text string | id string | dump string | url string | file_path string | language string | language_score float64 | token_count int64 | score float64 | int_score int64 | embedding list | count int64 | Content string | Tokens int64 | Top_Lang string | Top_Conf float64 |
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Milestone for freedom
121; 68; 130; 115; 46; 93; 54 and on and on…
What do these numbers mean? They are the numbers of slaves owned by various slave-holders in an 1860 Leon County census.
Well-known names appear on the registry: Call; Ponder; Bradford; Chaires; Branch. Some, like Richard Call, a territorial governor, were politicians. Others were cotton plantation owners, whose properties spanned thousands of acres, and whose fortunes were directly tied to the labor produced by the men and women they owned.
Leon County at the beginning of the Civil War was the fifth largest producer of cotton in both Florida and Georgia. It was the wealthiest of all Florida counties. Its population was also over 70 percent black slaves who were valued at more than the land itself was worth.
Yet within four years all of that would be turned on its head. On Dec. 6, 1865, the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution would declare once and for all, that “neither slavery nor involuntary servitude….shall exist in the United States or any place subject to their jurisdiction.”
Like the Civil War itself, it had taken years to stumble toward that final step — a Constitutional Amendment that could not be overturned nor deemed illegal.
Lincoln had issued a Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation draft to his cabinet in April, 1862. Six months later, he announced that “slaves in areas of rebellion would be free within 100 days” if the seceding states did not return to the Union before the first of the year. Finally on Jan. 1 of 1863, the final Emancipation Proclamation was signed. Still, it would take two more years and, as portrayed in the film “Lincoln,” horse-trading, money-handouts, and gifts of diplomatic posts for Lincoln to maneuver his party into voting for the Amendment.
And finally, when they did, approximately 3.9 million enslaved individuals were free. But the scrawl of a pen on a piece of paper didn’t always help people who had never known freedom or how to live as freemen. Men who could be castrated, burned, and whipped for infractions, women who could be doled out or used as their masters saw fit were suddenly told they were as free as their former owners. Prohibited from learning to read or write; ignorant of their political shifts of fortune, the slaves were in one fell swoop liberated.
Quickly, ex-slave families sought to reunite, having been portioned up and sold or “allotted” to others in rental or mortgage agreements. Men sought to figure out how to earn wages when many only knew the skill they’d been required to do on their master’s land. Women worried where they would lay their children’s heads if they abandoned the plantations where they’d spent their whole lives.
And while there was confusion and anxiety about what came next, there was hope in the air. Reconstruction, as the North saw it, would give former slaves the right to own property and businesses; the right to vote; to hold office; the right to marry and establish bloodlines that could pass on wealth. And for a while it seemed to work.
From the end of the war in 1865 until the mid-1870s, Federal troops had kept a presence in the South. Some would say as a means of intimidation, others that they were overseeing a Reconstruction which would integrate and help rebuild a broken South. During those years, ex-slaves eagerly entered politics — sometimes out-numbering the white representatives in state government—a fact which quickly led to white resentment. While often freed men went North, many stayed to start small businesses like barbering, horse-shoeing, and farming their own land — much of which had been ‘gifted’ to them by their former owners.
James ‘Jack’ Hadley, the 79 year old founder and chief curator at Thomasville’s Black History Museum is the grandson of a slave. Sitting in the astonishingly comprehensive museum housed in a former school, Hadley looks over the panoply of slave memorabilia he has assembled to chronicle its earliest beginnings in Thomasville and the surrounding areas, and he remembers.
Hadley’s grandfather, Richard, was the son of his white owner and a black slave. Richard was raised in the white man’s house and acted as a kind of ‘slave overseer,’ rising each morning to waken the workers with a bull’s horn call. Just after the war ended in 1866, Hadley says his grandfather married and being newly emancipated, moved off the owner’s land to work on his own purchased property. He would go on to have 27 children. One of his sons, Dennis, moved to Pebble Hill Plantation, which, like many of the cotton and peanut properties that line what is now U.S. 319, had been purchased by Northerners for use as a hunting reserve. It was there that Jack Hadley was born.
But from the late 1800s through 1954 when segregation was deemed unconstitutional — and according to Jack Hadley, later into the ‘60s — a kind of blanket discrimination had taken over in eating establishments, housing, politics, education, and employment. It flourished under the so-called Jim Crow laws in the South. “Jim Crow” was a comical black-face minstrel of the 1800s, who embodied negative stereotypical characteristics of African Americans and came to signify the laws enacted to re-subjugate the black population of the Southern states.
Hadley remembers life in the 1930s on the Pebble Hill Plantation as idyllic, filled with the benefits of good housing, “two school houses,” medical care, and even its owner, “Miss Pansy” Ireland, paying for university educations for the young people who lived and worked on its 3,000 acres. But he also recalls that when he came home on leave in the 1960s from what would become 28 years in the Air Force, he was immediately subjected to the humiliations of having to search for the flashing lights designating a “Colored Only” motel or going through the back doors of restaurants for a chance at a way-side meal.
Today in the Black History Museum, even as Hadley handles iron chains that once were soldered around a black man’s ankles or gazes at a photo of men hung in trees, he sees growth for the races, believing that in telling one race’s story, both can gain.
With this 150th anniversary of the passing of the Thirteenth Amendment, followed by other amendments that attempted to give final definition to racial equality, it seems valid to look both backward and forward at the wandering, halting, backsliding, and forward-pressing path such a hope continues to follow. | <urn:uuid:82b06061-3095-478d-95c9-eb5968d28711> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.tallahassee.com/story/life/2015/12/05/th-anniversary-th-amendment-slavery-outlawed/76860434/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00201.warc.gz | en | 0.984715 | 1,446 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.390113174915... | 3 | Milestone for freedom
121; 68; 130; 115; 46; 93; 54 and on and on…
What do these numbers mean? They are the numbers of slaves owned by various slave-holders in an 1860 Leon County census.
Well-known names appear on the registry: Call; Ponder; Bradford; Chaires; Branch. Some, like Richard Call, a territorial governor, were politicians. Others were cotton plantation owners, whose properties spanned thousands of acres, and whose fortunes were directly tied to the labor produced by the men and women they owned.
Leon County at the beginning of the Civil War was the fifth largest producer of cotton in both Florida and Georgia. It was the wealthiest of all Florida counties. Its population was also over 70 percent black slaves who were valued at more than the land itself was worth.
Yet within four years all of that would be turned on its head. On Dec. 6, 1865, the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution would declare once and for all, that “neither slavery nor involuntary servitude….shall exist in the United States or any place subject to their jurisdiction.”
Like the Civil War itself, it had taken years to stumble toward that final step — a Constitutional Amendment that could not be overturned nor deemed illegal.
Lincoln had issued a Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation draft to his cabinet in April, 1862. Six months later, he announced that “slaves in areas of rebellion would be free within 100 days” if the seceding states did not return to the Union before the first of the year. Finally on Jan. 1 of 1863, the final Emancipation Proclamation was signed. Still, it would take two more years and, as portrayed in the film “Lincoln,” horse-trading, money-handouts, and gifts of diplomatic posts for Lincoln to maneuver his party into voting for the Amendment.
And finally, when they did, approximately 3.9 million enslaved individuals were free. But the scrawl of a pen on a piece of paper didn’t always help people who had never known freedom or how to live as freemen. Men who could be castrated, burned, and whipped for infractions, women who could be doled out or used as their masters saw fit were suddenly told they were as free as their former owners. Prohibited from learning to read or write; ignorant of their political shifts of fortune, the slaves were in one fell swoop liberated.
Quickly, ex-slave families sought to reunite, having been portioned up and sold or “allotted” to others in rental or mortgage agreements. Men sought to figure out how to earn wages when many only knew the skill they’d been required to do on their master’s land. Women worried where they would lay their children’s heads if they abandoned the plantations where they’d spent their whole lives.
And while there was confusion and anxiety about what came next, there was hope in the air. Reconstruction, as the North saw it, would give former slaves the right to own property and businesses; the right to vote; to hold office; the right to marry and establish bloodlines that could pass on wealth. And for a while it seemed to work.
From the end of the war in 1865 until the mid-1870s, Federal troops had kept a presence in the South. Some would say as a means of intimidation, others that they were overseeing a Reconstruction which would integrate and help rebuild a broken South. During those years, ex-slaves eagerly entered politics — sometimes out-numbering the white representatives in state government—a fact which quickly led to white resentment. While often freed men went North, many stayed to start small businesses like barbering, horse-shoeing, and farming their own land — much of which had been ‘gifted’ to them by their former owners.
James ‘Jack’ Hadley, the 79 year old founder and chief curator at Thomasville’s Black History Museum is the grandson of a slave. Sitting in the astonishingly comprehensive museum housed in a former school, Hadley looks over the panoply of slave memorabilia he has assembled to chronicle its earliest beginnings in Thomasville and the surrounding areas, and he remembers.
Hadley’s grandfather, Richard, was the son of his white owner and a black slave. Richard was raised in the white man’s house and acted as a kind of ‘slave overseer,’ rising each morning to waken the workers with a bull’s horn call. Just after the war ended in 1866, Hadley says his grandfather married and being newly emancipated, moved off the owner’s land to work on his own purchased property. He would go on to have 27 children. One of his sons, Dennis, moved to Pebble Hill Plantation, which, like many of the cotton and peanut properties that line what is now U.S. 319, had been purchased by Northerners for use as a hunting reserve. It was there that Jack Hadley was born.
But from the late 1800s through 1954 when segregation was deemed unconstitutional — and according to Jack Hadley, later into the ‘60s — a kind of blanket discrimination had taken over in eating establishments, housing, politics, education, and employment. It flourished under the so-called Jim Crow laws in the South. “Jim Crow” was a comical black-face minstrel of the 1800s, who embodied negative stereotypical characteristics of African Americans and came to signify the laws enacted to re-subjugate the black population of the Southern states.
Hadley remembers life in the 1930s on the Pebble Hill Plantation as idyllic, filled with the benefits of good housing, “two school houses,” medical care, and even its owner, “Miss Pansy” Ireland, paying for university educations for the young people who lived and worked on its 3,000 acres. But he also recalls that when he came home on leave in the 1960s from what would become 28 years in the Air Force, he was immediately subjected to the humiliations of having to search for the flashing lights designating a “Colored Only” motel or going through the back doors of restaurants for a chance at a way-side meal.
Today in the Black History Museum, even as Hadley handles iron chains that once were soldered around a black man’s ankles or gazes at a photo of men hung in trees, he sees growth for the races, believing that in telling one race’s story, both can gain.
With this 150th anniversary of the passing of the Thirteenth Amendment, followed by other amendments that attempted to give final definition to racial equality, it seems valid to look both backward and forward at the wandering, halting, backsliding, and forward-pressing path such a hope continues to follow. | 1,456 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Moshe Chaim Montefiore (1784-1885) was born in Livorno, Italy to a wealthy Sephardic family. Raised in England, he worked as a grocery merchant before earning great wealth in the stock exchange. In 1824, Montefiore retired and dedicated his life to making the world a better place, funding countless schools, hospitals and other institutions. He was a key figure in abolishing slavery, and even raised the money used to compensate angry plantation owners. Montefiore served as Sheriff of London, and was knighted by Queen Victoria for his selflessness. In 1827 he travelled to Israel and the experience returned him to his Jewish roots. He became a strictly Torah-observant Jew, so much so that he had a personal shochet travel with him so that he can have kosher meat. Fighting for each individual Jew, Montefiore personally went to Turkey to gain the release of 10 imprisoned Jews. He did the same in trips to Russia, Morocco, Rome and Romania. In 1862 he built a Sephardic yeshiva, in addition to the great Montefiore synagogue, built on the former estate of Queen Caroline. Montefiore would make 7 trips to the Holy Land over his life time (the last at age 91!) setting the ground work for the Zionist movement. He financed much of the early construction projects, including the first printing press and textile factory, established multiple agricultural colonies, and even commissioned several censuses that provide us with important information to this day. Montefiore died childless at the age of 100. His centenary was celebrated as a national holiday. Today, the 13th of Av, is his yahrzeit.
Words of the Week
A wealthy anti-Semite once told Moses Montefiore that he had just returned from Japan, where there are “neither pigs nor Jews.” Sir Moses replied: “then you and I should go there, so that they should have a sample of each.”
Benjamin Disraeli (1804-1881) A descendant of Sephardic Jews from Portugal – which came to Britain by way of Italy – Disraeli was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1874 until 1880. His Conversative Party made great strides for Britain, and it was said he did “more for the working classes in five years than the Liberals have in fifty.” Disraeli was a staunch imperialist, working hard to spread the borders of the British Empire. He purchased the Suez Canal, invaded Afghanistan, and made Queen Victoria the Empress of India. If that’s not impressive enough, he also wrote 18 novels and 8 non-fiction books. Despite being baptized by his father at a young age, Disraeli always identified as a Jew. On one occasion, while debating in Parliament, a fellow MP attacked him with an anti-Semitic remark, to which Disraeli replied: “Yes, I am a Jew, and when the ancestors of the Right Honourable Gentleman were brutal savages in an unknown island, mine were priests in the Temple of Solomon.”
Words of the Week
A little bit of light dispels a lot of darkness. – Rabbi Schneur Zalman of Liadi | <urn:uuid:4b9efb59-04fb-488b-a204-7f75e9cb709a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.jewoftheweek.net/tag/queen-victoria/page/2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00556.warc.gz | en | 0.982717 | 669 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.581210851669311... | 1 | Moshe Chaim Montefiore (1784-1885) was born in Livorno, Italy to a wealthy Sephardic family. Raised in England, he worked as a grocery merchant before earning great wealth in the stock exchange. In 1824, Montefiore retired and dedicated his life to making the world a better place, funding countless schools, hospitals and other institutions. He was a key figure in abolishing slavery, and even raised the money used to compensate angry plantation owners. Montefiore served as Sheriff of London, and was knighted by Queen Victoria for his selflessness. In 1827 he travelled to Israel and the experience returned him to his Jewish roots. He became a strictly Torah-observant Jew, so much so that he had a personal shochet travel with him so that he can have kosher meat. Fighting for each individual Jew, Montefiore personally went to Turkey to gain the release of 10 imprisoned Jews. He did the same in trips to Russia, Morocco, Rome and Romania. In 1862 he built a Sephardic yeshiva, in addition to the great Montefiore synagogue, built on the former estate of Queen Caroline. Montefiore would make 7 trips to the Holy Land over his life time (the last at age 91!) setting the ground work for the Zionist movement. He financed much of the early construction projects, including the first printing press and textile factory, established multiple agricultural colonies, and even commissioned several censuses that provide us with important information to this day. Montefiore died childless at the age of 100. His centenary was celebrated as a national holiday. Today, the 13th of Av, is his yahrzeit.
Words of the Week
A wealthy anti-Semite once told Moses Montefiore that he had just returned from Japan, where there are “neither pigs nor Jews.” Sir Moses replied: “then you and I should go there, so that they should have a sample of each.”
Benjamin Disraeli (1804-1881) A descendant of Sephardic Jews from Portugal – which came to Britain by way of Italy – Disraeli was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1874 until 1880. His Conversative Party made great strides for Britain, and it was said he did “more for the working classes in five years than the Liberals have in fifty.” Disraeli was a staunch imperialist, working hard to spread the borders of the British Empire. He purchased the Suez Canal, invaded Afghanistan, and made Queen Victoria the Empress of India. If that’s not impressive enough, he also wrote 18 novels and 8 non-fiction books. Despite being baptized by his father at a young age, Disraeli always identified as a Jew. On one occasion, while debating in Parliament, a fellow MP attacked him with an anti-Semitic remark, to which Disraeli replied: “Yes, I am a Jew, and when the ancestors of the Right Honourable Gentleman were brutal savages in an unknown island, mine were priests in the Temple of Solomon.”
Words of the Week
A little bit of light dispels a lot of darkness. – Rabbi Schneur Zalman of Liadi | 690 | ENGLISH | 1 |
5. Early Life
Jacques Cartier was born in Saint Malo, Brittany, France on December 31st, 1491. Little is known about Cartier's early years, but he would have belonged to a middle-class family, and Cartier's early education therefore would have likely been in mathematics, astronomy, and navigation as he was known in later life as a notable navigator. He became so well respected in the industry that men no less than the Bishop of Saint Malo and the Abbot of Mont-Saint-Michel introduced him to King Francis I of France. In 1520, Cartier upped his social status further when he married Mary Catherine des Granches.
King Francis I was interested in further explorations of North America's East Coast, and came to know of Cartier as being a good navigator. In April of 1534, the monarch commissioned Cartier to find a new sea route to Asia via North America, and hopefully bring back gold from the New World as well. In fact, the French King sent Cartier on three expeditions to North America for France. There were many obstacles and difficulties during these explorations, as Cartier lost some of his men during his voyages, and also lost settlers to Indian attacks. The harsh winter season was another factor that hindered some attempts by Cartier to further explore the new lands.
During his explorations in the east coast of North America, Cartier gave Canada its name, taken from “kanata”, a Native American word meaning "village". Cartier became the first European to penetrate Continental Canada, doing so as he explored the inner Eastern regions of Canada along the St. Lawrence River. Thusly, Cartier's reputation and significance as a good navigator shouldn't be understated. In all of his three voyages, Cartier completed them with only minor troubles and all of his ships remained intact. In fact, Cartier navigated his convoy of ships safely into almost 50 unknown ports, many times through dangerous, previously uncharted waters. He also declared that North America was not connected to Asia or Europe.
Cartier was confronted with serious challenges during his voyages. After meeting the Iroquois Indians in what is known today as Quebec on his second voyage, his opinion of the Indians was not a positive one. However, when scurvy decimated 50 Iroquois Indians, and later also affected his own men, Cartier was able to save 85 of 110 of his men from death with the help of the Indians. The Iroquois told him of a cure made from the bark of a native tree called the annedda. However, on his third expedition, Cartier met with deadly attacks from the Iroquois, and chose to abandon settlements that had been established earlier and sailed back to France.
1. Death and Legacy
Returning to France after his third and final New World expedition, Cartier arrived back home in October with a cargo of quartz and pyrite, instead of diamonds and gold. The king was disappointed, and Cartier was never again commissioned for another voyage to the new world. Cartier was by now a broken man, and returned to his estate in Saint-Malo and spent his last days as an interpreter, as he was fluent in Portuguese. On September 1st, 1557, Cartier died of an illness resulting from exposure to an epidemic in Saint-Malo. He was 65 years old. Cartier left the world with the re-discovery of the St. Lawrence River Waterway, which enabled many succeeding Europeans to further establish settlements and trade in the New World.
Who Was Jacques Cartier?
Jacques Cartier was a French explorer and navigator whose family was of Breton ancestry. He is best known as being the first European to explore eastern Canada.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | <urn:uuid:7ade92fa-2d59-4f8b-beed-2b1a1095ef0c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/jacques-cartier-famous-explorers-of-the-world.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00426.warc.gz | en | 0.986535 | 814 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.3444170355796814... | 1 | 5. Early Life
Jacques Cartier was born in Saint Malo, Brittany, France on December 31st, 1491. Little is known about Cartier's early years, but he would have belonged to a middle-class family, and Cartier's early education therefore would have likely been in mathematics, astronomy, and navigation as he was known in later life as a notable navigator. He became so well respected in the industry that men no less than the Bishop of Saint Malo and the Abbot of Mont-Saint-Michel introduced him to King Francis I of France. In 1520, Cartier upped his social status further when he married Mary Catherine des Granches.
King Francis I was interested in further explorations of North America's East Coast, and came to know of Cartier as being a good navigator. In April of 1534, the monarch commissioned Cartier to find a new sea route to Asia via North America, and hopefully bring back gold from the New World as well. In fact, the French King sent Cartier on three expeditions to North America for France. There were many obstacles and difficulties during these explorations, as Cartier lost some of his men during his voyages, and also lost settlers to Indian attacks. The harsh winter season was another factor that hindered some attempts by Cartier to further explore the new lands.
During his explorations in the east coast of North America, Cartier gave Canada its name, taken from “kanata”, a Native American word meaning "village". Cartier became the first European to penetrate Continental Canada, doing so as he explored the inner Eastern regions of Canada along the St. Lawrence River. Thusly, Cartier's reputation and significance as a good navigator shouldn't be understated. In all of his three voyages, Cartier completed them with only minor troubles and all of his ships remained intact. In fact, Cartier navigated his convoy of ships safely into almost 50 unknown ports, many times through dangerous, previously uncharted waters. He also declared that North America was not connected to Asia or Europe.
Cartier was confronted with serious challenges during his voyages. After meeting the Iroquois Indians in what is known today as Quebec on his second voyage, his opinion of the Indians was not a positive one. However, when scurvy decimated 50 Iroquois Indians, and later also affected his own men, Cartier was able to save 85 of 110 of his men from death with the help of the Indians. The Iroquois told him of a cure made from the bark of a native tree called the annedda. However, on his third expedition, Cartier met with deadly attacks from the Iroquois, and chose to abandon settlements that had been established earlier and sailed back to France.
1. Death and Legacy
Returning to France after his third and final New World expedition, Cartier arrived back home in October with a cargo of quartz and pyrite, instead of diamonds and gold. The king was disappointed, and Cartier was never again commissioned for another voyage to the new world. Cartier was by now a broken man, and returned to his estate in Saint-Malo and spent his last days as an interpreter, as he was fluent in Portuguese. On September 1st, 1557, Cartier died of an illness resulting from exposure to an epidemic in Saint-Malo. He was 65 years old. Cartier left the world with the re-discovery of the St. Lawrence River Waterway, which enabled many succeeding Europeans to further establish settlements and trade in the New World.
Who Was Jacques Cartier?
Jacques Cartier was a French explorer and navigator whose family was of Breton ancestry. He is best known as being the first European to explore eastern Canada.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 822 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Essay about The Impact Of Martin Luther During The Reformation Era
“Even if I knew that tomorrow the world would go to pieces, I would still plant my apple tree.”
- Martin Luther
St Benjamin Kim
History 101 (9 AM)
6 May 2016
Word Count: 2000
I could write a 20 page biography on Luther, however, that’s quite boring. I was more admired by his motivation and conviction. After researching, I was right about his passion, but more so his profound effect created a movement that essentially “burned a hole through Europe”. This paper will give a brief introduction into Luther and then show the impact Luther had socially, religiously, and globally. In addition, an attempt to share a few things I have learned in class and read in the textbook, including some online, scholarly sources.
Luther was born into a poor, peasant German family where he was taught to pray to God and to respect the church and the priests.Becoming a monk, he entered a monastery at Erfurt in 1505.
As a monk, Luther’s main concern was to become a saint and earn a place in heaven. He, therefore, observed the details of discipline, living a very austere life and learning the principles of mystical prayer and meditation. His days were spent in reading and studying, prayer and fastings, night watches, and self-mortifications. His fellow monks held him up as a model of sanctity and envied his self-denial. He later said, “If ever a monk got to heaven by monkery, I would have… | <urn:uuid:81edde63-dcfc-4319-8bdb-063525218ccf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.cram.com/essay/The-Impact-Of-Martin-Luther-During-The/F3LYEM9UREEX | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00086.warc.gz | en | 0.983666 | 335 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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-0.03145431727170... | 1 | Essay about The Impact Of Martin Luther During The Reformation Era
“Even if I knew that tomorrow the world would go to pieces, I would still plant my apple tree.”
- Martin Luther
St Benjamin Kim
History 101 (9 AM)
6 May 2016
Word Count: 2000
I could write a 20 page biography on Luther, however, that’s quite boring. I was more admired by his motivation and conviction. After researching, I was right about his passion, but more so his profound effect created a movement that essentially “burned a hole through Europe”. This paper will give a brief introduction into Luther and then show the impact Luther had socially, religiously, and globally. In addition, an attempt to share a few things I have learned in class and read in the textbook, including some online, scholarly sources.
Luther was born into a poor, peasant German family where he was taught to pray to God and to respect the church and the priests.Becoming a monk, he entered a monastery at Erfurt in 1505.
As a monk, Luther’s main concern was to become a saint and earn a place in heaven. He, therefore, observed the details of discipline, living a very austere life and learning the principles of mystical prayer and meditation. His days were spent in reading and studying, prayer and fastings, night watches, and self-mortifications. His fellow monks held him up as a model of sanctity and envied his self-denial. He later said, “If ever a monk got to heaven by monkery, I would have… | 334 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How Did Land Plants Evolve?
A lot of attention is paid to the process by which fish-like animals first evolved primitive legs and adapted to life on land instead of in the water. However, we often forget that plants had already made this crucial transition much earlier in evolutionary history. Without land plants to provide food and habitat, it would have been impossible for the first land animals to come ashore.
It is believed that the earliest plants evolved from a photosynthetic protist that resembled green algae. Like algae, these early plants were highly dependent on water for structure, hydration, and even reproduction; their sperm cells needed water to swim through in order to reach egg cells. The thing that set these early plants apart from algae was their differentiated male and female reproductive parts.
Adapting to dry land presented a lot of challenges. The plants had to hold themselves upright without support from an aqueous environment, and they had to hold on to enough water to avoid drying out. Early land plants were small, low to the ground, and usually found in moist areas as they were still fairly reliant on water.
Eventually some plants evolved roots, which gave them better stability and allowed them to absorb water from the soil even when the air was dry. Vascular plants, (the most dominant form of plant life) evolved a vascular system, which you can imagine as a series of internal pipes that allows plants to move water and sugar between different tissues in their body.
This way water collected in the roots could be transported to the stem and leaves, while sugar from photosynthesis in the leaves could be shared with the roots that weren’t generating energy themselves.
