was a species that certainly different than its predecessors. It was taller, and the spine was different as well. The actual structure resembled modern man more than had those species that came before, although they were likely more flexible, which is indicated by the presence of six floating ribs instead of modern man’s two. The brow was heavier, and the forehead flatter. The eyes were likely set farther apart, and the mandible very large.
It was around 300,000 years ago that Homo sapiens neanderthalensis made its appearance. The first fossils of this species, “a thick skullcap with a sloping forehead, and several limb bones,” (Johanson, Johanson, and Edgar) were found in the Neander Valley in West Germany in 1856. . This species shows a definite progression toward the Homo Sapiens Neanderthalensis Page 3 of 4 human of today, although still had its differences. The biggest physical difference between neanderthalensis and those previous to it was found in the size of the brain.
The volume increased by significant amount, although the physical appearance was only slightly changed. They were quite a bit stockier than modern man, and were very muscular. They averaged around five feet tall in height, with short forearms and legs. Unlike those before them, the brow of the Neanderthals was arched and not flat. The skull itself was quite large, indicating a large brain size, and there was a bump at the back of the skull. However, while the skull was thicker than those of humans today, it was thinner than that of those who came before.
The species of neanderthalensis was the most intelligent up to that point, which can be seen in the way they adapted to their environment and found food. Research shows that they had weapons that were far more advanced than those of previous species, and they skillfully adapted their hunting strategies depending upon the prey they hunted. They also adapted tools suited to the skinning of the animal and the tanning of its hide, although research shows that they did not exhibit much advancement in this area throughout their existence.
The Neanderthals were quite a social people as well. Evidence shows that the members of Neanderthal society helped and supported each other, which led to the survival of people who would not have lasted in the times before them. The group became important during this time, which can be seen most vividly by the new practice of burying the dead, something that had not before been done. In the times before, bodies had been left to the scavengers, but the new social traits of the Neanderthal changed this practice. Many graves have been found, some with burial goods sharing the grave with
Homo Sapiens Neanderthalensis Page 3 of 4 the deceased. Leakey states that “Self-awareness and death-awareness flow together” (270), and postulates that this might well be a “continuation of the language development we infer for earlier periods in the record” (270). These facts indicate a definite progression toward the more advanced species that followed it. Regardless, the concern for the fate of the dead was a far cry from the beliefs of those who came before, exhibiting the social, and possibly religious, evolution of the species.
It is in the disappearance of the Neanderthal were the biggest mystery comes. Any traces of these people just suddenly disappeared sooner than 35,000 years ago, and all that can be found after that are Homo sapiens sapiens. There is no evidence that demonstrates how and why they disappeared; they simply did so. Some postulate that some catastrophic fate befell the species, while others insist that they simply evolved into the final stage of human evolution. Perhaps someday evidence will be found proving one theory or another, but until then, we can only wonder at their fate.
The evolution of the human being from the Australopithecines to what we are today was a long road with many questions still to be answered. It is possible that other species of humans may be found to fill in the blanks between the ancestors of the human race, but it is just as possible that we will never know. There are still questions to be answered about the evidence that has already been found, and the more new fossils that are discovered, the better the chances at finding the truth to the great mysteries regarding the ancestors of today’s modern human.
Angela, Piero and Alberto Angela. The Extraordinary Story of Human Origins. Buffalo: Prometheus Books, 1993. Johanson, Donald, Lenora Johanson, and Blake Edgar. Ancestors: In Search of Human Origins. New York: Villard Books, 1994. Lambert, David and the Diagram Group. The Field Guide to Early Man. New York: Facts On File, Inc. , 1987. Leakey, Richard and Roger Lewin. Origins Reconsidered. New York: Doubleday, 1992. | 1,645 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Many implements used in the laundry before the electric washing machine are becoming rare and collectable. These include the washing dolly, which was a long stick with base resembling a wooden stool and a crossbar at the other end. The dolly was held by the crossbar and thrust up and down to agitate the washing. The posser was a similar device except that the wooden “stool” was replaced by a perforated metal cone.
Another important implement was the corrugated washboard, made of wood, glass or metal. It was stood at the side of the tub, or sometimes incorporated into the tub, for scrubbing clothes.
The first laundry machine was the box mangle (“wringer” in Australia and the United States), invented in the 17th century. This was a massive device, up to two metres across, consisting of heavy wooden rollers around which wet clothes were wrapped and a box filled with heavy stones which was moved back and forth over the rollers to squeeze the clothes dry.
The domestic mangle, or clothes wringer, was invented in the mid-18th century. These has two, or sometimes three, wooden rollers between which wet clothes were squeezed dry. Pressure was applied by a set of springs and an adjustable screw of lever with weights.
The first washing machines were wooden boxes which were rocked back and forth. This was no more effective than using a washing dolly. In the 1850s, machines resembling butter churns were introduced. These continued to be produced until the 1920s.
Electric washing machines were invented early in the 20th century but remained too expensive for most households until the 1950s.
Flat irons came into use in the 17th century. Early irons were of tow types: sad irons (a corruption of “solid”) and box irons. Sad irons were heated on a stove or stood close to a fire. they came in pairs so that one could be used while the other was being heated. Box irons had a compartment into which a hot metal “slug” was placed. They were supplied with two slugs and a pair of tongs for inserting and removing them. Soap or beeswax was applied to the bases of both types of irons to make them easier to use.
Box irons were gradually superseded by charcoal irons into which hot charcoal or embers were placed. They had holes, and sometimes a spout, to allow fumes to escape and oxygen to enter to keep the embers smouldering.
Towards the end of the 19th century, several types of irons which were heated by burring fuel in the iron were introduced. The fuels used included paraffin, naphtha, petroleum, methylated spirits, alcohol and even vegetable oil. Gas irons, which were connected to the gas supply by a flexible hose, and electric irons were also introduced at about this time. Early electric irons were heavy, awkward and expensive and only gradually became popular. (Sad irons were still being manufactured in the 1950s.)
Laundry collectables available now
(Clicking on an item of interest will open a new window)
Vintage Genuine LUX Soap Advert Laundry Room Old Retro Advert Wall Sign.
on January 29, 2020 at 3:56 am
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Coles Little Shop 2 Mini Collectibles - Dynamo Professional Laundry Liquid
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Rinso Laundry Powder Thank Heavens For Little Girls ~ Vintage PRINT AD 1970
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vintage Rin detergent Laundry Bar, Vintage packaging,NOS, Grocery,Washing powder
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Vintage Cottage chic Laundry Washing Copper Wooden Stirring Stick
on January 28, 2020 at 7:39 am
AU $9.95 (0 Bids)End Date: Tuesday Feb-4-2020 18:39:45 ESTBid now | Add to watch list | <urn:uuid:4cf938fa-9c19-49e2-861a-c3290b3b2d9d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.portobello.com.au/?p=198 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00521.warc.gz | en | 0.981687 | 997 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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-0.037... | 1 | Many implements used in the laundry before the electric washing machine are becoming rare and collectable. These include the washing dolly, which was a long stick with base resembling a wooden stool and a crossbar at the other end. The dolly was held by the crossbar and thrust up and down to agitate the washing. The posser was a similar device except that the wooden “stool” was replaced by a perforated metal cone.
Another important implement was the corrugated washboard, made of wood, glass or metal. It was stood at the side of the tub, or sometimes incorporated into the tub, for scrubbing clothes.
The first laundry machine was the box mangle (“wringer” in Australia and the United States), invented in the 17th century. This was a massive device, up to two metres across, consisting of heavy wooden rollers around which wet clothes were wrapped and a box filled with heavy stones which was moved back and forth over the rollers to squeeze the clothes dry.
The domestic mangle, or clothes wringer, was invented in the mid-18th century. These has two, or sometimes three, wooden rollers between which wet clothes were squeezed dry. Pressure was applied by a set of springs and an adjustable screw of lever with weights.
The first washing machines were wooden boxes which were rocked back and forth. This was no more effective than using a washing dolly. In the 1850s, machines resembling butter churns were introduced. These continued to be produced until the 1920s.
Electric washing machines were invented early in the 20th century but remained too expensive for most households until the 1950s.
Flat irons came into use in the 17th century. Early irons were of tow types: sad irons (a corruption of “solid”) and box irons. Sad irons were heated on a stove or stood close to a fire. they came in pairs so that one could be used while the other was being heated. Box irons had a compartment into which a hot metal “slug” was placed. They were supplied with two slugs and a pair of tongs for inserting and removing them. Soap or beeswax was applied to the bases of both types of irons to make them easier to use.
Box irons were gradually superseded by charcoal irons into which hot charcoal or embers were placed. They had holes, and sometimes a spout, to allow fumes to escape and oxygen to enter to keep the embers smouldering.
Towards the end of the 19th century, several types of irons which were heated by burring fuel in the iron were introduced. The fuels used included paraffin, naphtha, petroleum, methylated spirits, alcohol and even vegetable oil. Gas irons, which were connected to the gas supply by a flexible hose, and electric irons were also introduced at about this time. Early electric irons were heavy, awkward and expensive and only gradually became popular. (Sad irons were still being manufactured in the 1950s.)
Laundry collectables available now
(Clicking on an item of interest will open a new window)
Vintage Genuine LUX Soap Advert Laundry Room Old Retro Advert Wall Sign.
on January 29, 2020 at 3:56 am
AU $69.00End Date: Saturday Feb-29-2020 14:56:50 ESTBuy It Now for only: AU $69.00Buy It Now | Add to watch list
Coles Little Shop 2 Mini Collectibles - Dynamo Professional Laundry Liquid
on January 28, 2020 at 8:35 pm
AU $10.00 (0 Bids)End Date: Saturday Feb-8-2020 7:35:53 ESTBid now | Add to watch list
Rinso Laundry Powder Thank Heavens For Little Girls ~ Vintage PRINT AD 1970
on January 28, 2020 at 2:07 pm
AU $12.95End Date: Saturday Feb-29-2020 1:07:36 ESTBuy It Now for only: AU $12.95Buy It Now | Add to watch list
vintage Rin detergent Laundry Bar, Vintage packaging,NOS, Grocery,Washing powder
on January 28, 2020 at 9:02 am
AU $35.00 (0 Bids)End Date: Tuesday Feb-4-2020 20:02:24 ESTBid now | Add to watch list
Vintage Cottage chic Laundry Washing Copper Wooden Stirring Stick
on January 28, 2020 at 7:39 am
AU $9.95 (0 Bids)End Date: Tuesday Feb-4-2020 18:39:45 ESTBid now | Add to watch list | 1,061 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Caesarian sections (C-sections) were invented in Africa long before Europe, and the rest of the world fully mastered how to conduct them.
The procedure is said to have been started since time immemorial. When a baby could not be delivered vaginally, midwives and surgeons would turn to C-sections in order to deliver the baby safe and alive. In areas around Lake Tanganyika and Lake Victoria, midwives and surgeons would perform this procedure.
So when a baby could not be delivered vaginally, the midwives and surgeons would sedate the mother in labour with a lot of banana wine. Yes, banana wine. A knife would be sterilized using heat, while the mother would be tied to the bed for her safety. An incision would be made quickly by a team, and the quickness was to ensure that there would be no excessive loss of blood, and also that other organs would not be cut. A conflation of sterilized knives which are sharp and the sedation would make the experience less painful for the mother.
During these times women rarely developed infections because antiseptic tinctures and salves were used to clean the area and stitches were applied. Shock and excessive blood loss were uncommon. However the most reported problem was that it took longer for the mother’s milk to come in. But this would be resolved through friends and relatives who would nurse the baby instead.
Uganda, Tanzania and DRC were the countries where this was most practised; and in Uganda, C sections were normally performed by a team of male healers, but in Tanzania and DRC, they were typically done by female midwives.
It was in the Ugandan kingdom of Bunyoro that this procedure was most documented. The procedure was performed well such that Robert W. Felkin, a Scottish medical anthropologist documented all of this in the book, The Development of Scientific Medicine in the African Kingdom of Bunyoro Kitara.
He witnessed the procedure in 1879 and was captivated by it. What got his attention was that back in Europe, a C-section was considered to be an option only to be used in the most of desperate situations. At this time, "nearly half of European and US women died in childbirth, and nearly 100% of European women died if a C section was performed."
To him, this was a marvel that needed to be spread to the rest of the world. And that was done.
Part of his report read: "A 20-year old woman, carrying her first pregnancy, lay on an inclined bed. She was supplied with banana wine and was in a semi-intoxicated state. She was perfectly naked.
“A band of mbugu (bark-cloth) fastened her chest to the bed, while another mbugu band fastened down her thighs and a man held her ankles. A man standing on her right side steadied her stomach, while the operator stood on the left side holding his knife aloft and muttering an incantation.
“The operator washed his hands and the patient’s abdomen, first with wine and then with water. Then having uttered a shrill cry that was taken by the crowd assembled outside the hut, he proceeded to make a rapid cut in the middle line.“The whole abdominal wall and part of the wall of the uterus (womb) was severed by this incision, and the amniotic fluids (water which surrounds the baby) shot out.
“The bleeding points in the abdominal wall were touched with red-hot iron by an assistant. The operator then swiftly increased the size of the incision in the womb; meantime another assistant held separated abdominal walls with his hand, and proceeded to hold the separated wall of the womb with two of his fingers, but at the same time holding the abdominal wall apart.
“The child was rapidly removed and given to an assistant and the umbilical cord was then cut. The operator put his knife away and seized the contracting womb with both hands giving it a squeeze or two.
“He next put his right hand into the cavity of the womb and using two or three fingers dilated the part of the womb which connects to the vagina from within outwards.
“He then cleaned the uterus and uterine cavity of clots and lastly removed the placenta (afterbirth) which had separated by now.“His assistant was endeavouring but to no avail to prevent the intestine from escaping the incision. The red-hot iron was used once more to stop the bleeding from the abdominal wound, carefully avoiding the healthy tissue.
“The operator then lets loose the womb which he had been pressing the whole time. No sutures were applied to the wall of the womb.“The assistant holding the abdominal walls now let go and a porous grass mat was placed over the wound and secured.
“The mbugu bands were untied and the woman was brought to the end of the bed where two assistants took her in their arms and held her upside down so as to let the fluid in the abdominal cavity drain out onto the floor.
“She was then returned to the original position. The edges of the wound were brought together into close opposition, using seven well-polished iron pins which were fastened by a string made from mbugu.
“A paste prepared by chewing two different roots and spitting the pulp into a bowl was then quickly plastered over the wound and a warmed banana leaf was placed on top of the paste.
“A firm bandage was applied to the wound and dressing using mbugu cloth.
“During the whole operation, the patient never uttered a moan or cry. She was comfortable after the operation. Two hours later she was breastfeeding her newborn.
“On the third day after the operation, the dressing was changed and one pin was pulled out. This procedure was repeated on the fifth day after the operation but this time three pins were removed.
“The rest of the pins were removed six days after the operation. At every dressing new pulp was applied and pus was removed using foam from the same pulp.
“Eleven days after the operation the wound was entirely healed; the patient had no fever and was very comfortable. The secretions from the birth canal were normal.”
It has been said that what Felkin reported in his book is not very much different from what a modern C-section procedure done by modern doctors is like.
Header image credit -Face2face Africa | <urn:uuid:c387b92b-e932-47fa-9e97-e6137affdece> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.africanexponent.com/post/9780-c-sections-were-invented-in-africa-long-before-they-were-standardized-across-the-world | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00436.warc.gz | en | 0.98677 | 1,354 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.48194056749... | 9 | Caesarian sections (C-sections) were invented in Africa long before Europe, and the rest of the world fully mastered how to conduct them.
The procedure is said to have been started since time immemorial. When a baby could not be delivered vaginally, midwives and surgeons would turn to C-sections in order to deliver the baby safe and alive. In areas around Lake Tanganyika and Lake Victoria, midwives and surgeons would perform this procedure.
So when a baby could not be delivered vaginally, the midwives and surgeons would sedate the mother in labour with a lot of banana wine. Yes, banana wine. A knife would be sterilized using heat, while the mother would be tied to the bed for her safety. An incision would be made quickly by a team, and the quickness was to ensure that there would be no excessive loss of blood, and also that other organs would not be cut. A conflation of sterilized knives which are sharp and the sedation would make the experience less painful for the mother.
During these times women rarely developed infections because antiseptic tinctures and salves were used to clean the area and stitches were applied. Shock and excessive blood loss were uncommon. However the most reported problem was that it took longer for the mother’s milk to come in. But this would be resolved through friends and relatives who would nurse the baby instead.
Uganda, Tanzania and DRC were the countries where this was most practised; and in Uganda, C sections were normally performed by a team of male healers, but in Tanzania and DRC, they were typically done by female midwives.
It was in the Ugandan kingdom of Bunyoro that this procedure was most documented. The procedure was performed well such that Robert W. Felkin, a Scottish medical anthropologist documented all of this in the book, The Development of Scientific Medicine in the African Kingdom of Bunyoro Kitara.
He witnessed the procedure in 1879 and was captivated by it. What got his attention was that back in Europe, a C-section was considered to be an option only to be used in the most of desperate situations. At this time, "nearly half of European and US women died in childbirth, and nearly 100% of European women died if a C section was performed."
To him, this was a marvel that needed to be spread to the rest of the world. And that was done.
Part of his report read: "A 20-year old woman, carrying her first pregnancy, lay on an inclined bed. She was supplied with banana wine and was in a semi-intoxicated state. She was perfectly naked.
“A band of mbugu (bark-cloth) fastened her chest to the bed, while another mbugu band fastened down her thighs and a man held her ankles. A man standing on her right side steadied her stomach, while the operator stood on the left side holding his knife aloft and muttering an incantation.
“The operator washed his hands and the patient’s abdomen, first with wine and then with water. Then having uttered a shrill cry that was taken by the crowd assembled outside the hut, he proceeded to make a rapid cut in the middle line.“The whole abdominal wall and part of the wall of the uterus (womb) was severed by this incision, and the amniotic fluids (water which surrounds the baby) shot out.
“The bleeding points in the abdominal wall were touched with red-hot iron by an assistant. The operator then swiftly increased the size of the incision in the womb; meantime another assistant held separated abdominal walls with his hand, and proceeded to hold the separated wall of the womb with two of his fingers, but at the same time holding the abdominal wall apart.
“The child was rapidly removed and given to an assistant and the umbilical cord was then cut. The operator put his knife away and seized the contracting womb with both hands giving it a squeeze or two.
“He next put his right hand into the cavity of the womb and using two or three fingers dilated the part of the womb which connects to the vagina from within outwards.
“He then cleaned the uterus and uterine cavity of clots and lastly removed the placenta (afterbirth) which had separated by now.“His assistant was endeavouring but to no avail to prevent the intestine from escaping the incision. The red-hot iron was used once more to stop the bleeding from the abdominal wound, carefully avoiding the healthy tissue.
“The operator then lets loose the womb which he had been pressing the whole time. No sutures were applied to the wall of the womb.“The assistant holding the abdominal walls now let go and a porous grass mat was placed over the wound and secured.
“The mbugu bands were untied and the woman was brought to the end of the bed where two assistants took her in their arms and held her upside down so as to let the fluid in the abdominal cavity drain out onto the floor.
“She was then returned to the original position. The edges of the wound were brought together into close opposition, using seven well-polished iron pins which were fastened by a string made from mbugu.
“A paste prepared by chewing two different roots and spitting the pulp into a bowl was then quickly plastered over the wound and a warmed banana leaf was placed on top of the paste.
“A firm bandage was applied to the wound and dressing using mbugu cloth.
“During the whole operation, the patient never uttered a moan or cry. She was comfortable after the operation. Two hours later she was breastfeeding her newborn.
“On the third day after the operation, the dressing was changed and one pin was pulled out. This procedure was repeated on the fifth day after the operation but this time three pins were removed.
“The rest of the pins were removed six days after the operation. At every dressing new pulp was applied and pus was removed using foam from the same pulp.
“Eleven days after the operation the wound was entirely healed; the patient had no fever and was very comfortable. The secretions from the birth canal were normal.”
It has been said that what Felkin reported in his book is not very much different from what a modern C-section procedure done by modern doctors is like.
Header image credit -Face2face Africa | 1,292 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The North German Gothic: Stralsund and Stargard Szczeciński
As the Gothic style was passed from builder to builder and patron to patron across Europe, it changed. By the time it reached the shores of the Baltic Sea it had taken rather different forms. The German-speaking merchant cities who built these churches looked west toward the empire for their inspiration, but something of the plains and marshes of eastern Europe seeped into their architecture. Above, St. Mary's Church in Stralsund; below, St. Mary's Church in Stargard, now the Polish town of Stargard Szczeciński.
The foundation stone of Stargard's Marienkirche was laid in 1292, and it was completed as a parish church in 1350. But then it was enlarged twice in the fifteenth century, assuming its modern size in 1500. The final touches to the elaborate tower were not added until 1723. Like most churches in that part of the world it was built of brick. It was converted to Protestant worship in the sixteenth century, than back to the Catholic church after World War II.
The delight of this church is the nave, with its striking pillars and elaborate vaulting. The contrasting colors are a common element in the Gothic of the Baltic region.
The Stralsund Marienkirche was built in the thirteenth century, but in 1382 the tower collapsed, bringing down much of the church with it. It had to be rebuilt from its foundations. But this was done quickly, and it was open again by 1411. The original tower, said by tradition to have been the tallest structure in Christendom, was struck by lightning in 1647 and crashed to the ground.
The interior was gutted by a fire around the same time and the medieval decoration was mostly destroyed, but this vaulting is still quite cool.
And some painting ceiling survives in the chancel. I found these and others in a German book about the Gothic, and I am fascinated by their difference from the Gothic of other places. | <urn:uuid:4410fc7e-d0fc-4647-bfa2-eb9b0fbdd0e6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://benedante.blogspot.com/2014/02/the-north-german-gothic-stralsund-and.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00032.warc.gz | en | 0.980572 | 428 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.149708509... | 6 | The North German Gothic: Stralsund and Stargard Szczeciński
As the Gothic style was passed from builder to builder and patron to patron across Europe, it changed. By the time it reached the shores of the Baltic Sea it had taken rather different forms. The German-speaking merchant cities who built these churches looked west toward the empire for their inspiration, but something of the plains and marshes of eastern Europe seeped into their architecture. Above, St. Mary's Church in Stralsund; below, St. Mary's Church in Stargard, now the Polish town of Stargard Szczeciński.
The foundation stone of Stargard's Marienkirche was laid in 1292, and it was completed as a parish church in 1350. But then it was enlarged twice in the fifteenth century, assuming its modern size in 1500. The final touches to the elaborate tower were not added until 1723. Like most churches in that part of the world it was built of brick. It was converted to Protestant worship in the sixteenth century, than back to the Catholic church after World War II.
The delight of this church is the nave, with its striking pillars and elaborate vaulting. The contrasting colors are a common element in the Gothic of the Baltic region.
The Stralsund Marienkirche was built in the thirteenth century, but in 1382 the tower collapsed, bringing down much of the church with it. It had to be rebuilt from its foundations. But this was done quickly, and it was open again by 1411. The original tower, said by tradition to have been the tallest structure in Christendom, was struck by lightning in 1647 and crashed to the ground.
The interior was gutted by a fire around the same time and the medieval decoration was mostly destroyed, but this vaulting is still quite cool.
And some painting ceiling survives in the chancel. I found these and others in a German book about the Gothic, and I am fascinated by their difference from the Gothic of other places. | 439 | ENGLISH | 1 |
King George III ruled over Great Britain during the American Revolution. He came to the throne at the end of the French and Indian War, which had left Britain with a lot of debt. The English decided to change their policies in the colonies and started imposing taxes, which enraged the American colonists.
Although King George III was not to blame for all of the bad decisions made by his Parliament, he appointed quite a couple of incompetent ministers. This resulted in some very inconsistent government policies which were seen as unfair and corrupt by the Americans. The King also suffered from bouts of insanity due to a lifelong illness, which may have influenced his judgement in how to handle the American colonies. A very famous quote by George was “The colonists must either submit or triumph” and triumphing was exactly what they did.
Keeping Up Appearances
George II was also very afraid that being lenient towards the Americans would just be taken as weakness. He took the war personally and believed that Britain was fighting to protect the British constitution against usurpers. He did not see the Americans as patriots that were fighting for their rights.
For the king, his army’s defeat in 1781 at Yorktown was a difficult pill to swallow. Intitially, he prepared an abdication speech, but then decided to go along with peace negotiations after all and signed the Treaty of Paris in 1782.
This article is part of our larger resource on the Colonial America culture, society, economics, and warfare. Click here for our comprehensive article on Colonial America.
Cite This Article"Who Was the King of England During the American Revolution" History on the Net
© 2000-2020, Salem Media.
January 18, 2020 <https://www.historyonthenet.com/who-was-the-king-of-england-during-the-american-revolution>
More Citation Information. | <urn:uuid:c8810851-f73f-4e63-bb6e-1ef7ee18ddc7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historyonthenet.com/who-was-the-king-of-england-during-the-american-revolution | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00277.warc.gz | en | 0.981636 | 386 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.1947869509... | 1 | King George III ruled over Great Britain during the American Revolution. He came to the throne at the end of the French and Indian War, which had left Britain with a lot of debt. The English decided to change their policies in the colonies and started imposing taxes, which enraged the American colonists.
Although King George III was not to blame for all of the bad decisions made by his Parliament, he appointed quite a couple of incompetent ministers. This resulted in some very inconsistent government policies which were seen as unfair and corrupt by the Americans. The King also suffered from bouts of insanity due to a lifelong illness, which may have influenced his judgement in how to handle the American colonies. A very famous quote by George was “The colonists must either submit or triumph” and triumphing was exactly what they did.
Keeping Up Appearances
George II was also very afraid that being lenient towards the Americans would just be taken as weakness. He took the war personally and believed that Britain was fighting to protect the British constitution against usurpers. He did not see the Americans as patriots that were fighting for their rights.
For the king, his army’s defeat in 1781 at Yorktown was a difficult pill to swallow. Intitially, he prepared an abdication speech, but then decided to go along with peace negotiations after all and signed the Treaty of Paris in 1782.
This article is part of our larger resource on the Colonial America culture, society, economics, and warfare. Click here for our comprehensive article on Colonial America.
Cite This Article"Who Was the King of England During the American Revolution" History on the Net
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More Citation Information. | 390 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There is virtually no doubt that Germany is the central power in the European continent. Geographically, it is located at the center of Europe, with a very strong economic power and a significantly larger population than the Great Britain, Italy, France or Spain. The expansion of the European Union towards the East has also been of predominant advantage to the German industries and its economy at large. In addition, the introduction of the Euro cemented the influence that Germany had over the other Western European countries. All these characteristics are attributed to Dr. Helmut Kohl who was the chancellor of Germany between 1982 and 1998.
Despite the fact that Germany is European’s central power, its elites have realized that the country sails well under the flag of Europe. This is indeed true for the reunified Germany, whose intrinsic power within the European continent is recognized more by people from the other Western European nations other than the Germans themselves. However, Germans should realize that their leadership would be highly appreciated by their neighbors only if it is moderate, restrained and entrenched in the concept of fair cooperation and integration. As such, their official foreign policy must guard against the open expression of Germany as the central power in Europe even though its economic power is definitely the main vehicle for European integration. In deed, this was the dream of Dr, Helmut Kohl when he pursued for European integration with other great personalities like the one time French President, Francois Mitterrand.
Dr. Helmut Kohl was Germany’s chancellor from 1982 to 1998 during a very defining period in the history of Germany and the whole of Europe. This period was marked by the end of the Cold War and the rise of a new multi-polar world order. Kohl became a towering personality of the post-war period by making Germany to be the heart of Europe in almost all spheres of life. He controlled all the major developments in Europe and was consulted before any key issue could be dealt with. In fact, Kohl was consulted before any significant decision could be made in Europe, and virtually, no significant decision could be made without approaching him. During his tenure as a chancellor, Germany reached an unrivaled level of political and economic power that had never been witnessed in its history. Nevertheless, Germany gave up much of its national dominion to supranational organizations such as the European Union during Kohl’s tenure as a chancellor. Germany’s global role and national identity was therefore seen as Europeanized. Kohl’s agenda was to enhance the process of European integration which he supported as a key political player.
According to Ludwigshafen, one of the major legacies that Kohl left behind was the establishment of the euro which is the common currency that is used in the European nations. This currency has offered the prospect of enhanced trade in the European Common Market and continues to serve as an economic vehicle for political union. Nevertheless, it may as well increase tensions amongst the European nations which continue to feel and act like nation states, and between European countries and other countries of the world. The occurrence of such a phenomenon may lead to the collapse of the structurally unstable and artificially built European house. This is because not all the members of this house are knowledgeable and enthusiastic about Europe and so this might be dangerous in times of crisis. In his interview with Dr. Kai Alexander, Dr. Kohl expressed his optimism on the massive and quite expensive economic project that would decisively influence the destinies of Germany and the entire European continent in the twenty first century and beyond. Kohl is also remembered for his active role in the events that led to the fall of the Berlin wall in 1989 and the reunification of Germany the following year.
Dr. Helmut Kohl, who is regarded as a great statesman of the twentieth century, was born in 1930. His sixteen year old tenure as a chancellor which lasted between 1982 and 1998 was the second longest that any German chancellor has ever served after that of Otto von Bismarck. As a chancellor, he engineered for the reunification of Germany in 1990 and for the formation of the European Union alongside the French President Francois Mitterrand. The two were jointly given the Charlemagne Award in the year 1988. In 1998, Dr. Kohl was given the Honorary Citizen of Europe Award by the European heads of governments or states for his amazing contribution in the search for European integration and cooperation.
Dr. Kohl met with Francois Mitterrand, the French president, at Verdun in 1984 at the place where the Battle of Verdun between Germany and France took place during the First World War so that they could commemorate the deaths of both World Wars. During this event, they shook hands for several minutes and their photograph became a significant symbol of the French-German reunion. Dr. Kohl and President Mitterrand developed an intimate political relationship thereafter, which later on led to the arrangement of the European integration. They jointly laid the foundations for several European projects such as Arte and Eurocorps. Their political relationship was also vital in the formation of other European projects such as the establishment of the Euro and the formation of the Maastricht Treaty.
In 1985, Dr. Kohl and the then US President Ronald Reagan found it necessary to reveal the strength of the relationship that existed between Germany and the U.S. which was formerly its antagonist. In November 1984, Kohl visited President Reagan at the White House where he appealed to President Reagan to join him in his pursuit of symbolizing the reconciliation of Germany and the U.S at a military cemetery in Germany. President Reagan honored this appeal when he visited the Germany military cemetery in Bitburg, Germany with Kohl.
In 1989, Helmut Kohl visited Poland where he was welcomed happily by the ethnic German inhabitants who were living there. He took advantage of the historic political changes that were stirring in East Germany to present a ten point plan that would be used to overcome that division of Germany and the whole of Europe without having any consultations with his coalition partners and their Western allies. In 1990, he made a trip to the Soviet Union to seek an assurance from their leader Mikhail Gorbachev that Germany’s reconciliation with USSR would progress. On the eighteenth of May, 1990, he signed a social and economic unification treaty with East Germany. He then went ahead to allow for a one to one conversion course for rent, interest and wages between the East and West Marks against the advice of the Germany’s federal bank president. This policy eventually led to serious consequences in the New Lander companies.
Kohl also joined hands with his Foreign Minister Hans-Dietrich Genscher to so as to meet a consensus with their former allies during the Second World War and to allow for the reunification of Germany and the extension of NATO to the previous East German state. On the third of October, 1990, the East German state was disbanded and its territories were merged with West Germany. Following the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, Kohl verified that the German territories that were at the East of the Oder-Neisse line were historically supposed to belong to the Republic of Poland. This assertion ultimately ended the territorial claims of West Germany that were previously in existence. In 1993, Kohl verified by signing a treaty with the Czech Republic that Germany would never again produce territorial claims concerning the Sudetenland. However, this move disappointed the German Heimatvertriebene, displaced individuals. The 1990 German election was the first democratic, free and fair election to be ever carried out in Germany after the era of Weimer Republic. Kohl went ahead to win this election with a landslide victory against his opposition candidate.
After the 1994 federal elections, Kohl was re-elected with a very narrow margin. He managed to defeat Rudolf Scharping who was the Rhinelan-Palatinate Minister-President. However, Kohl’s power was significantly limited due to the fact that the opposition had a majority of seats in the Bundesrat. Nevertheless, Kohl was very successful and powerful in foreign politics. For example, he made the Frankfurt am Main to be the seat for the European Central Bank. The aura that was surrounding Kohl largely wore off from 1990 onwards due to increased unemployment rates in Germany. As a result, he was seriously defeated in the federal elections of 1998 by Gerhard Schroder who was the former Minister-President for Lower Saxony. His life after politics was characterized by a financial scandal that is still under investigation and other developments in his personal life.
In 1999, a party financing saga went public when it was established that Kohl’s party which was known as Christian Democratic Union (CDU), had received and retained illegal funds under his leadership. Investigations revealed that much of this money was kept in Geneva bank accounts and it came from two different sources i.e. from the sale of German tanks to Saudi Arabia and from privatization fraud that involved him and President Francois Mitterrand who wanted the French owned Elf Aquitaine to be given two thousand, five hundred and fifty unused allotments from the then East Germany. The illegally attained allotments were then privatized and made to be part of Elf Aquitaine. Nevertheless, Kohl and other French and German politicians claimed that they did not have any personal interests from these actions. They claimed that their actions were meant to enhance the reconciliation and cooperation process between Germany and France so as to promote peace and European integration. This scandal is still under investigation at the moment. Kohl officially retreated from active politics in 2002. Nevertheless, he has been recently rehabilitated by his former party into politics, which claims that it wants to utilize his experience as a great statesman.
It is important to note that Kohl possessed strong, complex and fairly ambiguous political views which focused on international and economic matters. His economic and political views and policies were greatly borrowed from Margaret Thatcher’s and Ronald Reagan’s neoliberalism views such as the lowering of taxes so as to allow for personal initiative and welfare state reformation. In international matters, Kohl was committed to the achievement of European integration and maintaining his intimate political relationship with French President Francois Mitterrand. He was also committed to the reunification of Germany. During the early years of his tenure as a chancellor, Kohl was faced with very stiff opposition from the left wing of the West German politicians. He faced a lot of ridicule from his adversaries who often called him by a disparaging nickname and depicted him in cartoon pictures which showed his head looking as a pear. Nevertheless, this open ridicule ended gradually when his political star began to shine when he grew to become the leader of European integration and cooperation and the key figure in the reunification of Germany. Kohl rose to become one of the most popular and influential politicians in the history of Germany and a very respectable European Statesman of the twentieth century. Even though some people criticize him for boasting of individual credit in the reunification of Germany, it is important to note that the reunification of Germany would not have been possible without the historical developments that took place in East Germany and the USSR in the late 1980’s. After his term expired as a chancellor, and the claims of his involvement in corruption arose, he fell in public perception. | <urn:uuid:dd06b634-1ab3-407e-b6f5-f27ce5d914fa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://essaysleader.com/essays/impact-of-helmut-kohl-on-germanys-role-in-europe/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00397.warc.gz | en | 0.984938 | 2,286 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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-0.1266647279262542... | 10 | There is virtually no doubt that Germany is the central power in the European continent. Geographically, it is located at the center of Europe, with a very strong economic power and a significantly larger population than the Great Britain, Italy, France or Spain. The expansion of the European Union towards the East has also been of predominant advantage to the German industries and its economy at large. In addition, the introduction of the Euro cemented the influence that Germany had over the other Western European countries. All these characteristics are attributed to Dr. Helmut Kohl who was the chancellor of Germany between 1982 and 1998.
Despite the fact that Germany is European’s central power, its elites have realized that the country sails well under the flag of Europe. This is indeed true for the reunified Germany, whose intrinsic power within the European continent is recognized more by people from the other Western European nations other than the Germans themselves. However, Germans should realize that their leadership would be highly appreciated by their neighbors only if it is moderate, restrained and entrenched in the concept of fair cooperation and integration. As such, their official foreign policy must guard against the open expression of Germany as the central power in Europe even though its economic power is definitely the main vehicle for European integration. In deed, this was the dream of Dr, Helmut Kohl when he pursued for European integration with other great personalities like the one time French President, Francois Mitterrand.
Dr. Helmut Kohl was Germany’s chancellor from 1982 to 1998 during a very defining period in the history of Germany and the whole of Europe. This period was marked by the end of the Cold War and the rise of a new multi-polar world order. Kohl became a towering personality of the post-war period by making Germany to be the heart of Europe in almost all spheres of life. He controlled all the major developments in Europe and was consulted before any key issue could be dealt with. In fact, Kohl was consulted before any significant decision could be made in Europe, and virtually, no significant decision could be made without approaching him. During his tenure as a chancellor, Germany reached an unrivaled level of political and economic power that had never been witnessed in its history. Nevertheless, Germany gave up much of its national dominion to supranational organizations such as the European Union during Kohl’s tenure as a chancellor. Germany’s global role and national identity was therefore seen as Europeanized. Kohl’s agenda was to enhance the process of European integration which he supported as a key political player.
According to Ludwigshafen, one of the major legacies that Kohl left behind was the establishment of the euro which is the common currency that is used in the European nations. This currency has offered the prospect of enhanced trade in the European Common Market and continues to serve as an economic vehicle for political union. Nevertheless, it may as well increase tensions amongst the European nations which continue to feel and act like nation states, and between European countries and other countries of the world. The occurrence of such a phenomenon may lead to the collapse of the structurally unstable and artificially built European house. This is because not all the members of this house are knowledgeable and enthusiastic about Europe and so this might be dangerous in times of crisis. In his interview with Dr. Kai Alexander, Dr. Kohl expressed his optimism on the massive and quite expensive economic project that would decisively influence the destinies of Germany and the entire European continent in the twenty first century and beyond. Kohl is also remembered for his active role in the events that led to the fall of the Berlin wall in 1989 and the reunification of Germany the following year.
Dr. Helmut Kohl, who is regarded as a great statesman of the twentieth century, was born in 1930. His sixteen year old tenure as a chancellor which lasted between 1982 and 1998 was the second longest that any German chancellor has ever served after that of Otto von Bismarck. As a chancellor, he engineered for the reunification of Germany in 1990 and for the formation of the European Union alongside the French President Francois Mitterrand. The two were jointly given the Charlemagne Award in the year 1988. In 1998, Dr. Kohl was given the Honorary Citizen of Europe Award by the European heads of governments or states for his amazing contribution in the search for European integration and cooperation.
Dr. Kohl met with Francois Mitterrand, the French president, at Verdun in 1984 at the place where the Battle of Verdun between Germany and France took place during the First World War so that they could commemorate the deaths of both World Wars. During this event, they shook hands for several minutes and their photograph became a significant symbol of the French-German reunion. Dr. Kohl and President Mitterrand developed an intimate political relationship thereafter, which later on led to the arrangement of the European integration. They jointly laid the foundations for several European projects such as Arte and Eurocorps. Their political relationship was also vital in the formation of other European projects such as the establishment of the Euro and the formation of the Maastricht Treaty.
In 1985, Dr. Kohl and the then US President Ronald Reagan found it necessary to reveal the strength of the relationship that existed between Germany and the U.S. which was formerly its antagonist. In November 1984, Kohl visited President Reagan at the White House where he appealed to President Reagan to join him in his pursuit of symbolizing the reconciliation of Germany and the U.S at a military cemetery in Germany. President Reagan honored this appeal when he visited the Germany military cemetery in Bitburg, Germany with Kohl.
In 1989, Helmut Kohl visited Poland where he was welcomed happily by the ethnic German inhabitants who were living there. He took advantage of the historic political changes that were stirring in East Germany to present a ten point plan that would be used to overcome that division of Germany and the whole of Europe without having any consultations with his coalition partners and their Western allies. In 1990, he made a trip to the Soviet Union to seek an assurance from their leader Mikhail Gorbachev that Germany’s reconciliation with USSR would progress. On the eighteenth of May, 1990, he signed a social and economic unification treaty with East Germany. He then went ahead to allow for a one to one conversion course for rent, interest and wages between the East and West Marks against the advice of the Germany’s federal bank president. This policy eventually led to serious consequences in the New Lander companies.
Kohl also joined hands with his Foreign Minister Hans-Dietrich Genscher to so as to meet a consensus with their former allies during the Second World War and to allow for the reunification of Germany and the extension of NATO to the previous East German state. On the third of October, 1990, the East German state was disbanded and its territories were merged with West Germany. Following the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, Kohl verified that the German territories that were at the East of the Oder-Neisse line were historically supposed to belong to the Republic of Poland. This assertion ultimately ended the territorial claims of West Germany that were previously in existence. In 1993, Kohl verified by signing a treaty with the Czech Republic that Germany would never again produce territorial claims concerning the Sudetenland. However, this move disappointed the German Heimatvertriebene, displaced individuals. The 1990 German election was the first democratic, free and fair election to be ever carried out in Germany after the era of Weimer Republic. Kohl went ahead to win this election with a landslide victory against his opposition candidate.
After the 1994 federal elections, Kohl was re-elected with a very narrow margin. He managed to defeat Rudolf Scharping who was the Rhinelan-Palatinate Minister-President. However, Kohl’s power was significantly limited due to the fact that the opposition had a majority of seats in the Bundesrat. Nevertheless, Kohl was very successful and powerful in foreign politics. For example, he made the Frankfurt am Main to be the seat for the European Central Bank. The aura that was surrounding Kohl largely wore off from 1990 onwards due to increased unemployment rates in Germany. As a result, he was seriously defeated in the federal elections of 1998 by Gerhard Schroder who was the former Minister-President for Lower Saxony. His life after politics was characterized by a financial scandal that is still under investigation and other developments in his personal life.
In 1999, a party financing saga went public when it was established that Kohl’s party which was known as Christian Democratic Union (CDU), had received and retained illegal funds under his leadership. Investigations revealed that much of this money was kept in Geneva bank accounts and it came from two different sources i.e. from the sale of German tanks to Saudi Arabia and from privatization fraud that involved him and President Francois Mitterrand who wanted the French owned Elf Aquitaine to be given two thousand, five hundred and fifty unused allotments from the then East Germany. The illegally attained allotments were then privatized and made to be part of Elf Aquitaine. Nevertheless, Kohl and other French and German politicians claimed that they did not have any personal interests from these actions. They claimed that their actions were meant to enhance the reconciliation and cooperation process between Germany and France so as to promote peace and European integration. This scandal is still under investigation at the moment. Kohl officially retreated from active politics in 2002. Nevertheless, he has been recently rehabilitated by his former party into politics, which claims that it wants to utilize his experience as a great statesman.
It is important to note that Kohl possessed strong, complex and fairly ambiguous political views which focused on international and economic matters. His economic and political views and policies were greatly borrowed from Margaret Thatcher’s and Ronald Reagan’s neoliberalism views such as the lowering of taxes so as to allow for personal initiative and welfare state reformation. In international matters, Kohl was committed to the achievement of European integration and maintaining his intimate political relationship with French President Francois Mitterrand. He was also committed to the reunification of Germany. During the early years of his tenure as a chancellor, Kohl was faced with very stiff opposition from the left wing of the West German politicians. He faced a lot of ridicule from his adversaries who often called him by a disparaging nickname and depicted him in cartoon pictures which showed his head looking as a pear. Nevertheless, this open ridicule ended gradually when his political star began to shine when he grew to become the leader of European integration and cooperation and the key figure in the reunification of Germany. Kohl rose to become one of the most popular and influential politicians in the history of Germany and a very respectable European Statesman of the twentieth century. Even though some people criticize him for boasting of individual credit in the reunification of Germany, it is important to note that the reunification of Germany would not have been possible without the historical developments that took place in East Germany and the USSR in the late 1980’s. After his term expired as a chancellor, and the claims of his involvement in corruption arose, he fell in public perception. | 2,351 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Franklin Delano Roosevelt (/ˈroʊzəvəlt/,/-vɛlt/; January 30, 1882 – April 12, 1945), often referred to by the initials FDR, was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd president of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. A member of the Democratic Party, he won a record four presidential elections and became a central figure in world events during the first half of the 20th century. Roosevelt directed the federal government during most of the Great Depression, implementing his New Deal domestic agenda in response to the worst economic crisis in U.S. history. As a dominant leader of his party, he built the New Deal Coalition, which realigned American politics into the Fifth Party System and defined American liberalism throughout the middle third of the 20th century. His third and fourth terms were dominated by World War II, which ended shortly after he died in office. He is rated by scholars as one of the three greatest U.S. presidents, along with George Washington and Abraham Lincoln, but has also been subject to substantial criticism. | <urn:uuid:ed6c1559-385f-47f4-a68a-c8a0b8e2a516> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://citationpod.com/episode/fdr/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00158.warc.gz | en | 0.989778 | 229 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.5164868235588074... | 1 | Franklin Delano Roosevelt (/ˈroʊzəvəlt/,/-vɛlt/; January 30, 1882 – April 12, 1945), often referred to by the initials FDR, was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd president of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. A member of the Democratic Party, he won a record four presidential elections and became a central figure in world events during the first half of the 20th century. Roosevelt directed the federal government during most of the Great Depression, implementing his New Deal domestic agenda in response to the worst economic crisis in U.S. history. As a dominant leader of his party, he built the New Deal Coalition, which realigned American politics into the Fifth Party System and defined American liberalism throughout the middle third of the 20th century. His third and fourth terms were dominated by World War II, which ended shortly after he died in office. He is rated by scholars as one of the three greatest U.S. presidents, along with George Washington and Abraham Lincoln, but has also been subject to substantial criticism. | 249 | ENGLISH | 1 |
9 illustrations, 4 tables, index
Long before baseball became America’s national pastime, English citizens of all ages, genders, and classes of society were playing a game called baseball. It had the same basic elements as modern American baseball, such as pitching and striking the ball, running bases, and fielding, but was played with a soft ball on a smaller playing field and, instead of a bat, the ball was typically struck by the palm of the hand. There is no doubt, however, that this simpler English version of baseball was the original form of the pastime and was the immediate forerunner of its better-known American offspring. Strictly a social game, English baseball was played for nearly two hundred years before fading away at the beginning of the twentieth century. Despite its longevity and its important role in baseball’s evolution, however, today it has been completely forgotten.
In Pastime Lost David Block unearths baseball’s buried history and brings it back to life, illustrating how English baseball was embraced by all sectors of English society and exploring some of the personalities, such as Jane Austen and King George III, who played the game in their childhoods. While rigorously documenting his sources, Block also brings a light touch to his story, inviting us to follow him on some of the adventures that led to his most important discoveries. | <urn:uuid:d64ca64e-326e-4939-bd3e-dde6e1b5a05e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.nebraskapress.unl.edu/university-of-nebraska-press/9781496208514/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00437.warc.gz | en | 0.987092 | 277 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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Long before baseball became America’s national pastime, English citizens of all ages, genders, and classes of society were playing a game called baseball. It had the same basic elements as modern American baseball, such as pitching and striking the ball, running bases, and fielding, but was played with a soft ball on a smaller playing field and, instead of a bat, the ball was typically struck by the palm of the hand. There is no doubt, however, that this simpler English version of baseball was the original form of the pastime and was the immediate forerunner of its better-known American offspring. Strictly a social game, English baseball was played for nearly two hundred years before fading away at the beginning of the twentieth century. Despite its longevity and its important role in baseball’s evolution, however, today it has been completely forgotten.
In Pastime Lost David Block unearths baseball’s buried history and brings it back to life, illustrating how English baseball was embraced by all sectors of English society and exploring some of the personalities, such as Jane Austen and King George III, who played the game in their childhoods. While rigorously documenting his sources, Block also brings a light touch to his story, inviting us to follow him on some of the adventures that led to his most important discoveries. | 271 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The name of Saint Ambrose has always been linked to Milan, of which it is the patron. The figure of this wise doctor of the Church is not known and understood in all its true and great historical dimension. December 7 is celebrated as the acclaim as a bishop of Milan: why is it called “acclamation” and why was it so important to be celebrated every year since 374? Ambrose, a member of a senatorial family of the Roman aristocracy, Aurelii, was born in 339/340 AD in Trier, in present-day Germany. After the death of his father he moved to Rome. At 31 he was appointed governor of the Emilia and Liguria provinces, with the capital Milan. In the city there were clashes between Christians and Aryans and it was during one of these that he was acclaimed by the voice of a child, followed by all the people, “Ambrose bishop”. Various attempts were made to avoid the appointment, as illustrated by one of the panels of the splendid golden altar, a Carolingian masterpiece, in the Basilica of Saint Ambrose. He was baptized on November 30th 374 and seven days later he became bishop. He then began an important phase of restoration of the Church of the West, building the four early Christian basilicas for the city of Mediolanum and producing a wide range of writings, theological treatises, epistles and exegetical works. He was also the founder of the Ambrosian rite still in use. The painting shown here belongs to the Carratelli collection and is a valuable work by Mattia Preti. This masterpiece restores the saint’s personality as described by his biographer, Paolino da Milano, solitary and meditative, seated at a desk intent on composing his writings. With one hand he squeezes the stirrup, his main attribute, which would allude to the episode of the punishment of the Emperor Theodosius for the events of Thessalonica. | <urn:uuid:dc00ae3d-5acc-4903-aefd-9d818391f65c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.mediterraneoedintorni.it/2019/12/saint-ambrose-and-his-di-mediolanum/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00313.warc.gz | en | 0.987279 | 407 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.4251962006... | 1 | The name of Saint Ambrose has always been linked to Milan, of which it is the patron. The figure of this wise doctor of the Church is not known and understood in all its true and great historical dimension. December 7 is celebrated as the acclaim as a bishop of Milan: why is it called “acclamation” and why was it so important to be celebrated every year since 374? Ambrose, a member of a senatorial family of the Roman aristocracy, Aurelii, was born in 339/340 AD in Trier, in present-day Germany. After the death of his father he moved to Rome. At 31 he was appointed governor of the Emilia and Liguria provinces, with the capital Milan. In the city there were clashes between Christians and Aryans and it was during one of these that he was acclaimed by the voice of a child, followed by all the people, “Ambrose bishop”. Various attempts were made to avoid the appointment, as illustrated by one of the panels of the splendid golden altar, a Carolingian masterpiece, in the Basilica of Saint Ambrose. He was baptized on November 30th 374 and seven days later he became bishop. He then began an important phase of restoration of the Church of the West, building the four early Christian basilicas for the city of Mediolanum and producing a wide range of writings, theological treatises, epistles and exegetical works. He was also the founder of the Ambrosian rite still in use. The painting shown here belongs to the Carratelli collection and is a valuable work by Mattia Preti. This masterpiece restores the saint’s personality as described by his biographer, Paolino da Milano, solitary and meditative, seated at a desk intent on composing his writings. With one hand he squeezes the stirrup, his main attribute, which would allude to the episode of the punishment of the Emperor Theodosius for the events of Thessalonica. | 416 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Shakespeare’s characterization of Hamlet is perhaps his most revered composition. Hamlet, a Danish prince, returns home only to be struck by the news of his mother’s marriage to his uncle Claudius just two months after his father’s death. He terms this as an atrocious act of incest. A ghost of his deceased father coerces him to murder Claudius to get his revenge. The prince finds himself at a crossroads between the heinous act he is sworn to commit and his unwilling conscious. He seeks for plausible means to tackle this crisis and resorts to masquerading as a deranged individual to achieve his conquest of butchering the king. Hamlet is blinded by the need for revenge, and therefore isn’t able to see the consequences his actions could have on those around him.
Hamlet in his pursuits is constantly seeking for justification to kill Claudius. In his hunger for the motivation to kill his uncle, Hamlet uses a play to sketch the occurrence of his father’s death in the audience of Claudius. His uncle’s frustrations during the theatrical piece serve as a much-needed shot in the arm for Hamlet’s murderous fixation. In much of the play, Hamlet laments the unfortunate state of the world he is living in and sees himself as a champion of justice. He acknowledges the vitality of killing Claudius, which would render him free of the ghost’s obligations.
Hamlet is hesitant in killing his uncle and contemplates on using spiritual justifications to warrant his intent as seen in Act V. Internal conflict is seen as Hamlet struggles with the validity of the ghost of his father and how executing his uncle would impact his life. He is uncertain about this deed and ponders over committing suicide coining the infamous phrase: “To be or not to be, that is the question.” He is distressed that the devil intends to compel him to commit such a sinister act. Faced with this conundrum, Hamlet is reluctant to carry out vengeance for his slain father.
Claudius is weary of his nephew and in association with other characters continually orchestrates a means to murder the prince. Ophelia’s brother Laertes is among the perpetrators of Claudius’s ploy. He puts the blame on Hamlet for the death of his sister. The author to illustrate double vengeance in the play uses this scenario. Hamlet is oblivious of whether his mother Gertrude had a hand in the murder of his father. The circle of death in the play confirms the repercussions clouded judgments.
Hamlet is particularly concerned about his mother’s betrayal. He struggles with the affection of his mother but at the same time loathes her for her infidelity. Ophelia’s decision to go behind his back torments his mind, and he is torn apart between his feelings for her and his distaste for her dishonesty. He internally questions the sincerity of the love of all those who have betrayed.
Throughout a good part of the play, Hamlet despises himself for failing to act on the will of the ghost of his father. All of these internal struggles display that Hamlet is a depressed individual. The cold murder of Polonius was perhaps Shakespeare’s way of showing the consequences made by irrational decisions. Hamlet pays the ultimate price for his revenge by losing a woman he held dear, committing a foul murder on an innocent man and losing his own life. | <urn:uuid:bbde43e0-88bc-4e5e-8db5-444188620d99> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://aero-net.org/shakespeares-is-reluctant-to-carry-out-vengeance-for/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00024.warc.gz | en | 0.985418 | 714 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.21012374758... | 1 | Shakespeare’s characterization of Hamlet is perhaps his most revered composition. Hamlet, a Danish prince, returns home only to be struck by the news of his mother’s marriage to his uncle Claudius just two months after his father’s death. He terms this as an atrocious act of incest. A ghost of his deceased father coerces him to murder Claudius to get his revenge. The prince finds himself at a crossroads between the heinous act he is sworn to commit and his unwilling conscious. He seeks for plausible means to tackle this crisis and resorts to masquerading as a deranged individual to achieve his conquest of butchering the king. Hamlet is blinded by the need for revenge, and therefore isn’t able to see the consequences his actions could have on those around him.
Hamlet in his pursuits is constantly seeking for justification to kill Claudius. In his hunger for the motivation to kill his uncle, Hamlet uses a play to sketch the occurrence of his father’s death in the audience of Claudius. His uncle’s frustrations during the theatrical piece serve as a much-needed shot in the arm for Hamlet’s murderous fixation. In much of the play, Hamlet laments the unfortunate state of the world he is living in and sees himself as a champion of justice. He acknowledges the vitality of killing Claudius, which would render him free of the ghost’s obligations.
Hamlet is hesitant in killing his uncle and contemplates on using spiritual justifications to warrant his intent as seen in Act V. Internal conflict is seen as Hamlet struggles with the validity of the ghost of his father and how executing his uncle would impact his life. He is uncertain about this deed and ponders over committing suicide coining the infamous phrase: “To be or not to be, that is the question.” He is distressed that the devil intends to compel him to commit such a sinister act. Faced with this conundrum, Hamlet is reluctant to carry out vengeance for his slain father.
Claudius is weary of his nephew and in association with other characters continually orchestrates a means to murder the prince. Ophelia’s brother Laertes is among the perpetrators of Claudius’s ploy. He puts the blame on Hamlet for the death of his sister. The author to illustrate double vengeance in the play uses this scenario. Hamlet is oblivious of whether his mother Gertrude had a hand in the murder of his father. The circle of death in the play confirms the repercussions clouded judgments.
Hamlet is particularly concerned about his mother’s betrayal. He struggles with the affection of his mother but at the same time loathes her for her infidelity. Ophelia’s decision to go behind his back torments his mind, and he is torn apart between his feelings for her and his distaste for her dishonesty. He internally questions the sincerity of the love of all those who have betrayed.
Throughout a good part of the play, Hamlet despises himself for failing to act on the will of the ghost of his father. All of these internal struggles display that Hamlet is a depressed individual. The cold murder of Polonius was perhaps Shakespeare’s way of showing the consequences made by irrational decisions. Hamlet pays the ultimate price for his revenge by losing a woman he held dear, committing a foul murder on an innocent man and losing his own life. | 682 | ENGLISH | 1 |
History of Kruger Millions in barberton
PRESIDENT PAUL KRUGER. The Anglo-Boer war and events at the time gave rise to the legend concerning the existence of the 'Kruger Millions', which many firmly believed were buried somewhere in the Lowveld. Although history has disproved the existence of the treasure, searchers are still hunting. When the British occupied Pretoria on 5 June 1900, Lord Alfred Milner (1852-1925) established that gold to the value of approximately 800 000 pounds had been removed from the S A Mint and National Bank between 29 May and 4 June 1900. Gold to the value of 2,5 million pounds was confiscated from gold mines and according to documentary proof l 294 000 pounds was removed from the S A
Mint and National Bank. Gold to the value of about 2 million pounds had disappeared!
Milner did everything in his power to find the gold but rumours began
to circulate that the gold was buried somewhere. An event which seemed to substantiate this was a declaration made by a certain John Holtzhausen on 29 September 1905, while in prison in Kimberley, for
the theft of a horse and carriage. He was sentenced to 30 months imprisonment. He maintained that he and two others, a man by the name of Pretorius, a veld cornet, and a certain Swartz, were requested by the Republic government to bury gold and diamonds to the value of
2 million pounds. He said that when he had been arrested for the theft, he was on his way to fetch the treasure which was buried fifty miles north of the Blyde River and north of Leydsdorp. He said that Pretorius had died in the war and Swartz had been hanged for the murder of a man called van Niekerk. Holtzhausen was ostensibly the only one left
to lead the authorities to the treasure.
Holtzhausen's story was apparently a tale made up by him and it is suspected that he had heard about the murder trial in which Philip Swartz was involved and tried to obtain release from prison. No one knows what happened to him or the treasure. The case against Swartz was heard before Judge Sir James Rose-Innes.
The story began during September 1900 when Philip Swartz and one Pretorius joined General Ben Viljoen's commando. After President Paul Kruger left for Mozambique for his trip to Europe, Swartz and Pretorius were amongst the group who were sent to Komatipoort by train while General Viljoen and his cavalry went on their way to Leydsdorp via Hectorspruit where they crossed the Crocodile River.
A certain number of burgers fled across the Mozambique border to avoid the British and gave themselves up to the Portuguese. Some of them went back across the border to rejoin their commando. Swartz and Pretorius also came back across the border and headed on foot for the Lebombo mountains near Komatipoort and from there in the direction of Leydsdorp.
On the way they came upon a human skeleton with a weathered leather bag close by. In the bag they found three smaller bags containing diamonds and five roughly moulded gold bars. They shared the treasure between them, but decided that in view of the war they would bury it and return after the war to claim it. They went on and buried the treasure east of the Blyde River on the banks of the Brak Spruit.
During the war Swartz was wounded, taken prisoner and sent to Ceylon, while Pretorius was killed in action. While Swartz was in the prisoner of war camp on Ceylon, he wrote to a girl-friend telling her that his days of financial insecurity would be over once he returned to South Africa. His letter was intercepted by the British forces and they resolved to keep an eye on him when he returned.
He was released in 1903 and upon his arrival in the country, found that his girl-friend had married a man called van Dyk. Her sister was married to a Fanie Van Niekerk, and Swartz decided that she was really the girl he wanted. He told her that in a vision he had seen that she was soon to be a widow. He began making plans to go and find the treasure he and Pretorius had hidden and the expedition would provide the perfect opportunity for him to get rid of Fanie Van Niekerk.
The expedition was arranged and consisted of Swartz, Van Niekerk, James Colville, who financed the trip, and a man by the name of Donovan. What Swartz did not know, however, was that Donovan was a member of the Transvaal Detective Service and was detailed to watch Swartz.
On 4 May 1903 they set out for Pietersburg and during the train journey Donovan learnt what Swartz' real intention was concerning the treasure. This put Donovan on the alert. From Pietersburg they travelled by mule wagon via Leydsdorp to Blyde River where they arrived on the night of 16 May. The next morning they set out on foot to Brak Spruit, about 32 kilometres further on. They arrived in the afternoon and while the camp was set up, Swartz invited Van Niekerk to come along with him to shoot something for the pot. It was the last time that Van Niekerk was seen alive.
While those left behind were setting up camp they heard two shots from the south-west. A little while later a further two shots were heard further east, and then silence. The men in the camp presumed that the two hunters had shot some animal. They did not return and it was thought that they had lost their way. However, much later that night Swartz turned up alone. Van Niekerk, he said, must have lost direction and climbed into a tree to await the daylight. Donovan had a presentiment that all was not well and would watch Swartz closely.
During the night shots were fired to indicate to Van Niekerk in which direction the camp was situated, but by daybreak there was no sign of him. They left a note in the camp for him and went in search of the treasure. From the top of a hill a further hill could be seen in the distance and Swartz asked the group to wait for him while he went in search of the landmarks. After a while the group followed him but he had disappeared!
Understandably the group was incensed at being left in the veld and went back to camp. After they had broken camp they went to find the mule wagon which had been left on the bank of the Blyde River. They found a note left by 'Van Niekerk' placed in the spokes of a wheel. He wrote that he was tired of the fruitless search for the treasure and was going back to Johannesburg. He had to go to Bulawayo and in view of the fact that time was of the essence he was going on ahead. Donovan pocketed the note.
Examination of the wagon revealed that ammunition, blankets, brandy and several other items were missing, but no sign of van Niekerk, who wore very distinctive boots.
Donovan and his group took the shortest route to Leydsdorp to reach there before Swartz and van Niekerk turned up. After they had passed through the Olifants and Selati Rivers, they came upon a black man who, when questioned, told them that a white man had passed that way a short time before. Shortly after, a shot was heard and Donovan recognised it as coming from his own revolver. They found Swartz at a creek with his feet in the water. He looked tired and dishevelled and his shirt was torn. They immediately wanted to know where he had been. He explained that they should have followed him. He had removed the treasure and buried it next to the river. After this he had taken the shortest route to Leydsdorp to wait for them there.
The group arrived at Leydsdorp on 22 May and Donovan reported van Niekerk's disappearance to the police. The police were not keen on the task of searching in the bush for the man and expressed the opinion that lion would probably have devoured him.
At Pietersburg Swartz asked for change, and tendered two gold coins, which Donovan found strange. He knew that Swartz did not have any money and that van Niekerk had had two gold coins. During the journey home by train, Donovan asked van Dyk to get Swartz out of the compartment for a while and keep him busy. Donovan found Swartz' note book in his suitcase and compared the writing with that of the note that 'van Niekerk' had supposedly written. The handwriting was identical!
Upon their arrival in Johannesburg, Donovan reported the matter to his Chief, Howard Chadwick. An official search was launched and Van Niekerk's remains were found. Although the body had been damaged by wild animals, it was possible to identify that van Niekerk had been killed by a bullet from Swartz' rifle. Swartz was arrested and charged with the premeditated murder of Van Niekerk and sentenced to death. He was executed on 15 February 1904.
This murder case and the John Holtzhausen story, fired the imagination of many as well as that of the writer, Gustav Preller. In 'The Star' of 7 November 1931, he wrote of the important role he played in preventing the gold of the ZAR from landing in the hands of the British forces. This story gave the impression of being a true story and the headline in 'The Star' proclaimed 'A True Story of the Kruger Millions' by Gustav Preller, who helped to move the gold from Pretoria.
In the article he said that on about 28 May 1900 he was given instructions to obtain transportation for a very 'important load' to be removed from Pretoria. Armed with a pistol he dramatically commandeered a mule wagon in Sunnyside, drawn by two mules. That night one load of gold was transported by the mule wagon, and four loads by a horse cab, to a waiting train on Pretoria station.
In the Preller collection, in the State Archives in Pretoria, there is a typed copy of the article in which Preller says: 'I think it was on 28 May 1900, because on 31 May I left Pretoria ... say it was 28 May. In any case it does not seem that the precise date is important now'. The precise date is indeed important as it is a historic fact that the gold was removed on 4 June 1900, a day before the British forces occupied Pretoria.
In his 'Memoirs of the Boer War', General J C Smuts said that the British forces had progressed as far as Six Mile Spruit on 4 June 1900, just outside of Pretoria. Here the Boer forces resisted the British to keep them from entering Pretoria, so that there was enough time to remove the money and gold which belonged to the government, as well as a large amount of ammunition and cannons, that were still in Pretoria. The removal of the money and gold belonging to the government from the National Bank was Smuts' specific responsibility.
Ernest Meyer, Master of the Mint in 1900, was involved in the removal of the money and gold from Pretoria. On 25 October 1949, as a result of what Preller wrote, Meyer drew up a document in which the removal of the money and gold on 4 June 1900, is described.
In Meyer's version of the events General Smuts, who was State Attorney at that time, was left behind in command at Pretoria, while the government headquarters moved quietly and almost unobserved to Machadodorp. On 2 June 1900 the British forces were approaching Pretoria from the South. The Mint was still in operation and as was usual was closed on Saturday 2 June. He was amazed that no preparations had been made for the removal of the gold. The British would enter Pretoria within the next few days and Meyer reported this to Jules Perrin, head of the Mint. Perrin's answer was that he had not received any instructions to remove the gold and that they would have to submit to the authorities whoever they might be.
On the Sunday the sound of cannon fire could be heard and on Monday morning 4 June, reports were received of fighting at Six Mile Spruit, occupation by the British was imminent.
The staff at the Mint started the day at the usual hour of 7 am and Perrin distributed the metal to the different departments for processing. Perrin and the office staff then went home to return at 9 am, while the technical staff continued working. During Perrin's absence, Meyer took the opportunity to warn the smelter and purifier not to proceed with the processing of the gold, but to await the directions of the State Attorney. Everyone at the Mint was willing to co-operate as they were also at a loss to understand Perrin's inexplicable behaviour.
Meyer proceeded to General Smuts' home in Sunnyside and informed him of the situation. In shocked tones he exclaimed "What, has the gold not been taken away yet!" He told Meyer to return to the Mint immediately and to await him there.
Smuts arrived at the Mint just before 9 am and after a few words to Perrin and Hugo, the National Bank manager, Smuts ordered the gold to be collected, weighed, recorded and made ready for despatch to the Pretoria station.
The weighing and recording of the gold took time and consisted of gold bars, unprocessed gold and approximately 100 000 Kruger pounds to the value of three quarters of a million pounds sterling.
At 12 o'clock all was in readiness and the gold loaded into the train's baggage compartment. Meyer and an armed guard of between 4 and 8 men travelled in the passenger compartment. Thus the last train under the flag of the Republic left Pretoria, amidst the thunder of cannon fire, taking the precious freight to safety.
The train arrived at Machadodorp at 2 am where Kruger was residing. Here Meyer assisted with the payment in gold to several claimants and with the help of the auditors and treasury personnel had a busy time.
After Meyer left for the front on 17 July 1900, to join Max Theunissen's Scouts, Commandant General Meindert Noome, Chief Clerk to the Auditor General, took over from Meyer.
Noome left a diary in which he had noted clearly and carefully in detail that on 31 August 1900 the gold was handed over to a German firm, Wilken and Ackerman, in Lourenco Marques, (Maputo). There were 62 cases of gold and this firm credited the account of the government of the Republic for the full value. They supplied the Boer forces with a large amount of provisions and necessities amongst which was a total of 44 000 bags of flour. Large amounts were made available to burghers who fled to Europe.
Many Lowveld burghers and their families availed themselves of the opportunity and boarded the 'Zaire' and sailed to Lisbon where they arrived on 25 April 1901. Originally the Portuguese wanted to intern the 89 burghers, 56 women and 172 children on their arrival in Lisbon at a place called Sagres, in the south-western corner of Portugal. However for practical reasons the plan was abandoned and the group was taken to Caidas da Rainha by train. From there they were transported by horse - drawn carriages. The streets were lined with Portuguese, some crying and others tossing flowers to the Boers in sympathy. These refugees returned to South Africa from Lisbon on 18 July 1902.
The myths and legends surrounding the 'Kruger Millions' persist to fire the imagination and many believe that the treasure is buried somewhere in the Lowveld.
Acknowledgement Barberton Museum | <urn:uuid:1348dbc4-a8f1-4f17-9cff-41deb4f2d0d8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.umjindi.co.za/menu/history/kruger-millions.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00183.warc.gz | en | 0.988204 | 3,297 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.3692145347595... | 3 | History of Kruger Millions in barberton
PRESIDENT PAUL KRUGER. The Anglo-Boer war and events at the time gave rise to the legend concerning the existence of the 'Kruger Millions', which many firmly believed were buried somewhere in the Lowveld. Although history has disproved the existence of the treasure, searchers are still hunting. When the British occupied Pretoria on 5 June 1900, Lord Alfred Milner (1852-1925) established that gold to the value of approximately 800 000 pounds had been removed from the S A Mint and National Bank between 29 May and 4 June 1900. Gold to the value of 2,5 million pounds was confiscated from gold mines and according to documentary proof l 294 000 pounds was removed from the S A
Mint and National Bank. Gold to the value of about 2 million pounds had disappeared!
Milner did everything in his power to find the gold but rumours began
to circulate that the gold was buried somewhere. An event which seemed to substantiate this was a declaration made by a certain John Holtzhausen on 29 September 1905, while in prison in Kimberley, for
the theft of a horse and carriage. He was sentenced to 30 months imprisonment. He maintained that he and two others, a man by the name of Pretorius, a veld cornet, and a certain Swartz, were requested by the Republic government to bury gold and diamonds to the value of
2 million pounds. He said that when he had been arrested for the theft, he was on his way to fetch the treasure which was buried fifty miles north of the Blyde River and north of Leydsdorp. He said that Pretorius had died in the war and Swartz had been hanged for the murder of a man called van Niekerk. Holtzhausen was ostensibly the only one left
to lead the authorities to the treasure.
Holtzhausen's story was apparently a tale made up by him and it is suspected that he had heard about the murder trial in which Philip Swartz was involved and tried to obtain release from prison. No one knows what happened to him or the treasure. The case against Swartz was heard before Judge Sir James Rose-Innes.
The story began during September 1900 when Philip Swartz and one Pretorius joined General Ben Viljoen's commando. After President Paul Kruger left for Mozambique for his trip to Europe, Swartz and Pretorius were amongst the group who were sent to Komatipoort by train while General Viljoen and his cavalry went on their way to Leydsdorp via Hectorspruit where they crossed the Crocodile River.
A certain number of burgers fled across the Mozambique border to avoid the British and gave themselves up to the Portuguese. Some of them went back across the border to rejoin their commando. Swartz and Pretorius also came back across the border and headed on foot for the Lebombo mountains near Komatipoort and from there in the direction of Leydsdorp.