Early vascular plants probably resembled something like modern ferns. Although they were better adapted to land, they were still dependent on water for reproduction. It wasn’t until more advanced plants evolved seeds and pollen that plants were able to reproduce independent of access to water.
Helga (photographer). (2014). Fern Green Plant [photography]. Retrieved from | <urn:uuid:4fd82076-1980-43f7-8a33-aff8ea6daaed> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.amazinglife.bio/how-did-land-plants-evolve | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00302.warc.gz | en | 0.981694 | 410 | 4.28125 | 4 | [
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0.077841766178... | 6 | How Did Land Plants Evolve?
A lot of attention is paid to the process by which fish-like animals first evolved primitive legs and adapted to life on land instead of in the water. However, we often forget that plants had already made this crucial transition much earlier in evolutionary history. Without land plants to provide food and habitat, it would have been impossible for the first land animals to come ashore.
It is believed that the earliest plants evolved from a photosynthetic protist that resembled green algae. Like algae, these early plants were highly dependent on water for structure, hydration, and even reproduction; their sperm cells needed water to swim through in order to reach egg cells. The thing that set these early plants apart from algae was their differentiated male and female reproductive parts.
Adapting to dry land presented a lot of challenges. The plants had to hold themselves upright without support from an aqueous environment, and they had to hold on to enough water to avoid drying out. Early land plants were small, low to the ground, and usually found in moist areas as they were still fairly reliant on water.
Eventually some plants evolved roots, which gave them better stability and allowed them to absorb water from the soil even when the air was dry. Vascular plants, (the most dominant form of plant life) evolved a vascular system, which you can imagine as a series of internal pipes that allows plants to move water and sugar between different tissues in their body.
This way water collected in the roots could be transported to the stem and leaves, while sugar from photosynthesis in the leaves could be shared with the roots that weren’t generating energy themselves.
Early vascular plants probably resembled something like modern ferns. Although they were better adapted to land, they were still dependent on water for reproduction. It wasn’t until more advanced plants evolved seeds and pollen that plants were able to reproduce independent of access to water.
Helga (photographer). (2014). Fern Green Plant [photography]. Retrieved from | 400 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Negative campaigning, name-calling, lying and smear political opponents… These are things voters in America have come to expect by politicians running for virtually any office. Public polling suggests the public doesn’t like it, yet they respond well to it.
We assume it hasn’t always been this way and yet, it has been worse. Much worse.
In the election of 1800, President John Adams (Federalist) and Vice-President Thomas Jefferson (Democratic-Republican) engaged in one of, if not the, most personal and vicious campaigns in American history.
Adams and Jefferson were stalwarts of the American revolution, co-writers of the Declaration of Independence, and extremely close personal friends up until the election of 1796 – the year in which Adams narrowly defeated Jefferson – who became vice-president.
What happened and why was the campaign of 1800 so divisive and personal?
There were several issues that dominated the election of 1800:
The Sedition Act
To this day, the Sedition and Alien Acts of 1798 are two of the most controversial pieces of legislation in American history.
Adams was an advocate for passing the Sedition Act to ensure that what was said about him was true and accurate, or face criminal charges. The first case was against Congressman Matthew Lyon (VT) and eleven others. Lyon was convicted to four months in a Vermont jail for speaking out against Adams. Afterward, he was considered a hero and overwhelmingly was re-elected to Congress.
Unpopular Tax Increases
In rural Pennsylvania Dutch Country, German farmers rebelled by armed force against federal tax collectors. They sought to collect new unpopular taxes on their land in a heavy-handed means. Two farmers were tried in federal court and found guilty of treason. They were sentenced to death. Adams pardoned the men on grounds they did not commit an insurrection. This infuriated Federalists and they labeled Adams as weak and capricious.
Prospect for War and Peace with France
France was in the midst of its own revolution. Adams and the Federalists felt strongly that the new nation could not afford to get in the middle of France’s internal issues or their ongoing feud with England, whom Federalists supported. However, Jefferson and the Republicans felt as strongly that America must come to France’s aid – They were owed that due to their support in helping secure America’s independence.
This would become such a contentious issue the two men would not talk for over a year.
In need to build the army in case France attacked the United States, Adams appointed Alexander Hamilton as a General in the army and soon came to regret it. The two men grew to dislike each other and even though they were both Federalists. Hamilton sought to replace Adams with his own choice for President in the 1800 election in Charles Cotesworth Pinckney.
Treachery Within the Federalist Party
From within his own cabinet and the Federalist party, Hamiltonian Federalists conspired together to help elect Pinckney. They used classified information, stories, and of course embellishments to paint an unflattering picture of Adams in hopes that Federalists would abandon Adams.
How Personal and Vindictive was the Campaign of 1800?
These former colleagues and Patriots viciously turned on one another. According to author David McCullough in his biography titled John Adams:
Of Jefferson, Adams and his supporters said that:
- His victory would ensure a civil war.
- He was a Hordes of Frenchmen and Irishmen, “the refuse of Europe” who would flood the country and threaten the life of “all who love order, peace, virtue, and religion.”
- He swindled clients as a young lawyer.
- He was a coward as Governor of Virginia when he fled Monticello as the British Army approached.
- He was a godless atheist who mocked the Christian faith and that Bibles would have to be hidden if he were elected.
- He cohabitated with his female slaves.
Of Adams, Jefferson and his supporters said:
- He was a monarchist who was more British than American, and therefore a bad man.
- He was ridiculed as old, addled, and toothless.
- That he was corrupt and attempted to swing a deal with Republicans.
- He was insane and quite-mad.
The Hamiltonian Federalists Were the Final Nail in Adams Re-Election Coffin
In October 1880, an angry and bitter Alexander Hamilton wrote a 54-page pamphlet that excoriated Adams to their fellow Federalists. He said Adams had:
- “Great intrinsic defects of character.”
- “Disgusting egotism”
- “Eccentric tendencies”
- “Ungovernable temper”
- “Bitter animosity” towards his own cabinet.
The Tipping Point
Adams lost the election. Jefferson secured 73 electoral votes, Adams 65, and Pinckney 63. Hamilton ended up helping Jefferson win – the outcome he did not want as warned about by fellow Federalist Noah Webster.
It was not Jefferson who had defeated Adams. It was the Federalist faction and Hamilton that was the difference in the campaign.
While these things sound trivial to us, in their time the campaign was scandalous and set the stage for the elections to follow. It was the first time two parties coalesced around a candidate and a party divided within itself.
Worse, the campaign and events that preceded it almost destroyed the relationship between two of the Founding Fathers who were close personal friends.
Today’s campaigns pale in comparison to the campaign of 1800. However, we’re always one campaign away from besting Adams, Jefferson, and Hamilton.
By Don Purdum, Freelance Contributor
Copyright 2019, RightWing.org | <urn:uuid:458654a4-d0f0-4500-a048-0f3873daf44c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.rightwing.org/the-campaign-of-1800-makes-todays-politics-look-tame/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00301.warc.gz | en | 0.981629 | 1,208 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.1731547415... | 5 | Negative campaigning, name-calling, lying and smear political opponents… These are things voters in America have come to expect by politicians running for virtually any office. Public polling suggests the public doesn’t like it, yet they respond well to it.
We assume it hasn’t always been this way and yet, it has been worse. Much worse.
In the election of 1800, President John Adams (Federalist) and Vice-President Thomas Jefferson (Democratic-Republican) engaged in one of, if not the, most personal and vicious campaigns in American history.
Adams and Jefferson were stalwarts of the American revolution, co-writers of the Declaration of Independence, and extremely close personal friends up until the election of 1796 – the year in which Adams narrowly defeated Jefferson – who became vice-president.
What happened and why was the campaign of 1800 so divisive and personal?
There were several issues that dominated the election of 1800:
The Sedition Act
To this day, the Sedition and Alien Acts of 1798 are two of the most controversial pieces of legislation in American history.
Adams was an advocate for passing the Sedition Act to ensure that what was said about him was true and accurate, or face criminal charges. The first case was against Congressman Matthew Lyon (VT) and eleven others. Lyon was convicted to four months in a Vermont jail for speaking out against Adams. Afterward, he was considered a hero and overwhelmingly was re-elected to Congress.
Unpopular Tax Increases
In rural Pennsylvania Dutch Country, German farmers rebelled by armed force against federal tax collectors. They sought to collect new unpopular taxes on their land in a heavy-handed means. Two farmers were tried in federal court and found guilty of treason. They were sentenced to death. Adams pardoned the men on grounds they did not commit an insurrection. This infuriated Federalists and they labeled Adams as weak and capricious.
Prospect for War and Peace with France
France was in the midst of its own revolution. Adams and the Federalists felt strongly that the new nation could not afford to get in the middle of France’s internal issues or their ongoing feud with England, whom Federalists supported. However, Jefferson and the Republicans felt as strongly that America must come to France’s aid – They were owed that due to their support in helping secure America’s independence.
This would become such a contentious issue the two men would not talk for over a year.
In need to build the army in case France attacked the United States, Adams appointed Alexander Hamilton as a General in the army and soon came to regret it. The two men grew to dislike each other and even though they were both Federalists. Hamilton sought to replace Adams with his own choice for President in the 1800 election in Charles Cotesworth Pinckney.
Treachery Within the Federalist Party
From within his own cabinet and the Federalist party, Hamiltonian Federalists conspired together to help elect Pinckney. They used classified information, stories, and of course embellishments to paint an unflattering picture of Adams in hopes that Federalists would abandon Adams.
How Personal and Vindictive was the Campaign of 1800?
These former colleagues and Patriots viciously turned on one another. According to author David McCullough in his biography titled John Adams:
Of Jefferson, Adams and his supporters said that:
- His victory would ensure a civil war.
- He was a Hordes of Frenchmen and Irishmen, “the refuse of Europe” who would flood the country and threaten the life of “all who love order, peace, virtue, and religion.”
- He swindled clients as a young lawyer.
- He was a coward as Governor of Virginia when he fled Monticello as the British Army approached.
- He was a godless atheist who mocked the Christian faith and that Bibles would have to be hidden if he were elected.
- He cohabitated with his female slaves.
Of Adams, Jefferson and his supporters said:
- He was a monarchist who was more British than American, and therefore a bad man.
- He was ridiculed as old, addled, and toothless.
- That he was corrupt and attempted to swing a deal with Republicans.
- He was insane and quite-mad.
The Hamiltonian Federalists Were the Final Nail in Adams Re-Election Coffin
In October 1880, an angry and bitter Alexander Hamilton wrote a 54-page pamphlet that excoriated Adams to their fellow Federalists. He said Adams had:
- “Great intrinsic defects of character.”
- “Disgusting egotism”
- “Eccentric tendencies”
- “Ungovernable temper”
- “Bitter animosity” towards his own cabinet.
The Tipping Point
Adams lost the election. Jefferson secured 73 electoral votes, Adams 65, and Pinckney 63. Hamilton ended up helping Jefferson win – the outcome he did not want as warned about by fellow Federalist Noah Webster.
It was not Jefferson who had defeated Adams. It was the Federalist faction and Hamilton that was the difference in the campaign.
While these things sound trivial to us, in their time the campaign was scandalous and set the stage for the elections to follow. It was the first time two parties coalesced around a candidate and a party divided within itself.
Worse, the campaign and events that preceded it almost destroyed the relationship between two of the Founding Fathers who were close personal friends.
Today’s campaigns pale in comparison to the campaign of 1800. However, we’re always one campaign away from besting Adams, Jefferson, and Hamilton.
By Don Purdum, Freelance Contributor
Copyright 2019, RightWing.org | 1,187 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Federal Struggle
After his time in colonial politics he decided that the struggle for federation was the most important issue of the day.
So much that he declined every ministerial cabinet position from 1890 to 1900, so he could focus his attention on moving the nation towards Federation.
According to his granddaughter Judith Harley this was at great personal sacrifice. "This meant a loss of income which he could ill afford at the time." He had a young family, two daughters Ivy, Stella and Vera was born in 1891.
"Perhaps one of his greatest contributions to Federation was the capacity to get resolutions sometimes out of near chaos" Judith Harley
Deakin is seen here speaking from McDonaugh's Star Hotel
Port Macquarie, NSW, as he travelled all over the country promoting the hope of Federation. State Library of NSW.
He would often play peace maker behind the scenes accepting that other delegates had greater experienced to labour over the complexities of the constitution. Deakin was very pleased when he heard the decision to include in the preamble, that Australia would "humbly relying on the blessing of Almighty God" Australian Constitution
To support his young family he went back to practicing law and remained on the backbench, while attending the numerous federation conferences, councils and conventions in Australia and in London as the nation moved slowly towards becoming one nation.
Deakin used his considerable oratory skills to move the spirit of the Australian people when at times it looked like people were losing their heart for the idea. There were many competing agendas and self-interests in the nation and often it looked like all was lost and another 50 years would pass before the nation would be ready.
Travelling to London in 1887 and again in 1900 to debate the important issues facing the two nations, he presented Australia's position to the British Colonial office that was not often supportive.
It was on 11th March 1900 that Deakin, Barton and Charles Kingston arrived in London and for the next 3 months they fought for the free passage of the Commonwealth Bill without amendments. The Colonial office had many suggested changes but through the hard negotiation of the 3 Australian's only one amendment was allowed, to give the Privy Council final say on constitutional matters.
Deakin was to develop a friendship with Rudyard Kipling during this trip that continued for many years and Kipling's letters to Deakin can be seen in National Library in Canberra. The three men came back to Australia heroes because they stood up to the mighty British establishment.
From 1890 to 1898 Deakin attended all the Federation conferences and was a key contributor in all the debates that decided on the core principle foundations of the Commonwealth of Australia. Sir Henry Parkes is credited as the Father of Federation, but Parkes only attended the first National Australasian Convention in April 1891 and in October that year resigned from office.
Deakin however worked tirelessly for 10 years to see Federation become a reality and later implemented many of the legislation that secured the nations future. | <urn:uuid:cc576631-d1cd-48d7-9acc-7503f045a206> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.alfreddeakin.com/lawyer-and-federalist | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00333.warc.gz | en | 0.983887 | 605 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.6960883736610413... | 15 | The Federal Struggle
After his time in colonial politics he decided that the struggle for federation was the most important issue of the day.
So much that he declined every ministerial cabinet position from 1890 to 1900, so he could focus his attention on moving the nation towards Federation.
According to his granddaughter Judith Harley this was at great personal sacrifice. "This meant a loss of income which he could ill afford at the time." He had a young family, two daughters Ivy, Stella and Vera was born in 1891.
"Perhaps one of his greatest contributions to Federation was the capacity to get resolutions sometimes out of near chaos" Judith Harley
Deakin is seen here speaking from McDonaugh's Star Hotel
Port Macquarie, NSW, as he travelled all over the country promoting the hope of Federation. State Library of NSW.
He would often play peace maker behind the scenes accepting that other delegates had greater experienced to labour over the complexities of the constitution. Deakin was very pleased when he heard the decision to include in the preamble, that Australia would "humbly relying on the blessing of Almighty God" Australian Constitution
To support his young family he went back to practicing law and remained on the backbench, while attending the numerous federation conferences, councils and conventions in Australia and in London as the nation moved slowly towards becoming one nation.
Deakin used his considerable oratory skills to move the spirit of the Australian people when at times it looked like people were losing their heart for the idea. There were many competing agendas and self-interests in the nation and often it looked like all was lost and another 50 years would pass before the nation would be ready.
Travelling to London in 1887 and again in 1900 to debate the important issues facing the two nations, he presented Australia's position to the British Colonial office that was not often supportive.
It was on 11th March 1900 that Deakin, Barton and Charles Kingston arrived in London and for the next 3 months they fought for the free passage of the Commonwealth Bill without amendments. The Colonial office had many suggested changes but through the hard negotiation of the 3 Australian's only one amendment was allowed, to give the Privy Council final say on constitutional matters.
Deakin was to develop a friendship with Rudyard Kipling during this trip that continued for many years and Kipling's letters to Deakin can be seen in National Library in Canberra. The three men came back to Australia heroes because they stood up to the mighty British establishment.
From 1890 to 1898 Deakin attended all the Federation conferences and was a key contributor in all the debates that decided on the core principle foundations of the Commonwealth of Australia. Sir Henry Parkes is credited as the Father of Federation, but Parkes only attended the first National Australasian Convention in April 1891 and in October that year resigned from office.
Deakin however worked tirelessly for 10 years to see Federation become a reality and later implemented many of the legislation that secured the nations future. | 637 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Originally called Decoration Day, Memorial Day is a day of remembrance for those who have died in service to our country. It was first widely observed on May 30, 1868, to commemorate the sacrifices of Civil War soldiers, by proclamation of General John A. Logan of the Grand Army of the Republic, an organization of former sailors and soldiers.
During the first national celebration, General James Garfield made a speech at Arlington National Cemetery, after which 5,000 participants helped to decorate the graves of the more than 20,000 Union and Confederate soldiers who were buried there. This event was inspired by local observances of the day that had taken place in several towns throughout America in the three years since the Civil War. By the late 1800s, many more cities and communities had begun to observe Memorial Day, and after World War I, it became an occasion for honoring those who had died in all America’s wars.
Memorial Day is celebrated at Arlington National Cemetery each year with a ceremony in which a small American flag is placed on each grave. Traditionally, the President or Vice President lays a wreath at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier. | <urn:uuid:c9603597-c163-4bc8-a44a-9cd43ecf02e1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.savethecolors.com/?p=14122 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00450.warc.gz | en | 0.984485 | 233 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.6230199933052... | 6 | Originally called Decoration Day, Memorial Day is a day of remembrance for those who have died in service to our country. It was first widely observed on May 30, 1868, to commemorate the sacrifices of Civil War soldiers, by proclamation of General John A. Logan of the Grand Army of the Republic, an organization of former sailors and soldiers.
During the first national celebration, General James Garfield made a speech at Arlington National Cemetery, after which 5,000 participants helped to decorate the graves of the more than 20,000 Union and Confederate soldiers who were buried there. This event was inspired by local observances of the day that had taken place in several towns throughout America in the three years since the Civil War. By the late 1800s, many more cities and communities had begun to observe Memorial Day, and after World War I, it became an occasion for honoring those who had died in all America’s wars.
Memorial Day is celebrated at Arlington National Cemetery each year with a ceremony in which a small American flag is placed on each grave. Traditionally, the President or Vice President lays a wreath at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier. | 245 | ENGLISH | 1 |
13 Now after they had left, an angel of the Lord appeared to Joseph in a dream and said, “Get up, take the child and his mother, and flee to Egypt, and remain there until I tell you; for Herod is about to search for the child, to destroy him.” 14 Then Joseph got up, took the child and his mother by night, and went to Egypt, 15 and remained there until the death of Herod. This was to fulfill what had been spoken by the Lord through the prophet, “Out of Egypt I have called my son.”
There are many layers to this part of the story, but what we know is that sometime when Jesus was a toddler, the local king wanted his head. The family fled the region into Egypt, and spent an unknown amount of time (months, perhaps years?) as refugees in a foreign land.
Reflect on the injustices of the world, particularly for those displaced by their home seeking refuge in new places. What might it mean that Jesus was also a refugee? | <urn:uuid:30a228f7-344e-46e0-acb8-d02293d9216b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://cypherchurch.com/faith/refugees-epiphany-reflection/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00165.warc.gz | en | 0.993288 | 215 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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-0.01322274748235... | 18 | 13 Now after they had left, an angel of the Lord appeared to Joseph in a dream and said, “Get up, take the child and his mother, and flee to Egypt, and remain there until I tell you; for Herod is about to search for the child, to destroy him.” 14 Then Joseph got up, took the child and his mother by night, and went to Egypt, 15 and remained there until the death of Herod. This was to fulfill what had been spoken by the Lord through the prophet, “Out of Egypt I have called my son.”
There are many layers to this part of the story, but what we know is that sometime when Jesus was a toddler, the local king wanted his head. The family fled the region into Egypt, and spent an unknown amount of time (months, perhaps years?) as refugees in a foreign land.
Reflect on the injustices of the world, particularly for those displaced by their home seeking refuge in new places. What might it mean that Jesus was also a refugee? | 213 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Mayo Clinic’s role in developing the first effective tuberculosis treatment
Patricia Thomas was trying to keep up her spirits. Her cough was not improving. Already thin, she was not gaining weight and the night sweats had returned. She tried to be optimistic, writing her boyfriend, Bob Stockdale, who was on a U.S. Navy destroyer in the Pacific fighting in World War II. She read his letters again and again. The nurses considered her the most spirited of their patients at Mineral Springs Sanitarium in Cannon Falls, Minn.
It is unclear whether Patsy, as she was called by family and friends, fully realized that she was dying, but her doctors did. It was 1944, and no effective treatment existed for tuberculosis.
About 45 miles away, in Rochester, Minn., however, two doctors at Mayo Clinic were about to make medical history.
Feldman and Hinshaw
William Feldman, D.V.M., born in Scotland and transplanted to Colorado, eventually landed at Mayo Clinic as a laboratory researcher. His fixation on tuberculosis began early. His mother had allowed TB patients to sleep on their large front porch, to take in the cold mountain air — thought to be curative for consumption, as TB was called in the 19th century. By the time Dr. Charles Mayo hired him in 1927, Dr. Feldman had had time to
think about those patients and the path of his scientific career.
Corwin Hinshaw, Ph.D., M.D., was at first a parasitologist, studying birds and other animals at the University of California. He then spent time at American University in Beirut, finally deciding to enroll in medical school so he could “understand the host as well as the parasite.” After a short two years in medical school he was aiming at a specialty in gastroenterology, but in 1933 was hired at Mayo Clinic in pulmonology and soon became an expert in pneumonia, then still a common killer. He also came into contact with his share of tuberculosis patients, referred to Mayo from surrounding sanitariums.
How Drs. Feldman and Hinshaw met is not recorded, but once they did, they joined forces against a common foe: tubercle bacilli.
Long history of tuberculosis
Few people today realize how deadly tuberculosis once was - and still is. TB, consumption, phthisis, scrofula, Pott's disease, and the White Plague are all terms used to refer to
tuberculosis throughout history. Mummies from Egypt dating to 2400 BCE show tubercular decay in their spines. The list of people who have succumbed to tuberculosis includes such notables as Egyptian King Tut and American First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt, writers Jane Austen and George Orwell, religious leader John Calvin and South America liberator Simon Bolivar. Tuberculosis has killed 1 billion people around the world over the past two centuries.. In 2010, 8.8 million new cases were diagnosed, and over 1.2 million deaths occurred, most of them in developing countries.
Prior to 1950, however, the United States had its own TB epidemic. The country and other nations were dotted with sanitariums where those with the respiratory disease were sent, mainly to be isolated from the rest of the population. Fresh air, clean surroundings, and healthy food were all supposed to help. The idea was to bolster a patient’s immune system to naturally fight off the infection. Some did better than others, but no one knew why. For many it was months or years of upturns and declines as the bacilli slowly caused lung tissue to deteriorate, hindering breathing and making patients cough up blood. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, today, about 500 people die of TB in the United States annually. In contrast, from the 1920s into the ’40s deaths exceeded 70,000 a year.
The first experiment
That was the situation in which Drs. Feldman and Hinshaw began their work.
Scouring the latest medical literature for possible paths to pursue, the two became interested in a drug called Promin, a sulfone compound that had been tested against a range of diseases by drug maker Parke, Davis & Company, but no one had tried it against TB. The Mayo researchers were prepared. They had determined that the guinea pig was an ideal model as it easily contracted the virulent strain of human TB and the disease
would take its course in a consistent fashion.
From May 1940 into the fall of the year, Promin was studied in the animals in Rochester. Early the following year, they reported in Proceedings of the Staff of Mayo Clinic the positive results. It was not anything close to curative, but there was significant modification of the disease. They had, in effect, bumped it off the “impossible mission” list. But according to Dr. Feldman, their peers, upon hearing their presentation at the American National Tuberculosis Association, were far from enthusiastic.
“Few in the audience believed what we said, many didn’t understand, and some were sure we were wasting our time in searching for an effective chemotherapeutic agent,” Dr. Hinshaw said in a later presentation.
The study provided two additional benefits. It signaled to others that this team in the Midwest had developed a good system for testing potential anti-TB compounds and it spurred the two of them to try a range of other formulas, including many pre-existing drugs that didn’t work for other diseases but might work on TB.
In July 1943, Dr. Feldman wrote Selman Waksman, a Ph.D. scientist at Rutgers University to ask about drugs he was working on that they might test. The pair had been following his published papers on natural compounds that had anti-bacterial properties. He also asked if he could visit Waksman’s lab in New Jersey. After some delay, Dr. Waksman extended an invitation and in a very cold November, Dr. Feldman made the long train trip to the East Coast.
At this time the Waksman lab was working on a drug that had been isolated from microbes in the soil. His lab assistant, Albert Schatz, was working long hours extracting the compound from solution in the basement of the lab building, often sleeping on the floor to ensure the process didn’t stop. While not immediately identified to Drs. Feldman and Hinshaw, this compound was streptomycin.
That November visit is shrouded in mystery. According to historian Julius Comroe, Jr., Dr. Feldman urged Dr. Waksman to include TB in any tests he would initially run on prospective antibacterial drugs, or antibiotics, as Dr. Waksman would label them. Dr. Feldman also asked him to make available any promising compounds so he and Hinshaw could conduct guinea pig trials.
At the time the doctors visited in New Jersey, the first paper on streptomycin might have already been in the works, perhaps even in the hands of journal editors. In January 1944, the paper was published, including some data of its effects on TB. There is no evidence, however, that the Mayo team even knew the drug existed.
Finally, in March, Dr. Waksman wrote Dr. Feldman asking if he would test streptomycin. A microbiologist and biochemist whose work was founded in plant and soil research, Dr. Waksman could do cellular testing, but had no way to conduct animal studies or human clinical trials. He needed the collaboration with Mayo Clinic for any rapid development of the drug.
Ten grams and the beginnings of a cure
Drs. Feldman and Hinshaw, however, were given little of the drug to work with; the granules in the one vial they received weighed ten grams, equal to the weight of two U.S. nickels. To maximize its use, they split the drug into multiple doses that would last from early April until late June for four guinea pigs with TB. The small doses provided relief, but did not cure the pigs. Still, this initial test achieved its goal: to show the drug was not overly toxic, unlike an earlier compound, actinomycin.
During this period, Dr. Waksman was in talks with Merck & Company, the New Jersey pharmaceutical firm. At a meeting of the Mayo and Rutgers scientists in July, they tried to persuade Merck officials to produce enough streptomycin to supply the Mayo team. In the end, according to author Peter Pringle, it was CEO George Merck himself who consented to the plan as part of the war effort.
Now, the Mayo team could begin serious tests.
Drs. Feldman and Hinshaw had gambled that they would obtain more of the drug and had infected a number of guinea pigs with the TB virus before they left for New Jersey. When they returned to Minnesota, they were able to immediately repeat the toxicology trial and received the same results. When World War II left them with a shortage of technicians, the two doctors maintained the dosing themselves, administering the drug every six hours for 61 consecutive days.
In August, they began a large trial of 25 guinea pigs infected with TB with 24 control animals. After 215 days they presented the findings to their peers: the staff of physicians and researchers at Mayo Clinic, probably in the 15th floor assembly room of the Plummer Building. It was two days after Christmas, 1944. They repeated the study in the following months and published their paper in the American Review of Tuberculosis.
Was streptomycin effective against tuberculosis? Almost in answer to their previous critics, Feldman and Hinshaw drew a very clear picture, literally:
Nothing to lose: The Patricia Thomas story
Dr. Karl Pfeutze knew he could do no more for Patsy Thomas. In October 1944, her right lung had worsened and a Mayo surgeon removed some ribs to try to limit the disease. Then X-rays showed deterioration in her left lung. Dr. Pfeutze told Patsy he was permanently transferring her to Rochester and into the care of Dr. Hinshaw at Mayo Clinic.
Dr. Hinshaw concurred with Dr. Pfeutze that the young woman was dying. It was clear that streptomycin was her only chance. The final animal tests weren’t complete, but the data were sufficient. The doctors were confident an experimental treatment was
reasonable. Patsy told Dr. Hinshaw to go ahead with the injections.
Consenting to what today would be called a “first in human study” appears a simple choice for someone with nothing to lose. Yet, it takes courage to undergo what may be stressful or painful treatments, knowing that one’s life may be extended only briefly, if at all. Often patients agree to participate — in their words — “so it may help others.” Those who take part in research studies play as important a role as the scientists and physicians.
In November 1944, Patsy began her treatments. Dr. Hinshaw had to estimate the dosages, extrapolating from the animal trials and perhaps from two earlier patients. An elderly man may have received some injections at Colonial Hospital in Rochester, but his condition was far worse. He died after a few days. A second man, with blood-borne TB, was treated “for two or three months,” according to Dr. Frank Ryan’s history, The Forgotten Plague. That patient showed some improvement, but died of an unrelated blood clot.
Patsy Thomas was the first human to receive a full schedule of streptomycin to treat her TB. In all, she received five courses of the drug with multiple doses over five months, each carefully administered, monitored and adjusted, based on observations and X-rays. By April 1945, the disease had receded to the point that surgeons were able to remove the small portion of a lung still infected, leaving Patsy Thomas clear of the deadly disease.
Streptomycin was only the start, but it was the beginning of the end of a terrible disease that few people even remember today.
In December 1948, Dr. Feldman wrote to Dr. Waksman, with whom he had developed a constant exchange of letters, phone calls and telegrams over the years, to say he was going to be leaving Rochester shortly for a stay in the woods of northern Minnesota. He had just completed his own course of treatment for tuberculosis. He had contracted the disease either from a patient or from his own testing, but he was under the able care of a quite competent Mayo specialist named Corwin Hinshaw. He had received what would be the standard treatment from then on — streptomycin and PAS (para-aminosalicylic acid). He was back at Mayo a year later, his life saved by the drug he helped develop and by his colleague and friend.
Dr. Selman Waksman won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1952. Drs. Feldman and Hinshaw ended up celebrating by having a drink under the shade tree in the Feldmans’ backyard.
And on October 8, 1947, Patricia Thomas became Patricia Stockdale, marrying her sweetheart, Bob, after he left the Navy. Patsy’s daughter, Debra Stockdale Prihoda, says her mother never knew the full significance of her treatment or her involvement in the story of tuberculosis. She said her mother had no idea her name was in the medical history books or that she contributed to someone winning the Nobel Prize. Patsy might not have known that she was the first person successfully cured of TB with the new drug. She was grateful and happy to be able to marry and have a family.
Though her spirit never lagged, her condition weakened over the years and her overall health was never robust. Patsy died on June 10, 1966, at the age of 42. Now, after seven decades we can finally give Mayo Clinic patient Patricia Thomas Stockdale full credit for her historic contribution in the fight against tuberculosis.
Published Sept. 2015 | <urn:uuid:b15d1da8-ee7c-46f8-b65e-06ebd99621ab> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://discoverysedge.mayo.edu/2015/09/17/reflections-on-the-past-the-first-cure-with-a-new-drug/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00231.warc.gz | en | 0.983662 | 2,918 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.0602092593908... | 8 | Mayo Clinic’s role in developing the first effective tuberculosis treatment
Patricia Thomas was trying to keep up her spirits. Her cough was not improving. Already thin, she was not gaining weight and the night sweats had returned. She tried to be optimistic, writing her boyfriend, Bob Stockdale, who was on a U.S. Navy destroyer in the Pacific fighting in World War II. She read his letters again and again. The nurses considered her the most spirited of their patients at Mineral Springs Sanitarium in Cannon Falls, Minn.
It is unclear whether Patsy, as she was called by family and friends, fully realized that she was dying, but her doctors did. It was 1944, and no effective treatment existed for tuberculosis.
About 45 miles away, in Rochester, Minn., however, two doctors at Mayo Clinic were about to make medical history.
Feldman and Hinshaw
William Feldman, D.V.M., born in Scotland and transplanted to Colorado, eventually landed at Mayo Clinic as a laboratory researcher. His fixation on tuberculosis began early. His mother had allowed TB patients to sleep on their large front porch, to take in the cold mountain air — thought to be curative for consumption, as TB was called in the 19th century. By the time Dr. Charles Mayo hired him in 1927, Dr. Feldman had had time to
think about those patients and the path of his scientific career.
Corwin Hinshaw, Ph.D., M.D., was at first a parasitologist, studying birds and other animals at the University of California. He then spent time at American University in Beirut, finally deciding to enroll in medical school so he could “understand the host as well as the parasite.” After a short two years in medical school he was aiming at a specialty in gastroenterology, but in 1933 was hired at Mayo Clinic in pulmonology and soon became an expert in pneumonia, then still a common killer. He also came into contact with his share of tuberculosis patients, referred to Mayo from surrounding sanitariums.
How Drs. Feldman and Hinshaw met is not recorded, but once they did, they joined forces against a common foe: tubercle bacilli.
Long history of tuberculosis
Few people today realize how deadly tuberculosis once was - and still is. TB, consumption, phthisis, scrofula, Pott's disease, and the White Plague are all terms used to refer to
tuberculosis throughout history. Mummies from Egypt dating to 2400 BCE show tubercular decay in their spines. The list of people who have succumbed to tuberculosis includes such notables as Egyptian King Tut and American First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt, writers Jane Austen and George Orwell, religious leader John Calvin and South America liberator Simon Bolivar. Tuberculosis has killed 1 billion people around the world over the past two centuries.. In 2010, 8.8 million new cases were diagnosed, and over 1.2 million deaths occurred, most of them in developing countries.
Prior to 1950, however, the United States had its own TB epidemic. The country and other nations were dotted with sanitariums where those with the respiratory disease were sent, mainly to be isolated from the rest of the population. Fresh air, clean surroundings, and healthy food were all supposed to help. The idea was to bolster a patient’s immune system to naturally fight off the infection. Some did better than others, but no one knew why. For many it was months or years of upturns and declines as the bacilli slowly caused lung tissue to deteriorate, hindering breathing and making patients cough up blood. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, today, about 500 people die of TB in the United States annually. In contrast, from the 1920s into the ’40s deaths exceeded 70,000 a year.
The first experiment
That was the situation in which Drs. Feldman and Hinshaw began their work.
Scouring the latest medical literature for possible paths to pursue, the two became interested in a drug called Promin, a sulfone compound that had been tested against a range of diseases by drug maker Parke, Davis & Company, but no one had tried it against TB. The Mayo researchers were prepared. They had determined that the guinea pig was an ideal model as it easily contracted the virulent strain of human TB and the disease
would take its course in a consistent fashion.
From May 1940 into the fall of the year, Promin was studied in the animals in Rochester. Early the following year, they reported in Proceedings of the Staff of Mayo Clinic the positive results. It was not anything close to curative, but there was significant modification of the disease. They had, in effect, bumped it off the “impossible mission” list. But according to Dr. Feldman, their peers, upon hearing their presentation at the American National Tuberculosis Association, were far from enthusiastic.
“Few in the audience believed what we said, many didn’t understand, and some were sure we were wasting our time in searching for an effective chemotherapeutic agent,” Dr. Hinshaw said in a later presentation.
The study provided two additional benefits. It signaled to others that this team in the Midwest had developed a good system for testing potential anti-TB compounds and it spurred the two of them to try a range of other formulas, including many pre-existing drugs that didn’t work for other diseases but might work on TB.
In July 1943, Dr. Feldman wrote Selman Waksman, a Ph.D. scientist at Rutgers University to ask about drugs he was working on that they might test. The pair had been following his published papers on natural compounds that had anti-bacterial properties. He also asked if he could visit Waksman’s lab in New Jersey. After some delay, Dr. Waksman extended an invitation and in a very cold November, Dr. Feldman made the long train trip to the East Coast.
At this time the Waksman lab was working on a drug that had been isolated from microbes in the soil. His lab assistant, Albert Schatz, was working long hours extracting the compound from solution in the basement of the lab building, often sleeping on the floor to ensure the process didn’t stop. While not immediately identified to Drs. Feldman and Hinshaw, this compound was streptomycin.
That November visit is shrouded in mystery. According to historian Julius Comroe, Jr., Dr. Feldman urged Dr. Waksman to include TB in any tests he would initially run on prospective antibacterial drugs, or antibiotics, as Dr. Waksman would label them. Dr. Feldman also asked him to make available any promising compounds so he and Hinshaw could conduct guinea pig trials.
At the time the doctors visited in New Jersey, the first paper on streptomycin might have already been in the works, perhaps even in the hands of journal editors. In January 1944, the paper was published, including some data of its effects on TB. There is no evidence, however, that the Mayo team even knew the drug existed.
Finally, in March, Dr. Waksman wrote Dr. Feldman asking if he would test streptomycin. A microbiologist and biochemist whose work was founded in plant and soil research, Dr. Waksman could do cellular testing, but had no way to conduct animal studies or human clinical trials. He needed the collaboration with Mayo Clinic for any rapid development of the drug.
Ten grams and the beginnings of a cure
Drs. Feldman and Hinshaw, however, were given little of the drug to work with; the granules in the one vial they received weighed ten grams, equal to the weight of two U.S. nickels. To maximize its use, they split the drug into multiple doses that would last from early April until late June for four guinea pigs with TB. The small doses provided relief, but did not cure the pigs. Still, this initial test achieved its goal: to show the drug was not overly toxic, unlike an earlier compound, actinomycin.
During this period, Dr. Waksman was in talks with Merck & Company, the New Jersey pharmaceutical firm. At a meeting of the Mayo and Rutgers scientists in July, they tried to persuade Merck officials to produce enough streptomycin to supply the Mayo team. In the end, according to author Peter Pringle, it was CEO George Merck himself who consented to the plan as part of the war effort.
Now, the Mayo team could begin serious tests.
Drs. Feldman and Hinshaw had gambled that they would obtain more of the drug and had infected a number of guinea pigs with the TB virus before they left for New Jersey. When they returned to Minnesota, they were able to immediately repeat the toxicology trial and received the same results. When World War II left them with a shortage of technicians, the two doctors maintained the dosing themselves, administering the drug every six hours for 61 consecutive days.
In August, they began a large trial of 25 guinea pigs infected with TB with 24 control animals. After 215 days they presented the findings to their peers: the staff of physicians and researchers at Mayo Clinic, probably in the 15th floor assembly room of the Plummer Building. It was two days after Christmas, 1944. They repeated the study in the following months and published their paper in the American Review of Tuberculosis.
Was streptomycin effective against tuberculosis? Almost in answer to their previous critics, Feldman and Hinshaw drew a very clear picture, literally:
Nothing to lose: The Patricia Thomas story
Dr. Karl Pfeutze knew he could do no more for Patsy Thomas. In October 1944, her right lung had worsened and a Mayo surgeon removed some ribs to try to limit the disease. Then X-rays showed deterioration in her left lung. Dr. Pfeutze told Patsy he was permanently transferring her to Rochester and into the care of Dr. Hinshaw at Mayo Clinic.
Dr. Hinshaw concurred with Dr. Pfeutze that the young woman was dying. It was clear that streptomycin was her only chance. The final animal tests weren’t complete, but the data were sufficient. The doctors were confident an experimental treatment was
reasonable. Patsy told Dr. Hinshaw to go ahead with the injections.
Consenting to what today would be called a “first in human study” appears a simple choice for someone with nothing to lose. Yet, it takes courage to undergo what may be stressful or painful treatments, knowing that one’s life may be extended only briefly, if at all. Often patients agree to participate — in their words — “so it may help others.” Those who take part in research studies play as important a role as the scientists and physicians.
In November 1944, Patsy began her treatments. Dr. Hinshaw had to estimate the dosages, extrapolating from the animal trials and perhaps from two earlier patients. An elderly man may have received some injections at Colonial Hospital in Rochester, but his condition was far worse. He died after a few days. A second man, with blood-borne TB, was treated “for two or three months,” according to Dr. Frank Ryan’s history, The Forgotten Plague. That patient showed some improvement, but died of an unrelated blood clot.
Patsy Thomas was the first human to receive a full schedule of streptomycin to treat her TB. In all, she received five courses of the drug with multiple doses over five months, each carefully administered, monitored and adjusted, based on observations and X-rays. By April 1945, the disease had receded to the point that surgeons were able to remove the small portion of a lung still infected, leaving Patsy Thomas clear of the deadly disease.
Streptomycin was only the start, but it was the beginning of the end of a terrible disease that few people even remember today.
In December 1948, Dr. Feldman wrote to Dr. Waksman, with whom he had developed a constant exchange of letters, phone calls and telegrams over the years, to say he was going to be leaving Rochester shortly for a stay in the woods of northern Minnesota. He had just completed his own course of treatment for tuberculosis. He had contracted the disease either from a patient or from his own testing, but he was under the able care of a quite competent Mayo specialist named Corwin Hinshaw. He had received what would be the standard treatment from then on — streptomycin and PAS (para-aminosalicylic acid). He was back at Mayo a year later, his life saved by the drug he helped develop and by his colleague and friend.
Dr. Selman Waksman won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1952. Drs. Feldman and Hinshaw ended up celebrating by having a drink under the shade tree in the Feldmans’ backyard.
And on October 8, 1947, Patricia Thomas became Patricia Stockdale, marrying her sweetheart, Bob, after he left the Navy. Patsy’s daughter, Debra Stockdale Prihoda, says her mother never knew the full significance of her treatment or her involvement in the story of tuberculosis. She said her mother had no idea her name was in the medical history books or that she contributed to someone winning the Nobel Prize. Patsy might not have known that she was the first person successfully cured of TB with the new drug. She was grateful and happy to be able to marry and have a family.
Though her spirit never lagged, her condition weakened over the years and her overall health was never robust. Patsy died on June 10, 1966, at the age of 42. Now, after seven decades we can finally give Mayo Clinic patient Patricia Thomas Stockdale full credit for her historic contribution in the fight against tuberculosis.
Published Sept. 2015 | 2,939 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Looking for interpreter zero: (3) Melchor, Julián, Pedro, Géronimo and Marina
Accounts of early European expeditions of exploration and conquest gave scant attention to the role of interpreters, but there were notable exceptions.
- Last updated:
As we saw in the previous chapter, we don’t have much of a picture of Magellan’s Enrique. Likewise, when it comes to the roles and identities of the early Conquistadors’ interpreters, we have but mere glimpses. These people are known to us by their Christian names and disappear from the record once their journeys are over.
The Spanish empire-builders who set out from Cuba to explore lands to the west of the Caribbean took Columbus’ improvisational approach to interpreting. When Francisco Hernández de Córdoba led an expedition in February 1517 to what was to become Mexico, he may have had some Cuban Indians on board. They would not have been able to help much when a group of Maya Indians came out in canoes to meet his ships, however, because their Taino language was not in any way related to Maya. That was why he decided to take two local men with him when he left Yucatan; the captives, known as Melchor and Julián, were expected to learn Spanish and help out on future expeditions.
Things did not bode well: Melchor was a fisherman with limited Maya vocabulary and Julián became depressed on being taken from familiar surroundings. Enrique had a privileged relationship with his master by comparison. Julián returned to Yucatan with the 1518 expedition from Cuba under the leadership of Juan de Grijalva. Most of his work on the explorers’ behalf seems to have involved asking for gold. That may have yielded some results early on, but because he was a Yucatec Maya, he could not communicate with the Chontal Maya-speakers in northern Yucatan.
Grijalva’s solution was to seize and baptise four more Indians to do the job. One of them was named Pedro Barba, after his godfather - one of Grijalva’s captains. Pedro Barba became involved in what Hugh Thomas describes as ‘double translation’. Grijalva spoke Spanish to Julián who relayed the message in Yucatec Maya to Pedro Barba who was able to put it into Chontal Maya. This system is highlighted as one of the main contributions of that expedition, which is not surprising as it was adopted by Hernán Cortés on the third expedition, the one which led to the conquest of Mexico.
Cortés may have borrowed the relay system but his communication with local people was an improvement on the systematic reliance on unreliable captives. One of his interpreters was a Spaniard. Géronimo de Aguilar had been shipwrecked in Yucatan in 1511; he and a shipmate, Gonzalo Guerrero, had survived and made their lives among the Chontal Maya. Having had word of Cortés’s presence in Yucatan, Aguilar was eager to join him and was able to help out in the expedition’s dealings with local people. (Guerrero for his part had ‘gone native’ and stayed behind with his wife and children.)
Aguilar’s presence was note-worthy but it did not prove to be as significant as the fact that the main interpreter on the expedition was a woman. She was one of twenty women given to Cortés by a Chontal Maya leader on the Tabasco coast, a young woman baptised Marina in March 1519. It turned out that she was the child of Nahuatl-speakers who had been sold to Maya merchants after her father’s death; she was bilingual and able to serve Cortés, working in tandem with Aguilar before she learned Spanish. She played a key role in the meetings between Cortés and Moctezuma, and in the conquest of Mexico.
‘Marina’ became Malintzin to Nahuatl-speakers and her name was back-translated into Spanish as Malinche. It is as La Malinche that she has had a surprisingly enduring role in Mexican history – which I’ll be looking at in my next instalment.
Thomas, H. (1994). The Conquest of Mexico, p114. London, Hutchinson.
Articles published in this section reflect the views of the author(s) and should not be taken to represent the official position of AIIC.
Recommended citation format:Christine ADAMS. "Looking for interpreter zero: (3) Melchor, Julián, Pedro, Géronimo and Marina". aiic.net April 27, 2013. Accessed January 26, 2020. <http://aiic.net/p/6521>.
Anything to say?
You must be logged in to comment. Sign-in | <urn:uuid:3ddec74a-4bc8-4a68-824e-ccf53dea88b5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://aiic.net/page/6521/looking-for-interpreter-zero-3-melchor-julian-pedr/lang/1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00356.warc.gz | en | 0.983122 | 1,044 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.32349622249603... | 1 | Looking for interpreter zero: (3) Melchor, Julián, Pedro, Géronimo and Marina
Accounts of early European expeditions of exploration and conquest gave scant attention to the role of interpreters, but there were notable exceptions.
- Last updated:
As we saw in the previous chapter, we don’t have much of a picture of Magellan’s Enrique. Likewise, when it comes to the roles and identities of the early Conquistadors’ interpreters, we have but mere glimpses. These people are known to us by their Christian names and disappear from the record once their journeys are over.
The Spanish empire-builders who set out from Cuba to explore lands to the west of the Caribbean took Columbus’ improvisational approach to interpreting. When Francisco Hernández de Córdoba led an expedition in February 1517 to what was to become Mexico, he may have had some Cuban Indians on board. They would not have been able to help much when a group of Maya Indians came out in canoes to meet his ships, however, because their Taino language was not in any way related to Maya. That was why he decided to take two local men with him when he left Yucatan; the captives, known as Melchor and Julián, were expected to learn Spanish and help out on future expeditions.
Things did not bode well: Melchor was a fisherman with limited Maya vocabulary and Julián became depressed on being taken from familiar surroundings. Enrique had a privileged relationship with his master by comparison. Julián returned to Yucatan with the 1518 expedition from Cuba under the leadership of Juan de Grijalva. Most of his work on the explorers’ behalf seems to have involved asking for gold. That may have yielded some results early on, but because he was a Yucatec Maya, he could not communicate with the Chontal Maya-speakers in northern Yucatan.
Grijalva’s solution was to seize and baptise four more Indians to do the job. One of them was named Pedro Barba, after his godfather - one of Grijalva’s captains. Pedro Barba became involved in what Hugh Thomas describes as ‘double translation’. Grijalva spoke Spanish to Julián who relayed the message in Yucatec Maya to Pedro Barba who was able to put it into Chontal Maya. This system is highlighted as one of the main contributions of that expedition, which is not surprising as it was adopted by Hernán Cortés on the third expedition, the one which led to the conquest of Mexico.
Cortés may have borrowed the relay system but his communication with local people was an improvement on the systematic reliance on unreliable captives. One of his interpreters was a Spaniard. Géronimo de Aguilar had been shipwrecked in Yucatan in 1511; he and a shipmate, Gonzalo Guerrero, had survived and made their lives among the Chontal Maya. Having had word of Cortés’s presence in Yucatan, Aguilar was eager to join him and was able to help out in the expedition’s dealings with local people. (Guerrero for his part had ‘gone native’ and stayed behind with his wife and children.)
Aguilar’s presence was note-worthy but it did not prove to be as significant as the fact that the main interpreter on the expedition was a woman. She was one of twenty women given to Cortés by a Chontal Maya leader on the Tabasco coast, a young woman baptised Marina in March 1519. It turned out that she was the child of Nahuatl-speakers who had been sold to Maya merchants after her father’s death; she was bilingual and able to serve Cortés, working in tandem with Aguilar before she learned Spanish. She played a key role in the meetings between Cortés and Moctezuma, and in the conquest of Mexico.
‘Marina’ became Malintzin to Nahuatl-speakers and her name was back-translated into Spanish as Malinche. It is as La Malinche that she has had a surprisingly enduring role in Mexican history – which I’ll be looking at in my next instalment.
Thomas, H. (1994). The Conquest of Mexico, p114. London, Hutchinson.
Articles published in this section reflect the views of the author(s) and should not be taken to represent the official position of AIIC.
Recommended citation format:Christine ADAMS. "Looking for interpreter zero: (3) Melchor, Julián, Pedro, Géronimo and Marina". aiic.net April 27, 2013. Accessed January 26, 2020. <http://aiic.net/p/6521>.
Anything to say?
You must be logged in to comment. Sign-in | 1,009 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The History of Social Security
Posted by Elliot Marks
Most historians feel The Social Security Act of 1935 is the most important piece of legislation passed in our government's history and directly led to the Social Security benefit programs that we enjoy today. Gaining some form of economic security for the country's aging population has been a major problem since the inception of the United States. The act was created during the Great Depression to provide immediate finanacial relief for those citizens who were slipping into poverty. The distress experienced by many was the impetus for the law as the country wasn't prepared for the social changes that took place during one of the worst economic demises.
The Social Security Act of 1935
The Social Security Act was enacted on August 14, 1935 as part of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt's Second New Deal program that was designed to redistribute the nation's wealth. Roosevelt wanted to create a committee (Committee on Economic Security) to oversee the logistics of implementing a benefits payment program that covered retired workers and victims of work-related accidents.
The act was designed to pay wokers 65 years old and older an income after they had retired. Roosevelt added several provisions to the Social Security Act that dealt with the general welfare of the unemployed, poor families and handicapped individuals.
Why Social Security Was Necessary
The Industrial Revolution brought large groups of people to big cities looking for work, but the jobs available didn't offer long-term security. The urbanization of the United States found people fending for themselves and leaving their extended family behind. That wasn't the case prior to the Industrial Revolution as the country had an abundance of farmers, who banded together to support one another in times of trouble.
Millions of people were unemployed during the Great Depression, but the hardest hit group was retired Americans who lost their savings and were struggling to survive.
Opposition to the Social Security Act has been around since its inception as distractors weren't convinced that the legislation worked in the best interest of the country. They argue the act failed horribly in providing assistance in the disability portion of the bill because it was too complex to be effective.
However, all legislators agreed that basics principals of the Social Security Act was to end the depression and bring permanent prosperity to the country. Their hope was to create a financial assistance program that stimulated the nation's economy through consumer spending. The act has been amended several times since its inception, often to extend benefits to surviving spouses and their children as the program coninues to thrive today, and yearly changes to the Social Security program still occur.