On the way they came upon a human skeleton with a weathered leather bag close by. In the bag they found three smaller bags containing diamonds and five roughly moulded gold bars. They shared the treasure between them, but decided that in view of the war they would bury it and return after the war to claim it. They went on and buried the treasure east of the Blyde River on the banks of the Brak Spruit.
During the war Swartz was wounded, taken prisoner and sent to Ceylon, while Pretorius was killed in action. While Swartz was in the prisoner of war camp on Ceylon, he wrote to a girl-friend telling her that his days of financial insecurity would be over once he returned to South Africa. His letter was intercepted by the British forces and they resolved to keep an eye on him when he returned.
He was released in 1903 and upon his arrival in the country, found that his girl-friend had married a man called van Dyk. Her sister was married to a Fanie Van Niekerk, and Swartz decided that she was really the girl he wanted. He told her that in a vision he had seen that she was soon to be a widow. He began making plans to go and find the treasure he and Pretorius had hidden and the expedition would provide the perfect opportunity for him to get rid of Fanie Van Niekerk.
The expedition was arranged and consisted of Swartz, Van Niekerk, James Colville, who financed the trip, and a man by the name of Donovan. What Swartz did not know, however, was that Donovan was a member of the Transvaal Detective Service and was detailed to watch Swartz.
On 4 May 1903 they set out for Pietersburg and during the train journey Donovan learnt what Swartz' real intention was concerning the treasure. This put Donovan on the alert. From Pietersburg they travelled by mule wagon via Leydsdorp to Blyde River where they arrived on the night of 16 May. The next morning they set out on foot to Brak Spruit, about 32 kilometres further on. They arrived in the afternoon and while the camp was set up, Swartz invited Van Niekerk to come along with him to shoot something for the pot. It was the last time that Van Niekerk was seen alive.
While those left behind were setting up camp they heard two shots from the south-west. A little while later a further two shots were heard further east, and then silence. The men in the camp presumed that the two hunters had shot some animal. They did not return and it was thought that they had lost their way. However, much later that night Swartz turned up alone. Van Niekerk, he said, must have lost direction and climbed into a tree to await the daylight. Donovan had a presentiment that all was not well and would watch Swartz closely.
During the night shots were fired to indicate to Van Niekerk in which direction the camp was situated, but by daybreak there was no sign of him. They left a note in the camp for him and went in search of the treasure. From the top of a hill a further hill could be seen in the distance and Swartz asked the group to wait for him while he went in search of the landmarks. After a while the group followed him but he had disappeared!
Understandably the group was incensed at being left in the veld and went back to camp. After they had broken camp they went to find the mule wagon which had been left on the bank of the Blyde River. They found a note left by 'Van Niekerk' placed in the spokes of a wheel. He wrote that he was tired of the fruitless search for the treasure and was going back to Johannesburg. He had to go to Bulawayo and in view of the fact that time was of the essence he was going on ahead. Donovan pocketed the note.
Examination of the wagon revealed that ammunition, blankets, brandy and several other items were missing, but no sign of van Niekerk, who wore very distinctive boots.
Donovan and his group took the shortest route to Leydsdorp to reach there before Swartz and van Niekerk turned up. After they had passed through the Olifants and Selati Rivers, they came upon a black man who, when questioned, told them that a white man had passed that way a short time before. Shortly after, a shot was heard and Donovan recognised it as coming from his own revolver. They found Swartz at a creek with his feet in the water. He looked tired and dishevelled and his shirt was torn. They immediately wanted to know where he had been. He explained that they should have followed him. He had removed the treasure and buried it next to the river. After this he had taken the shortest route to Leydsdorp to wait for them there.
The group arrived at Leydsdorp on 22 May and Donovan reported van Niekerk's disappearance to the police. The police were not keen on the task of searching in the bush for the man and expressed the opinion that lion would probably have devoured him.
At Pietersburg Swartz asked for change, and tendered two gold coins, which Donovan found strange. He knew that Swartz did not have any money and that van Niekerk had had two gold coins. During the journey home by train, Donovan asked van Dyk to get Swartz out of the compartment for a while and keep him busy. Donovan found Swartz' note book in his suitcase and compared the writing with that of the note that 'van Niekerk' had supposedly written. The handwriting was identical!
Upon their arrival in Johannesburg, Donovan reported the matter to his Chief, Howard Chadwick. An official search was launched and Van Niekerk's remains were found. Although the body had been damaged by wild animals, it was possible to identify that van Niekerk had been killed by a bullet from Swartz' rifle. Swartz was arrested and charged with the premeditated murder of Van Niekerk and sentenced to death. He was executed on 15 February 1904.
This murder case and the John Holtzhausen story, fired the imagination of many as well as that of the writer, Gustav Preller. In 'The Star' of 7 November 1931, he wrote of the important role he played in preventing the gold of the ZAR from landing in the hands of the British forces. This story gave the impression of being a true story and the headline in 'The Star' proclaimed 'A True Story of the Kruger Millions' by Gustav Preller, who helped to move the gold from Pretoria.
In the article he said that on about 28 May 1900 he was given instructions to obtain transportation for a very 'important load' to be removed from Pretoria. Armed with a pistol he dramatically commandeered a mule wagon in Sunnyside, drawn by two mules. That night one load of gold was transported by the mule wagon, and four loads by a horse cab, to a waiting train on Pretoria station.
In the Preller collection, in the State Archives in Pretoria, there is a typed copy of the article in which Preller says: 'I think it was on 28 May 1900, because on 31 May I left Pretoria ... say it was 28 May. In any case it does not seem that the precise date is important now'. The precise date is indeed important as it is a historic fact that the gold was removed on 4 June 1900, a day before the British forces occupied Pretoria.
In his 'Memoirs of the Boer War', General J C Smuts said that the British forces had progressed as far as Six Mile Spruit on 4 June 1900, just outside of Pretoria. Here the Boer forces resisted the British to keep them from entering Pretoria, so that there was enough time to remove the money and gold which belonged to the government, as well as a large amount of ammunition and cannons, that were still in Pretoria. The removal of the money and gold belonging to the government from the National Bank was Smuts' specific responsibility.
Ernest Meyer, Master of the Mint in 1900, was involved in the removal of the money and gold from Pretoria. On 25 October 1949, as a result of what Preller wrote, Meyer drew up a document in which the removal of the money and gold on 4 June 1900, is described.
In Meyer's version of the events General Smuts, who was State Attorney at that time, was left behind in command at Pretoria, while the government headquarters moved quietly and almost unobserved to Machadodorp. On 2 June 1900 the British forces were approaching Pretoria from the South. The Mint was still in operation and as was usual was closed on Saturday 2 June. He was amazed that no preparations had been made for the removal of the gold. The British would enter Pretoria within the next few days and Meyer reported this to Jules Perrin, head of the Mint. Perrin's answer was that he had not received any instructions to remove the gold and that they would have to submit to the authorities whoever they might be.
On the Sunday the sound of cannon fire could be heard and on Monday morning 4 June, reports were received of fighting at Six Mile Spruit, occupation by the British was imminent.
The staff at the Mint started the day at the usual hour of 7 am and Perrin distributed the metal to the different departments for processing. Perrin and the office staff then went home to return at 9 am, while the technical staff continued working. During Perrin's absence, Meyer took the opportunity to warn the smelter and purifier not to proceed with the processing of the gold, but to await the directions of the State Attorney. Everyone at the Mint was willing to co-operate as they were also at a loss to understand Perrin's inexplicable behaviour.
Meyer proceeded to General Smuts' home in Sunnyside and informed him of the situation. In shocked tones he exclaimed "What, has the gold not been taken away yet!" He told Meyer to return to the Mint immediately and to await him there.
Smuts arrived at the Mint just before 9 am and after a few words to Perrin and Hugo, the National Bank manager, Smuts ordered the gold to be collected, weighed, recorded and made ready for despatch to the Pretoria station.
The weighing and recording of the gold took time and consisted of gold bars, unprocessed gold and approximately 100 000 Kruger pounds to the value of three quarters of a million pounds sterling.
At 12 o'clock all was in readiness and the gold loaded into the train's baggage compartment. Meyer and an armed guard of between 4 and 8 men travelled in the passenger compartment. Thus the last train under the flag of the Republic left Pretoria, amidst the thunder of cannon fire, taking the precious freight to safety.
The train arrived at Machadodorp at 2 am where Kruger was residing. Here Meyer assisted with the payment in gold to several claimants and with the help of the auditors and treasury personnel had a busy time.
After Meyer left for the front on 17 July 1900, to join Max Theunissen's Scouts, Commandant General Meindert Noome, Chief Clerk to the Auditor General, took over from Meyer.
Noome left a diary in which he had noted clearly and carefully in detail that on 31 August 1900 the gold was handed over to a German firm, Wilken and Ackerman, in Lourenco Marques, (Maputo). There were 62 cases of gold and this firm credited the account of the government of the Republic for the full value. They supplied the Boer forces with a large amount of provisions and necessities amongst which was a total of 44 000 bags of flour. Large amounts were made available to burghers who fled to Europe.
Many Lowveld burghers and their families availed themselves of the opportunity and boarded the 'Zaire' and sailed to Lisbon where they arrived on 25 April 1901. Originally the Portuguese wanted to intern the 89 burghers, 56 women and 172 children on their arrival in Lisbon at a place called Sagres, in the south-western corner of Portugal. However for practical reasons the plan was abandoned and the group was taken to Caidas da Rainha by train. From there they were transported by horse - drawn carriages. The streets were lined with Portuguese, some crying and others tossing flowers to the Boers in sympathy. These refugees returned to South Africa from Lisbon on 18 July 1902.
The myths and legends surrounding the 'Kruger Millions' persist to fire the imagination and many believe that the treasure is buried somewhere in the Lowveld.
Acknowledgement Barberton Museum | 3,409 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Sight and Blindness in Oedipus Rex
Oedipus Rex is a play about the way we blind ourselves to painful truths that we can’t bear to see. Physical sight and blindness are used throughout the play, often ironically, as a metaphor for mental sight and blindness. The play ends with the hero Oedipus literally blinding himself to avoid seeing the result of his terrible fate. But as the play demonstrates, Oedipus, the man who killed his father and impregnated his mother, has been blind all along, and is partly responsible for his own blindness.
When the play opens, the people of the town are asking Oedipus for help. A curse has been cast upon the city and the only way to remove it, is to find the murderer of the last king, Laios. Oedipus then makes a promise to the people that he will find the guilty and punish them.
Oedipus can physically see, but his mental blindness inhibits him from seeing the truth of his life. During the course of the day he has been given many clues to realize the truth about himself. Such that his name is Oedipus and “Oedipus” means swollen foot, and Laious’ son’s feet were bound together at the ankle. It becomes very obvious to the reader early on in the play as to what the outcome will be. It is ironic that the one individual, who comes to help the city, is the individual that has been the cause of the curse. Oedipus is the illness.
Oedipus and Jocasta both don’t want to see the truth. Although it may occur to them at some point, but they don’t give it a second thought because they think it is absurd and it isn’t possible. “Why should anyone in this world be afraid, since fate rules us and nothing van be forseen? A man should live only for the present day. Have no more fear of sleeping with your mother: How many men, in dreams, have lain with their mothers! No reasonable man is troubled by such things.” Jocasta is further from believing than Oedipus, she constantly tells him not to worry about it, don’t get worked up, and to just forget what you were told. Oedipus... | <urn:uuid:bb5c0335-353f-4527-bf4a-566fe0c26d50> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/sight-and-blindness-in-oedipus-rex | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00519.warc.gz | en | 0.98388 | 497 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.15597069263458... | 1 | Sight and Blindness in Oedipus Rex
Oedipus Rex is a play about the way we blind ourselves to painful truths that we can’t bear to see. Physical sight and blindness are used throughout the play, often ironically, as a metaphor for mental sight and blindness. The play ends with the hero Oedipus literally blinding himself to avoid seeing the result of his terrible fate. But as the play demonstrates, Oedipus, the man who killed his father and impregnated his mother, has been blind all along, and is partly responsible for his own blindness.
When the play opens, the people of the town are asking Oedipus for help. A curse has been cast upon the city and the only way to remove it, is to find the murderer of the last king, Laios. Oedipus then makes a promise to the people that he will find the guilty and punish them.
Oedipus can physically see, but his mental blindness inhibits him from seeing the truth of his life. During the course of the day he has been given many clues to realize the truth about himself. Such that his name is Oedipus and “Oedipus” means swollen foot, and Laious’ son’s feet were bound together at the ankle. It becomes very obvious to the reader early on in the play as to what the outcome will be. It is ironic that the one individual, who comes to help the city, is the individual that has been the cause of the curse. Oedipus is the illness.
Oedipus and Jocasta both don’t want to see the truth. Although it may occur to them at some point, but they don’t give it a second thought because they think it is absurd and it isn’t possible. “Why should anyone in this world be afraid, since fate rules us and nothing van be forseen? A man should live only for the present day. Have no more fear of sleeping with your mother: How many men, in dreams, have lain with their mothers! No reasonable man is troubled by such things.” Jocasta is further from believing than Oedipus, she constantly tells him not to worry about it, don’t get worked up, and to just forget what you were told. Oedipus... | 477 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Sylvia Pankhurst is well known around these parts. Most know of her activism for women’s suffrage. However, many don’t know about her other efforts to help ease East London poverty and hardship. One of these, The East London Toy Factory, was opened by Sylvia Pankhurst and the Federation of Suffragettes and ran from 1914 to 1934.
Pankhurst was part of The Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU) when she moved to Bow in 1912, leading the WSPU East End campaign. The WSPU, led by Emmeline Pankhurst, had a central focus on securing the vote for women, abandoning all other social reforms in their wake. Yet when Sylvia came to Bow, she was deeply affected by the sight of women struggling with poverty. These were women who weren’t thinking of the vote, but of how to make it through the month. They weren’t campaigning because they were juggling work and feeding their children, facing local struggles that wore them down daily.
She recognised that the vote alone was not going to help these women – that social reforms must come on together. It was later, when she was part of the East London Federation of Suffragettes (ELFS), which focused not solely on the vote but also on many other local, pressing women’s issues, that she was able to help East London women.
Within weeks of the outbreak of World War One, many of the East End factories were closed. Unemployment rose and there were hundreds of cases of deep poverty and starvation. People arrived at the Suffragette’s Woman’s Hall seeking help, and this forced the Federation to adopt new strategies. People were starving, and with men being enlisted and leaving or being laid off, many families had to sell their belongings for food, or were thrown out of their homes.
The Toy Factory
Sylvia Pankhurst opened the East London Toy Factory in October 1914 on 45 Norman Road. Germany was the leading toy manufacturer at the time and this left a gap in the market which the Federation were able to fill. They felt this was the perfect opportunity to combat unemployment and to help these women, suddenly left with five or so children to feed and no money for milk, to make a proper living. While there were other projects offering women and girls work, the Toy Factory paid a minimum wage of 5d an hour, or £1 a week. That was the same as men’s minimum wage at the time.
In contrast to other possible lines of work, the toy factory taught its workers the trade too. A German toymaker from the local area, H. Niederhofer, came to the factory to teach toy-making. Many employers fired their German employees around this time, due to fears over anti-German mobs affecting their business. This was what George Lansbury, the toymaker’s previous employer, most likely feared having Niederhofer on his timber yard.
Sylvia’s friend Amy Browning from the Royal College of Art would also help out, coming into the factory on Saturday afternoons to teach the women drawing and painting. The toy makers were encouraged to design their own toys, and if they produced something great then the factory would buy it and paid them a royalty. The factory was financed by Norah Smyth, the suffragette photographer of Dreadnought, the ELFS newspaper.
The first toys were simple flat animals, made of wood from the Lansbury timber yard. But eventually they became more detailed and modern. In 1915, they had all kinds of jointed wooden animals, including pigs, birds, elephants, squirrels, dragons, fairies, and little girl guides and boy scouts.
They did stuffed animals and wax-headed baby dolls. Quite progressive for the time, they didn’t just do white baby dolls but instead included a ‘Japanese’ baby and black ‘African’ baby doll. Considering other doll manufacturers have had an ongoing struggle with making more diverse dolls, this is particularly impressive to see pre-World War One.
At toy fairs and throughout London these toys became incredibly popular. Even the new store Selfridges, in Oxford Circus, started stocking them. Rumour had it that it was Sylvia Pankhurst herself who took the toys down in a taxi, and convinced Gordon Selfridge.
According to Voices from History: East London Suffragettes by Sarah Jackson and Rosemary Taylor, while Pankhurst was in prison in 1921, the factory was managed by Mrs. Regina Hercbergova. Despite no longer being under the control of the Federation, the Toy Factory stayed in business, at that same location, until 1934. After that it moved to Central London and was renamed, ‘Ealontoys’. Unfortunately, it didn’t survive the second world war as it did the first, and its final staff member was killed by a bombing in 1943, leaving the factory abandoned.
However, in its prime in WWI, the toy factory was both incredibly progressive and successful. The East London Federation of Suffragettes also opened a nursery attached to the factory. This meant that women could leave their children there for 3d a day, from 8am-7pm, and have them fed three meals, while they could work. This, too, shows how ahead of the times the establishment was. The nursery attached to the Toy Factory was so popular that a second larger one was necessary.
The building today is now lived in by Claire Davis and her family. Davis is a pioneer in her own right and has helped women through home birth and breast feeding support groups.
The featured image is of women in the toy factory © Tower Hamlets History Library and Archives.
Can you help us?
As a not-for-profit media organisation using journalism to strengthen communities, we have not put our digital content behind a paywall or membership scheme as we think the benefits of an independent, local publication should be available to everyone living in our area.
If a fraction of the local 40,000 residents donated two pounds a month to Roman Road LDN it would be enough for our editorial team to serve the area full time and be beholden only to the community. A pound at a time, we believe we can get there. | <urn:uuid:cf4df604-58f8-419f-a75b-e65ffc12bb14> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://romanroadlondon.com/sylvia-pankhursts-east-london-toy-factory/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00285.warc.gz | en | 0.983998 | 1,308 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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0.054295260459... | 6 | Sylvia Pankhurst is well known around these parts. Most know of her activism for women’s suffrage. However, many don’t know about her other efforts to help ease East London poverty and hardship. One of these, The East London Toy Factory, was opened by Sylvia Pankhurst and the Federation of Suffragettes and ran from 1914 to 1934.
Pankhurst was part of The Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU) when she moved to Bow in 1912, leading the WSPU East End campaign. The WSPU, led by Emmeline Pankhurst, had a central focus on securing the vote for women, abandoning all other social reforms in their wake. Yet when Sylvia came to Bow, she was deeply affected by the sight of women struggling with poverty. These were women who weren’t thinking of the vote, but of how to make it through the month. They weren’t campaigning because they were juggling work and feeding their children, facing local struggles that wore them down daily.
She recognised that the vote alone was not going to help these women – that social reforms must come on together. It was later, when she was part of the East London Federation of Suffragettes (ELFS), which focused not solely on the vote but also on many other local, pressing women’s issues, that she was able to help East London women.
Within weeks of the outbreak of World War One, many of the East End factories were closed. Unemployment rose and there were hundreds of cases of deep poverty and starvation. People arrived at the Suffragette’s Woman’s Hall seeking help, and this forced the Federation to adopt new strategies. People were starving, and with men being enlisted and leaving or being laid off, many families had to sell their belongings for food, or were thrown out of their homes.
The Toy Factory
Sylvia Pankhurst opened the East London Toy Factory in October 1914 on 45 Norman Road. Germany was the leading toy manufacturer at the time and this left a gap in the market which the Federation were able to fill. They felt this was the perfect opportunity to combat unemployment and to help these women, suddenly left with five or so children to feed and no money for milk, to make a proper living. While there were other projects offering women and girls work, the Toy Factory paid a minimum wage of 5d an hour, or £1 a week. That was the same as men’s minimum wage at the time.
In contrast to other possible lines of work, the toy factory taught its workers the trade too. A German toymaker from the local area, H. Niederhofer, came to the factory to teach toy-making. Many employers fired their German employees around this time, due to fears over anti-German mobs affecting their business. This was what George Lansbury, the toymaker’s previous employer, most likely feared having Niederhofer on his timber yard.
Sylvia’s friend Amy Browning from the Royal College of Art would also help out, coming into the factory on Saturday afternoons to teach the women drawing and painting. The toy makers were encouraged to design their own toys, and if they produced something great then the factory would buy it and paid them a royalty. The factory was financed by Norah Smyth, the suffragette photographer of Dreadnought, the ELFS newspaper.
The first toys were simple flat animals, made of wood from the Lansbury timber yard. But eventually they became more detailed and modern. In 1915, they had all kinds of jointed wooden animals, including pigs, birds, elephants, squirrels, dragons, fairies, and little girl guides and boy scouts.
They did stuffed animals and wax-headed baby dolls. Quite progressive for the time, they didn’t just do white baby dolls but instead included a ‘Japanese’ baby and black ‘African’ baby doll. Considering other doll manufacturers have had an ongoing struggle with making more diverse dolls, this is particularly impressive to see pre-World War One.
At toy fairs and throughout London these toys became incredibly popular. Even the new store Selfridges, in Oxford Circus, started stocking them. Rumour had it that it was Sylvia Pankhurst herself who took the toys down in a taxi, and convinced Gordon Selfridge.
According to Voices from History: East London Suffragettes by Sarah Jackson and Rosemary Taylor, while Pankhurst was in prison in 1921, the factory was managed by Mrs. Regina Hercbergova. Despite no longer being under the control of the Federation, the Toy Factory stayed in business, at that same location, until 1934. After that it moved to Central London and was renamed, ‘Ealontoys’. Unfortunately, it didn’t survive the second world war as it did the first, and its final staff member was killed by a bombing in 1943, leaving the factory abandoned.
However, in its prime in WWI, the toy factory was both incredibly progressive and successful. The East London Federation of Suffragettes also opened a nursery attached to the factory. This meant that women could leave their children there for 3d a day, from 8am-7pm, and have them fed three meals, while they could work. This, too, shows how ahead of the times the establishment was. The nursery attached to the Toy Factory was so popular that a second larger one was necessary.
The building today is now lived in by Claire Davis and her family. Davis is a pioneer in her own right and has helped women through home birth and breast feeding support groups.
The featured image is of women in the toy factory © Tower Hamlets History Library and Archives.
Can you help us?
As a not-for-profit media organisation using journalism to strengthen communities, we have not put our digital content behind a paywall or membership scheme as we think the benefits of an independent, local publication should be available to everyone living in our area.
If a fraction of the local 40,000 residents donated two pounds a month to Roman Road LDN it would be enough for our editorial team to serve the area full time and be beholden only to the community. A pound at a time, we believe we can get there. | 1,296 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It seems that one can hardly open the paper or turn on the internet these days in order to see some article on how technology is outstripping the law.
These days, much debate has been focused around social media, and how cyberstalking and cyberbullying can be as damaging to a person as their physical counterparts.
The truth of the matter is that legislation has always had trouble keeping up with the latest in technology.
The 100th anniversary of the sinking of the Titanic gives us an opportunity to reflect on how that tension between technology and the law resulted in one of the greatest tragedies of the 20th century.
Believe it or not, RMS (Royal Mail Steamer) Titanic was fully compliant with lifeboat regulations of the day, and in fact actually exceeded them.
The problem was that regulations had been written in the late 19th century, when ships were considerably smaller, and simply stated that ships of 10,000 tons or over needed to carry 16 lifeboats with a total capacity of 9,625 cubic feet; Titanic carried 20 lifeboats, with a total capacity of 11,327 cubic feet. The problem wasn’t compliance with the law, the problem was that Titanic was … well … titanic: her gross registered tonnage was 46,328, four times the 10,000 tons specified in the law.
Quite simply, the 19th century writers of the law couldn’t envision the vast improvements in ship designs that would lead to such large vessels, and subsequent legislation failed to take the changes of technology into account until it was too late for the passengers on that ill-fated ship.
One reason that lifeboat legislation lagged behind for so long is due to another piece of technology, namely that of wireless telegraphy, or radio.
It may be hard for us to imagine in this day and age, but in 1912 radio was still very much in its infancy. The first shipboard use had been little more than a decade prior, and while they had become more common as the years went on, they were far from universal, with a surprising number of ships not having them. Even more surprising, many ships that did have wireless transmitters actually turned them off at night.
Wireless operators regularly put messages from paying customers ahead of messages from their own captains.
Indeed, I would put to you that it was the wireless set that made it necessary to have enough lifeboats for all onboard.
To illustrate this, let us posit the situation of Titanic, but with two critical changes: add sufficient lifeboats, and subtract the Marconi radio.
In this scenario, the Titanic goes down, but all onboard have been saved.
With no wireless message, those survivors now have to wait in open lifeboats, in the middle of the North Atlantic, hoping and praying that a passing ship will come to their aid (remember that even with a distress signal sent and some idea where Titanic sank, it took RMS Carpathia almost four hours to reach the survivors).
As the hours stretch into days, no rescue attempts are made because there will be none until Titanic fails to show up at New York, at which point the search area would become “Somewhere in the North Atlantic.”
Cold, hunger, and thirst begin to conspire against the passengers.
Pretty soon, a grim picture emerges, as it becomes clear that unless some help arrives, the survivors have merely traded a quick death for a slow one. The ocean is enormous; lifeboats aren’t.
Rescue in that situation is based on luck as much as anything else.
The fact of the matter is that it wasn’t until the wireless came into common use that the notion of having enough lifeboats for all passengers was even a concern.
Prior to the 20th century, mariners in distress had to rely on a combination of their own lifeboats and those of either a shore station or another ship (or some combination thereof), and accept that chances of rescue in the middle of the ocean were remote. Sure there were a few tales of survival in small craft for weeks at a time, but those were the exception rather than the rule. Far more common was the cold hard fact that ships could, and did, vanish with all hands.
Most of us know what happened after that.
Ships were required to have sufficient lifeboats, and those with wireless radios were told to have them on at all times.
The International Ice Patrol was formed, with the express intent keeping track of icebergs, which has resulted in sea travel being far safer. The point in this is that Titanic serves as a reminder that technology and legislation have always existed in a tension. As technology changes, laws must be modified to take into account the new realities.
Failure to do so can result in embarrassment, financial ruin, and (all too often) loss of life.
Your obedient servant, | <urn:uuid:313ae8cc-6f01-4650-bf5b-a282fb45bc41> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.forcesofgeek.com/2012/04/technology-and-law-regarding-lifeboats.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00129.warc.gz | en | 0.983373 | 1,006 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.015304760... | 2 | It seems that one can hardly open the paper or turn on the internet these days in order to see some article on how technology is outstripping the law.
These days, much debate has been focused around social media, and how cyberstalking and cyberbullying can be as damaging to a person as their physical counterparts.
The truth of the matter is that legislation has always had trouble keeping up with the latest in technology.
The 100th anniversary of the sinking of the Titanic gives us an opportunity to reflect on how that tension between technology and the law resulted in one of the greatest tragedies of the 20th century.
Believe it or not, RMS (Royal Mail Steamer) Titanic was fully compliant with lifeboat regulations of the day, and in fact actually exceeded them.
The problem was that regulations had been written in the late 19th century, when ships were considerably smaller, and simply stated that ships of 10,000 tons or over needed to carry 16 lifeboats with a total capacity of 9,625 cubic feet; Titanic carried 20 lifeboats, with a total capacity of 11,327 cubic feet. The problem wasn’t compliance with the law, the problem was that Titanic was … well … titanic: her gross registered tonnage was 46,328, four times the 10,000 tons specified in the law.
Quite simply, the 19th century writers of the law couldn’t envision the vast improvements in ship designs that would lead to such large vessels, and subsequent legislation failed to take the changes of technology into account until it was too late for the passengers on that ill-fated ship.
One reason that lifeboat legislation lagged behind for so long is due to another piece of technology, namely that of wireless telegraphy, or radio.
It may be hard for us to imagine in this day and age, but in 1912 radio was still very much in its infancy. The first shipboard use had been little more than a decade prior, and while they had become more common as the years went on, they were far from universal, with a surprising number of ships not having them. Even more surprising, many ships that did have wireless transmitters actually turned them off at night.
Wireless operators regularly put messages from paying customers ahead of messages from their own captains.
Indeed, I would put to you that it was the wireless set that made it necessary to have enough lifeboats for all onboard.
To illustrate this, let us posit the situation of Titanic, but with two critical changes: add sufficient lifeboats, and subtract the Marconi radio.
In this scenario, the Titanic goes down, but all onboard have been saved.
With no wireless message, those survivors now have to wait in open lifeboats, in the middle of the North Atlantic, hoping and praying that a passing ship will come to their aid (remember that even with a distress signal sent and some idea where Titanic sank, it took RMS Carpathia almost four hours to reach the survivors).
As the hours stretch into days, no rescue attempts are made because there will be none until Titanic fails to show up at New York, at which point the search area would become “Somewhere in the North Atlantic.”
Cold, hunger, and thirst begin to conspire against the passengers.
Pretty soon, a grim picture emerges, as it becomes clear that unless some help arrives, the survivors have merely traded a quick death for a slow one. The ocean is enormous; lifeboats aren’t.
Rescue in that situation is based on luck as much as anything else.
The fact of the matter is that it wasn’t until the wireless came into common use that the notion of having enough lifeboats for all passengers was even a concern.
Prior to the 20th century, mariners in distress had to rely on a combination of their own lifeboats and those of either a shore station or another ship (or some combination thereof), and accept that chances of rescue in the middle of the ocean were remote. Sure there were a few tales of survival in small craft for weeks at a time, but those were the exception rather than the rule. Far more common was the cold hard fact that ships could, and did, vanish with all hands.
Most of us know what happened after that.
Ships were required to have sufficient lifeboats, and those with wireless radios were told to have them on at all times.
The International Ice Patrol was formed, with the express intent keeping track of icebergs, which has resulted in sea travel being far safer. The point in this is that Titanic serves as a reminder that technology and legislation have always existed in a tension. As technology changes, laws must be modified to take into account the new realities.
Failure to do so can result in embarrassment, financial ruin, and (all too often) loss of life.
Your obedient servant, | 1,004 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A minimum wage is the lowest remuneration that employers can legally pay their workers or the price floor below which workers may not sell their labor. Most countries had introduced minimum wage legislation by the end of the 20th century. The movement for minimum wages was first motivated as a way to stop the exploitation of workers in sweatshops, by employers who were thought to have unfair bargaining power over them. Over time, minimum wages came to be seen as a way to help lower-income families. Modern national laws enforcing compulsory union membership which prescribed minimum wages for their members were first passed in New Zealand and Australia in the 1890s.
This fun education game may answer some of the following questions:
1. How much is the minimum salary in China in 2020?
2. How much is the minimum salary in USA in 2020?
3. How much is the minimum salary in Russia in 2020? | <urn:uuid:679bfe3e-ec07-4f15-9068-0511bf2d094f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://planeta42.com/finances/minsalary2020/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00359.warc.gz | en | 0.983287 | 180 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.3808915615081787... | 7 | A minimum wage is the lowest remuneration that employers can legally pay their workers or the price floor below which workers may not sell their labor. Most countries had introduced minimum wage legislation by the end of the 20th century. The movement for minimum wages was first motivated as a way to stop the exploitation of workers in sweatshops, by employers who were thought to have unfair bargaining power over them. Over time, minimum wages came to be seen as a way to help lower-income families. Modern national laws enforcing compulsory union membership which prescribed minimum wages for their members were first passed in New Zealand and Australia in the 1890s.
This fun education game may answer some of the following questions:
1. How much is the minimum salary in China in 2020?
2. How much is the minimum salary in USA in 2020?
3. How much is the minimum salary in Russia in 2020? | 193 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In March of 1867, much of Chattanooga found itself underwater, ravished by days of continuous rain that caused the Tennessee River to surge around 58 feet higher than usual.
A few days after the rain is said to have stopped, the Daily American Union, a Chattanooga publication at the time, referenced the floods with bold headlines speaking of "Widespread Destruction" as bridges had been swept away, railways were blocked and whole families had been reported drowned.
While the flood of 1867 was the worst in the history of the city, this brand of highly destructive flooding was a trend that persisted for decades, forcing residents to raise the heights of their streets and buildings.
"Floods are known to have occurred 17 times between 1791 and 1936," Sam D. Elliot wrote in 2016 a Times Free Press column about how the city was unprepared for the 1867 flood.
On May 6, 1917, more than a whole page of the Chattanooga Daily Times was dedicated to flood coverage citing highway damage, closed schools and businesses as well as people being driven from their homes.
But that was all set to change under the administration of President Franklin D. Roosevelt and his post-Great Depression New Deal, which brought various programs, projects and regulations to the entire country.
In 1933, the administration created the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), an agency meant to address energy, environmental and economic needs, namely flood control, in the Tennessee Valley.
The addition of the TVA was considered a "dream of many years," according to an article in Chattanooga Times on May 18, 1933.
Under this new organization, plans began for the Chickamauga Dam. The president himself came down to Chattanooga to dedicate the dam to defense, as the country was in the throws of World War II when the construction was completed in 1940.
On Sept. 3, 1940, two days after Roosevelt's dedication, the Chattanooga Times reported the president as having said, "Today we see the progress we have made," and according to the TVA website, Chickamauga and other reservoirs in the area have prevented an estimated $5 billion in flood damage since their construction.
Even though almost 80 years have passed since that day, the words of the president still ring true for many that are able to live near the river and in the city with less fear of the disastrous, fatal and life-altering flooding of the past.
Contact Tierra Hayes at email@example.com. | <urn:uuid:df1a7434-8332-4103-906c-bbce9f83669d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.timesfreepress.com/news/local/story/2019/nov/23/moments-memory-chickamauga-dam/509007/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00351.warc.gz | en | 0.981955 | 501 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.21269200742244... | 2 | In March of 1867, much of Chattanooga found itself underwater, ravished by days of continuous rain that caused the Tennessee River to surge around 58 feet higher than usual.
A few days after the rain is said to have stopped, the Daily American Union, a Chattanooga publication at the time, referenced the floods with bold headlines speaking of "Widespread Destruction" as bridges had been swept away, railways were blocked and whole families had been reported drowned.
While the flood of 1867 was the worst in the history of the city, this brand of highly destructive flooding was a trend that persisted for decades, forcing residents to raise the heights of their streets and buildings.
"Floods are known to have occurred 17 times between 1791 and 1936," Sam D. Elliot wrote in 2016 a Times Free Press column about how the city was unprepared for the 1867 flood.
On May 6, 1917, more than a whole page of the Chattanooga Daily Times was dedicated to flood coverage citing highway damage, closed schools and businesses as well as people being driven from their homes.
But that was all set to change under the administration of President Franklin D. Roosevelt and his post-Great Depression New Deal, which brought various programs, projects and regulations to the entire country.
In 1933, the administration created the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), an agency meant to address energy, environmental and economic needs, namely flood control, in the Tennessee Valley.
The addition of the TVA was considered a "dream of many years," according to an article in Chattanooga Times on May 18, 1933.
Under this new organization, plans began for the Chickamauga Dam. The president himself came down to Chattanooga to dedicate the dam to defense, as the country was in the throws of World War II when the construction was completed in 1940.
On Sept. 3, 1940, two days after Roosevelt's dedication, the Chattanooga Times reported the president as having said, "Today we see the progress we have made," and according to the TVA website, Chickamauga and other reservoirs in the area have prevented an estimated $5 billion in flood damage since their construction.
Even though almost 80 years have passed since that day, the words of the president still ring true for many that are able to live near the river and in the city with less fear of the disastrous, fatal and life-altering flooding of the past.
Contact Tierra Hayes at email@example.com. | 535 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The site of a canal wharf known as Dunton Wharf, where vessels would have loaded and unloaded goods. It was built during the Imperial period and was situated 450m north east of Baylis's Bridge.
1 The 1886 OS 6″ map shows a wharf at this location on the Birmingham and Fazeley Canal. The adjacent bridge is called Dunton Wharf Bridge on later maps. There seems to be a small complex indicated on the map with a basin and buildings. To the south of the canal, on the towpath side, a blocked arm is crossed by a very corroded metal roving bridge. The arm points towards a group of modern industrial buildings. There are also some 19th century cottages but they appear not to be connected with the canal. To the north of the canal is a flat open space, apparently a wharf, but with no sign of anything but modern buildings.
2 The top lock was the first in a flight of eleven locks at Dunton and was of typical construction broardly similar to others in the Canal with single gates at each end, manually operated by lock gate beams. The lock walls were of brick with mainly stone copings. There is evidence to suggest that two of the locks on this section failed not long after the opening of the canal in 1789. During the demolition of the lock it was noticed that the south-west lock wall had four composite tie beams. These were spaced at intervals along the lock wall and each made from a section of timber connected to an iron tie rod linked to around brick piers or butresses, the opposite wall had only two butresses with all wooden ties. The lock walls were founded on the natural soils and not on concrete as expected.
3 Further report on recording at the lock. The lock itself was of standard design, similar to others on the canal. There was evidence for changes to the design of the lock gates, These changes may have been in response to the failure of two of the Curdworth locks in 1789. The unreliability of the locks at both Curdworth and Dunton remained a continuing problem until 1823 when the faults in their original design were finally rectified. | <urn:uuid:5b0b5c39-0578-4a06-9390-e31c30decd5b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ourwarwickshire.org.uk/content/catalogue_her/dunton-wharf | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00318.warc.gz | en | 0.985317 | 445 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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-0.04636... | 2 | The site of a canal wharf known as Dunton Wharf, where vessels would have loaded and unloaded goods. It was built during the Imperial period and was situated 450m north east of Baylis's Bridge.
1 The 1886 OS 6″ map shows a wharf at this location on the Birmingham and Fazeley Canal. The adjacent bridge is called Dunton Wharf Bridge on later maps. There seems to be a small complex indicated on the map with a basin and buildings. To the south of the canal, on the towpath side, a blocked arm is crossed by a very corroded metal roving bridge. The arm points towards a group of modern industrial buildings. There are also some 19th century cottages but they appear not to be connected with the canal. To the north of the canal is a flat open space, apparently a wharf, but with no sign of anything but modern buildings.
2 The top lock was the first in a flight of eleven locks at Dunton and was of typical construction broardly similar to others in the Canal with single gates at each end, manually operated by lock gate beams. The lock walls were of brick with mainly stone copings. There is evidence to suggest that two of the locks on this section failed not long after the opening of the canal in 1789. During the demolition of the lock it was noticed that the south-west lock wall had four composite tie beams. These were spaced at intervals along the lock wall and each made from a section of timber connected to an iron tie rod linked to around brick piers or butresses, the opposite wall had only two butresses with all wooden ties. The lock walls were founded on the natural soils and not on concrete as expected.
3 Further report on recording at the lock. The lock itself was of standard design, similar to others on the canal. There was evidence for changes to the design of the lock gates, These changes may have been in response to the failure of two of the Curdworth locks in 1789. The unreliability of the locks at both Curdworth and Dunton remained a continuing problem until 1823 when the faults in their original design were finally rectified. | 460 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Traditions have been around for decades. They all come in different styles and ways of practice. In some people eyes, they represent the heritage passed down from generation to generation such as objects of values, pieces of art or even handmade tools from an old member of the family. Traditions can also be defined as a cultural aspect. Some rituals are still around today and are very respected by certain people. Others start to disappear as years go by. In the short story Everyday Use written in 1973, the author Alice Walker illustrates the importance of family heritage. Walker’s short story demonstrates the life of a mother and her two daughters who are exposed to cultural aspects with different sets of minds regarding the heritage. The narrator of the story known as “Mama” is the mother of two daughters. She is both a mom and a dad to them. She is a strong woman who lives an old-fashioned life with one of her daughters Maggie in a village. She has done everything in her power to give her children the best life they can obtain. She and the village’s church raised money together to send her oldest daughter in town to study and further her education in college.
Based on Mama’s description of herself we can say that she has the appearance of a woman in a man’s body. She reveals that she is “a large big-boned woman with rough, man-working hands (Walker 655). Mama is a very straightforward person who says things exactly how they are. As readers, we can say that she enjoys working outside to fulfill her duties. Doing man-like jobs like breaking the ice, and killing hogs don’t bother her. She is a very motivating and hardworking individual who can do it all. However, when it comes to raising her daughters fairly, we can say that she fails to discipline both in the same manner. The two sisters each have their own definition of heritage. Only one of them sees it as valuable. That is the case of Maggie in this story. This young lady considers heritage to be everything and believes that it should be included in their daily activities as it was in their ancestors’ lives. Maggie is a very shy and reserved girl who is afraid to expose herself especially around a crowd. Her traumatism mainly comes from her injuries during the fire of their first house. She has burn scars on her body and is very insecure about herself. She struggles to appreciate and find herself beautiful because of her forever lasting scars from the fire. Her timidity makes her not confident enough which even shows when she walks. Her mom describes her walking as a “lame animal with shuffling movements who has her chin on her chest” (Walker). She lives a very simple life and is somehow disregarded compared to her older sister. Maggie wishes to be a little appreciated and considered like her sister. Regardless of that aspect, she seems very happy with the life that she is living next to her Mama. She understands the importance of their family’s quilt and would do anything to preserve it. However, her relationship with her sister has much more importance in her eyes and she would rather offer the quilt to her sister who seems more obsessed with it. Maggie would choose family over objects any day, unlike her sister. Mama’s oldest daughter, however, is very different from Maggie. Because she went to school and has a proper education unlike her sister and mom, Maggie’s sister known as Dee is very modernized. She somehow feels superior to everybody else because she received an education. At a young age, she demonstrates an interest in education through reading and writing. She is a very intelligent lady who later on got help from her village who raised the money for her education in town. Dee ,however, is not grateful towards her people. She has no appreciation for her family who plays a big role in her success. Since her access through college, she completely changes her lifestyle. She never even visited her home since she got to college. She feels ashamed of her roots and seems to forget where she comes from and how she got where she is now. She appears to be so embarrassed about her culture and people that she felt the need to change her name to Wangero. The turning point of the story focuses on Dee’s /Wangero’s return in her homeland. Mama is very excited to see her child again and was prepared in advance. When it comes to Maggie, she wasn’t very enthusiastic about it.
She would rather stand in the shadow behind her sister. Mama was a little disappointed when Dee comes in with a new different attitude starting by telling her that Dee doesn’t exist anymore and from now on her name is Wangero. She comes dressed with bright and shiny colors accompanied by a young man named Hakim-a-barber. Wangero’s visit has nothing to do with her wanting to visit her family. She is more interested in searching for objects that are part of her African inheritance that she can take back with her in the city. She tries to get mama by the emotions to get what she wants. she says “Oh Mama, I never knew how lovely these benches are. You can feel the rump prints…then she gave a sigh and her hand closed over grandma’s Dee butter dish and said “that’s it. I knew there was something I wanted to ask if I could have”. (Walker). Wangero shows a sudden interest in her heritage but still doesn’t see the values or importance of these items. She only sees them as pieces of art she can sell or decorate her house with. Her mother once offered her the quilt before she ran off for college. Dee refused to bring it with her now she comes back just to collect these objects that she might find useful for decorations. Dee’s sweet behavior in front of Mama automatically changes when she told her that her intention is to offer the quilt to Maggie. Dee tries to dissuade her and tells her that “Maggie can’t appreciate these quilts! She’d probably be backward enough to put them to everyday use (Walker). Dee would say anything to convince her mother to offer her these items. She doesn’t seem to care much that she’s hurting her sister’s feeling. Dee wants what Dee wants and is very confident to collect them all given that her mother never refuses her anything. The quilt has an important meaning in the story. The author is trying to demonstrate how the quilt is represented in the family as an homage to their ancestors. “They had been pieced my Grandma Dee and Big Dee and me and hung them on the quilt frames …Bits and pieces of Grandpa Jarrell’s paisley shirts. And one teeny faded blue piece about the size of a penny matchbox that was from Great Grandpa Ezra’s uniform that he wore in the Civil War. (Walker)”. The quilt consists of different types of clothing that are handmade by either their grandmother or Mama herself. Maggie and her mother share the same interest in the quilt and feel a strong connection between them thanks to the quilt.
They both understand the meaning behind the quilts. They represent a source of joy and a reminder of their identity as African-Americans. Dee doesn’t know much about her heritage. She never showed interest in her culture until now. Yet she only recognizes it to boost her fashion and use the quilts as accessories. As the story gets to its end, Mama realizes how selfish Dee is and decided to give the quilts to Maggie instead. Her reason for doing that is because she feels like Dee doesn’t fully understand the importance of family culture. Dee’s anger was so obvious that she couldn’t take it anymore she decided to leave immediately with Hakim-a-barber. At that point, Mama realizes that Dee’s visit has nothing to do with her being interested in her culture. She was more interested in collecting her family’s heritage for personal needs. The author Walker illustrates different themes throughout the story. She demonstrates the theme of love in the story by showing her readers how passionate Maggie is when it comes to conserving her family’s heritage. Walker uses the quilts as a symbol of honor in regard to their past and respects for the heritage that their ancestors left them with. Walker uses Dee’s character to illustrate the theme of education. Walker believes that education can open up a lot of door for a person. In the example of Dee, she has received everything she always dreamed of having, gold earrings, fashion tools…Yet Dee doesn’t use her education to help others. She feels superior to everybody and shows it clearly when reading for her mom and sister to show them just how inferior they are. Going to school has changed Dee somehow. She considers herself a city girl and rejects her culture and even change her name to show her disinterest in where she comes from. This story is a great representative culture and how different people embrace it with different approaches each. | <urn:uuid:9c4bd225-b586-4009-8978-8fde718030c7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://tooly.io/heritage-as-a-cultural-aspect/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00353.warc.gz | en | 0.986057 | 1,887 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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-0.0970589742... | 1 | Traditions have been around for decades. They all come in different styles and ways of practice. In some people eyes, they represent the heritage passed down from generation to generation such as objects of values, pieces of art or even handmade tools from an old member of the family. Traditions can also be defined as a cultural aspect. Some rituals are still around today and are very respected by certain people. Others start to disappear as years go by. In the short story Everyday Use written in 1973, the author Alice Walker illustrates the importance of family heritage. Walker’s short story demonstrates the life of a mother and her two daughters who are exposed to cultural aspects with different sets of minds regarding the heritage. The narrator of the story known as “Mama” is the mother of two daughters. She is both a mom and a dad to them. She is a strong woman who lives an old-fashioned life with one of her daughters Maggie in a village. She has done everything in her power to give her children the best life they can obtain. She and the village’s church raised money together to send her oldest daughter in town to study and further her education in college.
Based on Mama’s description of herself we can say that she has the appearance of a woman in a man’s body. She reveals that she is “a large big-boned woman with rough, man-working hands (Walker 655). Mama is a very straightforward person who says things exactly how they are. As readers, we can say that she enjoys working outside to fulfill her duties. Doing man-like jobs like breaking the ice, and killing hogs don’t bother her. She is a very motivating and hardworking individual who can do it all. However, when it comes to raising her daughters fairly, we can say that she fails to discipline both in the same manner. The two sisters each have their own definition of heritage. Only one of them sees it as valuable. That is the case of Maggie in this story. This young lady considers heritage to be everything and believes that it should be included in their daily activities as it was in their ancestors’ lives. Maggie is a very shy and reserved girl who is afraid to expose herself especially around a crowd. Her traumatism mainly comes from her injuries during the fire of their first house. She has burn scars on her body and is very insecure about herself. She struggles to appreciate and find herself beautiful because of her forever lasting scars from the fire. Her timidity makes her not confident enough which even shows when she walks. Her mom describes her walking as a “lame animal with shuffling movements who has her chin on her chest” (Walker). She lives a very simple life and is somehow disregarded compared to her older sister. Maggie wishes to be a little appreciated and considered like her sister. Regardless of that aspect, she seems very happy with the life that she is living next to her Mama. She understands the importance of their family’s quilt and would do anything to preserve it. However, her relationship with her sister has much more importance in her eyes and she would rather offer the quilt to her sister who seems more obsessed with it. Maggie would choose family over objects any day, unlike her sister. Mama’s oldest daughter, however, is very different from Maggie. Because she went to school and has a proper education unlike her sister and mom, Maggie’s sister known as Dee is very modernized. She somehow feels superior to everybody else because she received an education. At a young age, she demonstrates an interest in education through reading and writing. She is a very intelligent lady who later on got help from her village who raised the money for her education in town. Dee ,however, is not grateful towards her people. She has no appreciation for her family who plays a big role in her success. Since her access through college, she completely changes her lifestyle. She never even visited her home since she got to college. She feels ashamed of her roots and seems to forget where she comes from and how she got where she is now. She appears to be so embarrassed about her culture and people that she felt the need to change her name to Wangero. The turning point of the story focuses on Dee’s /Wangero’s return in her homeland. Mama is very excited to see her child again and was prepared in advance. When it comes to Maggie, she wasn’t very enthusiastic about it.
She would rather stand in the shadow behind her sister. Mama was a little disappointed when Dee comes in with a new different attitude starting by telling her that Dee doesn’t exist anymore and from now on her name is Wangero. She comes dressed with bright and shiny colors accompanied by a young man named Hakim-a-barber. Wangero’s visit has nothing to do with her wanting to visit her family. She is more interested in searching for objects that are part of her African inheritance that she can take back with her in the city. She tries to get mama by the emotions to get what she wants. she says “Oh Mama, I never knew how lovely these benches are. You can feel the rump prints…then she gave a sigh and her hand closed over grandma’s Dee butter dish and said “that’s it. I knew there was something I wanted to ask if I could have”. (Walker). Wangero shows a sudden interest in her heritage but still doesn’t see the values or importance of these items. She only sees them as pieces of art she can sell or decorate her house with. Her mother once offered her the quilt before she ran off for college. Dee refused to bring it with her now she comes back just to collect these objects that she might find useful for decorations. Dee’s sweet behavior in front of Mama automatically changes when she told her that her intention is to offer the quilt to Maggie. Dee tries to dissuade her and tells her that “Maggie can’t appreciate these quilts! She’d probably be backward enough to put them to everyday use (Walker). Dee would say anything to convince her mother to offer her these items. She doesn’t seem to care much that she’s hurting her sister’s feeling. Dee wants what Dee wants and is very confident to collect them all given that her mother never refuses her anything. The quilt has an important meaning in the story. The author is trying to demonstrate how the quilt is represented in the family as an homage to their ancestors. “They had been pieced my Grandma Dee and Big Dee and me and hung them on the quilt frames …Bits and pieces of Grandpa Jarrell’s paisley shirts. And one teeny faded blue piece about the size of a penny matchbox that was from Great Grandpa Ezra’s uniform that he wore in the Civil War. (Walker)”. The quilt consists of different types of clothing that are handmade by either their grandmother or Mama herself. Maggie and her mother share the same interest in the quilt and feel a strong connection between them thanks to the quilt.
They both understand the meaning behind the quilts. They represent a source of joy and a reminder of their identity as African-Americans. Dee doesn’t know much about her heritage. She never showed interest in her culture until now. Yet she only recognizes it to boost her fashion and use the quilts as accessories. As the story gets to its end, Mama realizes how selfish Dee is and decided to give the quilts to Maggie instead. Her reason for doing that is because she feels like Dee doesn’t fully understand the importance of family culture. Dee’s anger was so obvious that she couldn’t take it anymore she decided to leave immediately with Hakim-a-barber. At that point, Mama realizes that Dee’s visit has nothing to do with her being interested in her culture. She was more interested in collecting her family’s heritage for personal needs. The author Walker illustrates different themes throughout the story. She demonstrates the theme of love in the story by showing her readers how passionate Maggie is when it comes to conserving her family’s heritage. Walker uses the quilts as a symbol of honor in regard to their past and respects for the heritage that their ancestors left them with. Walker uses Dee’s character to illustrate the theme of education. Walker believes that education can open up a lot of door for a person. In the example of Dee, she has received everything she always dreamed of having, gold earrings, fashion tools…Yet Dee doesn’t use her education to help others. She feels superior to everybody and shows it clearly when reading for her mom and sister to show them just how inferior they are. Going to school has changed Dee somehow. She considers herself a city girl and rejects her culture and even change her name to show her disinterest in where she comes from. This story is a great representative culture and how different people embrace it with different approaches each. | 1,780 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Mary Beth Norton et al., A People and A Nation: A History of the United States, 4th ed. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1994), 361-362.
The ranks of free people of color were constantly increased by ex-slaves. Some, like Fredrick Douglass and Harriet Tubman, were fugitives. Douglass had paid his owner $3 a month for the privilege of hiring himself out as a ship caulker in Baltimore. Living among free workers gave him an opportunity to escape slavery. By masquerading as a free black with the help of borrowed seaman’s papers, he bluffed his way to Philadelphia and freedom. Tubman, a slave in Maryland, escaped to Philadelphia in 1849 when it was rumored that she would be sold out of the state. Within the next two years she returned twice to free her two children, her sister, her mother, and her brother and his family. Other slaves were voluntarily freed by their owners. Some, like a Virginia planter named Sanders who settled his slaves as freedmen in Michigan, sought to cleanse their souls by freeing their slaves in their wills. Others freed elderly slaves after a lifetime of service rather than support them in old age. Whites who inherited the parents of the slave Isabella (Sojourner Truth), for example, freed them to avoid supporting the father, who was too old to work. | <urn:uuid:e15542e9-399d-424d-b49a-f9e1548c35ec> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://hd.housedivided.dickinson.edu/node/17136 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00282.warc.gz | en | 0.986763 | 289 | 3.953125 | 4 | [
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-0.086789861321... | 2 | Mary Beth Norton et al., A People and A Nation: A History of the United States, 4th ed. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1994), 361-362.
The ranks of free people of color were constantly increased by ex-slaves. Some, like Fredrick Douglass and Harriet Tubman, were fugitives. Douglass had paid his owner $3 a month for the privilege of hiring himself out as a ship caulker in Baltimore. Living among free workers gave him an opportunity to escape slavery. By masquerading as a free black with the help of borrowed seaman’s papers, he bluffed his way to Philadelphia and freedom. Tubman, a slave in Maryland, escaped to Philadelphia in 1849 when it was rumored that she would be sold out of the state. Within the next two years she returned twice to free her two children, her sister, her mother, and her brother and his family. Other slaves were voluntarily freed by their owners. Some, like a Virginia planter named Sanders who settled his slaves as freedmen in Michigan, sought to cleanse their souls by freeing their slaves in their wills. Others freed elderly slaves after a lifetime of service rather than support them in old age. Whites who inherited the parents of the slave Isabella (Sojourner Truth), for example, freed them to avoid supporting the father, who was too old to work. | 299 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Saturnalia was an ancient Roman festival in honour of the god Saturn. It was originally held on 17 December but was later extended with festivities to 23 December. Saturnalia was celebrated with a sacrifice at the Temple of Saturn, and a public banquet. This was followed by private gift-giving and continual partying. Many believe Saturnalia was a major influence on customs associated with later celebrations in western Europe, especially Christmas. Let’s look at the origins of this pagan holiday and similarities with today’s festivities.
Ancient Roman historianJustinus states Saturn was an historical king of thepre-Roman Italy: “Saturnus, is said to have been a man of such extraordinary justice, that no one was a slave in his reign, or had any private property, but all things were common to all, and undivided, as one estate for the use of every one; in memory of which way of life, it has been ordered that at the Saturnalia slaves should everywhere sit down with their masters at the entertainments, the rank of all being made equal." Saturn was viewed as an agricultural deity who reigned over the world in the Golden Age. The term Golden Age is adopted from Greek mythology and is the first of five Ages, Gold being the first and the one during which the Golden Race of lived. After the end of the first age was the Silver, then Bronze, followed by the Heroic age. The fifth contempary age of the time was Iron. The Golden Age of Saturn’s rule was a period when pre-Romans enjoyed the fruits of the earth without labour in an age of innocence. The revelries of Saturnalia reflected the conditions of this lost mythical age.
During Saturnalia, Roman society was turned on its head. As well a sacrifice, feasting and partying, masters provided table service for their slaves and freedmen. Gambling was permitted for all and it was a time of liberty. A "Ruler of the Saturnalia" was elected by lots, who was a master of ceremonies and comparable to the “Lord of Misrule” at the Feast of Fools, which originated in Northern France. Gifts exchanged were usually ancient joke shop type items know as gag gifts or small clay or wax figurines known as sigillaria. Toys were given to children. Saturnalia was held sixteen days before the Kalends of January, which marked the birth of the unconquerable Sun.
Fifth century Roman writer, Macrobius Ambrosius Theodosius is our major source of information about Saturnalia. He described Saturnalia as a festival of light leading to the winter solstice. Like the Christian Advent, candles were lit each day to symbolise the quest for knowledge and truth. The renewal of light and the coming new year was celebrated in the later Roman Empire as the Dies Natalis Solis Invicti, the "Birthday of the Unconquerable Sun" on 23 December. The Philocalian calendar of AD 354 actually dates the festival of "Natalis Invicti" on 25 December. There is limited evidence that Natalis Invicti was celebrated before the mid-4th century. Despite similarities between Christmas and Saturnalia it is only since the 12th century, that the near-solstice date of 25 December for Christmas was selected because it was the date of the festival of Dies Natalis Solis Invicti. However, Hippolytus of Rome, between 202 and 211, said in his commentary on the Book of Daniel that the birth of Jesus took place on December 25, which was prior to Natalis Invicti.
Comments will be approved before showing up. | <urn:uuid:ac2ac8f0-091e-4a69-93d9-74c3b58d9bc2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ancientreasures.com/blogs/ancient-treasures/031-saturnalia | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00383.warc.gz | en | 0.982343 | 753 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.520432710647... | 8 | Saturnalia was an ancient Roman festival in honour of the god Saturn. It was originally held on 17 December but was later extended with festivities to 23 December. Saturnalia was celebrated with a sacrifice at the Temple of Saturn, and a public banquet. This was followed by private gift-giving and continual partying. Many believe Saturnalia was a major influence on customs associated with later celebrations in western Europe, especially Christmas. Let’s look at the origins of this pagan holiday and similarities with today’s festivities.
Ancient Roman historianJustinus states Saturn was an historical king of thepre-Roman Italy: “Saturnus, is said to have been a man of such extraordinary justice, that no one was a slave in his reign, or had any private property, but all things were common to all, and undivided, as one estate for the use of every one; in memory of which way of life, it has been ordered that at the Saturnalia slaves should everywhere sit down with their masters at the entertainments, the rank of all being made equal." Saturn was viewed as an agricultural deity who reigned over the world in the Golden Age. The term Golden Age is adopted from Greek mythology and is the first of five Ages, Gold being the first and the one during which the Golden Race of lived. After the end of the first age was the Silver, then Bronze, followed by the Heroic age. The fifth contempary age of the time was Iron. The Golden Age of Saturn’s rule was a period when pre-Romans enjoyed the fruits of the earth without labour in an age of innocence. The revelries of Saturnalia reflected the conditions of this lost mythical age.
During Saturnalia, Roman society was turned on its head. As well a sacrifice, feasting and partying, masters provided table service for their slaves and freedmen. Gambling was permitted for all and it was a time of liberty. A "Ruler of the Saturnalia" was elected by lots, who was a master of ceremonies and comparable to the “Lord of Misrule” at the Feast of Fools, which originated in Northern France. Gifts exchanged were usually ancient joke shop type items know as gag gifts or small clay or wax figurines known as sigillaria. Toys were given to children. Saturnalia was held sixteen days before the Kalends of January, which marked the birth of the unconquerable Sun.
Fifth century Roman writer, Macrobius Ambrosius Theodosius is our major source of information about Saturnalia. He described Saturnalia as a festival of light leading to the winter solstice. Like the Christian Advent, candles were lit each day to symbolise the quest for knowledge and truth. The renewal of light and the coming new year was celebrated in the later Roman Empire as the Dies Natalis Solis Invicti, the "Birthday of the Unconquerable Sun" on 23 December. The Philocalian calendar of AD 354 actually dates the festival of "Natalis Invicti" on 25 December. There is limited evidence that Natalis Invicti was celebrated before the mid-4th century. Despite similarities between Christmas and Saturnalia it is only since the 12th century, that the near-solstice date of 25 December for Christmas was selected because it was the date of the festival of Dies Natalis Solis Invicti. However, Hippolytus of Rome, between 202 and 211, said in his commentary on the Book of Daniel that the birth of Jesus took place on December 25, which was prior to Natalis Invicti.
Comments will be approved before showing up. | 758 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A Real Woman in the 14th Century
In the 14th century Geoffrey Chaucer wrote “The Canterbury Tales” which included a progressive view of women’s concerns in “The Wife of Bath. ” During a time when women were still considered chattel existing almost exclusively to produce, Chaucer brings out issues affecting women that were not commonly even given consideration. Writing in the first person, Chaucer is able to describe life from the viewpoint of a real woman. Through this specific style, Chaucer addresses some subject matter that would have been too candid for a female writer during his time period.
By writing “The Wife of Bath” in a satirical way, Chaucer points out issues facing women regarding double standards, the validity of female desire, and the economic necessity of women to marry well while keeping the text funny with some common female stereotypes regarding deception that have persisted into present day culture. The character of the Wife of Bath in Chaucer’s “The Wife of Bath’s Prologue” is a strong woman who knows what she wants from life. She is ahead of her time, seeing that women who portrayed themselves the way she does were not necessarily looked positively upon.
In this sense, I believe that the Wife of Bath is a feminist. When I use the word feminist I do not mean bra burning, men hating feminist types. I mean a woman who is in touch with herself. She is her own genre when it comes to feminism. She is comfortable with her sexuality and what she wants from life. Through Chaucer, she is viewed as a promiscuous however, she is actually in control of her sexual adventures. One of the first issues the speaker, Alison, addresses is the idea of double standards. As she begins the prologue she lays the groundwork for her story by defending ones right to marry as often as they are able.
While people often believe that it is immoral for a woman to marry more than once, Alison discusses the idea that she should be free to marry as many times as she wishes and that others should hold their judgment. She claims that she has never heard the specific number of marriages allowed by the bible defined. She sites Solomon as a biblical standard saying that he had many wives and no doubt received pleasure from all of them (260). Within this example Alison claims that it is acceptable not only for her to marry as often as she wishes, but also to receive physical satisfaction from her husband.
By comparing her marital history with that of Solomon and other men, she is fighting the double standard that it is acceptable for men to not only marry often but also to have multiple wives. This is a specific double standard because people tend to raise their eyebrows at a woman who does not choose to stay a widow indefinitely. This idea is relevant to the present day reader because it is a hypocrisy that still exists. When a husband loses a wife and is quick to remarry, it is often understood that men move on faster than women after losing a spouse.
When a woman loses a spouse there is unstated societal “norm” that prevents a woman from dating too soon, let alone to think about marriage. Although Alison makes it known that she has married for economic privilege, she also acknowledges that her sexual desire is relevant to marriage. She makes an argument that there is no commandment regarding virginity and that everyone knows “counseling is not commandment” (261). While it “pleases some to be pure, body and soul” Alison doesn’t have this issue.
Because it is not a commandment to remain a virgin and she doesn’t have the issue of guilt regarding sex, she feels that it is her right to enjoy it. Using humor, Chaucer has Alison point out that genitals were not made merely for “purgation of urine” either and that she will make use of the abilities that God gave her for satisfaction. She believes that it is her right to have physical pleasure, asserting, “In marriage I’ll use my equipment as freely as my maker sent it” (262). Alison was ahead of her time when she discusses her sexual needs and declares that she would not allow her husband to have satisfaction until he had appeased her.
While women in the 20th century went through an entire sexual revolution to get to the point where they could also demand sexual satisfaction and discuss their physical needs, Alison gets right to the point in describing her system of sexual quid pro quo. She realizes that acknowledgement of her desire not only brings her satisfaction but also gives her a certain power over her husband. Alison knew that a woman’s sexuality could be viewed as a commodity if one realizes the power and advantages that kind of sexual freedom can produce.
Another theme in “The Wife of Bath” is the idea that marriage was a necessity for women both as a livelihood and as a way to provide the opportunity for upward mobility unattainable by other means. In today’s society, if a woman wants to get out of her social situation she can go to law school or medical school and change her socio-economic situation. However, she can also do what women in Alison’s time did which would be to marry up. Alison affirms in the beginning of her prologue that she intends to “bestow the flower of [her] whole life in the acts and fruits of marriage” lines 112-113).
She is cognizant of the fact that marriage is her path to success by inheriting both land and money from her husband when he dies. Perhaps because of this realization, her first three husbands were . “.. good, and rich, and old… ” (line 197). Alison would have been respected by people during her time if only for her ability to acquire wealth. She was an example of marital success and was able to enjoy the benefits of affluent unions. Madonna sang a popular song that hypothetically could have received partial inspiration from Chaucer’s “The Wife of Bath” called ‘Material Girl’.
The lyrics that pertain to Chaucer’s creation go something like this “Experience has made me rich and now they’re after me. ” Even if the song has no root inspiration from Chaucer, it is an example of the situation of women gaining wealth through men and then being coveted for that monetary advantage. The song serves a purpose as well to prove that Alison’s experiences are also thriving in the 21st century. For a woman of her time, Alison would have been in the ideal situation and she may even have been in a positive situation for women of this time period.
One of the main stereotypes that Chaucer exposes in “The Wife of Bath” is that of women being inherently deceitful. The first example of this is when Alison is boasting about her ability to deceive her husband. She claims that, “For no man can perjure himself and lie half so boldly as a woman can” (lines 227-228). While this idea supports Alison’s tale, it also shows what the common ideas of women and honesty were during the 14th century. Alison goes on to describe what one of her husbands believes about women when she says, “You say we wives will hid our vices until we are safely married, and then we will show them” (lines 282-283).
This alludes to men believing that women would do anything, including misrepresentation, to get into an advantageous marriage. She also backs up this claim by saying that God gave women the ability to tell untruths, declaring, “God has given women by nature deceit, weeping, and spinning, as long as they live. And thus I can boast of one thing: in the end I got the better of them in every case, by trick, or force, or by some kind of method” ( lines 401-405). Alison affirms that this is the way that she acts by her assertions but also by telling how she won over her 5th usband. She got him to love her by telling him that she had a dream about him that was commonly believed to be a sign that money and wealth would be in their future together. She further perpetuates this argument as she says, “I made him believe he had enchanted me; my mother taught me that trick… I was just following my mother’s lore, as I always did, in that as well as in other matters” ( lines 575-576, 584-585). This is a key point because it shows that maternal influence over daughters helped to instill a habit of dishonesty.
Growing up and now being a woman myself, my very own mother has always said to my sisters and I, “You must use what you have to get what you want! ” Chaucer illustrates through Alison’s examples that not only did men believe that women were deceitful, but also that women knowingly used it to their advantage. The idea that women are inherently deceitful remains a stereotype in the 21st century as well. Perhaps it has something to do with the representation of women in the bible in a Christian influenced society, but it may also be that the stereotypes of men and women passed down these commonly held beliefs from one generation to the next.
Much of Chaucer’s portrayal of “The Wife of Bath” allows the present day reader to gain insight into commonly held beliefs regarding women during the 14th century. By allowing Alison to have a sense of humor and joke about aspects of her marriage, Chaucer was able to make numerous points regarding women that would not have been acknowledged had a female author created them. By making Alison a laughable character, Chaucer was able to make points about women such as the unfairness of double standards, the acknowledgement of female desire, and the reality of women marrying well to improve their economic situations.
Chaucer also provides us with detailed examples of commonly held stereotypes regarding women that are still relevant approximately seven centuries later. The Wife of Bath is a woman before her time in the sense that she is confident in her ability to ask for and to get exactly what she wants from life. Many people would look down on her then, and even today, as being a loose, promiscuous woman. However, I see her as an honest woman in control of her own destiny. | <urn:uuid:4c626b09-0043-41c1-90e3-1025f7e534f8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://farmersfeastmanitoba.com/a-real-woman-in-the-14th-century/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00171.warc.gz | en | 0.986436 | 2,143 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.2313106656074... | 1 | A Real Woman in the 14th Century
In the 14th century Geoffrey Chaucer wrote “The Canterbury Tales” which included a progressive view of women’s concerns in “The Wife of Bath. ” During a time when women were still considered chattel existing almost exclusively to produce, Chaucer brings out issues affecting women that were not commonly even given consideration. Writing in the first person, Chaucer is able to describe life from the viewpoint of a real woman. Through this specific style, Chaucer addresses some subject matter that would have been too candid for a female writer during his time period.
By writing “The Wife of Bath” in a satirical way, Chaucer points out issues facing women regarding double standards, the validity of female desire, and the economic necessity of women to marry well while keeping the text funny with some common female stereotypes regarding deception that have persisted into present day culture. The character of the Wife of Bath in Chaucer’s “The Wife of Bath’s Prologue” is a strong woman who knows what she wants from life. She is ahead of her time, seeing that women who portrayed themselves the way she does were not necessarily looked positively upon.
In this sense, I believe that the Wife of Bath is a feminist. When I use the word feminist I do not mean bra burning, men hating feminist types. I mean a woman who is in touch with herself. She is her own genre when it comes to feminism. She is comfortable with her sexuality and what she wants from life. Through Chaucer, she is viewed as a promiscuous however, she is actually in control of her sexual adventures. One of the first issues the speaker, Alison, addresses is the idea of double standards. As she begins the prologue she lays the groundwork for her story by defending ones right to marry as often as they are able.
While people often believe that it is immoral for a woman to marry more than once, Alison discusses the idea that she should be free to marry as many times as she wishes and that others should hold their judgment. She claims that she has never heard the specific number of marriages allowed by the bible defined. She sites Solomon as a biblical standard saying that he had many wives and no doubt received pleasure from all of them (260). Within this example Alison claims that it is acceptable not only for her to marry as often as she wishes, but also to receive physical satisfaction from her husband.
By comparing her marital history with that of Solomon and other men, she is fighting the double standard that it is acceptable for men to not only marry often but also to have multiple wives. This is a specific double standard because people tend to raise their eyebrows at a woman who does not choose to stay a widow indefinitely. This idea is relevant to the present day reader because it is a hypocrisy that still exists. When a husband loses a wife and is quick to remarry, it is often understood that men move on faster than women after losing a spouse.
When a woman loses a spouse there is unstated societal “norm” that prevents a woman from dating too soon, let alone to think about marriage. Although Alison makes it known that she has married for economic privilege, she also acknowledges that her sexual desire is relevant to marriage. She makes an argument that there is no commandment regarding virginity and that everyone knows “counseling is not commandment” (261). While it “pleases some to be pure, body and soul” Alison doesn’t have this issue.