This wasn't the federal government's first attempt at guaranteeing some sort of financial assistance to the elderly. They promised pensions to all enlistees to the Union Army in the Civil War as this legislation became law in 1879. This assistance program failed horribly because it was mismanaged and vastly underfunded.
The Source of Social Security
Lawmakers in the Roosevelt Administration knew what type of political challenges lied ahead of them, but they didn't want to create legislation that had the same characteristics of past failed assistance programs.
Still, government officials were working with the private sector on developing a program that insured economic security for all United States citizens, especially the elderly. Legislators wanted to duplicate successful charitable organization whose funding came directly from private donations.
The Social Security Act is a variation of how European countries provide economic security for their citizens. President Roosevelt requested Secreatary of Labor Frances Perkins to draft the legislation that aimed to help those inviduals and families suffering from the affects of the Great Depression by offering them some economic relief. Perkins created a monthly payment plan that workers contributed in a form of a payroll tax that was taken out of their paychecks. This would pay for their own retirement and other benefits provided in the Social Security Act.
There was no guarantees that the money spent by beneficiaries would exceed the amount spent by taxpayers. Still, the committee thought they had created a solid plan to provide some form of economic assistance. The plan to begin collecting the tax for Social Security began in 1937, with payments beginning to retired workers in 1940. | <urn:uuid:827f701a-a4b0-4646-b033-6a28f931bc17> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ssofficelocation.com/history-of-social-security | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00183.warc.gz | en | 0.980837 | 827 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.192110806703567... | 8 | The History of Social Security
Posted by Elliot Marks
Most historians feel The Social Security Act of 1935 is the most important piece of legislation passed in our government's history and directly led to the Social Security benefit programs that we enjoy today. Gaining some form of economic security for the country's aging population has been a major problem since the inception of the United States. The act was created during the Great Depression to provide immediate finanacial relief for those citizens who were slipping into poverty. The distress experienced by many was the impetus for the law as the country wasn't prepared for the social changes that took place during one of the worst economic demises.
The Social Security Act of 1935
The Social Security Act was enacted on August 14, 1935 as part of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt's Second New Deal program that was designed to redistribute the nation's wealth. Roosevelt wanted to create a committee (Committee on Economic Security) to oversee the logistics of implementing a benefits payment program that covered retired workers and victims of work-related accidents.
The act was designed to pay wokers 65 years old and older an income after they had retired. Roosevelt added several provisions to the Social Security Act that dealt with the general welfare of the unemployed, poor families and handicapped individuals.
Why Social Security Was Necessary
The Industrial Revolution brought large groups of people to big cities looking for work, but the jobs available didn't offer long-term security. The urbanization of the United States found people fending for themselves and leaving their extended family behind. That wasn't the case prior to the Industrial Revolution as the country had an abundance of farmers, who banded together to support one another in times of trouble.
Millions of people were unemployed during the Great Depression, but the hardest hit group was retired Americans who lost their savings and were struggling to survive.
Opposition to the Social Security Act has been around since its inception as distractors weren't convinced that the legislation worked in the best interest of the country. They argue the act failed horribly in providing assistance in the disability portion of the bill because it was too complex to be effective.
However, all legislators agreed that basics principals of the Social Security Act was to end the depression and bring permanent prosperity to the country. Their hope was to create a financial assistance program that stimulated the nation's economy through consumer spending. The act has been amended several times since its inception, often to extend benefits to surviving spouses and their children as the program coninues to thrive today, and yearly changes to the Social Security program still occur.
This wasn't the federal government's first attempt at guaranteeing some sort of financial assistance to the elderly. They promised pensions to all enlistees to the Union Army in the Civil War as this legislation became law in 1879. This assistance program failed horribly because it was mismanaged and vastly underfunded.
The Source of Social Security
Lawmakers in the Roosevelt Administration knew what type of political challenges lied ahead of them, but they didn't want to create legislation that had the same characteristics of past failed assistance programs.
Still, government officials were working with the private sector on developing a program that insured economic security for all United States citizens, especially the elderly. Legislators wanted to duplicate successful charitable organization whose funding came directly from private donations.
The Social Security Act is a variation of how European countries provide economic security for their citizens. President Roosevelt requested Secreatary of Labor Frances Perkins to draft the legislation that aimed to help those inviduals and families suffering from the affects of the Great Depression by offering them some economic relief. Perkins created a monthly payment plan that workers contributed in a form of a payroll tax that was taken out of their paychecks. This would pay for their own retirement and other benefits provided in the Social Security Act.
There was no guarantees that the money spent by beneficiaries would exceed the amount spent by taxpayers. Still, the committee thought they had created a solid plan to provide some form of economic assistance. The plan to begin collecting the tax for Social Security began in 1937, with payments beginning to retired workers in 1940. | 842 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Before the British Invasion of the 1960s there was the American infiltration of the 1950s. American music had been popular during the Second World War in the British Isles, and when the war ended the taste for music from the United States was well established. American music began to change in the post-war years. Rhythm and Blues from the South, Chicago Blues from Midwest, and a new form of sound known as rockabilly all emerged. The sounds carried across the Atlantic to the British ports, chiefly in London and the northern port of Liverpool, where the records were devoured by British youth.
By the early 1950s in the United States, several forms of music were combined, absorbed into a new genre, including gospel, country, jazz, the boogie-woogie sounds of the jitterbug, and others. It did not yet have a name, but the sound already had enemies, concerned that it was corrupting the young of America. Centered around the saxophone, a jangling piano, and a thumping backbeat, the music found its popularity increased when it was supplemented with the electric guitar. Who gave it its name has long been debated, though the term appeared in Billboard Magazine as early as 1942, when it referred to the new sound as rock and roll. Here’s how America gave rock and roll to the world.
1. The rationing during World War II helped create a market for smaller bands
During the 1930s large bands presented the most popular music in the United States, with different styles of music appreciated in different regions. Gospel and country music were popular in Appalachia, gospel and blues in the Deep South, and rhythm and blues in many northern cities, particularly in the black neighborhoods. But radio programs, and the touring bands, were those of the big band sound. Glenn Miller and his Orchestra, in just four years, recorded and released 69 top ten records, surpassing the later totals of Elvis Presley and The Beatles. Miller, sadly, vanished while entertaining troops during World War II.
The war changed music in other ways. Traveling required priorities, gasoline was rationed, and the movement of troops clogged the rail system in the United States. Moving big bands became too expensive to make touring practical. Smaller combos, centered around the piano (which was usually owned or rented by the venue in which the group appeared) featured a bass, drums, a saxophone, and sometimes guitars. A musical style known as jump blues, an upbeat approach to basic eight bar blues, became popular with these smaller bands, especially in Chicago and Los Angeles and their surrounding environs. | <urn:uuid:8d4b7a09-a630-4cda-b47e-c274d1e05636> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://historycollection.co/how-america-gave-rocknroll-to-the-world/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00179.warc.gz | en | 0.98264 | 533 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.0233458988368... | 4 | Before the British Invasion of the 1960s there was the American infiltration of the 1950s. American music had been popular during the Second World War in the British Isles, and when the war ended the taste for music from the United States was well established. American music began to change in the post-war years. Rhythm and Blues from the South, Chicago Blues from Midwest, and a new form of sound known as rockabilly all emerged. The sounds carried across the Atlantic to the British ports, chiefly in London and the northern port of Liverpool, where the records were devoured by British youth.
By the early 1950s in the United States, several forms of music were combined, absorbed into a new genre, including gospel, country, jazz, the boogie-woogie sounds of the jitterbug, and others. It did not yet have a name, but the sound already had enemies, concerned that it was corrupting the young of America. Centered around the saxophone, a jangling piano, and a thumping backbeat, the music found its popularity increased when it was supplemented with the electric guitar. Who gave it its name has long been debated, though the term appeared in Billboard Magazine as early as 1942, when it referred to the new sound as rock and roll. Here’s how America gave rock and roll to the world.
1. The rationing during World War II helped create a market for smaller bands
During the 1930s large bands presented the most popular music in the United States, with different styles of music appreciated in different regions. Gospel and country music were popular in Appalachia, gospel and blues in the Deep South, and rhythm and blues in many northern cities, particularly in the black neighborhoods. But radio programs, and the touring bands, were those of the big band sound. Glenn Miller and his Orchestra, in just four years, recorded and released 69 top ten records, surpassing the later totals of Elvis Presley and The Beatles. Miller, sadly, vanished while entertaining troops during World War II.
The war changed music in other ways. Traveling required priorities, gasoline was rationed, and the movement of troops clogged the rail system in the United States. Moving big bands became too expensive to make touring practical. Smaller combos, centered around the piano (which was usually owned or rented by the venue in which the group appeared) featured a bass, drums, a saxophone, and sometimes guitars. A musical style known as jump blues, an upbeat approach to basic eight bar blues, became popular with these smaller bands, especially in Chicago and Los Angeles and their surrounding environs. | 549 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In what ways did the French and Indian War alter the political, economic and ideological relations between Britain and its American colonies? The French and Indian War, is a colonial extension of the Seven Year War that ravaged Europe from 1756 to 1763. The French & Indian War most lasting impact was its political, economic, and ideological effect on the colonial people and Great Britain. These societal aspects and the relations between the two allies changed irreversibly in the wake of the French & Indian War.
Essay Example on In What Ways Did The French And Indian War Alter The Political, Economic And Ideological Relations Between Britain And Its American Colonies?
The advent of republicanism fueled the resentment of monarchical rule; taxes imposed on the colonists by Britain eventually led to discontent and unrest among the Americans. The sensitive responsibilities of the war convinced the colonists of their growing strength; it forced them to question whether or not the possibility of independence was as far-fetched as they would like to think it. Surpassing in magnitude anything that was done on the North American battlefield. After the French and Indian War, the countries colonizing North America. After 1763 (Doc. A), English colonies dominated the new world.
This took a toll on the political relationship between Britain and the American colonists because it leads to the Proclamation of 1763. The Native Americans (Doc. B) believed that they were spoiling their hunting for their daily settlement “they had no right to settle;” although the colonist still took over. The Proclamation was Britain’s idea of preventing further conflict. However, the colonists were angered, and they believed they were being deprived of their right to be free. Political changes included Britain’s abandonment of their salutary neglect policy.
After the French and Indian War, England was left with the deep debt they had acquired during the previous years. In turn, they began to strictly regulate trade, and impose taxes on commonly used items. Although Britain attributed these changes to their (Doc. F) “virtual increase in territory,” the colonists were furious. They felt this was unjust taxation. Taxation and regulation took a toll on the economic relationship between the colonists and their mother country. However, with the heavy British taxation, mercantilism was soon abandoned when the colonists decided to fight back.
The Stamp Act enraged many of the elite colonists, and as Benjamin Franklin states (Doc. G), they wanted to “get it repeal’d” as soon as possible. With boycotting as their weapon, they practiced non-importation and non-consumption, thus harming the economic relationship the between the two parties. Although colonial ideological values toward Britain began to change during the war, the colonists’ ability to go through with the boycotts proved they could unite to make change. All the taxation and regulation added to the resentment colonists already felt prior to the Proclamation of 1763.
Also, the French and Indian War, helped American soldiers realize they had less liberty than Englishmen. A Massachusetts soldier wrote (Doc. D) “not likely to get liquors or cloths at this time of the year; we are debarred Englishmen’s liberty. ” American resentment that arose during this period helped trigger colonial rebellion. It badly battered the relationship between England and Native Americans; and, though the war seemed to strengthen England’s hold on the colonies, the effects of the French and Indian War played a major role in the worsening relationship between England and its colonies that eventually led into the Revolutionary War. | <urn:uuid:b611c55c-6650-4458-b8a8-ab7e453ebc8f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://paperap.com/paper-on-essay-ways-french-indian-war-alter-political-economic-ideological-relations-britain-american-colonies/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00295.warc.gz | en | 0.98018 | 729 | 3.828125 | 4 | [
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0.49826794862747... | 1 | In what ways did the French and Indian War alter the political, economic and ideological relations between Britain and its American colonies? The French and Indian War, is a colonial extension of the Seven Year War that ravaged Europe from 1756 to 1763. The French & Indian War most lasting impact was its political, economic, and ideological effect on the colonial people and Great Britain. These societal aspects and the relations between the two allies changed irreversibly in the wake of the French & Indian War.
Essay Example on In What Ways Did The French And Indian War Alter The Political, Economic And Ideological Relations Between Britain And Its American Colonies?
The advent of republicanism fueled the resentment of monarchical rule; taxes imposed on the colonists by Britain eventually led to discontent and unrest among the Americans. The sensitive responsibilities of the war convinced the colonists of their growing strength; it forced them to question whether or not the possibility of independence was as far-fetched as they would like to think it. Surpassing in magnitude anything that was done on the North American battlefield. After the French and Indian War, the countries colonizing North America. After 1763 (Doc. A), English colonies dominated the new world.
This took a toll on the political relationship between Britain and the American colonists because it leads to the Proclamation of 1763. The Native Americans (Doc. B) believed that they were spoiling their hunting for their daily settlement “they had no right to settle;” although the colonist still took over. The Proclamation was Britain’s idea of preventing further conflict. However, the colonists were angered, and they believed they were being deprived of their right to be free. Political changes included Britain’s abandonment of their salutary neglect policy.
After the French and Indian War, England was left with the deep debt they had acquired during the previous years. In turn, they began to strictly regulate trade, and impose taxes on commonly used items. Although Britain attributed these changes to their (Doc. F) “virtual increase in territory,” the colonists were furious. They felt this was unjust taxation. Taxation and regulation took a toll on the economic relationship between the colonists and their mother country. However, with the heavy British taxation, mercantilism was soon abandoned when the colonists decided to fight back.
The Stamp Act enraged many of the elite colonists, and as Benjamin Franklin states (Doc. G), they wanted to “get it repeal’d” as soon as possible. With boycotting as their weapon, they practiced non-importation and non-consumption, thus harming the economic relationship the between the two parties. Although colonial ideological values toward Britain began to change during the war, the colonists’ ability to go through with the boycotts proved they could unite to make change. All the taxation and regulation added to the resentment colonists already felt prior to the Proclamation of 1763.
Also, the French and Indian War, helped American soldiers realize they had less liberty than Englishmen. A Massachusetts soldier wrote (Doc. D) “not likely to get liquors or cloths at this time of the year; we are debarred Englishmen’s liberty. ” American resentment that arose during this period helped trigger colonial rebellion. It badly battered the relationship between England and Native Americans; and, though the war seemed to strengthen England’s hold on the colonies, the effects of the French and Indian War played a major role in the worsening relationship between England and its colonies that eventually led into the Revolutionary War. | 728 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During the First World War Verdun was a fortified French garrison town on the River Meuse 200km east of Paris. In December 1915, General Erich von Falkenhayn, Chief of Staff of the German Army, decided to attack Verdun. Although he admitted he would be unable to break through at these point on the Western Front, he argued that in defending Verdun, the Germans would "bleed the French army white". The German attack on Verdun started on 21st February 1916. A million troops, led by Crown Prince Wilhelm, faced only about 200,000 French defenders. The following day the French was forced to retreat to their second line of trenches. By 24th February the French had moved back to the third line and were only 8km from Verdun. On 24th February, General Henri-Philippe Petain was appointed commander of the Verdun sector. He gave orders that no more withdrawals would take place. He arranged for every spare French soldier to this part of the Western Front. Of the 330 infantry regiments of the French Army, 259 eventually fought at Verdun. The German advance was brought to a halt at the end of February. On the 6th March, the German Fifth Army launched a new attack at Verdun. The Germans advanced 3km before they were stopped in front of the area around Mort Homme Hill. The French held this strategic point until it was finally secured by the Germans on 29th May, and Fort Vaux fell on 7th June, after a long siege. Further attacks continued throughout the summer and early autumn. However, the scale of the German attacks were reduced by the need to transfer troops to defend their front-line at the Somme. The French now counter-attacked and General Charles Mangin became a national hero when the forts at Douaumont and Vaux were recaptured by 2nd November, 1916. Over the next six weeks the French infantry gained another 2km at Verdun. Verdun, the longest battle of the First World War, ended on the 18th December. The French Army lost about 550,000 men at Verdun. It is estimated that the German Army suffered 434,000 casualties. About half of all casualties at Verdun were killed. | <urn:uuid:63a8c171-57dd-44a9-9658-36ad22ef2b38> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.militarian.com/threads/battle-of-verdun.6691/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00404.warc.gz | en | 0.985122 | 455 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.289336413145065... | 3 | During the First World War Verdun was a fortified French garrison town on the River Meuse 200km east of Paris. In December 1915, General Erich von Falkenhayn, Chief of Staff of the German Army, decided to attack Verdun. Although he admitted he would be unable to break through at these point on the Western Front, he argued that in defending Verdun, the Germans would "bleed the French army white". The German attack on Verdun started on 21st February 1916. A million troops, led by Crown Prince Wilhelm, faced only about 200,000 French defenders. The following day the French was forced to retreat to their second line of trenches. By 24th February the French had moved back to the third line and were only 8km from Verdun. On 24th February, General Henri-Philippe Petain was appointed commander of the Verdun sector. He gave orders that no more withdrawals would take place. He arranged for every spare French soldier to this part of the Western Front. Of the 330 infantry regiments of the French Army, 259 eventually fought at Verdun. The German advance was brought to a halt at the end of February. On the 6th March, the German Fifth Army launched a new attack at Verdun. The Germans advanced 3km before they were stopped in front of the area around Mort Homme Hill. The French held this strategic point until it was finally secured by the Germans on 29th May, and Fort Vaux fell on 7th June, after a long siege. Further attacks continued throughout the summer and early autumn. However, the scale of the German attacks were reduced by the need to transfer troops to defend their front-line at the Somme. The French now counter-attacked and General Charles Mangin became a national hero when the forts at Douaumont and Vaux were recaptured by 2nd November, 1916. Over the next six weeks the French infantry gained another 2km at Verdun. Verdun, the longest battle of the First World War, ended on the 18th December. The French Army lost about 550,000 men at Verdun. It is estimated that the German Army suffered 434,000 casualties. About half of all casualties at Verdun were killed. | 506 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Colwood’s Triangle Mountain is now a residential area, but it has an interesting military history.
Originally called triangular hill, it was used as a navigational aid as a point of triangulation for ships that were entering the harbours.
During the Second World War, the area was turned into a command post and was part of a coastal defence system.
“There were 20 locations across the entrances to the Victoria and Esquimalt harbours,” says Kate Humble, curator at Fort Rodd Hill . “They were like studs on a belt and they all had different purposes…some were gun batteries, some were observation posts and all of them working together was called a fortress defense system.”
Humble said the different posts served as a wall of defence for the harbours and many of them had been in place since the mid to late-1800s.
But in the Second World War, threats from air and sea became even greater as technology advanced and so the Fire Command Post was built on Triangle Mountain.
“It was the nerve centre of the whole operation,” Humble said. “All of the batteries and so on acted as the limbs of a body and Triangle Mountain was like a brain sending signals and instruction to all of the different pieces of the body.”
Humble said the command post on Triangle Mountain instructed batteries on where and when to fire at enemy ships, which is why it was called the Fire Command Post.
Now, Humble said the remnants of the command post are long gone along with the others that were part of the fortress defence system. Fort Rodd Hill stands as an example of how the others functioned. | <urn:uuid:ad8bb1c3-45b5-4af6-977c-37cb6d763979> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.colwood.ca/discover-colwood/historical-timeline | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00391.warc.gz | en | 0.988945 | 350 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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-0.0070291301... | 13 | Colwood’s Triangle Mountain is now a residential area, but it has an interesting military history.
Originally called triangular hill, it was used as a navigational aid as a point of triangulation for ships that were entering the harbours.
During the Second World War, the area was turned into a command post and was part of a coastal defence system.
“There were 20 locations across the entrances to the Victoria and Esquimalt harbours,” says Kate Humble, curator at Fort Rodd Hill . “They were like studs on a belt and they all had different purposes…some were gun batteries, some were observation posts and all of them working together was called a fortress defense system.”
Humble said the different posts served as a wall of defence for the harbours and many of them had been in place since the mid to late-1800s.
But in the Second World War, threats from air and sea became even greater as technology advanced and so the Fire Command Post was built on Triangle Mountain.
“It was the nerve centre of the whole operation,” Humble said. “All of the batteries and so on acted as the limbs of a body and Triangle Mountain was like a brain sending signals and instruction to all of the different pieces of the body.”
Humble said the command post on Triangle Mountain instructed batteries on where and when to fire at enemy ships, which is why it was called the Fire Command Post.
Now, Humble said the remnants of the command post are long gone along with the others that were part of the fortress defence system. Fort Rodd Hill stands as an example of how the others functioned. | 329 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Get help with any kind of project - from a high school essay to a PhD dissertation
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Milton and his Life John Milton was born in London. He is well known for being among the best artists of the English language, famous for his epic poem PARADISE LOST, written in 1667. Milton's poetry has been said to be powerful and having rhetoric prose and a huge influence on the 18th century verse. Milton has also published pamphlets protecting religious and civil rights. Milton was educated at Saint Paul's School and Christ's College, University of Cambridge. He attended to become a clergyman in the Church of England but then he climbed dissatisfaction with the condition of the Anglican clergy and began growing poetic interest. From 1632 to 1638 he prepared himself for his poetic career by entering upon an ambitious schedule of studying the Latin and Greek classics and political history. Then he settled in London and started writing a set of social, religious, and political tracts. In 1642 he married Mary Powell, who abandoned him after a couple of weeks because their differences in temperaments, but was reconciled in 1645. In his writings Milton supported the parliamentary cause in the civil war between Parliamentarians and Royalists, and he was appointed foreign secretary by the government of the Commonwealth. He became totally blind about 1652 and thereafter carried on together with his poetry with the aid of an assistant. In 1656 he married another wife, who died years afterwards. With the restoration, Milton was punished for. | <urn:uuid:91d2600f-f2c4-4c72-9948-5d3f1f959d7d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studybay.com/example-works/essay/arts_entertainment/1014340/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00523.warc.gz | en | 0.986181 | 310 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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0.331193387... | 1 | Get help with any kind of project - from a high school essay to a PhD dissertation
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Milton and his Life John Milton was born in London. He is well known for being among the best artists of the English language, famous for his epic poem PARADISE LOST, written in 1667. Milton's poetry has been said to be powerful and having rhetoric prose and a huge influence on the 18th century verse. Milton has also published pamphlets protecting religious and civil rights. Milton was educated at Saint Paul's School and Christ's College, University of Cambridge. He attended to become a clergyman in the Church of England but then he climbed dissatisfaction with the condition of the Anglican clergy and began growing poetic interest. From 1632 to 1638 he prepared himself for his poetic career by entering upon an ambitious schedule of studying the Latin and Greek classics and political history. Then he settled in London and started writing a set of social, religious, and political tracts. In 1642 he married Mary Powell, who abandoned him after a couple of weeks because their differences in temperaments, but was reconciled in 1645. In his writings Milton supported the parliamentary cause in the civil war between Parliamentarians and Royalists, and he was appointed foreign secretary by the government of the Commonwealth. He became totally blind about 1652 and thereafter carried on together with his poetry with the aid of an assistant. In 1656 he married another wife, who died years afterwards. With the restoration, Milton was punished for. | 333 | ENGLISH | 1 |
U.S. Army Lt. Col. Isaac Reeve Reports on the Surrender of His Command After the Secession of Texas
After the State of Texas adapted an ordinance of secession from the United States on February 1st, 1861, U.S. Army soldiers and cavalrymen at the various forts and garrisons scattered throughout the Lone Star State suddenly found
themselves in hostile territory. Then on February 18th, General David E. Twiggs, the commanding officer of the Department of Texas surrendered all U.S. military posts in his department to Texas authorities. Twiggs, a native of Georgia, would be vilified for his surrender, but he was in a difficult position. Armed secessionists were in the process of seizing U.S. government property at Twiggs’ headquarters in San Antonio when they surrounded him and demanded the surrender. Most of the U.S. troops in Texas–about 2300 total–were at 19 distant, widely dispersed posts without any means of quickly concentrating into an effective force. Twiggs would be dismissed from the U.S. Army on March 1st, 1861 and would briefly serve as a Confederate general in an administrative post early in the war before dying in 1862.
Twiggs negotiated an agreement where the military posts would be turned over to Texas, and the U.S. troops would be allowed to march to the Gulf Coast and leave for the north via ships. Some of these posts were a great distance from the coast, so the march would be lengthy both in miles and in the time it would take.
The longest march would be from Fort Bliss, then and now located at El Paso in West Texas. It was a nearly 700 mile march to Corpus Christi, and nearly 800 to Galveston from Fort Bliss. This march would be led by Lieutenant Colonel Isaac Van Duzen Reeve of the 8th U.S. Infantry. On March 31st, Reeve led his command (six companies of the 8th U.S. Infantry) out of Fort Bliss, bound for the Gulf Coast via San Antonio. His column was soon joined by the soldiers from two other far West Texas garrisons, Forts Quitman and Davis. After the initial shots of the Civil War were fired at Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor on April 12th, Confederate authorities revoked the Twiggs agreement to allow Federal soldiers safe passage north. Those who had not left Texas were to made prisoners of war.
Reeve’s column did not reach the San Antonio area until early May, weeks after the Twiggs agreement had been revoked. On May 9th, Reeve surrendered his command to superior Confederate forces at San Lucas Spring, 15 miles west of San Antonio. He filed these reports regarding the march and his reasons for surrendering:
CAMP NEAR SAN ANTONIO, TEX.,
May 12, 1861.
SIR: I take the earliest opportunity possible to inform you that the six companies of the Eighth Infantry under my command, while marching for the coast under the agreement made between General Twiggs (late of the U.S. Army) and the State of Texas, to the effect that the troops should leave the State, were met by a force under command of Col. Earl Van Dorn, of the Southern Confederacy, and made prisoners of war. This occurred on the 9th instant, at San Lucas Spring, fifteen miles west of San Antonio. The force under my command, comprising the garrisons of Forts Bliss, Quitman, and Davis, amounted to an aggregate, when leaving the latter post, of 320. This embraces ten officers, two hospital stewards, and twelve musicians. Colonel Bomford, Sixth Infantry, was also with the command. On the day of surrender my command numbered 270 bayonets, being thus reduced by sickness, desertions, and stragglers (some of whom have since joined) who remained at Castroville from drunkenness or other causes. The force opposed to me numbered, as (then variously estimated at from 1,500 to 1,700 men) since ascertained to be, was 1,370 aggregate, the total being 848 cavalry, 361 infantry, and 95 artillery, with six field pieces.
When the demand for a surrender was made, I was told that the force opposed to me was “overwhelming.” I had halted in a good position for defense, and could have been overpowered only by a greatly superior force; and as none such was before me, I declined to surrender without the presentation of such force. It was on the march, and soon came in sight, but I was not satisfied of its strength until an officer of my command was permitted to examine and report to me the character and probable number of the forces. Upon his report I deemed resistance utterly hopeless, and therefore surrendered. My command is now encamped near the head of the San Antonio River, awaiting the orders of President Davis, to whom a messenger has been dispatched by Colonel Van Dom. The officers on duty with the command were Captain Blake, Lieutenants Bliss, Lazelle, Peck, Frank, Van Horn, and W. G. Jones, Eighth Infantry; Lieutenant Freedley, Third Infantry, and Assistant Surgeon Peters, Medical Department. A more detailed report will be made as soon as practicable.
I am, sir, yours, respectfully,
I. V. D. REEVE,
Brevet Lieutenant-Colonel, U. S. Army, Commanding.
Col. L. THOMAS,
Adjutant-General U.S. Army, Washington, D.C.
CAMP NEAR SAN ANTONIO, TEX., May 12, 1861.
SIR: In connection with the report which I have this day forwarded, relating to the surrender of the battalion of the Eighth Infantry under my command to the forces of the Confederate States of America, near this place, I also present the following details of the latter part of the march, and the circumstances which determined that surrender.
This report was not transmitted with the other, as it is extremely uncertain whether any reports of an official character are permitted to pass through the post-office here or those elsewhere in the South.
On leaving Fort Bliss sufficient transportation could be procured to carry subsistence for only forty days, in which time it was expected the command would reach San Antonio, making some little allowance for detentions by the way.
At Forts Quitman and Davis stores were taken to last the commands from those posts to San Antonio, not being able to carry more with the transportation at hand. From Camp Hudson to Fort Clark persons were occasionally seen on the road who appeared to be watching our movements, but they said they belonged to rangers who had been on a scout. At Fort Clark, where I arrived on the 2d of May, I learned that the mails had been detained for several days to prevent me from receiving information. It was reported by a stage passenger that the officers at San Antonio had been made prisoners of war. On all these subjects there were contradictory reports, and no information could be obtained which would warrant any hostile act on my part. Such supplies as were called for were readily furnished, and offers of services were proffered by the commanding officer. This did not look much like hostility, nor did I really suspect any. The garrison had been reinforced (being about 200 men), the post fortified to some extent, guns loaded and matches lighted on our approach; yet there did not appear any hostile intent towards us, as the explanation for all this was, that they “had heard that I had orders to attack and take Fort Clark.”
From this point rumors daily reached me, but so indefinite and contradictory, as to afford no sure ground for hostile action on my part; and by taking such I could not know but I should be the first to break the treaty under which we were marching.
On reaching Uvalde on the 5th (near Fort Inge), I felt more apprehension of hostility, though rumors were still very contradictory. To attempt, from this point, to return to New Mexico for the purpose of saving the command, would have been impracticable, for I had but five days’ rations, and our transportation was too much broken down to make the march without corn (which could not be had), even if everything but subsistence and ammunition had been abandoned. Behind us was the mounted force at Fort Clark, and a large mounted force said to be at San Antonio, reported to be from 700 to 2,000. At this time the only other method of escape left was to cross the Rio Grande, this being easy of accomplishment, but of very doubtful propriety, particularly as it was yet uncertain whether we should not only break the treaty with Texas, but also compromise the United States with Mexico by crossing troops into her soil.
On the 6th, while continuing our march, we heard that those companies at the coast had been disarmed, and that in all probability we would be also on our arrival there; that there would be a force of from 2,000 to 6,000 men against us. We then had no course open to us but to proceed, and, unless overpowered by numbers, to endeavor to fight our way to the coast, with the hope that some way of escape would be opened to us. On the 7th we heard that there were not more than 700 men in San Antonio, and such a force I knew would not be able to overpower us; and still with strong hope that we might be able to advance successfully, I purchased (on the 8th) at Castroville a small additional supply of subsistence stores (all I could), enough for two days, which included the 12th instant, but could have been made to last several days, had I a reasonable prospect of seizing more in San Antonio. Before reaching Castroville I learned that there were troops encamped on the west side of the Leon, seven miles from San Antonio; that there were cavalry, infantry, and artillery, with four guns. I encamped on the 8th on the east side of the Medina, opposite to Castroville. Late that evening I heard that the enemy would march to surround us in our camp, and I had before heard that a section of artillery was on the way down from Fort Clark, following on our rear; and there was further report that it would pass us that night on the way to San Antonio. To avoid surprise and be in possession of plenty of water, I marched that night at 12 o’clock to reach the Lioncito, six miles east of the Medina, and on my arrival there, finding no signs of the advance of the enemy, I marched on three miles farther to a point suggested and brought to my memory by Lieut. Z. R. Bliss, Eighth Infantry, called San Lucas Spring. There is quite a high hill a few hundred yards from the spring, having some houses, corrals, &c., which, together with the commanding position and a well of water in the yard, rendered this point a very strong one for a small command. This place is known as Allen’s Hill. It is eight miles from where the enemy was encamped, and there I made a halt to await his advance, and parked the wagon train for defense; all of which preparations were made a little after sunrise on the 9th.
About 9 o’clock two officers approached, bearing a white flag and a message from Colonel Van Dorn, demanding an unconditional surrender of the United States troops under my command, stating that he had an “overwhelming force.” I declined to surrender without the presentation of such a force or a report of an officer, whom I would select from my command, of its character and capacity of compelling a surrender. The advance of the enemy came in sight over a rise of ground about a mile distant, and as the whole force soon came in sight and continued in march down the long slope, Colonel Van Dorn’s messenger returned to me with directions to say that “if that display of force was not sufficient I could send an officer to examine it.” I replied that it was “not sufficient.” I directed Lieutenant Bliss to proceed, conducted by the same messenger, to make a careful examination of the enemy. He was taken to a point so distant that nothing satisfactory could be ascertained, and he informed his conductors that he would “make no report upon such an examination.” This being reported to Colonel Van Dorn, he permitted as close an examination as Lieutenant Bliss desired. The enemy had formed line on the low ground some half-mile in front of my position, perpendicular to and crossing the road, and neither force could be plainly seen by the other in consequence of the high bushes which intervened. Lieutenant Bliss rode the whole length of the enemy’s line within thirty yards, estimating the numbers and examining the character of his armament. He reported to me that the cavalry were armed with rifles and revolvers; the infantry with muskets (some rifle) and revolvers; that there were four pieces of artillery, with from ten to twelve men each; that he estimated the force at 1,200 at least, and there might be 1,500 (since ascertained to be 1,400). With this force before me, an odds of about five to one, being short of provisions, having no hope of re-enforcements, no means of leaving the coast, even should any portion of the command succeed in reaching it, and with every probability of utter annihilation in making the attempt, without any prospect of good to be attained, I deemed that stubborn resistance and consequent bloodshed and sacrifice of life would be inexcusable and criminal, and I therefore surrendered.
Colonel Van Dorn immediately withdrew his force, and permitted us to march to San Antonio with our arms and at our leisure. We arrived there on the 10th, and on the 11th an officer was sent to our camp to receive our arms and other public property, all of which was surrendered.
I will state here that we have been treated, in the circumstances of our capture, with generosity and delicacy, and harrowed and wounded as our feelings are, we have not had to bear personal contumely and insult.
I am, sir, yours, respectfully,
L V. D. REEVE,
Brevet Lieutenant-Colonel, U. S. Army, Commanding.
Col. L. THOMAS,
Adjutant-General U. S. Army, Washington, D.C.
KANKAKEE CITY, ILL., June 18, 1861.
SIR: I have the honor to report my arrival at this place yesterday, the 17th instant, having come from San Antonio, Tex., with as much dispatch as the means of travel and communication would permit, leaving that place on the 4th.
I inclose herewith a copy of my report made under date of May 12, fearing that that report did not reach your office in consequence of the disturbed state of the country and the uncertainty of the mails. I also inclose a detailed report of the latter portion of the march and surrender, to which reference was made in my former report. This latter report could have been long ago made had there been any reasonable prospect of its reaching you. This is the first point, where I have been able to stop, from which letters could be forwarded with safety.
I hereby report further how I happen to be here. After surrender the troops were paroled–the officers to the limits of the Confederate States of America, and the men placed under oath not to leave the county of Bexar, Texas. Up to the 4th of June Colonel Van Dorn was expecting orders to grant unlimited paroles to the officers, and told me that he had no doubt such would be granted on return of his messenger from Montgomery. The 1st instant I received the sad, crushing intelligence of the death of my oldest daughter, and Colonel Van Dorn at once offered me the privilege of coming home. I availed myself of his generosity, both with the view to make arrangements for the care of my remaining children and to communicate with the War Department, in the hope of being of some service to the prisoners of war in Texas by representing their true state and condition, Not knowing whether my reporting in person would be either desirable or proper, I send the following brief statement:
Up to the time I left San Antonio the troops were in quarters, and under the care and control of their own officers. They were allowed the usual subsistence and all the clothing necessary; had no restrictions as to limits, except attendance on retreat roll-call, and could be permitted to go anywhere within the county upon a written pass signed by their own officers. With the exception of some five or six they remained faithful to their Government, and refused all offers and inducements to join the Confederate service. The day before I left Colonel Van Dorn informed me that they would be moved into camp some five miles from town, and placed under charge of Confederate officers, who would attend to their wants, thus separating them from the care of their own officers. In all this they have been as well if not much better treated than is the usual fate of prisoners of war. Their peril consists in the fact that they are retained as hostages against the rigorous treatment of any prisoners who may fall into the power of the United States. Colonel Van Dorn does not regard the parole which is given to the officers as revocable by his Government, and their peril is not, therefore, the same as that of the men in his view of the case; therefore it is not easy to see, in the same view of the case, any good reasons for restrictions as to limits being made in the parole. The officers are furnished with quarters and board at the expense of the Confederacy, at least while they remain in San Antonio.
I shall be in Dansville, in New York, in a few days, where communications will reach me. Hoping that I may be justified in the course I have pursued, as represented in my reports,
I remain, sir, yours, very respectfully,
I. V. D. REEVE,
Brevet Lieutenant-Colonel, U.S. Army.
Col. L. THOMAS,
Adjutant-General U. S. Army, Washington, D. C.
The captured men of the 8th Infantry were eventually released, and along with some new recruits, the companies of the unit reformed during 1862 and 1863 and served in the eastern theatre of operations for the rest of the war.
Against the Grain: Colonel Henry M. Lazelle and the U.S. Army
by James Carson
Blood and Treasure: Confederate Empire in the Southwest by Donald S. Frazier
Compendium of the War of the Rebellion by Frederick Dyer
Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies in the War of the Rebellion, Series I, Volume 1, Chapter VII.
Recollections of the Twiggs Surrender by Caroline Baldwin Darrow. In Battles and Leaders of the Civil War, Volume I. Edited by Clarence C. Buel and Robert U Underwood.
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0.0682896971... | 2 | U.S. Army Lt. Col. Isaac Reeve Reports on the Surrender of His Command After the Secession of Texas
After the State of Texas adapted an ordinance of secession from the United States on February 1st, 1861, U.S. Army soldiers and cavalrymen at the various forts and garrisons scattered throughout the Lone Star State suddenly found
themselves in hostile territory. Then on February 18th, General David E. Twiggs, the commanding officer of the Department of Texas surrendered all U.S. military posts in his department to Texas authorities. Twiggs, a native of Georgia, would be vilified for his surrender, but he was in a difficult position. Armed secessionists were in the process of seizing U.S. government property at Twiggs’ headquarters in San Antonio when they surrounded him and demanded the surrender. Most of the U.S. troops in Texas–about 2300 total–were at 19 distant, widely dispersed posts without any means of quickly concentrating into an effective force. Twiggs would be dismissed from the U.S. Army on March 1st, 1861 and would briefly serve as a Confederate general in an administrative post early in the war before dying in 1862.
Twiggs negotiated an agreement where the military posts would be turned over to Texas, and the U.S. troops would be allowed to march to the Gulf Coast and leave for the north via ships. Some of these posts were a great distance from the coast, so the march would be lengthy both in miles and in the time it would take.
The longest march would be from Fort Bliss, then and now located at El Paso in West Texas. It was a nearly 700 mile march to Corpus Christi, and nearly 800 to Galveston from Fort Bliss. This march would be led by Lieutenant Colonel Isaac Van Duzen Reeve of the 8th U.S. Infantry. On March 31st, Reeve led his command (six companies of the 8th U.S. Infantry) out of Fort Bliss, bound for the Gulf Coast via San Antonio. His column was soon joined by the soldiers from two other far West Texas garrisons, Forts Quitman and Davis. After the initial shots of the Civil War were fired at Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor on April 12th, Confederate authorities revoked the Twiggs agreement to allow Federal soldiers safe passage north. Those who had not left Texas were to made prisoners of war.
Reeve’s column did not reach the San Antonio area until early May, weeks after the Twiggs agreement had been revoked. On May 9th, Reeve surrendered his command to superior Confederate forces at San Lucas Spring, 15 miles west of San Antonio. He filed these reports regarding the march and his reasons for surrendering:
CAMP NEAR SAN ANTONIO, TEX.,
May 12, 1861.
SIR: I take the earliest opportunity possible to inform you that the six companies of the Eighth Infantry under my command, while marching for the coast under the agreement made between General Twiggs (late of the U.S. Army) and the State of Texas, to the effect that the troops should leave the State, were met by a force under command of Col. Earl Van Dorn, of the Southern Confederacy, and made prisoners of war. This occurred on the 9th instant, at San Lucas Spring, fifteen miles west of San Antonio. The force under my command, comprising the garrisons of Forts Bliss, Quitman, and Davis, amounted to an aggregate, when leaving the latter post, of 320. This embraces ten officers, two hospital stewards, and twelve musicians. Colonel Bomford, Sixth Infantry, was also with the command. On the day of surrender my command numbered 270 bayonets, being thus reduced by sickness, desertions, and stragglers (some of whom have since joined) who remained at Castroville from drunkenness or other causes. The force opposed to me numbered, as (then variously estimated at from 1,500 to 1,700 men) since ascertained to be, was 1,370 aggregate, the total being 848 cavalry, 361 infantry, and 95 artillery, with six field pieces.
When the demand for a surrender was made, I was told that the force opposed to me was “overwhelming.” I had halted in a good position for defense, and could have been overpowered only by a greatly superior force; and as none such was before me, I declined to surrender without the presentation of such force. It was on the march, and soon came in sight, but I was not satisfied of its strength until an officer of my command was permitted to examine and report to me the character and probable number of the forces. Upon his report I deemed resistance utterly hopeless, and therefore surrendered. My command is now encamped near the head of the San Antonio River, awaiting the orders of President Davis, to whom a messenger has been dispatched by Colonel Van Dom. The officers on duty with the command were Captain Blake, Lieutenants Bliss, Lazelle, Peck, Frank, Van Horn, and W. G. Jones, Eighth Infantry; Lieutenant Freedley, Third Infantry, and Assistant Surgeon Peters, Medical Department. A more detailed report will be made as soon as practicable.
I am, sir, yours, respectfully,
I. V. D. REEVE,
Brevet Lieutenant-Colonel, U. S. Army, Commanding.
Col. L. THOMAS,
Adjutant-General U.S. Army, Washington, D.C.
CAMP NEAR SAN ANTONIO, TEX., May 12, 1861.
SIR: In connection with the report which I have this day forwarded, relating to the surrender of the battalion of the Eighth Infantry under my command to the forces of the Confederate States of America, near this place, I also present the following details of the latter part of the march, and the circumstances which determined that surrender.
This report was not transmitted with the other, as it is extremely uncertain whether any reports of an official character are permitted to pass through the post-office here or those elsewhere in the South.
On leaving Fort Bliss sufficient transportation could be procured to carry subsistence for only forty days, in which time it was expected the command would reach San Antonio, making some little allowance for detentions by the way.
At Forts Quitman and Davis stores were taken to last the commands from those posts to San Antonio, not being able to carry more with the transportation at hand. From Camp Hudson to Fort Clark persons were occasionally seen on the road who appeared to be watching our movements, but they said they belonged to rangers who had been on a scout. At Fort Clark, where I arrived on the 2d of May, I learned that the mails had been detained for several days to prevent me from receiving information. It was reported by a stage passenger that the officers at San Antonio had been made prisoners of war. On all these subjects there were contradictory reports, and no information could be obtained which would warrant any hostile act on my part. Such supplies as were called for were readily furnished, and offers of services were proffered by the commanding officer. This did not look much like hostility, nor did I really suspect any. The garrison had been reinforced (being about 200 men), the post fortified to some extent, guns loaded and matches lighted on our approach; yet there did not appear any hostile intent towards us, as the explanation for all this was, that they “had heard that I had orders to attack and take Fort Clark.”
From this point rumors daily reached me, but so indefinite and contradictory, as to afford no sure ground for hostile action on my part; and by taking such I could not know but I should be the first to break the treaty under which we were marching.
On reaching Uvalde on the 5th (near Fort Inge), I felt more apprehension of hostility, though rumors were still very contradictory. To attempt, from this point, to return to New Mexico for the purpose of saving the command, would have been impracticable, for I had but five days’ rations, and our transportation was too much broken down to make the march without corn (which could not be had), even if everything but subsistence and ammunition had been abandoned. Behind us was the mounted force at Fort Clark, and a large mounted force said to be at San Antonio, reported to be from 700 to 2,000. At this time the only other method of escape left was to cross the Rio Grande, this being easy of accomplishment, but of very doubtful propriety, particularly as it was yet uncertain whether we should not only break the treaty with Texas, but also compromise the United States with Mexico by crossing troops into her soil.
On the 6th, while continuing our march, we heard that those companies at the coast had been disarmed, and that in all probability we would be also on our arrival there; that there would be a force of from 2,000 to 6,000 men against us. We then had no course open to us but to proceed, and, unless overpowered by numbers, to endeavor to fight our way to the coast, with the hope that some way of escape would be opened to us. On the 7th we heard that there were not more than 700 men in San Antonio, and such a force I knew would not be able to overpower us; and still with strong hope that we might be able to advance successfully, I purchased (on the 8th) at Castroville a small additional supply of subsistence stores (all I could), enough for two days, which included the 12th instant, but could have been made to last several days, had I a reasonable prospect of seizing more in San Antonio. Before reaching Castroville I learned that there were troops encamped on the west side of the Leon, seven miles from San Antonio; that there were cavalry, infantry, and artillery, with four guns. I encamped on the 8th on the east side of the Medina, opposite to Castroville. Late that evening I heard that the enemy would march to surround us in our camp, and I had before heard that a section of artillery was on the way down from Fort Clark, following on our rear; and there was further report that it would pass us that night on the way to San Antonio. To avoid surprise and be in possession of plenty of water, I marched that night at 12 o’clock to reach the Lioncito, six miles east of the Medina, and on my arrival there, finding no signs of the advance of the enemy, I marched on three miles farther to a point suggested and brought to my memory by Lieut. Z. R. Bliss, Eighth Infantry, called San Lucas Spring. There is quite a high hill a few hundred yards from the spring, having some houses, corrals, &c., which, together with the commanding position and a well of water in the yard, rendered this point a very strong one for a small command. This place is known as Allen’s Hill. It is eight miles from where the enemy was encamped, and there I made a halt to await his advance, and parked the wagon train for defense; all of which preparations were made a little after sunrise on the 9th.
About 9 o’clock two officers approached, bearing a white flag and a message from Colonel Van Dorn, demanding an unconditional surrender of the United States troops under my command, stating that he had an “overwhelming force.” I declined to surrender without the presentation of such a force or a report of an officer, whom I would select from my command, of its character and capacity of compelling a surrender. The advance of the enemy came in sight over a rise of ground about a mile distant, and as the whole force soon came in sight and continued in march down the long slope, Colonel Van Dorn’s messenger returned to me with directions to say that “if that display of force was not sufficient I could send an officer to examine it.” I replied that it was “not sufficient.” I directed Lieutenant Bliss to proceed, conducted by the same messenger, to make a careful examination of the enemy. He was taken to a point so distant that nothing satisfactory could be ascertained, and he informed his conductors that he would “make no report upon such an examination.” This being reported to Colonel Van Dorn, he permitted as close an examination as Lieutenant Bliss desired. The enemy had formed line on the low ground some half-mile in front of my position, perpendicular to and crossing the road, and neither force could be plainly seen by the other in consequence of the high bushes which intervened. Lieutenant Bliss rode the whole length of the enemy’s line within thirty yards, estimating the numbers and examining the character of his armament. He reported to me that the cavalry were armed with rifles and revolvers; the infantry with muskets (some rifle) and revolvers; that there were four pieces of artillery, with from ten to twelve men each; that he estimated the force at 1,200 at least, and there might be 1,500 (since ascertained to be 1,400). With this force before me, an odds of about five to one, being short of provisions, having no hope of re-enforcements, no means of leaving the coast, even should any portion of the command succeed in reaching it, and with every probability of utter annihilation in making the attempt, without any prospect of good to be attained, I deemed that stubborn resistance and consequent bloodshed and sacrifice of life would be inexcusable and criminal, and I therefore surrendered.
Colonel Van Dorn immediately withdrew his force, and permitted us to march to San Antonio with our arms and at our leisure. We arrived there on the 10th, and on the 11th an officer was sent to our camp to receive our arms and other public property, all of which was surrendered.
I will state here that we have been treated, in the circumstances of our capture, with generosity and delicacy, and harrowed and wounded as our feelings are, we have not had to bear personal contumely and insult.
I am, sir, yours, respectfully,
L V. D. REEVE,
Brevet Lieutenant-Colonel, U. S. Army, Commanding.
Col. L. THOMAS,
Adjutant-General U. S. Army, Washington, D.C.
KANKAKEE CITY, ILL., June 18, 1861.
SIR: I have the honor to report my arrival at this place yesterday, the 17th instant, having come from San Antonio, Tex., with as much dispatch as the means of travel and communication would permit, leaving that place on the 4th.
I inclose herewith a copy of my report made under date of May 12, fearing that that report did not reach your office in consequence of the disturbed state of the country and the uncertainty of the mails. I also inclose a detailed report of the latter portion of the march and surrender, to which reference was made in my former report. This latter report could have been long ago made had there been any reasonable prospect of its reaching you. This is the first point, where I have been able to stop, from which letters could be forwarded with safety.
I hereby report further how I happen to be here. After surrender the troops were paroled–the officers to the limits of the Confederate States of America, and the men placed under oath not to leave the county of Bexar, Texas. Up to the 4th of June Colonel Van Dorn was expecting orders to grant unlimited paroles to the officers, and told me that he had no doubt such would be granted on return of his messenger from Montgomery. The 1st instant I received the sad, crushing intelligence of the death of my oldest daughter, and Colonel Van Dorn at once offered me the privilege of coming home. I availed myself of his generosity, both with the view to make arrangements for the care of my remaining children and to communicate with the War Department, in the hope of being of some service to the prisoners of war in Texas by representing their true state and condition, Not knowing whether my reporting in person would be either desirable or proper, I send the following brief statement:
Up to the time I left San Antonio the troops were in quarters, and under the care and control of their own officers. They were allowed the usual subsistence and all the clothing necessary; had no restrictions as to limits, except attendance on retreat roll-call, and could be permitted to go anywhere within the county upon a written pass signed by their own officers. With the exception of some five or six they remained faithful to their Government, and refused all offers and inducements to join the Confederate service. The day before I left Colonel Van Dorn informed me that they would be moved into camp some five miles from town, and placed under charge of Confederate officers, who would attend to their wants, thus separating them from the care of their own officers. In all this they have been as well if not much better treated than is the usual fate of prisoners of war. Their peril consists in the fact that they are retained as hostages against the rigorous treatment of any prisoners who may fall into the power of the United States. Colonel Van Dorn does not regard the parole which is given to the officers as revocable by his Government, and their peril is not, therefore, the same as that of the men in his view of the case; therefore it is not easy to see, in the same view of the case, any good reasons for restrictions as to limits being made in the parole. The officers are furnished with quarters and board at the expense of the Confederacy, at least while they remain in San Antonio.
I shall be in Dansville, in New York, in a few days, where communications will reach me. Hoping that I may be justified in the course I have pursued, as represented in my reports,
I remain, sir, yours, very respectfully,
I. V. D. REEVE,
Brevet Lieutenant-Colonel, U.S. Army.
Col. L. THOMAS,
Adjutant-General U. S. Army, Washington, D. C.
The captured men of the 8th Infantry were eventually released, and along with some new recruits, the companies of the unit reformed during 1862 and 1863 and served in the eastern theatre of operations for the rest of the war.