Because it is not a commandment to remain a virgin and she doesn’t have the issue of guilt regarding sex, she feels that it is her right to enjoy it. Using humor, Chaucer has Alison point out that genitals were not made merely for “purgation of urine” either and that she will make use of the abilities that God gave her for satisfaction. She believes that it is her right to have physical pleasure, asserting, “In marriage I’ll use my equipment as freely as my maker sent it” (262). Alison was ahead of her time when she discusses her sexual needs and declares that she would not allow her husband to have satisfaction until he had appeased her.
While women in the 20th century went through an entire sexual revolution to get to the point where they could also demand sexual satisfaction and discuss their physical needs, Alison gets right to the point in describing her system of sexual quid pro quo. She realizes that acknowledgement of her desire not only brings her satisfaction but also gives her a certain power over her husband. Alison knew that a woman’s sexuality could be viewed as a commodity if one realizes the power and advantages that kind of sexual freedom can produce.
Another theme in “The Wife of Bath” is the idea that marriage was a necessity for women both as a livelihood and as a way to provide the opportunity for upward mobility unattainable by other means. In today’s society, if a woman wants to get out of her social situation she can go to law school or medical school and change her socio-economic situation. However, she can also do what women in Alison’s time did which would be to marry up. Alison affirms in the beginning of her prologue that she intends to “bestow the flower of [her] whole life in the acts and fruits of marriage” lines 112-113).
She is cognizant of the fact that marriage is her path to success by inheriting both land and money from her husband when he dies. Perhaps because of this realization, her first three husbands were . “.. good, and rich, and old… ” (line 197). Alison would have been respected by people during her time if only for her ability to acquire wealth. She was an example of marital success and was able to enjoy the benefits of affluent unions. Madonna sang a popular song that hypothetically could have received partial inspiration from Chaucer’s “The Wife of Bath” called ‘Material Girl’.
The lyrics that pertain to Chaucer’s creation go something like this “Experience has made me rich and now they’re after me. ” Even if the song has no root inspiration from Chaucer, it is an example of the situation of women gaining wealth through men and then being coveted for that monetary advantage. The song serves a purpose as well to prove that Alison’s experiences are also thriving in the 21st century. For a woman of her time, Alison would have been in the ideal situation and she may even have been in a positive situation for women of this time period.
One of the main stereotypes that Chaucer exposes in “The Wife of Bath” is that of women being inherently deceitful. The first example of this is when Alison is boasting about her ability to deceive her husband. She claims that, “For no man can perjure himself and lie half so boldly as a woman can” (lines 227-228). While this idea supports Alison’s tale, it also shows what the common ideas of women and honesty were during the 14th century. Alison goes on to describe what one of her husbands believes about women when she says, “You say we wives will hid our vices until we are safely married, and then we will show them” (lines 282-283).
This alludes to men believing that women would do anything, including misrepresentation, to get into an advantageous marriage. She also backs up this claim by saying that God gave women the ability to tell untruths, declaring, “God has given women by nature deceit, weeping, and spinning, as long as they live. And thus I can boast of one thing: in the end I got the better of them in every case, by trick, or force, or by some kind of method” ( lines 401-405). Alison affirms that this is the way that she acts by her assertions but also by telling how she won over her 5th usband. She got him to love her by telling him that she had a dream about him that was commonly believed to be a sign that money and wealth would be in their future together. She further perpetuates this argument as she says, “I made him believe he had enchanted me; my mother taught me that trick… I was just following my mother’s lore, as I always did, in that as well as in other matters” ( lines 575-576, 584-585). This is a key point because it shows that maternal influence over daughters helped to instill a habit of dishonesty.
Growing up and now being a woman myself, my very own mother has always said to my sisters and I, “You must use what you have to get what you want! ” Chaucer illustrates through Alison’s examples that not only did men believe that women were deceitful, but also that women knowingly used it to their advantage. The idea that women are inherently deceitful remains a stereotype in the 21st century as well. Perhaps it has something to do with the representation of women in the bible in a Christian influenced society, but it may also be that the stereotypes of men and women passed down these commonly held beliefs from one generation to the next.
Much of Chaucer’s portrayal of “The Wife of Bath” allows the present day reader to gain insight into commonly held beliefs regarding women during the 14th century. By allowing Alison to have a sense of humor and joke about aspects of her marriage, Chaucer was able to make numerous points regarding women that would not have been acknowledged had a female author created them. By making Alison a laughable character, Chaucer was able to make points about women such as the unfairness of double standards, the acknowledgement of female desire, and the reality of women marrying well to improve their economic situations.
Chaucer also provides us with detailed examples of commonly held stereotypes regarding women that are still relevant approximately seven centuries later. The Wife of Bath is a woman before her time in the sense that she is confident in her ability to ask for and to get exactly what she wants from life. Many people would look down on her then, and even today, as being a loose, promiscuous woman. However, I see her as an honest woman in control of her own destiny. | 2,119 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This historical marker commemorates the discovery of oil in Tulsa County. Just under a half mile to the west of the marker, in a community called Red Fork, two Pennsylvania oil drillers—John S. Wick and Jesse A. Heydrick —struck oil in June 1901 (the very first discovery in the state occurred in 1897 in Bartlesville). They proceeded to build the first oil well in the county. Known as the Red Fork Gusher, the well was found in the heart of the Creek Indian Nation territory. Although the oil well only produced ten barrels per day, it brought a lot of attention to the Red Fork and Tulsa. The population in Tulsa increased substantially, as workers and their families arrived to work in the oil fields. In time, Tulsa would earn the nickname Oil Capital of the world.
Funding for the well's construction came from two local doctors, John C.W. Bland and Fred S. Clinton. John Bland's wife, Sue, was a Creek Indian and owned the land on which the oil well stood. As such, the oil well was called the Sue A. Bland No. 1. In the coming years, other oil fields were discovered, including the Glenn Pool oil field, which was one of the biggest ever to be found and made Oklahoma a national leader in oil production. | <urn:uuid:f15c775a-36c5-4d62-a4f7-3b6b15219b3e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theclio.com/entry/66206 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00392.warc.gz | en | 0.98092 | 267 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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-0.09252823... | 2 | This historical marker commemorates the discovery of oil in Tulsa County. Just under a half mile to the west of the marker, in a community called Red Fork, two Pennsylvania oil drillers—John S. Wick and Jesse A. Heydrick —struck oil in June 1901 (the very first discovery in the state occurred in 1897 in Bartlesville). They proceeded to build the first oil well in the county. Known as the Red Fork Gusher, the well was found in the heart of the Creek Indian Nation territory. Although the oil well only produced ten barrels per day, it brought a lot of attention to the Red Fork and Tulsa. The population in Tulsa increased substantially, as workers and their families arrived to work in the oil fields. In time, Tulsa would earn the nickname Oil Capital of the world.
Funding for the well's construction came from two local doctors, John C.W. Bland and Fred S. Clinton. John Bland's wife, Sue, was a Creek Indian and owned the land on which the oil well stood. As such, the oil well was called the Sue A. Bland No. 1. In the coming years, other oil fields were discovered, including the Glenn Pool oil field, which was one of the biggest ever to be found and made Oklahoma a national leader in oil production. | 277 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The synagogue was built at the end of the 14th century, probably following the example of the Old New Synagogue in Prague, built in 1270. When the Jews were accused of causing a plague epidemic, it resulted in expelling them from the Czech. Taking advantage of the fact that Konrad I confirmed the right to bring them to his duchy in 1329, they settled in Oleśnica and already in 1389 there was an independent Jewish community, consisting of wealthy Jews arriving from Prague, who had a separate district in the north part of the town. It is known that the princes of Oleśnica collected a special duty from them, for which they undertook to protect them.
Jews from Oleśnica were expelled in 1535, after a great storm for which they were blamed. Synagogue building was changed into a warehouse and then into an arsenal. In 1695, the synagogue was rebuilt into the temple of the Evangelical-Augsburg church. In 1730, the building burnt down and was rebuilt after four years. At that time, it was rebuilt in the late baroque style, the pillars were demolished and a wooden barrel vault was established. It was re-renovated in 1968. Currently, as a church, it functions under the invocation of Saint Salvator.
The brick two-aisle synagogue building from the 15th century was built in the Gothic style. It was surrounded with buttresses from all sides. The prayer room was 9.5 x 11.8 meters, and in it two pillars supported six bays of cross – rib vault. It center was usually occupied by a surrounded by a balustrade bima (table for lecturing and reading the Torah). On the axis of the eastern wall there was a recess for the shrine
From the west, an annex was added to the synagogue housing a women’s porch, that is a room intended exclusively for women. It was located between the buttresses of the main building, so that the middle one was inside the annex. Its construction took place simultaneously with the synagogue, as evidenced by the uniform pedestal around them.
The tower on the south side can be a medieval element or added in the 16th century after the synagogue was liquidated. Perhaps it was originally a porch, later raised to the form of a tower. This would be indicated by the not very wide thickness of its walls, even slightly smaller than the walls of the main building.
Pilch J., Leksykon zabytków architektury Dolnego Śląska, Warszawa 2005.
Starzewska M., Oleśnica, Warszawa 1963.
Website olesnica.nienaltowski.net, Stara synagoga, Kościół Zbawiciela (Salvatora), Kościół Zielonoświątkowy. | <urn:uuid:9d2885e0-a8fa-4e9e-99eb-58b9ddc8096c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://medievalheritage.eu/en/main-page/heritage/poland/olesnica-st-salvator-synagogue/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00551.warc.gz | en | 0.981176 | 615 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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-0.041052177548... | 12 | The synagogue was built at the end of the 14th century, probably following the example of the Old New Synagogue in Prague, built in 1270. When the Jews were accused of causing a plague epidemic, it resulted in expelling them from the Czech. Taking advantage of the fact that Konrad I confirmed the right to bring them to his duchy in 1329, they settled in Oleśnica and already in 1389 there was an independent Jewish community, consisting of wealthy Jews arriving from Prague, who had a separate district in the north part of the town. It is known that the princes of Oleśnica collected a special duty from them, for which they undertook to protect them.
Jews from Oleśnica were expelled in 1535, after a great storm for which they were blamed. Synagogue building was changed into a warehouse and then into an arsenal. In 1695, the synagogue was rebuilt into the temple of the Evangelical-Augsburg church. In 1730, the building burnt down and was rebuilt after four years. At that time, it was rebuilt in the late baroque style, the pillars were demolished and a wooden barrel vault was established. It was re-renovated in 1968. Currently, as a church, it functions under the invocation of Saint Salvator.
The brick two-aisle synagogue building from the 15th century was built in the Gothic style. It was surrounded with buttresses from all sides. The prayer room was 9.5 x 11.8 meters, and in it two pillars supported six bays of cross – rib vault. It center was usually occupied by a surrounded by a balustrade bima (table for lecturing and reading the Torah). On the axis of the eastern wall there was a recess for the shrine
From the west, an annex was added to the synagogue housing a women’s porch, that is a room intended exclusively for women. It was located between the buttresses of the main building, so that the middle one was inside the annex. Its construction took place simultaneously with the synagogue, as evidenced by the uniform pedestal around them.
The tower on the south side can be a medieval element or added in the 16th century after the synagogue was liquidated. Perhaps it was originally a porch, later raised to the form of a tower. This would be indicated by the not very wide thickness of its walls, even slightly smaller than the walls of the main building.
Pilch J., Leksykon zabytków architektury Dolnego Śląska, Warszawa 2005.
Starzewska M., Oleśnica, Warszawa 1963.
Website olesnica.nienaltowski.net, Stara synagoga, Kościół Zbawiciela (Salvatora), Kościół Zielonoświątkowy. | 622 | ENGLISH | 1 |
When researching the history of the abolition of the slave trade in Britain, I found a host of wonderful, inspiring stories. I also learnt an important lesson about famous women in history: due to their lack of legal rights and independence, they seldom acted alone. So if you find a radical woman, she is probably the tip of the iceberg, a starting point to explore the world that produced her and that she grew out of.
Elizabeth Blackwell was born in Bristol, UK in 1812 and is famous for being the world’s first female doctor. Following the 1832 riots in Bristol, the family sought a new life in the United States, where her father, a sugar refiner, tried to find non-slave sourced sugar, and their home in Long Island became a refuge for persecuted abolitionists. She championed the rights of women, and of slavery, public health, education, and was widely published and gave many public speeches. She was instrumental in organising nursing care during the Civil War. She was described as ‘either mad or bad’ for her determination to become a doctor in the teeth of such intense male opposition. She was praised by Florence Nightingale, Lady Byron, the Herschells, Faraday and many more.
Elizabeth attended Presbyterian church in Bristol where she heard tales of missionaries abroad and at home, and her experience as a teacher in Kentucky hardened her opposition to slavery, so she grew up in a liberal, if not radical community and family. She was one of nine children, many of whom also became politically active.
Her sister and neice followed her into the medical profession, and her brother, Henry Brown Blackwell was an early and prominent advocate of both abolition and female suffrage. He was a successful businessman, which allowed him to dedicate much of his time to campaigning. When he married Lucy Stone it was on the condition he dedicate himself to womens’ rights and they published a joint statement condemning the inequalities of the status of women, and she refused to adopt his name. Her father believed men ruled over women by divine right, which she believed was a mistranslation of the Bible, so taught herself the classics to investigate this. She became an eloquent and much travelled public speaker on womens rights and abolition. Together they edited the Woman’s Journal until their deaths.
Antoinette Louisa Brown Blackwell was a college friend of Lucy Stone, and became the first woman to become an ordained minister in the United States. She campaigned for abolition of slavery, phohibition and womens rights. When she tried to speak at a temperance convention in New York she was shouted down, as Horace Greely claimed, ‘First day – crowded a woman off the platform. Second day – gagging her. Third day voted that she shall remain gagged.’ When she married Samuel Blackwell, brother to Elizabeth and Henry, she continued lecturing whilst her husband cared for their 6 children.
This is a very brief sketch of an incredibly important family, of whom only Elizabeth is generally known. Thought their widespread public speaking, publishing and membership of public bodies, they had an immense influence on civil rights in the United States, Britain and the rest of the world. Women’s history is not just for feminists; their struggles to be heard in a male world tell us much about the people who opposed them, and the courage and endurance of groups that have been largely forgotten. | <urn:uuid:be21c8b2-4537-4ab1-936d-cac2458b92aa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://barbdrummondcurioushistorian.com/2019/12/23/the-blackwells-a-transatlantic-family-of-radicals/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00012.warc.gz | en | 0.986227 | 695 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.077712818980216... | 15 | When researching the history of the abolition of the slave trade in Britain, I found a host of wonderful, inspiring stories. I also learnt an important lesson about famous women in history: due to their lack of legal rights and independence, they seldom acted alone. So if you find a radical woman, she is probably the tip of the iceberg, a starting point to explore the world that produced her and that she grew out of.
Elizabeth Blackwell was born in Bristol, UK in 1812 and is famous for being the world’s first female doctor. Following the 1832 riots in Bristol, the family sought a new life in the United States, where her father, a sugar refiner, tried to find non-slave sourced sugar, and their home in Long Island became a refuge for persecuted abolitionists. She championed the rights of women, and of slavery, public health, education, and was widely published and gave many public speeches. She was instrumental in organising nursing care during the Civil War. She was described as ‘either mad or bad’ for her determination to become a doctor in the teeth of such intense male opposition. She was praised by Florence Nightingale, Lady Byron, the Herschells, Faraday and many more.
Elizabeth attended Presbyterian church in Bristol where she heard tales of missionaries abroad and at home, and her experience as a teacher in Kentucky hardened her opposition to slavery, so she grew up in a liberal, if not radical community and family. She was one of nine children, many of whom also became politically active.
Her sister and neice followed her into the medical profession, and her brother, Henry Brown Blackwell was an early and prominent advocate of both abolition and female suffrage. He was a successful businessman, which allowed him to dedicate much of his time to campaigning. When he married Lucy Stone it was on the condition he dedicate himself to womens’ rights and they published a joint statement condemning the inequalities of the status of women, and she refused to adopt his name. Her father believed men ruled over women by divine right, which she believed was a mistranslation of the Bible, so taught herself the classics to investigate this. She became an eloquent and much travelled public speaker on womens rights and abolition. Together they edited the Woman’s Journal until their deaths.
Antoinette Louisa Brown Blackwell was a college friend of Lucy Stone, and became the first woman to become an ordained minister in the United States. She campaigned for abolition of slavery, phohibition and womens rights. When she tried to speak at a temperance convention in New York she was shouted down, as Horace Greely claimed, ‘First day – crowded a woman off the platform. Second day – gagging her. Third day voted that she shall remain gagged.’ When she married Samuel Blackwell, brother to Elizabeth and Henry, she continued lecturing whilst her husband cared for their 6 children.
This is a very brief sketch of an incredibly important family, of whom only Elizabeth is generally known. Thought their widespread public speaking, publishing and membership of public bodies, they had an immense influence on civil rights in the United States, Britain and the rest of the world. Women’s history is not just for feminists; their struggles to be heard in a male world tell us much about the people who opposed them, and the courage and endurance of groups that have been largely forgotten. | 687 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Buy custom Alexander the Great essay
Alexander the Great is a Macedonian king and commander of the big Empire that he created on his own. He is a creator of the world power and well-known as a one of the greatest generals in the history of the world. He was taught by Aristotle. After the death of his farther Philip II, Alexander ascended to the throne at the age of 20 years. He secured the northern borders of Macedonia and completed the subjugation of Greece. He took the rebellious city of Thebes. In the spring of 334 BC, he led the army that invaded into the Persian Empire. He needed seven years in order to complete the conquest of it. Alexander then began the conquest of India, but at the insistence of the soldiers retreated. Although he has not suffered a single defeat and came to the river Ganges. It was his dream to reach the end of the world, but he was defeated and his empire was disintegrated after his death. He could not hold his empire together due to the constant civil wars. Soon after the Indian campaign, he died in Babylon under mysterious circumstances. Because of the sudden death of the king several generals divided his empire. Despite the quick division of his conquest, the cities that were founded by Alexander and the Greek colonization of the distant territories facilitated to the spreading of Greek culture and language and the rapprochement with Eastern culture. During his conquest he established several cities. The most famous of them is Alexandria in Egypt. He became the role model for military leaders throughout the world. Some of the generals still teach his tactics.
Muhammad is an Arab preacher of monotheism and the prophet of Islam. He is a center figure of the Islam religion and according to Islamic teachings of the Muhammad. Muhammad was also a politician, founder and head of the Muslim community, which was strong and large state in the Arabian Peninsula during the course of his direct rule. He has lighter color of skin than ordinary Arabs. While preaching among the mountains he reported that he received the revelations from God. Three year later, he started to teach that the God is one and he is a prophet of God. Muhammad occupies the highest position among other prophets that are recognized by the Islam. According to the Islam, the belief in the prophetic mission of Muhammad is mandatory for all people, including Christians and Jews. According to the teachings of Islam, Muhammad is the last prophet and messenger of Allah. Islam recognizes the Bible and often points out that the Bible tells about Prophet Muhammad. He has been many times criticized for his marriages, military campaigns and preaching monotheism.
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Muhammad is on the list of most influential person in history.
Confucius was the ancient Chinese thinker and philosopher. His teachings had a profound impact on the lives of China and East Asia and became the basement for a philosophical system known as Confucianism. In the age of twenty years, he became known as the first professional educator of the China. From early childhood, Confucius has worked and lived in poverty. Later, he understood the necessity to be a cultured person and began his education. He went on a trip around China accompanied with his students. During the trip he tried to convey his ideas to the rulers of different regions. At the age of sixty years, Confucius returned home and spent the last years of his life, teaching new students. Confucian ideal is to create a harmonious society in the ancient manner, in which every person has a function. Confucius School was one of the many destinations in the intellectual life of the Warring States in the period known as the Hundred Schools. The Confucianism reached the status of a state ideology, which survived until the beginning of the 20th century. This led to the exaltation of the figure of Confucius and even incorporated him into a religious pantheon.
Want to know what your projected final grades might look like?
Check out our easy to use grade calculator! It can help you solve this question.Calculate now | <urn:uuid:36e122f1-5f99-4b8e-887a-1ae3d54aaed9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://marvelousessays.co.uk/essays/history/alexander-the-great.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00386.warc.gz | en | 0.984525 | 847 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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-0.0079089850... | 1 | Buy custom Alexander the Great essay
Alexander the Great is a Macedonian king and commander of the big Empire that he created on his own. He is a creator of the world power and well-known as a one of the greatest generals in the history of the world. He was taught by Aristotle. After the death of his farther Philip II, Alexander ascended to the throne at the age of 20 years. He secured the northern borders of Macedonia and completed the subjugation of Greece. He took the rebellious city of Thebes. In the spring of 334 BC, he led the army that invaded into the Persian Empire. He needed seven years in order to complete the conquest of it. Alexander then began the conquest of India, but at the insistence of the soldiers retreated. Although he has not suffered a single defeat and came to the river Ganges. It was his dream to reach the end of the world, but he was defeated and his empire was disintegrated after his death. He could not hold his empire together due to the constant civil wars. Soon after the Indian campaign, he died in Babylon under mysterious circumstances. Because of the sudden death of the king several generals divided his empire. Despite the quick division of his conquest, the cities that were founded by Alexander and the Greek colonization of the distant territories facilitated to the spreading of Greek culture and language and the rapprochement with Eastern culture. During his conquest he established several cities. The most famous of them is Alexandria in Egypt. He became the role model for military leaders throughout the world. Some of the generals still teach his tactics.
Muhammad is an Arab preacher of monotheism and the prophet of Islam. He is a center figure of the Islam religion and according to Islamic teachings of the Muhammad. Muhammad was also a politician, founder and head of the Muslim community, which was strong and large state in the Arabian Peninsula during the course of his direct rule. He has lighter color of skin than ordinary Arabs. While preaching among the mountains he reported that he received the revelations from God. Three year later, he started to teach that the God is one and he is a prophet of God. Muhammad occupies the highest position among other prophets that are recognized by the Islam. According to the Islam, the belief in the prophetic mission of Muhammad is mandatory for all people, including Christians and Jews. According to the teachings of Islam, Muhammad is the last prophet and messenger of Allah. Islam recognizes the Bible and often points out that the Bible tells about Prophet Muhammad. He has been many times criticized for his marriages, military campaigns and preaching monotheism.
Buy Alexander the Great essay paper onlineBecome our VIP client
* Final order price might be slightly different depending on
the current exchange rate of chosen payment system.
Muhammad is on the list of most influential person in history.
Confucius was the ancient Chinese thinker and philosopher. His teachings had a profound impact on the lives of China and East Asia and became the basement for a philosophical system known as Confucianism. In the age of twenty years, he became known as the first professional educator of the China. From early childhood, Confucius has worked and lived in poverty. Later, he understood the necessity to be a cultured person and began his education. He went on a trip around China accompanied with his students. During the trip he tried to convey his ideas to the rulers of different regions. At the age of sixty years, Confucius returned home and spent the last years of his life, teaching new students. Confucian ideal is to create a harmonious society in the ancient manner, in which every person has a function. Confucius School was one of the many destinations in the intellectual life of the Warring States in the period known as the Hundred Schools. The Confucianism reached the status of a state ideology, which survived until the beginning of the 20th century. This led to the exaltation of the figure of Confucius and even incorporated him into a religious pantheon.
Want to know what your projected final grades might look like?
Check out our easy to use grade calculator! It can help you solve this question.Calculate now | 849 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Much of the history of the Falkland Islands revolved around the lives and lifestyles of the rural community –
the farmers and workers who lived in the Camp (the name given to everywhere outside of Stanley).
Falkland Islands Museum & National Trust
The historic heart of Stanley
Sheep Farming in the Falkland Islands
The first sheep on the Falkland Islands are thought to have been those brought by French settlers to Port Louis in 1764, but it was not until almost eighty years later that the first attempts at commercial farming took place. Governor Moody, who arrived in the Falklands in 1842 was strongly of the opinion that the Islands would be suited to sheep rearing. He wrote to the Colonial Office "The few sheep that have been imported for exportation of coarse or blanket wool would meet with great success....and this should be made the staple production as soon as possible". With the active encouragement of Government, land on East Falkland was soon taken up by aspiring sheep farmers and by 1860 wool was being sold on the London market. In 1867 the first sheep farms were established on West Falkland and by the 1870s the wool industry was prospering. Throughout various fluctuations of the market it remained the economic mainstay of the Falklands for the next hundred years, until the 1980s, by which time wool prices had seriously declined an the fishing industry replaced it in importance as a source of income. But although today only a relatively small proportion of people are still engaged in sheep farming, it has remained an important part of the Falklands identity. The history of many families is bound up in a way of life which has formed the social and cultural traditions of the Falkland Islands.
Traditional Hand Shearing
For the first hundred years of sheep farming in the Falklands the laborious work of removing the wool was carried out almost entirely using hand shears. Although machine shears had been introduced by the Falkland Islands Company as early as 1893 they were not a success and only began to come into general use in the 1950s and '60s.
Driving the Sheep
Across the huge distances of the Falklands landscape, sheep being gathered for shearing or moved to new ground had to be driven, often for many miles, by shepherds on horseback assisted by well-trained dogs. Flocks could number several thousand and long days in the saddle were part of every shepherd's existence. Today with smaller farms and flocks, motorised transport is more commonly used, although sheep dogs are still an important asset.
The Big House
The original larger farm settlements were laid out on similar patterns. The main structures were the shearing shed, the cookhouse for single men and individual houses for married men. Often set slightly apart from the rest would be the 'Big House' where the owner or manager, known as 'The Boss' lived. This arrangement, usually regarded as surprisingly feudal by visitors, was common until the 1980s when most of the larger farms were sub-divided and settlements split among different owners.
The Early Years
The settlers of the nineteenth century brought with them the dress, manners and customs of Victorian Britain. These were carefully maintained, nurtured by periodicals from 'home' which helped to lessen the sense of remoteness. Social occasions such as weddings, dances and race meetings assumed a particular importance in lives characterised by hard work and isolation.
Wool Collection. s.s. 'Fitzroy'
In the absence of roads in the Falkland Islands, all farm settlements were built on the sea, so that stores could be delivered and wool taken away by ship. Shearing sheds were built at the head of jetties so that the heavy bales of wool could be loaded directly on to the boat, to be taken to Stanley and onward to Britain. The Fitzroy was one of a series of local steamers run by the Falkland Islands Company and was in service from 1932-1957. | <urn:uuid:2dca7178-2f6c-46c5-963e-887e15eba661> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.falklands-museum.com/camp.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00021.warc.gz | en | 0.982739 | 803 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.6871960163116... | 1 | Much of the history of the Falkland Islands revolved around the lives and lifestyles of the rural community –
the farmers and workers who lived in the Camp (the name given to everywhere outside of Stanley).
Falkland Islands Museum & National Trust
The historic heart of Stanley
Sheep Farming in the Falkland Islands
The first sheep on the Falkland Islands are thought to have been those brought by French settlers to Port Louis in 1764, but it was not until almost eighty years later that the first attempts at commercial farming took place. Governor Moody, who arrived in the Falklands in 1842 was strongly of the opinion that the Islands would be suited to sheep rearing. He wrote to the Colonial Office "The few sheep that have been imported for exportation of coarse or blanket wool would meet with great success....and this should be made the staple production as soon as possible". With the active encouragement of Government, land on East Falkland was soon taken up by aspiring sheep farmers and by 1860 wool was being sold on the London market. In 1867 the first sheep farms were established on West Falkland and by the 1870s the wool industry was prospering. Throughout various fluctuations of the market it remained the economic mainstay of the Falklands for the next hundred years, until the 1980s, by which time wool prices had seriously declined an the fishing industry replaced it in importance as a source of income. But although today only a relatively small proportion of people are still engaged in sheep farming, it has remained an important part of the Falklands identity. The history of many families is bound up in a way of life which has formed the social and cultural traditions of the Falkland Islands.
Traditional Hand Shearing
For the first hundred years of sheep farming in the Falklands the laborious work of removing the wool was carried out almost entirely using hand shears. Although machine shears had been introduced by the Falkland Islands Company as early as 1893 they were not a success and only began to come into general use in the 1950s and '60s.
Driving the Sheep
Across the huge distances of the Falklands landscape, sheep being gathered for shearing or moved to new ground had to be driven, often for many miles, by shepherds on horseback assisted by well-trained dogs. Flocks could number several thousand and long days in the saddle were part of every shepherd's existence. Today with smaller farms and flocks, motorised transport is more commonly used, although sheep dogs are still an important asset.
The Big House
The original larger farm settlements were laid out on similar patterns. The main structures were the shearing shed, the cookhouse for single men and individual houses for married men. Often set slightly apart from the rest would be the 'Big House' where the owner or manager, known as 'The Boss' lived. This arrangement, usually regarded as surprisingly feudal by visitors, was common until the 1980s when most of the larger farms were sub-divided and settlements split among different owners.
The Early Years
The settlers of the nineteenth century brought with them the dress, manners and customs of Victorian Britain. These were carefully maintained, nurtured by periodicals from 'home' which helped to lessen the sense of remoteness. Social occasions such as weddings, dances and race meetings assumed a particular importance in lives characterised by hard work and isolation.
Wool Collection. s.s. 'Fitzroy'
In the absence of roads in the Falkland Islands, all farm settlements were built on the sea, so that stores could be delivered and wool taken away by ship. Shearing sheds were built at the head of jetties so that the heavy bales of wool could be loaded directly on to the boat, to be taken to Stanley and onward to Britain. The Fitzroy was one of a series of local steamers run by the Falkland Islands Company and was in service from 1932-1957. | 832 | ENGLISH | 1 |
(1737—1809) author and revolutionary
son of a Quaker staymaker of Thetford. He was dismissed as an exciseman in 1774 for agitating for an increase in excisemen's pay. He sailed for America, where he published his pamphlet Common Sense (1776) and a series of pamphlets, The Crisis (1776–83), encouraging American independence and resistance to England, he also wrote against slavery and in favour of the emancipation of women. In 1787 he returned to England (via France), and published in 1791 the first part of The Rights of Man in reply to Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France; the second part appeared in 1792. Paine left for France, to avoid arrest, where he was warmly received and elected a member of the Convention. However, he opposed the execution of Louis XVI, was imprisoned for nearly a year, and narrowly escaped the guillotine. The Age of Reason (1793) greatly increased the violent hatred with which he was regarded in England. He returned to America in 1802, where his views on religion and his opposition to Washington had made him unpopular. His writings became a textbook for the radical party in England; his connection with the American struggle and the French Revolution gave him a unique position as an upholder of the politics of the Enlightenment. | <urn:uuid:fff9ab1a-daba-42a4-a6f3-572488db58b0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100301422 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00349.warc.gz | en | 0.980781 | 276 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.23228... | 1 | (1737—1809) author and revolutionary
son of a Quaker staymaker of Thetford. He was dismissed as an exciseman in 1774 for agitating for an increase in excisemen's pay. He sailed for America, where he published his pamphlet Common Sense (1776) and a series of pamphlets, The Crisis (1776–83), encouraging American independence and resistance to England, he also wrote against slavery and in favour of the emancipation of women. In 1787 he returned to England (via France), and published in 1791 the first part of The Rights of Man in reply to Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France; the second part appeared in 1792. Paine left for France, to avoid arrest, where he was warmly received and elected a member of the Convention. However, he opposed the execution of Louis XVI, was imprisoned for nearly a year, and narrowly escaped the guillotine. The Age of Reason (1793) greatly increased the violent hatred with which he was regarded in England. He returned to America in 1802, where his views on religion and his opposition to Washington had made him unpopular. His writings became a textbook for the radical party in England; his connection with the American struggle and the French Revolution gave him a unique position as an upholder of the politics of the Enlightenment. | 303 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Seeking and responding to feedback from multiple sources. Assuming responsibility for learning and change.
His father, also named John, was a legal clerk and served with the Parliamentary forces in the English Civil War. His family was well-to-do, but not of particularly high social or economic standing. Locke spent his childhood in the West Country and as a teenager was sent to Westminster School in London.
Locke was successful at Westminster and earned a place at Christ Church, Oxford. He was to remain in Oxford from until Although he had little appreciation for the traditional scholastic philosophy he learned there, Locke was successful as a Value consensus essay and after completing his undergraduate degree he held a series of administrative and academic posts in the college.
One of his earliest substantive works, the Essays on the Law of Nature, was developed in the course of his teaching duties. Locke read widely in these fields, participated in various experiments, and became acquainted with Robert Boyle and many other notable natural philosophers.
He also undertook the normal course of education and training to become a physician. In London, Locke continued to pursue his interests in medicine and natural philosophy. He formed a close working relationship with Thomas Sydenham, who later became one the most famous physicians of the age.
He made a number of contacts within the newly formed Royal Society and became a member in He also acted as the personal physician to Lord Ashley.
Indeed, on one occasion Locke participated in a very delicate surgical operation which Ashley credited with saving his life. Ashley was one of the most prominent English politicians at the time.
Through his patronage Locke was able to hold a series of governmental posts. The two earliest drafts of that work date from He was to continue work on this project intermittentlyfor nearly twenty years.
Locke travelled in France for several years starting in When he returned to England it was only to be for a few years. The political scene had changed greatly while Locke was away.
It was around this time that Locke composed his most famous political work, the Two Treatises Concerning Government. Although the Two Treatises would not be published until they show that he had already solidified his views on the nature and proper form of government.
While there Locke travelled a great deal sometimes for his own safety and worked on two projects. First, he continued work on the Essay. Second, he wrote a work entitled Epistola de Tolerantia, which was published anonymously in Following the Glorious Revolution of Locke was able to return to England.
He published both the Essay and the Two Treatises the second anonymously shortly after his return. He initially stayed in London but soon moved to the home of Francis and Damaris Masham in the small village of Oates, Essex. Damaris Masham, who was the daughter of a notable philosopher named Ralph Cudworth, had become acquainted with Locke several years before.
During this period Locke kept busy working on politics, toleration, philosophy, economics, and educational theory.
Locke engaged in a number of controversies during his life, including a notable one with Jonas Proast over toleration.
Stillingfleet, in addition to being a powerful political and theological figure, was an astute and forceful critic. The two men debated a number of the positions in the Essay in a series of published letters.
In his later years Locke devoted much of his attention to theology. His major work in this field was The Reasonableness of Christianity, published again anonymously in Ah, but super-human AI is not the only way Moloch can bring our demise.
How many such dangers can your global monarch identify in time? EMs, nanotechnology, memetic contamination, and all the other unknown ways we’re running to the bottom. Matan is an innovative institution located in Jerusalem an ddedicated to furthering women's Torah study, paving the way for them to learn Talmud, Tanakh and Halakha at the highest levels.
believe that the main function of education is to maintain a value consensus in society. The term value consensus means that the majority of society agree.
For example in the United Kingdom people believe going to school and getting a education is a norm: this is a value consensus. William Deresiewicz: "The End of Solitude" William Deresiewicz is a contemporary writer, reviewer, and literary critic. He taught at Yale University from to Disclaimer: This work has been submitted by a student.
This is not an example of the work written by our professional academic writers.
You can view samples of our professional work here.. Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of UK Essays.
Value consensus is a term which refers to general agreement about norms and values amongst the members of society.
Different theorists believe in different functions of the education system, some think it as promoting value consensus and some see as a method of control. | <urn:uuid:3b973a61-73c4-46ed-9cff-669e02f46e0e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://livikifotylyx.leslutinsduphoenix.com/value-consensus-essay-32944qx.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00198.warc.gz | en | 0.984675 | 1,016 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.08441582322... | 2 | Seeking and responding to feedback from multiple sources. Assuming responsibility for learning and change.
His father, also named John, was a legal clerk and served with the Parliamentary forces in the English Civil War. His family was well-to-do, but not of particularly high social or economic standing. Locke spent his childhood in the West Country and as a teenager was sent to Westminster School in London.
Locke was successful at Westminster and earned a place at Christ Church, Oxford. He was to remain in Oxford from until Although he had little appreciation for the traditional scholastic philosophy he learned there, Locke was successful as a Value consensus essay and after completing his undergraduate degree he held a series of administrative and academic posts in the college.
One of his earliest substantive works, the Essays on the Law of Nature, was developed in the course of his teaching duties. Locke read widely in these fields, participated in various experiments, and became acquainted with Robert Boyle and many other notable natural philosophers.
He also undertook the normal course of education and training to become a physician. In London, Locke continued to pursue his interests in medicine and natural philosophy. He formed a close working relationship with Thomas Sydenham, who later became one the most famous physicians of the age.
He made a number of contacts within the newly formed Royal Society and became a member in He also acted as the personal physician to Lord Ashley.
Indeed, on one occasion Locke participated in a very delicate surgical operation which Ashley credited with saving his life. Ashley was one of the most prominent English politicians at the time.
Through his patronage Locke was able to hold a series of governmental posts. The two earliest drafts of that work date from He was to continue work on this project intermittentlyfor nearly twenty years.
Locke travelled in France for several years starting in When he returned to England it was only to be for a few years. The political scene had changed greatly while Locke was away.
It was around this time that Locke composed his most famous political work, the Two Treatises Concerning Government. Although the Two Treatises would not be published until they show that he had already solidified his views on the nature and proper form of government.
While there Locke travelled a great deal sometimes for his own safety and worked on two projects. First, he continued work on the Essay. Second, he wrote a work entitled Epistola de Tolerantia, which was published anonymously in Following the Glorious Revolution of Locke was able to return to England.
He published both the Essay and the Two Treatises the second anonymously shortly after his return. He initially stayed in London but soon moved to the home of Francis and Damaris Masham in the small village of Oates, Essex. Damaris Masham, who was the daughter of a notable philosopher named Ralph Cudworth, had become acquainted with Locke several years before.
During this period Locke kept busy working on politics, toleration, philosophy, economics, and educational theory.
Locke engaged in a number of controversies during his life, including a notable one with Jonas Proast over toleration.
Stillingfleet, in addition to being a powerful political and theological figure, was an astute and forceful critic. The two men debated a number of the positions in the Essay in a series of published letters.
In his later years Locke devoted much of his attention to theology. His major work in this field was The Reasonableness of Christianity, published again anonymously in Ah, but super-human AI is not the only way Moloch can bring our demise.
How many such dangers can your global monarch identify in time? EMs, nanotechnology, memetic contamination, and all the other unknown ways we’re running to the bottom. Matan is an innovative institution located in Jerusalem an ddedicated to furthering women's Torah study, paving the way for them to learn Talmud, Tanakh and Halakha at the highest levels.
believe that the main function of education is to maintain a value consensus in society. The term value consensus means that the majority of society agree.
For example in the United Kingdom people believe going to school and getting a education is a norm: this is a value consensus. William Deresiewicz: "The End of Solitude" William Deresiewicz is a contemporary writer, reviewer, and literary critic. He taught at Yale University from to Disclaimer: This work has been submitted by a student.
This is not an example of the work written by our professional academic writers.
You can view samples of our professional work here.. Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of UK Essays.
Value consensus is a term which refers to general agreement about norms and values amongst the members of society.
Different theorists believe in different functions of the education system, some think it as promoting value consensus and some see as a method of control. | 991 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Impact of American Forces in New Zealand
The Impact of American Forces in New Zealand
The war gave New Zealand its first experience as host to foreign armed forces. The arrival of American forces in June 1942 brought a feeling of relief to many New Zealanders. Menaced by the southward sweep of Japanese forces in the Pacific, they had spent their most anxious time in the first half of 1942. Much of New Zealand's fit manpower was engaged overseas; what remained could not be adequately armed. The measures taken to defend the very long shore line of this sparsely populated country were desperate and determined, but completely inadequate. The only strong opposition to Japan in the Pacific was from United States forces, which might be occupied elsewhere should New Zealand be attacked. Churchill had given assurances of British aid should New Zealand be invaded,1 but it was feared that help would arrive too late.2
1 For example, Churchill wrote, on 17 March 1942, in a cabled message to the Prime Minister of New Zealand:
‘The fact that an American Commander will be in charge of all the operations in the Pacific area will not be regarded by His Majesty's Government as in any way absolving them from their determination and duty to come to your aid to the best of their ability, and if you are actually invaded in force, which has by no means come to pass and may never come to pass, we shall do our utmost to divert British troops and British ships rounding the Cape or already in the Indian Ocean to your succour ….’—Documents, Vol. III, No. 160 (New Zealand War History Branch).
The first American arrivals found camps ready for them. Many more camps were to be prepared by New Zealanders for American servicemen and much of their food was to be supplied from local production. Besides the camps, hospitals to accommodate 9400 patients, stores and many other buildings were constructed and handed over for American use.1
Relationships between New Zealanders and the visiting servicemen were most friendly. An American writer sums up for one Marine division:2
‘It is doubtful if any alien troops ever received a warmer and more sincerely friendly welcome than the Second Marine Division got in New Zealand. Nearly every home was open to them, and thousands of Marines learned the niceties of 11 a.m. “morning tea” and 4 p.m. “afternoon tea”. As often as they could the Marines donned their green winter service uniforms and responded to dinner or week-end invitations in Wellington, Paekakariki, Otaki, Palmerston North, and Foxton. The friendship was not one-sided—the Marines immediately and immensely liked the New Zealanders, and they charmed their hosts and hostesses by quickly adapting themselves to local ways.’
American servicemen spent freely in New Zealand. They were paid at higher rates than most servicemen of other allied countries. Those who had been in action had substantial amounts of back-pay to draw. Their dollars, exchanged into pounds at the current rate, would buy much more than in the United States.
Florists, milkbars, hotels, night clubs and restaurants did a roaring trade with the Americans. Taxis could not cope with all the business offering; dry cleaning and pressing shops were overworked.
To the New Zealand consumer this extra demand was not an unmixed blessing. Many traders saw such good profits to be made from the Americans, with their high pay and free spending, that they annoyed New Zealanders by neglecting them. Commodities already in short supply became even scarcer under pressure of the American demand.
2 Richard W. Johnston, Follow Me, p. 83.
At current rates of exchange these wage rates may not have seemed high to the Americans, but their purchasing power in New Zealand was greater than similar workers could have had in America. New Zealanders rushed for opportunities to work under such favourable conditions. Those who missed out became dissatisfied, especially those who were prevented from joining in the scramble by being held under direction in essential industries. New Zealand employers unable to meet the higher wage costs were also aggrieved.
In November 1942, when it became apparent that more New Zealand civilian labour would be needed, because United States troops were no longer available to handle supplies to and from the wharves,1 a conference was held in Auckland with the United States authorities. A member of the War Cabinet, Mr J. G. Coates, was present, with the Secretary of Labour. In the course of discussion the Americans were requested to pay award wages; but agreement could not be reached on this point.
In 1943 and the first half of 1944, various United States authorities in New Zealand usually employed between 1500 and 2000 civilians as regular workers, as well as casual labour which might vary between 500 and 2500 according to circumstances.
Not only were high rates paid for most of this cilivian labour, but the supervision seems often to have been inadequate. Large sums were paid out in overtime, but there was often no effective check on hours worked. Some employees claimed and were paid wages for hours of work which they could not possibly have worked. One, for example, was paid for hours which implied that he had averaged three hours sleep each 24 hours for a fortnight. While this was an extreme case, plenty of other improbable cases came to light.
Meantime, after December 1942, the wage rates New Zealand employers could pay were restricted by the Stabilisation Regulations. Not surprisingly, many became disgruntled.
A fundamental difficulty was that there was no central United States employing agency in New Zealand. By the time a determined attempt was made to bring about an improvement, the position had been aggravated by the considerable numbers already employed at high rates of pay by a variety of United States agencies.
1 Waterside workers handled American supplies from ships' holds to the wharf sheds.
The New Zealand Government was embarrassed by the higher wage rates being paid by the United States authorities, because of its effect on the stabilisation scheme, and because scarce labour in New Zealand was being depleted. Then, in the course of investigations into liability for the insurance of workers, in June 1943, ten months after the signing of the Lend-Lease agreement, a somewhat startling new piece of information came to light. Under the agreement New Zealand was responsible for payment of most of this labour under Reverse Lend-Lease.1
Had this important fact been made known earlier it might well have changed the course of events. The Secretary of Labour wrote in July:2
‘… had it been made known to the late Mr Coates and myself when we visited Auckland last November that wage costs were a charge against lease-lend, we would, I think, have been in a different position and could have requested closer control over the wages paid.’
Further representations were made to the United States authorities and some improvement followed, but the position was never completely satisfactory. The damage had been done—existing employees were receiving the higher rates of pay. Dissatisfaction somewhere was inevitable.
There is no real excuse for the New Zealand failure to realise the implications of the Lend-Lease Agreement. But perhaps the rather loose arrangements for employment of civilian labour by some American authorities highlights a more important point. There is a need to guard against a possible weakness in inter-Government reciprocal arrangements, such as the Lend-Lease Agreement. One government, not having to bear the cost, may have an inadequate incentive to provide effective supervision of the people it employs; the other, not being directly concerned in particular contracts, is unable to do so.
These economic influences of stationing American servicemen in New Zealand, while they had an important effect on life in New Zealand at the time, were trivial compared with the economic advantages of the movement of supplies under the Lend-Lease Agreement. Moreover, the most significant aspect of their presence here was the measure of security it brought against Japanese invasion.
1 All labour except administrative personnel was to be paid under Reverse Lend-Lease.
‘The United States Naval Operating Base in Auckland will be closed on Sunday morning and its officers and enlisted men will leave New Zealand shortly. The American flag, which flies over the Base headquarters, will be lowered at 9 a.m. and this small ceremony will virtually close a period in New Zealand history which has been of great significance to this and neighbouring countries, and of intense interest to all New Zealanders.’ | <urn:uuid:519d8c26-48e3-4124-84bc-013b9b63147c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2Econ-c17-41.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00497.warc.gz | en | 0.985479 | 1,731 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.63837724924087... | 5 | The Impact of American Forces in New Zealand
The Impact of American Forces in New Zealand
The war gave New Zealand its first experience as host to foreign armed forces. The arrival of American forces in June 1942 brought a feeling of relief to many New Zealanders. Menaced by the southward sweep of Japanese forces in the Pacific, they had spent their most anxious time in the first half of 1942. Much of New Zealand's fit manpower was engaged overseas; what remained could not be adequately armed. The measures taken to defend the very long shore line of this sparsely populated country were desperate and determined, but completely inadequate. The only strong opposition to Japan in the Pacific was from United States forces, which might be occupied elsewhere should New Zealand be attacked. Churchill had given assurances of British aid should New Zealand be invaded,1 but it was feared that help would arrive too late.2
1 For example, Churchill wrote, on 17 March 1942, in a cabled message to the Prime Minister of New Zealand:
‘The fact that an American Commander will be in charge of all the operations in the Pacific area will not be regarded by His Majesty's Government as in any way absolving them from their determination and duty to come to your aid to the best of their ability, and if you are actually invaded in force, which has by no means come to pass and may never come to pass, we shall do our utmost to divert British troops and British ships rounding the Cape or already in the Indian Ocean to your succour ….’—Documents, Vol. III, No. 160 (New Zealand War History Branch).
The first American arrivals found camps ready for them. Many more camps were to be prepared by New Zealanders for American servicemen and much of their food was to be supplied from local production. Besides the camps, hospitals to accommodate 9400 patients, stores and many other buildings were constructed and handed over for American use.1
Relationships between New Zealanders and the visiting servicemen were most friendly. An American writer sums up for one Marine division:2
‘It is doubtful if any alien troops ever received a warmer and more sincerely friendly welcome than the Second Marine Division got in New Zealand. Nearly every home was open to them, and thousands of Marines learned the niceties of 11 a.m. “morning tea” and 4 p.m. “afternoon tea”. As often as they could the Marines donned their green winter service uniforms and responded to dinner or week-end invitations in Wellington, Paekakariki, Otaki, Palmerston North, and Foxton. The friendship was not one-sided—the Marines immediately and immensely liked the New Zealanders, and they charmed their hosts and hostesses by quickly adapting themselves to local ways.’
American servicemen spent freely in New Zealand. They were paid at higher rates than most servicemen of other allied countries. Those who had been in action had substantial amounts of back-pay to draw. Their dollars, exchanged into pounds at the current rate, would buy much more than in the United States.
Florists, milkbars, hotels, night clubs and restaurants did a roaring trade with the Americans. Taxis could not cope with all the business offering; dry cleaning and pressing shops were overworked.
To the New Zealand consumer this extra demand was not an unmixed blessing. Many traders saw such good profits to be made from the Americans, with their high pay and free spending, that they annoyed New Zealanders by neglecting them. Commodities already in short supply became even scarcer under pressure of the American demand.
2 Richard W. Johnston, Follow Me, p. 83.
At current rates of exchange these wage rates may not have seemed high to the Americans, but their purchasing power in New Zealand was greater than similar workers could have had in America. New Zealanders rushed for opportunities to work under such favourable conditions. Those who missed out became dissatisfied, especially those who were prevented from joining in the scramble by being held under direction in essential industries. New Zealand employers unable to meet the higher wage costs were also aggrieved.
In November 1942, when it became apparent that more New Zealand civilian labour would be needed, because United States troops were no longer available to handle supplies to and from the wharves,1 a conference was held in Auckland with the United States authorities. A member of the War Cabinet, Mr J. G. Coates, was present, with the Secretary of Labour. In the course of discussion the Americans were requested to pay award wages; but agreement could not be reached on this point.
In 1943 and the first half of 1944, various United States authorities in New Zealand usually employed between 1500 and 2000 civilians as regular workers, as well as casual labour which might vary between 500 and 2500 according to circumstances.
Not only were high rates paid for most of this cilivian labour, but the supervision seems often to have been inadequate. Large sums were paid out in overtime, but there was often no effective check on hours worked. Some employees claimed and were paid wages for hours of work which they could not possibly have worked. One, for example, was paid for hours which implied that he had averaged three hours sleep each 24 hours for a fortnight. While this was an extreme case, plenty of other improbable cases came to light.
Meantime, after December 1942, the wage rates New Zealand employers could pay were restricted by the Stabilisation Regulations. Not surprisingly, many became disgruntled.
A fundamental difficulty was that there was no central United States employing agency in New Zealand. By the time a determined attempt was made to bring about an improvement, the position had been aggravated by the considerable numbers already employed at high rates of pay by a variety of United States agencies.
1 Waterside workers handled American supplies from ships' holds to the wharf sheds.
The New Zealand Government was embarrassed by the higher wage rates being paid by the United States authorities, because of its effect on the stabilisation scheme, and because scarce labour in New Zealand was being depleted. Then, in the course of investigations into liability for the insurance of workers, in June 1943, ten months after the signing of the Lend-Lease agreement, a somewhat startling new piece of information came to light. Under the agreement New Zealand was responsible for payment of most of this labour under Reverse Lend-Lease.1
Had this important fact been made known earlier it might well have changed the course of events. The Secretary of Labour wrote in July:2
‘… had it been made known to the late Mr Coates and myself when we visited Auckland last November that wage costs were a charge against lease-lend, we would, I think, have been in a different position and could have requested closer control over the wages paid.’
Further representations were made to the United States authorities and some improvement followed, but the position was never completely satisfactory. The damage had been done—existing employees were receiving the higher rates of pay. Dissatisfaction somewhere was inevitable.
There is no real excuse for the New Zealand failure to realise the implications of the Lend-Lease Agreement. But perhaps the rather loose arrangements for employment of civilian labour by some American authorities highlights a more important point. There is a need to guard against a possible weakness in inter-Government reciprocal arrangements, such as the Lend-Lease Agreement. One government, not having to bear the cost, may have an inadequate incentive to provide effective supervision of the people it employs; the other, not being directly concerned in particular contracts, is unable to do so.
These economic influences of stationing American servicemen in New Zealand, while they had an important effect on life in New Zealand at the time, were trivial compared with the economic advantages of the movement of supplies under the Lend-Lease Agreement. Moreover, the most significant aspect of their presence here was the measure of security it brought against Japanese invasion.
1 All labour except administrative personnel was to be paid under Reverse Lend-Lease.
‘The United States Naval Operating Base in Auckland will be closed on Sunday morning and its officers and enlisted men will leave New Zealand shortly. The American flag, which flies over the Base headquarters, will be lowered at 9 a.m. and this small ceremony will virtually close a period in New Zealand history which has been of great significance to this and neighbouring countries, and of intense interest to all New Zealanders.’ | 1,750 | ENGLISH | 1 |
16° 28′ 6″ N, 107° 34′ 43″ E
The Imperial City is a walled palace within the citadel of the city of Huế, the former imperial capital of Vietnam. The building was built in 1362, and took 203 years to complete. Many consider this building to be a symbol of wealth and power as boars carried the materials from Hội An.
In June 1789 Nguyễn Ánh took control of Vietnam and proclaimed himself Emperor Gia Long. His rule was recognized by China in 1804. Gia Long consulted with geomancers to decide which was the best place for a new palace and citadel to be built. After the geomancers had decided on a suitable site in Huế, building began in 1804. Thousands of workers were ordered to produce a wall and moat, 10 km long. Initially the walls were earthen, but later these earthen walls were replaced by stone walls, 2 m thick.
The citadel was oriented to face the Huong River to the east. This was different from the Forbidden City in Beijing, which faces south. The Emperor’s palace is on the east side of the citadel, nearest the river. A second set of tall walls and a second moat was constructed around the Emperor’s palace. Many more palaces and gates and courtyards and gardens were subsequently added. The reigns of the last Vietnamese Emperors lasted until the mid-1900s. At the time, the Purple Forbidden City had many buildings and hundreds of rooms. It suffered from termite and cyclone damage, but was still very impressive. Many bullet holes left over from the Vietnam War can be observed on the stone walls. | <urn:uuid:07f59595-8b3e-4bf6-a8e1-4c6a30f5d328> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.raoul-kieffer.net/Hu%E1%BA%BF | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00288.warc.gz | en | 0.986195 | 366 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.480558156967... | 1 | 16° 28′ 6″ N, 107° 34′ 43″ E
The Imperial City is a walled palace within the citadel of the city of Huế, the former imperial capital of Vietnam. The building was built in 1362, and took 203 years to complete. Many consider this building to be a symbol of wealth and power as boars carried the materials from Hội An.
In June 1789 Nguyễn Ánh took control of Vietnam and proclaimed himself Emperor Gia Long. His rule was recognized by China in 1804. Gia Long consulted with geomancers to decide which was the best place for a new palace and citadel to be built. After the geomancers had decided on a suitable site in Huế, building began in 1804. Thousands of workers were ordered to produce a wall and moat, 10 km long. Initially the walls were earthen, but later these earthen walls were replaced by stone walls, 2 m thick.
The citadel was oriented to face the Huong River to the east. This was different from the Forbidden City in Beijing, which faces south. The Emperor’s palace is on the east side of the citadel, nearest the river. A second set of tall walls and a second moat was constructed around the Emperor’s palace. Many more palaces and gates and courtyards and gardens were subsequently added. The reigns of the last Vietnamese Emperors lasted until the mid-1900s. At the time, the Purple Forbidden City had many buildings and hundreds of rooms. It suffered from termite and cyclone damage, but was still very impressive. Many bullet holes left over from the Vietnam War can be observed on the stone walls. | 374 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A new coalition, including Britain and Russia, was formed to continue fighting the French. The turning tide led to disturbances in France itself.
The ancestors of Napoleon descended from minor Italian nobility of Tuscan origin who had come to Corsica from Liguria in the 16th century. Napoleon was born there on 15 Augusttheir fourth child and third son. A boy and girl were born first but died in infancy. Napoleon was baptised as a Catholic.
The nationalist Corsican leader Pasquale Paoli ; portrait by Richard CoswayNapoleon was born the same year the Republic of Genoaa former commune of Italy transferred Corsica to France.
His father was an attorney who went on to be named Corsica's representative to the court of Louis XVI in The dominant influence of Napoleon's childhood was his mother, whose firm discipline restrained a rambunctious child.
Napoleon's noble, moderately affluent background afforded him greater opportunities to study than were available to a typical Corsican of the time.
An examiner observed that Napoleon "has always been distinguished for his application in mathematics. He is fairly well acquainted with history and geography This boy would make an excellent sailor".
He trained to become an artillery officer and, when his father's death reduced his income, was forced to complete the two-year course in one year. At this time, he was a fervent Corsican nationalistand wrote to Corsican leader Pasquale Paoli in May"As the nation was perishing I was born. Thirty thousand Frenchmen were vomited on to our shores, drowning the throne of liberty in waves of blood.
Such was the odious sight which was the first to strike me". He was a supporter of the republican Jacobin movement, organising clubs in Corsica, and was given command over a battalion of volunteers. He was promoted to captain in the regular army in Julydespite exceeding his leave of absence and leading a riot against French troops.
With the help of his fellow Corsican Antoine Christophe SalicetiBonaparte was appointed artillery commander of the republican forces at the Siege of Toulon. The assault on the position led to the capture of the city, but during it Bonaparte was wounded in the thigh.
He was promoted to brigadier general at the age of Catching the attention of the Committee of Public Safetyhe was put in charge of the artillery of France's Army of Italy. He devised plans for attacking the Kingdom of Sardinia as part of France's campaign against the First Coalition.
Augustin Robespierre and Saliceti were ready to listen to the freshly promoted artillery general.
From Ormea, they headed west to outflank the Austro-Sardinian positions around Saorge. After this campaign, Augustin Robespierre sent Bonaparte on a mission to the Republic of Genoa to determine that country's intentions towards France. According to Bourrienne, jealousy was responsible, between the Army of the Alps and the Army of Italy with whom Napoleon was seconded at the time.
He also took part in an expedition to take back Corsica from the British, but the French were repulsed by the British Royal Navy.
As an infantry command, it was a demotion from artillery general—for which the army already had a full quota—and he pleaded poor health to avoid the posting. He faced a difficult financial situation and reduced career prospects.
Napoleon had seen the massacre of the King's Swiss Guard there three years earlier and realised that artillery would be the key to its defence. Murat married one of Napoleon's sisters, becoming his brother-in-law; he also served under Napoleon as one of his generals. Bonaparte was promoted to Commander of the Interior and given command of the Army of Italy.
The couple married on 9 March in a civil ceremony. He immediately went on the offensive, hoping to defeat the forces of Piedmont before their Austrian allies could intervene.
In a series of rapid victories during the Montenotte Campaignhe knocked Piedmont out of the war in two weeks. The French then focused on the Austrians for the remainder of the war, the highlight of which became the protracted struggle for Mantua.
The Austrians launched a series of offensives against the French to break the siege, but Napoleon defeated every relief effort, scoring victories at the battles of CastiglioneBassanoArcoleand Rivoli.
The decisive French triumph at Rivoli in January led to the collapse of the Austrian position in Italy. At Rivoli, the Austrians lost up to 14, men while the French lost about 5, French forces in Southern Germany had been defeated by the Archduke Charles inbut the Archduke withdrew his forces to protect Vienna after learning about Napoleon's assault.
In the first encounter between the two commanders, Napoleon pushed back his opponent and advanced deep into Austrian territory after winning at the Battle of Tarvis in March Bonaparte marched on Venice and forced its surrender, ending 1, years of independence. He also authorized the French to loot treasures such as the Horses of Saint Mark.
He stated later in life: Look at Caesar; he fought the first like the last".Napoleon Bonaparte. Emperor of France By Richard Moore. 12 Portraits of Napoleon Bonaparte Napoleon not murdered, say scientists.
Napoleon Bonaparte was born on August 15, in the city of Ajaccio on the island of Corsica. His father was Carlo Buonaparte, an important attorney who represented Corsica at the court of the French King.
Napoleón Bonaparte Biography. Napoleon Bonaparte, was a French military and emperor, recognized for being a republican general during the French initiativeblog.com was also the mastermind of the coup d’etat of 18th Brumaire that made him the first consul of the Republic on November 11, Life of Napoleon Napoleon Bonaparte: his biography and his displacements from to , his genealogy, his family.
Napoleon III (born Charles-Louis Napoléon Bonaparte; 20 April – 9 January ) was the Emperor of the French from to and, as Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, the President of France from to The French inch was actually longer than the British inch, leading to any height sounding shorter to the English speaking world.
In a doctor called Corvisart said Napoleon was 5 foot 2 inches by the French measurement, which equates to about 5 foot 6 in British. | <urn:uuid:909a5430-6b2e-4782-aae7-bc36df1077cc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://riqozua.initiativeblog.com/a-biography-of-napoleon-bonaparte-the-emperor-of-the-french-3268tf.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00005.warc.gz | en | 0.984733 | 1,340 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.47449681162834... | 2 | A new coalition, including Britain and Russia, was formed to continue fighting the French. The turning tide led to disturbances in France itself.
The ancestors of Napoleon descended from minor Italian nobility of Tuscan origin who had come to Corsica from Liguria in the 16th century. Napoleon was born there on 15 Augusttheir fourth child and third son. A boy and girl were born first but died in infancy. Napoleon was baptised as a Catholic.
The nationalist Corsican leader Pasquale Paoli ; portrait by Richard CoswayNapoleon was born the same year the Republic of Genoaa former commune of Italy transferred Corsica to France.
His father was an attorney who went on to be named Corsica's representative to the court of Louis XVI in The dominant influence of Napoleon's childhood was his mother, whose firm discipline restrained a rambunctious child.
Napoleon's noble, moderately affluent background afforded him greater opportunities to study than were available to a typical Corsican of the time.
An examiner observed that Napoleon "has always been distinguished for his application in mathematics. He is fairly well acquainted with history and geography This boy would make an excellent sailor".
He trained to become an artillery officer and, when his father's death reduced his income, was forced to complete the two-year course in one year. At this time, he was a fervent Corsican nationalistand wrote to Corsican leader Pasquale Paoli in May"As the nation was perishing I was born. Thirty thousand Frenchmen were vomited on to our shores, drowning the throne of liberty in waves of blood.
Such was the odious sight which was the first to strike me". He was a supporter of the republican Jacobin movement, organising clubs in Corsica, and was given command over a battalion of volunteers. He was promoted to captain in the regular army in Julydespite exceeding his leave of absence and leading a riot against French troops.
With the help of his fellow Corsican Antoine Christophe SalicetiBonaparte was appointed artillery commander of the republican forces at the Siege of Toulon. The assault on the position led to the capture of the city, but during it Bonaparte was wounded in the thigh.
He was promoted to brigadier general at the age of Catching the attention of the Committee of Public Safetyhe was put in charge of the artillery of France's Army of Italy. He devised plans for attacking the Kingdom of Sardinia as part of France's campaign against the First Coalition.
Augustin Robespierre and Saliceti were ready to listen to the freshly promoted artillery general.
From Ormea, they headed west to outflank the Austro-Sardinian positions around Saorge. After this campaign, Augustin Robespierre sent Bonaparte on a mission to the Republic of Genoa to determine that country's intentions towards France. According to Bourrienne, jealousy was responsible, between the Army of the Alps and the Army of Italy with whom Napoleon was seconded at the time.
He also took part in an expedition to take back Corsica from the British, but the French were repulsed by the British Royal Navy.
As an infantry command, it was a demotion from artillery general—for which the army already had a full quota—and he pleaded poor health to avoid the posting. He faced a difficult financial situation and reduced career prospects.
Napoleon had seen the massacre of the King's Swiss Guard there three years earlier and realised that artillery would be the key to its defence. Murat married one of Napoleon's sisters, becoming his brother-in-law; he also served under Napoleon as one of his generals. Bonaparte was promoted to Commander of the Interior and given command of the Army of Italy.
The couple married on 9 March in a civil ceremony. He immediately went on the offensive, hoping to defeat the forces of Piedmont before their Austrian allies could intervene.
In a series of rapid victories during the Montenotte Campaignhe knocked Piedmont out of the war in two weeks. The French then focused on the Austrians for the remainder of the war, the highlight of which became the protracted struggle for Mantua.
The Austrians launched a series of offensives against the French to break the siege, but Napoleon defeated every relief effort, scoring victories at the battles of CastiglioneBassanoArcoleand Rivoli.
The decisive French triumph at Rivoli in January led to the collapse of the Austrian position in Italy. At Rivoli, the Austrians lost up to 14, men while the French lost about 5, French forces in Southern Germany had been defeated by the Archduke Charles inbut the Archduke withdrew his forces to protect Vienna after learning about Napoleon's assault.
In the first encounter between the two commanders, Napoleon pushed back his opponent and advanced deep into Austrian territory after winning at the Battle of Tarvis in March Bonaparte marched on Venice and forced its surrender, ending 1, years of independence. He also authorized the French to loot treasures such as the Horses of Saint Mark.
He stated later in life: Look at Caesar; he fought the first like the last".Napoleon Bonaparte. Emperor of France By Richard Moore. 12 Portraits of Napoleon Bonaparte Napoleon not murdered, say scientists.
Napoleon Bonaparte was born on August 15, in the city of Ajaccio on the island of Corsica. His father was Carlo Buonaparte, an important attorney who represented Corsica at the court of the French King.
Napoleón Bonaparte Biography. Napoleon Bonaparte, was a French military and emperor, recognized for being a republican general during the French initiativeblog.com was also the mastermind of the coup d’etat of 18th Brumaire that made him the first consul of the Republic on November 11, Life of Napoleon Napoleon Bonaparte: his biography and his displacements from to , his genealogy, his family.
Napoleon III (born Charles-Louis Napoléon Bonaparte; 20 April – 9 January ) was the Emperor of the French from to and, as Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, the President of France from to The French inch was actually longer than the British inch, leading to any height sounding shorter to the English speaking world.
In a doctor called Corvisart said Napoleon was 5 foot 2 inches by the French measurement, which equates to about 5 foot 6 in British. | 1,333 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Chinese Paddlefish Declared Extinct
Over a decade after the last known sightings of the species, the Chinese paddlefish (Psephurus gladius), one of the largest freshwater fishes in the world is declared as extinct by a team of scientists from the Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences in Wuhan, China. The species’ last known sighting of a live specimen was way back in 2003 and 2007 was when the last known dead specimen was sighted. There are no reports of seeing the species since then.
The researchers carried out field studies in 2017 and 2018 and also reviewed fish catch records for their study. They tried to catch the fish themselves as well as canvassing fish markets in their field studies but neither did they see any Chinese paddlefish in the market nor did they catch any. During their survey, they had found other 332 fish species but not even one from then was a Chinese paddlefish.
It is estimated that by 1993, the Chinese paddlefish were already unable to reproduce or functionally extinct, and between 2005 and 2010 went completely extinct. There is no hope to resurrect the species through cloning because the Chinese paddlefish not just went extinct in the wild, but there are no tissue samples of the species stored nor are there kept in captivity.
The Chinese paddlefish was also called the “panda of the Yangtze River,” and could grow up to 7 meters in length, hence it was one of the largest freshwater fishes in the world. Until the 1970s, they were popular fish to catch and were prominent in many parts of the Yangtze River. However, their population was split into two due to the building of the Gezhouba Dam and this prevented spawning from the ones trapped below. Only a few of the species were observed by 1995.
The scientists concluded that the reasons for the Chinese paddlefish becoming extinct due to habitat fragmentation, lack of reproduction, and overfishing. According to the researchers, this extinction serves as a lesson in fish conservation, which showed what happens when it is too late for trying to save a species.
The researchers wrote, ” Resulting from multiple threats, the delayed extinction of Chinese paddlefish suggests that there is an immediate need in optimizing conservation efforts on endangered Yangtze fauna.” | <urn:uuid:3a388864-cd87-41f9-ab92-3893f6ce78b7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.biotecnika.org/2020/01/chinese-paddlefish-declared-extinct-after-150-million-years-of-survival/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00133.warc.gz | en | 0.985438 | 464 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.2324544638395309... | 2 | Chinese Paddlefish Declared Extinct
Over a decade after the last known sightings of the species, the Chinese paddlefish (Psephurus gladius), one of the largest freshwater fishes in the world is declared as extinct by a team of scientists from the Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences in Wuhan, China. The species’ last known sighting of a live specimen was way back in 2003 and 2007 was when the last known dead specimen was sighted. There are no reports of seeing the species since then.
The researchers carried out field studies in 2017 and 2018 and also reviewed fish catch records for their study. They tried to catch the fish themselves as well as canvassing fish markets in their field studies but neither did they see any Chinese paddlefish in the market nor did they catch any. During their survey, they had found other 332 fish species but not even one from then was a Chinese paddlefish.
It is estimated that by 1993, the Chinese paddlefish were already unable to reproduce or functionally extinct, and between 2005 and 2010 went completely extinct. There is no hope to resurrect the species through cloning because the Chinese paddlefish not just went extinct in the wild, but there are no tissue samples of the species stored nor are there kept in captivity.
The Chinese paddlefish was also called the “panda of the Yangtze River,” and could grow up to 7 meters in length, hence it was one of the largest freshwater fishes in the world. Until the 1970s, they were popular fish to catch and were prominent in many parts of the Yangtze River. However, their population was split into two due to the building of the Gezhouba Dam and this prevented spawning from the ones trapped below. Only a few of the species were observed by 1995.
The scientists concluded that the reasons for the Chinese paddlefish becoming extinct due to habitat fragmentation, lack of reproduction, and overfishing. According to the researchers, this extinction serves as a lesson in fish conservation, which showed what happens when it is too late for trying to save a species.
The researchers wrote, ” Resulting from multiple threats, the delayed extinction of Chinese paddlefish suggests that there is an immediate need in optimizing conservation efforts on endangered Yangtze fauna.” | 491 | ENGLISH | 1 |
At the time of the Holocaust, the concentration camp prisoners have received their tattoos only at one location, which was the Auschwitz concentration camp complex. The Auschwitz camp complex actually consisted of Auschwitz I or Main Camp, Auschwitz II or Auschwitz-Birkenau, and Auschwitz III or Monowitz and the sub-camps. The concentration camp numbers tattooed on prisoners are not some tattoo symbols which were willingly received and they are not much intimidated today.
- Nazi concentration camps.
Nazi Germany has maintained concentration camps throughout the territories it controlled before, as well as during World War II. The first Nazi camps were created in Germany in March 1933 right after Hitler became Chancellor, as well as when his Nazi Party was given control and responsibility of the police by Reich Interior Minister, named Wilhelm Frick and Prussian Acting Interior Minister, named Hermann Goring. Utilized to hold, as well as torture political opponents and union organizers, the camps initially held around 45,000 prisoners.
After September of 1939, with the start of the World War II, concentration camps became places in which millions of normal people were enslaved as part of the war effort, often starved, tortured, or even killed. At the time of the war, some new Nazi concentration camps for undesirables spread throughout the continent.
There were somewhere about 1,200 camps, and sub-camps run in countries which were occupied by Nazi Germany. Camps were created near the centers of dense populations, usually focusing on areas with large communities of Jews, Polish intelligentsia, Communists or Romani. As millions of Jews lived in pre-war Poland, most of the camps were placed in the area of the General Government in occupied Poland, for some logistical reasons. This location also permitted the Nazis to quickly remove the German Jews from within Germany proper.