Against the Grain: Colonel Henry M. Lazelle and the U.S. Army
by James Carson
Blood and Treasure: Confederate Empire in the Southwest by Donald S. Frazier
Compendium of the War of the Rebellion by Frederick Dyer
Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies in the War of the Rebellion, Series I, Volume 1, Chapter VII.
Recollections of the Twiggs Surrender by Caroline Baldwin Darrow. In Battles and Leaders of the Civil War, Volume I. Edited by Clarence C. Buel and Robert U Underwood.
Amazon affiliate links: We may earn a small commission from purchases made from Amazon.com links at no cost to our visitors. For more info, please read our affiliate disclosure. | 4,047 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Throughout World War Two, Germany was heavily bombed though for many people the blanket bombing of Germany could be forgiven after the traumas of Dunkirk and the tribulations of the Battle of Britain. Simple public satisfaction and a feeling of revenge were enough of a rationale to explain away the bombing of Germany during World War Two.
|“It is improbable that any terrorization of the civil population which can be achieved by air attack could compel (force) the government of a nation to surrender. Air offensives should consistently be directed at military and communication centres.” Winston Churchill in 1917
“If we decide to use it (bombing) in concentration and with determination we can not only save millions of lives but we can shorten the war perhaps by years.” Lord Trenchard
Even today, the bombing of German cities remains a controversial issue and the unveiling of a new statue of ‘Bomber’ Harris in 1992 by a church near Trafalgar Square, London, caused problems and it was covered with red paint within 24 hours of its unveiling.
Many British cities were bombed, as were many German cities. Civilians paid a terrible toll – the attitude of “Britain can take it” (as the government of the time would have us believe) was not true and stories of the “Trekkers” (people who lived in the cities who left their homes each night and went to the nearest safe woodland etc.) were heavily censored. Why were civilians targeted? The belief of the time was that their morale would crack and they would make the government surrender.
“In 1938 over 22 million Germans lived in 58 towns of over 100,000 inhabitants. If even half our bombs were dropped on…….these 58 towns the great majority of these inhabitants (about one third of the German population) would be turned out of house and home. Investigation seems to show that having one’s home demolished is most damaging to morale…….there seems little doubt that this would break the spirit of the people.”
Advice given to the British government in 1942 by Lord Cherwell, a senior scientific adviser.
Bombing raids could be so bad that firestorms could be created whereby the flames ‘ate’ up all the oxygen where the fire was and sucked in oxygen from the surrounding areas at such speeds that hurricanes were made which sucked in to them all living beings. Hamburg was one such place that suffered a firestorm in 1943 as did Dresden in February 1945.
“People jumped into the canals and waterways and remained swimming or standing up to their necks for hours until the heat died down. Even these suffered burns to the head. The firestorm swept over the water with its showers of sparks so that even thick wooden posts burned down to the level of the water. Children were torn away from their parents’ hands by the force of the hurricane and whirled into the fire.”
Written by Hamburg’s police chief in 1943.
“In spite of all that happened at Hamburg, bombing proved a comparatively humane method. For one thing, it saved the youth of this country and of our allies from being mown down by the military as it was in the war of 1914-1918.”
‘Bomber’ Harris writing in his memoirs in 1947.
The main issue was whether we targeted the correct targets. In 1944 Britain dropped thousands of tons of bombs on Germany – the highest annual figure of the war. Yet in that year Germany was producing more industrial and war goods than ever before. It was only in 1944 that Britain changed targets and bombed strategic targets such as railway lines, bridges, motorways etc. and Germany’s ability to make industrial goods was smashed. Even a report set up by the British in 1945 to assess the impact of bombing admitted that the impact of the bombing campaign on Germany’s war production had been “remarkably small”.
The nose cone of a Lancaster bomber
61 German cities were attacked by Bomber Command between 1939 and 1945 containing a combined population of 25 million inhabitants;
3.6 million homes were destroyed (20% of the total)
7.5 million people were made homeless
300,000 Germans are thought to have been killed as a result of the raids, and 800,000 were wounded.
Berlin was 70% destroyed by bombing; Dresden 75% destroyed.
BUT – were the wrong targets chosen?
From 1939 to 1943, German cities were targeted and attacked. The more America and Great Britain bombed German cities during these dates, the more weapons Germany produced in their factories.
In early 1944, strategic targets were attacked (rail heads, rail lines, bridges etc.) The destruction of such targets effectively paralysed Germany. In 1945, Germany had mined much coal but had no way of moving it from the mines to where it was needed. When the war ended, the Allies found several hundred King Tiger tanks at a Munich rail yard ready to be taken to the war front – but the Germans had no way of getting them there.
Did Bomber Command get a good return for the investment in men and planes during the bombing of Germany? There is no doubt that the casualty statistics for Bomber Command were very high. On some bombing missions over Germany, air crews might have a one in twenty chance of returning alive. The stress of flying a mission was such that recent research has found that many of those who survived bombing missions, became victims after the war ended. Failed marriages and alcoholism were not unusual for veterans of Bomber Command.
Added to this remains the controversy that the input Bomber Command had in the Second World War was never fully recognised by the government. The government’s lack of recognition of the part played by ‘Bomber’ Harris during the war, angered many Bomber Command veterans. Harris retired to South Africa after the war. Bomber Command was the only unit of the British war machine from 1939 to 1945 that did not receive a campaign medal.
- Air Marshall Arthur 'Bomber' Harris remains one of the most controversial military commanders of World War Two. Arthur Harris commanded Bomber Command and was a…
- Bomber Command moved to its new headquarters near High Wycombe early in 1940. Its commander-in-chief, Sir Edgar Ludlow-Hewitt, moved into a centre that had direct… | <urn:uuid:5ad81084-d64e-44eb-87ea-c48ab0358a48> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/world-war-two/the-bombing-campaign-of-world-war-two/bombing-and-world-war-two/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00433.warc.gz | en | 0.985186 | 1,301 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.5627517104... | 1 | Throughout World War Two, Germany was heavily bombed though for many people the blanket bombing of Germany could be forgiven after the traumas of Dunkirk and the tribulations of the Battle of Britain. Simple public satisfaction and a feeling of revenge were enough of a rationale to explain away the bombing of Germany during World War Two.
|“It is improbable that any terrorization of the civil population which can be achieved by air attack could compel (force) the government of a nation to surrender. Air offensives should consistently be directed at military and communication centres.” Winston Churchill in 1917
“If we decide to use it (bombing) in concentration and with determination we can not only save millions of lives but we can shorten the war perhaps by years.” Lord Trenchard
Even today, the bombing of German cities remains a controversial issue and the unveiling of a new statue of ‘Bomber’ Harris in 1992 by a church near Trafalgar Square, London, caused problems and it was covered with red paint within 24 hours of its unveiling.
Many British cities were bombed, as were many German cities. Civilians paid a terrible toll – the attitude of “Britain can take it” (as the government of the time would have us believe) was not true and stories of the “Trekkers” (people who lived in the cities who left their homes each night and went to the nearest safe woodland etc.) were heavily censored. Why were civilians targeted? The belief of the time was that their morale would crack and they would make the government surrender.
“In 1938 over 22 million Germans lived in 58 towns of over 100,000 inhabitants. If even half our bombs were dropped on…….these 58 towns the great majority of these inhabitants (about one third of the German population) would be turned out of house and home. Investigation seems to show that having one’s home demolished is most damaging to morale…….there seems little doubt that this would break the spirit of the people.”
Advice given to the British government in 1942 by Lord Cherwell, a senior scientific adviser.
Bombing raids could be so bad that firestorms could be created whereby the flames ‘ate’ up all the oxygen where the fire was and sucked in oxygen from the surrounding areas at such speeds that hurricanes were made which sucked in to them all living beings. Hamburg was one such place that suffered a firestorm in 1943 as did Dresden in February 1945.
“People jumped into the canals and waterways and remained swimming or standing up to their necks for hours until the heat died down. Even these suffered burns to the head. The firestorm swept over the water with its showers of sparks so that even thick wooden posts burned down to the level of the water. Children were torn away from their parents’ hands by the force of the hurricane and whirled into the fire.”
Written by Hamburg’s police chief in 1943.
“In spite of all that happened at Hamburg, bombing proved a comparatively humane method. For one thing, it saved the youth of this country and of our allies from being mown down by the military as it was in the war of 1914-1918.”
‘Bomber’ Harris writing in his memoirs in 1947.
The main issue was whether we targeted the correct targets. In 1944 Britain dropped thousands of tons of bombs on Germany – the highest annual figure of the war. Yet in that year Germany was producing more industrial and war goods than ever before. It was only in 1944 that Britain changed targets and bombed strategic targets such as railway lines, bridges, motorways etc. and Germany’s ability to make industrial goods was smashed. Even a report set up by the British in 1945 to assess the impact of bombing admitted that the impact of the bombing campaign on Germany’s war production had been “remarkably small”.
The nose cone of a Lancaster bomber
61 German cities were attacked by Bomber Command between 1939 and 1945 containing a combined population of 25 million inhabitants;
3.6 million homes were destroyed (20% of the total)
7.5 million people were made homeless
300,000 Germans are thought to have been killed as a result of the raids, and 800,000 were wounded.
Berlin was 70% destroyed by bombing; Dresden 75% destroyed.
BUT – were the wrong targets chosen?
From 1939 to 1943, German cities were targeted and attacked. The more America and Great Britain bombed German cities during these dates, the more weapons Germany produced in their factories.
In early 1944, strategic targets were attacked (rail heads, rail lines, bridges etc.) The destruction of such targets effectively paralysed Germany. In 1945, Germany had mined much coal but had no way of moving it from the mines to where it was needed. When the war ended, the Allies found several hundred King Tiger tanks at a Munich rail yard ready to be taken to the war front – but the Germans had no way of getting them there.
Did Bomber Command get a good return for the investment in men and planes during the bombing of Germany? There is no doubt that the casualty statistics for Bomber Command were very high. On some bombing missions over Germany, air crews might have a one in twenty chance of returning alive. The stress of flying a mission was such that recent research has found that many of those who survived bombing missions, became victims after the war ended. Failed marriages and alcoholism were not unusual for veterans of Bomber Command.
Added to this remains the controversy that the input Bomber Command had in the Second World War was never fully recognised by the government. The government’s lack of recognition of the part played by ‘Bomber’ Harris during the war, angered many Bomber Command veterans. Harris retired to South Africa after the war. Bomber Command was the only unit of the British war machine from 1939 to 1945 that did not receive a campaign medal.
- Air Marshall Arthur 'Bomber' Harris remains one of the most controversial military commanders of World War Two. Arthur Harris commanded Bomber Command and was a…
- Bomber Command moved to its new headquarters near High Wycombe early in 1940. Its commander-in-chief, Sir Edgar Ludlow-Hewitt, moved into a centre that had direct… | 1,364 | ENGLISH | 1 |
December 8 marked the anniversary of the death of architect James Hoban, the Irishman who won a national competition to be the architect who would design the president's mansion, the White House, in Washington DC.
As a boy, Hoban trained as a carpenter and wheelwright and from those beginnings gradually acquired the skills that enabled him to win that competition and design one of the most famous buildings in the world. Of course, seeing as the home of the President of the United States is based on Leinster House, the home of the Irish Parliament in Dublin, it seems obvious that it was an Irishman behind it.
Born in c. 1762, in Callan, County Kilkenny, Hoban was trained in the Neoclassical (Georgian in Britain and Ireland) style and worked in this design tradition throughout his architectural career. He immigrated to the United States just after the Revolutionary War and first settled in Philadelphia.
He moved onwards to South Carolina where he designed the old state capitol building at Columbia.
It was at George Washington’s suggestion that Hoban went to the federal capital in 1792 and submitted a plan for the presidential mansion in Washington DC. Hoban won the national competition and received the commission to build the White House. He was also awarded $500 and a lot in the District of Columbia.
The cornerstone of the famous house was laid in 1793, and work continued until 1801. Hoban also supervised the reconstruction of the building after it was burned by the British, led by Irishmen General Robert Ross, after they captured Washington during the War of 1812.
The design for the White House was generally influenced by Leinster House in Dublin and the main facade by plate 51 in James Gibbs’ Book of Architecture (London, 1728). Leinster House was constructed c. 1750 for the Duke of Leinster. Hoban greatly admired the structure and its designer Richard Cassels.
From 1793 to 1802 Hoban was one of the superintendents in charge of the erection of the Capitol, as designed by William Thornton. The Kilkenny man was also responsible for the design of the Grand Hotel (1793–95), the Little Hotel (1795), and his last federal commission, the State and War Offices (1818), all in Washington DC.
Many details of Hoban's life remain a mystery. During his lifetime he was not the legendary figure he has since become. His personal and business papers were mostly lost in a fire in the 1880s and survive only in scattered drawings, legal documents, and newspaper notices.
He died December 8, 1831.
* Originally published in 2017. | <urn:uuid:2e1cc46d-32ee-4fa3-b75f-1311b236191d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.irishcentral.com/roots/history/james-hoban-irishman-designed-the-white-house | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00012.warc.gz | en | 0.983338 | 551 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.6007665395736... | 3 | December 8 marked the anniversary of the death of architect James Hoban, the Irishman who won a national competition to be the architect who would design the president's mansion, the White House, in Washington DC.
As a boy, Hoban trained as a carpenter and wheelwright and from those beginnings gradually acquired the skills that enabled him to win that competition and design one of the most famous buildings in the world. Of course, seeing as the home of the President of the United States is based on Leinster House, the home of the Irish Parliament in Dublin, it seems obvious that it was an Irishman behind it.
Born in c. 1762, in Callan, County Kilkenny, Hoban was trained in the Neoclassical (Georgian in Britain and Ireland) style and worked in this design tradition throughout his architectural career. He immigrated to the United States just after the Revolutionary War and first settled in Philadelphia.
He moved onwards to South Carolina where he designed the old state capitol building at Columbia.
It was at George Washington’s suggestion that Hoban went to the federal capital in 1792 and submitted a plan for the presidential mansion in Washington DC. Hoban won the national competition and received the commission to build the White House. He was also awarded $500 and a lot in the District of Columbia.
The cornerstone of the famous house was laid in 1793, and work continued until 1801. Hoban also supervised the reconstruction of the building after it was burned by the British, led by Irishmen General Robert Ross, after they captured Washington during the War of 1812.
The design for the White House was generally influenced by Leinster House in Dublin and the main facade by plate 51 in James Gibbs’ Book of Architecture (London, 1728). Leinster House was constructed c. 1750 for the Duke of Leinster. Hoban greatly admired the structure and its designer Richard Cassels.
From 1793 to 1802 Hoban was one of the superintendents in charge of the erection of the Capitol, as designed by William Thornton. The Kilkenny man was also responsible for the design of the Grand Hotel (1793–95), the Little Hotel (1795), and his last federal commission, the State and War Offices (1818), all in Washington DC.
Many details of Hoban's life remain a mystery. During his lifetime he was not the legendary figure he has since become. His personal and business papers were mostly lost in a fire in the 1880s and survive only in scattered drawings, legal documents, and newspaper notices.
He died December 8, 1831.
* Originally published in 2017. | 590 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Over 60 years ago, Einstein's brain was stolen, preserved, dissected and sent in pieces across the country. Who was behind this theft for science you may ask?
Well, let's start the story with a focus on Albert Einstein. Einstein was a genius, but what made him so different from any other person?
Turns out his brain was wired in a very different way, some say.
Even though he was the Nobel Prize-winning physicist who gave the world the theory of relativity, E = mc2, and the law of the photoelectric effect, obviously he had a special brain.
So special that, when he died in Princeton Hospital on April 18, 1955, the pathologist on call, Thomas Harvey, stole it.
Einstein did not want his brain or any other part of his body to be studied; he did not want to be worshipped. "He had left behind specific instructions regarding his remains: cremate them, and scatter the ashes secretly in order to discourage idolaters," writes Brian Burrell in his 2005 book, Postcards from the Brain Museum.
Even with this note, Harvey took the brain anyway, without permission from Einstein or his family. Harvey soon lost his job at the Princeton hospital and took the brain to Philadelphia, where it was carved into 240 pieces and preserved in celloidin.
Einstein's brain has been on a bit of a journey, and there is still a lot of debate as to whether or not the late, famed intellect had a unique structure. You can see the story and the journey of Einstein's brain in the video below... | <urn:uuid:568b72cd-e018-4967-b14e-441ccee1ef3a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://geekerhertz.com/article/einsteins-brain-was-stolen-and-chopped-up | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00412.warc.gz | en | 0.987423 | 326 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.19591927528... | 3 | Over 60 years ago, Einstein's brain was stolen, preserved, dissected and sent in pieces across the country. Who was behind this theft for science you may ask?
Well, let's start the story with a focus on Albert Einstein. Einstein was a genius, but what made him so different from any other person?
Turns out his brain was wired in a very different way, some say.
Even though he was the Nobel Prize-winning physicist who gave the world the theory of relativity, E = mc2, and the law of the photoelectric effect, obviously he had a special brain.
So special that, when he died in Princeton Hospital on April 18, 1955, the pathologist on call, Thomas Harvey, stole it.
Einstein did not want his brain or any other part of his body to be studied; he did not want to be worshipped. "He had left behind specific instructions regarding his remains: cremate them, and scatter the ashes secretly in order to discourage idolaters," writes Brian Burrell in his 2005 book, Postcards from the Brain Museum.
Even with this note, Harvey took the brain anyway, without permission from Einstein or his family. Harvey soon lost his job at the Princeton hospital and took the brain to Philadelphia, where it was carved into 240 pieces and preserved in celloidin.
Einstein's brain has been on a bit of a journey, and there is still a lot of debate as to whether or not the late, famed intellect had a unique structure. You can see the story and the journey of Einstein's brain in the video below... | 337 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The “Frank Slide” was a tragic rock-slide that took place across the town of Frank, a town known for coal-mining. The town was in the Northwest of Alberta. The slide itself comprised 82 million metric tonnes of limestone, and nearly half a mile long, falling down from Turtle Mountain and into the “Crowsnest River” that was at the bottom of the mountain. Lasting a little longer than 90 seconds yet still killing about 90 people, the Frank Slide was one of Canada’s deadliest rock-slides.
The biggest question is, “What caused the slide?”. The answer is simply that the structure of Turtle mountain was very unstable because of thrust forces and gravity, and this tragedy would inevitably happen.
The “Frankie Slide” Myth
Shortly after the slide, a myth was created about a baby girl had survived the rock avalanche, but was inaccurate. The story itself is true in saying that there were several younger girls that survived, although the part of the story that mentions a baby girl being the sole survivor, was a tad far-fetched.
There were three girls who survived the rock-slide. Three-year-old Fernie Watkins, two-year-old Marion Leitch, and 15-month-old Gladys Ennis. The youngest of the three was found choking on mud and was saved by her parents. Stories began to spread that Gladys was called “Frankie Slide” and that she was the sole survivor of the rock-slide, which was as we now know, false. In fact, she alongside the two other girls were among the other twenty plus people who had survived the rock-slide and had become victims of the Frank Slide.
A future avalanche is inevitable, unfortunately. Scientists believe that as Turtle Mountain continues to move at a few millimetres every year, the unfortunate forces of gravity will eventually overpower the forces which are holding the mountain together and keeping the structure stable leading to yet another rock-slide. However, the same scientists do not believe that there will be a rock-slide on the same side of the mountain, but it will, in fact, be towards the south of the mountain.
Concluding the unfortunate incident, the damage the rock-slide consisted of many miners’ homes, farms, railway lines, factories and even the Frank cemetery caused that miners homes, farms, railway lines, factories and even the Frank cemetery. The slide left hundreds devastated and while many were unharmed by it, their homes destroyed and having to start again. A lot of those who lived in the town of Frank started lives elsewhere and the town lessened in population. | <urn:uuid:6ed0053a-438c-42ef-a4a0-abcd32a144a3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://tkmorin.wordpress.com/2016/03/06/the-frankie-slide-at-turtle-mountain/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00062.warc.gz | en | 0.985208 | 555 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.192980974912... | 3 | The “Frank Slide” was a tragic rock-slide that took place across the town of Frank, a town known for coal-mining. The town was in the Northwest of Alberta. The slide itself comprised 82 million metric tonnes of limestone, and nearly half a mile long, falling down from Turtle Mountain and into the “Crowsnest River” that was at the bottom of the mountain. Lasting a little longer than 90 seconds yet still killing about 90 people, the Frank Slide was one of Canada’s deadliest rock-slides.
The biggest question is, “What caused the slide?”. The answer is simply that the structure of Turtle mountain was very unstable because of thrust forces and gravity, and this tragedy would inevitably happen.
The “Frankie Slide” Myth
Shortly after the slide, a myth was created about a baby girl had survived the rock avalanche, but was inaccurate. The story itself is true in saying that there were several younger girls that survived, although the part of the story that mentions a baby girl being the sole survivor, was a tad far-fetched.
There were three girls who survived the rock-slide. Three-year-old Fernie Watkins, two-year-old Marion Leitch, and 15-month-old Gladys Ennis. The youngest of the three was found choking on mud and was saved by her parents. Stories began to spread that Gladys was called “Frankie Slide” and that she was the sole survivor of the rock-slide, which was as we now know, false. In fact, she alongside the two other girls were among the other twenty plus people who had survived the rock-slide and had become victims of the Frank Slide.
A future avalanche is inevitable, unfortunately. Scientists believe that as Turtle Mountain continues to move at a few millimetres every year, the unfortunate forces of gravity will eventually overpower the forces which are holding the mountain together and keeping the structure stable leading to yet another rock-slide. However, the same scientists do not believe that there will be a rock-slide on the same side of the mountain, but it will, in fact, be towards the south of the mountain.
Concluding the unfortunate incident, the damage the rock-slide consisted of many miners’ homes, farms, railway lines, factories and even the Frank cemetery caused that miners homes, farms, railway lines, factories and even the Frank cemetery. The slide left hundreds devastated and while many were unharmed by it, their homes destroyed and having to start again. A lot of those who lived in the town of Frank started lives elsewhere and the town lessened in population. | 522 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Bible was a key part of every British serviceman’s kit during World War One.
On the eve of Remembrance Sunday, when we mark the centenary of the end of World War One, it is important to remember the significance of the Bible to those who fought and died in the War, says Bible Society.
Every British serviceman was issued with his uniform, helmet, boots and a Bible. To commemorate this fact, Bible Society has produced a video which will celebrate the role of the Bible in soldiers’ lives during the Great War. This will be shown at churches across this country on Sunday (see link below).
The Bible was life-saving for many. George Vinall was at the Western Front when he came under enemy fire. His Bible took the brunt of the attach, absorbing the impact of a bullet.
That day, he wrote to his family, that the bullet had stopped at Isaiah 49.8,
‘which caught my eye directly I saw it, “I will preserve thee”. May this be true of future days until I see you all again, is my heartfelt prayer,’ he wrote.
George survived the war and his faith grew. He went on to work as a missionary.
Between 1914 and 1918 Bible Society distributed more than 9 million copies of Scripture in over 80 languages, to members of the British Armed Forces, but also to prisoners of war on all sides.
“The Bible played such a significant role in the lives of British servicemen during World War 1,’ said Rachel Rounds, Head of Media & Communication at Bible Society. ‘As we remember the fallen this weekend, we can also find comfort in the same words that they read at the Western Front.”
Not only were some soldiers’ lives saved by the Bible, which they often kept in their breast pockets. It also provided solace as they lay dying.
“Soldiers, when they were very badly wounded, had a tendency to produce the New Testament from their breast pocket and read it as they died,’ said Professor Michael Snape, from the Department of Theology at Durham University.
“This is a phenomenon that was recorded when soldiers who were killed on 1 July 1916 – the first day of the Battle of the Somme – were recovered and buried, many of them were found dead with the Bible, or New Testament in their hands.”
The grandson of George Vinall, Steve Vinall, explained why this might be:
“They were in circumstances that were often of their control and therefore they were in the hands of God.
“As we mark Remembrance Sunday this weekend, and remember the 65 million men who were mobilised across Europe, it is a moment to reflect on the importance that the Bible had in their lives, and that it still offers to us today,’ said Rachel Rounds. “
To read George’s letter in full, and to see the picture gallery and video, go to:
You can download the film HERE:
Before you go, we’ve noticed you’ve visited Keep The Faith a few times; we think that’s great! It’s regular support from readers, like you, that makes our work worthwhile. So, here’s a heartfelt thank you from our team.
Did you know, you can also support Keep The Faith with a gift of any size today?
Your gifts are so important to our future because we provide all our services for free and help those who are in need of God's Word. 100% of your gifts will be used to help us continue transforming lives and supporting UK and international Christian projects. | <urn:uuid:a444051d-1a53-4578-8efb-bc5704ae0216> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.keepthefaith.co.uk/2018/11/05/remembrance-sunday-offers-a-chance-to-reflect-on-the-importance-of-the-bible-to-british-servicemen-during-world-war-one/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00192.warc.gz | en | 0.98411 | 761 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.19660431146621... | 1 | The Bible was a key part of every British serviceman’s kit during World War One.
On the eve of Remembrance Sunday, when we mark the centenary of the end of World War One, it is important to remember the significance of the Bible to those who fought and died in the War, says Bible Society.
Every British serviceman was issued with his uniform, helmet, boots and a Bible. To commemorate this fact, Bible Society has produced a video which will celebrate the role of the Bible in soldiers’ lives during the Great War. This will be shown at churches across this country on Sunday (see link below).
The Bible was life-saving for many. George Vinall was at the Western Front when he came under enemy fire. His Bible took the brunt of the attach, absorbing the impact of a bullet.
That day, he wrote to his family, that the bullet had stopped at Isaiah 49.8,
‘which caught my eye directly I saw it, “I will preserve thee”. May this be true of future days until I see you all again, is my heartfelt prayer,’ he wrote.