A lot of the prisoners died in the concentration camps because of deliberate maltreatment, starvation, disease, and overwork, or they were also executed considering them unable for work. Prisoners were also transported in inhumane conditions by some rail freight cars in which a lot of them died before they reached their final destination.
- Concentration camp numbers tattoos.
In the Nazi concentration camps of Auschwitz, at the time of World War II, incoming prisoners were assigned a camp serial number that was sewn to their prison uniforms. Only the prisoners that were selected for work were issued serial numbers; those that were sent to the gas chambers directly were actually not registered and received no tattoos.
However, those that received were tattooed identification numbers, primarily as to identify corpses as the death rate was so high.
At the beginning, somewhere in 1941, hospital staffers and SS authorities started marking prisoners who were sick from some illness or who were to be executed with their camp serial number across the chest using indelible ink, and after that, tattooing became routine when the mass extermination of Soviet prisoners-of-war that year made it quite difficult to maintain records.
As prisoners were executed or died in some other way, their clothing bearing the camp serial number was removed. Because of the mortality rate at the camp, as well as the practice of removing clothing, there was no other way of identifying their bodies after the clothing was removed. So, the SS authorities introduced the practice of tattooing in order to identify the bodies of registered prisoners that died.
- The method of tattooing.
Originally, a special metal stamp, which holds interchangeable numbers made up of needles almost one centimeter long, was used. This allowed the entire serial number to be punched at one blow onto the left upper chest of the prisoner. The ink was then rubbed into the bleeding wound.
When the metal stamp method has proved impractical, a single-needle device was then introduced, which pierced the outlines of the serial-number digits onto the skin. The site of the tattoo was also changed to the outer side of the left forearm. But, prisoners from a few types of transport in 1943 had their numbers tattooed on the inner side of their left upper forearms.
Tattooing has been generally performed at the time of registration when each prisoner was assigned a camp serial number.
Later on, the tattooing practice has been adopted throughout the Auschwitz complex. Poles, as well as Jews at Auschwitz, the only concentration camp to systematically use tattooing, also received tattoos, typically on the left forearm.
The SS authorities throughout the whole Auschwitz complex has adopted the practice of tattooing nearly all previously registered and newly arrived prisoners, including female prisoners too. Exceptions to this practice were those prisoners with German nationality and reduction prisoners who were held in a separate compound. The camp authorities assigned more than 400,000 prisoner serial numbers during that time.
Nowadays, these tattoos are actually the testament to the utter brutality, as well as the inhumanity of which humans are capable, and also the resilience and the unbreakable spirit of the ones that survived. | <urn:uuid:8bdcb641-973d-483f-bc2e-6f47aacd0c9e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://tattooartfromtheheart.com/tattoo-meanings/concentration-camp-number-tattoos-testament-of-brutality/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00178.warc.gz | en | 0.985295 | 1,000 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.593757390... | 1 | At the time of the Holocaust, the concentration camp prisoners have received their tattoos only at one location, which was the Auschwitz concentration camp complex. The Auschwitz camp complex actually consisted of Auschwitz I or Main Camp, Auschwitz II or Auschwitz-Birkenau, and Auschwitz III or Monowitz and the sub-camps. The concentration camp numbers tattooed on prisoners are not some tattoo symbols which were willingly received and they are not much intimidated today.
- Nazi concentration camps.
Nazi Germany has maintained concentration camps throughout the territories it controlled before, as well as during World War II. The first Nazi camps were created in Germany in March 1933 right after Hitler became Chancellor, as well as when his Nazi Party was given control and responsibility of the police by Reich Interior Minister, named Wilhelm Frick and Prussian Acting Interior Minister, named Hermann Goring. Utilized to hold, as well as torture political opponents and union organizers, the camps initially held around 45,000 prisoners.
After September of 1939, with the start of the World War II, concentration camps became places in which millions of normal people were enslaved as part of the war effort, often starved, tortured, or even killed. At the time of the war, some new Nazi concentration camps for undesirables spread throughout the continent.
There were somewhere about 1,200 camps, and sub-camps run in countries which were occupied by Nazi Germany. Camps were created near the centers of dense populations, usually focusing on areas with large communities of Jews, Polish intelligentsia, Communists or Romani. As millions of Jews lived in pre-war Poland, most of the camps were placed in the area of the General Government in occupied Poland, for some logistical reasons. This location also permitted the Nazis to quickly remove the German Jews from within Germany proper.
A lot of the prisoners died in the concentration camps because of deliberate maltreatment, starvation, disease, and overwork, or they were also executed considering them unable for work. Prisoners were also transported in inhumane conditions by some rail freight cars in which a lot of them died before they reached their final destination.
- Concentration camp numbers tattoos.
In the Nazi concentration camps of Auschwitz, at the time of World War II, incoming prisoners were assigned a camp serial number that was sewn to their prison uniforms. Only the prisoners that were selected for work were issued serial numbers; those that were sent to the gas chambers directly were actually not registered and received no tattoos.
However, those that received were tattooed identification numbers, primarily as to identify corpses as the death rate was so high.
At the beginning, somewhere in 1941, hospital staffers and SS authorities started marking prisoners who were sick from some illness or who were to be executed with their camp serial number across the chest using indelible ink, and after that, tattooing became routine when the mass extermination of Soviet prisoners-of-war that year made it quite difficult to maintain records.
As prisoners were executed or died in some other way, their clothing bearing the camp serial number was removed. Because of the mortality rate at the camp, as well as the practice of removing clothing, there was no other way of identifying their bodies after the clothing was removed. So, the SS authorities introduced the practice of tattooing in order to identify the bodies of registered prisoners that died.
- The method of tattooing.
Originally, a special metal stamp, which holds interchangeable numbers made up of needles almost one centimeter long, was used. This allowed the entire serial number to be punched at one blow onto the left upper chest of the prisoner. The ink was then rubbed into the bleeding wound.
When the metal stamp method has proved impractical, a single-needle device was then introduced, which pierced the outlines of the serial-number digits onto the skin. The site of the tattoo was also changed to the outer side of the left forearm. But, prisoners from a few types of transport in 1943 had their numbers tattooed on the inner side of their left upper forearms.
Tattooing has been generally performed at the time of registration when each prisoner was assigned a camp serial number.
Later on, the tattooing practice has been adopted throughout the Auschwitz complex. Poles, as well as Jews at Auschwitz, the only concentration camp to systematically use tattooing, also received tattoos, typically on the left forearm.
The SS authorities throughout the whole Auschwitz complex has adopted the practice of tattooing nearly all previously registered and newly arrived prisoners, including female prisoners too. Exceptions to this practice were those prisoners with German nationality and reduction prisoners who were held in a separate compound. The camp authorities assigned more than 400,000 prisoner serial numbers during that time.
Nowadays, these tattoos are actually the testament to the utter brutality, as well as the inhumanity of which humans are capable, and also the resilience and the unbreakable spirit of the ones that survived. | 1,010 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Pompey Pillar Overview
It is one of the best-known ancient monuments still standing in Alexandria today. Pompey's Pillar was originally part of a temple dedicated to Serapis located in the same area, a temple of the God Serapis, now badly damaged. It was built during the reigns of Ptolemy II and Ptolemy III, but was damaged due to the revolts of the Jewish population in Alexandria.
It was rebuilt again during the reign of Hadrian (117-137 A.D). It was likely was destroyed, once more, after the appearance of Christianity. It consisted mainly of a high platform accessed by a staircase of 100 steps. Even though most of the Serapeum, or Temple to Serapis is now gone, the site is worth visiting if only to see the grand column known as Pompey's Pillar.
At the side of the platform there was a basin, which was used for purification. There were 2 galleries at the back of the temple, cut completely into the rock. In the 1st gallery a black statue of basalt, the 2nd gallery is known mistakenly as the Daughter Library but it seems that it was a burial for the mummies of Anubis.
The site of the Alexandria Acropolis also features a “Nilometer.” By means of the Shidia canal, which connected the Nile River to Lake Mariut, the Nilometer was used for measuring the height of the Nile during each flooding season. | <urn:uuid:a76cc494-54d9-44c2-85f5-efe4b75cddc9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.privatetoursinegypt.com/Pompey-Pillar-attraction23 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00505.warc.gz | en | 0.985877 | 308 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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0.48665681481361... | 2 | Pompey Pillar Overview
It is one of the best-known ancient monuments still standing in Alexandria today. Pompey's Pillar was originally part of a temple dedicated to Serapis located in the same area, a temple of the God Serapis, now badly damaged. It was built during the reigns of Ptolemy II and Ptolemy III, but was damaged due to the revolts of the Jewish population in Alexandria.
It was rebuilt again during the reign of Hadrian (117-137 A.D). It was likely was destroyed, once more, after the appearance of Christianity. It consisted mainly of a high platform accessed by a staircase of 100 steps. Even though most of the Serapeum, or Temple to Serapis is now gone, the site is worth visiting if only to see the grand column known as Pompey's Pillar.
At the side of the platform there was a basin, which was used for purification. There were 2 galleries at the back of the temple, cut completely into the rock. In the 1st gallery a black statue of basalt, the 2nd gallery is known mistakenly as the Daughter Library but it seems that it was a burial for the mummies of Anubis.
The site of the Alexandria Acropolis also features a “Nilometer.” By means of the Shidia canal, which connected the Nile River to Lake Mariut, the Nilometer was used for measuring the height of the Nile during each flooding season. | 310 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The violin is the best-known instrument in the string family, and also the smallest. Though its origins are unclear, Andrea Amati is credited with the creation of the modern violin and the founding of the Cremona school of violin making, whose students include his grandson Nicolo, Antonio Stradivari, Bartolomeo Guarneri and Carlo Bergonzi.
Nicolo Amati (1596-1684), was the grandson of violin maker Andrea Amati, who is credited with creating the modern violin. Nicolo was the only member of his family to survive the famine and plague that devastated the Italian city of Cremona around the year 1630. Amati’s violins are known for being wider than other violins of the time, which led to the design being called the “Grand Amati,” and for their sweet tone. Their design, however, does not lend itself to the strength of tone and resonance common to violins made by later violin makers.
Bartolomeo Giuseppe Guarneri (1698-1744), was the grandson of Andrea Guarneri, who had been an apprentice to Nicolo Amati. Guarneri’s violins are similar in outline to Antonio Stradivari’s, with F-holes (the holes on either side of the fingerboard which allow the transmission of sound) that are slightly more elongated and wider than those of Stradivari's instruments. Guarneri made about 250 violins, of which approximately 135 survive. Only about 25 violins from his early period are still known.
Perhaps the best known violin maker in history, Antonio Stradivari (1644-1737), is reputed to have been an apprentice of Nicolo Amati, although Cremona census documents from the period do not list him as such. Stradivari began creating violins of his own in the 1660s. Stradivari violins, also known as “Strads,” are best-known for their powerful tone. Stradivari based his early violin designs on those of Nicolo Amati, but during the 1690s, he experimented with a “long pattern,” a design which has a longer and narrower body than his earlier instruments. By 1700, Stradivari had returned to a broader, shorter design. The “Soil,” a Stradivari violin from 1714, is currently in the possession of violinist Itzhak Perlman. Nearly 650 Stradivari instruments, including cellos, harps, lutes and guitars, have survived.
Born in 1716, Carlo Bergonzi was a pupil of Antonio Stradivari. Bergonzi’s early violins reflect his teacher's influence and instruction, but in later years, Bergonzi created his own design, which included sound holes that reside lower on the body of the violin than Stradivari’s. The scroll of a Bergonzi violin is flatter than that of his teacher’s. Bergonzi died in 1747, a mere ten years after Stradivari.
- retro violin close-up image by Maxim Petrichuk from Fotolia.com | <urn:uuid:666984b6-2b3c-4c3c-9b88-da0c2b310f43> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ourpastimes.com/brands-of-antique-violins-12397874.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00214.warc.gz | en | 0.981157 | 669 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.577195644378... | 2 | The violin is the best-known instrument in the string family, and also the smallest. Though its origins are unclear, Andrea Amati is credited with the creation of the modern violin and the founding of the Cremona school of violin making, whose students include his grandson Nicolo, Antonio Stradivari, Bartolomeo Guarneri and Carlo Bergonzi.
Nicolo Amati (1596-1684), was the grandson of violin maker Andrea Amati, who is credited with creating the modern violin. Nicolo was the only member of his family to survive the famine and plague that devastated the Italian city of Cremona around the year 1630. Amati’s violins are known for being wider than other violins of the time, which led to the design being called the “Grand Amati,” and for their sweet tone. Their design, however, does not lend itself to the strength of tone and resonance common to violins made by later violin makers.
Bartolomeo Giuseppe Guarneri (1698-1744), was the grandson of Andrea Guarneri, who had been an apprentice to Nicolo Amati. Guarneri’s violins are similar in outline to Antonio Stradivari’s, with F-holes (the holes on either side of the fingerboard which allow the transmission of sound) that are slightly more elongated and wider than those of Stradivari's instruments. Guarneri made about 250 violins, of which approximately 135 survive. Only about 25 violins from his early period are still known.
Perhaps the best known violin maker in history, Antonio Stradivari (1644-1737), is reputed to have been an apprentice of Nicolo Amati, although Cremona census documents from the period do not list him as such. Stradivari began creating violins of his own in the 1660s. Stradivari violins, also known as “Strads,” are best-known for their powerful tone. Stradivari based his early violin designs on those of Nicolo Amati, but during the 1690s, he experimented with a “long pattern,” a design which has a longer and narrower body than his earlier instruments. By 1700, Stradivari had returned to a broader, shorter design. The “Soil,” a Stradivari violin from 1714, is currently in the possession of violinist Itzhak Perlman. Nearly 650 Stradivari instruments, including cellos, harps, lutes and guitars, have survived.
Born in 1716, Carlo Bergonzi was a pupil of Antonio Stradivari. Bergonzi’s early violins reflect his teacher's influence and instruction, but in later years, Bergonzi created his own design, which included sound holes that reside lower on the body of the violin than Stradivari’s. The scroll of a Bergonzi violin is flatter than that of his teacher’s. Bergonzi died in 1747, a mere ten years after Stradivari.
- retro violin close-up image by Maxim Petrichuk from Fotolia.com | 686 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Problem: The Book of Proverbs claims to be written by Solomon (1:1; 10:1). Conservative Jewish and Christian scholars have long attributed this book to King Solomon. However, Proverbs 25:1 speaks of King Hezekiah’s men “copying” these proverbs long after Solomon’s death. Further, the last two chapters claim to be written by Agur (30:1) and King Lemuel (31:1) and not by Solomon.
Solution: Since Solomon wrote some 3,000 proverbs (1 Kings 4:32)—many more than are in this book—it is possible that the Book of Proverbs was not put together from Solomon’s many proverbs until after his death. If so, then God would have guided His servants who compiled it so that they selected the ones He wanted in His authoritative Word.
It is also possible that Solomon himself wrote the Book of Proverbs and that the reference to “copying” by Hezekiah’s men simply refers to their later transcribing what Solomon wrote on another manuscript. The last two chapters could have been included by Solomon himself or added later since they too were inspired wisdom like that of Solomon’s, even though they were written by other men of God named Agur (30:1) and Lemuel (31:1). | <urn:uuid:c832e614-89a5-44a1-8ad7-f6464034e0ea> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://pathway2truth.com/wp/proverbs-251-how-can-solomon-be-the-author-of-proverbs-when-hezekiahs-men-copied-them/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00524.warc.gz | en | 0.984113 | 282 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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-0.1097701... | 2 | Problem: The Book of Proverbs claims to be written by Solomon (1:1; 10:1). Conservative Jewish and Christian scholars have long attributed this book to King Solomon. However, Proverbs 25:1 speaks of King Hezekiah’s men “copying” these proverbs long after Solomon’s death. Further, the last two chapters claim to be written by Agur (30:1) and King Lemuel (31:1) and not by Solomon.
Solution: Since Solomon wrote some 3,000 proverbs (1 Kings 4:32)—many more than are in this book—it is possible that the Book of Proverbs was not put together from Solomon’s many proverbs until after his death. If so, then God would have guided His servants who compiled it so that they selected the ones He wanted in His authoritative Word.
It is also possible that Solomon himself wrote the Book of Proverbs and that the reference to “copying” by Hezekiah’s men simply refers to their later transcribing what Solomon wrote on another manuscript. The last two chapters could have been included by Solomon himself or added later since they too were inspired wisdom like that of Solomon’s, even though they were written by other men of God named Agur (30:1) and Lemuel (31:1). | 278 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The capture of Cambrai October 9th, 1918
To the weary troops, the very name Cambrai was special: the largest French city awaiting liberation, and visions of its grandeur flowed. Early on the morning of October 9th 1918 the first Canadian troops tentatively entered the city. The battle to control it had ended a week earlier, but Allied generals were understandably wary of entering into fierce street-to-street fighting. A bombardment was strictly prohibited. As dawn approached and small patrols crossed the Canal de l’Escaut which ringed the city, and edged into the town centre, the sound of explosions could be heard. The air was thick with smoke. The explanation soon came: German troops had fled and left in their wake a looted, burning and demolished city. By noon the city was occupied without a shot fired. Canadian soldiers soon met English patrols entering from the south. With the capture of Cambrai and successes elsewhere, the German armies fell back across the entire front. The only question was: would the retreat continue, or would they turn and make a stand as they had so often before? | <urn:uuid:0976b77a-5c38-4496-9c98-c43180c330d8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.darrellduthie.com/uncategorized/the-capture-of-cambrai-october-9th-1918/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00258.warc.gz | en | 0.984568 | 227 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.6885196566581726,... | 9 | The capture of Cambrai October 9th, 1918
To the weary troops, the very name Cambrai was special: the largest French city awaiting liberation, and visions of its grandeur flowed. Early on the morning of October 9th 1918 the first Canadian troops tentatively entered the city. The battle to control it had ended a week earlier, but Allied generals were understandably wary of entering into fierce street-to-street fighting. A bombardment was strictly prohibited. As dawn approached and small patrols crossed the Canal de l’Escaut which ringed the city, and edged into the town centre, the sound of explosions could be heard. The air was thick with smoke. The explanation soon came: German troops had fled and left in their wake a looted, burning and demolished city. By noon the city was occupied without a shot fired. Canadian soldiers soon met English patrols entering from the south. With the capture of Cambrai and successes elsewhere, the German armies fell back across the entire front. The only question was: would the retreat continue, or would they turn and make a stand as they had so often before? | 235 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Florence Nightingale is remembered throughout the world for her heroic, almost superhuman labors in the field of nursing. Florence Nightingale was born in Italy in 1820 and was named Florence after her birthplace. A brilliant child, Florence attained outstanding academic achievement in her years attending school. Florence grew up to be a lively and attractive young woman, admired in her families elite social circle and was expected to make a good marriage, but Florence had other concerns.
In 1837, Florence was called by God to do his work. However, Florence did not hear voices or see visions. God called her by making her think for herself. She did not think that she out to do what her family and all of society expected of her—to either get married or look after her married relatives. She wanted to have a career, and this was very unusual of a woman in this time. Florence knew she wanted to help others on her own, but had no idea what she could do.
Florence refused to marry several suitors, and at the age of twenty-five told her parents that she wanted to become a nurse. Her parents were appalled at this decision because the idea of nursing was associate with working class women and it was not considered a suitable profession for well-educated women.
While the family conflicts over Florence’s future remained unsolved it was decided that Florence would tour Europe. In her travels, Florence undertook months of nursing training, unbeknownst to her family.
Florence returned home, still with the dream to become a working nurse, and again voiced this idea to her parents. Her parrients finally agreed and Florence was allowed to become a nurse.
Florence, now thirty-one went to work at Kaserworth Hospital in Germany, and was later promoted and moved to a hospital in London.
In 1854 Britain, France and Turkey declared war on Russia, marking the begging of the Crimean War. The allies had the upper hand in the war but there were vast criticisms of the medical felicities for the wounded soldiers.
In response, Florence asked and was granted permission to take a group of thirty-eight women nurses to look after the British soldiers fighting in the war.
Nightingale found the conditions of the hospitals appalling. The men were kept in rooms without blankets or decent food. Unwashed, they were still wearing their army uniforms, "still with dirt and gore". In these conditions, Florence was not surprised that war wounds accounted for one out of every six deaths in the war. Diseases such at typhus, chorea, and dysentery ran rampant among the wounded soldiers.
Military officers and doctors objected to Nightingale’s view of reforming military hospitals. They interpreted her comments as an attack and she was made to feel unwelcome. Nightingale received very... | <urn:uuid:0dfa82a1-a45f-453d-81fe-15d5ea16de46> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/florence-nightengale | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00392.warc.gz | en | 0.990197 | 577 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.081155531108... | 1 | Florence Nightingale is remembered throughout the world for her heroic, almost superhuman labors in the field of nursing. Florence Nightingale was born in Italy in 1820 and was named Florence after her birthplace. A brilliant child, Florence attained outstanding academic achievement in her years attending school. Florence grew up to be a lively and attractive young woman, admired in her families elite social circle and was expected to make a good marriage, but Florence had other concerns.
In 1837, Florence was called by God to do his work. However, Florence did not hear voices or see visions. God called her by making her think for herself. She did not think that she out to do what her family and all of society expected of her—to either get married or look after her married relatives. She wanted to have a career, and this was very unusual of a woman in this time. Florence knew she wanted to help others on her own, but had no idea what she could do.
Florence refused to marry several suitors, and at the age of twenty-five told her parents that she wanted to become a nurse. Her parents were appalled at this decision because the idea of nursing was associate with working class women and it was not considered a suitable profession for well-educated women.
While the family conflicts over Florence’s future remained unsolved it was decided that Florence would tour Europe. In her travels, Florence undertook months of nursing training, unbeknownst to her family.
Florence returned home, still with the dream to become a working nurse, and again voiced this idea to her parents. Her parrients finally agreed and Florence was allowed to become a nurse.
Florence, now thirty-one went to work at Kaserworth Hospital in Germany, and was later promoted and moved to a hospital in London.
In 1854 Britain, France and Turkey declared war on Russia, marking the begging of the Crimean War. The allies had the upper hand in the war but there were vast criticisms of the medical felicities for the wounded soldiers.
In response, Florence asked and was granted permission to take a group of thirty-eight women nurses to look after the British soldiers fighting in the war.
Nightingale found the conditions of the hospitals appalling. The men were kept in rooms without blankets or decent food. Unwashed, they were still wearing their army uniforms, "still with dirt and gore". In these conditions, Florence was not surprised that war wounds accounted for one out of every six deaths in the war. Diseases such at typhus, chorea, and dysentery ran rampant among the wounded soldiers.
Military officers and doctors objected to Nightingale’s view of reforming military hospitals. They interpreted her comments as an attack and she was made to feel unwelcome. Nightingale received very... | 574 | ENGLISH | 1 |
For many centuries, the world has had thousands and thousands of visionary leaders most of whom have helped shape and change the political, social and economical setting of the world as well as that of their respective nations. In America, there was Martin Luther King Jr, a black political activist who fought for the rights of the then minority blacks and he had dream that one there will equal rights and justice for all blacks. This came to pass. In India there was Mahatma Ghandi who was a political activist and Mother Teresa who tirelessly fought for the rights of the poor in the society to ensure that they had access to the basic needs; food, shelter, clothing, education and better health care. The efforts of most of these leaders did not go unnoticed by the international community and most of them were awarded awards for their efforts.
First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service
- Your research paper is written by a PhD professor
- Your requirements and targets are always met
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- You get a chance to become an excellent student!
The emission of toxic gases by factories, environmental degradation and deforestation has had a negative impact in the environment and this has led to global warming. To help curb this menace, one African Woman has for many fears campaigned against this menace and worked tirelessly to ensure that more trees are being planted. Due to her efforts and sacrifice, she was rewarded with a Noble peace price in 2004. She is Professor Wangari Maathai from Kenya who is the founder of the Green Belt Movement. It is this visionary leader that this essay paper will focus on.
Professor Wangari Maathai
The Green Belt Movement (GBM) was formed in te 1977 in an effort to try and repair the damage that had been done on the Kenyan environmental scene. The aim of the movement was to mobilize the women and the youth in the society; those marginalized by the patriarchal society that Kenya is, and divert their attention on environmental issues. They would therefore earn a living through planting trees and ensuring that the trees are taken care of until they were self sufficient. The two forests that were facing total destruction at the time were Karura forest and the Mount Kenya forests.
According to Maathai, the solutions to all the problems that face the mankind are as a result environmental degraded and land grabbing. Therefore maintaining a balance between modernity and the environment is essential if the world is to continue its existence and ensure its future (Maathai 2003 p. 73 – 75). Her struggle to ensure that the forests are preserved in Kenya did not come on a silver platter, one of the challenges that the movement went through was during the reign of the former president of Kenya; Daniel Moi. It was indeed during his time that the country underwent some devastating changes; including environmental degradation. It was indeed a dark period for Kenya. It was during this period that big chunks of land were grabbed by politicians and other influential members of the community for personal use. This is one thing that “the professor of environment” would not allow.
It is important to note that other functions of the Green Belt Movement (GBM) under the stewardship of Professor Wangari Maathai was to promote growth and preservation of forest cover, ensure that there is good governance and government participation in the project and finally fight forest land grabbers. The Nobel Committee described Maathai as an icon that should be emulated by many in the world today. Hers is a story of unselfish devotion to the society and life in general. She has managed to make a difference in a world where few manage to and where greed comes before everything else. Her influence in the world has managed to change the lives of many and the decisions of even more governments when it comes to issues environmental. The environment is our greatest resource yet it is the resource we abuse the most. All the aspects of our lives depend on “Mother Nature” as Wangari puts it and it is therefore our obligation and right to ensure that the environment is well maintained and subsequently used sustainably (Nobel Committee, 2004).
In conclusion, Wangari Maathai is a leader and a mother and most of all a fighter when it come to issues of the environment and democracy; she has in more than one occasion stood against a tyrant that ruled the country for 24 years and during that period the country’s environment suffered a great deal. During this time, her fight for the environment was synonymous with that of democracy and she has shown the world of the relationship that exists between the two issues. All in the world are very lucky to have such an exceptional individual.
Most popular orders | <urn:uuid:7cf014a8-9967-43bc-845f-580fefc94f8f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://essaysexperts.com/essays/sociology/visionary-leader.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00006.warc.gz | en | 0.981791 | 947 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.3501890301704407... | 1 | For many centuries, the world has had thousands and thousands of visionary leaders most of whom have helped shape and change the political, social and economical setting of the world as well as that of their respective nations. In America, there was Martin Luther King Jr, a black political activist who fought for the rights of the then minority blacks and he had dream that one there will equal rights and justice for all blacks. This came to pass. In India there was Mahatma Ghandi who was a political activist and Mother Teresa who tirelessly fought for the rights of the poor in the society to ensure that they had access to the basic needs; food, shelter, clothing, education and better health care. The efforts of most of these leaders did not go unnoticed by the international community and most of them were awarded awards for their efforts.
First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service
- Your research paper is written by a PhD professor
- Your requirements and targets are always met
- You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment
- You get a chance to become an excellent student!
The emission of toxic gases by factories, environmental degradation and deforestation has had a negative impact in the environment and this has led to global warming. To help curb this menace, one African Woman has for many fears campaigned against this menace and worked tirelessly to ensure that more trees are being planted. Due to her efforts and sacrifice, she was rewarded with a Noble peace price in 2004. She is Professor Wangari Maathai from Kenya who is the founder of the Green Belt Movement. It is this visionary leader that this essay paper will focus on.
Professor Wangari Maathai
The Green Belt Movement (GBM) was formed in te 1977 in an effort to try and repair the damage that had been done on the Kenyan environmental scene. The aim of the movement was to mobilize the women and the youth in the society; those marginalized by the patriarchal society that Kenya is, and divert their attention on environmental issues. They would therefore earn a living through planting trees and ensuring that the trees are taken care of until they were self sufficient. The two forests that were facing total destruction at the time were Karura forest and the Mount Kenya forests.
According to Maathai, the solutions to all the problems that face the mankind are as a result environmental degraded and land grabbing. Therefore maintaining a balance between modernity and the environment is essential if the world is to continue its existence and ensure its future (Maathai 2003 p. 73 – 75). Her struggle to ensure that the forests are preserved in Kenya did not come on a silver platter, one of the challenges that the movement went through was during the reign of the former president of Kenya; Daniel Moi. It was indeed during his time that the country underwent some devastating changes; including environmental degradation. It was indeed a dark period for Kenya. It was during this period that big chunks of land were grabbed by politicians and other influential members of the community for personal use. This is one thing that “the professor of environment” would not allow.
It is important to note that other functions of the Green Belt Movement (GBM) under the stewardship of Professor Wangari Maathai was to promote growth and preservation of forest cover, ensure that there is good governance and government participation in the project and finally fight forest land grabbers. The Nobel Committee described Maathai as an icon that should be emulated by many in the world today. Hers is a story of unselfish devotion to the society and life in general. She has managed to make a difference in a world where few manage to and where greed comes before everything else. Her influence in the world has managed to change the lives of many and the decisions of even more governments when it comes to issues environmental. The environment is our greatest resource yet it is the resource we abuse the most. All the aspects of our lives depend on “Mother Nature” as Wangari puts it and it is therefore our obligation and right to ensure that the environment is well maintained and subsequently used sustainably (Nobel Committee, 2004).
In conclusion, Wangari Maathai is a leader and a mother and most of all a fighter when it come to issues of the environment and democracy; she has in more than one occasion stood against a tyrant that ruled the country for 24 years and during that period the country’s environment suffered a great deal. During this time, her fight for the environment was synonymous with that of democracy and she has shown the world of the relationship that exists between the two issues. All in the world are very lucky to have such an exceptional individual.
Most popular orders | 960 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Hitler was determined to make his way in the politics, he believed that with his extreme ideas and suggestions, Germany would rise up again. Hindenburg appointed Franz Von Papen, a conservative, as his replacement. In alone this rose to 42 uses, in comparison to only 35 Reichstag laws being passed in the same year.
These small signs started to hint at a positive climb in the economy. It was through this technique that he began to build an image of Hitler as a strong, stable leader that Germany needed to become a great power again. However, after narrowly escaping death in the Night of the Long Knives inhe no longer dared criticise the regime and was sent off to Vienna as German ambassador.
Von Papen had assured Hindenburg that he could keep Hitler under control.
Although it may have taken a longer time, he would have become the Chancellor anyway. Further, Hitler was allowed to stay in the army and receive his weekly pay of 20 gold marks.
Major events leading to Hitler becoming Chancellor April — Presidential election. Destroying the political left would help to remove the majority of political opponents to the ring-wing conservative elite.
The attacks continued and reached fever pitch when SA leader Axel Schaffeld was assassinated on 1 August.
If Papen had supported Schiller, there might had been a chance where The Nazi Party could have been defeated. Strasser: Power is only the means of accomplishing the program. | <urn:uuid:610ae1c5-353a-4085-b993-7e3d65de7f1f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://tuzynevata.dellrichards.com/von-pappens-importance-to-hitlers-rise38591877an.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00062.warc.gz | en | 0.989018 | 294 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.104737453... | 1 | Hitler was determined to make his way in the politics, he believed that with his extreme ideas and suggestions, Germany would rise up again. Hindenburg appointed Franz Von Papen, a conservative, as his replacement. In alone this rose to 42 uses, in comparison to only 35 Reichstag laws being passed in the same year.
These small signs started to hint at a positive climb in the economy. It was through this technique that he began to build an image of Hitler as a strong, stable leader that Germany needed to become a great power again. However, after narrowly escaping death in the Night of the Long Knives inhe no longer dared criticise the regime and was sent off to Vienna as German ambassador.
Von Papen had assured Hindenburg that he could keep Hitler under control.
Although it may have taken a longer time, he would have become the Chancellor anyway. Further, Hitler was allowed to stay in the army and receive his weekly pay of 20 gold marks.
Major events leading to Hitler becoming Chancellor April — Presidential election. Destroying the political left would help to remove the majority of political opponents to the ring-wing conservative elite.
The attacks continued and reached fever pitch when SA leader Axel Schaffeld was assassinated on 1 August.
If Papen had supported Schiller, there might had been a chance where The Nazi Party could have been defeated. Strasser: Power is only the means of accomplishing the program. | 294 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Mary Ward founded a religious community for women dedicated to active service, drawing on the Society of Jesus as an organizational model.
Mary Ward was born to a Catholic family in North Yorkshire, England, just a few years before the defeat of the Spanish Armada. The family was determined to practice the Catholic faith in spite of the ongoing hostility. In 1589 the family home was burned down, but Mary and her sisters were saved by her father.
At the age of 15, Mary Ward felt called to religious life. Ward entered the Poor Clare convent in Saint-Omer in France. At the time the only option for religious life for women was in cloistered communities. Mary Ward, however, wanted to give active service to God and others. Thus began her extraordinary journey.
At the age of 24, Mary gathered a number of companions and formed a religious community. In creating a structure for her religious community, Mary Ward drew on the Constitutions of the Society of Jesus. Church authorities, however, were implacably opposed to the idea of religious women being active in any ministry outside of the enclosed walls of the cloister.
The community grew in the face of severe opposition. They ministered to imprisoned and persecuted Catholics openly on the European continent, secretly in England. Mary was imprisoned by the English government and later by the Inquisition in Rome. While she was personally admired, Mary Ward's congregation was suppressed in 1630. There was also an effort to destroy all related documents so as to erase the memory of Mary's work. Returning to England in 1642, Mary died surrounded by a few companions in 1645. Although she was continually frustrated in her dreams, Mary Ward never lost confidence in her relationship with Jesus.
Mary Ward's legacy survives today in the Institute of the Blessed Virgin Mary worldwide, and in the newly renamed Congregation of Jesus in England. | <urn:uuid:75ae8ce1-6f9f-4deb-a89e-05a1bae02bae> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://marywardschool.org/Patron.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00294.warc.gz | en | 0.984969 | 377 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.0150674851... | 2 | Mary Ward founded a religious community for women dedicated to active service, drawing on the Society of Jesus as an organizational model.
Mary Ward was born to a Catholic family in North Yorkshire, England, just a few years before the defeat of the Spanish Armada. The family was determined to practice the Catholic faith in spite of the ongoing hostility. In 1589 the family home was burned down, but Mary and her sisters were saved by her father.
At the age of 15, Mary Ward felt called to religious life. Ward entered the Poor Clare convent in Saint-Omer in France. At the time the only option for religious life for women was in cloistered communities. Mary Ward, however, wanted to give active service to God and others. Thus began her extraordinary journey.
At the age of 24, Mary gathered a number of companions and formed a religious community. In creating a structure for her religious community, Mary Ward drew on the Constitutions of the Society of Jesus. Church authorities, however, were implacably opposed to the idea of religious women being active in any ministry outside of the enclosed walls of the cloister.
The community grew in the face of severe opposition. They ministered to imprisoned and persecuted Catholics openly on the European continent, secretly in England. Mary was imprisoned by the English government and later by the Inquisition in Rome. While she was personally admired, Mary Ward's congregation was suppressed in 1630. There was also an effort to destroy all related documents so as to erase the memory of Mary's work. Returning to England in 1642, Mary died surrounded by a few companions in 1645. Although she was continually frustrated in her dreams, Mary Ward never lost confidence in her relationship with Jesus.
Mary Ward's legacy survives today in the Institute of the Blessed Virgin Mary worldwide, and in the newly renamed Congregation of Jesus in England. | 388 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Looks like fishing is an even older tradition than we thought.
Archeologists recently discovered a stash of prehistoric fishhooks in a limestone cave in the southeast Asian country of East Timor, according to reports.
Australian archeologist Sue O'Connor and her colleagues discovered the hooks, which are made from shells, and dated the hooks as far back as 42,000 years.
Before the discovery, the oldest fishhook was believed to be 5,500 years old.
In addition, the early anglers clearly had some success, as the team discovered more than 38,000 fish bones at the site, including some offshore species such as tuna. There was even evidence of humans eating sharks and rays at the site.
"That these types of fish were being routinely caught 40,000 years ago is extraordinary," O'Connor said. "It requires complex technology and shows that early modern humans in island South East Asia had amazingly advanced maritime skills."
Researchers speculate that the anglers may have used fiber lines cast from rafts, though the hooks discovered by O'Connor and her team didn't seem suitable for offshore fishing -- however other hooks could have been made, she said.
Humans are believed to have arrived in Australia about 50,000 years ago, but O'Connor's find proves humans had the know-how to craft fishing tools and methods much earlier than previously believed. The tradition likely played a key role in human survival as the anglers crossed the Indian Ocean to Australia.
While older fish bones dating 140,000-50,000 years ago have been discovered in Africa, they belonged to inland species and were likely caught using more primitive methods, researchers said. | <urn:uuid:a01ea0f0-7738-498a-b35c-88362aa76d0e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.gameandfishmag.com/editorial/worlds-oldest-fishhooks-found-in-southeast-asia/194344 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00378.warc.gz | en | 0.982368 | 340 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.5203998684883... | 3 | Looks like fishing is an even older tradition than we thought.
Archeologists recently discovered a stash of prehistoric fishhooks in a limestone cave in the southeast Asian country of East Timor, according to reports.
Australian archeologist Sue O'Connor and her colleagues discovered the hooks, which are made from shells, and dated the hooks as far back as 42,000 years.
Before the discovery, the oldest fishhook was believed to be 5,500 years old.
In addition, the early anglers clearly had some success, as the team discovered more than 38,000 fish bones at the site, including some offshore species such as tuna. There was even evidence of humans eating sharks and rays at the site.
"That these types of fish were being routinely caught 40,000 years ago is extraordinary," O'Connor said. "It requires complex technology and shows that early modern humans in island South East Asia had amazingly advanced maritime skills."
Researchers speculate that the anglers may have used fiber lines cast from rafts, though the hooks discovered by O'Connor and her team didn't seem suitable for offshore fishing -- however other hooks could have been made, she said.
Humans are believed to have arrived in Australia about 50,000 years ago, but O'Connor's find proves humans had the know-how to craft fishing tools and methods much earlier than previously believed. The tradition likely played a key role in human survival as the anglers crossed the Indian Ocean to Australia.
While older fish bones dating 140,000-50,000 years ago have been discovered in Africa, they belonged to inland species and were likely caught using more primitive methods, researchers said. | 353 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Joe and Rose Holm
Despite great obstacles, Jews throughout occupied Europe attempted armed resistance against the Germans and their Axis partners. They faced overwhelming odds and desperate scenarios, including lack of weapons and training, operating in hostile zones, parting from family members, and facing an ever-present Nazi terror. Yet thousands resisted by joining or forming partisan units. Among them were Joe and Rose Holm.
Jewish partisans Rose Duman and Joe Holm were born in neighboring villages near Zaliscze, Poland. In 1941, Germans killed Joe's mother and five brothers, as well as 20 other members of his family. At 19, he entered the forest, where he knew other Jews were gathering.
Joe Holm met Chiel Grynspan and other partisans in the forest, where he proved himself skilled with a gun, and adept at demolition. Holm had two roles: his extensive knowledge of the forest and local villages made Holm an invaluable guide for his group. Holm also traveled in and out of the forest, finding food and medical supplies necessary for the unit's survival.
Near Zaliscze, Rose’s family owned a prosperous farm, where Joe would often stay overnight on Shabbat. When partisan groups began allowing a few women to join, Joe appeared on Rose's doorstep. He said, “I'm going; you come with me.”
As partisans, Rose and Joe carried out dozens of missions. Once, travelling with a Polish general into the forest, their group was ambushed. Joe and Rose ran through gunfire, and managed to deliver the general safely to the camp. Later, Rose found bullet holes through her sweater, as a testament to their narrow escape. In another narrow escape, Joe Holm and his cousin Jack Pomeranc stood before a firing squad with 80 other partisans, and prepared to be executed. Just before the signal to fire was given, Joe said, “Watch me, and do what I do.” He wrestled a gun from a German soldier and started firing. Joe Holm was shot in the arm, but they and two other prisoners escaped. All the rest were killed.
Rose and Joe stayed with the Grynspan unit for the duration of the war, living in the forest for over three years. Later, Rose and Joe married and left Poland for Germany, eventually emigrating to the United States. In New York, they built a family and a successful business. Joe Holm died in 2009. They were married for 65 years.
“We survived with our bare hands,” Rose recalls. “I just wanted to live, to see the end of Hitler,” she adds. “I was angry. It was important to me to do something, before I died.” On teaching the history and legacy of the Jewish partisans, Rose Holm says, “It is important to teach kids to fight back. To speak up.”
Critical Thinking Questions
- What obstacles and limitations did Jews face when considering resistance?
- What pressures and motivations may have influenced Joe and Rose Holm's decisions and actions? Are these factors unique to this history or universal?
- How can societies, communities, and individuals reinforce and strengthen the willingness to stand up for others? | <urn:uuid:b4d54509-1939-476a-9ec5-5487da99603b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/joe-and-rose-holm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00487.warc.gz | en | 0.981469 | 670 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.28432488441... | 11 | Joe and Rose Holm
Despite great obstacles, Jews throughout occupied Europe attempted armed resistance against the Germans and their Axis partners. They faced overwhelming odds and desperate scenarios, including lack of weapons and training, operating in hostile zones, parting from family members, and facing an ever-present Nazi terror. Yet thousands resisted by joining or forming partisan units. Among them were Joe and Rose Holm.
Jewish partisans Rose Duman and Joe Holm were born in neighboring villages near Zaliscze, Poland. In 1941, Germans killed Joe's mother and five brothers, as well as 20 other members of his family. At 19, he entered the forest, where he knew other Jews were gathering.
Joe Holm met Chiel Grynspan and other partisans in the forest, where he proved himself skilled with a gun, and adept at demolition. Holm had two roles: his extensive knowledge of the forest and local villages made Holm an invaluable guide for his group. Holm also traveled in and out of the forest, finding food and medical supplies necessary for the unit's survival.
Near Zaliscze, Rose’s family owned a prosperous farm, where Joe would often stay overnight on Shabbat. When partisan groups began allowing a few women to join, Joe appeared on Rose's doorstep. He said, “I'm going; you come with me.”
As partisans, Rose and Joe carried out dozens of missions. Once, travelling with a Polish general into the forest, their group was ambushed. Joe and Rose ran through gunfire, and managed to deliver the general safely to the camp. Later, Rose found bullet holes through her sweater, as a testament to their narrow escape. In another narrow escape, Joe Holm and his cousin Jack Pomeranc stood before a firing squad with 80 other partisans, and prepared to be executed. Just before the signal to fire was given, Joe said, “Watch me, and do what I do.” He wrestled a gun from a German soldier and started firing. Joe Holm was shot in the arm, but they and two other prisoners escaped. All the rest were killed.
Rose and Joe stayed with the Grynspan unit for the duration of the war, living in the forest for over three years. Later, Rose and Joe married and left Poland for Germany, eventually emigrating to the United States. In New York, they built a family and a successful business. Joe Holm died in 2009. They were married for 65 years.
“We survived with our bare hands,” Rose recalls. “I just wanted to live, to see the end of Hitler,” she adds. “I was angry. It was important to me to do something, before I died.” On teaching the history and legacy of the Jewish partisans, Rose Holm says, “It is important to teach kids to fight back. To speak up.”
Critical Thinking Questions
- What obstacles and limitations did Jews face when considering resistance?
- What pressures and motivations may have influenced Joe and Rose Holm's decisions and actions? Are these factors unique to this history or universal?
- How can societies, communities, and individuals reinforce and strengthen the willingness to stand up for others? | 662 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Thousands of years ago, people were performing a form of surgery called “trepanation” that involves boring holes through a person’s skull
For a large part of human prehistory, people around the world practised trepanation: a crude surgical procedure that involves forming a hole in the skull of a living person by either drilling, cutting or scraping away layers of bone with a sharp implement.
To date, thousands of skulls bearing signs of trepanation have been unearthed at archaeological sites across the world.
But despite its apparent importance, scientists are still not completely agreed on why our ancestors performed trepanation.
Anthropological accounts of 20th-Century trepanations in Africa and Polynesia suggest that, in these cases at least, trepanation was performed to treat pain – for instance, the pain caused by skull trauma or neurological disease.
Trepanation may also have had a similar purpose in prehistory. Many trepanned skulls show signs of cranial injuries or neurological diseases, often in the same region of the skull where the trepanation hole was made.
But as well as being used to treat medical conditions, researchers have long suspected that ancient humans performed trepanation for a quite different reason: ritual.
The earliest clear evidence of trepanation dates to approximately 7,000 years ago. It was practised in places as diverse as Ancient Greece, North and South America, Africa, Polynesia and the Far East. People probably developed the practice independently in several locations.
Archaeologists have turned up some of the best evidence for ritual trepanation ever discovered
Trepanation had been abandoned by most cultures by the end of the Middle Ages, but the practice was still being carried out in a few isolated parts of Africa and Polynesia until the early 1900s.
Since the very first scientific studies on trepanation were published in the 19th Century, scholars have continued to argue that ancient humans sometimes performed trepanation to allow the passage of spirits into or out of the body, or as part of an initiation rite.
However, convincing evidence is hard to come by. It is almost impossible to completely rule out the possibility that a trepanation was carried out for medical reasons, because some brain conditions leave no trace on the skull.
However, in a small corner of Russia archaeologists have turned up some of the best evidence for ritual trepanation ever discovered.
The story begins in 1997. Archaeologists were excavating a prehistoric burial site close to the city of Rostov-on-Don in the far south of Russia, near the northern reaches of the Black Sea.
The site contained the skeletal remains of 35 humans, distributed among 20 separate graves. Based on the style of the burials, the archaeologists knew that they dated to between approximately 5,000 and 3,000 BC, a period known as the Chalcolithic or “Copper Age”.
Less than 1% of all recorded trepanations are located above the obelion point
One of the graves contained the skeletons of five adults – two women and three men – together with an infant aged between one and two years, and a girl in her mid-teens.
Finding multiple skeletons in the same prehistoric grave is not particularly unusual. But what had been done to their skulls was: the two women, two of the men and the teenage girl had all been trepanned.
Each of their skulls contained a single hole, several centimetres wide and roughly ellipsoidal in shape, with signs of scraping around the edges. The skull of the third man contained a depression which also showed evidence of having been carved, but not an actual hole. Only the infant’s skull was unblemished.
The job of analysing the contents of the grave fell to Elena Batieva, an anthropologist now at the Southern Federal University in Rostov-on-Don, Russia. She immediately recognised the holes as trepanations, and she soon realised that these trepanations were unusual.
They had all been made in almost exactly the same location: a point on the skull called the “obelion”. The obelion is on the top of the skull and towards the rear, roughly where a high ponytail might be gathered.
Opening the skull in this location would have risked major haemorrhage and death
Less than 1% of all recorded trepanations are located above the obelion point. What’s more, Batieva knew that such trepanations were even less common in ancient Russia. As far as she was aware at the time, there was just one other recorded case of an obelion trepanation: a skull unearthed in 1974 at an archaeological site remarkably close to the one she was excavating.
Clearly, finding even one obelion trepanation is remarkable. But Batieva was looking at five, all of them buried in the same grave. This was, and is, unprecedented.
There is a good reason why obelion trepanation is uncommon: it is very dangerous.
The obelion point is located directly above the superior sagittal sinus, where blood from the brain collects before flowing into the brain’s main outgoing veins. Opening the skull in this location would have risked major haemorrhage and death.
This suggests the Copper Age inhabitants of Russia must have had good reason to perform such trepanation procedures. Yet none of the skulls showed any signs of having suffered any injury or illness, before or after the trepanation had been performed.
Among the 137 skulls, they found nine with conspicuous holes
In other words, it appeared as if all of these people were trepanned while they were completely healthy. Was their trepanation evidence of some sort of ritual?
It was an intriguing possibility. However, Batieva had to give up the trail. She had many more skeletons to analyse from all over southern Russia, and could not afford to get sidetracked by just a few skulls, however enigmatic.
Before she gave up, Batieva decided to search through Russia’s unpublished archaeological records, in case any more strange obelion trepanations had been discovered but not reported.
Surprisingly, she got two hits. The skulls of two young women with obelion trepanations had been discovered years earlier: one in 1980 and another in 1992. Each one had been unearthed less than 31 miles (50km) from Rostov-on-Don, and neither showed any signs of having been trepanned for a medical reason.
This gave Batieva a grand total of eight unusual skulls, all clustered in a small region of southern Russia and potentially all of about the same age. A decade later, even more came to light.
In 2011, an international team of archaeologists was analysing 137 human skeletons. They had recently been excavated from three separate Copper Age burial sites around 310 miles (500km) south-east of Rostov-on-Don, in the Stavropol Krai region of Russia, close to the modern-day border with Georgia.
The archaeologists had not set out to discover trepanations. They were there to learn about the general health of the prehistoric inhabitants of the region. But among the 137 skulls, they found nine with conspicuous holes.
Southern Russia may have been a centre for ritual trepanation
Five of them were standard examples of trepanation. The holes had been made in a variety of different locations around the front and side of the skull, and all of the skulls showed signs of having suffered a physical trauma, suggesting that the trepanations had been performed to treat the effects of the injuries.
But none of the other four trepanned skulls showed any signs of damage or disease. What’s more, all four had been trepanned exactly above the obelion point.
Quite by chance one of the researchers – Julia Gresky, an anthropologist at the German Archaeological Institute (DAI) – had already read Batieva’s paper describing the unusual trepanations from the Rostov-on-Don region.
Now Gresky, Batieva and other archaeologists have teamed up to describe all 12 of the obelion trepanations from Southern Russia. Their study was published in April 2016 in theAmerican Journal of Physical Anthropology.
The 12 skulls would have been remarkable discoveries wherever they had been found. But the fact that they were all discovered in the same tiny corner of Russia meant that a connection seemed likely. If there was no link, the odds that a batch of such rare trepanations would turn up exclusively in southern Russia would have been exceedingly low.
Gresky, Bateiva and their colleagues argue that, while this idea is difficult to prove, the clustering of these unusual trepanations suggests that southern Russia may have been a centre for ritual trepanation.
The owners of the other skulls seem to have survived their operations
Maria Mednikova of the Russian Academy of Sciences in Moscow is an expert on Russian trepanation. She believes that trepanations in specific, dangerous areas of the cranium may have been performed to achieve “transformations” of some kind. She suggests that, by trepanning in these places, people thought they could acquire unique skills that ordinary members of society did not have.
We can only speculate as to why these 12 apparently healthy people were trepanned in such an unusual and dangerous way. But thanks to the trepanation holes themselves, we can infer a surprising amount about the fate of the people after they received their trepanation.
One of the 12 skulls belonged to a woman under the age of 25, who had been buried at one of the sites near Rostov-on-Don. It showed no signs of healing, suggesting that she died during her trepanation or shortly afterwards.
However, the owners of the other skulls seem to have survived their operations. Their skulls showed bone healing around the edges of the trepanation holes – although the bone never completely re-grew over the holes.
The trepanned skull of a 30-35-year-old male, one of five people in the mass grave. The hole is healed (Credit: The German Archaeological Institute (DAI), Julia Gresky)
Three of the 12 skulls showed only slight signs of healing around the trepanation hole, suggesting that their owners only survived between two and eight weeks after the operation. Two of these individuals were women between 20 and 35 years of age. The third was an elderly person between 50 and 70 years old, whose sex could not be determined.
The other eight skulls showed more advanced healing. Based on what we know about bone healing today, these individuals probably survived for at least four years after their operations.
It appeared as if all of these people were trepanned while they were completely healthy
These eight survivors included all five of the people from the mass grave near Rostov-on-Don, whose bizarrely-trepanned skulls first attracted Batieva’s attention almost 20 years ago.
The two men, two women and one adolescent girl had all survived with their obelion holes for years. The girl, who based on her skeleton was between 14 and 16 years old, must have been trepanned when she was no older than 12, and possibly much younger.
It is still possible that these 12 people were suffering from diseases or head injuries. In that case, the trepanning operation may have worked for at least eight of them.
But it is also possible that Batieva and her colleagues are right, and these people were trepanned for a ritual purpose. If that is true, we can only guess at what benefits they received – or believed they had received – throughout the rest of their lives. | <urn:uuid:1076ae02-f5c7-4d8d-9291-6a103508dae1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.afritimes.co.za/why-our-ancestors-drilled-holes-in-each-others-skulls/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00069.warc.gz | en | 0.980404 | 2,449 | 4.1875 | 4 | [
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... | 2 | Thousands of years ago, people were performing a form of surgery called “trepanation” that involves boring holes through a person’s skull
For a large part of human prehistory, people around the world practised trepanation: a crude surgical procedure that involves forming a hole in the skull of a living person by either drilling, cutting or scraping away layers of bone with a sharp implement.
To date, thousands of skulls bearing signs of trepanation have been unearthed at archaeological sites across the world.
But despite its apparent importance, scientists are still not completely agreed on why our ancestors performed trepanation.
Anthropological accounts of 20th-Century trepanations in Africa and Polynesia suggest that, in these cases at least, trepanation was performed to treat pain – for instance, the pain caused by skull trauma or neurological disease.
Trepanation may also have had a similar purpose in prehistory. Many trepanned skulls show signs of cranial injuries or neurological diseases, often in the same region of the skull where the trepanation hole was made.
But as well as being used to treat medical conditions, researchers have long suspected that ancient humans performed trepanation for a quite different reason: ritual.
The earliest clear evidence of trepanation dates to approximately 7,000 years ago. It was practised in places as diverse as Ancient Greece, North and South America, Africa, Polynesia and the Far East. People probably developed the practice independently in several locations.
Archaeologists have turned up some of the best evidence for ritual trepanation ever discovered
Trepanation had been abandoned by most cultures by the end of the Middle Ages, but the practice was still being carried out in a few isolated parts of Africa and Polynesia until the early 1900s.
Since the very first scientific studies on trepanation were published in the 19th Century, scholars have continued to argue that ancient humans sometimes performed trepanation to allow the passage of spirits into or out of the body, or as part of an initiation rite.
However, convincing evidence is hard to come by. It is almost impossible to completely rule out the possibility that a trepanation was carried out for medical reasons, because some brain conditions leave no trace on the skull.
However, in a small corner of Russia archaeologists have turned up some of the best evidence for ritual trepanation ever discovered.
The story begins in 1997. Archaeologists were excavating a prehistoric burial site close to the city of Rostov-on-Don in the far south of Russia, near the northern reaches of the Black Sea.
The site contained the skeletal remains of 35 humans, distributed among 20 separate graves. Based on the style of the burials, the archaeologists knew that they dated to between approximately 5,000 and 3,000 BC, a period known as the Chalcolithic or “Copper Age”.
Less than 1% of all recorded trepanations are located above the obelion point
One of the graves contained the skeletons of five adults – two women and three men – together with an infant aged between one and two years, and a girl in her mid-teens.
Finding multiple skeletons in the same prehistoric grave is not particularly unusual. But what had been done to their skulls was: the two women, two of the men and the teenage girl had all been trepanned.
Each of their skulls contained a single hole, several centimetres wide and roughly ellipsoidal in shape, with signs of scraping around the edges. The skull of the third man contained a depression which also showed evidence of having been carved, but not an actual hole. Only the infant’s skull was unblemished.
The job of analysing the contents of the grave fell to Elena Batieva, an anthropologist now at the Southern Federal University in Rostov-on-Don, Russia. She immediately recognised the holes as trepanations, and she soon realised that these trepanations were unusual.
They had all been made in almost exactly the same location: a point on the skull called the “obelion”. The obelion is on the top of the skull and towards the rear, roughly where a high ponytail might be gathered.
Opening the skull in this location would have risked major haemorrhage and death
Less than 1% of all recorded trepanations are located above the obelion point. What’s more, Batieva knew that such trepanations were even less common in ancient Russia. As far as she was aware at the time, there was just one other recorded case of an obelion trepanation: a skull unearthed in 1974 at an archaeological site remarkably close to the one she was excavating.
Clearly, finding even one obelion trepanation is remarkable. But Batieva was looking at five, all of them buried in the same grave. This was, and is, unprecedented.
There is a good reason why obelion trepanation is uncommon: it is very dangerous.
The obelion point is located directly above the superior sagittal sinus, where blood from the brain collects before flowing into the brain’s main outgoing veins. Opening the skull in this location would have risked major haemorrhage and death.
This suggests the Copper Age inhabitants of Russia must have had good reason to perform such trepanation procedures. Yet none of the skulls showed any signs of having suffered any injury or illness, before or after the trepanation had been performed.
Among the 137 skulls, they found nine with conspicuous holes
In other words, it appeared as if all of these people were trepanned while they were completely healthy. Was their trepanation evidence of some sort of ritual?
It was an intriguing possibility. However, Batieva had to give up the trail. She had many more skeletons to analyse from all over southern Russia, and could not afford to get sidetracked by just a few skulls, however enigmatic.
Before she gave up, Batieva decided to search through Russia’s unpublished archaeological records, in case any more strange obelion trepanations had been discovered but not reported.
Surprisingly, she got two hits. The skulls of two young women with obelion trepanations had been discovered years earlier: one in 1980 and another in 1992. Each one had been unearthed less than 31 miles (50km) from Rostov-on-Don, and neither showed any signs of having been trepanned for a medical reason.
This gave Batieva a grand total of eight unusual skulls, all clustered in a small region of southern Russia and potentially all of about the same age. A decade later, even more came to light.
In 2011, an international team of archaeologists was analysing 137 human skeletons. They had recently been excavated from three separate Copper Age burial sites around 310 miles (500km) south-east of Rostov-on-Don, in the Stavropol Krai region of Russia, close to the modern-day border with Georgia.
The archaeologists had not set out to discover trepanations. They were there to learn about the general health of the prehistoric inhabitants of the region. But among the 137 skulls, they found nine with conspicuous holes.
Southern Russia may have been a centre for ritual trepanation
Five of them were standard examples of trepanation. The holes had been made in a variety of different locations around the front and side of the skull, and all of the skulls showed signs of having suffered a physical trauma, suggesting that the trepanations had been performed to treat the effects of the injuries.
But none of the other four trepanned skulls showed any signs of damage or disease. What’s more, all four had been trepanned exactly above the obelion point.
Quite by chance one of the researchers – Julia Gresky, an anthropologist at the German Archaeological Institute (DAI) – had already read Batieva’s paper describing the unusual trepanations from the Rostov-on-Don region.
Now Gresky, Batieva and other archaeologists have teamed up to describe all 12 of the obelion trepanations from Southern Russia. Their study was published in April 2016 in theAmerican Journal of Physical Anthropology.
The 12 skulls would have been remarkable discoveries wherever they had been found. But the fact that they were all discovered in the same tiny corner of Russia meant that a connection seemed likely. If there was no link, the odds that a batch of such rare trepanations would turn up exclusively in southern Russia would have been exceedingly low.
Gresky, Bateiva and their colleagues argue that, while this idea is difficult to prove, the clustering of these unusual trepanations suggests that southern Russia may have been a centre for ritual trepanation.
The owners of the other skulls seem to have survived their operations
Maria Mednikova of the Russian Academy of Sciences in Moscow is an expert on Russian trepanation. She believes that trepanations in specific, dangerous areas of the cranium may have been performed to achieve “transformations” of some kind. She suggests that, by trepanning in these places, people thought they could acquire unique skills that ordinary members of society did not have.
We can only speculate as to why these 12 apparently healthy people were trepanned in such an unusual and dangerous way. But thanks to the trepanation holes themselves, we can infer a surprising amount about the fate of the people after they received their trepanation.
One of the 12 skulls belonged to a woman under the age of 25, who had been buried at one of the sites near Rostov-on-Don. It showed no signs of healing, suggesting that she died during her trepanation or shortly afterwards.
However, the owners of the other skulls seem to have survived their operations. Their skulls showed bone healing around the edges of the trepanation holes – although the bone never completely re-grew over the holes.
The trepanned skull of a 30-35-year-old male, one of five people in the mass grave. The hole is healed (Credit: The German Archaeological Institute (DAI), Julia Gresky)
Three of the 12 skulls showed only slight signs of healing around the trepanation hole, suggesting that their owners only survived between two and eight weeks after the operation. Two of these individuals were women between 20 and 35 years of age. The third was an elderly person between 50 and 70 years old, whose sex could not be determined.
The other eight skulls showed more advanced healing. Based on what we know about bone healing today, these individuals probably survived for at least four years after their operations.
It appeared as if all of these people were trepanned while they were completely healthy
These eight survivors included all five of the people from the mass grave near Rostov-on-Don, whose bizarrely-trepanned skulls first attracted Batieva’s attention almost 20 years ago.
The two men, two women and one adolescent girl had all survived with their obelion holes for years. The girl, who based on her skeleton was between 14 and 16 years old, must have been trepanned when she was no older than 12, and possibly much younger.
It is still possible that these 12 people were suffering from diseases or head injuries. In that case, the trepanning operation may have worked for at least eight of them.
But it is also possible that Batieva and her colleagues are right, and these people were trepanned for a ritual purpose. If that is true, we can only guess at what benefits they received – or believed they had received – throughout the rest of their lives. | 2,482 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A Simplified History- Part 2
Native Americans had to choose sides in international European conflicts that bled over into the colonies. Native American leaders were like any men of the time. They had aptly maneuvered European Politics throughout the 18th century. The Native American Nations continually struggled against colonial expansion, and found new ways to survive despite the world powers that slowly and callously took from them.
Leading up to the Revolution, Western Pennsylvania was a borderlands and hunting grounds for the Iroquois Confederacy, the Shawnee, the Delaware and Mingos among others. In the states to the south there were the Cherokee and Creeks, who took the side of the British. To the North were the homelands of the Iroquois Nation a very powerful alliance of 6 Nations . During the War for Independence, the Mohawk (Kanienkehaka) Chief known as Joseph Brandt (Thayendanegea) convinced 4 of the 6 nations to take the side of the English. For the first time ever the Iroquois Nations were split and fought against themselves. The 4 Nations played a vital role for the British in the war in western NY and western PA. British leaders planned strategic Tory and Native raids throughout the region. Many other alliances with Native Americans were made by the British.
Washington, having fought along side the Iroquois in the French and Indian War, knew the power of a Native alliance. He wanted to weaken them as much as possible. He showed no mercy to the Native American Nations who had sided with the British, ordering the Army in any region the natives were in to not only engage the warriors in battle but to invade their ancestral homelands and burn all villages and crops. This was compounded by economic based land speculation issues that had been plaguing the region. The western war was a brutal, setting. They were a glimpse at the atrocities to come that plague Native American History in the United States. | <urn:uuid:0b99483a-e7af-41cb-9146-e4ba87697054> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://fortroberdeau.org/dispatch/2018/01/08/a-simplified-history-part-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00177.warc.gz | en | 0.982093 | 395 | 3.890625 | 4 | [
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0.4564593732357025... | 1 | A Simplified History- Part 2
Native Americans had to choose sides in international European conflicts that bled over into the colonies. Native American leaders were like any men of the time. They had aptly maneuvered European Politics throughout the 18th century. The Native American Nations continually struggled against colonial expansion, and found new ways to survive despite the world powers that slowly and callously took from them.
Leading up to the Revolution, Western Pennsylvania was a borderlands and hunting grounds for the Iroquois Confederacy, the Shawnee, the Delaware and Mingos among others. In the states to the south there were the Cherokee and Creeks, who took the side of the British. To the North were the homelands of the Iroquois Nation a very powerful alliance of 6 Nations . During the War for Independence, the Mohawk (Kanienkehaka) Chief known as Joseph Brandt (Thayendanegea) convinced 4 of the 6 nations to take the side of the English. For the first time ever the Iroquois Nations were split and fought against themselves. The 4 Nations played a vital role for the British in the war in western NY and western PA. British leaders planned strategic Tory and Native raids throughout the region. Many other alliances with Native Americans were made by the British.
Washington, having fought along side the Iroquois in the French and Indian War, knew the power of a Native alliance. He wanted to weaken them as much as possible. He showed no mercy to the Native American Nations who had sided with the British, ordering the Army in any region the natives were in to not only engage the warriors in battle but to invade their ancestral homelands and burn all villages and crops. This was compounded by economic based land speculation issues that had been plaguing the region. The western war was a brutal, setting. They were a glimpse at the atrocities to come that plague Native American History in the United States. | 404 | ENGLISH | 1 |
July 23 2010
Creating Tensions in Colonial Society
After the different European nations colonized the Americas, societies began to sprout in those colonies. They were very similar to those societies that had been going on for centuries in Europe. There were governments, workers, schools, and hospitals. Issues began to come about in these societies due to revolts and rebellions by the people. They were unhappy with the way they were treated and their life style that they were forced to live by their mother countries. This caused tensions within the societies. The greatest cause of these tensions was the Stono Rebellion, followed by the Bacon’s Rebellion and the witchcraft trials in Salem, and finally, the Pueblo Revolt.
The action that led to the greatest tension in colonial society was the Stono Rebellion. It took place on September 9th, 1739 in the state of South Carolina. At this time, slavery was still going on in the United States, especially in the south. All of the slaves at this time were black, shipped in from Africa as part of the triangular trade. The rebellion, which started by the Stono River, was started by a band of twenty slaves, led by a slave named Jemmy, who were seeking their liberty. They broke into a store and stole weapons and began their march onto the Edisto River. On their march, they called all bystanders and forced all other slaves to join them even if they did not want any part of the rebellion. At the river, they were met by the white colonists of South Carolina. They shot majority of the slaves, and sold the ones that survived to the West Indies or other states, or executed them. There are many different theories for why the slaves rebelled and why they did it at that certain time. One theory states that malaria disease was going around in the capital city of South Carolina, Charlestown. This may have caused confusion amongst the slaves and the other inhabitants of the state. It is also said that Spain offered freedom to any slaves who reached Spanish territory in the Americas which would encourage slaves to run away. Another possible reason for the timing of the rebellion was that a month earlier, the Security Act was passed in South Carolina. This made it mandatory for all of the white citizens of South Carolina to carry weapons with them when they go to church on Sunday. This was just for their security, but the rebel leaders realized that during church services was the best time to rebel because all of the armed white citizens were away from their land. The results of the Stono Rebellion were enormous. The state wanted to make sure that nothing like this would happen again so they gave the slaves a few more rights. Owners of the slaves would be punished for excessive punishments and causing the slaves to encounter excessive labor. The state also created schools for the slaves so that they could learn about the Christian ways. South Carolina also limited the number of slaves that came in because there were so many more slaves than white citizens. They also became more restrictive on the slaves through the Negro Act of 1740. This banned the slaves from meeting in groups, growing their own food, and learning to read. This rebellion gave slaves a couple more rights, but took away many more. This rebellion clearly caused much turmoil and tension between the slaves and the whites. It was the greatest slave rebellion in colonial history. They two sides could not get along and could not see each other as equals. This created constant fighting and tension between colonial citizens.
Another event that caused tensions in colonial society was Bacon’s Rebellion in 1676. This was the first act of serious opposition to authority in America, occurring in Jamestown, Virginia. The two sides in the battle were the governor of Virginia, Sir William Berkeley and Nathaniel Bacon. Bacon was a troublemaker and schemer and was sent to Virginia by his father to mature. He...
Cited: “Bacon’s Rebellion.” Global Security. N.p., 2010. Web. 18 July 2010. <http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/bacon.htm>.
Ponce, Pedro. “Trouble for the Spanish The Pueblo Revolt of 1680.” NEH. N.p., Nov.-Dec. 2002. Web. 19 July 2010. <http://www.neh.gov/news/humanities/2002-11/pueblorevolt.html>.
“Salem Witch Trials.” Articlesbase. N.p., 27 Oct. 2006. Web. 18 July 2010. <http://www.articlesbase.com/law-articles/salem-witch-trials-67616.html>.
“The Stono Rebellion.” About.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 July 2010. <http://afroamhistory.about.com/od/slavery/a/stono.htm>.
Please join StudyMode to read the full document | <urn:uuid:623a8f0e-44f7-4163-8b46-fdb99e6fab34> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.studymode.com/essays/Creating-Tensions-In-Colonial-Society-63679282.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00265.warc.gz | en | 0.984588 | 1,021 | 4.03125 | 4 | [
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Creating Tensions in Colonial Society
After the different European nations colonized the Americas, societies began to sprout in those colonies. They were very similar to those societies that had been going on for centuries in Europe. There were governments, workers, schools, and hospitals. Issues began to come about in these societies due to revolts and rebellions by the people. They were unhappy with the way they were treated and their life style that they were forced to live by their mother countries. This caused tensions within the societies. The greatest cause of these tensions was the Stono Rebellion, followed by the Bacon’s Rebellion and the witchcraft trials in Salem, and finally, the Pueblo Revolt.
The action that led to the greatest tension in colonial society was the Stono Rebellion. It took place on September 9th, 1739 in the state of South Carolina. At this time, slavery was still going on in the United States, especially in the south. All of the slaves at this time were black, shipped in from Africa as part of the triangular trade. The rebellion, which started by the Stono River, was started by a band of twenty slaves, led by a slave named Jemmy, who were seeking their liberty. They broke into a store and stole weapons and began their march onto the Edisto River. On their march, they called all bystanders and forced all other slaves to join them even if they did not want any part of the rebellion. At the river, they were met by the white colonists of South Carolina. They shot majority of the slaves, and sold the ones that survived to the West Indies or other states, or executed them. There are many different theories for why the slaves rebelled and why they did it at that certain time. One theory states that malaria disease was going around in the capital city of South Carolina, Charlestown. This may have caused confusion amongst the slaves and the other inhabitants of the state. It is also said that Spain offered freedom to any slaves who reached Spanish territory in the Americas which would encourage slaves to run away. Another possible reason for the timing of the rebellion was that a month earlier, the Security Act was passed in South Carolina. This made it mandatory for all of the white citizens of South Carolina to carry weapons with them when they go to church on Sunday. This was just for their security, but the rebel leaders realized that during church services was the best time to rebel because all of the armed white citizens were away from their land. The results of the Stono Rebellion were enormous. The state wanted to make sure that nothing like this would happen again so they gave the slaves a few more rights. Owners of the slaves would be punished for excessive punishments and causing the slaves to encounter excessive labor. The state also created schools for the slaves so that they could learn about the Christian ways. South Carolina also limited the number of slaves that came in because there were so many more slaves than white citizens. They also became more restrictive on the slaves through the Negro Act of 1740. This banned the slaves from meeting in groups, growing their own food, and learning to read. This rebellion gave slaves a couple more rights, but took away many more. This rebellion clearly caused much turmoil and tension between the slaves and the whites. It was the greatest slave rebellion in colonial history. They two sides could not get along and could not see each other as equals. This created constant fighting and tension between colonial citizens.
Another event that caused tensions in colonial society was Bacon’s Rebellion in 1676. This was the first act of serious opposition to authority in America, occurring in Jamestown, Virginia. The two sides in the battle were the governor of Virginia, Sir William Berkeley and Nathaniel Bacon. Bacon was a troublemaker and schemer and was sent to Virginia by his father to mature. He...