George survived the war and his faith grew. He went on to work as a missionary.
Between 1914 and 1918 Bible Society distributed more than 9 million copies of Scripture in over 80 languages, to members of the British Armed Forces, but also to prisoners of war on all sides.
“The Bible played such a significant role in the lives of British servicemen during World War 1,’ said Rachel Rounds, Head of Media & Communication at Bible Society. ‘As we remember the fallen this weekend, we can also find comfort in the same words that they read at the Western Front.”
Not only were some soldiers’ lives saved by the Bible, which they often kept in their breast pockets. It also provided solace as they lay dying.
“Soldiers, when they were very badly wounded, had a tendency to produce the New Testament from their breast pocket and read it as they died,’ said Professor Michael Snape, from the Department of Theology at Durham University.
“This is a phenomenon that was recorded when soldiers who were killed on 1 July 1916 – the first day of the Battle of the Somme – were recovered and buried, many of them were found dead with the Bible, or New Testament in their hands.”
The grandson of George Vinall, Steve Vinall, explained why this might be:
“They were in circumstances that were often of their control and therefore they were in the hands of God.
“As we mark Remembrance Sunday this weekend, and remember the 65 million men who were mobilised across Europe, it is a moment to reflect on the importance that the Bible had in their lives, and that it still offers to us today,’ said Rachel Rounds. “
To read George’s letter in full, and to see the picture gallery and video, go to:
You can download the film HERE:
Before you go, we’ve noticed you’ve visited Keep The Faith a few times; we think that’s great! It’s regular support from readers, like you, that makes our work worthwhile. So, here’s a heartfelt thank you from our team.
Did you know, you can also support Keep The Faith with a gift of any size today?
Your gifts are so important to our future because we provide all our services for free and help those who are in need of God's Word. 100% of your gifts will be used to help us continue transforming lives and supporting UK and international Christian projects. | 724 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Slave trade played a huge role forming the modern world we live in. North America was developed almost entirely by slave labor and native exploitation. Slave trade was a practice accepted by society for many years, and there was no opposition. In 1852, a novel titled Uncle Tom's Cabin; or, Life Among the Lowly, was published; it was an anti-slavery novel by American author Harriet Beecher Stowe. Many adaptations to films and plays were developed, one of this was the television movie Uncle Tom’s Cabin(1987) directed by Stan Lathan and screenplay adapted by John Gay; the movie was filmed in Natchez, Mississippi, USA. Many people agree that the novel created grounds for anti-slavery movements around the world. Although the play was directed to the North American population, it had a huge worldwide success. Abolishing slave trade was just the beginning, but there was still much work to do, in order to completely abolish all aspects of slavery. A great justification is that maybe slavery was just "A necessary evil."
Harriet Beecher Stowe was born on June 14, 1811 in Litchfield, Connecticut. Although she was raised under a puritan formation, Stowe was believed to be a protestant; which played a great role throughout her life. After a life time of research and study, Harriet marries Calvin Stowe in 1835. The 1850’s law required turning in slaves, even in the “Free States”, this in turn inspires Harriet to write in what would become one of the most controversial book in time. In 1851 Uncle Tom’s Cabin is released; the book highly influenced the Civil War movement. Stowe’s work was translated to thirty two languages, and was adapted to theater plays until 1930. Beecher’s success is not so much directed to her literary abilities, rather than the hard times in which the book was published, at the time slavery abolition was on the spotlight. Harriet Beecher Stowe dies on June 1 1896.
Slavery has been around for many years, and has existed in many cultures. Prehistoric graves from about 8000 BC in Lower Egypt suggest that a Libyan people enslaved a San-like tribe. Slave trade as we know it took place from the 16th through to the 19th centuries, booming during the 18th century due to the sugar trade. Sugar trade was a huge profitable business for European countries. It was a huge commodity and was produced almost entirely by slave labor, an estimated six million enslaved African laborers worked in the sugar refineries. There was an earlier established trade route called the Atlantic slave trade, which had a triangular trade pattern. Almost twelve million individuals were traded as a result of the Atlantic slave trade.
Portugal and Spain began the trade in the early 1500’s; with the Dutch emergence in 1600, almost 33,000 slaves were traded between 1600 and 1650. British dominance came in 1650 when they traded almost 1.3 million slaves from 1550 to 1807, marking the start of British dominance in the world’s slave trade. Slaves were imported from... | <urn:uuid:37522e41-3b0d-4c0b-aaec-c532c65cf550> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/uncle-tom-s-cabin-33 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00544.warc.gz | en | 0.98979 | 648 | 4.0625 | 4 | [
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0.26160398125648... | 1 | Slave trade played a huge role forming the modern world we live in. North America was developed almost entirely by slave labor and native exploitation. Slave trade was a practice accepted by society for many years, and there was no opposition. In 1852, a novel titled Uncle Tom's Cabin; or, Life Among the Lowly, was published; it was an anti-slavery novel by American author Harriet Beecher Stowe. Many adaptations to films and plays were developed, one of this was the television movie Uncle Tom’s Cabin(1987) directed by Stan Lathan and screenplay adapted by John Gay; the movie was filmed in Natchez, Mississippi, USA. Many people agree that the novel created grounds for anti-slavery movements around the world. Although the play was directed to the North American population, it had a huge worldwide success. Abolishing slave trade was just the beginning, but there was still much work to do, in order to completely abolish all aspects of slavery. A great justification is that maybe slavery was just "A necessary evil."
Harriet Beecher Stowe was born on June 14, 1811 in Litchfield, Connecticut. Although she was raised under a puritan formation, Stowe was believed to be a protestant; which played a great role throughout her life. After a life time of research and study, Harriet marries Calvin Stowe in 1835. The 1850’s law required turning in slaves, even in the “Free States”, this in turn inspires Harriet to write in what would become one of the most controversial book in time. In 1851 Uncle Tom’s Cabin is released; the book highly influenced the Civil War movement. Stowe’s work was translated to thirty two languages, and was adapted to theater plays until 1930. Beecher’s success is not so much directed to her literary abilities, rather than the hard times in which the book was published, at the time slavery abolition was on the spotlight. Harriet Beecher Stowe dies on June 1 1896.
Slavery has been around for many years, and has existed in many cultures. Prehistoric graves from about 8000 BC in Lower Egypt suggest that a Libyan people enslaved a San-like tribe. Slave trade as we know it took place from the 16th through to the 19th centuries, booming during the 18th century due to the sugar trade. Sugar trade was a huge profitable business for European countries. It was a huge commodity and was produced almost entirely by slave labor, an estimated six million enslaved African laborers worked in the sugar refineries. There was an earlier established trade route called the Atlantic slave trade, which had a triangular trade pattern. Almost twelve million individuals were traded as a result of the Atlantic slave trade.
Portugal and Spain began the trade in the early 1500’s; with the Dutch emergence in 1600, almost 33,000 slaves were traded between 1600 and 1650. British dominance came in 1650 when they traded almost 1.3 million slaves from 1550 to 1807, marking the start of British dominance in the world’s slave trade. Slaves were imported from... | 691 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What would it have been like to be a scientist in the time of Shakespeare? Best seats at the Globe Theater and invitations to command performances alongside the King and Queen? Why not, if you are married to the daughter of the Queen's physician? Better yet if you have been appointed physician to the King himself. .
By all accounts, William Harvey led a charmed life. Harvey, oldest of seven children, was born in 1578 in Kent, England, around the middle of Queen Elizabeth the first's reign. He was a voracious student, earning his bachelor's degree in 1597 from Cambridge University. He continued his schooling at the University of Padua, the foremost medical school of the time, where he studied under the esteemed scientist and surgeon, Hieronymus Fabricius. Fabricius, an ardent anatomist, had observed the one-way valves in veins, but had not figured out exactly what their role was. The popular belief of the day held that blood was circulated by a sort of pulsing action of the arteries. .
Harvey returned to England in 1602 and married Elizabeth Browne, who was the daughter of one of the Queen's physicians. Harvey himself obtained a fellowship at the Royal College of Physicians. In 1618 he was appointed as a physician to the court of James I. .
His research into the circulatory system and his other lines of inquiry were generously sponsored and encouraged by James I's successor, King Charles I, to whom Harvey was later appointed personal physician. By studying animals given to him by his regal employer, Harvey eventually developed an accurate theory of how the heart and circulatory system operated. He published his theories in 1628 in his famous book "On the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals," which made him notorious throughout Europe. .
But William Harvey was not satisfied with being the foremost anatomist of his day. He was intrigued by everything about the body, and at some point turned his attention to reproduction. | <urn:uuid:558e95a8-59b6-4f18-8d69-ecbffa1550b8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/65444.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00031.warc.gz | en | 0.991783 | 401 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.14365661144... | 7 | What would it have been like to be a scientist in the time of Shakespeare? Best seats at the Globe Theater and invitations to command performances alongside the King and Queen? Why not, if you are married to the daughter of the Queen's physician? Better yet if you have been appointed physician to the King himself. .
By all accounts, William Harvey led a charmed life. Harvey, oldest of seven children, was born in 1578 in Kent, England, around the middle of Queen Elizabeth the first's reign. He was a voracious student, earning his bachelor's degree in 1597 from Cambridge University. He continued his schooling at the University of Padua, the foremost medical school of the time, where he studied under the esteemed scientist and surgeon, Hieronymus Fabricius. Fabricius, an ardent anatomist, had observed the one-way valves in veins, but had not figured out exactly what their role was. The popular belief of the day held that blood was circulated by a sort of pulsing action of the arteries. .
Harvey returned to England in 1602 and married Elizabeth Browne, who was the daughter of one of the Queen's physicians. Harvey himself obtained a fellowship at the Royal College of Physicians. In 1618 he was appointed as a physician to the court of James I. .
His research into the circulatory system and his other lines of inquiry were generously sponsored and encouraged by James I's successor, King Charles I, to whom Harvey was later appointed personal physician. By studying animals given to him by his regal employer, Harvey eventually developed an accurate theory of how the heart and circulatory system operated. He published his theories in 1628 in his famous book "On the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals," which made him notorious throughout Europe. .
But William Harvey was not satisfied with being the foremost anatomist of his day. He was intrigued by everything about the body, and at some point turned his attention to reproduction. | 410 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Grand Cross of the Iron Cross was a decoration intended for victorious generals of the Prussian Army and its allies. It was the highest (normally awarded) class of the Iron Cross. Along with the Iron Cross 1st and 2nd Class, the Grand Cross was founded on 10 March 1813, during the Napoleonic Wars. It was renewed in 1870 for the Franco-Prussian War and again in 1914 for World War I. In 1939, when Adolf Hitler renewed the Iron Cross as a German (rather than strictly Prussian) decoration, he also renewed the Grand Cross.
The Grand Cross of the Iron Cross was twice the size of the Iron Cross and was worn from a ribbon around the neck. The later Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross, instituted in 1939, was also worn from the neck; it was smaller than the Grand Cross but larger than the Iron Cross.
Five men received the 1813 Grand Cross of the Iron Cross for actions during the Napoleonic Wars:
The Iron Cross was renewed on 19 July 1870, for the Franco-Prussian War. Nine men received the 1870 Grand Cross of the Iron Cross for service during that war. Seven Grand Crosses were awarded on 22 March 1871, to:
Kaiser Wilhelm I received the Grand Cross on 16 June 1871, and Friedrich Franz II, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, received it on 4 December 1871. The Kaiser was supreme commander of the Prussian Army, and Moltke was Chief of the General Staff. The others were senior combat commanders of the Prussian Army (Crown Prince Albert initially commanded the Saxon Army as a corps under a Prussian field army, but later took command of a combined Prussian/Saxon field army).
The Iron Cross was renewed again on 5 August 1914. There were five recipients of the 1914 Grand Cross in the First World War:
The even higher decoration, the Star of the Grand Cross of the Iron Cross, was also re-instituted by Hitler, but never bestowed under Nazi authority and has not been awarded since. | <urn:uuid:d60a8bdf-044e-48cb-8363-c033ee033f70> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://everything.explained.today/Grand_Cross_of_the_Iron_Cross/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00146.warc.gz | en | 0.987092 | 427 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.01425762... | 1 | The Grand Cross of the Iron Cross was a decoration intended for victorious generals of the Prussian Army and its allies. It was the highest (normally awarded) class of the Iron Cross. Along with the Iron Cross 1st and 2nd Class, the Grand Cross was founded on 10 March 1813, during the Napoleonic Wars. It was renewed in 1870 for the Franco-Prussian War and again in 1914 for World War I. In 1939, when Adolf Hitler renewed the Iron Cross as a German (rather than strictly Prussian) decoration, he also renewed the Grand Cross.
The Grand Cross of the Iron Cross was twice the size of the Iron Cross and was worn from a ribbon around the neck. The later Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross, instituted in 1939, was also worn from the neck; it was smaller than the Grand Cross but larger than the Iron Cross.
Five men received the 1813 Grand Cross of the Iron Cross for actions during the Napoleonic Wars:
The Iron Cross was renewed on 19 July 1870, for the Franco-Prussian War. Nine men received the 1870 Grand Cross of the Iron Cross for service during that war. Seven Grand Crosses were awarded on 22 March 1871, to:
Kaiser Wilhelm I received the Grand Cross on 16 June 1871, and Friedrich Franz II, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, received it on 4 December 1871. The Kaiser was supreme commander of the Prussian Army, and Moltke was Chief of the General Staff. The others were senior combat commanders of the Prussian Army (Crown Prince Albert initially commanded the Saxon Army as a corps under a Prussian field army, but later took command of a combined Prussian/Saxon field army).
The Iron Cross was renewed again on 5 August 1914. There were five recipients of the 1914 Grand Cross in the First World War:
The even higher decoration, the Star of the Grand Cross of the Iron Cross, was also re-instituted by Hitler, but never bestowed under Nazi authority and has not been awarded since. | 477 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Mining at Karkarook Park, 1998. Courtesy Leader Collection.
The dunes, which ran along the perimeter of Port Phillip Bay from Cheltenham to Frankston and as far inland as Heatherton, Clayton and further east, have provided a resource for sand mining for over a hundred years. The various grades of sand found were used in the construction of major Melbourne buildings and in the manufacture of glass.
Frank McGuire wrote that one factor that facilitated the development of the sand mining in the area was the opening of the Caulfield to Frankston railway line in 1882 (The section to Mordialloc was formally opened the previous year). Several sidings were created along the line. The Wedge family had a railway siding located towards Frankston in 1890 from where sand was transported to Melbourne from their estate There were other railway sidings between Frankston and Mordialloc where mined sand was loaded for delivery to Melbourne. The Australian Glass Company used the Forsyth siding to transport sand they were mining from their property on the northern bank of the Patterson River. In 1934 the Construction Sand Ltd had sand pits in East Frankston with a 500 metre rail link to the main line.
Ken Smith recalled that when he was a young boy living in Cheltenham in the 1920s the heavily laden sand trains often needed assistance to conquer the steep gradient of the line between Mentone and Cheltenham. “Steam engines hauled fifteen to twenty trucks of sand daily to Melbourne in the afternoons about 4 o’clock. Often the engine failed to make the grade between Mentone and Cheltenham, the steepest section of the Frankston-Flinders Street railway line. Many, many times the engine failed to make the grade near Latrobe Street. In those days, the trains had a shunter or guard in a guard’s van at the end of each train. He would disconnect half the train allowing the engine to haul those trucks up the hill and back them into the siding on the western side of the station. The engine would then go back and haul the remainder of the train to the siding. Even then the trains crawled at a slow pace up the hill towards Bay Road. Electric trains came around 1923 and when the sand train stalled the electric train would gently help it up the hill. It would then be put in a siding to allow electric trains quicker access to Melbourne.”
It was the Crawfords who established a sand pit at Cheltenham in the 1920s in the area now known as Shipton Reserve at the rear of the Cheltenham Primary School. “They shovelled sand into drays for transport to the railway station at the goods rail siding located on the eastern side of the railway just north of Park Road. The horse-drawn carts had an extra horse to help the dray through the loose sandy track from the pit to Glebe Avenue where the golf links are today. The extra horse was left to return by itself. The drays wended their way down Glebe Avenue, Charman and Park roads to the siding where the sand was shovelled into trucks. Rather exhausting work, especially in the summer time. Crawfords attempted to have an extension of the goods line through the park to the pit, but failed. Eventually Crawfords sold out to a Mr Chevasse who continued operating the pit until the area was depleted of suitable sand.”
By the early 1930s sand was being mined at Clayton, Heatherton and other places in addition to Cheltenham and places beyond Mordialloc. The initial concern of the Moorabbin Shire council was not the disfigurement of the landscape or what to do with the hole created, but rather with the damage being done to roads by the heavy wagons and speeding trucks. Residents were also concerned about the dust that was created by the mining activity.
Four owners of properties mining sand in Clayton in 1934 agreed to pay sums of money to the council to repair the roads and offered metal screenings to facilitate the work. R Dingle, O Gilpin Ltd and V M Whitchurch each paid £12 10/ while Reynolds Bros Cartage Co with a much smaller business contributed £5.
By 1935 the council was becoming more concerned about the operation of the sand mining companies and consideration began to be given to constraining their operation within the municipality. The cartage of sand on some roads was prohibited for certain periods of time. For example, Old Dandenong Road, Heatherton, was closed for three months to the cartage of sand and portions of Bernard Street, Cheltenham, were closed to the same activity for six months. The by-laws committee of the council began deliberations on whether restrictions should be placed on owners and entrepreneurs wishing to mine sand from private property. The council had power under the Local Government Act 1928 regarding land use, to prescribe areas within the municipality as residential and prohibit those areas being used for industrial purposes, including the removal of sand. In addition, they could fix levels below which sand could not be removed for building or other purposes. The committee members realised the issue was controversial but decided to recommend to council that appropriate by-laws be formed and implemented to control sand mining in the municipality of Moorabbin.
At an October 1935 council meeting details of the proposed bylaw were examined. It was suggested that a pre-eminent requirement of anyone wishing to remove sand was the gaining of a licence. The fee suggested was one penny for every cubic foot of sand to be removed, and in addition, a deposit of one shilling per cubic yard was to be paid in advance of removal as a safeguard to a proprietor leaving the property in an unsatisfactory condition or walking away from his obligations once the sand had been removed. The deposit money was to be placed in trust and used to restore the land to a suitable condition. Should there be any money remaining it was to be returned to the licensee, but if more money was required this would be the responsibility of the licensee.
Not all councillors were in favour of pressing ahead with the by-law. Cr Wishart wanted the matter deferred until the question of charges was discussed with the pit owners as through discussion, he believed, a solution could be found that was acceptable to the council, owners and ratepayers. Cr Bevers wanted the proposal to ‘lie on the table’ for further consideration but the Mayor (Cr George) argued that any further delay was dangerous and as a great deal of time had already been spent by the committee framing the regulations it was time for the matter to proceed. Finally it was resolved to form a committee of four councillors to confer with four representatives of the Sandpits Proprietors’ Association and to hold a conference in the municipal buildings with the interested parties.
A W Adams, a sandpit owner of Cavanagh Street, Cheltenham aware of the actions of the council, and the recently formed progress association’s antagonistic attitude to pits, wrote to the editor of the Moorabbin News expressing the view that sand pits were not an unnecessary evil forced upon ratepayers as portrayed by some, but rather a new essential industry opening up avenues of employment in the municipality. Land that had been relatively worthless and never been productive was bringing families into the district because of employment opportunities in the pits and these families in turn were spending money with local trades people, thus boosting the general prosperity of the district. Additional transport was needed to shift the sand and the trucks purchased needed to be serviced at local garages, once again enhancing employment opportunities. These factors Adams saw as evidence that the pits justified their existence.
Adams’ views were challenged by C J Hoffman of the Cheltenham Progress Association, in a following edition of the Moorabbin News. He bemoaned the presence of uncontrolled conditions, which he believed made the pits an “unnecessary evil” and called the industry a nuisance and a menace to the district as a whole. Hoffman believed the pit owners were arguing for a control-free industry and posed the rhetorical question, “If a man has sand on his property why should he not remove it?” and then went on to answer it by drawing parallels to a person wishing to build a fowl house or keep pigs. They needed council approval so why not pit owners?
At the meeting of the pit owners’ association, held with the council on December 4, it was admitted that while fifty per cent of the association’s members agreed to some form of control there was no guarantee that the remainder would fall into line. They believed they had certain rights which they were not prepared to surrender. After taking into consideration the replacing of over-burden, the profit margin was small so the association asked the council not to charge a licence fee or to introduce by-laws regulating the removal of sand from private property. However, Mr Brough, from the association, indicated that the majority of members were prepared to pay a nominal annual registration fee and that owners operating below road level should deposit a reasonable sum of money as a guarantee of good faith that the land would be satisfactorily drained. However, Mr Coulter of Moorabbin Sand Pty Ltd had legal advice suggesting the council had no power to charge a fee for a licence to operate a sand pit, arguing that the removal of sand does not come within the interpretation of the words “quarrying operations.”
Residents and organizations continued to complain about the sand pits. A H Sutherland of Clarinda objected to the establishment of sand pits on land in Stuart Road. The valuation of his land, he claimed, had depreciated to such an extent that he was unable to sell. The Victoria Golf Club protested against the council’s action in permitting the cartage of sand on Park Road, Cheltenham and the committee of management of the Heatherton Sanatorium urged the Council to prohibit the creation of any further pits as the dust caused by the present operations was seriously affecting the health of its patients. A resident, Mr Brown, went so far as to accuse the council of corruption in a very abusive letter which on the motion of Cr Allnutt was ‘not received’ and placed in the waste paper basket. Another correspondent offered to provide board and lodging free for one month to any member of the council who would live on Clayton Road given its deplorable condition resulting from the cartage of sand. The writer signed himself/herself, “Sprained Ankle.”
Luke O’Brien and Ryan Mahony with local residents protesting against proposal to sell streets for sand mining, 1995. Courtesy Leader Collection.
By July 1936, and after months of discussion, the council finally passed a by-law related to the removal of rock, stone, gravel, clay and sand from residential areas. A licence was essential and would be issued in appropriate cases on the payment of a fee of £5 5/- where the area involved was less than one acre. Larger areas would attract a higher fee. Licences could be refused. Drainage levels were to be fixed by council and guarantees had to be given by proprietors to fill the excavations within a specified time. By September the Public Works Department indicated the bylaw had been approved.
Several pit owners immediately applied for licences. T G Johnson of Bernard Street, Cheltenham; Hartnett Bros of Keys Road, Moorabbin; and S Cuddigan of Avoca Street, Highett, were granted work permits for a two year period while applications from M Adams on the corner of Argus and Cavanagh Streets; C Williams, Wickham Road and A W Smith of Heather Grove, Cheltenham, were deferred to allow ward councillors to inspect them. S F Lancaster pleaded that the regulations did not apply to his pit in Crawford Street, Cheltenham because its operation commenced prior to January 4, 1911. The council recognised his claim.
Plan for sand mining at Heather Grove, Cheltenham 1937. Courtesy Ken Smith.
By November 1937 council was becoming impatient with pit owners who were operating without a licence, or were working portions of their property which were not included in the licence, or were failing to honour agreements on filling and restoration. Mr Chevasse’s request to operate a sand pit in Tulip Grove was refused because of earlier failings. The application of E Nelson and Co Pty to remove sand from their property in Heatherton Road and to install a small washing plant on the land lapsed from lack of support in council. Cr Sheppard, in stating that he was against granting any more licences, pointed out that the holes in the workings will never be filled up and the land will become absolutely worthless as it would be too flat and low to build upon.
In 1941 the Moorabbin Council received applications from four property owners for authorization to excavate 178 acres of land. These four owners were confident of success as the council had earlier given approval to A E Hocking to work 40 acres in Old Dandenong Road. J McGrath, the managing director of McGrath Sand and Stone Co Pty Ltd, congratulated the council on its change of attitude to the sand business and informed the councillors his company had “taken no time in acquiring new properties knowing full well that you are a body of fair-minded men and will treat all applications in the same fashion.” McGrath applied to excavate eight acres on the corner of Keys and Moorabbin roads which he planned to fill with municipal garbage where sludge was unsuitable. He estimated it would take ten years to complete the operation. At the same time as making this application McGrath also applied for a permit for thirty six acres adjoining the eight acres, and another one hundred acres in Kingston Road opposite the Kingston Heath Golf Links.
Despite McGrath’s expectations the council refused his application. Cr Caldwell expressed surprise of the extent to which the municipality was being dug about, mutilated and scarred. In speaking against the application of T M Mardling to remove sand from thirty four acres in Carroll Road, Clarinda, Cr George said the Moorabbin Ward was looking like a battlefield and despite assurances that the pits will be filled in, he thought they would always exist. “We get very vague promises and the Ward is becoming an eye-sore, not a thing of beauty.”
Sand pits and market gardens in Moorabbin District, c2000.
The problems associated with sand mining did not disappear in the late 40s and early 50s although the frequency with which they were reported in local newspapers significantly reduced. Other more pressing issues in the eyes of the residents and ratepayers emerged. A large number of young families were moving into the municipality to set up their homes in situations where sewerage did not exist and where reticulated water was not always available. Access to homes was severely restricted as roads were often quagmires in winter and sand traps in summer. Kindergartens and baby health centres were few in number. Given these circumstances, the attention of the councillors changed and the heat in the sand mining debate diminished for a time only to re-emerge later with a change of focus. The early nineties saw debate once again on sand mining but now it related to mining public land, the rehabilitation of old quarry sites and the establishment of a chain of parks. This is a continuing, but another, story.