Cited: “Bacon’s Rebellion.” Global Security. N.p., 2010. Web. 18 July 2010. <http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/bacon.htm>.
Ponce, Pedro. “Trouble for the Spanish The Pueblo Revolt of 1680.” NEH. N.p., Nov.-Dec. 2002. Web. 19 July 2010. <http://www.neh.gov/news/humanities/2002-11/pueblorevolt.html>.
“Salem Witch Trials.” Articlesbase. N.p., 27 Oct. 2006. Web. 18 July 2010. <http://www.articlesbase.com/law-articles/salem-witch-trials-67616.html>.
“The Stono Rebellion.” About.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 July 2010. <http://afroamhistory.about.com/od/slavery/a/stono.htm>.
Please join StudyMode to read the full document | 1,035 | ENGLISH | 1 |
George Clemenceau vs. Woodrow Wilson’s idealistic ideas
The Treaty of Versailles marked the end of the end of the First World War between Germany and the Associated and Allied Powers. Undeniably, the concerned parties had different goals and objectives concerning the peace conference even before the Versailles meeting taking place. However, some of these objectives were conflicting. The United States wanted peace that could last longer to be created; according to the French, Germany was to be penalized for their deeds, while the British wanted Germany to be constructed to become economically strong so that it could counter the dominance of France and Russia in Europe. As a result, no party achieved all its objectives as some kind of sacrifices had to be made, (Chipley, 2010). Notably, some of the key figures involved in the signing Versailles Treaty were George Clemenceau and Woodrow Wilson.
Unlike Clemenceau, Wilson asserted that, a more reasonable way was could be the best to deal with Germany after the War. Wilson’s arguments concurred with those of George Lloyd who also was for a strong Germany. Wilson’s arguments were based on fourteen points that he gave, which can be summarized as follows. He argued that, rather than engaging in secret agreements, open agreements of peace should be made in order to avoid suspicion on one another. Besides, all the existing economic barriers were to be removed and equality of trade conditions be established among the concerned parties, (Jeff, 2001). The other proposal was that nations were to be disarmed to minimal levels, allowing for domestic safety. Additionally, all the French areas were to be freed and the portions that had been invaded the Germans restored. Lastly, a league of nations was to be established of which all the involved parties as well as other nations were to be members.
On the other hand, other parties observed Wilson’s points as being extremely idealistic. Clemenceau argued that, Germany had to pay for all the destruction it had made in France. Therefore, the best way that France could avenge itself was by completely crippling Germany economically, socially as well as politically, (Jeff, 2001). He also asserted that all the events of 1914 were caused by Germany. Unlike Wilson who proposed that all nations should be disarmed to the minimum levels, Clemenceau proposed that in order to avoid a repetition of the War, Germany should be disarmed completely as it was a threat to most European countries. Finally, besides severely punishing the Germans, they were also to compensate France for all the damages it caused in addition to returning all the territories that belonged to France.
Finally, initially Germany rejected the proposals that were made in the Treaty. However, it had to give in to the peace conditions as outlined by the victors. Some of the conditions were: dividing some of its territories to the bordering nations, surrendering all its colonies in overseas, as well as reducing it’s military to limit its ability of going into war again. Germany finally signed the Treaty when a new government took over under the leadership of Chancellor Gustav Bauer after the resignation of Philip Scheidemann, (Chipley, 2010).
Chipley, L.S. (2010). The Treaty of Versailles. New York: Inforbase Publishing.
Jeff, H. (2001). The Treaty of Versailles. Boston: Greenhaven Press. | <urn:uuid:89c43ce7-7015-41b8-9e78-46ca19330c2e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.wowessays.com/free-samples/george-clemenceau-vs-woodrow-wilsons-idealistic-ideas-argumentative-essay/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00396.warc.gz | en | 0.983217 | 695 | 4.0625 | 4 | [
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0.797511219978... | 2 | George Clemenceau vs. Woodrow Wilson’s idealistic ideas
The Treaty of Versailles marked the end of the end of the First World War between Germany and the Associated and Allied Powers. Undeniably, the concerned parties had different goals and objectives concerning the peace conference even before the Versailles meeting taking place. However, some of these objectives were conflicting. The United States wanted peace that could last longer to be created; according to the French, Germany was to be penalized for their deeds, while the British wanted Germany to be constructed to become economically strong so that it could counter the dominance of France and Russia in Europe. As a result, no party achieved all its objectives as some kind of sacrifices had to be made, (Chipley, 2010). Notably, some of the key figures involved in the signing Versailles Treaty were George Clemenceau and Woodrow Wilson.
Unlike Clemenceau, Wilson asserted that, a more reasonable way was could be the best to deal with Germany after the War. Wilson’s arguments concurred with those of George Lloyd who also was for a strong Germany. Wilson’s arguments were based on fourteen points that he gave, which can be summarized as follows. He argued that, rather than engaging in secret agreements, open agreements of peace should be made in order to avoid suspicion on one another. Besides, all the existing economic barriers were to be removed and equality of trade conditions be established among the concerned parties, (Jeff, 2001). The other proposal was that nations were to be disarmed to minimal levels, allowing for domestic safety. Additionally, all the French areas were to be freed and the portions that had been invaded the Germans restored. Lastly, a league of nations was to be established of which all the involved parties as well as other nations were to be members.
On the other hand, other parties observed Wilson’s points as being extremely idealistic. Clemenceau argued that, Germany had to pay for all the destruction it had made in France. Therefore, the best way that France could avenge itself was by completely crippling Germany economically, socially as well as politically, (Jeff, 2001). He also asserted that all the events of 1914 were caused by Germany. Unlike Wilson who proposed that all nations should be disarmed to the minimum levels, Clemenceau proposed that in order to avoid a repetition of the War, Germany should be disarmed completely as it was a threat to most European countries. Finally, besides severely punishing the Germans, they were also to compensate France for all the damages it caused in addition to returning all the territories that belonged to France.
Finally, initially Germany rejected the proposals that were made in the Treaty. However, it had to give in to the peace conditions as outlined by the victors. Some of the conditions were: dividing some of its territories to the bordering nations, surrendering all its colonies in overseas, as well as reducing it’s military to limit its ability of going into war again. Germany finally signed the Treaty when a new government took over under the leadership of Chancellor Gustav Bauer after the resignation of Philip Scheidemann, (Chipley, 2010).
Chipley, L.S. (2010). The Treaty of Versailles. New York: Inforbase Publishing.
Jeff, H. (2001). The Treaty of Versailles. Boston: Greenhaven Press. | 698 | ENGLISH | 1 |
He used the time to produce Mein Kampf, in which he argued that the effeminate Jewish-Christian ethic was enfeebling Europe, and that Germany needed a man of iron to restore itself and build an empire. Soon after the fighting on the front ended in November[c] Hitler returned [d] to Munich after the Armistice with no job, no real civilian job skills and no friends. On the orders of his army superiors, Hitler applied to join the party.
However, his own family tree was quite mixed up and would be a lifelong source of embarrassment and concern to him. His father, Alois, was born in He was the illegitimate son of Maria Anna Schicklgruber and her unknown mate, which may have been someone from the neighborhood or a poor millworker named Johann Georg Hiedler.
Maria Schicklgruber was said to have been employed as a cook in the household of a wealthy Jewish family named Frankenberger. There is some speculation their 19 year old son got her pregnant and regularly sent her money after the birth of Alois.
Adolf Hitler would never know for sure just who his grandfather was. The marriage lasted five years until her death of natural causes, at which time Alois went to live on a small farm with his uncle.
At age thirteen, young Alois had enough of farm life and set out for the city of Vienna to make something of himself. He worked hard as a civil servant and eventually became a supervisor. By he achieved the rank of Senior Assistant Inspector, a big accomplishment for the former poor farm boy with little formal education.
At this time an event occurred that would have big implications for the future. Alois had always used the last name of his mother, Schicklgruber, and thus was always called Alois Schicklgruber.
He made no attempt to hide the fact he was illegitimate since it was common in rural Austria. But after his success in the civil service, his proud uncle from the small farm convinced him to change his last name to match his own, Hiedler, and continue the family name. However, when it came time to write the name down in the record book it was spelled as Hitler.
And so in at age 39, Alois Schicklgruber became Alois Hitler. Technically, because of the name change, she was his own niece and so he had to get special permission from the Catholic church.
The children from his previous marriage, Alois Hitler, Jr. On April 20,her fourth child, Adolf was born healthy and was baptized a Roman Catholic. His father was busy working most of the time and also spent a lot of time on his main hobby, keeping bees.
Baby Adolf had the nickname, Adi. When he was almost five, inhis mother gave birth to a brother, Edmund. In came a sister, Paula. In May of at age six, young Adolf Hitler entered first grade in the public school in the village of Fischlham, near Linz Austria.
First, the unrestrained, carefree days he had enjoyed up to now came to an end as he entered primary school. Secondly, his father retired on a pension from the Austrian civil service. This meant a double dose of supervision, discipline and regimentation under the watchful eyes of teachers at school and his strict father at home.
His father, now 58, had spent most of his life working his way up through the civil service ranks. He was used to giving orders and having them obeyed and also expected this from his children. The Hitler family lived on a small farm outside of Linz, Austria. The children had farm chores to perform along with their school work.
In she gave birth to a girl, Paula. The oldest boy, Alois Jr. A year later, at age 14, young Alois had enough of this treatment and ran away from home, never to see his father again.
This put young Adolf, age 7, next in line for the same treatment. Also at this time, the family moved off the farm to the town of Lambach, Austria, halfway between Linz and Salzburg.
For young Adolf, the move to Lambach meant an end to farm chores and more time to play. There was an old Catholic Benedictine monastery in the town. The ancient monastery was decorated with carved stones and woodwork that included several swastikas. Adolf attended school there and saw them every day.
His name essentially sounded like the German word for swastika, Hakenkreuz.
He was said to have had a fine singing voice. Years later Hitler would say the solemn pageantry of the high mass and other Catholic ceremonies was quite intoxicating and left a very deep impression.How did Hitler come to power? The process occurred over multiple decades.
Hitler’s rise to power started when he became politically involved and joined the Deutsche Arbeiterspartei. From there he worked himself up in the party, Why Did Hitler Hate Jews? How Hitler Came to Power;. Oct 06, · Hitler’s History This hour On Point, how Hitler came to power, and lessons for today.
— Tom Ashbrook. + Join the discussion. View comment(s) Support the news. Hitler's Rise to Power Hitler's Early Life However, when it came time to write the name down in the record book it was spelled as Hitler.
And so in at age 39, Alois Schicklgruber became Alois Hitler. Hitler's Mein Kampf Hitler served only eight months of his five-year term. Through class discussion and a written response, students will examine how choices made by individuals and groups contributed to the rise of the Nazi Party in the s and s.
The reading Hitler in Power explains how Hitler’s appointment came about.
Discussion Questions Hitler's Willing Executioners. stated his belief that "Germany ceased to be civilized from the moment Hitler came to power." Just how civilized, or uncivilized, was prewar and wartime Germany? 5. After reading Hitler's Willing Executioners. Oct 19, · It is important for students today to understand how Hitler came to power.
For too long there has seemed to be a fear of teaching about Hitler and his supporters. Although this lesson points to how the people helped Hitler gain power students need . | <urn:uuid:e901bfc6-f048-41cc-b16c-5fafbd8fd635> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://nojaqolojarowu.alphabetnyc.com/a-discussion-on-how-hitler-came-to-power-20855ti.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00184.warc.gz | en | 0.986352 | 1,307 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.21626399457454... | 1 | He used the time to produce Mein Kampf, in which he argued that the effeminate Jewish-Christian ethic was enfeebling Europe, and that Germany needed a man of iron to restore itself and build an empire. Soon after the fighting on the front ended in November[c] Hitler returned [d] to Munich after the Armistice with no job, no real civilian job skills and no friends. On the orders of his army superiors, Hitler applied to join the party.
However, his own family tree was quite mixed up and would be a lifelong source of embarrassment and concern to him. His father, Alois, was born in He was the illegitimate son of Maria Anna Schicklgruber and her unknown mate, which may have been someone from the neighborhood or a poor millworker named Johann Georg Hiedler.
Maria Schicklgruber was said to have been employed as a cook in the household of a wealthy Jewish family named Frankenberger. There is some speculation their 19 year old son got her pregnant and regularly sent her money after the birth of Alois.
Adolf Hitler would never know for sure just who his grandfather was. The marriage lasted five years until her death of natural causes, at which time Alois went to live on a small farm with his uncle.
At age thirteen, young Alois had enough of farm life and set out for the city of Vienna to make something of himself. He worked hard as a civil servant and eventually became a supervisor. By he achieved the rank of Senior Assistant Inspector, a big accomplishment for the former poor farm boy with little formal education.
At this time an event occurred that would have big implications for the future. Alois had always used the last name of his mother, Schicklgruber, and thus was always called Alois Schicklgruber.
He made no attempt to hide the fact he was illegitimate since it was common in rural Austria. But after his success in the civil service, his proud uncle from the small farm convinced him to change his last name to match his own, Hiedler, and continue the family name. However, when it came time to write the name down in the record book it was spelled as Hitler.
And so in at age 39, Alois Schicklgruber became Alois Hitler. Technically, because of the name change, she was his own niece and so he had to get special permission from the Catholic church.
The children from his previous marriage, Alois Hitler, Jr. On April 20,her fourth child, Adolf was born healthy and was baptized a Roman Catholic. His father was busy working most of the time and also spent a lot of time on his main hobby, keeping bees.
Baby Adolf had the nickname, Adi. When he was almost five, inhis mother gave birth to a brother, Edmund. In came a sister, Paula. In May of at age six, young Adolf Hitler entered first grade in the public school in the village of Fischlham, near Linz Austria.
First, the unrestrained, carefree days he had enjoyed up to now came to an end as he entered primary school. Secondly, his father retired on a pension from the Austrian civil service. This meant a double dose of supervision, discipline and regimentation under the watchful eyes of teachers at school and his strict father at home.
His father, now 58, had spent most of his life working his way up through the civil service ranks. He was used to giving orders and having them obeyed and also expected this from his children. The Hitler family lived on a small farm outside of Linz, Austria. The children had farm chores to perform along with their school work.
In she gave birth to a girl, Paula. The oldest boy, Alois Jr. A year later, at age 14, young Alois had enough of this treatment and ran away from home, never to see his father again.
This put young Adolf, age 7, next in line for the same treatment. Also at this time, the family moved off the farm to the town of Lambach, Austria, halfway between Linz and Salzburg.
For young Adolf, the move to Lambach meant an end to farm chores and more time to play. There was an old Catholic Benedictine monastery in the town. The ancient monastery was decorated with carved stones and woodwork that included several swastikas. Adolf attended school there and saw them every day.
His name essentially sounded like the German word for swastika, Hakenkreuz.
He was said to have had a fine singing voice. Years later Hitler would say the solemn pageantry of the high mass and other Catholic ceremonies was quite intoxicating and left a very deep impression.How did Hitler come to power? The process occurred over multiple decades.
Hitler’s rise to power started when he became politically involved and joined the Deutsche Arbeiterspartei. From there he worked himself up in the party, Why Did Hitler Hate Jews? How Hitler Came to Power;. Oct 06, · Hitler’s History This hour On Point, how Hitler came to power, and lessons for today.
— Tom Ashbrook. + Join the discussion. View comment(s) Support the news. Hitler's Rise to Power Hitler's Early Life However, when it came time to write the name down in the record book it was spelled as Hitler.
And so in at age 39, Alois Schicklgruber became Alois Hitler. Hitler's Mein Kampf Hitler served only eight months of his five-year term. Through class discussion and a written response, students will examine how choices made by individuals and groups contributed to the rise of the Nazi Party in the s and s.
The reading Hitler in Power explains how Hitler’s appointment came about.
Discussion Questions Hitler's Willing Executioners. stated his belief that "Germany ceased to be civilized from the moment Hitler came to power." Just how civilized, or uncivilized, was prewar and wartime Germany? 5. After reading Hitler's Willing Executioners. Oct 19, · It is important for students today to understand how Hitler came to power.
For too long there has seemed to be a fear of teaching about Hitler and his supporters. Although this lesson points to how the people helped Hitler gain power students need . | 1,291 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How did Cardinal Richelieu change France?
Cardinal Richelieu (1585-1642) was one of the most significant leaders in France because he both strengthened and consolidated the power of the monarchy. He was chief minister to Louis XIII, and he changed the nature of French government and society. Today, he is best known as a character in Alexander Dumas’ classic novel, The Three Musketeers. Richelieu was a master politician and diplomat, who used of his influence to lay the foundations of an ‘absolute monarchy’ in France.
Richelieu was also able to use the Thirty Years War to further the national interests of France and he, more than anyone else, made France the greatest power in Europe by the second half of the seventeenth century. However, these achievements, while significant were a catastrophe for most French citizens.
Why was France divided before the arrival of Cardinal Richelieu?
In the early seventeenth century France was one of the leading powers in Europe, but it was very divided and vulnerable. It was surrounded by the Hapsburgs who controlled the Low Countries and Spain. The kingdom was also very divided because of religion. Europe was torn by religious conflict and in 1618 the Thirty Years War broke out, and much of the continent was dragged into the conflict between Catholic and Protestant. The international situation was destabilizing French society which was divided between Catholic and Protestant (Huguenot).
The Edict of Nantes had granted French Protestants religious toleration, and this community effectively ran their own ‘parallel state.’ There were continued tensions between Catholics and Protestants, and this frequently exploded into riot and violence. The Catholic community itself was divided between hardliners and those who took a more pragmatic approach to religion. The country itself was still largely a feudal society.
The local nobility and magnates dominated the localities, and they were the de-facto rulers in their lands. The great noble families such as the Conde owned massive estates and they even had their private armies. These noble families owed more allegiance to themselves than to France. The nobility was factionalized, and they constantly quarreled and also fought each other to gain influence and even intrigued with the Hapsburgs against their king. The actual power of the monarch was minimal. The king in France was dependent upon the nobles to raise taxes and an army. If the aristocrats did not want to cooperate with the king, he was in great difficulties. Many found this situation intolerable and demanded reforms, especially the middle class and urban elites.
Who was Cardinal Richelieu?
Cardinal Richelieu was born in 1585, during one of France’s many Religious Wars. Richelieu was the son of the Lord of Richelieu and a member of the minor nobility. He was educated in Paris at the Collège de Navarre, a brilliant student he was well-versed in history and the classics. He had originally been intended for the military, but his family decided that he should enter the priesthood. In April 1607, after receiving a papal dispensation as he was only 21, he was ordained as a priest and bishop at Lucon. Richelieu was very ambitious and studied the works of Machiavelli. The extent of the influence of the Italian political philosopher can be seen in Richelieu’s cynical aphorisms, especially in his Testament Politique (1641).
His most famous epigram is ‘one may use all means against one’s enemies.’ By 1614 the young prelate had achieved a reputation as a capable administrator and regularly attended meetings of the Estates-General (French Parliament), where his oratory impressed many. Richelieu was a member of the dévot party and a very strong supporter of Roman Catholicism and held pro-Spanish views.
The young bishop came to the attention of the queen-regent, Marie de Medici, who asked Richelieu to attend the Royal Court. Richelieu became chaplain of the young Queen Anne in 1615. She was the wife of Louis XII, who was too young to rule in his name and power rested with his mother, Marie de Medici. Richelieu was a political genius, and soon he was appointed Secretary of State for War. However, his patron Marie de Medici fell from grace with the king because of court-politics, and it seemed that Richelieu’s career was over. However, Richelieu managed to reconcile the queen-mother and her son, and he eventually was rewarded with the position of Chief Minister and with the backing of Louis XII he began the transformation of French society.
The king also secured a Cardinal’s hat for Richelieu. The French statesman was committed to furthering the power of the monarchy and France. In pursuit of this, he attacked the Huguenots and began to erode their power base. He reformed the navy and the army. He also reorganized the bureaucracy and sought to curb the power of the nobles. Much of his time in power was an effort to centralize power. He was dependent upon the king’s favor and confidence but Louis XIII, an indolent and enigmatic man, gave Richelieu, great leeway to pursue the policies that he thought were best for the kingdom. The Cardinal was often embroiled in disputes with noble factions, but the support of the monarch allowed him to initiate fundamental reforms and radical policies.
The Cardinal sought to establish an Absolute Monarchy in France, where the king would be, obeyed through the land and the feudal nobility no longer acted like independent lords. He suppressed several conspiracies and rebellions and limited the powers of the nobility. Richelieu was very much a ‘realist’ in international affairs, and he allied himself with Protestant nations, though a Catholic to strengthen the position of his beloved France in Europe. He intervened in the Thirty Years War and changed the direction of that conflict. Richelieu died hated by many in 1642, and his work was continued by his handpicked successor Cardinal Mazarin, who completed his old master's work and created an absolute monarchy in France.
Richelieu made sweeping changes to the way that France was governed he expanded the standing army and the navy. He also made sure that the Royal Treasury regularly funded them for the first time. Richelieu was eager to remove the influence of the nobility from the bureaucracy, and he opened the civil service to commoners. However, many of these bought their positions and this lead to nepotism and corruption in the later years of Richelieu’s. The Cardinal did make the bureaucracy more efficient and made sure that the royal budget was balanced. His most important reforms were in local government. Traditionally the local notables had been free to do what they like; they were expected to administer their district.
This was a relic of feudalism and Richelieu believed that it was not suitable for a modern state. He persuaded Louis XIII to appoint an ‘intendant’ or official to every district, and they would administer the area. This did much to reduce the influence of the local notables, but they still had immense powers. The appointment of government officials did much to curb the authority and freedom of provincial nobles. Richelieu administrative reforms did much to change France from a feudal to a modern state. However, this was arguably not finished until the French Revolution. Richelieu also had many castles and fortresses demolished, and this reduced the ability of the nobility to defy their monarch. However, they were still able to recruit large private armies from among their tenants and retainers. The new administration also meant more taxes for the peasantry, and there were many peasant uprisings during the Cardinal’s ministry.
The Huguenots were perhaps the strongest faction in the country, and they had a significant army and were supported by Charles I of England. Richelieu attempted to revoke many of the privileges that were granted to the Huguenots under the Edict of Nantes. This action led to a rebellion and Richelieu besieged one of their main strongholds La Rochelle. The Cardinal personally directed this siege, and he imitated the siege tactics of Alexander the Great to capture the strategic port.
The Huguenots continued their rebellion but the Cardinal was implacable, and the Royalist army defatted the French Protestants in battle. This forced the Huguenot leader to seek terms with the king. Richelieu adopted a conciliatory policy towards them was influenced by personal philosophy ‘First, all means to conciliate; failing that, all means to crush.’ If the Huguenots had not obeyed the Cardinal’s will he would have waged total war against them. Richelieu eventually appointed the Huguenot leader to a senior position in the army and integrated some Huguenot soldiers into the Royal army. The Cardinal at the same time, under the Peace of Alais, the Protestants still had religious freedom, but they were shorn of their military and political rights.
What Cardinal Richelieu's role in the Thirty Years War?
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- How did the XYZ Affair lead to the Quasi-War between France and the United States?
- How did the United States react to the French Revolution?
- How did the Citizen Genet Affair derail relations between the United States and France?
- Why did France side with the American Colonies during the American Revolution?
Richelieu was unique among statesmen of the time as he put the needs of his king before that of his religion. He devised a strategy that promoted and safeguarded the geopolitical interests of France. Despite being an early adherent of the Devot party, he was determined to limit the power of his fellow Catholics the Hapsburgs.
This dynasty ruled in Spain and Austria, and they dominated much of Europe. For over a hundred years they had threatened France or interfered in her internal affairs when he became Minister he adopted a determined anti-Hapsburg policy. He supported, through subsidies various Protestant armies in Germany that were fighting the Catholic armies of the Hapsburgs. In 1629 when the Hapsburgs seemed on the point of victory, he encouraged the Swedes to invade Germany. This was not enough for Richelieu and he had French armies fight against the Spanish Hapsburgs in Northern Italy and even in Spain itself (Catalonia).
The Cardinal used all the resources of France to contain and defeat the Hapsburgs. He was concerned that the Hapsburgs sought to encircle and conquer France. He raised taxes to pay for the military campaigns. The increased taxes disproportionately targeted ordinary families and even caused localized famines. However, Richelieu policies were continued with, and they eventually led to the French victory over the Spanish Hapsburgs at Lens in 1648. This is widely regarded as the end of the Hapsburgs supremacy in Europe and was a victory that saw the emergence of France as the most significant power in Europe. Richelieu did not live to implement all his plans, but he undoubtedly helped make France the preeminent power in seventeenth-century Europe.
Richelieu and the French Empire
Not only did Richelieu help to make France the greatest power in Europe he was also instrumental in the establishment of a French overseas Empire. His reforms of the Navy meant that the French could secure new colonies, especially in the eighteenth century. When he came to power the French colony in New France (Canada) was in decline. He revived the fortunes of the colony by the formation of the ‘Company of New France’.
This shift helped to boost trade between the colony and France, and this encouraged many French emigrants to settle in the territory. Richelieu encouraged the settlers to live in harmony with the Native Americans, and this did much to strengthen the French colony. The Cardinal was one of the pivotal figures in the history of Quebec and Francophone Canada.
Richelieu was one of the greatest figures in Early Modern Europe. He changed France from a feudal society into a modern state. He was instrumental in the establishment of the Absolute Monarchy in France because he managed to curb the power of the French nobility. His foreign policy effectively ended the Hapsburg threat to France and made her one of, or perhaps the most powerful kingdom on the continent.
Richelieu, died before his policies came to fruition but his protégé Mazarin ensured that the plans of the Cardinal were carried out. This meant that French society was utterly changed. Richelieu also had a very modern outlook, and he created the apparatus of a modern nation-state and laid the foundations for the future French Empire in North America. His last words to the king, before he died, sum up his achievements.
I have the consolation of leaving your kingdom in the highest degree of glory and reputation. However, all of this came at a cost. After his death, the French nobility revolted in two wars known as the Frondes, that devastated France. His military campaigns and administrative reforms led to widespread poverty, rebellion, and famine in the countryside. Richelieu did make France great, but in doing so, he caused many millions to suffer. No wonder he was such a divisive figure, who was either hated or loved.
- Bergin, Joseph. The Rise of Richelieu (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1997), p. 34
- Bergin, p. 13
- Collins, James B. The State in Early Modern France (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1995), p. 15
- Bergin, p. 4
- Richelieu, Political Testament, 1662, p. 9
- Collins, p. 13
- Levi, Anthony. Cardinal Richelieu and the Making of France. New York: Carroll and Graf, 2000), p. 112
- Collins, p. 115
- Collins, p. 115
- Bergin, p. 116
- Levi, p. 113
- Richelieu, Political Statement. (1663), p. 13
- Levi, p. 123
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0.13670425117... | 6 | How did Cardinal Richelieu change France?
Cardinal Richelieu (1585-1642) was one of the most significant leaders in France because he both strengthened and consolidated the power of the monarchy. He was chief minister to Louis XIII, and he changed the nature of French government and society. Today, he is best known as a character in Alexander Dumas’ classic novel, The Three Musketeers. Richelieu was a master politician and diplomat, who used of his influence to lay the foundations of an ‘absolute monarchy’ in France.
Richelieu was also able to use the Thirty Years War to further the national interests of France and he, more than anyone else, made France the greatest power in Europe by the second half of the seventeenth century. However, these achievements, while significant were a catastrophe for most French citizens.
Why was France divided before the arrival of Cardinal Richelieu?
In the early seventeenth century France was one of the leading powers in Europe, but it was very divided and vulnerable. It was surrounded by the Hapsburgs who controlled the Low Countries and Spain. The kingdom was also very divided because of religion. Europe was torn by religious conflict and in 1618 the Thirty Years War broke out, and much of the continent was dragged into the conflict between Catholic and Protestant. The international situation was destabilizing French society which was divided between Catholic and Protestant (Huguenot).
The Edict of Nantes had granted French Protestants religious toleration, and this community effectively ran their own ‘parallel state.’ There were continued tensions between Catholics and Protestants, and this frequently exploded into riot and violence. The Catholic community itself was divided between hardliners and those who took a more pragmatic approach to religion. The country itself was still largely a feudal society.
The local nobility and magnates dominated the localities, and they were the de-facto rulers in their lands. The great noble families such as the Conde owned massive estates and they even had their private armies. These noble families owed more allegiance to themselves than to France. The nobility was factionalized, and they constantly quarreled and also fought each other to gain influence and even intrigued with the Hapsburgs against their king. The actual power of the monarch was minimal. The king in France was dependent upon the nobles to raise taxes and an army. If the aristocrats did not want to cooperate with the king, he was in great difficulties. Many found this situation intolerable and demanded reforms, especially the middle class and urban elites.
Who was Cardinal Richelieu?
Cardinal Richelieu was born in 1585, during one of France’s many Religious Wars. Richelieu was the son of the Lord of Richelieu and a member of the minor nobility. He was educated in Paris at the Collège de Navarre, a brilliant student he was well-versed in history and the classics. He had originally been intended for the military, but his family decided that he should enter the priesthood. In April 1607, after receiving a papal dispensation as he was only 21, he was ordained as a priest and bishop at Lucon. Richelieu was very ambitious and studied the works of Machiavelli. The extent of the influence of the Italian political philosopher can be seen in Richelieu’s cynical aphorisms, especially in his Testament Politique (1641).
His most famous epigram is ‘one may use all means against one’s enemies.’ By 1614 the young prelate had achieved a reputation as a capable administrator and regularly attended meetings of the Estates-General (French Parliament), where his oratory impressed many. Richelieu was a member of the dévot party and a very strong supporter of Roman Catholicism and held pro-Spanish views.
The young bishop came to the attention of the queen-regent, Marie de Medici, who asked Richelieu to attend the Royal Court. Richelieu became chaplain of the young Queen Anne in 1615. She was the wife of Louis XII, who was too young to rule in his name and power rested with his mother, Marie de Medici. Richelieu was a political genius, and soon he was appointed Secretary of State for War. However, his patron Marie de Medici fell from grace with the king because of court-politics, and it seemed that Richelieu’s career was over. However, Richelieu managed to reconcile the queen-mother and her son, and he eventually was rewarded with the position of Chief Minister and with the backing of Louis XII he began the transformation of French society.
The king also secured a Cardinal’s hat for Richelieu. The French statesman was committed to furthering the power of the monarchy and France. In pursuit of this, he attacked the Huguenots and began to erode their power base. He reformed the navy and the army. He also reorganized the bureaucracy and sought to curb the power of the nobles. Much of his time in power was an effort to centralize power. He was dependent upon the king’s favor and confidence but Louis XIII, an indolent and enigmatic man, gave Richelieu, great leeway to pursue the policies that he thought were best for the kingdom. The Cardinal was often embroiled in disputes with noble factions, but the support of the monarch allowed him to initiate fundamental reforms and radical policies.
The Cardinal sought to establish an Absolute Monarchy in France, where the king would be, obeyed through the land and the feudal nobility no longer acted like independent lords. He suppressed several conspiracies and rebellions and limited the powers of the nobility. Richelieu was very much a ‘realist’ in international affairs, and he allied himself with Protestant nations, though a Catholic to strengthen the position of his beloved France in Europe. He intervened in the Thirty Years War and changed the direction of that conflict. Richelieu died hated by many in 1642, and his work was continued by his handpicked successor Cardinal Mazarin, who completed his old master's work and created an absolute monarchy in France.
Richelieu made sweeping changes to the way that France was governed he expanded the standing army and the navy. He also made sure that the Royal Treasury regularly funded them for the first time. Richelieu was eager to remove the influence of the nobility from the bureaucracy, and he opened the civil service to commoners. However, many of these bought their positions and this lead to nepotism and corruption in the later years of Richelieu’s. The Cardinal did make the bureaucracy more efficient and made sure that the royal budget was balanced. His most important reforms were in local government. Traditionally the local notables had been free to do what they like; they were expected to administer their district.
This was a relic of feudalism and Richelieu believed that it was not suitable for a modern state. He persuaded Louis XIII to appoint an ‘intendant’ or official to every district, and they would administer the area. This did much to reduce the influence of the local notables, but they still had immense powers. The appointment of government officials did much to curb the authority and freedom of provincial nobles. Richelieu administrative reforms did much to change France from a feudal to a modern state. However, this was arguably not finished until the French Revolution. Richelieu also had many castles and fortresses demolished, and this reduced the ability of the nobility to defy their monarch. However, they were still able to recruit large private armies from among their tenants and retainers. The new administration also meant more taxes for the peasantry, and there were many peasant uprisings during the Cardinal’s ministry.
The Huguenots were perhaps the strongest faction in the country, and they had a significant army and were supported by Charles I of England. Richelieu attempted to revoke many of the privileges that were granted to the Huguenots under the Edict of Nantes. This action led to a rebellion and Richelieu besieged one of their main strongholds La Rochelle. The Cardinal personally directed this siege, and he imitated the siege tactics of Alexander the Great to capture the strategic port.
The Huguenots continued their rebellion but the Cardinal was implacable, and the Royalist army defatted the French Protestants in battle. This forced the Huguenot leader to seek terms with the king. Richelieu adopted a conciliatory policy towards them was influenced by personal philosophy ‘First, all means to conciliate; failing that, all means to crush.’ If the Huguenots had not obeyed the Cardinal’s will he would have waged total war against them. Richelieu eventually appointed the Huguenot leader to a senior position in the army and integrated some Huguenot soldiers into the Royal army. The Cardinal at the same time, under the Peace of Alais, the Protestants still had religious freedom, but they were shorn of their military and political rights.
What Cardinal Richelieu's role in the Thirty Years War?
- How Did the Merovingian Dynasty Impact European History?
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- The Coming of the French Revolution - Book Review
- Why was the French Foreign Legion Created?
- How did the XYZ Affair lead to the Quasi-War between France and the United States?
- How did the United States react to the French Revolution?
- How did the Citizen Genet Affair derail relations between the United States and France?
- Why did France side with the American Colonies during the American Revolution?
Richelieu was unique among statesmen of the time as he put the needs of his king before that of his religion. He devised a strategy that promoted and safeguarded the geopolitical interests of France. Despite being an early adherent of the Devot party, he was determined to limit the power of his fellow Catholics the Hapsburgs.
This dynasty ruled in Spain and Austria, and they dominated much of Europe. For over a hundred years they had threatened France or interfered in her internal affairs when he became Minister he adopted a determined anti-Hapsburg policy. He supported, through subsidies various Protestant armies in Germany that were fighting the Catholic armies of the Hapsburgs. In 1629 when the Hapsburgs seemed on the point of victory, he encouraged the Swedes to invade Germany. This was not enough for Richelieu and he had French armies fight against the Spanish Hapsburgs in Northern Italy and even in Spain itself (Catalonia).
The Cardinal used all the resources of France to contain and defeat the Hapsburgs. He was concerned that the Hapsburgs sought to encircle and conquer France. He raised taxes to pay for the military campaigns. The increased taxes disproportionately targeted ordinary families and even caused localized famines. However, Richelieu policies were continued with, and they eventually led to the French victory over the Spanish Hapsburgs at Lens in 1648. This is widely regarded as the end of the Hapsburgs supremacy in Europe and was a victory that saw the emergence of France as the most significant power in Europe. Richelieu did not live to implement all his plans, but he undoubtedly helped make France the preeminent power in seventeenth-century Europe.
Richelieu and the French Empire
Not only did Richelieu help to make France the greatest power in Europe he was also instrumental in the establishment of a French overseas Empire. His reforms of the Navy meant that the French could secure new colonies, especially in the eighteenth century. When he came to power the French colony in New France (Canada) was in decline. He revived the fortunes of the colony by the formation of the ‘Company of New France’.
This shift helped to boost trade between the colony and France, and this encouraged many French emigrants to settle in the territory. Richelieu encouraged the settlers to live in harmony with the Native Americans, and this did much to strengthen the French colony. The Cardinal was one of the pivotal figures in the history of Quebec and Francophone Canada.
Richelieu was one of the greatest figures in Early Modern Europe. He changed France from a feudal society into a modern state. He was instrumental in the establishment of the Absolute Monarchy in France because he managed to curb the power of the French nobility. His foreign policy effectively ended the Hapsburg threat to France and made her one of, or perhaps the most powerful kingdom on the continent.
Richelieu, died before his policies came to fruition but his protégé Mazarin ensured that the plans of the Cardinal were carried out. This meant that French society was utterly changed. Richelieu also had a very modern outlook, and he created the apparatus of a modern nation-state and laid the foundations for the future French Empire in North America. His last words to the king, before he died, sum up his achievements.
I have the consolation of leaving your kingdom in the highest degree of glory and reputation. However, all of this came at a cost. After his death, the French nobility revolted in two wars known as the Frondes, that devastated France. His military campaigns and administrative reforms led to widespread poverty, rebellion, and famine in the countryside. Richelieu did make France great, but in doing so, he caused many millions to suffer. No wonder he was such a divisive figure, who was either hated or loved.
- Bergin, Joseph. The Rise of Richelieu (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1997), p. 34
- Bergin, p. 13
- Collins, James B. The State in Early Modern France (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1995), p. 15
- Bergin, p. 4
- Richelieu, Political Testament, 1662, p. 9
- Collins, p. 13
- Levi, Anthony. Cardinal Richelieu and the Making of France. New York: Carroll and Graf, 2000), p. 112
- Collins, p. 115
- Collins, p. 115
- Bergin, p. 116
- Levi, p. 113
- Richelieu, Political Statement. (1663), p. 13
- Levi, p. 123
- Collins, p. 114 | 3,008 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The paper "Gothic Cathedrals and Greek Architecture" is a brilliant example of an assignment on architecture. Gothic cathedrals were the ancient arts and architectures that involved secular and religious buildings, stained glass and sculptures. These building existed in Europe in the middle ages. These gothic cathedrals served many purposes but their primary purpose was theology. Cathedrals were built as places of worship and to glorify God, the Creator. Many people viewed them as the New Jerusalem. These cathedrals symbolized new creations that Christ has ordered to be built by mankind. Aesthetics are placed in these cathedrals through the provision of light that ensured that they were bright and beautiful.
Beauty was the value of these cathedrals. Each cathedral had three essential elements i. e. harmony, integrity, and brightness. The light was used to symbolize the essence of God in these cathedrals. Some proclaimed that light was created so to be used to see God and to feel His presence since He is the one who created light. Without light, it was though humankind will fade away. Therefore, a light was seen as God who controls all creations (Mosse, 74). Gothic cathedrals appeared to be many visitors as some sense of heaven.
Many visitors who entered these places were surprised by the architecture and most of them would exclaim ‘ wow’ . This exclamation, ‘ wow’ , was taken mean that same as awe which means holy and also a sense of another world (Mosse, 74). An example of a gothic cathedral is the St. Denis. It has stained glasses which convey beauty when light passes through them. It also has musical art that is used for worship.
Paintings and statues in this cathedral represent the told stories in the Bible starting from the church history to the community. These stains and statues are read by visitors in order to understand more about the Bible. Greek art and architecture have evolved for a very long time. These arts and architecture started a very long time ago. There are different styles in the art that were used in by Greeks in painting and pottery. These styles include protogeometric styles, geometric styles, Orientalizing style, black figure, and red-figure style. All these styles developed at different times (Snodgrass, 45).
The earliest type of these Greek art styles was the Protogeometric style. It existed from 1090-900 BC. This design was characterized by the use of circles, wavy lines, and triangles. The next style came in 900-725 BC. This style was called geometric. This involved the use of geometric ceramics in designs. The pots were made from finer products and they had some proportions that were followed. A decoration of vases and pots were made using animal bands like horses and goats. These decorations were used to represent how rich the owners were.
After geometric styles, Orientalizing style came into existence. This style involved composite designs of creatures like chimeras and sirens. This style used less human figures. Palmettes and flowers were the major figures used in this style. Black figure styles came after Orientalizing styles from 620-480 BC. In this style, figures were drawn in black silhouettes. This was achieved by applying wet clay to ten pots. The pots were then fired and the color would change to red. The lines were then color to purple or white (Snodgrass, 49).
Red-figure styles replaced the black figure in 530 BC. This figure was different from the black figure because all pot was made to turn red including the images. The figures were clearer and detailed. However, these changes in styles showed how geek arts were developing with time. People were becoming more creative in their design thus bringing the changes. More improved products’ resources also were found and the quality helped in developing better vases and pots. | <urn:uuid:90da4e6f-0b4e-4c29-9f5b-6e0962b28a49> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://libraryofessays.com/assignment/answer-the-topic-of-this-question-1882479 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00002.warc.gz | en | 0.985161 | 792 | 4.125 | 4 | [
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0.22735989... | 3 | The paper "Gothic Cathedrals and Greek Architecture" is a brilliant example of an assignment on architecture. Gothic cathedrals were the ancient arts and architectures that involved secular and religious buildings, stained glass and sculptures. These building existed in Europe in the middle ages. These gothic cathedrals served many purposes but their primary purpose was theology. Cathedrals were built as places of worship and to glorify God, the Creator. Many people viewed them as the New Jerusalem. These cathedrals symbolized new creations that Christ has ordered to be built by mankind. Aesthetics are placed in these cathedrals through the provision of light that ensured that they were bright and beautiful.
Beauty was the value of these cathedrals. Each cathedral had three essential elements i. e. harmony, integrity, and brightness. The light was used to symbolize the essence of God in these cathedrals. Some proclaimed that light was created so to be used to see God and to feel His presence since He is the one who created light. Without light, it was though humankind will fade away. Therefore, a light was seen as God who controls all creations (Mosse, 74). Gothic cathedrals appeared to be many visitors as some sense of heaven.
Many visitors who entered these places were surprised by the architecture and most of them would exclaim ‘ wow’ . This exclamation, ‘ wow’ , was taken mean that same as awe which means holy and also a sense of another world (Mosse, 74). An example of a gothic cathedral is the St. Denis. It has stained glasses which convey beauty when light passes through them. It also has musical art that is used for worship.
Paintings and statues in this cathedral represent the told stories in the Bible starting from the church history to the community. These stains and statues are read by visitors in order to understand more about the Bible. Greek art and architecture have evolved for a very long time. These arts and architecture started a very long time ago. There are different styles in the art that were used in by Greeks in painting and pottery. These styles include protogeometric styles, geometric styles, Orientalizing style, black figure, and red-figure style. All these styles developed at different times (Snodgrass, 45).
The earliest type of these Greek art styles was the Protogeometric style. It existed from 1090-900 BC. This design was characterized by the use of circles, wavy lines, and triangles. The next style came in 900-725 BC. This style was called geometric. This involved the use of geometric ceramics in designs. The pots were made from finer products and they had some proportions that were followed. A decoration of vases and pots were made using animal bands like horses and goats. These decorations were used to represent how rich the owners were.
After geometric styles, Orientalizing style came into existence. This style involved composite designs of creatures like chimeras and sirens. This style used less human figures. Palmettes and flowers were the major figures used in this style. Black figure styles came after Orientalizing styles from 620-480 BC. In this style, figures were drawn in black silhouettes. This was achieved by applying wet clay to ten pots. The pots were then fired and the color would change to red. The lines were then color to purple or white (Snodgrass, 49).
Red-figure styles replaced the black figure in 530 BC. This figure was different from the black figure because all pot was made to turn red including the images. The figures were clearer and detailed. However, these changes in styles showed how geek arts were developing with time. People were becoming more creative in their design thus bringing the changes. More improved products’ resources also were found and the quality helped in developing better vases and pots. | 811 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Dmitri Shostakovich wrote his seventh symphony during World War II, inspired by the Siege of Leningrad. In the middle of that siege, Leningrad conductor Karl Eliasberg recalled the remaining musicians of the city to rehearse it. Only 15 showed up, and they were suffering from starvation.
The first rehearsal broke up after just 15 minutes, as the small band of survivors had so little energy.
"That orchestra was consisting of players who were victims of bombings and hunger and starvation and they were barely able to hold their instruments to play," says Soviet-born conductor Semyon Bychkov.
One trumpeter offered Eliasberg a profound apology after failing to produce a single note.
But reinforcements from the military were summoned, and the cobbled-together orchestra practiced six days a week. However, they were so weak that they only managed to play all the way through the entire symphony once before the public performance on August 9, 1942. The story of how that concert came together for the debilitated citizens of the besieged city is told at BBC magazine.
You can hear a recording of Shostakovich’s Symphony No.7, also known as the Leningrad Symphony, played by the Leningrad Philharmonic Orchestra in 1953.
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0.3074946701526... | 2 | Dmitri Shostakovich wrote his seventh symphony during World War II, inspired by the Siege of Leningrad. In the middle of that siege, Leningrad conductor Karl Eliasberg recalled the remaining musicians of the city to rehearse it. Only 15 showed up, and they were suffering from starvation.
The first rehearsal broke up after just 15 minutes, as the small band of survivors had so little energy.
"That orchestra was consisting of players who were victims of bombings and hunger and starvation and they were barely able to hold their instruments to play," says Soviet-born conductor Semyon Bychkov.
One trumpeter offered Eliasberg a profound apology after failing to produce a single note.
But reinforcements from the military were summoned, and the cobbled-together orchestra practiced six days a week. However, they were so weak that they only managed to play all the way through the entire symphony once before the public performance on August 9, 1942. The story of how that concert came together for the debilitated citizens of the besieged city is told at BBC magazine.
You can hear a recording of Shostakovich’s Symphony No.7, also known as the Leningrad Symphony, played by the Leningrad Philharmonic Orchestra in 1953.
(Image credit: St Petersburg Academic Philharmonia) | 279 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Women settlers in Australia faced a life of prostitution, but Venerable Caroline was able to save many of them.
By Larry Peterson
She was called “the Savior of Living Cargoes”
Caroline Chisholm was born in Northampton, England, in 1808. She was the daughter of William Jones, a wealthy farmer, who had been married four times. Three of his wives had died in childbirth, and Caroline’s mom was his fourth. She had seven children and Caroline would be the last. Her dad died when she was only six and he left the family some money and several properties to divide among the twelve surviving children. A prime lesson Caroline and her siblings learned from their father was to be generous and caring to those in need.
By the time Caroline was seven, she was displaying a pronounced interest in immigration. She had listened to the stories shared among the older people that frequented her home. These folks included farmers, writers, religious and political leaders. She invented her own immigration game using a washbasin as the ocean and boats made from pea-shells. She saved her money and purchased small dolls and would place them in the “boats” and send them “across the sea” to their new homes. This early interest in immigration would never leave her. It would only translate into a lifelong endeavor of caring and helping poor immigrants.
When Caroline was 22 years-old Captain Archibald Chisholm proposed marriage to her. Captain Chisholm was thirteen years older than Caroline and a devout Roman Catholic. Raised Protestant during an era when Catholicism was viewed with enormous suspicion and distrust, Caroline faced a hard choice. She did want to marry him, but she had a significant concern, and it was not his Catholicism. Caroline insisted that she must always have the freedom to persevere in any philanthropic cause she chose. Archibald Chisholm readily agreed.
Caroline and Archibald were married on December 27, 1830. Deeply in love, Caroline soon converted to Roman Catholicism. Some suggested this was done for convenience. On the contrary, she embraced Catholicism and came to love her faith deeply. As one of her biographers wrote, “she was a MOST devout Catholic.”
Britain had established a penal colony in Australia in the latter part of the 18th century. Here they would send convicted criminals. Later on, they would begin sending people from England known as “free settlers.” Many of these were single women who would arrive with little or no money. They also has no friends, family, or jobs and, desperate to survive, would turn to prostitution. The “welcoming” they were receiving at their “new homeland” was deplorable.
In 1838, Captain Chisholm was granted a transfer to Australia because of health problems. At the time, it was thought that the climate was better there. When they arrived and Caroline saw the wretched circumstances and conditions that greeted the poor migrant women who were there and still coming, she was appalled. She knew she had to help them. Her life’s work could not have been more clear.
Caroline was 30 years old and immediately began planning a course of action, developing job schemes, and lobbying the authorities for better working conditions. She started a group that set out to establish a woman’s shelter for migrants. In 1841, she had established the Female Emigrant’s Home in Sydney. Besides providing shelter, it also assisted unemployed young women in finding work not only in the city but even out in rural areas where work was more plentiful.
Deeply sympathetic to young women who were alone, Caroline wrote letter after letter seeking jobs for the girls and found many, especially as domestic servants. She would often accompany them to the far off places to make sure they were a safe haven for them. As time passed by, Caroline began housing men and then families. In her first seven years in Australia, she helped more than 11,000 immigrants.
Caroline Chisholm’s compassion, faith, and untiring devotion to the poor and lonely in a new country left an indelible mark on not only Australia and Great Britain but on the entire world. She is held in such high esteem that her picture is on Australia’s original $5 banknote. She was also awarded posthumously, the Order of Australia.
Caroline passed away on March 25, 1877. She was 68 years old. Her cause for sainthood has been put forward by the Archdiocese of Melbourne. The first Australian saint, Mary MacKillop, was canonized by Pope Benedict XVI in 2010. It is expected that Caroline Chisholm will be the second saint canonized from “down under.”
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0.0175500325... | 9 | Women settlers in Australia faced a life of prostitution, but Venerable Caroline was able to save many of them.
By Larry Peterson
She was called “the Savior of Living Cargoes”
Caroline Chisholm was born in Northampton, England, in 1808. She was the daughter of William Jones, a wealthy farmer, who had been married four times. Three of his wives had died in childbirth, and Caroline’s mom was his fourth. She had seven children and Caroline would be the last. Her dad died when she was only six and he left the family some money and several properties to divide among the twelve surviving children. A prime lesson Caroline and her siblings learned from their father was to be generous and caring to those in need.
By the time Caroline was seven, she was displaying a pronounced interest in immigration. She had listened to the stories shared among the older people that frequented her home. These folks included farmers, writers, religious and political leaders. She invented her own immigration game using a washbasin as the ocean and boats made from pea-shells. She saved her money and purchased small dolls and would place them in the “boats” and send them “across the sea” to their new homes. This early interest in immigration would never leave her. It would only translate into a lifelong endeavor of caring and helping poor immigrants.
When Caroline was 22 years-old Captain Archibald Chisholm proposed marriage to her. Captain Chisholm was thirteen years older than Caroline and a devout Roman Catholic. Raised Protestant during an era when Catholicism was viewed with enormous suspicion and distrust, Caroline faced a hard choice. She did want to marry him, but she had a significant concern, and it was not his Catholicism. Caroline insisted that she must always have the freedom to persevere in any philanthropic cause she chose. Archibald Chisholm readily agreed.
Caroline and Archibald were married on December 27, 1830. Deeply in love, Caroline soon converted to Roman Catholicism. Some suggested this was done for convenience. On the contrary, she embraced Catholicism and came to love her faith deeply. As one of her biographers wrote, “she was a MOST devout Catholic.”
Britain had established a penal colony in Australia in the latter part of the 18th century. Here they would send convicted criminals. Later on, they would begin sending people from England known as “free settlers.” Many of these were single women who would arrive with little or no money. They also has no friends, family, or jobs and, desperate to survive, would turn to prostitution. The “welcoming” they were receiving at their “new homeland” was deplorable.
In 1838, Captain Chisholm was granted a transfer to Australia because of health problems. At the time, it was thought that the climate was better there. When they arrived and Caroline saw the wretched circumstances and conditions that greeted the poor migrant women who were there and still coming, she was appalled. She knew she had to help them. Her life’s work could not have been more clear.
Caroline was 30 years old and immediately began planning a course of action, developing job schemes, and lobbying the authorities for better working conditions. She started a group that set out to establish a woman’s shelter for migrants. In 1841, she had established the Female Emigrant’s Home in Sydney. Besides providing shelter, it also assisted unemployed young women in finding work not only in the city but even out in rural areas where work was more plentiful.
Deeply sympathetic to young women who were alone, Caroline wrote letter after letter seeking jobs for the girls and found many, especially as domestic servants. She would often accompany them to the far off places to make sure they were a safe haven for them. As time passed by, Caroline began housing men and then families. In her first seven years in Australia, she helped more than 11,000 immigrants.
Caroline Chisholm’s compassion, faith, and untiring devotion to the poor and lonely in a new country left an indelible mark on not only Australia and Great Britain but on the entire world. She is held in such high esteem that her picture is on Australia’s original $5 banknote. She was also awarded posthumously, the Order of Australia.
Caroline passed away on March 25, 1877. She was 68 years old. Her cause for sainthood has been put forward by the Archdiocese of Melbourne. The first Australian saint, Mary MacKillop, was canonized by Pope Benedict XVI in 2010. It is expected that Caroline Chisholm will be the second saint canonized from “down under.”
copyright©Larry Peterson 2020 | 999 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1382, Anne of Bohemia (daughter of the powerful King and Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV) married King Richard II of England. With this royal alliance came increased communication between the two countries. Czech students attended English universities, and English students attended Charles University. Far more importantly, the works of English authors were translated into Czech. This was to have a lasting effect on this small country.
Jan Hus came from Husinec, moving to Prague when he was very young. He was a student at Charles University, where he obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1393, and a Master’s degree in 1396. Having been ordained as a priest in 1400, Hus quickly began to preach reformation of the Catholic Church. Prague’s famous Bethlehem Chapel had been built not long before, and Hus became one of its preachers.
Hus was heavily influenced by John Wycliffe, whose writings strongly criticized the Catholic Church. Hus himself translated Wycliffe’s Trialogus into Czech and disseminated copies of it. Hus, meanwhile, strongly denounced the behavior of the clergy to a fascinated and growing audience at Bethlehem Chapel. His archbishop, Zbynek Zajic, allowed Hus to speak his mind. However, in 1405, Pope Innocent VII ordered Zajic to speak out against the teachings of Wycliffe. Zajic complied, and forbade any more criticism of the clergy.
The following year, Hus was more than happy to read aloud an English document giving praise to Wycliffe; the document’s seal came from Oxford University. Two years later, in 1408, the new pope, Gregory XII, told Zajic sternly that he was aware of the King of Bohemia’s sympathy for those who sided with Wycliffe. The archbishop ordered all of Wycliffe’s writings to be given to the archdiocesan chancery, where they would be “corrected”. This time, Hus obeyed the order.
That same year, 1408, saw Europe (and Charles University) deeply affected by the Western Schism. Hus led a group of scholars at Charles University who pledged to remain neutral, as the King of Bohemia wanted. He became the rector of the university and a court favorite. Furthermore, Wycliffe’s writings became popular again. This could not and would not last, and in 1410, Antipope Alexander V excommunicated Hus and his followers.
In 1411, Archbishop Zajic died, and the problems concerning the Catholic Church focused largely on the sale of indulgences. With the Schism still in full swing, various claimants to the papacy sold indulgences enthusiastically, in an attempt to raise money for various military operations. Although Hus was strongly opposed to the sale of indulgences, his followers at Charles University thought otherwise. Having lost this support, Hus found like-minded individuals elsewhere. Some of these followers burned the papal bulls, claiming that they should obey Hus, rather than the Church. Three men who opposed the sale of indulgences were beheaded.
In 1412, King Wenceslas strove for a reconciliation between Hus and his followers and those who adhered strictly to the teachings of the Church. Despite the efforts of all involved, no reconciliation was to be had. Hus decided to leave Prague and preach elsewhere; he had might on his side, since Wenceslas himself agreed with Hus. With the departure of Hus, his followers drove the staunch Catholics from Prague and gained control of the city.
Wenceslas’ brother was King Sigismund, head of the Holy Roman Empire. In an attempt to heal the schism and to implement certain reforms, he convoked the Council of Constance on November 1, 1414. The Council would drag on for four years, but the part played by Hus – though pivotal – would take much less time.
Sigismund requested the presence of Jan Hus at the Council, promising him safe conduct. Hus, most likely knowing what his fate would be, made his will before journeying to Constance. Perhaps feeling that he had nothing to lose, Hus preached the same rhetoric that had made him so popular in Prague after he arrived in Constance. On the premise that Hus intended to leave Constance, his enemies had him imprisoned.
Hus was kept in a castle dungeon, chained constantly, with little food. On June 5, 1415, he was put on trial, and sent to a Franciscan monastery. He stated in his trial that he was willing to recant his statements, if anyone could prove his mistakes using the Bible.
On July 6, 1415, Hus – still refusing to recant – was sentenced to death. He was taken to a stake, where kindling was piled up to his neck. He was given one final chance to recant, which, if he had taken it, would have saved his life. Again, he refused. The fire was lit, and Hus died a torturous death. Later, his ashes were thrown into the Rhine.
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-0.23533737... | 3 | In 1382, Anne of Bohemia (daughter of the powerful King and Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV) married King Richard II of England. With this royal alliance came increased communication between the two countries. Czech students attended English universities, and English students attended Charles University. Far more importantly, the works of English authors were translated into Czech. This was to have a lasting effect on this small country.
Jan Hus came from Husinec, moving to Prague when he was very young. He was a student at Charles University, where he obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1393, and a Master’s degree in 1396. Having been ordained as a priest in 1400, Hus quickly began to preach reformation of the Catholic Church. Prague’s famous Bethlehem Chapel had been built not long before, and Hus became one of its preachers.
Hus was heavily influenced by John Wycliffe, whose writings strongly criticized the Catholic Church. Hus himself translated Wycliffe’s Trialogus into Czech and disseminated copies of it. Hus, meanwhile, strongly denounced the behavior of the clergy to a fascinated and growing audience at Bethlehem Chapel. His archbishop, Zbynek Zajic, allowed Hus to speak his mind. However, in 1405, Pope Innocent VII ordered Zajic to speak out against the teachings of Wycliffe. Zajic complied, and forbade any more criticism of the clergy.
The following year, Hus was more than happy to read aloud an English document giving praise to Wycliffe; the document’s seal came from Oxford University. Two years later, in 1408, the new pope, Gregory XII, told Zajic sternly that he was aware of the King of Bohemia’s sympathy for those who sided with Wycliffe. The archbishop ordered all of Wycliffe’s writings to be given to the archdiocesan chancery, where they would be “corrected”. This time, Hus obeyed the order.
That same year, 1408, saw Europe (and Charles University) deeply affected by the Western Schism. Hus led a group of scholars at Charles University who pledged to remain neutral, as the King of Bohemia wanted. He became the rector of the university and a court favorite. Furthermore, Wycliffe’s writings became popular again. This could not and would not last, and in 1410, Antipope Alexander V excommunicated Hus and his followers.
In 1411, Archbishop Zajic died, and the problems concerning the Catholic Church focused largely on the sale of indulgences. With the Schism still in full swing, various claimants to the papacy sold indulgences enthusiastically, in an attempt to raise money for various military operations. Although Hus was strongly opposed to the sale of indulgences, his followers at Charles University thought otherwise. Having lost this support, Hus found like-minded individuals elsewhere. Some of these followers burned the papal bulls, claiming that they should obey Hus, rather than the Church. Three men who opposed the sale of indulgences were beheaded.
In 1412, King Wenceslas strove for a reconciliation between Hus and his followers and those who adhered strictly to the teachings of the Church. Despite the efforts of all involved, no reconciliation was to be had. Hus decided to leave Prague and preach elsewhere; he had might on his side, since Wenceslas himself agreed with Hus. With the departure of Hus, his followers drove the staunch Catholics from Prague and gained control of the city.
Wenceslas’ brother was King Sigismund, head of the Holy Roman Empire. In an attempt to heal the schism and to implement certain reforms, he convoked the Council of Constance on November 1, 1414. The Council would drag on for four years, but the part played by Hus – though pivotal – would take much less time.
Sigismund requested the presence of Jan Hus at the Council, promising him safe conduct. Hus, most likely knowing what his fate would be, made his will before journeying to Constance. Perhaps feeling that he had nothing to lose, Hus preached the same rhetoric that had made him so popular in Prague after he arrived in Constance. On the premise that Hus intended to leave Constance, his enemies had him imprisoned.
Hus was kept in a castle dungeon, chained constantly, with little food. On June 5, 1415, he was put on trial, and sent to a Franciscan monastery. He stated in his trial that he was willing to recant his statements, if anyone could prove his mistakes using the Bible.
On July 6, 1415, Hus – still refusing to recant – was sentenced to death. He was taken to a stake, where kindling was piled up to his neck. He was given one final chance to recant, which, if he had taken it, would have saved his life. Again, he refused. The fire was lit, and Hus died a torturous death. Later, his ashes were thrown into the Rhine.
Today, Jan Hus is remembered by (among other memorials) a group of statues on Prague’s Old Town Square, and by the Czech language itself. The diacritical marks used in written Czech were invented by none other than Jan Hus. | 1,115 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The last Romans
left England after being recalled back to Rome by emperor Honorious.
The followers of Ninian, a Christian missionary, built the first Christian Church at Whithorn.
Patrick, a Briton who had been enslaved by Irish raiders, escaped and became the first Christian missionary in Ireland. He became patron saint of Ireland.
The Saxon leaders Hengist and Horsa landed in Kent at the head of an invasion force.
The Kingdom of Sussex was founded by Aelle, a Saxon warlord.
The Britons had been pushed to the west of England.
King Cedric founded the Kingdom of Wessex. The capital was at Winchester.
Battle of Mount Badon
A British warrior king, possibly Arthur, defeated the Anglo Saxon invaders in south-west England.
A Saxon tribe settled to the east of London and founded the Kingdom of the East Saxons (Essex).
Gildas, a British monk, wrote ‘The Ruin of Britain’ which details the collapse of Roman Britain and the invasion of the Angles and Saxons.
A tribe of Angles landed in the north and founded the Kingdom of Northumbria.
Cynric took Wiltshire for Wessex.
Cynric of Wessex defeated the Britons at Barbury Castle.
The monastery at Iona was founded by Columba.
Tribes of Angles founded the Kingdom of East Anglia.
Battle of Dyrham
Ceawlin of Wessex took Cirencester, Gloucester and Bath from the Anglo Saxons.
Tribes of Angles formed the Kingdom of Mercia.
The missionary Augustine arrived in Kent and founded a Benedictine monastery at Canterbury. He was given the land by King Aethelberht of Kent.
King Aethelberht of Kent was the most powerful ruler in England.
King Aethelberht of Kent converted to Christianity.
King Aethelberht of Kent died. Raedwald of East Anglia became the most powerful leader in England.
King Edwin of Northumbria converted to Christianity.
Battle of Hatfield Chase
A force of Mercians led by Penda and a force of Welsh led by Cadwallon ap Cadfan invaded Northumbria. King Edwin was killed.
Aidan, Bishop of York, founded the monastery at Lindisfarne.
Battle of Maserfield
Penda of Mercia defeated and killed King Oswald of Northumbria.
King Oswiu of Northumbria killed Penda of Mercia and took control of the region.
Wulfhere of Mercia took control of the region from Oswiu of Northumbria.
Synod of Whitby
Oswiu of Northumbria ordered a meeting be held at Whitby to determine whether the Christian church should follow the dictates of Irish missionaries or those of the Church in Rome. It was decided to follow those of Rome.
Bishop Wilfrid who had been exiled from Northumbria converted the leader of Sussex to Christianity.
685 (20th May)
Battle of Dun Nechtain
Ecgfrith, King of Northumbria, invaded Sccotland but was defeated and killed by the Picts led by King Bruide at Dunnichen Moss.
King Ine of Wessex issued a code of laws.
704 (14th December)
Battle of Dun Nechtain
Ecgfrith, King of Northumbria, invaded Sccotland but was defeated and killed by the Picts led by King Bruide at Dunnichen Moss.
Ine, King of the Wessex, resigned as King and went to Rome to die. He was succeeded by Aethelheard.
Bede completed his Ecclesiastical History of the English People.
Aethelbald of Mercia took land from Wessex.
Cuthred became King of Wessex after the death of Aethelheard.
Aethelbald of Mercia and Cuthred of Wessex joined forces against the Welsh.
Cuthred managed to secure independence for Wessex from Mercia after mounting a rebellion against the overlordship of Aethelbald of Mercia.
King Aethelbald of Mercia was murdered by his bodyguard. His death caused a civil war in Mercia which was won by Offa who became King.
King Offa of Mercia ordered the construction of an earthwork along the border of Wales. It is known as Offa’s Dyke.
Two papal legates, George of Osia and Theophylact of Todi, visited England.
force landed at Portland, Dorset. When the local reeve went to meet them he was killed. However, this was not an invasionary force but may have been a force that got blown off course.
The monastery at Lindisfarne was raided by Danish Vikings. They destroyed the abbey, killed a large number of monks and took others as slaves.
The monastery at Iona was attacked by a party of Danish Vikings.
The monastery at Iona was attacked again by a party of Danish Vikings.
became King of Wessex after Beorhtric of Wessex died.
The monastery at Iona was attacked a third time by a party of Danish Vikings. Sixty-eight monks were killed. Those that survived fled to the monastery of Kells in Ireland. They took with them an illuminated manuscript which is now known as the Book of Kells.
Battle of Ellendun
Egbert King of Wessex defeated Beornwulf of Mercia and ended Mercian supremacy over the southern kingdoms.
Egbert, King of the Wessex conquered Mercia and forced the Northumbrians to submit to him giving him control of all of England.
Battle of Carhampton
The Vikings attacked North Devon and Somerset. King Egbert of Wessex tried to defeat them but he was forced to retreat.
Battle of Hingston Down
King Egbert fought a combined force of Vikings and Cornishmen and was victorious.
King Egbert of Wessex died. He was succeeded by his son Aethelwulf
The Vikings began making raids along the south coast of England.
Kenneth MacAlpine united the Scots and Picts forming the Kingdom of Scotland.
King Aethelwulf’s son, Aethelstan, defeated a Viking force off the coast of Sandwich.
King Aethelwulf and his younger son, Alfred, went on a pilgrimage to Rome. While he was away his son Aethelbald took control of Wessex.
858 (13th January)
King Aethelwulf of Wessex died. He was succeeded by his son Aethelbald
King Aethelbald of Wessex died he was succeeded by his brother Aethelberht.
The Great Heathen army marched north and invaded Northumbria.
King Aethelberht of Wessex died. He was succeeded by his brother Aethelred I
866 (1st November)
The Danish Vikings in England took Jorvik (York) and used it as a base to make raids into Mercia.
867 (23rd March)
, rivals for the Northumbrian throne made an alliance and marched to expel the Vikings from York. They were badly defeated. Osberht was killed during the battle. Aelle was executed afterwards.
867 (after 23rd March)
Northumbria was controlled by the Vikings with Egbert as puppet king.
The Viking force, led by Ivar the Boneless, invaded Mercia and captured Nottingham. King Aethelred and his brother Alfred
marched north, but by the time they arrived Burgred
, King of Mercia had paid the Vikings off.
A Viking force known as the Great Summer Army, led by Bagsecg, arrived in England.
The Vikings attacked East Anglia and killed King Edmund. Legend states that the Vikings tied King Edmund
to a tree and shot arrows into him until he died. Later, his body was moved to a place which became known as Bury St Edmunds. The Vikings now controlled East Anglia.
871 (4th January)
Battle of Reading
King Aethelred and Alfred attempted to lay siege to Reading but the Vikings led by Halfdan had fortified the town with a dyke and palisade and the Saxons were defeated by the Vikings.
871 (8th January)
Battle of Ashdown
Bagsecg, King of Jutland and Wendland, leader of the Great Summer Army, was killed in this battle between the forces of the Great Heathen Army and those of King Aethelred and his brother, Alfred.
871 (22nd January)
Battle of Basing
King Aethelred of Wessex was defeated by the Vikings.
871 (22nd March)
Battle of Merton
King Aethelred, supported by his brother Alfred, fought the Vikings. The battle was inconclusive and both sides withdrew. Aethelred had been badly injured in the battle.
871 (23rd April)
King Aethelred of Wessex died from injuries sustained in the Battle of Merton. His sons were considered too young to succeed and so Aethelred’s younger brother, Alfred became King.
871 (early Summer)
Battle of Wilton
The Saxons were defeated by the Vikings.
The Vikings took Mercia after defeating King Burgred. Burgred fled overseas. A puppet King, Ceolwulf was installed.
The Vikings began dividing up Northumbria preparing to settle the land permanently.
Alfred made a deal with Guthrum, leader of the Vikings, but Guthrum did not keep the deal. He killed his Saxon hostages and moved to Exeter, leaving the Viking ships at Wareham.
The Vikings made further raids on Wessex taking land in Wiltshire and Hampshire.
Guthrum returned with a large force and marched on Chippenham. Guthrum killed many of the town’s inhabitants. It is likely that this was the last straw for the Witan and that Alfred lost their support due to the fact that his attempts to pay off the Vikings had not worked. Alfred was forced to leave Wessex in fear for his life. He sought refuge in the Somerset marshes at Athelney. The legend of King Alfred
and the Burnt Cakes stems from this period.
Battle of Edington
Alfred summoned his troops and defeated the Viking leader, Guthrum and agreed terms at Wedmore.
As per the treaty of Wedmore agreed between Alfred and Guthrum, the Viking leader and around 30 chief Vikings were baptised.
A band of Vikings arrived and attacked Rochester in Kent. The town had been fortified by Alfred in 878 and was able to hold out until Alfred arrived with the army and defeated the Vikings.
King Alfred of Wessex negotiated with the Vikings and allowed them control of the North under Danelaw. The Kingdom of Wessex controlled most of the South.
the Anglo Saxon Chronicle was begun.
Battle of Farnham
While King Alfred had been busy trying to make peace with Haesten, the Appledore Vikings had raided towns in Hampshire and Berkshire. They were returning to Appledore with their booty but were cut off by Alfred’s son, Edward
who recovered the stolen treasure and put them to flight. Edward then pursued the Vikings, caught up with them and held them under siege at Thorney.
While Alfred and Edward had been occupied with the Vikings in Kent and Appledore, the East Anglia Vikings had sailed to Exeter and lay siege to the city. Alfred had intended to help his son defeat the Vikings at Thorney but had to divert and go to Exeter to relieve the siege to the city. Alfred encircled the besiegers. A further group of Vikings marched west probably to relieve the siege of Exeter but they were met at Buttington by a large force led by the Ealdormen of Mercia, Somerset and Wiltshire who succeeded in putting them to flight and the Vikings returned to East Anglia. Soon afterwards the Vikings in Exeter withdrew and also returned to Thorney, East Anglia.
The Vikings were forced, through hunger, to leave Thorney, they moved north to Chester but were placed under siege and forced to leave.
The Vikings built a new fort about 20 miles north of London by the river Lea.
Alfred built two new fortresses by the river Lea which meant that the Viking force further up the river were unable to get their boats out to sea.
895 (late Autumn)
On learning of Alfred’s actions the Vikings abandoned their boats on the river Lea and marched overland to Bridgenorth on the river Severn where they built a new fort. Alfred marched to Bridgenorth and lay siege to the Vikings.
The Vikings gave up their raids on English towns and returned to East Anglia and Northumbria. Wessex was finally at peace.
899 (26th October)
King Alfred the Great died. He was succeeded by his son, Edward the Elder.
, cousin of King Edward the Elder, had contested Edward’s position as King. He had gained the support of the Vikings and was made King of York. He received the allegiance of the Northern Vikings.
Aethelwold of Wessex and the Northern Vikings landed in Essex and allied with the East Anglian Vikings
910 (5th August)
Battle of Tettenhall (Wednesfield)
The combined forces of Mercia and Wessex defeated the Northumbrian Vikings
Aethelred of Mercia died, he was succeeded by his wife, Aethelflaed who was known as Lady of the Mercians.
First battle of Corbridge
An Anglo Saxon force was defeated by the Vikings.
A force of Vikings from Northampton and Leicester attempted to take the fort at Towcester but were successfully repelled.
A force of East Anglian Danes constructed a fort at Tempsford and used it as a base from which to attack Bedford. They were unsuccessful and forced to retreat.
917 (late Summer)
Battle of Tempsford
The Anglo-Saxons defeated the Danes at Tempsford. The sole surviving Danish King of East Anglia was killed in the Battle.
King Edward took Colchester. The Danes retaliated by besieging the fort at Maldon but they were unsuccessful and many died.
King Edward the Elder received the submission of all the Danes south of the River Humber.
Battle of Corbridge
This was a battle between Viking forces led by Ragnall and Constantine II of Scotland supported by Ealdred of Bamburgh. Although the battle was indecisive the Vikings suffered huge losses and only a quarter of their force survived.
Aethelflaed, Lady of the Mercians, died. Her brother, King Edward the Elder took control of Mercia.
The Viking, Ragnall, took York and proclaimed himself King of York.
The Norse Vikings attacked Cheshire
924 (17th July)
King Edward the Elder died. He was succeeded by his son, Aethelstan
King Aethelstan married one of his sisters to Sihtric, the Viking ruler of Northumbria.
Sihtric of Northumbria died. He was succeeded by a son from a previous marriage who did not support an alliance with Aethelstan. Aethelstan therefore invaded Northumbria and captured York.
Battle of Brunanburh
This battle, fought between King Athelstan of England and the combined forces of Constantine of Scotland, Owain of Strathclyde and Olaf Guthfrithson King of Dublin lasted all day but saw Aethelstan victorious.
Eric Bloodaxe, became King of Northumberland.
939 (27th October)
King Aethelstan of England died. He was succeeded by his son Edmund
The Viking Olaf III Guthfrithson, with the support of the Archbishop of York, Wulfstan, conquered Northumbria and invaded Mercia.
Olaf III Guthfrithson was killed during a raid. He was succeeded by Olaf Sitricson who was not as strong as his predecessor. Edmund attacked and was able to take back Mercia.
King Edmund made an alliance with King Olaf of York. Edmund became godfather to Olaf.
Edmund re-took Northumbria from the Vikings
King Olaf of York was unable to retain his throne and so left England for Ireland where he became King of Dublin.
946 (26th May)
King Edmund I of England died. He was succeeded by his brother Eadred
Eric Bloodaxe captured Jorvik (York) and took control of Northumbria.
King Eadred managed to re-take Northumbria.
The former ruler of York, Olaf Sihtricson, returned to the North of England and was accepted as ruler of Northumbria.
King Eadred captured and imprisoned Archbishop Wulfstan of York who helped the Vikings.
Erik Bloodaxe, the last Viking King in England, was driven out of Northumbria and killed.
955 (23rd November)
King Eadred of England died. He was succeeded by his nephew, Eadwig
King Eadwig of England died. He was succeeded by his brother Edgar
King Edgar received the submission of eight kings of the North, including the Kings of Scotland and Strathclyde at Chester thus strengthening his position.
975 (8th July)
King Edgar of England died. He was succeeded by his son Edward
King Edward of England was murdered by supporters of his step-brother, Aethelred at Corfe Castle. He is known as Edward the Martyr. He was succeeded by his half-brother Aethelred, known as Unready
There were Danish Viking raids on Chester and Southampton.
There were Danish Viking raids on Devon and Cornwall.
There were Danish Viking raids on Dorset.
991 (10th August)
Battle of Maldon
Byrhtnoth of Essex was defeated by the Danish Vikings led by Olaf Tryggvason.
Following the Viking victory at Maldon King Aethelred was forced to pay the Vikings £10,000 pounds (3.3 kg of silver) to make them leave Wessex alone. The payment was known as a Danegeld.
A party of Viking raiders sailed up the River Thames and put London under siege. King Aethelred was forced to make another Danegeld payment to make the raiders leave. This time the Viking leader Olaf Trygvasson, demanded £16,000 (5.3 kg of silver)
St Brice’s Day Massacre
King Aethelred ordered the massacre of all Danes living in England. He hoped that by ridding England of Danes he would minimise the risk of attack from within. A significant number of Danes were killed including the sister of Sweyn Forkbeard.
Sweyn Forkbeard and a party of Vikings raided the South coast retaliation for the St Brice’s day massacre. They gained control of land from Exeter to Hampshire.
King Aethelred had no choice but to pay the Danes to leave his land alone. The Danegled demanded was £24,000 (8kg of silver).
Sweyn Forkbeard destroyed the town of Norwich.
Sweyn Forkbeard and the Vikings returned and made a series of raids on Kent and Sussex.
King Aethelred was unable to raise sufficient forces to defeat the Vikings and so was forced to make another Danegeld payment to keep the Vikings away. The sum demanded this time was £36,000 (12 kg of silver).
King Aethelred decided that he could not keep paying off the Danes and so decided to build a new fleet of ships.
A group of Vikings led by Thorkell the Tall made a series of devastating raids on the coast. King Aethelred was unable to defeat the Vikings using his new ships because his Captain, Wulfnoth had taken 20 boats on a piracy mission. Another Captain, Brihtric, who had tried to stop Wulfnoth had run several ships aground.
The Danes invaded East Anglia. A battle was fought near Ipswich which left the Danes in control of the town.
The Danish Vikings captured Canterbury and took Archbishop Aelheah prisoner.
1012 (19th April)
The Danish Vikings in Canterbury went on a drunken raid and murdered Archbishop Aelheah of Canterbury. The Viking leader, Thorkell the Tall, tried to stop the murder but was unsuccessful. He was so angry at his comrades that he defected and joined Aethelred’s forces.
King Aethelred made another Danegeld payment of £48,000 (17 kg of silver) to stop the destruction being caused by the Vikings.
Sweyn Forkbeard returned and took Wessex, Mercia and Northumbria. London alone held out against the Danes.
Having conquered the majority of England Sweyn Forkbeard proclaimed himself King of England. Aethelred, his wife Emma and their children fled to Normandy.
1014 (3rd February)
Sweyn Forkbeard died. The English rejected his son, Cnut
and asked Aethelred the Unready to return. Only the people of Lindsey had wanted Cnut to succeed.
1016 (early January)
Cnut began attacking more regions of England. King Aethelred’s son, Edmund Ironside
, summoned an army but the men refused to fight without authorisation from King Aethelred. Aethelred summoned an army but was warned that his son may betray him and returned to London.
Cnut took Northumberland then marched towards London.
Edmund Ironside marched to London to try to stop Cnut from taking the city.
1016 (23rd April)
King Aethelred II of England died. His son, Edmund Ironside, was proclaimed King Edmund II of England.
1016 (c. 9th May)
Battle of Brentford
Edmund Ironside managed to defeat the Danish army led by Cnut at Brentford.
1016 (18th October)
Battle of Assandun
This battle fought between Edmund Ironside and Cnut saw the Dane victorious and left Edmund in control of only Wessex.
1016 (after 18th October)
King Edmund had no choice but to agree to share rule with Cnut. Cnut ruled Northumbria, Mercia and East Anglia while Edmund ruled Wessex. It was agreed that on the death of either party the other would rule all of England.
1016 (30th November)
King Edmund Ironside of England died and Cnut
seized the throne of England.
Edmund Ironside’s two children were taken to Hungary as it was feared that they would be murdered by Cnut.
The three children of Aethelred the Unready by Emma of Normandy
were taken to Normandy as it was feared their lives were in danger.
Cnut divided England into four earldoms: Wessex – controlled by Earl Godwin
, Mercia controlled by Eadric Streona, Northumbria controlled by Erik of Hlathir and East Anglia controlled by Thorkell the Tall.
1017 (6th January)
Cnut was crowned King of England at St Paul’s Cathedral.
1017 (2nd July)
Cnut married Aethelred’s widow, Emma. It was agreed that the succession would be with the children of Emma and Cnut.
1035 (12th November)
King Cnut died. His son and nominated heir, Harthacnut, was in Denmark claiming the Danish throne and unable to return to England immediately. The English throne was therefore taken by Harold Harefoot
, son of Aethelred the Unready by his first wife.
King Harold Harefoot of England died. He was succeeded by his Danish half-brother, Harthacnut
1042 (8th June)
King Harthacnut of England died and Edward the Confessor
, son of Aethelred the Unready became King of England. Earl Godwin gave his full support to Edward.
1045 (23rd January)
Earl Godwin and his family were exiled for refusing to punish men of Dover who had killed some Norman friends of the King. Godwin’s youngest son, Wulfnoth
and his grandson Hakon
remained in England as hostages of Edward the Confessor.
Harold and his family returned to England at the head of an army. King Edward was unable to raise a force that would defeat them and was forced to sue for peace terms. It was agreed that the Godwin family could return and their former lands would be restored to them. A large number of King Edward’s Norman supporters at court had fled to Normandy in the face of the Godwin invasion. It is likely that Harold’s brother Wulfnoth and his nephew Hakon were taken to Normandy as hostages.
1066 (5th January)
1066 (8th September)
1066 (20th September)
1066 (24th September)
Harald Hardrada took the city of York.
1066 (25th September)
Battle of Stamford Bridge
The forces of Harold Godwinson met and defeated the forces of Tostig and Hardrada. Both invaders were killed during the battle.
1066 (28th September)
William of Normandy invaded England landing at Pevensey on the south coast of England.
1066 (14th October)
Battle of Hastings
William of Normandy defeated Harold II at the Battle of Hastings. The battle had lasted all day but ended after King Harold was killed.
1066 (15th October)
The Witan proclaimed Edgar Aetheling, great grandson of Aethelred the Unready, King of England.
1066 (15th October)
Following his victory at Hastings, William expected the Anglo Saxons to submit to him. When they did not he was forced to begin the Norman Conquest
to take England by force.
1066 (10th Deccember)
Edgar Aetheling and the English nobility finally submitted to William.
1066 (25th December)
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0.097480311... | 1 | The last Romans
left England after being recalled back to Rome by emperor Honorious.
The followers of Ninian, a Christian missionary, built the first Christian Church at Whithorn.
Patrick, a Briton who had been enslaved by Irish raiders, escaped and became the first Christian missionary in Ireland. He became patron saint of Ireland.
The Saxon leaders Hengist and Horsa landed in Kent at the head of an invasion force.
The Kingdom of Sussex was founded by Aelle, a Saxon warlord.
The Britons had been pushed to the west of England.
King Cedric founded the Kingdom of Wessex. The capital was at Winchester.
Battle of Mount Badon
A British warrior king, possibly Arthur, defeated the Anglo Saxon invaders in south-west England.
A Saxon tribe settled to the east of London and founded the Kingdom of the East Saxons (Essex).
Gildas, a British monk, wrote ‘The Ruin of Britain’ which details the collapse of Roman Britain and the invasion of the Angles and Saxons.
A tribe of Angles landed in the north and founded the Kingdom of Northumbria.
Cynric took Wiltshire for Wessex.
Cynric of Wessex defeated the Britons at Barbury Castle.
The monastery at Iona was founded by Columba.
Tribes of Angles founded the Kingdom of East Anglia.
Battle of Dyrham
Ceawlin of Wessex took Cirencester, Gloucester and Bath from the Anglo Saxons.
Tribes of Angles formed the Kingdom of Mercia.
The missionary Augustine arrived in Kent and founded a Benedictine monastery at Canterbury. He was given the land by King Aethelberht of Kent.
King Aethelberht of Kent was the most powerful ruler in England.
King Aethelberht of Kent converted to Christianity.
King Aethelberht of Kent died. Raedwald of East Anglia became the most powerful leader in England.
King Edwin of Northumbria converted to Christianity.
Battle of Hatfield Chase
A force of Mercians led by Penda and a force of Welsh led by Cadwallon ap Cadfan invaded Northumbria. King Edwin was killed.
Aidan, Bishop of York, founded the monastery at Lindisfarne.
Battle of Maserfield
Penda of Mercia defeated and killed King Oswald of Northumbria.
King Oswiu of Northumbria killed Penda of Mercia and took control of the region.
Wulfhere of Mercia took control of the region from Oswiu of Northumbria.
Synod of Whitby
Oswiu of Northumbria ordered a meeting be held at Whitby to determine whether the Christian church should follow the dictates of Irish missionaries or those of the Church in Rome. It was decided to follow those of Rome.
Bishop Wilfrid who had been exiled from Northumbria converted the leader of Sussex to Christianity.
685 (20th May)
Battle of Dun Nechtain
Ecgfrith, King of Northumbria, invaded Sccotland but was defeated and killed by the Picts led by King Bruide at Dunnichen Moss.
King Ine of Wessex issued a code of laws.
704 (14th December)
Battle of Dun Nechtain
Ecgfrith, King of Northumbria, invaded Sccotland but was defeated and killed by the Picts led by King Bruide at Dunnichen Moss.
Ine, King of the Wessex, resigned as King and went to Rome to die. He was succeeded by Aethelheard.
Bede completed his Ecclesiastical History of the English People.
Aethelbald of Mercia took land from Wessex.
Cuthred became King of Wessex after the death of Aethelheard.
Aethelbald of Mercia and Cuthred of Wessex joined forces against the Welsh.
Cuthred managed to secure independence for Wessex from Mercia after mounting a rebellion against the overlordship of Aethelbald of Mercia.
King Aethelbald of Mercia was murdered by his bodyguard. His death caused a civil war in Mercia which was won by Offa who became King.
King Offa of Mercia ordered the construction of an earthwork along the border of Wales. It is known as Offa’s Dyke.
Two papal legates, George of Osia and Theophylact of Todi, visited England.
force landed at Portland, Dorset. When the local reeve went to meet them he was killed. However, this was not an invasionary force but may have been a force that got blown off course.
The monastery at Lindisfarne was raided by Danish Vikings. They destroyed the abbey, killed a large number of monks and took others as slaves.
The monastery at Iona was attacked by a party of Danish Vikings.
The monastery at Iona was attacked again by a party of Danish Vikings.
became King of Wessex after Beorhtric of Wessex died.
The monastery at Iona was attacked a third time by a party of Danish Vikings. Sixty-eight monks were killed. Those that survived fled to the monastery of Kells in Ireland. They took with them an illuminated manuscript which is now known as the Book of Kells.
Battle of Ellendun
Egbert King of Wessex defeated Beornwulf of Mercia and ended Mercian supremacy over the southern kingdoms.
Egbert, King of the Wessex conquered Mercia and forced the Northumbrians to submit to him giving him control of all of England.
Battle of Carhampton
The Vikings attacked North Devon and Somerset. King Egbert of Wessex tried to defeat them but he was forced to retreat.
Battle of Hingston Down
King Egbert fought a combined force of Vikings and Cornishmen and was victorious.
King Egbert of Wessex died. He was succeeded by his son Aethelwulf
The Vikings began making raids along the south coast of England.
Kenneth MacAlpine united the Scots and Picts forming the Kingdom of Scotland.
King Aethelwulf’s son, Aethelstan, defeated a Viking force off the coast of Sandwich.
King Aethelwulf and his younger son, Alfred, went on a pilgrimage to Rome. While he was away his son Aethelbald took control of Wessex.
858 (13th January)
King Aethelwulf of Wessex died. He was succeeded by his son Aethelbald
King Aethelbald of Wessex died he was succeeded by his brother Aethelberht.
The Great Heathen army marched north and invaded Northumbria.
King Aethelberht of Wessex died. He was succeeded by his brother Aethelred I
866 (1st November)
The Danish Vikings in England took Jorvik (York) and used it as a base to make raids into Mercia.
867 (23rd March)
, rivals for the Northumbrian throne made an alliance and marched to expel the Vikings from York. They were badly defeated. Osberht was killed during the battle. Aelle was executed afterwards.
867 (after 23rd March)
Northumbria was controlled by the Vikings with Egbert as puppet king.
The Viking force, led by Ivar the Boneless, invaded Mercia and captured Nottingham. King Aethelred and his brother Alfred
marched north, but by the time they arrived Burgred
, King of Mercia had paid the Vikings off.
A Viking force known as the Great Summer Army, led by Bagsecg, arrived in England.
The Vikings attacked East Anglia and killed King Edmund. Legend states that the Vikings tied King Edmund
to a tree and shot arrows into him until he died. Later, his body was moved to a place which became known as Bury St Edmunds. The Vikings now controlled East Anglia.
871 (4th January)
Battle of Reading
King Aethelred and Alfred attempted to lay siege to Reading but the Vikings led by Halfdan had fortified the town with a dyke and palisade and the Saxons were defeated by the Vikings.
871 (8th January)
Battle of Ashdown
Bagsecg, King of Jutland and Wendland, leader of the Great Summer Army, was killed in this battle between the forces of the Great Heathen Army and those of King Aethelred and his brother, Alfred.
871 (22nd January)
Battle of Basing
King Aethelred of Wessex was defeated by the Vikings.
871 (22nd March)
Battle of Merton
King Aethelred, supported by his brother Alfred, fought the Vikings. The battle was inconclusive and both sides withdrew. Aethelred had been badly injured in the battle.
871 (23rd April)
King Aethelred of Wessex died from injuries sustained in the Battle of Merton. His sons were considered too young to succeed and so Aethelred’s younger brother, Alfred became King.
871 (early Summer)
Battle of Wilton
The Saxons were defeated by the Vikings.
The Vikings took Mercia after defeating King Burgred. Burgred fled overseas. A puppet King, Ceolwulf was installed.
The Vikings began dividing up Northumbria preparing to settle the land permanently.
Alfred made a deal with Guthrum, leader of the Vikings, but Guthrum did not keep the deal. He killed his Saxon hostages and moved to Exeter, leaving the Viking ships at Wareham.
The Vikings made further raids on Wessex taking land in Wiltshire and Hampshire.
Guthrum returned with a large force and marched on Chippenham. Guthrum killed many of the town’s inhabitants. It is likely that this was the last straw for the Witan and that Alfred lost their support due to the fact that his attempts to pay off the Vikings had not worked. Alfred was forced to leave Wessex in fear for his life. He sought refuge in the Somerset marshes at Athelney. The legend of King Alfred
and the Burnt Cakes stems from this period.
Battle of Edington
Alfred summoned his troops and defeated the Viking leader, Guthrum and agreed terms at Wedmore.
As per the treaty of Wedmore agreed between Alfred and Guthrum, the Viking leader and around 30 chief Vikings were baptised.
A band of Vikings arrived and attacked Rochester in Kent. The town had been fortified by Alfred in 878 and was able to hold out until Alfred arrived with the army and defeated the Vikings.
King Alfred of Wessex negotiated with the Vikings and allowed them control of the North under Danelaw. The Kingdom of Wessex controlled most of the South.
the Anglo Saxon Chronicle was begun.
Battle of Farnham
While King Alfred had been busy trying to make peace with Haesten, the Appledore Vikings had raided towns in Hampshire and Berkshire. They were returning to Appledore with their booty but were cut off by Alfred’s son, Edward
who recovered the stolen treasure and put them to flight. Edward then pursued the Vikings, caught up with them and held them under siege at Thorney.
While Alfred and Edward had been occupied with the Vikings in Kent and Appledore, the East Anglia Vikings had sailed to Exeter and lay siege to the city. Alfred had intended to help his son defeat the Vikings at Thorney but had to divert and go to Exeter to relieve the siege to the city. Alfred encircled the besiegers. A further group of Vikings marched west probably to relieve the siege of Exeter but they were met at Buttington by a large force led by the Ealdormen of Mercia, Somerset and Wiltshire who succeeded in putting them to flight and the Vikings returned to East Anglia. Soon afterwards the Vikings in Exeter withdrew and also returned to Thorney, East Anglia.
The Vikings were forced, through hunger, to leave Thorney, they moved north to Chester but were placed under siege and forced to leave.
The Vikings built a new fort about 20 miles north of London by the river Lea.
Alfred built two new fortresses by the river Lea which meant that the Viking force further up the river were unable to get their boats out to sea.
895 (late Autumn)
On learning of Alfred’s actions the Vikings abandoned their boats on the river Lea and marched overland to Bridgenorth on the river Severn where they built a new fort. Alfred marched to Bridgenorth and lay siege to the Vikings.
The Vikings gave up their raids on English towns and returned to East Anglia and Northumbria. Wessex was finally at peace.
899 (26th October)
King Alfred the Great died. He was succeeded by his son, Edward the Elder.
, cousin of King Edward the Elder, had contested Edward’s position as King. He had gained the support of the Vikings and was made King of York. He received the allegiance of the Northern Vikings.
Aethelwold of Wessex and the Northern Vikings landed in Essex and allied with the East Anglian Vikings
910 (5th August)
Battle of Tettenhall (Wednesfield)
The combined forces of Mercia and Wessex defeated the Northumbrian Vikings
Aethelred of Mercia died, he was succeeded by his wife, Aethelflaed who was known as Lady of the Mercians.
First battle of Corbridge
An Anglo Saxon force was defeated by the Vikings.
A force of Vikings from Northampton and Leicester attempted to take the fort at Towcester but were successfully repelled.
A force of East Anglian Danes constructed a fort at Tempsford and used it as a base from which to attack Bedford. They were unsuccessful and forced to retreat.
917 (late Summer)
Battle of Tempsford
The Anglo-Saxons defeated the Danes at Tempsford. The sole surviving Danish King of East Anglia was killed in the Battle.
King Edward took Colchester. The Danes retaliated by besieging the fort at Maldon but they were unsuccessful and many died.
King Edward the Elder received the submission of all the Danes south of the River Humber.
Battle of Corbridge
This was a battle between Viking forces led by Ragnall and Constantine II of Scotland supported by Ealdred of Bamburgh. Although the battle was indecisive the Vikings suffered huge losses and only a quarter of their force survived.
Aethelflaed, Lady of the Mercians, died. Her brother, King Edward the Elder took control of Mercia.
The Viking, Ragnall, took York and proclaimed himself King of York.
The Norse Vikings attacked Cheshire
924 (17th July)
King Edward the Elder died. He was succeeded by his son, Aethelstan
King Aethelstan married one of his sisters to Sihtric, the Viking ruler of Northumbria.
Sihtric of Northumbria died. He was succeeded by a son from a previous marriage who did not support an alliance with Aethelstan. Aethelstan therefore invaded Northumbria and captured York.
Battle of Brunanburh
This battle, fought between King Athelstan of England and the combined forces of Constantine of Scotland, Owain of Strathclyde and Olaf Guthfrithson King of Dublin lasted all day but saw Aethelstan victorious.
Eric Bloodaxe, became King of Northumberland.
939 (27th October)
King Aethelstan of England died. He was succeeded by his son Edmund
The Viking Olaf III Guthfrithson, with the support of the Archbishop of York, Wulfstan, conquered Northumbria and invaded Mercia.
Olaf III Guthfrithson was killed during a raid. He was succeeded by Olaf Sitricson who was not as strong as his predecessor. Edmund attacked and was able to take back Mercia.
King Edmund made an alliance with King Olaf of York. Edmund became godfather to Olaf.
Edmund re-took Northumbria from the Vikings
King Olaf of York was unable to retain his throne and so left England for Ireland where he became King of Dublin.
946 (26th May)
King Edmund I of England died. He was succeeded by his brother Eadred
Eric Bloodaxe captured Jorvik (York) and took control of Northumbria.
King Eadred managed to re-take Northumbria.
The former ruler of York, Olaf Sihtricson, returned to the North of England and was accepted as ruler of Northumbria.
King Eadred captured and imprisoned Archbishop Wulfstan of York who helped the Vikings.
Erik Bloodaxe, the last Viking King in England, was driven out of Northumbria and killed.
955 (23rd November)
King Eadred of England died. He was succeeded by his nephew, Eadwig
King Eadwig of England died. He was succeeded by his brother Edgar
King Edgar received the submission of eight kings of the North, including the Kings of Scotland and Strathclyde at Chester thus strengthening his position.
975 (8th July)
King Edgar of England died. He was succeeded by his son Edward
King Edward of England was murdered by supporters of his step-brother, Aethelred at Corfe Castle. He is known as Edward the Martyr. He was succeeded by his half-brother Aethelred, known as Unready
There were Danish Viking raids on Chester and Southampton.
There were Danish Viking raids on Devon and Cornwall.
There were Danish Viking raids on Dorset.
991 (10th August)
Battle of Maldon
Byrhtnoth of Essex was defeated by the Danish Vikings led by Olaf Tryggvason.
Following the Viking victory at Maldon King Aethelred was forced to pay the Vikings £10,000 pounds (3.3 kg of silver) to make them leave Wessex alone. The payment was known as a Danegeld.
A party of Viking raiders sailed up the River Thames and put London under siege. King Aethelred was forced to make another Danegeld payment to make the raiders leave. This time the Viking leader Olaf Trygvasson, demanded £16,000 (5.3 kg of silver)
St Brice’s Day Massacre
King Aethelred ordered the massacre of all Danes living in England. He hoped that by ridding England of Danes he would minimise the risk of attack from within. A significant number of Danes were killed including the sister of Sweyn Forkbeard.
Sweyn Forkbeard and a party of Vikings raided the South coast retaliation for the St Brice’s day massacre. They gained control of land from Exeter to Hampshire.
King Aethelred had no choice but to pay the Danes to leave his land alone. The Danegled demanded was £24,000 (8kg of silver).
Sweyn Forkbeard destroyed the town of Norwich.
Sweyn Forkbeard and the Vikings returned and made a series of raids on Kent and Sussex.
King Aethelred was unable to raise sufficient forces to defeat the Vikings and so was forced to make another Danegeld payment to keep the Vikings away. The sum demanded this time was £36,000 (12 kg of silver).
King Aethelred decided that he could not keep paying off the Danes and so decided to build a new fleet of ships.
A group of Vikings led by Thorkell the Tall made a series of devastating raids on the coast. King Aethelred was unable to defeat the Vikings using his new ships because his Captain, Wulfnoth had taken 20 boats on a piracy mission. Another Captain, Brihtric, who had tried to stop Wulfnoth had run several ships aground.
The Danes invaded East Anglia. A battle was fought near Ipswich which left the Danes in control of the town.
The Danish Vikings captured Canterbury and took Archbishop Aelheah prisoner.
1012 (19th April)
The Danish Vikings in Canterbury went on a drunken raid and murdered Archbishop Aelheah of Canterbury. The Viking leader, Thorkell the Tall, tried to stop the murder but was unsuccessful. He was so angry at his comrades that he defected and joined Aethelred’s forces.
King Aethelred made another Danegeld payment of £48,000 (17 kg of silver) to stop the destruction being caused by the Vikings.
Sweyn Forkbeard returned and took Wessex, Mercia and Northumbria. London alone held out against the Danes.
Having conquered the majority of England Sweyn Forkbeard proclaimed himself King of England. Aethelred, his wife Emma and their children fled to Normandy.
1014 (3rd February)
Sweyn Forkbeard died. The English rejected his son, Cnut
and asked Aethelred the Unready to return. Only the people of Lindsey had wanted Cnut to succeed.
1016 (early January)
Cnut began attacking more regions of England. King Aethelred’s son, Edmund Ironside
, summoned an army but the men refused to fight without authorisation from King Aethelred. Aethelred summoned an army but was warned that his son may betray him and returned to London.
Cnut took Northumberland then marched towards London.
Edmund Ironside marched to London to try to stop Cnut from taking the city.
1016 (23rd April)
King Aethelred II of England died. His son, Edmund Ironside, was proclaimed King Edmund II of England.
1016 (c. 9th May)
Battle of Brentford
Edmund Ironside managed to defeat the Danish army led by Cnut at Brentford.
1016 (18th October)
Battle of Assandun
This battle fought between Edmund Ironside and Cnut saw the Dane victorious and left Edmund in control of only Wessex.
1016 (after 18th October)
King Edmund had no choice but to agree to share rule with Cnut. Cnut ruled Northumbria, Mercia and East Anglia while Edmund ruled Wessex. It was agreed that on the death of either party the other would rule all of England.
1016 (30th November)
King Edmund Ironside of England died and Cnut
seized the throne of England.
Edmund Ironside’s two children were taken to Hungary as it was feared that they would be murdered by Cnut.
The three children of Aethelred the Unready by Emma of Normandy
were taken to Normandy as it was feared their lives were in danger.
Cnut divided England into four earldoms: Wessex – controlled by Earl Godwin
, Mercia controlled by Eadric Streona, Northumbria controlled by Erik of Hlathir and East Anglia controlled by Thorkell the Tall.
1017 (6th January)
Cnut was crowned King of England at St Paul’s Cathedral.
1017 (2nd July)
Cnut married Aethelred’s widow, Emma. It was agreed that the succession would be with the children of Emma and Cnut.
1035 (12th November)
King Cnut died. His son and nominated heir, Harthacnut, was in Denmark claiming the Danish throne and unable to return to England immediately. The English throne was therefore taken by Harold Harefoot
, son of Aethelred the Unready by his first wife.
King Harold Harefoot of England died. He was succeeded by his Danish half-brother, Harthacnut
1042 (8th June)
King Harthacnut of England died and Edward the Confessor
, son of Aethelred the Unready became King of England. Earl Godwin gave his full support to Edward.
1045 (23rd January)
Earl Godwin and his family were exiled for refusing to punish men of Dover who had killed some Norman friends of the King. Godwin’s youngest son, Wulfnoth
and his grandson Hakon
remained in England as hostages of Edward the Confessor.
Harold and his family returned to England at the head of an army. King Edward was unable to raise a force that would defeat them and was forced to sue for peace terms. It was agreed that the Godwin family could return and their former lands would be restored to them. A large number of King Edward’s Norman supporters at court had fled to Normandy in the face of the Godwin invasion. It is likely that Harold’s brother Wulfnoth and his nephew Hakon were taken to Normandy as hostages.
1066 (5th January)
1066 (8th September)
1066 (20th September)
1066 (24th September)
Harald Hardrada took the city of York.
1066 (25th September)
Battle of Stamford Bridge
The forces of Harold Godwinson met and defeated the forces of Tostig and Hardrada. Both invaders were killed during the battle.
1066 (28th September)
William of Normandy invaded England landing at Pevensey on the south coast of England.
1066 (14th October)
Battle of Hastings
William of Normandy defeated Harold II at the Battle of Hastings. The battle had lasted all day but ended after King Harold was killed.
1066 (15th October)
The Witan proclaimed Edgar Aetheling, great grandson of Aethelred the Unready, King of England.
1066 (15th October)
Following his victory at Hastings, William expected the Anglo Saxons to submit to him. When they did not he was forced to begin the Norman Conquest
to take England by force.
1066 (10th Deccember)
Edgar Aetheling and the English nobility finally submitted to William.
1066 (25th December)
William of Normandy was crowned King at Westminster Abbey beginning the rule of the Normans. | 5,529 | ENGLISH | 1 |
DNA from 13th-century remains buried in a pit in Lebanon is shedding light on the lives of Crusader soldiers and how they mixed with the local population, a new study shows.
Christians invaded and attempted to claim the Near East during the Crusades, a series of religious wars which most famously attempted to impose Christian rule on the Near East between 1095 and 1291. Although the armies were led by nobility, the soldiers themselves were ordinary men lost to history, and not much is known about them.
"We know that Richard the Lionheart went to fight in the Crusades, but we don't know much about the ordinary soldiers who lived and died there, and these ancient samples give us insights into that," Chris Tyler-Smith, senior study author and genetics researcher at the Wellcome Sanger Institute, said in a statement.
The study was published Thursday in the The American Journal of Human Genetics.
Researchers uncovered 25 male skeletons in two burial pits in Sidon, Lebanon, dating to the 13th century. This is one of the few known Crusader burial sites and an area where major battles raged between 1110 and 1249.
The men had been killed violently, presumably in battle, based on the evidence of blunt force injuries on their skulls and bones. Their bodies were dumped in the pit and burned. Carbon-14 dating allowed the researchers to determine that the European shoe buckles and a coin found alongside the remains dated back to the Crusades.
A detached skull was also found nearby; the researchers believe it may have been catapulted into an opposing camp as a way to spread disease or decrease morale.
But they were able to recover DNA from temporal bones and perform whole-genome sequencing to confirm that the men were Crusaders -- quite a feat considering that the bodies had been burned and buried in a warm, humid climate. Both factors cause DNA to degrade.
The researchers weren't expecting the diverse origins of the men. Some were from Spain and Sardinia, four were locals who were probably recruited to fight, and two carried mixed genetics indicating that they were the result of relations between Crusaders and locals.
Some of the soldiers who traveled from western Europe to fight stayed in the newly established Christian states that popped up along the Eastern Mediterranean coast, according to the study. They settled down and had families with locals. As the wars raged on, they also died together in battle.
"Our findings give us an unprecedented view of the ancestry of the people who fought in the Crusader army. And it wasn't just Europeans," said Marc Haber, first author of the study and a postdoctoral fellow at the Wellcome Sanger Institute, in a statement.
"We see this exceptional genetic diversity in the Near East during medieval times, with Europeans, Near Easterners, and mixed individuals fighting in the Crusades and living and dying side by side."
Surprisingly, the genetic influence of the Crusaders did not leave a lasting mark on Lebanon. This is in contrast to previous findings regarding invaders during times of conflict, like the Mongols, who were able to spread their genetic lineage, and colonial Iberians arriving in South America. Both of these events forever altered the genetic makeup of the local population.
For the new study, the researchers sequenced DNA of people who lived in the area during the Roman period 2000 years ago. It's genetically similar that of to the population today.
"If you look at the genetics of people who lived during the Roman period and the genetics of people who are living there today, you would think that there was just this continuity," Haber said.
"You would think that nothing happened between the Roman period and today, and you would miss that for a certain period of time the population of Lebanon included Europeans and people with mixed ancestry. After the fighting had finished, the mixed generation married into the local population and the genetic traces of the Crusaders were quickly lost."
The local residents made strong efforts to expel the Crusaders and finally succeeded after a couple of hundred years, the researchers said.
The study provides insight about the kind of things that often aren't included in recorded history.
"Historical records are often very fragmentary and potentially very biased," Tyler-Smith said.
"But genetics gives us a complementary approach that can confirm some of the things that we read about in history and tell us about things that are not recorded in the historical records that we have. And as this approach is adopted by historians and archaeologists as a part of their field, I think it will only become more and more enriching." | <urn:uuid:fe62ad05-09eb-4e09-8cfe-ea6aa1e9842a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.9news.com.au/world/news-science-crusader-skeletons-found-lebanon-grave-dna-new-understanding/57c7ae8c-7da7-42dc-8cff-64add692288c | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00320.warc.gz | en | 0.983516 | 928 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.04130463302... | 2 | DNA from 13th-century remains buried in a pit in Lebanon is shedding light on the lives of Crusader soldiers and how they mixed with the local population, a new study shows.
Christians invaded and attempted to claim the Near East during the Crusades, a series of religious wars which most famously attempted to impose Christian rule on the Near East between 1095 and 1291. Although the armies were led by nobility, the soldiers themselves were ordinary men lost to history, and not much is known about them.
"We know that Richard the Lionheart went to fight in the Crusades, but we don't know much about the ordinary soldiers who lived and died there, and these ancient samples give us insights into that," Chris Tyler-Smith, senior study author and genetics researcher at the Wellcome Sanger Institute, said in a statement.
The study was published Thursday in the The American Journal of Human Genetics.
Researchers uncovered 25 male skeletons in two burial pits in Sidon, Lebanon, dating to the 13th century. This is one of the few known Crusader burial sites and an area where major battles raged between 1110 and 1249.
The men had been killed violently, presumably in battle, based on the evidence of blunt force injuries on their skulls and bones. Their bodies were dumped in the pit and burned. Carbon-14 dating allowed the researchers to determine that the European shoe buckles and a coin found alongside the remains dated back to the Crusades.
A detached skull was also found nearby; the researchers believe it may have been catapulted into an opposing camp as a way to spread disease or decrease morale.
But they were able to recover DNA from temporal bones and perform whole-genome sequencing to confirm that the men were Crusaders -- quite a feat considering that the bodies had been burned and buried in a warm, humid climate. Both factors cause DNA to degrade.
The researchers weren't expecting the diverse origins of the men. Some were from Spain and Sardinia, four were locals who were probably recruited to fight, and two carried mixed genetics indicating that they were the result of relations between Crusaders and locals.
Some of the soldiers who traveled from western Europe to fight stayed in the newly established Christian states that popped up along the Eastern Mediterranean coast, according to the study. They settled down and had families with locals. As the wars raged on, they also died together in battle.
"Our findings give us an unprecedented view of the ancestry of the people who fought in the Crusader army. And it wasn't just Europeans," said Marc Haber, first author of the study and a postdoctoral fellow at the Wellcome Sanger Institute, in a statement.
"We see this exceptional genetic diversity in the Near East during medieval times, with Europeans, Near Easterners, and mixed individuals fighting in the Crusades and living and dying side by side."
Surprisingly, the genetic influence of the Crusaders did not leave a lasting mark on Lebanon. This is in contrast to previous findings regarding invaders during times of conflict, like the Mongols, who were able to spread their genetic lineage, and colonial Iberians arriving in South America. Both of these events forever altered the genetic makeup of the local population.
For the new study, the researchers sequenced DNA of people who lived in the area during the Roman period 2000 years ago. It's genetically similar that of to the population today.
"If you look at the genetics of people who lived during the Roman period and the genetics of people who are living there today, you would think that there was just this continuity," Haber said.
"You would think that nothing happened between the Roman period and today, and you would miss that for a certain period of time the population of Lebanon included Europeans and people with mixed ancestry. After the fighting had finished, the mixed generation married into the local population and the genetic traces of the Crusaders were quickly lost."
The local residents made strong efforts to expel the Crusaders and finally succeeded after a couple of hundred years, the researchers said.
The study provides insight about the kind of things that often aren't included in recorded history.
"Historical records are often very fragmentary and potentially very biased," Tyler-Smith said.
"But genetics gives us a complementary approach that can confirm some of the things that we read about in history and tell us about things that are not recorded in the historical records that we have. And as this approach is adopted by historians and archaeologists as a part of their field, I think it will only become more and more enriching." | 931 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Treaty of Versailles was iniquitous to germany and didn’t blame any other countries and what will cause World War II (WWII) in September 1 1939. The Treaty of Versailles made german citizens and started the Nazi Party and they started to take over the government. The Treaty of Versailles also forced them to give up their coal mines and other land they have gotten from other battles. Germany had to pay 132 gold marks and that translates into 393.6 billion US dollars in war reparations.It was a war that took the lives of ten million soldiers and seven million civilians and wounded ten million more. Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey were fighting on one side and France, Italy, England, and Russia fought on the other. Peace was needed so finally after the war ended the leaders meet for a treaty. The Treaty of Versailles produced German anger and humiliation leading to World War II. It did this through imposing territorial losses, military restrictions, economic reparations, and war guilt. The Treaty of Versailles contributed to the territorial losses that Germany received after World War I. Germany lost a great amount of territory. They lost the Polish Corridor, Alsace Lorraine, and part of Denmark. This was significant because losing the Polish Corridor split Germany in half. They also lost major port cities. The Germans were very angered about these losses. Hitler said the restoration of 1914 could be achieved only by blood. In addition to territorial losses, Germany also suffered Military restrictions from the Treaty of Versailles. According to article 160 from the treaty, German troops were allowed a total number of one hundred thousand. Germany was surrounded by other countries with large military troops. France had the largest army of all the nations and they were in control. With such a small army, Germans felt unsafe and scared. This was worrisome to many Germans and another reason they were against the Treaty of Versailles. Another important factor that the Treaty of Versailles played on Germany was they made them pay economic or war reparations. Article 232 of the treaty states the Allies require, and Germany undertakes, that she will make compensation for all the damage done to civilian population of the Allied and Associated Power and to their property during the period of the belligerency. The payments were to begin May 1, 1921 and they should be finished by May 1, 1951. The reduced amount Germany was required to pay was 112 billion gold marks which is equivalent to 341 billion U.S. dollars. The original reparation was 132 billion gold marks. In the 1920’s, the Germans were angry and didn’t pay any. in 1929, they paid only 2 billion marks, Then finally in 1933 the payments stopped when Hitler took power. Furthermore the Treaty of Versailles made Germany responsible for the war guilt. Germany was blamed for World War I and the people didn’t like this. They felt that the treaty was evil and unfair. What they knew of the treaty was etched indelibly in their minds and could be abbreviated in a single word: humiliation. When Hitler came to power he gave them a restoration of their pride. He was able to get them out of all their war guilt they had. | <urn:uuid:cf95c907-3545-4f28-b526-1fdcdcad3c9b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://houghtonlakeboard.org/the-of-versailles-according-to-article-160-from/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00552.warc.gz | en | 0.986527 | 659 | 4.15625 | 4 | [
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0.82650601863... | 2 | The Treaty of Versailles was iniquitous to germany and didn’t blame any other countries and what will cause World War II (WWII) in September 1 1939. The Treaty of Versailles made german citizens and started the Nazi Party and they started to take over the government. The Treaty of Versailles also forced them to give up their coal mines and other land they have gotten from other battles. Germany had to pay 132 gold marks and that translates into 393.6 billion US dollars in war reparations.It was a war that took the lives of ten million soldiers and seven million civilians and wounded ten million more. Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey were fighting on one side and France, Italy, England, and Russia fought on the other. Peace was needed so finally after the war ended the leaders meet for a treaty. The Treaty of Versailles produced German anger and humiliation leading to World War II. It did this through imposing territorial losses, military restrictions, economic reparations, and war guilt. The Treaty of Versailles contributed to the territorial losses that Germany received after World War I. Germany lost a great amount of territory. They lost the Polish Corridor, Alsace Lorraine, and part of Denmark. This was significant because losing the Polish Corridor split Germany in half. They also lost major port cities. The Germans were very angered about these losses. Hitler said the restoration of 1914 could be achieved only by blood. In addition to territorial losses, Germany also suffered Military restrictions from the Treaty of Versailles. According to article 160 from the treaty, German troops were allowed a total number of one hundred thousand. Germany was surrounded by other countries with large military troops. France had the largest army of all the nations and they were in control. With such a small army, Germans felt unsafe and scared. This was worrisome to many Germans and another reason they were against the Treaty of Versailles. Another important factor that the Treaty of Versailles played on Germany was they made them pay economic or war reparations. Article 232 of the treaty states the Allies require, and Germany undertakes, that she will make compensation for all the damage done to civilian population of the Allied and Associated Power and to their property during the period of the belligerency. The payments were to begin May 1, 1921 and they should be finished by May 1, 1951. The reduced amount Germany was required to pay was 112 billion gold marks which is equivalent to 341 billion U.S. dollars. The original reparation was 132 billion gold marks. In the 1920’s, the Germans were angry and didn’t pay any. in 1929, they paid only 2 billion marks, Then finally in 1933 the payments stopped when Hitler took power. Furthermore the Treaty of Versailles made Germany responsible for the war guilt. Germany was blamed for World War I and the people didn’t like this. They felt that the treaty was evil and unfair. What they knew of the treaty was etched indelibly in their minds and could be abbreviated in a single word: humiliation. When Hitler came to power he gave them a restoration of their pride. He was able to get them out of all their war guilt they had. | 693 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Last week, we saw a fascinating lecture from Roger Lanius of the Air and Space museum. He talked about the future of space travel, the movement away from human voyages, and many problems that have arisen with space travel in general. The biggest issue that was discussed was the idea that the sun aging will eventually wipe out earth, and we as humans need to find a way to migrate or live somewhere else before that happens. Unfortunately, the presentation introduced us to many very difficult problems that humans would have to deal with if they were living outside of our normal atmosphere, none of which we currently have solutions to. Lunar dust, radiation, and hypogravity are all things that seem consequential when we are dealing with making a short lunar trip, but when living on a long-term basis, the effects either become detrimental or unknown. Gravity plays a major factor, especially when looking at long term colonies, as children born at different gravities would have severely different bone structure. They would never be able to survive at Earth’s gravity as they would be crushed. I was interested in hearing the radiation concern, as many believe that it is a man-made issue that lives solely on Earth. | <urn:uuid:66a32d42-3fe0-4012-b712-aeda718789c3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://web.colby.edu/humanslashnature/2015/12/08/space-travel-issues/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00130.warc.gz | en | 0.98395 | 241 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.4912931... | 2 | Last week, we saw a fascinating lecture from Roger Lanius of the Air and Space museum. He talked about the future of space travel, the movement away from human voyages, and many problems that have arisen with space travel in general. The biggest issue that was discussed was the idea that the sun aging will eventually wipe out earth, and we as humans need to find a way to migrate or live somewhere else before that happens. Unfortunately, the presentation introduced us to many very difficult problems that humans would have to deal with if they were living outside of our normal atmosphere, none of which we currently have solutions to. Lunar dust, radiation, and hypogravity are all things that seem consequential when we are dealing with making a short lunar trip, but when living on a long-term basis, the effects either become detrimental or unknown. Gravity plays a major factor, especially when looking at long term colonies, as children born at different gravities would have severely different bone structure. They would never be able to survive at Earth’s gravity as they would be crushed. I was interested in hearing the radiation concern, as many believe that it is a man-made issue that lives solely on Earth. | 237 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Today in Dutch History: The Dutch East India Company
Today in 1602 the Dutch East India Company was founded. It was a new venture in a couple of different ways. Previously, merchants would form a company for the sake of a single expedition. The profits of the voyage would be distributed according to initial investment and the company would disband.
The VOC, as it was called by its Dutch initials, was founded with the idea of overseeing indefinite ventures. It was also the first publicly traded company, issuing stocks and bonds available to the general public.
While the VOC and the Dutch West India Company were major economic drivers for centuries, today many Dutch people view these companies with regret, as they were also drivers of the slave trade and the colonization that disenfranchised native people. It is one of the many dialogues in the Netherlands today around the country’s history. | <urn:uuid:9d08da4f-5cd3-4c1a-99a5-5be0952d1918> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ask-a-badass.com/blamsterdam/today-in-dutch-history-the-dutch-east-india-company/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00409.warc.gz | en | 0.987988 | 177 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.3834570348262... | 2 | Today in Dutch History: The Dutch East India Company
Today in 1602 the Dutch East India Company was founded. It was a new venture in a couple of different ways. Previously, merchants would form a company for the sake of a single expedition. The profits of the voyage would be distributed according to initial investment and the company would disband.
The VOC, as it was called by its Dutch initials, was founded with the idea of overseeing indefinite ventures. It was also the first publicly traded company, issuing stocks and bonds available to the general public.
While the VOC and the Dutch West India Company were major economic drivers for centuries, today many Dutch people view these companies with regret, as they were also drivers of the slave trade and the colonization that disenfranchised native people. It is one of the many dialogues in the Netherlands today around the country’s history. | 177 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Macbeth represented perseverance because he never gave up. (Act 1 scene 3) The witches told Macbeth that he would be king and that Banquo would be the father of kings. Macbeth did not wait for the witches words to become true. Macbeth went out of his way to make sure the witches’ lies came true. This shows that Macbeth had ambition and was eager to become something important whilst wanting power. He was important and represented what it meant to persevere. Therefore, Macbeth represented something, just not in a positive light.
Macbeth became king of Scotland using his intelligence. Macbeth represented a man who possessed intelligence. Even though Macbeth was foolish because he went too far to make his fake destiny become reality, he still managed to plan and execute a plan that made him king for a period of time.
A foolish man could not have done what Macbeth did. This shows that Macbeth also represented a man with intelligence and a powerful mind. The only thing that made Macbeth fall was the greed and him not realizing what he had become and also what led to his becoming.
Macbeth had accomplished many things and was persistent. Macbeth represents what he became. He became a king and was a thane. Although Macbeth is a fallen man, he represent all that he… | <urn:uuid:33e15aeb-ec22-4c15-a0d2-c5b7774cfae8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.majortests.com/essay/Macbeth-Is-a-Fallen-Man-620266.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00120.warc.gz | en | 0.994334 | 285 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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0.2113525420427... | 1 | Macbeth represented perseverance because he never gave up. (Act 1 scene 3) The witches told Macbeth that he would be king and that Banquo would be the father of kings. Macbeth did not wait for the witches words to become true. Macbeth went out of his way to make sure the witches’ lies came true. This shows that Macbeth had ambition and was eager to become something important whilst wanting power. He was important and represented what it meant to persevere. Therefore, Macbeth represented something, just not in a positive light.
Macbeth became king of Scotland using his intelligence. Macbeth represented a man who possessed intelligence. Even though Macbeth was foolish because he went too far to make his fake destiny become reality, he still managed to plan and execute a plan that made him king for a period of time.
A foolish man could not have done what Macbeth did. This shows that Macbeth also represented a man with intelligence and a powerful mind. The only thing that made Macbeth fall was the greed and him not realizing what he had become and also what led to his becoming.
Macbeth had accomplished many things and was persistent. Macbeth represents what he became. He became a king and was a thane. Although Macbeth is a fallen man, he represent all that he… | 266 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The History of NLP
The two people credited and acknowledged with the creation of NLP are Richard Bandler and John Grinder. The core attitude of NLP as proposed by Richard Bandler is 'to look at life as a rare and unprecedented opportunity to learn with a sense of curiosity and adventure.'
With this attitude Bandler and Grinder began to model the best that they could find in the world of therapy. They were:
Fritz Pearls – Gestalt therapist Click to buy book
Virginia Satir – family therapist Click to buy book
Milton Erickson – hypnotherapist Click to buy book
They modelled many others as well, but these three were known be to be among the best in their fields. It was from these three that much of the initial NLP work was created –perhaps most importantly and significantly the 'meta-model' – a methodological use of language to both elicit information and expand the subject’s experience of reality. It was from the use of the meta-model that most of what we have in NLP came about.
Shortly after Bandler and Grinder got together they were joined by others who had varying degrees of input into NLP creation and direction. They include Robert Dilts, Judith Delozier and Leslie Cameron-Bandler.
The originators and co-developers went on to model the best minds in business, sport and psychology.
NLP hit the mass market with Tony Robbins in the late 80s. | <urn:uuid:cb063dab-4a2e-49bd-9756-cd59fe49491f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://lifepracticeacademy.teachable.com/courses/233516/lectures/3643516 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00056.warc.gz | en | 0.984723 | 304 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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-0.118384219... | 4 | The History of NLP
The two people credited and acknowledged with the creation of NLP are Richard Bandler and John Grinder. The core attitude of NLP as proposed by Richard Bandler is 'to look at life as a rare and unprecedented opportunity to learn with a sense of curiosity and adventure.'
With this attitude Bandler and Grinder began to model the best that they could find in the world of therapy. They were:
Fritz Pearls – Gestalt therapist Click to buy book
Virginia Satir – family therapist Click to buy book
Milton Erickson – hypnotherapist Click to buy book
They modelled many others as well, but these three were known be to be among the best in their fields. It was from these three that much of the initial NLP work was created –perhaps most importantly and significantly the 'meta-model' – a methodological use of language to both elicit information and expand the subject’s experience of reality. It was from the use of the meta-model that most of what we have in NLP came about.
Shortly after Bandler and Grinder got together they were joined by others who had varying degrees of input into NLP creation and direction. They include Robert Dilts, Judith Delozier and Leslie Cameron-Bandler.
The originators and co-developers went on to model the best minds in business, sport and psychology.
NLP hit the mass market with Tony Robbins in the late 80s. | 294 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Jewish children of Lodz suffered unfolding harsh realities after the German invasion of Poland. Some of the children, among them Miriam Goldberg, recorded their experiences in diaries. Their voices offer a view into the struggle of a community and its young to live in spite of the most difficult circumstances.
“I sit next to a table with a broken glass
And look at a street full of mud.
I dream that somewhere is a land full of sun,
Somewhere, a field of golden wheat.”
—Miriam Goldberg, age 16
Miriam Goldberg was born in Lodz, Poland, in November 1924. She was one of seven children. Her father was a rabbinical judge and her mother ran a women's clothing store in Lodz.
When her family was forced into the Lodz ghetto, Miriam was in her second year of high school. When the ghetto schools closed, Miriam went into the workshops, toiling in a sewing factory. In the ghetto, she coped by writing prose and poetry in Polish. She also spent her free time as a member of the Gordonya Hakhsharah, a youth group. For her family and the youth group, Miriam set many of her words to melodies and sang them.
In August 1944, Miriam was deported to Auschwitz. She was later sent to work in a factory in France before being taken to Bergen-Belsen. Miriam was liberated in April 1945 from the labor camp Muhltuer. After liberation she returned to Lodz to discover that she had lost all of her family except two sisters. In 1948, she moved to Israel where she got married and raised a family.
Critical Thinking Questions
- Why are diaries an important part of the historical record?
- What makes children’s diaries distinct?
- How are some of these accounts different from that of Anne Frank?
- Investigate the experiences of children in the ghettos. | <urn:uuid:76cb45b2-4c72-440f-b1d1-2eb5dc498046> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/miriam-goldberg | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00298.warc.gz | en | 0.981165 | 405 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.3641449809074402,
0.260621905326843... | 3 | The Jewish children of Lodz suffered unfolding harsh realities after the German invasion of Poland. Some of the children, among them Miriam Goldberg, recorded their experiences in diaries. Their voices offer a view into the struggle of a community and its young to live in spite of the most difficult circumstances.
“I sit next to a table with a broken glass
And look at a street full of mud.
I dream that somewhere is a land full of sun,
Somewhere, a field of golden wheat.”
—Miriam Goldberg, age 16
Miriam Goldberg was born in Lodz, Poland, in November 1924. She was one of seven children. Her father was a rabbinical judge and her mother ran a women's clothing store in Lodz.
When her family was forced into the Lodz ghetto, Miriam was in her second year of high school. When the ghetto schools closed, Miriam went into the workshops, toiling in a sewing factory. In the ghetto, she coped by writing prose and poetry in Polish. She also spent her free time as a member of the Gordonya Hakhsharah, a youth group. For her family and the youth group, Miriam set many of her words to melodies and sang them.
In August 1944, Miriam was deported to Auschwitz. She was later sent to work in a factory in France before being taken to Bergen-Belsen. Miriam was liberated in April 1945 from the labor camp Muhltuer. After liberation she returned to Lodz to discover that she had lost all of her family except two sisters. In 1948, she moved to Israel where she got married and raised a family.
Critical Thinking Questions
- Why are diaries an important part of the historical record?
- What makes children’s diaries distinct?
- How are some of these accounts different from that of Anne Frank?
- Investigate the experiences of children in the ghettos. | 405 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Albert Einstein was an important person who changed the world of science.
People referred to him as a genius, and as one of the smartest people in the
world. Einstein devoted himself to solving the mysteries of the world, and he
changed the way science is looked at today.
Albert Einstein was born on March 14, 1879, in Ulm, Germany.Albert’s
speech was late in development; he didn’t start talking until he was about three.
Since he started talking late, his parents thought he was retarded. “His
explanation was that he consciously skipped baby babbling, waiting until he
could speak in complete sentences”(Brian 1). Einstein had a very bad temper when
he was young; he got mad and hit his sister Maja in the head with a garden hoe
and cracked her skull. When he was in school, his teachers thought he was
mentally retarded because he ignored whatever bored him and attacked anything he
had interest in.
Einstein was twenty-one years old when he got married. His marriage
almost didn’t take place because Mileva, his fiance, thought he had an affair.
Einstein decided to go to America to tell other scientists about his
theory of relativity. He brought his wife and several freinds with him. When
they got there, they were stormed with reporters and camera-men who wanted to
know about his theories. He went around to different areas and gave speeches
and lectures. When he appeared at Union Station to lecture, there was almost a
riot because so many people wanted to see him.
Einstein’s most famous theory was the theory of relativity. “Einstein
started his theory of relativity at the age of sixteen” (Encyclopedia 511). He
received the Nobel prize for his famous theory. Another famous scientific
theory he discovered was E=MC2 (energy equals mass times the speed of light
squared). That theory made the atomic bomb possible. “At dawn on July 16, the
atomic structure of the world was revealed when Einstein’s famous equation E=MC2
came to life with a bang”(Brian 344). He was famous for his philosophies too.
besides the theory of relativity, he discovered the theory of motion. “The
motions of bodies included in a given (vehicle) are the same among themselves
whether that (vehicle) is at rest or in uniform motion” (Hoffman 63). When
Einstein was a kid, he devoted himself to solving the mysteries of the world.
On April 18, 1955, Einstein died in his sleep. On his desk lay his last
complete statement, written to honor Isreali Independence day. It read in part:
“What I seek to accomplish is simply to serve with my feeble capacity truth and
justice at the risk of pleasing noone.” (Encyclopedia 513).
Albert Einstein was smart as a child, but no one understood him, and he
was punished for it. Albert Einstein discovered the theories of relativity, and
motion as well as the atomic bomb. Einstein was one of the most important people
in science, and he dedicated his life to changing the world.
Brian, Dennis. Einstein a Life. New York: John Whiley and Sons,
“Einstein, Albert.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Vol.6. 15th
Hoffmann, Banesh. Albert Einstein Creator and Rebel. New
York: Penguin Books, 1972. | <urn:uuid:d073ad41-effc-4fad-9462-d0e2a89d180f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/albert-einstein/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00284.warc.gz | en | 0.982322 | 746 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.202610284090042... | 2 | Albert Einstein was an important person who changed the world of science.
People referred to him as a genius, and as one of the smartest people in the
world. Einstein devoted himself to solving the mysteries of the world, and he
changed the way science is looked at today.
Albert Einstein was born on March 14, 1879, in Ulm, Germany.Albert’s
speech was late in development; he didn’t start talking until he was about three.
Since he started talking late, his parents thought he was retarded. “His
explanation was that he consciously skipped baby babbling, waiting until he
could speak in complete sentences”(Brian 1). Einstein had a very bad temper when
he was young; he got mad and hit his sister Maja in the head with a garden hoe
and cracked her skull. When he was in school, his teachers thought he was
mentally retarded because he ignored whatever bored him and attacked anything he
had interest in.
Einstein was twenty-one years old when he got married. His marriage
almost didn’t take place because Mileva, his fiance, thought he had an affair.
Einstein decided to go to America to tell other scientists about his
theory of relativity. He brought his wife and several freinds with him. When
they got there, they were stormed with reporters and camera-men who wanted to
know about his theories. He went around to different areas and gave speeches
and lectures. When he appeared at Union Station to lecture, there was almost a
riot because so many people wanted to see him.
Einstein’s most famous theory was the theory of relativity. “Einstein
started his theory of relativity at the age of sixteen” (Encyclopedia 511). He
received the Nobel prize for his famous theory. Another famous scientific
theory he discovered was E=MC2 (energy equals mass times the speed of light
squared). That theory made the atomic bomb possible. “At dawn on July 16, the
atomic structure of the world was revealed when Einstein’s famous equation E=MC2
came to life with a bang”(Brian 344). He was famous for his philosophies too.
besides the theory of relativity, he discovered the theory of motion. “The
motions of bodies included in a given (vehicle) are the same among themselves
whether that (vehicle) is at rest or in uniform motion” (Hoffman 63). When
Einstein was a kid, he devoted himself to solving the mysteries of the world.
On April 18, 1955, Einstein died in his sleep. On his desk lay his last
complete statement, written to honor Isreali Independence day. It read in part:
“What I seek to accomplish is simply to serve with my feeble capacity truth and
justice at the risk of pleasing noone.” (Encyclopedia 513).
Albert Einstein was smart as a child, but no one understood him, and he
was punished for it. Albert Einstein discovered the theories of relativity, and
motion as well as the atomic bomb. Einstein was one of the most important people
in science, and he dedicated his life to changing the world.
Brian, Dennis. Einstein a Life. New York: John Whiley and Sons,
“Einstein, Albert.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Vol.6. 15th
Hoffmann, Banesh. Albert Einstein Creator and Rebel. New
York: Penguin Books, 1972. | 736 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This was designed to give black children pride in their background as well as to assist with learning that the mainstream curriculum failed to deliver. Under his watchful guidance Nana ensured that students were taught to have pride in themselves and learn about black history and culture.
The model of Supplementary School education at the West Indian Centre, Carmoor Road, became well known throughout the country for its focus on education for black children beyond academic development. Hence, the school’s focus was rooted in developing;
- Children’s positive self image and self confidence.
- Support to developing academic and non academic competences, to meet various challenges in mainstream education.
- A strong focus on the student’s African history and culture.
- Commitment to ensuring that children, teachers and parents recognize the importance of building a community.
“What Berry was interested in was education and he was quite excited really to see that a lot of the younger black people using the centre, were from the university or were people trying to educate themselves through the standard education channels.”
– Norma Brown 2014
Community and Public Education
Nana was a keen supporter of developing education for people from the grass roots level as well as ensuring that black people could progress into teaching in higher and further education.
“The WIOCC must pursue a policy of education aimed at the Afro Caribbean community to awaken in them a sense of commitment and obligation to the future of our community”
– Nana Bonsu (WIOCC Annual Report, 1991) | <urn:uuid:ac240982-ed63-4a6e-b8db-f867319640c0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://nanabonsu.com/education/saturday-supplementary-school/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00304.warc.gz | en | 0.98333 | 316 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.15669509768... | 12 | This was designed to give black children pride in their background as well as to assist with learning that the mainstream curriculum failed to deliver. Under his watchful guidance Nana ensured that students were taught to have pride in themselves and learn about black history and culture.
The model of Supplementary School education at the West Indian Centre, Carmoor Road, became well known throughout the country for its focus on education for black children beyond academic development. Hence, the school’s focus was rooted in developing;
- Children’s positive self image and self confidence.
- Support to developing academic and non academic competences, to meet various challenges in mainstream education.
- A strong focus on the student’s African history and culture.
- Commitment to ensuring that children, teachers and parents recognize the importance of building a community.
“What Berry was interested in was education and he was quite excited really to see that a lot of the younger black people using the centre, were from the university or were people trying to educate themselves through the standard education channels.”
– Norma Brown 2014
Community and Public Education
Nana was a keen supporter of developing education for people from the grass roots level as well as ensuring that black people could progress into teaching in higher and further education.
“The WIOCC must pursue a policy of education aimed at the Afro Caribbean community to awaken in them a sense of commitment and obligation to the future of our community”
– Nana Bonsu (WIOCC Annual Report, 1991) | 301 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Flashcards in Chapter Three- Edward VI Deck (18):
When Edward was crowned by Cranmer in 1547, what was he referred to as and why?
The Young King Josiah
Expected to reform and remove idolatry.
What was the title of the Duke of Somerset before coming to power in 1547?
The Earl of Hertford
What was the book of Homilies in 1547?
It taught Priests how to preach. Education of the clergymen.
What did the Royal Injunctions implement in 1547?
English Bible in every church, preach in English and idolatry removed.
What Act of 1545 was revived in 1547?
The Act for the Dissolution of the Chantries.
Which Catholic doctrine was removed in 1547 (but not replaced with anything else)?
The Six Articles and the Treason Act.
When was the First Prayer Book written and why was it important?
It was an English translation of a Catholic Bible. It was not Protestant enough and reformers complained about its lack of reform.
When was the Western Rebellion and why did it take place?
1547. Based on economic factors. Trade embargo in place. No trade of cloth with the Netherlands.
When was the Ketts Rebellion and why did it take place?
1547. Based on enclosure (land).
Edward Seymour was deposed in 1549, but who replaced him?
Dudley, Earl of Northumberland.
What did the New Ordinal do? (1550)
Attempted to reform episcopacy.
In addition, communion tables were to be made of wood instead of marble and the altar was placed at the back of the church.
Which Act if 1534 was revived in 1552?
The Treason Act.
Although it was not enforced, so abiding by the law was a choice.
When was the Second Book of Common Prayer and what were it's influences?
It was influenced by Calvinism (Eucharist was simply a memorial, rather than the body or spirit of Christ)
Vestments were removed.
When was the Second Act of Uniformity and why was it significant?
Shows that the first Act of Uniformity was not enforced and so it had to be revived. Policies were seldom enforced under Edward.
What was the Black Rubric 1552?
The Kneeling Debate. The secular clergy would stand to receive communion. Rejection of the idea that the priest was the middle man between themselves and God, a Catholic tendency, so Protestant elements introduced.
What was the short term and long term impact of the 42 Articles?
Short Term: failure. Never enacted due to the brevity of Edward's reign.
Long Term: relatively successful. Basis of the Elizabethan 39 Articles.
Why was leadership ineffective under Somerset?
Ruled by Act of Proclamations 1539. It was easy for Henry to rule by manipulating the Council, but Somerset was unpopular and so found it more difficult to pass law due to opposition from the council. | <urn:uuid:b30304a7-8831-4dbf-83e2-597794edc935> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.brainscape.com/flashcards/chapter-three-edward-vi-2362105/packs/4186657 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00356.warc.gz | en | 0.983269 | 636 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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-0.31893557... | 1 | Flashcards in Chapter Three- Edward VI Deck (18):
When Edward was crowned by Cranmer in 1547, what was he referred to as and why?
The Young King Josiah
Expected to reform and remove idolatry.
What was the title of the Duke of Somerset before coming to power in 1547?
The Earl of Hertford
What was the book of Homilies in 1547?
It taught Priests how to preach. Education of the clergymen.
What did the Royal Injunctions implement in 1547?
English Bible in every church, preach in English and idolatry removed.
What Act of 1545 was revived in 1547?
The Act for the Dissolution of the Chantries.
Which Catholic doctrine was removed in 1547 (but not replaced with anything else)?
The Six Articles and the Treason Act.
When was the First Prayer Book written and why was it important?
It was an English translation of a Catholic Bible. It was not Protestant enough and reformers complained about its lack of reform.
When was the Western Rebellion and why did it take place?
1547. Based on economic factors. Trade embargo in place. No trade of cloth with the Netherlands.
When was the Ketts Rebellion and why did it take place?
1547. Based on enclosure (land).
Edward Seymour was deposed in 1549, but who replaced him?
Dudley, Earl of Northumberland.
What did the New Ordinal do? (1550)
Attempted to reform episcopacy.
In addition, communion tables were to be made of wood instead of marble and the altar was placed at the back of the church.
Which Act if 1534 was revived in 1552?
The Treason Act.
Although it was not enforced, so abiding by the law was a choice.
When was the Second Book of Common Prayer and what were it's influences?
It was influenced by Calvinism (Eucharist was simply a memorial, rather than the body or spirit of Christ)
Vestments were removed.
When was the Second Act of Uniformity and why was it significant?
Shows that the first Act of Uniformity was not enforced and so it had to be revived. Policies were seldom enforced under Edward.
What was the Black Rubric 1552?
The Kneeling Debate. The secular clergy would stand to receive communion. Rejection of the idea that the priest was the middle man between themselves and God, a Catholic tendency, so Protestant elements introduced.
What was the short term and long term impact of the 42 Articles?
Short Term: failure. Never enacted due to the brevity of Edward's reign.
Long Term: relatively successful. Basis of the Elizabethan 39 Articles.
Why was leadership ineffective under Somerset?
Ruled by Act of Proclamations 1539. It was easy for Henry to rule by manipulating the Council, but Somerset was unpopular and so found it more difficult to pass law due to opposition from the council. | 646 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Say that you have a species whose eyes can see anything from radio waves to gamma waves. Let's assume that it's adapted well enough that it can differentiate between these types of waves, and that seeing that much doesn't completely overwhelm it. Besides for the above modification, it's exactly like us in terms of anatomy and physiology. How would society be different with such a species instead of us, if at all?
Let's ignore for a moment how anatomically impossible this is.
Their life would be full of noise. From cosmic radiation to infrared emission every object would glow. There would not be a real night, so society would not form around day or night cycles. They may even be able to see better when the sun is not out spewing noise.
The noise would even be worse as eyelids, even made of lead would not be enough. There would be no darkness. In fact you could see things coming from behind you just as well as in front. They would have to evolve to be able to block as much noise out as possible, but it would not be enough as society evolves.
Technology may also get a huge head start as everyone can see radio waves. We may see primitive radio in the middle ages. Radiation would be discovered by cavemen. They would find rocks glowing in a color they have never seen before, brighter than anything else in the world and spreading in glow to things they touch.
In the end though technology may be stifled. Without a discreet way to send signals life becomes very tough. Who would let a radio station be built, if it was a giant glowing light that you could not stop seeing no matter where you turn? Eventually all society may prize nothing more than to avoid technology and live in cold caves where they can finally get some darkness.
People would stop tanning, cause they know how bad UV rays are for them.
In all seriousness, though, I'd say they'd just appear as far more colors. What makes visible light give color? The fact that we perceive it. If you can perceive the entire spectrum, it's likely they'd all be classified as colors. So you'd have a massive range of colors, some of which would be considered "harmful colors" (uv and shorter). Colors already are used to set a tone, influence a mood, draw attention, give definition, etc. With billions of more shades of colors, they'd be that much more integral to setting tones and moods in society. There would likely be a greater emphasis on color, and visuals would be highly important to everyone (not just guys).
It's a bit tough for me to speculate what colors they would appear to be, but as the visible colors "blend" from red on one side to blue on the other, it's likely radio would be a much more "extreme red", if you will, and gamma rays a more "extreme violet".
People would probably use radio in different ways. When you broadcast a radio program you are using an antenna that emits electromagnetic waves. Such a society wouldn't probably agree to stare at an antenna, the same way you probably don't like to stare at a lighthouse.
X-rays are electromagentic signals too. So, those people would be able to see through some object and through people. So, I think that their medicine would be much more advanced compared to ours, because they would have been able to see through a body since the moment they were able to invent a source of x-rays.
They would have a different kind of art. Think about it. Human artists use all the colors they are able to actually see in pictures. Those people of yours would like to paint in x-rays color, ultraviolet colors, infrared color and so on.
There would probably be many more phrases about colors. Not only "Tonight I'm feeling blue". But instead: "Tonight I'm feeling infrared".
You would be able to know when a person is using his phone, because it would light up, since it sends radio signals. So, at the theaters they would force you to switch off your mobile phone, not just turn down the volume.
The night wouldn't be dark. They would be able to see all the spectrum, so probably we wouldn't have any stories about romantic nights. The only places that are like a "dark room" for your people would be under a mountain. | <urn:uuid:10b545b3-9116-441f-b28f-9c2f1eb5dba4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://worldbuilding.stackexchange.com/questions/79904/how-would-society-be-different-if-people-could-see-the-full-range-of-the-electro/79905 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00176.warc.gz | en | 0.982388 | 896 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.1210997030138... | 2 | Say that you have a species whose eyes can see anything from radio waves to gamma waves. Let's assume that it's adapted well enough that it can differentiate between these types of waves, and that seeing that much doesn't completely overwhelm it. Besides for the above modification, it's exactly like us in terms of anatomy and physiology. How would society be different with such a species instead of us, if at all?
Let's ignore for a moment how anatomically impossible this is.
Their life would be full of noise. From cosmic radiation to infrared emission every object would glow. There would not be a real night, so society would not form around day or night cycles. They may even be able to see better when the sun is not out spewing noise.
The noise would even be worse as eyelids, even made of lead would not be enough. There would be no darkness. In fact you could see things coming from behind you just as well as in front. They would have to evolve to be able to block as much noise out as possible, but it would not be enough as society evolves.
Technology may also get a huge head start as everyone can see radio waves. We may see primitive radio in the middle ages. Radiation would be discovered by cavemen. They would find rocks glowing in a color they have never seen before, brighter than anything else in the world and spreading in glow to things they touch.
In the end though technology may be stifled. Without a discreet way to send signals life becomes very tough. Who would let a radio station be built, if it was a giant glowing light that you could not stop seeing no matter where you turn? Eventually all society may prize nothing more than to avoid technology and live in cold caves where they can finally get some darkness.
People would stop tanning, cause they know how bad UV rays are for them.
In all seriousness, though, I'd say they'd just appear as far more colors. What makes visible light give color? The fact that we perceive it. If you can perceive the entire spectrum, it's likely they'd all be classified as colors. So you'd have a massive range of colors, some of which would be considered "harmful colors" (uv and shorter). Colors already are used to set a tone, influence a mood, draw attention, give definition, etc. With billions of more shades of colors, they'd be that much more integral to setting tones and moods in society. There would likely be a greater emphasis on color, and visuals would be highly important to everyone (not just guys).
It's a bit tough for me to speculate what colors they would appear to be, but as the visible colors "blend" from red on one side to blue on the other, it's likely radio would be a much more "extreme red", if you will, and gamma rays a more "extreme violet".
People would probably use radio in different ways. When you broadcast a radio program you are using an antenna that emits electromagnetic waves. Such a society wouldn't probably agree to stare at an antenna, the same way you probably don't like to stare at a lighthouse.
X-rays are electromagentic signals too. So, those people would be able to see through some object and through people. So, I think that their medicine would be much more advanced compared to ours, because they would have been able to see through a body since the moment they were able to invent a source of x-rays.
They would have a different kind of art. Think about it. Human artists use all the colors they are able to actually see in pictures. Those people of yours would like to paint in x-rays color, ultraviolet colors, infrared color and so on.
There would probably be many more phrases about colors. Not only "Tonight I'm feeling blue". But instead: "Tonight I'm feeling infrared".
You would be able to know when a person is using his phone, because it would light up, since it sends radio signals. So, at the theaters they would force you to switch off your mobile phone, not just turn down the volume.
The night wouldn't be dark. They would be able to see all the spectrum, so probably we wouldn't have any stories about romantic nights. The only places that are like a "dark room" for your people would be under a mountain. | 882 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Explain the following statement with reason.
The Indian National Army had to lay down their arms.
The Indian Army trials of captured members began on the 5th of November 1945 at the Red Fort in Delhi. The commander in chief of the British Indian Army had reported that the Indian Army would accept these trials as the majority view is that they are all traitors. He believed that the INA returnee troops would be overwhelmed by the loyalist British Indian Army troops who would be returning to the same villages and towns.
But some people knew that there was already a good interaction between the INA prisoners and British Indian Army loyalist for a long time. During the war, there was a complete blackout in India about any news of INA and the actual role of INA as a freedom army was not reported. So when the newspapers began to carry details report about the trial, the vast majority of Indians began hearing it for the first time. They came to know about the army who was ready to lay down their life so that India could be free. They also studied about the ill-equipped and poorly supplied system. This had a huge impact on the nation, and they began to be seen as heroes fighting for the freedom of the country. | <urn:uuid:d2ed275e-38fc-495a-bf7e-e11268b01e08> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.shaalaa.com/question-bank-solutions/explain-following-statement-reason-indian-national-army-had-lay-down-their-arms-last-phase-struggle-independence_80828 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00122.warc.gz | en | 0.986816 | 251 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.3166264295578003,
-0.2621418833732605,
0.2647028863430023,
0.43109023571014... | 1 | Explain the following statement with reason.
The Indian National Army had to lay down their arms.
The Indian Army trials of captured members began on the 5th of November 1945 at the Red Fort in Delhi. The commander in chief of the British Indian Army had reported that the Indian Army would accept these trials as the majority view is that they are all traitors. He believed that the INA returnee troops would be overwhelmed by the loyalist British Indian Army troops who would be returning to the same villages and towns.
But some people knew that there was already a good interaction between the INA prisoners and British Indian Army loyalist for a long time. During the war, there was a complete blackout in India about any news of INA and the actual role of INA as a freedom army was not reported. So when the newspapers began to carry details report about the trial, the vast majority of Indians began hearing it for the first time. They came to know about the army who was ready to lay down their life so that India could be free. They also studied about the ill-equipped and poorly supplied system. This had a huge impact on the nation, and they began to be seen as heroes fighting for the freedom of the country. | 248 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Guinea pigs no longer live anywhere in the wild - however, when they did, they were originally native to South America. Guinea pigs have been domesticated since 2000 BC. The prime purpose for their domestication was as a food source. However, they can also be domesticated as pets. There are many known species of guinea pigs. The species are categorized into two broad categories, rough and smooth, according to the texture of their coat. Guinea Pigs have a short lifespan of 3 to 8 years.
Guinea pigs are more active at night than they are during the day. They come out of their habitats at night to search for food, especially plant materials. They have the ability to learn and to accurately remember a foot path. Guinea pigs usually live in groups that consist of smaller than 10 members and move together in the groups as they search for food. The group is usually made up of some female guinea pigs which are referred to as sows, a male referred to as a boar and their young ones. They are more social to members of their own species and to members that they are related to. Guinea pigs spend most of their time chewing and can chew 200 times in one minute. They chew with a side to side motion.
Guinea pigs are herbivores. They look like rodents such as rats and mice but have large eyes that are located on either side of their head. Their sense of smell is very strong with the nose having whiskers around it. Their hearing ability is also very strong - they have the ability to hear minor sound frequencies that the human ear cannot pick up. The teeth are open-rooted and number around 20. Like all rodents, guinea pig teeth never stop growing. The rapid growth and rapid wearing out of the teeth ensure the size of their teeth is constant. Guinea pigs mature in 3 to 5 weeks after they are born. The mother cares for offer young ones until they are stable enough. They are also known to adopt the pups of other guinea pigs.
About the Author
John Misachi is a seasoned writer with 5+ years of experience. His favorite topics include finance, history, geography, agriculture, legal, and sports.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | <urn:uuid:25f0d850-724f-4fef-88c3-ee158b14d159> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/where-do-guinea-pigs-live-in-the-wild.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00108.warc.gz | en | 0.98155 | 477 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.16058655083179... | 3 | Guinea pigs no longer live anywhere in the wild - however, when they did, they were originally native to South America. Guinea pigs have been domesticated since 2000 BC. The prime purpose for their domestication was as a food source. However, they can also be domesticated as pets. There are many known species of guinea pigs. The species are categorized into two broad categories, rough and smooth, according to the texture of their coat. Guinea Pigs have a short lifespan of 3 to 8 years.
Guinea pigs are more active at night than they are during the day. They come out of their habitats at night to search for food, especially plant materials. They have the ability to learn and to accurately remember a foot path. Guinea pigs usually live in groups that consist of smaller than 10 members and move together in the groups as they search for food. The group is usually made up of some female guinea pigs which are referred to as sows, a male referred to as a boar and their young ones. They are more social to members of their own species and to members that they are related to. Guinea pigs spend most of their time chewing and can chew 200 times in one minute. They chew with a side to side motion.
Guinea pigs are herbivores. They look like rodents such as rats and mice but have large eyes that are located on either side of their head. Their sense of smell is very strong with the nose having whiskers around it. Their hearing ability is also very strong - they have the ability to hear minor sound frequencies that the human ear cannot pick up. The teeth are open-rooted and number around 20. Like all rodents, guinea pig teeth never stop growing. The rapid growth and rapid wearing out of the teeth ensure the size of their teeth is constant. Guinea pigs mature in 3 to 5 weeks after they are born. The mother cares for offer young ones until they are stable enough. They are also known to adopt the pups of other guinea pigs.
About the Author
John Misachi is a seasoned writer with 5+ years of experience. His favorite topics include finance, history, geography, agriculture, legal, and sports.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 486 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Standard 8 (std) English Topical Questions
Read the passage below and then answer questions 26 to 38
All his life Charles Dickens, one of the greatest novelists in the world, would remember a particular day when he was nine years old, and something his father said. They were out walking together and had stopped, as they often did, to admire a handsome brick house. With its lovely windows and neat lawn, it seemed as grand as a palace.
Then John Dickens told his son that if he worked very hard, someday he might live in that house. The thought took Charles’ breath away. The sort of person who would live in that house would be a distinguished man of taste and education. His father believed that Charles could someday be like that. All he had to do was work hard.
He could not have known on that day how far he would fall and how high he would rise, and that he really would live in that house, and that he would die there.
When Charles looked back on his childhood, these were happy years. They lived in a small house which had a little garden and, across the road; there was a playground for the children. He had a nursemaid, Mary. Who comforted his childish sorrows? She also terrified him with blood-curdling horror stories that he adored, though they gave him nightmares. He spent wonderful hours in his tiny room reading from his father’s set of novels. He went for days imagining himself to be one of his storybook heroes.
But when Charles was ten, his father was transferred to London, and his happy childhood came to a sudden end. His father had many wonderful qualities. He worked hard at his job and was loving to his wife and children. He had many friends and loved to invite them to the house in the evening for a bowl of steaming porridge and lively conversation. But he had one terrible fault: he spent more money than he made.
In the ten years of Charles’ life, the family had lived in six different houses, each poorer than the one before. And as the number of mouths to feed kept growing, the family fell deeper and deeper into debt.
When they reached London, Charles was shocked to learn that he would not be sent to school -they couldn’t afford it. He stayed at home and made himself useful by cleaning his father’s boots and minding the younger siblings. His parents seemed to have forgotten him and all his ambitions.
Two days after his twelfth birthday, Charles was sent to work at a factory. From eight in the morning till eight at night, he worked in a dark room, covering pots of boot polish and pasting on labels. Other children worked there, too, but they were not like his old friends. They were poor boys with rough manners who referred to him scornfully as the “young gentleman.”
Worse still, two weeks later his father was arrested for debt and sent to prison, where he had to stay until his debts were paid. His wife and children were allowed to join him there. The whole family living in one room- everyone, that is, except Charles. The factory was too far from the prison for him to get back before the gates were shut at night. So he lived in a cheap boarding house. From Monday morning to Saturday night, he was on his own with “no advice, no counsel, no encouragement. no consolation, no support from anyone”.
At night he wandered through the dark city. His clothes were shabby. He had no friends. Instead of growing into a fine gentleman, he had descended to the streets.
The memory of that time was so painful that, even as a grown man. Charles could not walk through those streets without the sting of tears coming to his eyes. And years later, when he became a famous writer, his stories were filled with orphaned and abandoned children, debtors’ prisons, factories, and the grim and degrading lives of the poor.
(Adapted from (‘charles Dickens, the Man who had Great Expectations by Diane Stanley and Peter Vennema. Published by Morrow Junior Books: New York, 1993)
26. The fact that Charles never forgot what his father told him when he was only nine shows that he
a. had a good memory
b. respected his father
c. took his father’s words seriously
d. Was a very good child.
27. From the first paragraph we can conclude that palaces are
a. A. magnificent buildings
b. places young boys admire
c. homes for special people
d. Unique homes.
28. Why did John Dickens tell his son he could live in ‘that house” one day?
a. To encourage him to think big.
b. Lie really liked the house.
c. He knew the future was bright.
d. To motivate him to work hard
29. ‘The thought took Charles’ breath away’ means
a. he was unable to breathe
b. lie was greatly surprised
c. his father had frightened him
d. his father made him feel sick
30. What do we learn about Charles’ life from the third paragraph?
a. He fell down and then rose up again.
b. He suffered a lot but later succeeded.
c. He had high hopes in spite of hardships
d. . He lived a life full of disappointments
31. Which of the following statements is not true?
a. The stories by Mary were interesting but scaring
b. Charles did not mind listening to horror stories
c. The stories Mary told truly fascinated Charles.
d. Perhaps Charles merely pretended to be frightened.
32. How do we know that moving to London affected Charles life drastically?
a. life suddenly become more difficult and miserable.
b. His father brought friends who ate all the porridge.
c. There was no time for him to play anymore.
d. He had been very happy in his previous home
33. Which of the following best describes Charles Dickens’ father’s character?
a. Wonderful, hardworking. loving and friendly
b. Friendly. caring, hardworking but extravagant
c. Sociable, lively, generous and loving.
d. Hardworking, jolly, hospitable and carefree.
34. We can tell that Charles loved school because he
a. was very disappointed when he wasn’t sent to school
b. enjoyed reading novels in his father’s collection
c. had dreams of becoming a great writer
d. Knew it was the only way to achieve fame.
35. How did that society violate children’s rights?
a. By not doing enough to meet their needs
b. .By making them looks after young siblings.
c. By making they work in factories.
d. By not punishing irresponsible parents..
36. ‘Rough manners” means that the boys at the
a. did not impress Charles at all
b. were probably naughty and rude
c. did not know how to behave properly
d. made Charles rather uncomfortable
37. Which one of these pairs of words accurately describes Charles’ feelings when his family moved to the debtors’ prison’?
a. unhappy and angry
b. hurt and miserable
c. helpless and desperate
d. lonely and hopeless
38. What would be the best summary of this passage?
a. Accumulating debts is a dangerous habit.
b. Suffering does not mean we cannot succeed.
c. No experience in life is useless
d. careless father can cause untold heartaches
Maurice A. Nyamoti is a teacher by profession and has passion for assisting students improve performance
P.O Box 1189 - 40200 Kisii
Tel: 0728 450 424
Tel: 0738 619 279
Tel: 0763 450 425
E-mail - firstname.lastname@example.org | <urn:uuid:6d39bf77-bde9-49c6-86e8-d1483bbcc6da> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.atikaschool.org/standard-8-std-english-topical-questions/kcpe-passage-2-2010-question-26-38 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00110.warc.gz | en | 0.990227 | 1,675 | 3.828125 | 4 | [
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0.288291394710... | 1 | Standard 8 (std) English Topical Questions
Read the passage below and then answer questions 26 to 38
All his life Charles Dickens, one of the greatest novelists in the world, would remember a particular day when he was nine years old, and something his father said. They were out walking together and had stopped, as they often did, to admire a handsome brick house. With its lovely windows and neat lawn, it seemed as grand as a palace.
Then John Dickens told his son that if he worked very hard, someday he might live in that house. The thought took Charles’ breath away. The sort of person who would live in that house would be a distinguished man of taste and education. His father believed that Charles could someday be like that. All he had to do was work hard.
He could not have known on that day how far he would fall and how high he would rise, and that he really would live in that house, and that he would die there.
When Charles looked back on his childhood, these were happy years. They lived in a small house which had a little garden and, across the road; there was a playground for the children. He had a nursemaid, Mary. Who comforted his childish sorrows? She also terrified him with blood-curdling horror stories that he adored, though they gave him nightmares. He spent wonderful hours in his tiny room reading from his father’s set of novels. He went for days imagining himself to be one of his storybook heroes.
But when Charles was ten, his father was transferred to London, and his happy childhood came to a sudden end. His father had many wonderful qualities. He worked hard at his job and was loving to his wife and children. He had many friends and loved to invite them to the house in the evening for a bowl of steaming porridge and lively conversation. But he had one terrible fault: he spent more money than he made.
In the ten years of Charles’ life, the family had lived in six different houses, each poorer than the one before. And as the number of mouths to feed kept growing, the family fell deeper and deeper into debt.
When they reached London, Charles was shocked to learn that he would not be sent to school -they couldn’t afford it. He stayed at home and made himself useful by cleaning his father’s boots and minding the younger siblings. His parents seemed to have forgotten him and all his ambitions.
Two days after his twelfth birthday, Charles was sent to work at a factory. From eight in the morning till eight at night, he worked in a dark room, covering pots of boot polish and pasting on labels. Other children worked there, too, but they were not like his old friends. They were poor boys with rough manners who referred to him scornfully as the “young gentleman.”
Worse still, two weeks later his father was arrested for debt and sent to prison, where he had to stay until his debts were paid. His wife and children were allowed to join him there. The whole family living in one room- everyone, that is, except Charles. The factory was too far from the prison for him to get back before the gates were shut at night. So he lived in a cheap boarding house. From Monday morning to Saturday night, he was on his own with “no advice, no counsel, no encouragement. no consolation, no support from anyone”.
At night he wandered through the dark city. His clothes were shabby. He had no friends. Instead of growing into a fine gentleman, he had descended to the streets.
The memory of that time was so painful that, even as a grown man. Charles could not walk through those streets without the sting of tears coming to his eyes. And years later, when he became a famous writer, his stories were filled with orphaned and abandoned children, debtors’ prisons, factories, and the grim and degrading lives of the poor.
(Adapted from (‘charles Dickens, the Man who had Great Expectations by Diane Stanley and Peter Vennema. Published by Morrow Junior Books: New York, 1993)
26. The fact that Charles never forgot what his father told him when he was only nine shows that he
a. had a good memory
b. respected his father
c. took his father’s words seriously
d. Was a very good child.
27. From the first paragraph we can conclude that palaces are
a. A. magnificent buildings
b. places young boys admire
c. homes for special people
d. Unique homes.
28. Why did John Dickens tell his son he could live in ‘that house” one day?
a. To encourage him to think big.
b. Lie really liked the house.
c. He knew the future was bright.
d. To motivate him to work hard
29. ‘The thought took Charles’ breath away’ means
a. he was unable to breathe
b. lie was greatly surprised
c. his father had frightened him
d. his father made him feel sick
30. What do we learn about Charles’ life from the third paragraph?
a. He fell down and then rose up again.
b. He suffered a lot but later succeeded.
c. He had high hopes in spite of hardships
d. . He lived a life full of disappointments
31. Which of the following statements is not true?
a. The stories by Mary were interesting but scaring
b. Charles did not mind listening to horror stories
c. The stories Mary told truly fascinated Charles.
d. Perhaps Charles merely pretended to be frightened.
32. How do we know that moving to London affected Charles life drastically?
a. life suddenly become more difficult and miserable.
b. His father brought friends who ate all the porridge.
c. There was no time for him to play anymore.
d. He had been very happy in his previous home
33. Which of the following best describes Charles Dickens’ father’s character?
a. Wonderful, hardworking. loving and friendly
b. Friendly. caring, hardworking but extravagant
c. Sociable, lively, generous and loving.
d. Hardworking, jolly, hospitable and carefree.
34. We can tell that Charles loved school because he
a. was very disappointed when he wasn’t sent to school
b. enjoyed reading novels in his father’s collection
c. had dreams of becoming a great writer
d. Knew it was the only way to achieve fame.
35. How did that society violate children’s rights?
a. By not doing enough to meet their needs
b. .By making them looks after young siblings.
c. By making they work in factories.
d. By not punishing irresponsible parents..
36. ‘Rough manners” means that the boys at the
a. did not impress Charles at all
b. were probably naughty and rude
c. did not know how to behave properly
d. made Charles rather uncomfortable
37. Which one of these pairs of words accurately describes Charles’ feelings when his family moved to the debtors’ prison’?
a. unhappy and angry
b. hurt and miserable
c. helpless and desperate
d. lonely and hopeless
38. What would be the best summary of this passage?
a. Accumulating debts is a dangerous habit.
b. Suffering does not mean we cannot succeed.
c. No experience in life is useless
d. careless father can cause untold heartaches
Maurice A. Nyamoti is a teacher by profession and has passion for assisting students improve performance
P.O Box 1189 - 40200 Kisii
Tel: 0728 450 424
Tel: 0738 619 279
Tel: 0763 450 425
E-mail - firstname.lastname@example.org | 1,648 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The ancient water tunnel is thought to have been built by Emperor Montezuma I in the 15th century. Inscriptions, carvings and paintings inside, as well as the tunnel itself, are thought to be linked to the Empire's god of water and fertility, Tlaloc.
Announcing the discovery, the Mexican Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH) revealed they had found the densely decorated tunnel in the city of Ecatepec de Morelos within the central state of Mexico.
Several carvings out of rock were found inside, as well as chunks of statue thought to have unbounded archaeological value.
According to local media, researchers found 11 carved images on the wall of the tunnel, which measured 27.5ft long, as well as the remains of a wooden gate.
The images inside the tunnel have been linked to Tlaloc, one of several gods the polytheistic Aztecs worshipped.
Tlaloc was associated as a beneficent giver of life and sustenance. | <urn:uuid:6cd101e2-eb24-450f-9160-206884f0672a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.freedomsphoenix.com/News/270892-2019-10-30-aztec-breakthrough-archaeologists-discover-shock-tunnel-world-hidden-beneath-m.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00443.warc.gz | en | 0.980895 | 211 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.1897985190153... | 1 | The ancient water tunnel is thought to have been built by Emperor Montezuma I in the 15th century. Inscriptions, carvings and paintings inside, as well as the tunnel itself, are thought to be linked to the Empire's god of water and fertility, Tlaloc.
Announcing the discovery, the Mexican Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH) revealed they had found the densely decorated tunnel in the city of Ecatepec de Morelos within the central state of Mexico.
Several carvings out of rock were found inside, as well as chunks of statue thought to have unbounded archaeological value.
According to local media, researchers found 11 carved images on the wall of the tunnel, which measured 27.5ft long, as well as the remains of a wooden gate.
The images inside the tunnel have been linked to Tlaloc, one of several gods the polytheistic Aztecs worshipped.
Tlaloc was associated as a beneficent giver of life and sustenance. | 213 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In Sociology there are many interesting topics, people and facts that are discussed. I personally find this class to be very interesting with the new material that’s taught to me. In my breakout session I attended Friday, I learned about colonization and at the end I was assigned an assignment. My assignment was to find a section in chapter 3 that was interesting to me and express my opinions on it. The most interesting section to me was, Isolated Children. The first thing that pops into my head when I think of isolated hillier is being away from society.
As well as being closed off from people, the community, sports and many other very important things a child needs while growing up. Isolated means separated, or being apart from others. If children don’t have the opportunity to be around other people when they grow up, they will never know how to do many different things. This is why this section interested me so much. I think one of the most important things kids need to learn is how to communicate with others (in other words their language).
Don’t waste your time!
Order your assignment!
It stated in the book that language is key to human development. Without language, there can be no culture or shared way of life- and culture is key to what people become. In this section, there was a story on a young girl named Isabella who was mentally damaged. She was unable to speak due to being isolated her whole life. She wasn’t allowed the proper development a normal child is provided when growing up. Isabella was able to get help and eventually started working with other people to get her back on track to where she needed to be.
She took an intelligence test and scored a zero on it. After a year of working on her vocabulary skills she started improving. Isabella finally reached the intellectual level that was normal for her age. She went on to school and was involved in activities like the rest of the kids in her class. Isabella is now a healthy, bright, cheerful young lady. It frustrates me that parents do this to their own kids. I find it very striking that they think it’s normal to let them grow up this way. Every child should be provided a healthy lifestyle. Agree and believe that language is key to culture and communicating with others and without that, life would be very difficult. I don’t think enough people pay attention to children who are isolated. Maybe its because people don’t realize how serious the long term effects are on children, or maybe its because people think kids can recover from it easily. | <urn:uuid:ccdba790-a914-46e5-8f76-dc336df0d3d6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://anyassignment.com/samples/sociology-reflection-3677/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00414.warc.gz | en | 0.987485 | 534 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.4431025981903076... | 3 | In Sociology there are many interesting topics, people and facts that are discussed. I personally find this class to be very interesting with the new material that’s taught to me. In my breakout session I attended Friday, I learned about colonization and at the end I was assigned an assignment. My assignment was to find a section in chapter 3 that was interesting to me and express my opinions on it. The most interesting section to me was, Isolated Children. The first thing that pops into my head when I think of isolated hillier is being away from society.
As well as being closed off from people, the community, sports and many other very important things a child needs while growing up. Isolated means separated, or being apart from others. If children don’t have the opportunity to be around other people when they grow up, they will never know how to do many different things. This is why this section interested me so much. I think one of the most important things kids need to learn is how to communicate with others (in other words their language).
Don’t waste your time!
Order your assignment!
It stated in the book that language is key to human development. Without language, there can be no culture or shared way of life- and culture is key to what people become. In this section, there was a story on a young girl named Isabella who was mentally damaged. She was unable to speak due to being isolated her whole life. She wasn’t allowed the proper development a normal child is provided when growing up. Isabella was able to get help and eventually started working with other people to get her back on track to where she needed to be.
She took an intelligence test and scored a zero on it. After a year of working on her vocabulary skills she started improving. Isabella finally reached the intellectual level that was normal for her age. She went on to school and was involved in activities like the rest of the kids in her class. Isabella is now a healthy, bright, cheerful young lady. It frustrates me that parents do this to their own kids. I find it very striking that they think it’s normal to let them grow up this way. Every child should be provided a healthy lifestyle. Agree and believe that language is key to culture and communicating with others and without that, life would be very difficult. I don’t think enough people pay attention to children who are isolated. Maybe its because people don’t realize how serious the long term effects are on children, or maybe its because people think kids can recover from it easily. | 514 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Throughout the old ages, many females have guided humanity to make changes that have helped the female gender in general. Many have been looked up to as heroes and martyrs for making a stand for what they believed in. Susan B. Anthony and the tragic character Antigone from the Greek tragedy were both courageous and brave woman. During their time, they defied rules and laws for many good reasons. These two women lived in a male dominant society, filled with sexism.Antigone is wildly known as the tragic hero, and a martyr in many others eyes. She was a young princess who faced countless causalities in her life. She was cursed with being a daughter to Oedipus, the king that fulfilled his prophecy to murder his father and marry his mother and him doing that caused a plague to course through the town of Thebes. She later defies King Creon who was also her uncle, who made cruel judgment prohibiting the burial of her brother, Polyneices who attempted to gain the crown from his brother Eteocles. Antigone fights for her belief that her brother should be put to rest with a deserving burial she preaches the Gods laws. She was executed for doing what was the absolute right thing. Antigone believed the Gods law was far more important than the man’s laws, and she had no fear of the authority.Susan B. Anthony was a liberal Quaker and dedicated activist. She once opposed the use of liquor and pushed for the immediate end of slavery. During the American Civil War, she founded the Women’s Loyal League to fight for the abolition of slavery. In 1851, her hard work for women’s right to vote soon began. She put her heart on reforming New York State laws about discriminating against women. Susan B. Anthony organized women all around the state to campaign for new legal reforms. She was convinced that women entirely wouldn’t gain their rights or be effective in getting their reforms until they had the right to vote. Although she did not live to see her dream come true, women were in fact given the right to vote I the 19th amendment, and she should be owed deeply for her effortless effort.Though Susan’s punishment wasn’t as severe as Antigone’s, she did succeed in getting what she wanted. Sure, she died before the 19th amendment had been adopted, people should acknowledge her hard work, and dedication she put into fighting for her rights and our rights as well. As a result of my research, you can see that even though Antigone and Susan B. Anthony was born at different times but they still share similarities nonetheless. Their defiance, bravery, and beliefs have gained us better opportunities today. Men and women still aren’t equal to this day, but these two women have brought women a long way from where we once were. | <urn:uuid:89dad8a9-a628-4b5a-b5b3-9f1cd304ce85> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alpinrunning.org/throughout-made-cruel-judgment-prohibiting-the-burial-of/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00543.warc.gz | en | 0.991268 | 585 | 3.890625 | 4 | [
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0.030145157128572... | 4 | Throughout the old ages, many females have guided humanity to make changes that have helped the female gender in general. Many have been looked up to as heroes and martyrs for making a stand for what they believed in. Susan B. Anthony and the tragic character Antigone from the Greek tragedy were both courageous and brave woman. During their time, they defied rules and laws for many good reasons. These two women lived in a male dominant society, filled with sexism.Antigone is wildly known as the tragic hero, and a martyr in many others eyes. She was a young princess who faced countless causalities in her life. She was cursed with being a daughter to Oedipus, the king that fulfilled his prophecy to murder his father and marry his mother and him doing that caused a plague to course through the town of Thebes. She later defies King Creon who was also her uncle, who made cruel judgment prohibiting the burial of her brother, Polyneices who attempted to gain the crown from his brother Eteocles. Antigone fights for her belief that her brother should be put to rest with a deserving burial she preaches the Gods laws. She was executed for doing what was the absolute right thing. Antigone believed the Gods law was far more important than the man’s laws, and she had no fear of the authority.Susan B. Anthony was a liberal Quaker and dedicated activist. She once opposed the use of liquor and pushed for the immediate end of slavery. During the American Civil War, she founded the Women’s Loyal League to fight for the abolition of slavery. In 1851, her hard work for women’s right to vote soon began. She put her heart on reforming New York State laws about discriminating against women. Susan B. Anthony organized women all around the state to campaign for new legal reforms. She was convinced that women entirely wouldn’t gain their rights or be effective in getting their reforms until they had the right to vote. Although she did not live to see her dream come true, women were in fact given the right to vote I the 19th amendment, and she should be owed deeply for her effortless effort.Though Susan’s punishment wasn’t as severe as Antigone’s, she did succeed in getting what she wanted. Sure, she died before the 19th amendment had been adopted, people should acknowledge her hard work, and dedication she put into fighting for her rights and our rights as well. As a result of my research, you can see that even though Antigone and Susan B. Anthony was born at different times but they still share similarities nonetheless. Their defiance, bravery, and beliefs have gained us better opportunities today. Men and women still aren’t equal to this day, but these two women have brought women a long way from where we once were. | 579 | ENGLISH | 1 |
how did henry viii policies affect the people?
how did henry viii policies affect the people
- 1 decade agoFavorite Answer
Henry VII needed money urgently which he was not getting right now as his income was around 110,000 he thought of ways that he could make money. He later decided that he would break away from the Catholic Church and make the Protestant Church. But Henry knew it would be hard as it was very difficult for kings to control the church. The church was very powerful. It could make people scared and tell them they're going to hell.
As well as getting money by breaking away from the church he also had another reason, he had a quarrel with pope Gregory because Henry wanted a divorce from Catherine of Aragon and at that time they did not believe in divorce so his pledge was refused by pope Gregory.
Henry viii eventually broke away from the Catholic Church and made Thomas Cromwell write bad reports that were reliable such as saying that they were not pure, they wake up late. To get more support as the people might say that the protestant church is better as they are pure.Source(s): my own knowledge
- 1 decade ago
henry the VIII wanted a divorce from his brothers widow which he married
the pope would not grant it
so henry the VIII split from the chatholic church forming the church of england
evenutually becoming the anglican church when his daughter Elizabeth came into power
these decisions impacted the people since they were stripped from their pope and had to follow the king as the head of their church
the king also confiscated the lands of the catholic priests which increased the countries economical standings
[[the catholic church owned more land in england than the king]]
so the king got his divorce
much wealth for the national treasury
started a new churchSource(s): im taking a european history class :D i hate my teacher tho
- 4 years ago
Henry VIII's wives changed his policies because with them, he wasn't able to father a male child. The wives led to him leaving the Catholic church in order to be divorced, and his policies changed because he executed his wives. If you google Anne Boleyn or the other wives, you might find more about their fates...it affected Henry VIII's policies. | <urn:uuid:e8c3ba98-0c00-4025-897e-3824f9f986da> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20071029203225AAxlbU3 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00191.warc.gz | en | 0.992296 | 475 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.2246438860893... | 1 | how did henry viii policies affect the people?
how did henry viii policies affect the people
- 1 decade agoFavorite Answer
Henry VII needed money urgently which he was not getting right now as his income was around 110,000 he thought of ways that he could make money. He later decided that he would break away from the Catholic Church and make the Protestant Church. But Henry knew it would be hard as it was very difficult for kings to control the church. The church was very powerful. It could make people scared and tell them they're going to hell.
As well as getting money by breaking away from the church he also had another reason, he had a quarrel with pope Gregory because Henry wanted a divorce from Catherine of Aragon and at that time they did not believe in divorce so his pledge was refused by pope Gregory.
Henry viii eventually broke away from the Catholic Church and made Thomas Cromwell write bad reports that were reliable such as saying that they were not pure, they wake up late. To get more support as the people might say that the protestant church is better as they are pure.Source(s): my own knowledge
- 1 decade ago
henry the VIII wanted a divorce from his brothers widow which he married
the pope would not grant it
so henry the VIII split from the chatholic church forming the church of england
evenutually becoming the anglican church when his daughter Elizabeth came into power
these decisions impacted the people since they were stripped from their pope and had to follow the king as the head of their church
the king also confiscated the lands of the catholic priests which increased the countries economical standings
[[the catholic church owned more land in england than the king]]
so the king got his divorce
much wealth for the national treasury
started a new churchSource(s): im taking a european history class :D i hate my teacher tho
- 4 years ago
Henry VIII's wives changed his policies because with them, he wasn't able to father a male child. The wives led to him leaving the Catholic church in order to be divorced, and his policies changed because he executed his wives. If you google Anne Boleyn or the other wives, you might find more about their fates...it affected Henry VIII's policies. | 472 | ENGLISH | 1 |
For Americans the US civil war was devastating to civilians and soldiers in ways no war since has affected that nation. While later wars have hit other countries harder, for the US 1861-65 was by far the most traumatic conflict in its history. But wars always affect different groups in different ways, and like most wars, the Civil War also offered opportunities: opportunities for profit, for glory, and for some, for the relief of boredom.
Charles Augustus Hobart (1822-1886) was the third son of an aristocrat, the Earl of Buckinghamshire. Like many in his position, he joined the military, starting a career in the Royal Navy in 1835. In this era the British navy had a special cultural status as the heroes of the Napoleonic wars and the defenders of the empire’s vital trade routes. But opportunities for glory were running short for two reasons: the navy’s global supremacy made major battles unlikely, and all of the seas and oceans outside of the polar regions had been mapped. Even the most talented officers could not repeat Captain Cook’s exploits, because Cook and his peers in the eighteenth century had already ‘discovered’ so much.
Hobart pursued his vocation with energy, but ran up against this problem of the lack of opportunities for glory and honor on waves already ruled by his predecessors. What action existed was less dramatic than Trafalgar. It was off the coast of South America that he saw the most action with his country’s navy in the suppression of the slave trade. In his autobiography he related a number of stories about his daring actions in this campaign, but had less sympathy for the slaves he was supposed to be saving.
After fighting slavers, Hobart spent a couple of years serving on the royal yacht. He was an ideal candidate for such service given his aristocratic background; an asset that was less common among sailors than soldiers. Hobart was also learning his trade at a turning point in naval technology of epochal importance: the dawn of the age of steam. He seems to have adapted to this new technology, which was of such central importance to the growth and maintenance of the British Empire, successfully.
However, he was also a difficult subordinate who annoyed many senior officers (and even, on at least one occasion when he played a prank on the yacht’s animals, Queen Victoria herself). By the time he was promoted to Post Captain (the major step in the career of any naval officer – roughly equivalent to tenure among modern American academics) in the early 1860s he was a captain without a ship. There were more captains than ships (or other commands) to go around. He looked around the world to find work for enthusiastic and talented steamship captains and found a job that well suited to his sympathies, skills and wallet: smuggling for the South in the US civil war.
According to his own account, Hobart (operating under the pseudonym ‘Captain Roberts’) was the most successful of all the ambitious young British commanders who set out to get rich off the Civil War. His memoirs describe a noble asymmetrical battle between Union cruisers and cunning smugglers, aided by gallant Confederate batteries on shore. The smugglers themselves could not fight because this would be a violation of neutrality and would probably lead to executions. But they could lead Union ships a merry chase. On many occasions Hobart was almost caught (and indeed, after he retired his successor who took over his ship was intercepted), but he always found a way to evade the Union cruisers.
Hobart’s status within the British navy hierarchy was not affected by his extra-curricular activities in the Civil War; however, it probably didn’t help his chances of getting a formal command. After the excitement of the war was over Hobart found himself without immediate opportunities for action. Being ambitious and energetic, however, he sought them out and found some people who needed a smuggler to fight smugglers who were supplying Cretan rebels: the Ottoman Empire. A new phase in Hobart’s career was about to begin. | <urn:uuid:f2a51b91-64d4-41fa-bad5-c255f0837c7a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://blogs.cuit.columbia.edu/tjh2121/2014/08/06/hobart-the-smuggler/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00143.warc.gz | en | 0.985532 | 839 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.5034272670... | 2 | For Americans the US civil war was devastating to civilians and soldiers in ways no war since has affected that nation. While later wars have hit other countries harder, for the US 1861-65 was by far the most traumatic conflict in its history. But wars always affect different groups in different ways, and like most wars, the Civil War also offered opportunities: opportunities for profit, for glory, and for some, for the relief of boredom.
Charles Augustus Hobart (1822-1886) was the third son of an aristocrat, the Earl of Buckinghamshire. Like many in his position, he joined the military, starting a career in the Royal Navy in 1835. In this era the British navy had a special cultural status as the heroes of the Napoleonic wars and the defenders of the empire’s vital trade routes. But opportunities for glory were running short for two reasons: the navy’s global supremacy made major battles unlikely, and all of the seas and oceans outside of the polar regions had been mapped. Even the most talented officers could not repeat Captain Cook’s exploits, because Cook and his peers in the eighteenth century had already ‘discovered’ so much.
Hobart pursued his vocation with energy, but ran up against this problem of the lack of opportunities for glory and honor on waves already ruled by his predecessors. What action existed was less dramatic than Trafalgar. It was off the coast of South America that he saw the most action with his country’s navy in the suppression of the slave trade. In his autobiography he related a number of stories about his daring actions in this campaign, but had less sympathy for the slaves he was supposed to be saving.
After fighting slavers, Hobart spent a couple of years serving on the royal yacht. He was an ideal candidate for such service given his aristocratic background; an asset that was less common among sailors than soldiers. Hobart was also learning his trade at a turning point in naval technology of epochal importance: the dawn of the age of steam. He seems to have adapted to this new technology, which was of such central importance to the growth and maintenance of the British Empire, successfully.
However, he was also a difficult subordinate who annoyed many senior officers (and even, on at least one occasion when he played a prank on the yacht’s animals, Queen Victoria herself). By the time he was promoted to Post Captain (the major step in the career of any naval officer – roughly equivalent to tenure among modern American academics) in the early 1860s he was a captain without a ship. There were more captains than ships (or other commands) to go around. He looked around the world to find work for enthusiastic and talented steamship captains and found a job that well suited to his sympathies, skills and wallet: smuggling for the South in the US civil war.
According to his own account, Hobart (operating under the pseudonym ‘Captain Roberts’) was the most successful of all the ambitious young British commanders who set out to get rich off the Civil War. His memoirs describe a noble asymmetrical battle between Union cruisers and cunning smugglers, aided by gallant Confederate batteries on shore. The smugglers themselves could not fight because this would be a violation of neutrality and would probably lead to executions. But they could lead Union ships a merry chase. On many occasions Hobart was almost caught (and indeed, after he retired his successor who took over his ship was intercepted), but he always found a way to evade the Union cruisers.
Hobart’s status within the British navy hierarchy was not affected by his extra-curricular activities in the Civil War; however, it probably didn’t help his chances of getting a formal command. After the excitement of the war was over Hobart found himself without immediate opportunities for action. Being ambitious and energetic, however, he sought them out and found some people who needed a smuggler to fight smugglers who were supplying Cretan rebels: the Ottoman Empire. A new phase in Hobart’s career was about to begin. | 833 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The United States Declaration of Independence, presented to Congress by Thomas Jefferson on June 28, 1776, expresses the ideals that our nation is built upon. When congress voted for the Declaration on July 4, 1776, the unanimous decision of all 13 colonies to secede from the British Empire was made public to a very different world than we know today. Up to that point, self-government had never followed a model quite like the American one. The document laid out the fact that we believe all people to be created free and equal, and that freedom is an inherent right from our natural creator, and that any legitimate elected government exists primarily to secure that right.
The Declaration became official when Congress voted to ratify the document on July 4, 1776. Contrary to popular belief, the famous signatures were not necessary to make the Declaration official. However, those signatures belong to some of the most important names of the revolutionary period and are symbols of the heavy support for declaring independence from King George III. Out of the 56 signatures on the document, three of them belong to prominent Granite Staters of the time. They are Josiah Bartlett, William Whipple, and Matthew Thornton. Often overlooked due to more famous signatures belonging to the likes of John Hancock, Benjamin Franklin, and Thomas Jefferson among others, these New Hampshire delegates led fascinating lives and influenced national public policies in many ways. The purpose of this article is to explore the exciting lives that these men led, and how their actions during the revolutionary period affected our young nation in its formative years.
Josiah Bartlett was born in what is now Amesbury, Massachusetts in 1729. He became a physician and shortly before his 21st birthday moved to Kingston, New Hampshire where he built a home, started a farm, and began his practice. As the only physician practicing in that part of the county at that time, he stayed busy during an outbreak of fever called “Throat Distemper” in the mid-1730s. The illness was often fatal for young children, and a serious disease in adults. When the fever broke out again in the mid-1750s, Bartlett discovered that Peruvian Bark relieved the associated symptoms long enough for the body to recover due to the presence of quinine in the bark.
Bartlett was heavily involved in the political affairs in Kingston, and as the Revolutionary period heated up he was constantly finding himself at odds with the Royal Governor John Wentworth. He was selected as a delegate to the Continental Congress in 1775, and as the only delegate from New Hampshire he served on every committee (Safety, Secrecy, Munitions, Marine, and Civil Government). On July 4, 1776, Josiah Bartlett became the second person to sign the Declaration of Independence, right after John Hancock. He then served on the committee that drafted the Articles of Confederation, and subsequently was the delegate from New Hampshire and Chairman of the convention for the adoption of the United States Constitution. Under this new government, he was selected by the New Hampshire legislature as the United States Senator from New Hampshire, but he declined the position. He was elected the “President of New Hampshire” in 1790, a position which was renamed “Governor of New Hampshire” in 1792. One of his most notable acts as Governor was the creation of the New Hampshire Medical Society, of which he was the first president. He resigned as governor in 1794, and passed away at his home in Kingston in 1795.
William Whipple was born in Kittery, Maine in 1730 and by age 21 had become a ship’s master. He amassed a large fortune working the historically significant triangle trade between New England, Africa and the West Indies. Some historians believe that he worked primarily in the West Indies, however there is at least one account of his ship containing slaves from Africa. He settled in Portsmouth in 1759 and became a merchant and well liked member of the community, which led to his second career in the military and politics.
Whipple was placed in charge of a brigade of four militias during the Battle of Saratoga and was also involved in the Battle of Rhode Island. He served on the Continental Congress as a delegate from New Hampshire until 1779, where he penned his name on the Declaration of Independence. In 1784, William Whipple released his slave, Prince Whipple, to become a freedman believing that no man could fight for freedom while holding another in bondage. After the Revolution he became an Associate Justice of The Superior Court of New Hampshire, and died after fainting from atop his horse while traveling his court circuit.
Matthew Thornton was born in Limerick, Ireland in 1713. At the age of three his family immigrated to America, and settled in Wiscasett, Maine. However, their stay in Maine would end in 1722 as they fled from their burning home after an attack by Native Americans. They re-settled in Worcester, Massachusetts and Matthew later became a physician, eventually opening a practice in Londonderry, New Hampshire. Matthew Thornton was the first President of the New Hampshire House of Representatives, and was elected to the Continental Congress. However, he did not arrive to Philadelphia until after the ratification of the Declaration of Independence. He asked for the privilege to sign in November of 1776, and he was allowed to add his name to the document. Matthew Thornton died in Newburyport, Massachusetts in 1803 at the age of 90 while visiting his daughter. The town of Thornton, New Hampshire is named in his honor.
As we celebrate the fourth of July, all of us on the Smile in Style team hope you and your families find time to celebrate summer together. Here is wishing our doctors, staff, and patients a happy, safe, and fun fourth of July holiday! | <urn:uuid:85dac25d-1403-4f55-acf1-a809dcdfb14f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://drlubaortho.com/new-hampshire-signers-of-the-declaration-of-independence/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00261.warc.gz | en | 0.985405 | 1,188 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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-0.1101415008... | 7 | The United States Declaration of Independence, presented to Congress by Thomas Jefferson on June 28, 1776, expresses the ideals that our nation is built upon. When congress voted for the Declaration on July 4, 1776, the unanimous decision of all 13 colonies to secede from the British Empire was made public to a very different world than we know today. Up to that point, self-government had never followed a model quite like the American one. The document laid out the fact that we believe all people to be created free and equal, and that freedom is an inherent right from our natural creator, and that any legitimate elected government exists primarily to secure that right.
The Declaration became official when Congress voted to ratify the document on July 4, 1776. Contrary to popular belief, the famous signatures were not necessary to make the Declaration official. However, those signatures belong to some of the most important names of the revolutionary period and are symbols of the heavy support for declaring independence from King George III. Out of the 56 signatures on the document, three of them belong to prominent Granite Staters of the time. They are Josiah Bartlett, William Whipple, and Matthew Thornton. Often overlooked due to more famous signatures belonging to the likes of John Hancock, Benjamin Franklin, and Thomas Jefferson among others, these New Hampshire delegates led fascinating lives and influenced national public policies in many ways. The purpose of this article is to explore the exciting lives that these men led, and how their actions during the revolutionary period affected our young nation in its formative years.
Josiah Bartlett was born in what is now Amesbury, Massachusetts in 1729. He became a physician and shortly before his 21st birthday moved to Kingston, New Hampshire where he built a home, started a farm, and began his practice. As the only physician practicing in that part of the county at that time, he stayed busy during an outbreak of fever called “Throat Distemper” in the mid-1730s. The illness was often fatal for young children, and a serious disease in adults. When the fever broke out again in the mid-1750s, Bartlett discovered that Peruvian Bark relieved the associated symptoms long enough for the body to recover due to the presence of quinine in the bark.
Bartlett was heavily involved in the political affairs in Kingston, and as the Revolutionary period heated up he was constantly finding himself at odds with the Royal Governor John Wentworth. He was selected as a delegate to the Continental Congress in 1775, and as the only delegate from New Hampshire he served on every committee (Safety, Secrecy, Munitions, Marine, and Civil Government). On July 4, 1776, Josiah Bartlett became the second person to sign the Declaration of Independence, right after John Hancock. He then served on the committee that drafted the Articles of Confederation, and subsequently was the delegate from New Hampshire and Chairman of the convention for the adoption of the United States Constitution. Under this new government, he was selected by the New Hampshire legislature as the United States Senator from New Hampshire, but he declined the position. He was elected the “President of New Hampshire” in 1790, a position which was renamed “Governor of New Hampshire” in 1792. One of his most notable acts as Governor was the creation of the New Hampshire Medical Society, of which he was the first president. He resigned as governor in 1794, and passed away at his home in Kingston in 1795.
William Whipple was born in Kittery, Maine in 1730 and by age 21 had become a ship’s master. He amassed a large fortune working the historically significant triangle trade between New England, Africa and the West Indies. Some historians believe that he worked primarily in the West Indies, however there is at least one account of his ship containing slaves from Africa. He settled in Portsmouth in 1759 and became a merchant and well liked member of the community, which led to his second career in the military and politics.
Whipple was placed in charge of a brigade of four militias during the Battle of Saratoga and was also involved in the Battle of Rhode Island. He served on the Continental Congress as a delegate from New Hampshire until 1779, where he penned his name on the Declaration of Independence. In 1784, William Whipple released his slave, Prince Whipple, to become a freedman believing that no man could fight for freedom while holding another in bondage. After the Revolution he became an Associate Justice of The Superior Court of New Hampshire, and died after fainting from atop his horse while traveling his court circuit.
Matthew Thornton was born in Limerick, Ireland in 1713. At the age of three his family immigrated to America, and settled in Wiscasett, Maine. However, their stay in Maine would end in 1722 as they fled from their burning home after an attack by Native Americans. They re-settled in Worcester, Massachusetts and Matthew later became a physician, eventually opening a practice in Londonderry, New Hampshire. Matthew Thornton was the first President of the New Hampshire House of Representatives, and was elected to the Continental Congress. However, he did not arrive to Philadelphia until after the ratification of the Declaration of Independence. He asked for the privilege to sign in November of 1776, and he was allowed to add his name to the document. Matthew Thornton died in Newburyport, Massachusetts in 1803 at the age of 90 while visiting his daughter. The town of Thornton, New Hampshire is named in his honor.
As we celebrate the fourth of July, all of us on the Smile in Style team hope you and your families find time to celebrate summer together. Here is wishing our doctors, staff, and patients a happy, safe, and fun fourth of July holiday! | 1,243 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The king of Dal Riada, Kenneth MacAlpin, wanted to become king of Pictland too. He firstly dealt with the Vikings by letting them keep everything they had conquered and marrying off his children to powerful members of their tribe. He also joined forces with the Vikings to take on the Britons. He kept both the Scotti and the Picts happy by respecting their respective churches and customs and giving his children Scotti and Pictish names. He employed a storyteller to invent stories about him to tell of his bravery and noble bloodline. Kenneth MacAlpin was a clever, ruthless and successful king, and after his reign, the Picts and the Scotti were united.
In groups ask pupils to list all the things that Kenneth MacAlpin did to unite the Scotti and Picts. Similarly get them to list the advantages and disadvantages of Kenneth MacAlpin being king, from the Picts' point of view. Ask pupils to research why St Andrews was important as a religious site. Discuss with your class why we need to speculate about Kenneth MacAlpin’s actions due to the lack of written evidence. | <urn:uuid:ab9d7669-9d04-4431-b745-8df5581e9ae2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/clips/zmbrkqt | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00450.warc.gz | en | 0.987508 | 230 | 4 | 4 | [
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0.417554736137390... | 1 | The king of Dal Riada, Kenneth MacAlpin, wanted to become king of Pictland too. He firstly dealt with the Vikings by letting them keep everything they had conquered and marrying off his children to powerful members of their tribe. He also joined forces with the Vikings to take on the Britons. He kept both the Scotti and the Picts happy by respecting their respective churches and customs and giving his children Scotti and Pictish names. He employed a storyteller to invent stories about him to tell of his bravery and noble bloodline. Kenneth MacAlpin was a clever, ruthless and successful king, and after his reign, the Picts and the Scotti were united.
In groups ask pupils to list all the things that Kenneth MacAlpin did to unite the Scotti and Picts. Similarly get them to list the advantages and disadvantages of Kenneth MacAlpin being king, from the Picts' point of view. Ask pupils to research why St Andrews was important as a religious site. Discuss with your class why we need to speculate about Kenneth MacAlpin’s actions due to the lack of written evidence. | 228 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Susie King Taylor Biography
In spite of her birth as a slave, Susie King Taylor managed to obtain an education and became a famous nurse and teacher in the Civil War era. As an early advocate for human rights, she learned to judge people not by color but by actions.
Biography of Susie King Taylor - Early Life
In 1848, Susie King Taylor was born as Susan Ann Baker, the first of nine children. Her parents were slaves on the Grest plantation in Liberty County, Georgia. The Grests were childless and treated the Baker children with great kindness. This had a great influence on how Susie later viewed relationships between the races. When she was seven, the Grests allowed Susie and her brother to go to Savannah, Georgia, to live with their grandmother, a freed slave. At that time, it was illegal to educate black children, but their grandmother was determined to educate her grandchildren and sent them to a neighbor who conducted a secret school in her home. They and other students had to hide their books and go in and out of the house one by one to avoid suspicion. Later, Susie was instructed by a Mrs. Mary Beasley and then by a white playmate. All of this was done in secret. Her last teacher was the white son of her grandmother’s landlord. He taught her until the Civil War started, and he was sent to war and she returned to live with her mother.
Susie King Taylor's Military and Nursing Career
In 1862, Susie’s uncle escaped with his family and Susie to St. Simon’s Island where they were liberated behind the Union lines. While there, the Union officers noted Susie’s education, and she was asked to form a school for the many liberated slave children. She was the first African-American teacher for freed slaves, and taught the children as well as adults until the island was evacuated in October 1862.
While at St. Simon’s, Susie met and married Edward King, a black army sergeant who was with the 1st South Carolina Infantry Volunteers that later was called the 33rd Regiment, U.S. Colored Troops. She became a part of the regiment and was given the job as laundress but, because of her education and skills, soon was given many more responsibilities. She traveled with the regiment and in 1863, began nursing the sick and wounded. She used a combination of traditional and folk remedies that she had been taught. After caring for patients with smallpox, she maintained that sassafras tea kept her healthy.
Susie often went to the hospital for African-American soldiers in Beaumont, South Carolina. While there, she met and worked with Clara Barton, the Civil War nurse who later founded the American Red Cross. In her memoirs, Susie would say she was grateful that her efforts were appreciated. For four years and three months, she served without pay of any kind.
After the Civil War
When the war was over, Susie and her husband, Edward, moved back to Savannah, Georgia, where she opened a school for the freed slave children. In September 1866, Edward died suddenly while she was pregnant with their first child. Following this, Susie moved back to Liberty County for a while and then returned to Savannah where she supported herself by teaching. When free schools were established in the 1870s, Susie lost her income from tuition and was forced to take a job as a domestic servant. When her employers moved to Boston, she went with them and lived there for the rest of her life. In 1879, she married Russell Taylor.
Even though Susie no longer worked as a nurse, she still loved nursing. She served the war veterans by joining the Women’s Relief Corps, eventually becoming president and working for them the rest of her life. Despite all her work both before and after the war, Susie was not given a military pension because of a technicality. The commanding officer of the First South Carolina Volunteers sent her a letter that said he regretted this because there was no one more deserving than her.
In 1902, Susie published her memoirs, becoming the first African-American nurse to write about her wartime experiences. In her memoirs, she expressed her disappointment that there were still injustices toward black people after the war. She stated that the South would be the only place to live if they were only allowed justice.
The Nursing Legacy of Susie King Taylor
Susie King Taylor left a legacy of hard work and devotion to duty, no matter what the circumstances. She did not judge people by their color but by their actions and expected others to do the same. She deserves to be included in the prestigious list of famous nurses because of the impact she had on so many lives.
Nursing Resources and More Information About Susie King Taylor
- A Black Woman’s Civil War Memoirs: Reminiscences of My Life in Camp With the 33rd U.S. Colored Troops, Late 1st South Carolina Volunteers
- Reading, ‘Riting, and Reconstruction: The Education of Freedmen in the South, 1861-1870 (African American Studies)
- Susie King Taylor Civil War Nurse
- A Freedom Bought with Blood: African American War Literature from the Civil War to World War II
- Susie King Taylor: Destined to Be Free
- Georgia Women: Their Lives and Times, Volume 1 (Southern Women: Their Lives and Times) | <urn:uuid:b363569f-30e5-4211-b307-e0d502bedd26> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://nursing-theory.org/famous-nurses/Susie-King-Taylor.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00379.warc.gz | en | 0.988479 | 1,133 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.35274663567... | 16 | Susie King Taylor Biography
In spite of her birth as a slave, Susie King Taylor managed to obtain an education and became a famous nurse and teacher in the Civil War era. As an early advocate for human rights, she learned to judge people not by color but by actions.
Biography of Susie King Taylor - Early Life
In 1848, Susie King Taylor was born as Susan Ann Baker, the first of nine children. Her parents were slaves on the Grest plantation in Liberty County, Georgia. The Grests were childless and treated the Baker children with great kindness. This had a great influence on how Susie later viewed relationships between the races. When she was seven, the Grests allowed Susie and her brother to go to Savannah, Georgia, to live with their grandmother, a freed slave. At that time, it was illegal to educate black children, but their grandmother was determined to educate her grandchildren and sent them to a neighbor who conducted a secret school in her home. They and other students had to hide their books and go in and out of the house one by one to avoid suspicion. Later, Susie was instructed by a Mrs. Mary Beasley and then by a white playmate. All of this was done in secret. Her last teacher was the white son of her grandmother’s landlord. He taught her until the Civil War started, and he was sent to war and she returned to live with her mother.
Susie King Taylor's Military and Nursing Career
In 1862, Susie’s uncle escaped with his family and Susie to St. Simon’s Island where they were liberated behind the Union lines. While there, the Union officers noted Susie’s education, and she was asked to form a school for the many liberated slave children. She was the first African-American teacher for freed slaves, and taught the children as well as adults until the island was evacuated in October 1862.
While at St. Simon’s, Susie met and married Edward King, a black army sergeant who was with the 1st South Carolina Infantry Volunteers that later was called the 33rd Regiment, U.S. Colored Troops. She became a part of the regiment and was given the job as laundress but, because of her education and skills, soon was given many more responsibilities. She traveled with the regiment and in 1863, began nursing the sick and wounded. She used a combination of traditional and folk remedies that she had been taught. After caring for patients with smallpox, she maintained that sassafras tea kept her healthy.
Susie often went to the hospital for African-American soldiers in Beaumont, South Carolina. While there, she met and worked with Clara Barton, the Civil War nurse who later founded the American Red Cross. In her memoirs, Susie would say she was grateful that her efforts were appreciated. For four years and three months, she served without pay of any kind.
After the Civil War
When the war was over, Susie and her husband, Edward, moved back to Savannah, Georgia, where she opened a school for the freed slave children. In September 1866, Edward died suddenly while she was pregnant with their first child. Following this, Susie moved back to Liberty County for a while and then returned to Savannah where she supported herself by teaching. When free schools were established in the 1870s, Susie lost her income from tuition and was forced to take a job as a domestic servant. When her employers moved to Boston, she went with them and lived there for the rest of her life. In 1879, she married Russell Taylor.
Even though Susie no longer worked as a nurse, she still loved nursing. She served the war veterans by joining the Women’s Relief Corps, eventually becoming president and working for them the rest of her life. Despite all her work both before and after the war, Susie was not given a military pension because of a technicality. The commanding officer of the First South Carolina Volunteers sent her a letter that said he regretted this because there was no one more deserving than her.
In 1902, Susie published her memoirs, becoming the first African-American nurse to write about her wartime experiences. In her memoirs, she expressed her disappointment that there were still injustices toward black people after the war. She stated that the South would be the only place to live if they were only allowed justice.
The Nursing Legacy of Susie King Taylor
Susie King Taylor left a legacy of hard work and devotion to duty, no matter what the circumstances. She did not judge people by their color but by their actions and expected others to do the same. She deserves to be included in the prestigious list of famous nurses because of the impact she had on so many lives.
Nursing Resources and More Information About Susie King Taylor
- A Black Woman’s Civil War Memoirs: Reminiscences of My Life in Camp With the 33rd U.S. Colored Troops, Late 1st South Carolina Volunteers
- Reading, ‘Riting, and Reconstruction: The Education of Freedmen in the South, 1861-1870 (African American Studies)
- Susie King Taylor Civil War Nurse
- A Freedom Bought with Blood: African American War Literature from the Civil War to World War II
- Susie King Taylor: Destined to Be Free
- Georgia Women: Their Lives and Times, Volume 1 (Southern Women: Their Lives and Times) | 1,146 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The protesters goals and the problems faced by protesters when they tried to achieve the goals
In Montgomery Alabama blacks were not allowed to sit in front of buses. The African American made up a bulk of the passengers and boycotted using the buses and by that it crippled the mass transit in Montgomery system. There was segregation of black American s by the white and there may aim was to ensure that equality is observed and each and every person to be treated with respect amongst the communities whether black or white (Clay, 1981). The south was very poor because of the rigid segregation of Africans Americans who were politically and economically powerless.
The other goals they wanted to achieve were to stop the white Americans from oppressing the African American domestic workers who were named the Bronx slave Market. The Africans Americans were mistreated at there work stations by the white compatriots, thus the exploitation of the unique black American women sexually. Racial factor also came up with African Americans who were judged according to their skin color and not allowed to attend to some cores. All this was a hinder in development of African Americans who fought hard to end them (Clay, 1981).
The African Americans were poor for they were discriminated all round. There children were not allowed to mix or attend the same schools with the white Americans, through these there was inequality in quality of education offered in the institutions. They ended up missing job opportunities due to the poor skills compared to the white Americans who attended schools with standard facilities getting quality skills which secure them jobs. In the job market the African American is termed in-competitive leading to lack of jobs which increase the poverty level tying them to domestic service. To abolish this kind of discrimination was another goal they fought to achieve (Langston, 1962).
They faced dehumanizing experience ridicule from the respectable wage earners and also fraudulent from employment agencies which bilked workers wages and their main objective here was to economic justice to through political struggles. Most jobs were central to the critics of racism, sexism and classism which made struggle against them indispensable in dismantling of economic oppression which aimed in ending all these. They were arrested and prosecuted when protesting and others were even killed during the protests by the police (Langston, 1962).
With the protests in Birmingham, Alabama (Spring 1963), the Civil Rights Movement “surged to life”
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Wht were King’s goals in Birmingham?
In 1960s Birmingham, Alabama was very risky whereby both blacks and whites lost their lives through bombs which could explode anytime in streets. The dozen of bombings were committed by unknown terrorists. The black homes were usually the targets of the explosions in that the victims are dealt with after committing an offense against the white supremacy rigid structure (Levering, 1978).
Rev. Fred Shuttlesworth of Birmingham went ahead inviting king and SCLC to the city for it had some eighteen unsolved bombings in the black neighborhoods and vicious mob attack on freedom riders on 1961s mother’s day. When the king and SCLC met project C was launched and by 1963 the staging of SCLC sit-ins released a Manifesto for Birmingham but it was largely ignored by the reporters but it brought much impact. The king was arrested after long debate on Project C plan on Good Friday. His plan was to change Birmingham and he wrote in a letter from the jail (Levering, 1978).
After the king was released on April 20th SCLC had started plan D. they used children in this plans to pass their voices through demonstration. Through that the demonstration escalated for the jails were filled and the police after fighting with children’s for long did not know what to do instead went ahead to back down. Finally Birmingham communities in business agreed to integrate lunch and hire blacks fearing the damage to the downtown stores over objections of the city officials and the king emerged victorious (Levering, 1978).
What challenges did activists confront in achieving these goals?
In the beginning of April, small groups of the activists were launching counters and they were arrested repeatedly, 40 people being marched daily to city hall and being arrested every time. In addition to that, continuation of protests and the arrests attracted attention from national media leading to injunction of city officials in few days making all racial demonstrations illegal(Doug, 1982).
The protesters underwent oppression from police who charged into the park with their batons and whipped anyone within their reach; the bystanders were also included in the beating. The police went ahead releasing dogs that bite and injured other activists with protesters.
The activists were also oppressed by being denied rights to demonstrate and exercise their political rights and other rights e.g. social life of converging in meetings. The defiant activists were put under bars and separated from the city people or protesters.
In what ways was Birmingham a stunnning success for the movement
People worked together and sacrificed more for the change they fought for. They used their most nonviolent weapon which was powerful as expected and also the most demanding organization. People started working together as unity is power, the units can be political, economic or laboring units (Doug, 1982). They managed to convince and organize people into permanent groups through civil rights movement that protected their own interest producing change on their behalf.
People started living together where each developed his or her own job with houses to live in. their children also received much education which was quality with no discrimination between them and the white children. They also accomplished through suffering for others and ensured rejection of materialism, racism and violence which had characterized the western civilization through working towards a world of cooperation, peace and brotherhood.
The Watts riot in Los Angeles, 1966. In 1966, King carried his movement from southern states into the northern city of Chicago. In what ways did the problems of northern-west coast, urban black Americans differ from those in the South?
Personalities are one of the differences between them in that many southerners exude warmth with hospitality for the religion became famous unlike northerners who are not friendly. The other difference is family, culture and religion. To southern blacks, even if it means to the poor and working people within communities in south, the church is central with a sense of family in the communities for they respect each other and stay together, also there is more escapism than drug engagement unlike in north where there is no family respect and poor discipline in the community members (Doug, 1982).
The southerner’s elders act as role models to the children through tradition of taking care of one another while in north togetherness is not experienced and life for an individual not community (Doug, 1982). The relationship between male and female also differs from both sides. Northern women are admired mostly by men because of their sophistication and sense of style including manners unlike the southern ones who are praised for their charm, domestic skills and sensuality.
Why the kings efforts where ultimately unsuccessful here
They never engaged in uniting as one also not forming organizations to fight for their rights which made it impossible for an individual to manage the fight alone. Trust amongst them was minimal for each and every person fought personally making the kings movement paralyzed.
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0.2247122526168823... | 1 | The protesters goals and the problems faced by protesters when they tried to achieve the goals
In Montgomery Alabama blacks were not allowed to sit in front of buses. The African American made up a bulk of the passengers and boycotted using the buses and by that it crippled the mass transit in Montgomery system. There was segregation of black American s by the white and there may aim was to ensure that equality is observed and each and every person to be treated with respect amongst the communities whether black or white (Clay, 1981). The south was very poor because of the rigid segregation of Africans Americans who were politically and economically powerless.
The other goals they wanted to achieve were to stop the white Americans from oppressing the African American domestic workers who were named the Bronx slave Market. The Africans Americans were mistreated at there work stations by the white compatriots, thus the exploitation of the unique black American women sexually. Racial factor also came up with African Americans who were judged according to their skin color and not allowed to attend to some cores. All this was a hinder in development of African Americans who fought hard to end them (Clay, 1981).
The African Americans were poor for they were discriminated all round. There children were not allowed to mix or attend the same schools with the white Americans, through these there was inequality in quality of education offered in the institutions. They ended up missing job opportunities due to the poor skills compared to the white Americans who attended schools with standard facilities getting quality skills which secure them jobs. In the job market the African American is termed in-competitive leading to lack of jobs which increase the poverty level tying them to domestic service. To abolish this kind of discrimination was another goal they fought to achieve (Langston, 1962).
They faced dehumanizing experience ridicule from the respectable wage earners and also fraudulent from employment agencies which bilked workers wages and their main objective here was to economic justice to through political struggles. Most jobs were central to the critics of racism, sexism and classism which made struggle against them indispensable in dismantling of economic oppression which aimed in ending all these. They were arrested and prosecuted when protesting and others were even killed during the protests by the police (Langston, 1962).
With the protests in Birmingham, Alabama (Spring 1963), the Civil Rights Movement “surged to life”
First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service
- Your research paper is written by a PhD professor
- Your requirements and targets are always met
- You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment
- You get a chance to become an excellent student!
Wht were King’s goals in Birmingham?
In 1960s Birmingham, Alabama was very risky whereby both blacks and whites lost their lives through bombs which could explode anytime in streets. The dozen of bombings were committed by unknown terrorists. The black homes were usually the targets of the explosions in that the victims are dealt with after committing an offense against the white supremacy rigid structure (Levering, 1978).
Rev. Fred Shuttlesworth of Birmingham went ahead inviting king and SCLC to the city for it had some eighteen unsolved bombings in the black neighborhoods and vicious mob attack on freedom riders on 1961s mother’s day. When the king and SCLC met project C was launched and by 1963 the staging of SCLC sit-ins released a Manifesto for Birmingham but it was largely ignored by the reporters but it brought much impact. The king was arrested after long debate on Project C plan on Good Friday. His plan was to change Birmingham and he wrote in a letter from the jail (Levering, 1978).
After the king was released on April 20th SCLC had started plan D. they used children in this plans to pass their voices through demonstration. Through that the demonstration escalated for the jails were filled and the police after fighting with children’s for long did not know what to do instead went ahead to back down. Finally Birmingham communities in business agreed to integrate lunch and hire blacks fearing the damage to the downtown stores over objections of the city officials and the king emerged victorious (Levering, 1978).
What challenges did activists confront in achieving these goals?
In the beginning of April, small groups of the activists were launching counters and they were arrested repeatedly, 40 people being marched daily to city hall and being arrested every time. In addition to that, continuation of protests and the arrests attracted attention from national media leading to injunction of city officials in few days making all racial demonstrations illegal(Doug, 1982).
The protesters underwent oppression from police who charged into the park with their batons and whipped anyone within their reach; the bystanders were also included in the beating. The police went ahead releasing dogs that bite and injured other activists with protesters.
The activists were also oppressed by being denied rights to demonstrate and exercise their political rights and other rights e.g. social life of converging in meetings. The defiant activists were put under bars and separated from the city people or protesters.
In what ways was Birmingham a stunnning success for the movement
People worked together and sacrificed more for the change they fought for. They used their most nonviolent weapon which was powerful as expected and also the most demanding organization. People started working together as unity is power, the units can be political, economic or laboring units (Doug, 1982). They managed to convince and organize people into permanent groups through civil rights movement that protected their own interest producing change on their behalf.
People started living together where each developed his or her own job with houses to live in. their children also received much education which was quality with no discrimination between them and the white children. They also accomplished through suffering for others and ensured rejection of materialism, racism and violence which had characterized the western civilization through working towards a world of cooperation, peace and brotherhood.
The Watts riot in Los Angeles, 1966. In 1966, King carried his movement from southern states into the northern city of Chicago. In what ways did the problems of northern-west coast, urban black Americans differ from those in the South?
Personalities are one of the differences between them in that many southerners exude warmth with hospitality for the religion became famous unlike northerners who are not friendly. The other difference is family, culture and religion. To southern blacks, even if it means to the poor and working people within communities in south, the church is central with a sense of family in the communities for they respect each other and stay together, also there is more escapism than drug engagement unlike in north where there is no family respect and poor discipline in the community members (Doug, 1982).
The southerner’s elders act as role models to the children through tradition of taking care of one another while in north togetherness is not experienced and life for an individual not community (Doug, 1982). The relationship between male and female also differs from both sides. Northern women are admired mostly by men because of their sophistication and sense of style including manners unlike the southern ones who are praised for their charm, domestic skills and sensuality.
Why the kings efforts where ultimately unsuccessful here
They never engaged in uniting as one also not forming organizations to fight for their rights which made it impossible for an individual to manage the fight alone. Trust amongst them was minimal for each and every person fought personally making the kings movement paralyzed.
Most popular orders | 1,544 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Born July 2, 1908 to an interracial family, and as the grandson of a slave, Thurgood Marshall was destined to face the hardships of being a black American. He was able to overcome the difficulties of growing up in his time and became one of the most influential figures in the history of civil rights, yet he is often overlooked in the most popular accounts of the movement.
His childhood in Baltimore, Maryland was surrounded by the community's outcry for equality. They had fought for equal rights since the civil war and worked hard to establish their own schools so they could teach their children their own values. His father, William Marshall had instilled in him from an early age a great appreciation for the constitution and the rule of law.
Marshall graduated with honors from the historically black Lincoln University in 1930 then applied to the University of Maryland Law School but was denied acceptance because he was black. That same year he was accepted to Howard University Law School where he graduated as valedictorian in 1933.
Shortly after graduating, Marshall won his first major case when he sued the University of Maryland for not accepting a black Amherst University graduate who clearly qualified for admission. In 1934 Marshall started working for the Baltimore branch of the NAACP and won 29 of the 32 major cases he fought. In 1954 Marshall won the crucial case of Brown versus Board of Education of Topeka ending the separation of black and white students in public schools. This victory spurred the civil rights movement of the 1960's and increased the number of black high school and college graduates.
President Kennedy appointed Marshall to the US Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit in 1961 and he became circuit judge. All 112 rulings he made were ultimately upheld by the Supreme Court. Lyndon Johnson appointed Marshall US Solicitor General in 1965 and he won 14 of the 19 cases he argued for the government. | <urn:uuid:f87c7cf8-3b31-427e-884b-57fb4f262b73> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/64245.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00223.warc.gz | en | 0.983336 | 371 | 4.4375 | 4 | [
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0.02669387... | 7 | Born July 2, 1908 to an interracial family, and as the grandson of a slave, Thurgood Marshall was destined to face the hardships of being a black American. He was able to overcome the difficulties of growing up in his time and became one of the most influential figures in the history of civil rights, yet he is often overlooked in the most popular accounts of the movement.
His childhood in Baltimore, Maryland was surrounded by the community's outcry for equality. They had fought for equal rights since the civil war and worked hard to establish their own schools so they could teach their children their own values. His father, William Marshall had instilled in him from an early age a great appreciation for the constitution and the rule of law.
Marshall graduated with honors from the historically black Lincoln University in 1930 then applied to the University of Maryland Law School but was denied acceptance because he was black. That same year he was accepted to Howard University Law School where he graduated as valedictorian in 1933.
Shortly after graduating, Marshall won his first major case when he sued the University of Maryland for not accepting a black Amherst University graduate who clearly qualified for admission. In 1934 Marshall started working for the Baltimore branch of the NAACP and won 29 of the 32 major cases he fought. In 1954 Marshall won the crucial case of Brown versus Board of Education of Topeka ending the separation of black and white students in public schools. This victory spurred the civil rights movement of the 1960's and increased the number of black high school and college graduates.
President Kennedy appointed Marshall to the US Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit in 1961 and he became circuit judge. All 112 rulings he made were ultimately upheld by the Supreme Court. Lyndon Johnson appointed Marshall US Solicitor General in 1965 and he won 14 of the 19 cases he argued for the government. | 412 | ENGLISH | 1 |
As we continue to encourage creativity, the girls are drawn to areas of the clasroom where new provocations quickly get their interest for creating stories through play. This week, the playdough table helped create stories about snowmen and what they might be doing. The Story Workshop table included many loose parts for the girls to imagine and build a story. They loved having winter animals, trees, snowmen, small blocks, pinecones and small cotton balls to play with and "build' stories. A few of them even went to another area of the classroom to find an addtional "loose parts" to add to their story! We were thrilled with the stories that their "thinking" could create and would love to share two of these fun, imaginative stories.
"My story is about the cat, the polar bear, and the penguin. The penguin was sliding into the cat and then another penguin said"hello" to the dog and the dog said she was doing fine and said "hello' too. Then the polar bear came to see everybody. They all started looking at the tree. I'm going to put snowballs on the tree because it is cold! Then they all lined up in a straight line because they want to climb up the tree. Then they all fell out of the tree because they were trying to reach the star on the top! The snowman is laughing at all the animals"!
Another Great Story
"My snowman is going to the store.. He is hungry and wants to get something to eat. He loves to eat toast! He has a purple hat on and a purple nose. His friend is with him and he will eat toast too! When they get home they will play with each other because they are friends. The sun might come out and melt them!!" | <urn:uuid:2214705b-e81a-4590-85a5-0d9baae2a23a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://hutchisonpk.weebly.com/allenburt/story-workshopstories-are-everywhere | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00531.warc.gz | en | 0.984088 | 368 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.322726786136... | 1 | As we continue to encourage creativity, the girls are drawn to areas of the clasroom where new provocations quickly get their interest for creating stories through play. This week, the playdough table helped create stories about snowmen and what they might be doing. The Story Workshop table included many loose parts for the girls to imagine and build a story. They loved having winter animals, trees, snowmen, small blocks, pinecones and small cotton balls to play with and "build' stories. A few of them even went to another area of the classroom to find an addtional "loose parts" to add to their story! We were thrilled with the stories that their "thinking" could create and would love to share two of these fun, imaginative stories.
"My story is about the cat, the polar bear, and the penguin. The penguin was sliding into the cat and then another penguin said"hello" to the dog and the dog said she was doing fine and said "hello' too. Then the polar bear came to see everybody. They all started looking at the tree. I'm going to put snowballs on the tree because it is cold! Then they all lined up in a straight line because they want to climb up the tree. Then they all fell out of the tree because they were trying to reach the star on the top! The snowman is laughing at all the animals"!
Another Great Story
"My snowman is going to the store.. He is hungry and wants to get something to eat. He loves to eat toast! He has a purple hat on and a purple nose. His friend is with him and he will eat toast too! When they get home they will play with each other because they are friends. The sun might come out and melt them!!" | 365 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The exhibition, originally organized by Paul Roberts of the Ashmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology, University of Oxford, brings to San Francisco magnificent Roman sculpture, mosaics, and frescoes, as well as cups, utensils, and silver dining services for banquets to reveal how the ancients (like today’s San Franciscans) loved to eat and drink. It also offers a glimpse of how the food and wine were produced and distributed before being brought to the kitchens and ultimately to the dining tables. The exhibition also looks at the different areas of the house in which food and drink played a major role. Entering from the street, the presentation takes the visitor through the atrium with its shrine into the garden at the center of the house with its fruit trees and medicinal plants. An entire wall of frescoes from a summer dining room, open to the fresh air at one end, has been brought from Pompeii for this exhibition.
Excavations in 1984 of Villa B at Oplontis, near Pompeii, uncovered a vaulted storage room containing more than 60 people who were killed in the eruption. Archaeologists made casts of some of the victims by pouring plaster of Paris into the voids in the ash, left by the bodies. One of these was cast in wax and then in resin. This unique, transparent cast shows the bones, skull, and teeth of a woman, as well as the possessions she carried—from gold jewelry to a string of cheap beads. The “Lady of Oplontis,” as she is called, is stronger than the other casts and therefore able to be brought to San Francisco as a witness to the terrible events of AD 79. She is one of thousands of people who had lived in and around Pompeii and met an unexpected and sudden end.
Last Supper in Pompeii also sheds light on the drink imbibed and food consumed, based on close examination of tiny remnants on dishes and vessels. Although some eatables were imported from abroad, most provisions were produced locally. Pompeii was fortunate that it basked in a mild climate and was surrounded by the vineyard-covered slopes of Mount Vesuvius. Grains, vegetables, and fruits, including olives as well as grapes (especially for wine), were produced and processed locally, and flocks and herds were fattened nearby; fish was harvested at the coast. One of the most interesting items in the exhibition that may surprise visitors is a container that was used to hold and fatten dormice, one of the delicacies of the Roman table.
The gods and superstition were everywhere in Pompeian life, and the exhibition includes images of many of these deities. Bacchus, the god of the vine, is well represented. His followers, including satyrs and maenads with their lustful ritual and revelry, form a special part of the exhibition. Coming primarily from the “Secret Cabinet” of the Naples National Museum of Archaeology, some of these lively and lascivious scenes tell of the importance of fertility in the worship of this god. Most of the works in this fascinating exhibition have never before left Italy. | <urn:uuid:c9f1b391-a712-433a-a24c-93f6b9dd3f8c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://legionofhonor.famsf.org/exhibitions/pompeii | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00463.warc.gz | en | 0.983025 | 650 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.5620174407958... | 12 | The exhibition, originally organized by Paul Roberts of the Ashmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology, University of Oxford, brings to San Francisco magnificent Roman sculpture, mosaics, and frescoes, as well as cups, utensils, and silver dining services for banquets to reveal how the ancients (like today’s San Franciscans) loved to eat and drink. It also offers a glimpse of how the food and wine were produced and distributed before being brought to the kitchens and ultimately to the dining tables. The exhibition also looks at the different areas of the house in which food and drink played a major role. Entering from the street, the presentation takes the visitor through the atrium with its shrine into the garden at the center of the house with its fruit trees and medicinal plants. An entire wall of frescoes from a summer dining room, open to the fresh air at one end, has been brought from Pompeii for this exhibition.
Excavations in 1984 of Villa B at Oplontis, near Pompeii, uncovered a vaulted storage room containing more than 60 people who were killed in the eruption. Archaeologists made casts of some of the victims by pouring plaster of Paris into the voids in the ash, left by the bodies. One of these was cast in wax and then in resin. This unique, transparent cast shows the bones, skull, and teeth of a woman, as well as the possessions she carried—from gold jewelry to a string of cheap beads. The “Lady of Oplontis,” as she is called, is stronger than the other casts and therefore able to be brought to San Francisco as a witness to the terrible events of AD 79. She is one of thousands of people who had lived in and around Pompeii and met an unexpected and sudden end.
Last Supper in Pompeii also sheds light on the drink imbibed and food consumed, based on close examination of tiny remnants on dishes and vessels. Although some eatables were imported from abroad, most provisions were produced locally. Pompeii was fortunate that it basked in a mild climate and was surrounded by the vineyard-covered slopes of Mount Vesuvius. Grains, vegetables, and fruits, including olives as well as grapes (especially for wine), were produced and processed locally, and flocks and herds were fattened nearby; fish was harvested at the coast. One of the most interesting items in the exhibition that may surprise visitors is a container that was used to hold and fatten dormice, one of the delicacies of the Roman table.
The gods and superstition were everywhere in Pompeian life, and the exhibition includes images of many of these deities. Bacchus, the god of the vine, is well represented. His followers, including satyrs and maenads with their lustful ritual and revelry, form a special part of the exhibition. Coming primarily from the “Secret Cabinet” of the Naples National Museum of Archaeology, some of these lively and lascivious scenes tell of the importance of fertility in the worship of this god. Most of the works in this fascinating exhibition have never before left Italy. | 644 | ENGLISH | 1 |
King Henry VIII had six wives, and he had two of them beheaded. His first wife got off easy with a divorce. That divorce led to the Reformation in England?
Henry VIII wanted a son. He and his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, could not have one. In 1526, he fell in love with a woman named Anne Boleyn. He wanted to divorce Catherine, but he had to ask the pope to allow it. Pope Clement VII refused, so Henry decided he didn’t need the pope. He named himself ruler of all religious activity in England. He shut down the Catholic monasteries and took all their wealth for himself. He split away from the Catholic Church and Rome.
By the time Henry died, Bibles in England were in English, not Latin. When Queen Elizabeth I, his daughter, was crowned, England officially became a Protestant nation in 1559. | <urn:uuid:df1a9701-2d14-44a4-aa99-b50b68c807f6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://online.kidsdiscover.com/unit/renaissance-and-reformation/topic/the-reformation-takes-hold/1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00511.warc.gz | en | 0.991907 | 186 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.099676... | 2 | King Henry VIII had six wives, and he had two of them beheaded. His first wife got off easy with a divorce. That divorce led to the Reformation in England?
Henry VIII wanted a son. He and his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, could not have one. In 1526, he fell in love with a woman named Anne Boleyn. He wanted to divorce Catherine, but he had to ask the pope to allow it. Pope Clement VII refused, so Henry decided he didn’t need the pope. He named himself ruler of all religious activity in England. He shut down the Catholic monasteries and took all their wealth for himself. He split away from the Catholic Church and Rome.
By the time Henry died, Bibles in England were in English, not Latin. When Queen Elizabeth I, his daughter, was crowned, England officially became a Protestant nation in 1559. | 188 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Outlawry as an Instrument of Justice in the Thirteenth Century
This chapter examines the use of outlawry as a penalty for felony during the thirteenth century. It outlines the structure of the justice system as established in the later twelfth century. The foundations and structure of the administration of justice in the thirteenth century were firmly laid by the great reforms of Henry II during the years 1154-89. The majority of outlaws arising from an eyre were those named by juries or witnesses as suspected of crime and who had fled rather than risking instant hanging by coming before the justices. The interface between women and outlawry was very different from that experienced by men. The passion of Norman and Angevin kings for hunting the deer and for maintaining exclusive hunting rights in vast areas of designated forest carried with it a set of laws regarding the use of the forest which greatly oppressed the many that owned land, or lived and worked, within the forest. | <urn:uuid:a60f5dd9-c557-474f-873d-0c63676c2141> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/e/9781315599236/chapters/10.4324/9781315599236-3 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00238.warc.gz | en | 0.981271 | 193 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.01343822... | 1 | Outlawry as an Instrument of Justice in the Thirteenth Century
This chapter examines the use of outlawry as a penalty for felony during the thirteenth century. It outlines the structure of the justice system as established in the later twelfth century. The foundations and structure of the administration of justice in the thirteenth century were firmly laid by the great reforms of Henry II during the years 1154-89. The majority of outlaws arising from an eyre were those named by juries or witnesses as suspected of crime and who had fled rather than risking instant hanging by coming before the justices. The interface between women and outlawry was very different from that experienced by men. The passion of Norman and Angevin kings for hunting the deer and for maintaining exclusive hunting rights in vast areas of designated forest carried with it a set of laws regarding the use of the forest which greatly oppressed the many that owned land, or lived and worked, within the forest. | 197 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Early in June 1418 Henry V joined his army at Bec-Hellouin and advanced to the Eure. On 8 June the English crossed the river and laid siege to Louviers from both banks. Louviers was the last walled town of the Eure before it flowed into the Seine. It was a place of some strength, defended by a circuit of high modern walls and a triple line of ditches and manned by a Burgundian garrison. But their resistance lasted little more than a week. The English filled in the moat, undermined the walls and battered the town with artillery. The defenders launched several courageous sorties in an attempt to silence the English batteries. They made effective use of their own artillery, shooting projectiles into the English lines, one of which narrowly missed the King. But by the middle of June several breaches had been made and the besiegers began to prepare an assault. The townsmen, terrified of a sack, forced the garrison to negotiate a conditional surrender agreement. Its terms allowed a brief interval for relief. But with the government in chaos in Paris there was no prospect of that. Louviers punctually opened its gates on 23 June and submitted to the English King’s mercy. But Henry was not merciful. The surrender of Louviers opened a new and harsher phase of the English conquest. He refused to pardon the captain of the town, who had previously been captain of Bayeux and had sworn not to serve against him again. He hanged eight gunners of the garrison in retaliation for the casualties that they had inflicted. He imposed an indemnity of 8,000 écus on the inhabitants.
One of the men who was present to witness the scene was Cardinal Orsini. He had come into the English camp under safe-conduct to explore the possibilities of a negotiated peace. Orsini disapproved of Henry’s brutality (he protested against the execution of the gunners), and he was taken aback by the King’s obvious determination to press on with the conquest of Normandy. His report must have made gloomy reading when he returned to Paris. Henry had told him that his victories represented the will of God, who had sent him into France to chastise its sinful inhabitants. The visible disintegration of the country under its current rulers was proof of the justice of his claims. The Cardinal concluded that the King’s military position was so strong that for the moment any attempt at negotiation was doomed. The advance of the English seemed to be unstoppable. On 27 June the first contingents of Henry’s army reached the Seine at Pont-de-l’Arche.
Pont-de-l’Arche was a walled town on the south bank of the Seine. It was important mainly for its famous stone bridge of twenty-four arches, the only one between Rouen and Vernon. The bridge was fortified at both ends. It was defended by the river gate on the town side and by a great circular keep built on an island by the opposite bank of the river. The whole had been constructed by Philip Augustus in 1209 as part of a scheme of fortification designed to secure control of the lower valley of the Seine after the expulsion of the Angevin kings of England. When the English appeared before Pont-de-l’Arche in June 1418 the defence of Upper Normandy was in disarray. Robert de Braquemont had struggled on as royal lieutenant in the province even though he had been stripped of his office as Admiral of France by the triumphant Burgundians and many of the towns and garrisons for which he was responsible had repudiated the government which had appointed him. Braquemont was a good strategist. He realised that the only hope of holding Normandy was to keep the English south of the Seine, a broad, fast-flowing river which was the only practicable line of defence. He had therefore made no attempt to rescue Louviers and concentrated all his efforts on saving Pont-de-l’Arche. He had been remarkably successful in uniting the Normans of both allegiances behind this enterprise. At the beginning of June he had persuaded twenty-five walled towns of Normandy to enter into a treaty under which they had agreed to a limited measure of military cooperation regardless of party allegiance. He had also succeeded in raising a substantial field army from the towns and nobility of the province. About 1,000 men had been put into Pont-de-l’Arche under the command of Jean Malet de Graville, a firm Orléanist then at the outset of a long and famous military career. In addition there were about 2,000 men stationed on the north bank to stop the English trying to bridge the river or cross it by boat, and another 800 held in reserve ten miles away at the castle of Étrepagny. Braquemont’s reward was to be dismissed just as the English were approaching the town and denounced as a traitor in the streets of Paris.
He was replaced by an ardent Burgundian partisan, the lord of Chastellux, one of the Burgundian captains responsible for the capture of Paris, who had recently been made a Marshal of France by a grateful Queen. He arrived to take command just in time to witness the collapse of the French position on the Seine. In the early hours of 4 July 1418 the English succeeded in crossing the river. They had occupied a large island in the middle of the stream opposite the suburban abbey of Bonport, where they concentrated a large force under the command of Sir John Cornwall. About half a mile upstream another English force set up a noisy diversion. While the French moved the bulk of their forces along the riverbank to confront them, Cornwall silently crossed from the island in eight small boats assembled from wicker frames and animal skins. He was accompanied by his fifteen-year-old son and about sixty men. They brought with them a single horse and some small artillery pieces. There was a fight at the water’s edge, where a small number of French troops had been left to guard the bank. The alarm went up. But it was too late. By the time that the rest of the French force had returned to meet the new threat another 1,000 English had made the crossing in relays. When the sun rose Cornwall had established a secure bridgehead on the right bank. The Duke of Clarence crossed the river during the morning with another 4,000 men, about half the army. A strong French counter-attack was beaten off. The English could now invest both ends of the bridge and seal off the town. Their engineers began to assemble a pontoon bridge made of timber and hide which had been manufactured in sections in England and brought to the siege lines from Harfleur.
Chastellux’s army broke up before his eyes. Most of the men had been drawn from the garrisons of Rouen and other towns. With the English across the Seine their first priority was to defend their own walls. Inside Pont-de-l’Arche Jean Malet and his garrison recognised defeat. They sent parlementaires into the English camp and two days after the crossing, on 6 July, a conditional surrender was agreed. They promised to submit on 20 July unless by then the place had been relieved by the King of France or the Dauphin in person. Malet sent messengers to the Duke of Burgundy, accompanied by a delegation from the city of Rouen, bearing the terms of the surrender agreement and a desperate appeal for relief. With them rode an English herald. His mission was to call on John the Fearless to declare whether he intended to honour his treaty of neutrality with Henry V.
On 11 July 1418, they found John the Fearless at Provins, preoccupied with the preparations for his return to Paris. Everything there was in confusion. The Queen’s administration was in the process of being transferred from Troyes. All the principal officers of state and many senior officials and judges in Paris were being replaced by creatures of the Duke of Burgundy in the face of sullen obstruction from the civil service. The Parlement, which been in the forefront of the resistance, had been suspended and remained closed for six weeks while its personnel were purged. For the moment the operations of government were paralysed. On 14 July the Duke of Burgundy entered Paris with much ceremony by the Porte Saint-Antoine. He was accompanied by Isabelle of Bavaria in a golden litter and by all the leading Burgundian captains. They were escorted through the streets by 3,000 men-at-arms, 1,500 crossbowmen and 1,200 prominent citizens in uniform blue robes who had gone out to meet them at the bridge of Charenton. The procession made its way slowly across the city in the bright sunshine through streets strewn with flowers and lined with enthusiastic Parisians wearing St Andrew’s crosses. The air was filled with cheers and a deafening cacophony of trumpets and horns. Charles VI received them at the Louvre. He graciously welcomed the man who had murdered his brother. He kissed his estranged Queen. The crowd crammed into the great hall of St Louis wept. Then, spurning the traditional wine and spices proffered by the King, the Duke of Burgundy promptly left with the Queen to attend to more important business.
On the following day, 15 July, the Queen presided over a crisis meeting of the council. The main item of business was the situation on the Norman front. The representatives of Rouen and Pont-de-l’Arche were present. They were joined by messengers sent by the Bastard of Alençon from Domfront. After a siege of three months he had agreed to surrender the fortress to the Earl of Warwick on 22 July unless he was relieved. The Normans pressed for action. They wanted both Pont-de-l’Arche and Domfront relieved, Rouen reinforced and the English sieges at Cherbourg and Honfleur broken up. It was an impossible demand. But, ignoring the difficulties, the council went through the motions of complying. They ordered the immediate recruitment of an army of 15,000 men. They proposed to find 2,000 men-at-arms and 1,000 crossbowmen from the troops with John the Fearless in Paris and to support them with 12,000 infantry levies recruited in Paris and the towns of Upper Normandy. The English herald was sent back to Pont-de-l’Arche with a defiant message from John the Fearless declaring that when the time came he would confront Henry V in battle. The Duke of Burgundy’s dealings with the English had always been opportunistic. Now that he had won control of the King and the government it was in his interest to present himself as the defender of France against her ancient enemy. But John could not fight the English and the Armagnacs at once. Even if it had been possible to raise the troops and lead them to Pont-de-l’Arche within the five days that remained, there was no prospect of an army consisting mainly of raw urban infantry overcoming the experienced professional troops of the King of England. In the event the council’s plans proved impossible to execute. Pont-de-l’Arche surrendered on 20 July and Domfront two days later. Shortly afterwards the Duke of Exeter appeared before the walls of Rouen with a herald to reconnoitre the defences and summon the place to surrender. The response was a powerful cavalry sortie from the gates which resulted in the death of many of Exeter’s company. At about midnight on 29 July Henry V arrived with the bulk of his army outside the city.
Rouen was the largest French city which the English had besieged since the outset of the war eighty years earlier. Its thirty-five parishes were home to a permanent population of between 20,000 and 25,000 people. Its defences were outwardly imposing, ‘a prowde araye … welle hyt was ordaynyd for warre’, wrote John Page, an English soldier, probably an archer, whose account of the siege in doggerel verse is the most vivid of the contemporary narratives. Rouen was enclosed by a high wall nearly four miles in circumference, pierced by five fortified gates on the landward side and protected by a deep dry ditch. Most of these works dated from the beginning of the thirteenth century. On the north side, the city was dominated by the great citadel which Philip Augustus had built after 1204 to mark his conquest of the Norman capital from the Angevin kings of England. Since then a sprawling suburb had grown up north-east of the citadel to house the textile workshops and the tenements in which the industrial population worked and lived. These districts had recently been enclosed by a major extension of the walls. But there remained eight unprotected suburban parishes beyond the walls, all of which had been systematically demolished as the English approached, along with the Benedictine priory of St Gervais on the west and the Clos des Galées, the naval arsenal on the opposite side of the river. The towers and gates bristled with guns overlooking the desolate wasteland which the demolition teams had left around the city. A long fortified bridge constructed partly of stone and partly of timber linked the city to a heavily manned fort on the south bank. The task of organising the defence of the place had fallen to Guy Le Bouteillier and a group of Burgundian captains sent in haste from Paris. They commanded a professional garrison of between 1,200 and 1,600 men. But the main burden of the defence fell upon the 10,000 or so able-bodied male inhabitants. Guy Le Bouteillier installed himself in the citadel with part of the garrison. The rest were assigned to sectors of the city, each corresponding to one of the gates and each with its own commander. A mounted reserve was created to go to the aid of any sector in difficulties.
Henry V set up his headquarters in an abandoned Carthusian monastery by the Paris road, about half a mile east of the walls. At the outset a number of critical decisions were made. The King decided not to attempt an assault. Given the number of the defenders and the density of the streets and lanes within the walls it would have been a costly and uncertain business. He also seems to have resolved to make only limited use of his artillery. Although cannon were sited in front of all the gates and the city walls were overlooked on the north and east by high ground offering ideal vantage points, there is no evidence in any contemporary account of the siege of the kind of heavy artillery bombardment which the English had employed at Harfleur, Caen or Falaise, and no evidence of major damage to the city. The reason for this apparently surprising omission was that Henry wanted Rouen as much for its political as its military value. He intended it to serve as the capital of an English duchy of Normandy. The destruction of its walls and public buildings would have undermined this scheme and weakened the city in the face of a French counter-attack. So the English planned to starve the city into submission instead. Its sheer size made it vulnerable to famine. The harvest was not yet in. Too late, the municipal authorities had ordered every citizen to lay in supplies for ten months. The effect was simply to create a run on the shops and markets. An attempt had been made to reduce the numbers of ‘useless mouths’ by ordering out the old and infirm, the poor, and some of the women and clergy. But the response had been patchy and the magistrates’ efforts were largely frustrated by the great tide of refugees flooding into the city from the suburbs and surrounding country.
In the first few days after his arrival Henry set up a tight blockade. Working under the guns of the defenders and suffering heavy casualties from sorties, his men dug a deep trench and a bank the whole way round the walls on the landward side. The siege operations, like the defence, were divided into sectors corresponding to the gates of the city. The King himself took command of the eastern sector in front of the Porte Saint-Hilaire. The Earl of Salisbury occupied the marshy ground between the King’s sector and the river outside the Porte Martinville. The Duke of Clarence was posted in the ruins of the abbey of St Gervais on the west. The Duke of Exeter guarded the northern sector and Sir Thomas Mowbray and Sir John Cornwall were encamped outside the citadel. Access to the city by water was completely blocked. A large force commanded by the Earl of Huntingdon stood on the south bank opposite the quays of the city. The fort at the south end of the bridge was surrounded. Heavy chains were stretched across the river upstream and down and a timber bridge was constructed a short distance away. Barges filled with soldiers patrolled the stream on both sides. Eighty miles downstream where the Seine flowed into the sea, a fleet of galleys supplied by the King of Portugal blockaded the river mouth.
The first priority for the English after they had completed the blockade of Rouen was to secure their own communications. The English had an unhappy experience of major sieges. The few that they had undertaken in the previous century, at Tournai (1340), Rennes (1356), Reims (1359) and Nantes (1381–2) had all had to be abandoned because they could not feed their army. The lesson had been learned by 1418. A large-scale victualling operation was organised. This involved shipping supplies from southern England into Harfleur, which was turned into a great depot for the storage of supplies for the army. From there victuals were trans-shipped onto barges to be carried up the Seine.
The French held two garrisoned towns on the north bank of the Seine, at Quillebeuf and Caudebec, where they had stationed armed ships to block the passage of the river. These places had to be reduced if the English army was not to starve. Quillebeuf was besieged shortly after the investment of the city. Its garrison was annihilated in a battle beneath the walls on 16 August. But Caudebec proved to be tougher. The Earl of Warwick, who had recently arrived with his company from Domfront, was sent to deal with it. The place held out valiantly while no fewer than 100 victualling barges were held up in the Seine waiting to pass its walls. Eventually an English herald went into the town and negotiated an agreement with its defenders. They undertook to surrender if and when Rouen was captured. In the meantime they would allow free passage to English shipping travelling between Rouen and the sea. Upstream of the city the main problem was the occupation of the Mont Sainte-Catherine by a large French garrison based in the fortified monastery at the summit. Possession of this great hill east of the city was vital to the English in order to secure their communications with Pont-de-l’Arche and to protect their rear from any relief force approaching from the east. The garrison of the monastery successfully beat off a determined night attack in the first few days of the siege. But they had limited stocks of food, and after holding out for a month they were finally forced to surrender on 1 September. | <urn:uuid:cfbc1784-2b65-40dd-8056-9ace242011c8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://weaponsandwarfare.com/category/medieval/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00043.warc.gz | en | 0.985304 | 4,020 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.078426301479... | 3 | Early in June 1418 Henry V joined his army at Bec-Hellouin and advanced to the Eure. On 8 June the English crossed the river and laid siege to Louviers from both banks. Louviers was the last walled town of the Eure before it flowed into the Seine. It was a place of some strength, defended by a circuit of high modern walls and a triple line of ditches and manned by a Burgundian garrison. But their resistance lasted little more than a week. The English filled in the moat, undermined the walls and battered the town with artillery. The defenders launched several courageous sorties in an attempt to silence the English batteries. They made effective use of their own artillery, shooting projectiles into the English lines, one of which narrowly missed the King. But by the middle of June several breaches had been made and the besiegers began to prepare an assault. The townsmen, terrified of a sack, forced the garrison to negotiate a conditional surrender agreement. Its terms allowed a brief interval for relief. But with the government in chaos in Paris there was no prospect of that. Louviers punctually opened its gates on 23 June and submitted to the English King’s mercy. But Henry was not merciful. The surrender of Louviers opened a new and harsher phase of the English conquest. He refused to pardon the captain of the town, who had previously been captain of Bayeux and had sworn not to serve against him again. He hanged eight gunners of the garrison in retaliation for the casualties that they had inflicted. He imposed an indemnity of 8,000 écus on the inhabitants.
One of the men who was present to witness the scene was Cardinal Orsini. He had come into the English camp under safe-conduct to explore the possibilities of a negotiated peace. Orsini disapproved of Henry’s brutality (he protested against the execution of the gunners), and he was taken aback by the King’s obvious determination to press on with the conquest of Normandy. His report must have made gloomy reading when he returned to Paris. Henry had told him that his victories represented the will of God, who had sent him into France to chastise its sinful inhabitants. The visible disintegration of the country under its current rulers was proof of the justice of his claims. The Cardinal concluded that the King’s military position was so strong that for the moment any attempt at negotiation was doomed. The advance of the English seemed to be unstoppable. On 27 June the first contingents of Henry’s army reached the Seine at Pont-de-l’Arche.
Pont-de-l’Arche was a walled town on the south bank of the Seine. It was important mainly for its famous stone bridge of twenty-four arches, the only one between Rouen and Vernon. The bridge was fortified at both ends. It was defended by the river gate on the town side and by a great circular keep built on an island by the opposite bank of the river. The whole had been constructed by Philip Augustus in 1209 as part of a scheme of fortification designed to secure control of the lower valley of the Seine after the expulsion of the Angevin kings of England. When the English appeared before Pont-de-l’Arche in June 1418 the defence of Upper Normandy was in disarray. Robert de Braquemont had struggled on as royal lieutenant in the province even though he had been stripped of his office as Admiral of France by the triumphant Burgundians and many of the towns and garrisons for which he was responsible had repudiated the government which had appointed him. Braquemont was a good strategist. He realised that the only hope of holding Normandy was to keep the English south of the Seine, a broad, fast-flowing river which was the only practicable line of defence. He had therefore made no attempt to rescue Louviers and concentrated all his efforts on saving Pont-de-l’Arche. He had been remarkably successful in uniting the Normans of both allegiances behind this enterprise. At the beginning of June he had persuaded twenty-five walled towns of Normandy to enter into a treaty under which they had agreed to a limited measure of military cooperation regardless of party allegiance. He had also succeeded in raising a substantial field army from the towns and nobility of the province. About 1,000 men had been put into Pont-de-l’Arche under the command of Jean Malet de Graville, a firm Orléanist then at the outset of a long and famous military career. In addition there were about 2,000 men stationed on the north bank to stop the English trying to bridge the river or cross it by boat, and another 800 held in reserve ten miles away at the castle of Étrepagny. Braquemont’s reward was to be dismissed just as the English were approaching the town and denounced as a traitor in the streets of Paris.
He was replaced by an ardent Burgundian partisan, the lord of Chastellux, one of the Burgundian captains responsible for the capture of Paris, who had recently been made a Marshal of France by a grateful Queen. He arrived to take command just in time to witness the collapse of the French position on the Seine. In the early hours of 4 July 1418 the English succeeded in crossing the river. They had occupied a large island in the middle of the stream opposite the suburban abbey of Bonport, where they concentrated a large force under the command of Sir John Cornwall. About half a mile upstream another English force set up a noisy diversion. While the French moved the bulk of their forces along the riverbank to confront them, Cornwall silently crossed from the island in eight small boats assembled from wicker frames and animal skins. He was accompanied by his fifteen-year-old son and about sixty men. They brought with them a single horse and some small artillery pieces. There was a fight at the water’s edge, where a small number of French troops had been left to guard the bank. The alarm went up. But it was too late. By the time that the rest of the French force had returned to meet the new threat another 1,000 English had made the crossing in relays. When the sun rose Cornwall had established a secure bridgehead on the right bank. The Duke of Clarence crossed the river during the morning with another 4,000 men, about half the army. A strong French counter-attack was beaten off. The English could now invest both ends of the bridge and seal off the town. Their engineers began to assemble a pontoon bridge made of timber and hide which had been manufactured in sections in England and brought to the siege lines from Harfleur.
Chastellux’s army broke up before his eyes. Most of the men had been drawn from the garrisons of Rouen and other towns. With the English across the Seine their first priority was to defend their own walls. Inside Pont-de-l’Arche Jean Malet and his garrison recognised defeat. They sent parlementaires into the English camp and two days after the crossing, on 6 July, a conditional surrender was agreed. They promised to submit on 20 July unless by then the place had been relieved by the King of France or the Dauphin in person. Malet sent messengers to the Duke of Burgundy, accompanied by a delegation from the city of Rouen, bearing the terms of the surrender agreement and a desperate appeal for relief. With them rode an English herald. His mission was to call on John the Fearless to declare whether he intended to honour his treaty of neutrality with Henry V.
On 11 July 1418, they found John the Fearless at Provins, preoccupied with the preparations for his return to Paris. Everything there was in confusion. The Queen’s administration was in the process of being transferred from Troyes. All the principal officers of state and many senior officials and judges in Paris were being replaced by creatures of the Duke of Burgundy in the face of sullen obstruction from the civil service. The Parlement, which been in the forefront of the resistance, had been suspended and remained closed for six weeks while its personnel were purged. For the moment the operations of government were paralysed. On 14 July the Duke of Burgundy entered Paris with much ceremony by the Porte Saint-Antoine. He was accompanied by Isabelle of Bavaria in a golden litter and by all the leading Burgundian captains. They were escorted through the streets by 3,000 men-at-arms, 1,500 crossbowmen and 1,200 prominent citizens in uniform blue robes who had gone out to meet them at the bridge of Charenton. The procession made its way slowly across the city in the bright sunshine through streets strewn with flowers and lined with enthusiastic Parisians wearing St Andrew’s crosses. The air was filled with cheers and a deafening cacophony of trumpets and horns. Charles VI received them at the Louvre. He graciously welcomed the man who had murdered his brother. He kissed his estranged Queen. The crowd crammed into the great hall of St Louis wept. Then, spurning the traditional wine and spices proffered by the King, the Duke of Burgundy promptly left with the Queen to attend to more important business.
On the following day, 15 July, the Queen presided over a crisis meeting of the council. The main item of business was the situation on the Norman front. The representatives of Rouen and Pont-de-l’Arche were present. They were joined by messengers sent by the Bastard of Alençon from Domfront. After a siege of three months he had agreed to surrender the fortress to the Earl of Warwick on 22 July unless he was relieved. The Normans pressed for action. They wanted both Pont-de-l’Arche and Domfront relieved, Rouen reinforced and the English sieges at Cherbourg and Honfleur broken up. It was an impossible demand. But, ignoring the difficulties, the council went through the motions of complying. They ordered the immediate recruitment of an army of 15,000 men. They proposed to find 2,000 men-at-arms and 1,000 crossbowmen from the troops with John the Fearless in Paris and to support them with 12,000 infantry levies recruited in Paris and the towns of Upper Normandy. The English herald was sent back to Pont-de-l’Arche with a defiant message from John the Fearless declaring that when the time came he would confront Henry V in battle. The Duke of Burgundy’s dealings with the English had always been opportunistic. Now that he had won control of the King and the government it was in his interest to present himself as the defender of France against her ancient enemy. But John could not fight the English and the Armagnacs at once. Even if it had been possible to raise the troops and lead them to Pont-de-l’Arche within the five days that remained, there was no prospect of an army consisting mainly of raw urban infantry overcoming the experienced professional troops of the King of England. In the event the council’s plans proved impossible to execute. Pont-de-l’Arche surrendered on 20 July and Domfront two days later. Shortly afterwards the Duke of Exeter appeared before the walls of Rouen with a herald to reconnoitre the defences and summon the place to surrender. The response was a powerful cavalry sortie from the gates which resulted in the death of many of Exeter’s company. At about midnight on 29 July Henry V arrived with the bulk of his army outside the city.
Rouen was the largest French city which the English had besieged since the outset of the war eighty years earlier. Its thirty-five parishes were home to a permanent population of between 20,000 and 25,000 people. Its defences were outwardly imposing, ‘a prowde araye … welle hyt was ordaynyd for warre’, wrote John Page, an English soldier, probably an archer, whose account of the siege in doggerel verse is the most vivid of the contemporary narratives. Rouen was enclosed by a high wall nearly four miles in circumference, pierced by five fortified gates on the landward side and protected by a deep dry ditch. Most of these works dated from the beginning of the thirteenth century. On the north side, the city was dominated by the great citadel which Philip Augustus had built after 1204 to mark his conquest of the Norman capital from the Angevin kings of England. Since then a sprawling suburb had grown up north-east of the citadel to house the textile workshops and the tenements in which the industrial population worked and lived. These districts had recently been enclosed by a major extension of the walls. But there remained eight unprotected suburban parishes beyond the walls, all of which had been systematically demolished as the English approached, along with the Benedictine priory of St Gervais on the west and the Clos des Galées, the naval arsenal on the opposite side of the river. The towers and gates bristled with guns overlooking the desolate wasteland which the demolition teams had left around the city. A long fortified bridge constructed partly of stone and partly of timber linked the city to a heavily manned fort on the south bank. The task of organising the defence of the place had fallen to Guy Le Bouteillier and a group of Burgundian captains sent in haste from Paris. They commanded a professional garrison of between 1,200 and 1,600 men. But the main burden of the defence fell upon the 10,000 or so able-bodied male inhabitants. Guy Le Bouteillier installed himself in the citadel with part of the garrison. The rest were assigned to sectors of the city, each corresponding to one of the gates and each with its own commander. A mounted reserve was created to go to the aid of any sector in difficulties.
Henry V set up his headquarters in an abandoned Carthusian monastery by the Paris road, about half a mile east of the walls. At the outset a number of critical decisions were made. The King decided not to attempt an assault. Given the number of the defenders and the density of the streets and lanes within the walls it would have been a costly and uncertain business. He also seems to have resolved to make only limited use of his artillery. Although cannon were sited in front of all the gates and the city walls were overlooked on the north and east by high ground offering ideal vantage points, there is no evidence in any contemporary account of the siege of the kind of heavy artillery bombardment which the English had employed at Harfleur, Caen or Falaise, and no evidence of major damage to the city. The reason for this apparently surprising omission was that Henry wanted Rouen as much for its political as its military value. He intended it to serve as the capital of an English duchy of Normandy. The destruction of its walls and public buildings would have undermined this scheme and weakened the city in the face of a French counter-attack. So the English planned to starve the city into submission instead. Its sheer size made it vulnerable to famine. The harvest was not yet in. Too late, the municipal authorities had ordered every citizen to lay in supplies for ten months. The effect was simply to create a run on the shops and markets. An attempt had been made to reduce the numbers of ‘useless mouths’ by ordering out the old and infirm, the poor, and some of the women and clergy. But the response had been patchy and the magistrates’ efforts were largely frustrated by the great tide of refugees flooding into the city from the suburbs and surrounding country.
In the first few days after his arrival Henry set up a tight blockade. Working under the guns of the defenders and suffering heavy casualties from sorties, his men dug a deep trench and a bank the whole way round the walls on the landward side. The siege operations, like the defence, were divided into sectors corresponding to the gates of the city. The King himself took command of the eastern sector in front of the Porte Saint-Hilaire. The Earl of Salisbury occupied the marshy ground between the King’s sector and the river outside the Porte Martinville. The Duke of Clarence was posted in the ruins of the abbey of St Gervais on the west. The Duke of Exeter guarded the northern sector and Sir Thomas Mowbray and Sir John Cornwall were encamped outside the citadel. Access to the city by water was completely blocked. A large force commanded by the Earl of Huntingdon stood on the south bank opposite the quays of the city. The fort at the south end of the bridge was surrounded. Heavy chains were stretched across the river upstream and down and a timber bridge was constructed a short distance away. Barges filled with soldiers patrolled the stream on both sides. Eighty miles downstream where the Seine flowed into the sea, a fleet of galleys supplied by the King of Portugal blockaded the river mouth.
The first priority for the English after they had completed the blockade of Rouen was to secure their own communications. The English had an unhappy experience of major sieges. The few that they had undertaken in the previous century, at Tournai (1340), Rennes (1356), Reims (1359) and Nantes (1381–2) had all had to be abandoned because they could not feed their army. The lesson had been learned by 1418. A large-scale victualling operation was organised. This involved shipping supplies from southern England into Harfleur, which was turned into a great depot for the storage of supplies for the army. From there victuals were trans-shipped onto barges to be carried up the Seine.
The French held two garrisoned towns on the north bank of the Seine, at Quillebeuf and Caudebec, where they had stationed armed ships to block the passage of the river. These places had to be reduced if the English army was not to starve. Quillebeuf was besieged shortly after the investment of the city. Its garrison was annihilated in a battle beneath the walls on 16 August. But Caudebec proved to be tougher. The Earl of Warwick, who had recently arrived with his company from Domfront, was sent to deal with it. The place held out valiantly while no fewer than 100 victualling barges were held up in the Seine waiting to pass its walls. Eventually an English herald went into the town and negotiated an agreement with its defenders. They undertook to surrender if and when Rouen was captured. In the meantime they would allow free passage to English shipping travelling between Rouen and the sea. Upstream of the city the main problem was the occupation of the Mont Sainte-Catherine by a large French garrison based in the fortified monastery at the summit. Possession of this great hill east of the city was vital to the English in order to secure their communications with Pont-de-l’Arche and to protect their rear from any relief force approaching from the east. The garrison of the monastery successfully beat off a determined night attack in the first few days of the siege. But they had limited stocks of food, and after holding out for a month they were finally forced to surrender on 1 September. | 4,076 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Recent interest and consequential research into the people known as Phoenicians has thrown new light on who they were, where they came from when they arrived in Spain and their effect on the indigenous populations. In this series, the Phoenicians in Andalucia, we will take a look at these enigmatic people and their legacy in Andalucia.
First, we should look at where the Phoenicians actually came from, including their name. The people we now call Phoenicians would certainly not have thought of themselves as such. The word Phoenicia has its origins in the word Phoinikes which is Greek and means purple people. It is a reference to the purple dye produced by the people of Tyre that used to dye the workers as well as the cloth. The Phoenicians were known by the Greeks as ‘Purple People’. The area of land influenced by the Phoenicians was a thin coastal strip, never much more than 100 kilometres deep, extending from Lebanon in the north, south to Tel Aviv. At the time the Phoenicians were active as traders the people of this land shared a common linguistic, cultural and religious inheritance and recognised a shared ethnic identity as Can’nai, inhabitants of Caanan. However they were never united under one ruler, each city had its own king so the inhabitants of each city had their own identity and loyalties.
In 2004 a DNA study was undertaken in the Lebanon and other parts of the Mediterranean. It was designed to track the course of the Phoenician people over time. Without going into the technicalities the study revealed the origin of a group of people in the Levant over 12,000 years ago. This is quite a significant geological period since it is slap bang in the middle of the Younger Dryas, a period from 12,900 to 11,700 years ago. The Younger Dryas was the most recent cold snap during the gradual warming period experienced since the last glacial maximum that occurred about 27,000 to 24,000 years ago.
The people who inhabited the Levant between 12,500 and 9,500 BCE are known as Natufians. The Natufians were unusual during this time of nomadic hunter-gatherers in that they were semi-sedentary or even fully sedentary before the advent of the Neolithic agricultural revolution. It was they that initiated the Neolithic in the western world, probably sparked off by the aforementioned Younger Dryas. It is interesting to note that even at this early period the people of the Levant had connections with Egypt to the south as shown by shellfish from the Nile valley found at Ain Mallaha in northern Israel, Anatolia to the north as shown by the obsidian found at Ain Mallaha and of course direct and probably frequent communication with the Fertile Crescent to the east, an area between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers which was the first area to benefit from the innovations of the Neolithic that originated in the Levant.
The Neolithic allowed the development of permanent settlements. At first, settlements were capable of housing a family or extended family, then what we would think of as hamlets, a few families, followed by many families, villages and so on. The larger the settlement the more infrastructure, work specialisation and administration were required to sustain the settlement. Between 6,000 and 5,000 BC, a fishing settlement was established at the coastal site of a modern city, Byblos in Lebanon. By 4,500 BC it was a small town.
We now jump to Egypt where between 3,500 and 3,200 BC a temple was built at Heirakonpolis, then the largest city on the Upper Nile. The front edifice was supported by four huge cedar pillars. The cedar originated in the Lebanon and had been towed down the coast by the seamen of Byblos and, at the mouth of the Nile, the logs had been handed over to Egyptian seamen who used reed riverboats totally unsuitable for journeys at sea who had in turn taken the logs upriver to Heirakonpolis. In treeless Egypt, cedar became a valued and desirable commodity amongst the expanding elite and the people of Byblos apparently benefited from the trade.
The archaeological record shows that Byblos began to grow. Houses became larger and more elaborate, civic buildings and temples were constructed and, by 3000 BC, the whole was surrounded by a fortified wall. Objects found within the walls show that by this time the people of Byblos had a trade network extending in every direction, north, south, east and west with Egyptian articles predominating.
About 250 years later, around 2,750 BC, a remarkable and so far unexplained event occurred. The people of Byblos emerged from their citadel to establish a number of other coastal towns, in particular, Tyre, Sidon and Sarepta. It is fair to surmise that each was in competition with the other as regards trade and markets. It was to be the men of Tyre that made it to Andalucia, but first, they had to develop the ships that could make it that far.
The first sailing ship appeared on the River Nile about 3,400 BC. It was a simple affair consisting of bundles of papyrus reeds tied together with a short mast and a square sail. Totally unsuitable for voyages over the sea. In the Mediterranean boats at this time were canoes, seaworthy but limited in their range and carrying capacity. Even so, there was a great deal of trade between the islands in the eastern part of the Mediterranean. The Phoenician contact with Egypt undoubtedly gave them contact with this novel means of propulsion.
They went on to develop a style of vessel they called a hippoi. It was broad of beam, planked on a keel and frame and propelled by oars and a square sail. It became the ‘tramp steamer’ of the ancient world.
Nick has lived and worked in Andalucia for over 20 years. He and his partner, Julie Evans, have travelled extensively and dug deep into the history and culture, producing authoritative articles on all aspects of the region. Nick has written four books about Andalucia and writes articles for other websites and blogs.
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© Visit-Andalucia 2019 | <urn:uuid:405de48f-de06-4c0e-9f04-908220c59115> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.visit-andalucia.com/one_post.php?id=289 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00160.warc.gz | en | 0.982161 | 1,350 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.17779900133... | 1 | Recent interest and consequential research into the people known as Phoenicians has thrown new light on who they were, where they came from when they arrived in Spain and their effect on the indigenous populations. In this series, the Phoenicians in Andalucia, we will take a look at these enigmatic people and their legacy in Andalucia.
First, we should look at where the Phoenicians actually came from, including their name. The people we now call Phoenicians would certainly not have thought of themselves as such. The word Phoenicia has its origins in the word Phoinikes which is Greek and means purple people. It is a reference to the purple dye produced by the people of Tyre that used to dye the workers as well as the cloth. The Phoenicians were known by the Greeks as ‘Purple People’. The area of land influenced by the Phoenicians was a thin coastal strip, never much more than 100 kilometres deep, extending from Lebanon in the north, south to Tel Aviv. At the time the Phoenicians were active as traders the people of this land shared a common linguistic, cultural and religious inheritance and recognised a shared ethnic identity as Can’nai, inhabitants of Caanan. However they were never united under one ruler, each city had its own king so the inhabitants of each city had their own identity and loyalties.
In 2004 a DNA study was undertaken in the Lebanon and other parts of the Mediterranean. It was designed to track the course of the Phoenician people over time. Without going into the technicalities the study revealed the origin of a group of people in the Levant over 12,000 years ago. This is quite a significant geological period since it is slap bang in the middle of the Younger Dryas, a period from 12,900 to 11,700 years ago. The Younger Dryas was the most recent cold snap during the gradual warming period experienced since the last glacial maximum that occurred about 27,000 to 24,000 years ago.
The people who inhabited the Levant between 12,500 and 9,500 BCE are known as Natufians. The Natufians were unusual during this time of nomadic hunter-gatherers in that they were semi-sedentary or even fully sedentary before the advent of the Neolithic agricultural revolution. It was they that initiated the Neolithic in the western world, probably sparked off by the aforementioned Younger Dryas. It is interesting to note that even at this early period the people of the Levant had connections with Egypt to the south as shown by shellfish from the Nile valley found at Ain Mallaha in northern Israel, Anatolia to the north as shown by the obsidian found at Ain Mallaha and of course direct and probably frequent communication with the Fertile Crescent to the east, an area between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers which was the first area to benefit from the innovations of the Neolithic that originated in the Levant.
The Neolithic allowed the development of permanent settlements. At first, settlements were capable of housing a family or extended family, then what we would think of as hamlets, a few families, followed by many families, villages and so on. The larger the settlement the more infrastructure, work specialisation and administration were required to sustain the settlement. Between 6,000 and 5,000 BC, a fishing settlement was established at the coastal site of a modern city, Byblos in Lebanon. By 4,500 BC it was a small town.
We now jump to Egypt where between 3,500 and 3,200 BC a temple was built at Heirakonpolis, then the largest city on the Upper Nile. The front edifice was supported by four huge cedar pillars. The cedar originated in the Lebanon and had been towed down the coast by the seamen of Byblos and, at the mouth of the Nile, the logs had been handed over to Egyptian seamen who used reed riverboats totally unsuitable for journeys at sea who had in turn taken the logs upriver to Heirakonpolis. In treeless Egypt, cedar became a valued and desirable commodity amongst the expanding elite and the people of Byblos apparently benefited from the trade.
The archaeological record shows that Byblos began to grow. Houses became larger and more elaborate, civic buildings and temples were constructed and, by 3000 BC, the whole was surrounded by a fortified wall. Objects found within the walls show that by this time the people of Byblos had a trade network extending in every direction, north, south, east and west with Egyptian articles predominating.
About 250 years later, around 2,750 BC, a remarkable and so far unexplained event occurred. The people of Byblos emerged from their citadel to establish a number of other coastal towns, in particular, Tyre, Sidon and Sarepta. It is fair to surmise that each was in competition with the other as regards trade and markets. It was to be the men of Tyre that made it to Andalucia, but first, they had to develop the ships that could make it that far.
The first sailing ship appeared on the River Nile about 3,400 BC. It was a simple affair consisting of bundles of papyrus reeds tied together with a short mast and a square sail. Totally unsuitable for voyages over the sea. In the Mediterranean boats at this time were canoes, seaworthy but limited in their range and carrying capacity. Even so, there was a great deal of trade between the islands in the eastern part of the Mediterranean. The Phoenician contact with Egypt undoubtedly gave them contact with this novel means of propulsion.
They went on to develop a style of vessel they called a hippoi. It was broad of beam, planked on a keel and frame and propelled by oars and a square sail. It became the ‘tramp steamer’ of the ancient world.
Nick has lived and worked in Andalucia for over 20 years. He and his partner, Julie Evans, have travelled extensively and dug deep into the history and culture, producing authoritative articles on all aspects of the region. Nick has written four books about Andalucia and writes articles for other websites and blogs.
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© Visit-Andalucia 2019 | 1,425 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Welcome to our Class 10 Page!
Over the summer holidays, Mr Nicholls found a Roman coin behind the swimming pool. He sent it to the Time Team who suggested that perhaps the children in Year 4 could excavate the area to see if anything else may be buried there. Of course, we couldn’t say no to Tony Robinson! So with metal detectors, shovels and trowels we set off to in the school grounds. Having been successful in finding a number or Roman coins as well as other artefacts we were interested to learn more about Roman life. One of the things we found out was the Romans were famous for their army. We decided to create shields that resembled those of the Roman army. Here are some pictures of our shields…
In Autumn 2 Year 4 started our new topic that was all about Antarctica and Global Warming. We were introduced to Ernest Shackleton and his expedition to Antarctica. Our topic started when the children spotted some ‘wanted’ posters scattered around the school:
We looked at the posters in detail, unpicked all of the new vocabulary that we hadn’t heard of before and had a reciprocal reading session to help us understand the purpose of this poster. Then we took time to debate and decide whether or not we would like to go on to the journey and why. After we had decided, we wrote letters to Ernest Shackleton to inform him that we would or would not like to apply.
Our topic continued with us learning about the different animals that you can find in Antarctica and we produced some very helpful fact files of some of the animals. Here are a couple of examples:
We then tried out our art skills and sketched an emperor penguin using shapes as our initial baselines. We were very proud of our work!
Year 4’s trip to Salisbury Museum
What better way to start off the new year, new term and new topic than a trip to Salisbury Museum to learn more about the Anglo-Saxons.
We started off the day by looking at Saxon artefacts. We all became archaeologists, filling in a ‘Finds Record’ sheet about artefacts we were looking at which included weapons, jewellery and ceramics. Things we had to note down included:
- What it was made of
- If it had any decoration on it
- How big it was
- What it was used for
- What kind of person would have used it
- If it was the complete artefact or if it was broken
- What it felt like
We then had to sketch a picture of the item. Here we are filling out our ‘Finds Record Sheets’.
After this, we learnt that Saxon’s loved to make extravagant accessories like brooches. We were impressed with the intricate details the Saxon’s carved into them and had a go at making our own. We used a sheet of gold paper to imprint our designs onto and then stuck a safety pin on the back so we could wear them like real Saxon’s. They turned out brilliantly!
Once we were finished making our brooches, we pinned them to our clothes and got ready for a bit of role play. Our role play showcased a Saxon dying and the process that happened afterwards.
Important items were placed with the deceased to be buried with him. In this case, the items buried with him were things that Class 10 thought would be important and valuable. Some of the things included; a sleeping bag (to rest comfortably), a ring (sentimental value), a watch (to signify when he died), a teddy bear (for personal comfort) and a knife (to protect him). After the items were placed, we watched as the grave-diggers covered him with soil and then grass to finish the burial process.
After lunch, Class 10 had a chance to explore the museum fully. We looked at various artefacts in the museum which included things from the Stone-Age through to the Normans. We enjoyed being able to open draws and cupboards to find even more interesting items.
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0.6059727668762207... | 1 | Welcome to our Class 10 Page!
Over the summer holidays, Mr Nicholls found a Roman coin behind the swimming pool. He sent it to the Time Team who suggested that perhaps the children in Year 4 could excavate the area to see if anything else may be buried there. Of course, we couldn’t say no to Tony Robinson! So with metal detectors, shovels and trowels we set off to in the school grounds. Having been successful in finding a number or Roman coins as well as other artefacts we were interested to learn more about Roman life. One of the things we found out was the Romans were famous for their army. We decided to create shields that resembled those of the Roman army. Here are some pictures of our shields…
In Autumn 2 Year 4 started our new topic that was all about Antarctica and Global Warming. We were introduced to Ernest Shackleton and his expedition to Antarctica. Our topic started when the children spotted some ‘wanted’ posters scattered around the school:
We looked at the posters in detail, unpicked all of the new vocabulary that we hadn’t heard of before and had a reciprocal reading session to help us understand the purpose of this poster. Then we took time to debate and decide whether or not we would like to go on to the journey and why. After we had decided, we wrote letters to Ernest Shackleton to inform him that we would or would not like to apply.
Our topic continued with us learning about the different animals that you can find in Antarctica and we produced some very helpful fact files of some of the animals. Here are a couple of examples:
We then tried out our art skills and sketched an emperor penguin using shapes as our initial baselines. We were very proud of our work!
Year 4’s trip to Salisbury Museum
What better way to start off the new year, new term and new topic than a trip to Salisbury Museum to learn more about the Anglo-Saxons.
We started off the day by looking at Saxon artefacts. We all became archaeologists, filling in a ‘Finds Record’ sheet about artefacts we were looking at which included weapons, jewellery and ceramics. Things we had to note down included:
- What it was made of
- If it had any decoration on it
- How big it was
- What it was used for
- What kind of person would have used it
- If it was the complete artefact or if it was broken
- What it felt like
We then had to sketch a picture of the item. Here we are filling out our ‘Finds Record Sheets’.
After this, we learnt that Saxon’s loved to make extravagant accessories like brooches. We were impressed with the intricate details the Saxon’s carved into them and had a go at making our own. We used a sheet of gold paper to imprint our designs onto and then stuck a safety pin on the back so we could wear them like real Saxon’s. They turned out brilliantly!
Once we were finished making our brooches, we pinned them to our clothes and got ready for a bit of role play. Our role play showcased a Saxon dying and the process that happened afterwards.
Important items were placed with the deceased to be buried with him. In this case, the items buried with him were things that Class 10 thought would be important and valuable. Some of the things included; a sleeping bag (to rest comfortably), a ring (sentimental value), a watch (to signify when he died), a teddy bear (for personal comfort) and a knife (to protect him). After the items were placed, we watched as the grave-diggers covered him with soil and then grass to finish the burial process.
After lunch, Class 10 had a chance to explore the museum fully. We looked at various artefacts in the museum which included things from the Stone-Age through to the Normans. We enjoyed being able to open draws and cupboards to find even more interesting items.
We thoroughly enjoyed our time at Salisbury Museum and cannot wait to learn more about the Anglo-Saxons this term! | 841 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Amelia Mary Earhart was an American aviation pioneer and author. She is most famously known as the first women to fly solo across the Atlantic. She made great strides for women during her time and left an amazing legacy in her wake. In honor of her birthday, we ask you to journey with us to the early 1900's in this fun mini biography about the accounts of her life.
Where It All Began:
Amelia Earhart was born in Kansas on July 24th 1897 and spent her childhood traveling a lot at the side of her parents. At age 21 she decided to quit school and pursue a course in First Aide from the Red Cross. Once she passed the course, Amelia enlisted as a nurse's aide in Toronto, Canada tending to wounded soldiers during World War I.
Following her time as a nurse's aide, Amelia applied to and was accepted at the university of Colombia in New York. Her university career would fall short, however, as her parents insisted she move to California where they were living.
Amelia Follows Her Dreams
In California Amelia took flying lessons as a hobby. She would work odd jobs here and there to pay for her lessons and finally, with the help of her mother and sister, she was able to buy a plane. After her parent divorce, Amelia decided to become a social worker and moved back east to work at the Denison House where she is selected to be the first female passenger on a transatlantic flight by none other than her future husband at the age of 31.
Marriage & History In The Making
George Putnam saw Amelia's flight as a best selling story for his publishing house and together, along with the pilots, they flew from Newfoundland to Wales. It was a moment History will not soon forget as it was a moment of firsts. Amelia's bravery and daring was celebrated by her future husband and as soon as she returned from her flight, Amelia wrote her first book: 20 hours-40 minutes.
After marrying George at age 35, Amelia decided to continue her passion of flying under her maiden name and her marriage blossomed. George was Amelia's number one fan. He would book her flights and public appearances and even arranged for her to endorse a line of flight luggage and sports clothes. She went on to publish two more books before developing her own line of flying clothes for Ninety-Nines "for the women who lives actively." Vogue advertised her line and it was soon marketed to 30 of the biggest cities, like New York, and were exclusives in store like Macy's and Marshall Fields.
Amelia broke many records over the years and gave no signs of stopping. She opened up an entire new field for women in aviation by being courageous enough to follow her dreams.
At age 40, Amelia took her final flight. She bravely embarked on the first around the world flight at the equator and after completing almost two-thirds of her flight, a distance of about 22,000 miles, Amelia vanished with her navigator Federick Noonan. A massive Naval, Land and Air search was attempted but to no avail. Amelia's disappearance is still a great mystery today, as she and her plane were never found.
As a beautiful tribute, after her disappearance, her husband authored and published one last book called Soaring Wings.
She may be lost to the world, but not forgotten. Happy Birthday Amelia Earhart!
What is your favorite Amelia Earhart quote? | <urn:uuid:f809d394-6c39-48fc-af06-852372d3920b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ellisoneducation.com/blog/the-legacy-amelia-earhart-behind/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00429.warc.gz | en | 0.985431 | 700 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.28692319989204... | 1 | Amelia Mary Earhart was an American aviation pioneer and author. She is most famously known as the first women to fly solo across the Atlantic. She made great strides for women during her time and left an amazing legacy in her wake. In honor of her birthday, we ask you to journey with us to the early 1900's in this fun mini biography about the accounts of her life.
Where It All Began:
Amelia Earhart was born in Kansas on July 24th 1897 and spent her childhood traveling a lot at the side of her parents. At age 21 she decided to quit school and pursue a course in First Aide from the Red Cross. Once she passed the course, Amelia enlisted as a nurse's aide in Toronto, Canada tending to wounded soldiers during World War I.
Following her time as a nurse's aide, Amelia applied to and was accepted at the university of Colombia in New York. Her university career would fall short, however, as her parents insisted she move to California where they were living.
Amelia Follows Her Dreams
In California Amelia took flying lessons as a hobby. She would work odd jobs here and there to pay for her lessons and finally, with the help of her mother and sister, she was able to buy a plane. After her parent divorce, Amelia decided to become a social worker and moved back east to work at the Denison House where she is selected to be the first female passenger on a transatlantic flight by none other than her future husband at the age of 31.
Marriage & History In The Making
George Putnam saw Amelia's flight as a best selling story for his publishing house and together, along with the pilots, they flew from Newfoundland to Wales. It was a moment History will not soon forget as it was a moment of firsts. Amelia's bravery and daring was celebrated by her future husband and as soon as she returned from her flight, Amelia wrote her first book: 20 hours-40 minutes.
After marrying George at age 35, Amelia decided to continue her passion of flying under her maiden name and her marriage blossomed. George was Amelia's number one fan. He would book her flights and public appearances and even arranged for her to endorse a line of flight luggage and sports clothes. She went on to publish two more books before developing her own line of flying clothes for Ninety-Nines "for the women who lives actively." Vogue advertised her line and it was soon marketed to 30 of the biggest cities, like New York, and were exclusives in store like Macy's and Marshall Fields.
Amelia broke many records over the years and gave no signs of stopping. She opened up an entire new field for women in aviation by being courageous enough to follow her dreams.
At age 40, Amelia took her final flight. She bravely embarked on the first around the world flight at the equator and after completing almost two-thirds of her flight, a distance of about 22,000 miles, Amelia vanished with her navigator Federick Noonan. A massive Naval, Land and Air search was attempted but to no avail. Amelia's disappearance is still a great mystery today, as she and her plane were never found.
As a beautiful tribute, after her disappearance, her husband authored and published one last book called Soaring Wings.
She may be lost to the world, but not forgotten. Happy Birthday Amelia Earhart!
What is your favorite Amelia Earhart quote? | 714 | ENGLISH | 1 |
FORT CROGHAN. Fort Croghan, a United States military post, was established at the site of a frontier post known as McCulloch's Station, on Hamilton Creek three miles south of the site of present Burnet in Burnet County. Henry E. McCulloch and his rangers were stationed there when the place was chosen for the fort on March 13, 1849, by Lt. C. H. Tyler, commander of Company A of the Second Dragoons. McCulloch was not relieved of his duty until March 18, when the site became officially a federal post. On October 12 a new location was chosen, and the fort was built across Hamilton Creek three miles above the first site. The post was known as Camp Croghan, then Camp Hamilton, and finally as Fort Croghan, in honor of Col. George Croghan. The buildings were of oak covered with shingles; officers' quarters were four log houses, each with two rooms separated by a hall. The hospital was a large four-room log house. The fort became headquarters of the Second Dragoons in 1852, but the government started removing its troops in 1853, and only a small guard remained when orders were issued to abandon the fort in 1855. The buildings were used as residences; the old hospital, long the home of W. P. Fry, was torn down in 1922. In 1940 only the foundations remained as evidence of the military occupation.
During the late 1950s and early 1960s the Burnet County Historical Society began the reconstruction of Fort Croghan. Since all original buildings had been destroyed, old buildings in the area that had been built at the time of the fort were moved from their original locations to the site. They included typical frontier log houses and one stone building that had been one of the original homes of Hamilton valley. Descendants of the first settlers in the area contributed authentic nineteenth-century articles to furnish the relocated buildings. By 1967 three buildings had been completely restored and were open to the public from April to November. The society in that year was also in the process of restoring a store building.
Image Use Disclaimer
All copyrighted materials included within the Handbook of Texas Online are in accordance with Title 17 U.S.C. Section 107 related to Copyright and “Fair Use” for Non-Profit educational institutions, which permits the Texas State Historical Association (TSHA), to utilize copyrighted materials to further scholarship, education, and inform the public. The TSHA makes every effort to conform to the principles of fair use and to comply with copyright law.
For more information go to: http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/17/107.shtml
If you wish to use copyrighted material from this site for purposes of your own that go beyond fair use, you must obtain permission from the copyright owner.
The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article.Handbook of Texas Online, "FORT CROGHAN," accessed January 29, 2020, http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/qbf13.
Uploaded on June 12, 2010. Published by the Texas State Historical Association. | <urn:uuid:89c67a6b-1317-4abd-aeb8-2ad990249105> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/qbf13 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00152.warc.gz | en | 0.982314 | 665 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.220189511... | 1 | FORT CROGHAN. Fort Croghan, a United States military post, was established at the site of a frontier post known as McCulloch's Station, on Hamilton Creek three miles south of the site of present Burnet in Burnet County. Henry E. McCulloch and his rangers were stationed there when the place was chosen for the fort on March 13, 1849, by Lt. C. H. Tyler, commander of Company A of the Second Dragoons. McCulloch was not relieved of his duty until March 18, when the site became officially a federal post. On October 12 a new location was chosen, and the fort was built across Hamilton Creek three miles above the first site. The post was known as Camp Croghan, then Camp Hamilton, and finally as Fort Croghan, in honor of Col. George Croghan. The buildings were of oak covered with shingles; officers' quarters were four log houses, each with two rooms separated by a hall. The hospital was a large four-room log house. The fort became headquarters of the Second Dragoons in 1852, but the government started removing its troops in 1853, and only a small guard remained when orders were issued to abandon the fort in 1855. The buildings were used as residences; the old hospital, long the home of W. P. Fry, was torn down in 1922. In 1940 only the foundations remained as evidence of the military occupation.
During the late 1950s and early 1960s the Burnet County Historical Society began the reconstruction of Fort Croghan. Since all original buildings had been destroyed, old buildings in the area that had been built at the time of the fort were moved from their original locations to the site. They included typical frontier log houses and one stone building that had been one of the original homes of Hamilton valley. Descendants of the first settlers in the area contributed authentic nineteenth-century articles to furnish the relocated buildings. By 1967 three buildings had been completely restored and were open to the public from April to November. The society in that year was also in the process of restoring a store building.
Image Use Disclaimer
All copyrighted materials included within the Handbook of Texas Online are in accordance with Title 17 U.S.C. Section 107 related to Copyright and “Fair Use” for Non-Profit educational institutions, which permits the Texas State Historical Association (TSHA), to utilize copyrighted materials to further scholarship, education, and inform the public. The TSHA makes every effort to conform to the principles of fair use and to comply with copyright law.
For more information go to: http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/17/107.shtml
If you wish to use copyrighted material from this site for purposes of your own that go beyond fair use, you must obtain permission from the copyright owner.
The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article.Handbook of Texas Online, "FORT CROGHAN," accessed January 29, 2020, http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/qbf13.
Uploaded on June 12, 2010. Published by the Texas State Historical Association. | 704 | ENGLISH | 1 |
As a fellow at Children's Hospital Boston, Thomas C. Peebles worked with John Franklin Enders. Enders became known as "The Father of Modern vaccines", and Enders shared the Nobel Prize in 1954 for his research on cultivating the polio virus that led to the development of a vaccination for the disease. Switching to study measles, Enders sent Peebles to Fay School in Massachusetts, where an outbreak of the disease was under way, and there Peebles was able to isolate the virus from some of the blood samples and throat swabs he had taken from the students. Even after Enders had taken him off the study team, Peebles was able to cultivate the virus and show that the disease could be passed on to monkeys inoculated with the material he had collected. Enders was able to use the cultivated virus to develop a measles vaccine in 1963 based on the material isolated by Peebles. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, nearly twice as many children died from measles as from polio. The vaccine Enders developed was based on the Edmonston strain of attenuated live measles virus, which was named for the Fay student from whom Peebles had taken the culture that led to the virus's cultivation. | <urn:uuid:35b41122-c658-4234-ad7f-8f49def37d4a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://dgcustomerfirst-com.info/else/measles-vaccine-reaction.coming | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00465.warc.gz | en | 0.99192 | 252 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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-0.2910361886024... | 1 | As a fellow at Children's Hospital Boston, Thomas C. Peebles worked with John Franklin Enders. Enders became known as "The Father of Modern vaccines", and Enders shared the Nobel Prize in 1954 for his research on cultivating the polio virus that led to the development of a vaccination for the disease. Switching to study measles, Enders sent Peebles to Fay School in Massachusetts, where an outbreak of the disease was under way, and there Peebles was able to isolate the virus from some of the blood samples and throat swabs he had taken from the students. Even after Enders had taken him off the study team, Peebles was able to cultivate the virus and show that the disease could be passed on to monkeys inoculated with the material he had collected. Enders was able to use the cultivated virus to develop a measles vaccine in 1963 based on the material isolated by Peebles. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, nearly twice as many children died from measles as from polio. The vaccine Enders developed was based on the Edmonston strain of attenuated live measles virus, which was named for the Fay student from whom Peebles had taken the culture that led to the virus's cultivation. | 264 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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