© 2020 Kingston Local History | Website by Weave
City of Kingston acknowledges the Kulin Nation as the custodians of the land on which the municipality is a part and pays respect to their Elders, past and present. Council is a member of the Inter Council Aboriginal Consultative Committee (ICACC). | <urn:uuid:08daa7d0-f10a-4875-b39c-edf7e22af376> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://localhistory.kingston.vic.gov.au/articles/294 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00086.warc.gz | en | 0.980364 | 3,234 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.211807161569595... | 5 | Mining at Karkarook Park, 1998. Courtesy Leader Collection.
The dunes, which ran along the perimeter of Port Phillip Bay from Cheltenham to Frankston and as far inland as Heatherton, Clayton and further east, have provided a resource for sand mining for over a hundred years. The various grades of sand found were used in the construction of major Melbourne buildings and in the manufacture of glass.
Frank McGuire wrote that one factor that facilitated the development of the sand mining in the area was the opening of the Caulfield to Frankston railway line in 1882 (The section to Mordialloc was formally opened the previous year). Several sidings were created along the line. The Wedge family had a railway siding located towards Frankston in 1890 from where sand was transported to Melbourne from their estate There were other railway sidings between Frankston and Mordialloc where mined sand was loaded for delivery to Melbourne. The Australian Glass Company used the Forsyth siding to transport sand they were mining from their property on the northern bank of the Patterson River. In 1934 the Construction Sand Ltd had sand pits in East Frankston with a 500 metre rail link to the main line.
Ken Smith recalled that when he was a young boy living in Cheltenham in the 1920s the heavily laden sand trains often needed assistance to conquer the steep gradient of the line between Mentone and Cheltenham. “Steam engines hauled fifteen to twenty trucks of sand daily to Melbourne in the afternoons about 4 o’clock. Often the engine failed to make the grade between Mentone and Cheltenham, the steepest section of the Frankston-Flinders Street railway line. Many, many times the engine failed to make the grade near Latrobe Street. In those days, the trains had a shunter or guard in a guard’s van at the end of each train. He would disconnect half the train allowing the engine to haul those trucks up the hill and back them into the siding on the western side of the station. The engine would then go back and haul the remainder of the train to the siding. Even then the trains crawled at a slow pace up the hill towards Bay Road. Electric trains came around 1923 and when the sand train stalled the electric train would gently help it up the hill. It would then be put in a siding to allow electric trains quicker access to Melbourne.”
It was the Crawfords who established a sand pit at Cheltenham in the 1920s in the area now known as Shipton Reserve at the rear of the Cheltenham Primary School. “They shovelled sand into drays for transport to the railway station at the goods rail siding located on the eastern side of the railway just north of Park Road. The horse-drawn carts had an extra horse to help the dray through the loose sandy track from the pit to Glebe Avenue where the golf links are today. The extra horse was left to return by itself. The drays wended their way down Glebe Avenue, Charman and Park roads to the siding where the sand was shovelled into trucks. Rather exhausting work, especially in the summer time. Crawfords attempted to have an extension of the goods line through the park to the pit, but failed. Eventually Crawfords sold out to a Mr Chevasse who continued operating the pit until the area was depleted of suitable sand.”
By the early 1930s sand was being mined at Clayton, Heatherton and other places in addition to Cheltenham and places beyond Mordialloc. The initial concern of the Moorabbin Shire council was not the disfigurement of the landscape or what to do with the hole created, but rather with the damage being done to roads by the heavy wagons and speeding trucks. Residents were also concerned about the dust that was created by the mining activity.
Four owners of properties mining sand in Clayton in 1934 agreed to pay sums of money to the council to repair the roads and offered metal screenings to facilitate the work. R Dingle, O Gilpin Ltd and V M Whitchurch each paid £12 10/ while Reynolds Bros Cartage Co with a much smaller business contributed £5.
By 1935 the council was becoming more concerned about the operation of the sand mining companies and consideration began to be given to constraining their operation within the municipality. The cartage of sand on some roads was prohibited for certain periods of time. For example, Old Dandenong Road, Heatherton, was closed for three months to the cartage of sand and portions of Bernard Street, Cheltenham, were closed to the same activity for six months. The by-laws committee of the council began deliberations on whether restrictions should be placed on owners and entrepreneurs wishing to mine sand from private property. The council had power under the Local Government Act 1928 regarding land use, to prescribe areas within the municipality as residential and prohibit those areas being used for industrial purposes, including the removal of sand. In addition, they could fix levels below which sand could not be removed for building or other purposes. The committee members realised the issue was controversial but decided to recommend to council that appropriate by-laws be formed and implemented to control sand mining in the municipality of Moorabbin.
At an October 1935 council meeting details of the proposed bylaw were examined. It was suggested that a pre-eminent requirement of anyone wishing to remove sand was the gaining of a licence. The fee suggested was one penny for every cubic foot of sand to be removed, and in addition, a deposit of one shilling per cubic yard was to be paid in advance of removal as a safeguard to a proprietor leaving the property in an unsatisfactory condition or walking away from his obligations once the sand had been removed. The deposit money was to be placed in trust and used to restore the land to a suitable condition. Should there be any money remaining it was to be returned to the licensee, but if more money was required this would be the responsibility of the licensee.
Not all councillors were in favour of pressing ahead with the by-law. Cr Wishart wanted the matter deferred until the question of charges was discussed with the pit owners as through discussion, he believed, a solution could be found that was acceptable to the council, owners and ratepayers. Cr Bevers wanted the proposal to ‘lie on the table’ for further consideration but the Mayor (Cr George) argued that any further delay was dangerous and as a great deal of time had already been spent by the committee framing the regulations it was time for the matter to proceed. Finally it was resolved to form a committee of four councillors to confer with four representatives of the Sandpits Proprietors’ Association and to hold a conference in the municipal buildings with the interested parties.
A W Adams, a sandpit owner of Cavanagh Street, Cheltenham aware of the actions of the council, and the recently formed progress association’s antagonistic attitude to pits, wrote to the editor of the Moorabbin News expressing the view that sand pits were not an unnecessary evil forced upon ratepayers as portrayed by some, but rather a new essential industry opening up avenues of employment in the municipality. Land that had been relatively worthless and never been productive was bringing families into the district because of employment opportunities in the pits and these families in turn were spending money with local trades people, thus boosting the general prosperity of the district. Additional transport was needed to shift the sand and the trucks purchased needed to be serviced at local garages, once again enhancing employment opportunities. These factors Adams saw as evidence that the pits justified their existence.
Adams’ views were challenged by C J Hoffman of the Cheltenham Progress Association, in a following edition of the Moorabbin News. He bemoaned the presence of uncontrolled conditions, which he believed made the pits an “unnecessary evil” and called the industry a nuisance and a menace to the district as a whole. Hoffman believed the pit owners were arguing for a control-free industry and posed the rhetorical question, “If a man has sand on his property why should he not remove it?” and then went on to answer it by drawing parallels to a person wishing to build a fowl house or keep pigs. They needed council approval so why not pit owners?
At the meeting of the pit owners’ association, held with the council on December 4, it was admitted that while fifty per cent of the association’s members agreed to some form of control there was no guarantee that the remainder would fall into line. They believed they had certain rights which they were not prepared to surrender. After taking into consideration the replacing of over-burden, the profit margin was small so the association asked the council not to charge a licence fee or to introduce by-laws regulating the removal of sand from private property. However, Mr Brough, from the association, indicated that the majority of members were prepared to pay a nominal annual registration fee and that owners operating below road level should deposit a reasonable sum of money as a guarantee of good faith that the land would be satisfactorily drained. However, Mr Coulter of Moorabbin Sand Pty Ltd had legal advice suggesting the council had no power to charge a fee for a licence to operate a sand pit, arguing that the removal of sand does not come within the interpretation of the words “quarrying operations.”
Residents and organizations continued to complain about the sand pits. A H Sutherland of Clarinda objected to the establishment of sand pits on land in Stuart Road. The valuation of his land, he claimed, had depreciated to such an extent that he was unable to sell. The Victoria Golf Club protested against the council’s action in permitting the cartage of sand on Park Road, Cheltenham and the committee of management of the Heatherton Sanatorium urged the Council to prohibit the creation of any further pits as the dust caused by the present operations was seriously affecting the health of its patients. A resident, Mr Brown, went so far as to accuse the council of corruption in a very abusive letter which on the motion of Cr Allnutt was ‘not received’ and placed in the waste paper basket. Another correspondent offered to provide board and lodging free for one month to any member of the council who would live on Clayton Road given its deplorable condition resulting from the cartage of sand. The writer signed himself/herself, “Sprained Ankle.”
Luke O’Brien and Ryan Mahony with local residents protesting against proposal to sell streets for sand mining, 1995. Courtesy Leader Collection.
By July 1936, and after months of discussion, the council finally passed a by-law related to the removal of rock, stone, gravel, clay and sand from residential areas. A licence was essential and would be issued in appropriate cases on the payment of a fee of £5 5/- where the area involved was less than one acre. Larger areas would attract a higher fee. Licences could be refused. Drainage levels were to be fixed by council and guarantees had to be given by proprietors to fill the excavations within a specified time. By September the Public Works Department indicated the bylaw had been approved.
Several pit owners immediately applied for licences. T G Johnson of Bernard Street, Cheltenham; Hartnett Bros of Keys Road, Moorabbin; and S Cuddigan of Avoca Street, Highett, were granted work permits for a two year period while applications from M Adams on the corner of Argus and Cavanagh Streets; C Williams, Wickham Road and A W Smith of Heather Grove, Cheltenham, were deferred to allow ward councillors to inspect them. S F Lancaster pleaded that the regulations did not apply to his pit in Crawford Street, Cheltenham because its operation commenced prior to January 4, 1911. The council recognised his claim.
Plan for sand mining at Heather Grove, Cheltenham 1937. Courtesy Ken Smith.
By November 1937 council was becoming impatient with pit owners who were operating without a licence, or were working portions of their property which were not included in the licence, or were failing to honour agreements on filling and restoration. Mr Chevasse’s request to operate a sand pit in Tulip Grove was refused because of earlier failings. The application of E Nelson and Co Pty to remove sand from their property in Heatherton Road and to install a small washing plant on the land lapsed from lack of support in council. Cr Sheppard, in stating that he was against granting any more licences, pointed out that the holes in the workings will never be filled up and the land will become absolutely worthless as it would be too flat and low to build upon.
In 1941 the Moorabbin Council received applications from four property owners for authorization to excavate 178 acres of land. These four owners were confident of success as the council had earlier given approval to A E Hocking to work 40 acres in Old Dandenong Road. J McGrath, the managing director of McGrath Sand and Stone Co Pty Ltd, congratulated the council on its change of attitude to the sand business and informed the councillors his company had “taken no time in acquiring new properties knowing full well that you are a body of fair-minded men and will treat all applications in the same fashion.” McGrath applied to excavate eight acres on the corner of Keys and Moorabbin roads which he planned to fill with municipal garbage where sludge was unsuitable. He estimated it would take ten years to complete the operation. At the same time as making this application McGrath also applied for a permit for thirty six acres adjoining the eight acres, and another one hundred acres in Kingston Road opposite the Kingston Heath Golf Links.
Despite McGrath’s expectations the council refused his application. Cr Caldwell expressed surprise of the extent to which the municipality was being dug about, mutilated and scarred. In speaking against the application of T M Mardling to remove sand from thirty four acres in Carroll Road, Clarinda, Cr George said the Moorabbin Ward was looking like a battlefield and despite assurances that the pits will be filled in, he thought they would always exist. “We get very vague promises and the Ward is becoming an eye-sore, not a thing of beauty.”
Sand pits and market gardens in Moorabbin District, c2000.
The problems associated with sand mining did not disappear in the late 40s and early 50s although the frequency with which they were reported in local newspapers significantly reduced. Other more pressing issues in the eyes of the residents and ratepayers emerged. A large number of young families were moving into the municipality to set up their homes in situations where sewerage did not exist and where reticulated water was not always available. Access to homes was severely restricted as roads were often quagmires in winter and sand traps in summer. Kindergartens and baby health centres were few in number. Given these circumstances, the attention of the councillors changed and the heat in the sand mining debate diminished for a time only to re-emerge later with a change of focus. The early nineties saw debate once again on sand mining but now it related to mining public land, the rehabilitation of old quarry sites and the establishment of a chain of parks. This is a continuing, but another, story.
© 2020 Kingston Local History | Website by Weave
City of Kingston acknowledges the Kulin Nation as the custodians of the land on which the municipality is a part and pays respect to their Elders, past and present. Council is a member of the Inter Council Aboriginal Consultative Committee (ICACC). | 3,266 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During history, major civilizations have endured through a system of social, political, religious, and economic laws and traditions. Most of these laws and traditions were set up as guidelines for moral behavior, family life, education, government, and business. These basic principles were set forth by an early civilization known as the Babylonians. There are many aspects of modern day society which have their basis in the laws and teachings of Hammurabi. Hammurabi ruled Babylon from approximately 1792 to 1750 B.C. He published a list of 300 laws, which became known as the “Code” of Hammurabi. Hammurabi’s Code described laws and traditions that were established from earlier civilizations. Much of Hammurabi’s Code came from Mesopotamian culture which was developed many years earlier. Many of the laws of Moses were based on Hammurabi’s Code too, and on civilizations that came after Moses himself. Because little was really known about Hammurabi, his life became a symbol of the traditions and values of its civilizations.
The most famous aspect of the Code is its dependence on laws of vengeance. Hammurabi’s law stated that “If a man has put out the eye of a free man, they shall put out his eye" ("eye for an eye"). Similarly, the Hebrew laws summarize Hammurabi when they stated that if someone harms another, “then you shall give life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, burn for burn, wound for wound, and strike for strike.” Other things include punishments for lying, forcing people to become slaves as payment for debts, and laws regarding marriage. Marital laws were important because they ensured the production of children and how property would be divided in case of divorce or death. The society also had a strong penalty for adultery.
The Babylonian people had a complex system of irrigation canals that went from one land to another. If a man allowed the canal on his land to break, the water wo | <urn:uuid:9b7fb247-c24f-4d7a-8097-2702488ddf4f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/code-of-hammurabi/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00204.warc.gz | en | 0.98733 | 418 | 4.15625 | 4 | [
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0.00058878079... | 1 | During history, major civilizations have endured through a system of social, political, religious, and economic laws and traditions. Most of these laws and traditions were set up as guidelines for moral behavior, family life, education, government, and business. These basic principles were set forth by an early civilization known as the Babylonians. There are many aspects of modern day society which have their basis in the laws and teachings of Hammurabi. Hammurabi ruled Babylon from approximately 1792 to 1750 B.C. He published a list of 300 laws, which became known as the “Code” of Hammurabi. Hammurabi’s Code described laws and traditions that were established from earlier civilizations. Much of Hammurabi’s Code came from Mesopotamian culture which was developed many years earlier. Many of the laws of Moses were based on Hammurabi’s Code too, and on civilizations that came after Moses himself. Because little was really known about Hammurabi, his life became a symbol of the traditions and values of its civilizations.
The most famous aspect of the Code is its dependence on laws of vengeance. Hammurabi’s law stated that “If a man has put out the eye of a free man, they shall put out his eye" ("eye for an eye"). Similarly, the Hebrew laws summarize Hammurabi when they stated that if someone harms another, “then you shall give life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, burn for burn, wound for wound, and strike for strike.” Other things include punishments for lying, forcing people to become slaves as payment for debts, and laws regarding marriage. Marital laws were important because they ensured the production of children and how property would be divided in case of divorce or death. The society also had a strong penalty for adultery.
The Babylonian people had a complex system of irrigation canals that went from one land to another. If a man allowed the canal on his land to break, the water wo | 410 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A little more than a century after the Klondike Gold Rush, an incredible discovery was made in far northwestern British Columbia. In 1999 three men who were hunting sheep came across human remains melting out of a glacier. CAFN, which co-manages Tatshenshini-Alsek Park where the find was made, played an active role in the recovery of the remains and subsequent scientific studies. The CAFN people did this both to learn about the long-ago person and to ensure that First Nations' cultural values were honoured. The find, named
, which in Southern Tutchone means "long-ago person found", was identified as a young native man and dated to about 500 years old. The discovery on the glacier was not unexpected given that several traditional trails between the coast and the interior were known to have crossed glaciers. Following studies to determine his cause of death and what people he possibly belonged to, the long-ago person was cremated and his remains returned to the park. His story illustrates the history of this rugged country – of connections between the coast and the interior, and of living in and traveling through a dynamic, challenging landscape. | <urn:uuid:438c9821-0db2-48f5-8f9a-611ad7e732dd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://royalbcmuseum.bc.ca/exhibits/journeys/english/mountain_2_2d.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00253.warc.gz | en | 0.985939 | 234 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.36704161763191223... | 5 | A little more than a century after the Klondike Gold Rush, an incredible discovery was made in far northwestern British Columbia. In 1999 three men who were hunting sheep came across human remains melting out of a glacier. CAFN, which co-manages Tatshenshini-Alsek Park where the find was made, played an active role in the recovery of the remains and subsequent scientific studies. The CAFN people did this both to learn about the long-ago person and to ensure that First Nations' cultural values were honoured. The find, named
, which in Southern Tutchone means "long-ago person found", was identified as a young native man and dated to about 500 years old. The discovery on the glacier was not unexpected given that several traditional trails between the coast and the interior were known to have crossed glaciers. Following studies to determine his cause of death and what people he possibly belonged to, the long-ago person was cremated and his remains returned to the park. His story illustrates the history of this rugged country – of connections between the coast and the interior, and of living in and traveling through a dynamic, challenging landscape. | 241 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Of all the resistance organizations that operated during the war, about which much has been written, one stands out for its transnational character, the diversity of the tasks its members took on, and the fact that, unlike many of the known evasion lines, it was not directed by Allied officers, but rather by a group of ordinary citizens. Between 1942 and 1945, they formed a network to smuggle Dutch Jews and others targeted by the Nazis south into France, via Paris, and then to Switzerland. This network became known as the Dutch-Paris Escape Line, eventually growing to include 300 people and expanding its reach into Spain. Led by Jean Weidner, a Dutchman living in France, many lacked any experience in clandestine operations or military tactics, and yet they became one of the most effective resistance groups of the Second World War. Dutch-Paris largely improvised its operations-scrounging for food on the black market, forging documents, and raising cash. Hunted relentlessly by the Nazis, some were even captured and tortured. In addition to Jews, those it helped escape the clutches of the Nazis included resistance fighters, political foes, Allied airmen, and young men looking to get to London to enlist. As the need grew more desperate, so did the bravery of those who rose to meet it.
Megan Koreman was formerly Associate Professor of History at Texas Tech University. She has spent a decade researching and writing about the Dutch-Paris escape line. | <urn:uuid:db7109b1-ce1d-4e00-9cc3-527e15a666ef> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://simplyaudiobooks.com/audio-books/The+Escape+Line%3A+How+the+Ordinary+Heroes+of+Dutch-Paris+Resisted+the+Nazi+Occupation+of+Western+Europe/362529/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00155.warc.gz | en | 0.983898 | 294 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.186014443635... | 2 | Of all the resistance organizations that operated during the war, about which much has been written, one stands out for its transnational character, the diversity of the tasks its members took on, and the fact that, unlike many of the known evasion lines, it was not directed by Allied officers, but rather by a group of ordinary citizens. Between 1942 and 1945, they formed a network to smuggle Dutch Jews and others targeted by the Nazis south into France, via Paris, and then to Switzerland. This network became known as the Dutch-Paris Escape Line, eventually growing to include 300 people and expanding its reach into Spain. Led by Jean Weidner, a Dutchman living in France, many lacked any experience in clandestine operations or military tactics, and yet they became one of the most effective resistance groups of the Second World War. Dutch-Paris largely improvised its operations-scrounging for food on the black market, forging documents, and raising cash. Hunted relentlessly by the Nazis, some were even captured and tortured. In addition to Jews, those it helped escape the clutches of the Nazis included resistance fighters, political foes, Allied airmen, and young men looking to get to London to enlist. As the need grew more desperate, so did the bravery of those who rose to meet it.
Megan Koreman was formerly Associate Professor of History at Texas Tech University. She has spent a decade researching and writing about the Dutch-Paris escape line. | 305 | ENGLISH | 1 |
7 October 2012
The Early Life of an African American Revolutionist
Jim Truman was born a free African American in Essex County, New York on December 17, 1808. His father George Truman, former slave from Virginia, fell in love with Catherine Griffin. Catherine was a free African American from New York, who offered George a place tostay when he got to New York on February 1808. George was about 34 years old while Catherine was 24. George was born a slave on a tobacco plantation in Virginia; when he was 33 he purchased his liberty and moved to Essex County. Within a year he and Catherin fell in love and had their first son, Jim. They got officially married on August 1809, when the state of New York started recognizingmarriage within the African American community (The Black Past).
One year later, George decided that they were moving to New York City. With a growing population of 96,373 people, 94,687 of whom were free, and 1,686 of whom were enslaved; New York City became the largest city of the United States (New York City in 1810: Limitless Growth Ahead). With its population growing every day, New York City openednumerous job opportunities to George. He first got a temporary job at a supermarket carrying bags for the costumers. It was a low wage job; however he earned enough to provide for his family. Not much time after, George started working at the steam-powered ferry service between New York City and Hoboken, NJ which began on October 11, 1811. He was earning a fair wage, and providing more thanenough for his family. At that time you could have considered the Truman family as one of the few middle class African American families. Even though things were going great something bad was about to happen, the War of 1812.
Jim was about four years old when George, his dad, was force to join one of the two African American regimens formed to fight in the War of 1812. It was the last time Jim sawhis father. At the time he did not understand why his mother was so sad and frightened. He did not understand what was going on, but there was one thing Jim would always remember, what his father told him just before leaving: “Son, remember that you are free and nobody can take that from you”. That day it did not make much sense for Jim, but as the years passed he began to understand what his dadtold him that day.
Since his father was no longer with them, Catherine started searching for jobs opportunities. Catherine as most women at that time, found a job making bandages, and taking care of wounded and sick sailors (G. Hicks, C .Hicks). Jim struggled every day, and was somewhat frustrated. Since his father was gone, as soon as he turned eight years old, he started working to help supporthis mother. He wanted to receive an education; however, they could not afford it and he had to work to be able to eat. He started worked with a man named Thomas Jennings. Thomas had a dry cleaning business, and Jim worked washing clothes. Jim worked with him for several years. In 1821, Thomas became the first African American to receive a patent in the United States History. Thomas Jennings'patent was for a dry-cleaning process called "dry scouring"(African-American Inventors).
Catherine, Jims’ mother, was getting old and sick. Jim, aware of that, wanted to do something special for his mother birthday. He started saving money. On 1823 he purchased two tickets for “The Drama of King Shotaway” play at the African Grove Theater, the first black acting company founded in New York City.The Drama of King Shotaway was the first play written by an African American, William Henry Brown, which made Jim thought that it would be even nicer to attend such a historical event (Mapping the African American Past ). Catherine had always wanted to go to a play, but she could not afford it. So, Jim decided to take her to the play for her birthday. It was the best present anyone had ever given...
Leer documento completo
Regístrate para leer el documento completo. | <urn:uuid:a57b27c3-4b76-4196-b3b6-ea409fbde5ab> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.buenastareas.com/ensayos/An-American-Hero/5692308.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00066.warc.gz | en | 0.992055 | 873 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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The Early Life of an African American Revolutionist
Jim Truman was born a free African American in Essex County, New York on December 17, 1808. His father George Truman, former slave from Virginia, fell in love with Catherine Griffin. Catherine was a free African American from New York, who offered George a place tostay when he got to New York on February 1808. George was about 34 years old while Catherine was 24. George was born a slave on a tobacco plantation in Virginia; when he was 33 he purchased his liberty and moved to Essex County. Within a year he and Catherin fell in love and had their first son, Jim. They got officially married on August 1809, when the state of New York started recognizingmarriage within the African American community (The Black Past).
One year later, George decided that they were moving to New York City. With a growing population of 96,373 people, 94,687 of whom were free, and 1,686 of whom were enslaved; New York City became the largest city of the United States (New York City in 1810: Limitless Growth Ahead). With its population growing every day, New York City openednumerous job opportunities to George. He first got a temporary job at a supermarket carrying bags for the costumers. It was a low wage job; however he earned enough to provide for his family. Not much time after, George started working at the steam-powered ferry service between New York City and Hoboken, NJ which began on October 11, 1811. He was earning a fair wage, and providing more thanenough for his family. At that time you could have considered the Truman family as one of the few middle class African American families. Even though things were going great something bad was about to happen, the War of 1812.
Jim was about four years old when George, his dad, was force to join one of the two African American regimens formed to fight in the War of 1812. It was the last time Jim sawhis father. At the time he did not understand why his mother was so sad and frightened. He did not understand what was going on, but there was one thing Jim would always remember, what his father told him just before leaving: “Son, remember that you are free and nobody can take that from you”. That day it did not make much sense for Jim, but as the years passed he began to understand what his dadtold him that day.
Since his father was no longer with them, Catherine started searching for jobs opportunities. Catherine as most women at that time, found a job making bandages, and taking care of wounded and sick sailors (G. Hicks, C .Hicks). Jim struggled every day, and was somewhat frustrated. Since his father was gone, as soon as he turned eight years old, he started working to help supporthis mother. He wanted to receive an education; however, they could not afford it and he had to work to be able to eat. He started worked with a man named Thomas Jennings. Thomas had a dry cleaning business, and Jim worked washing clothes. Jim worked with him for several years. In 1821, Thomas became the first African American to receive a patent in the United States History. Thomas Jennings'patent was for a dry-cleaning process called "dry scouring"(African-American Inventors).
Catherine, Jims’ mother, was getting old and sick. Jim, aware of that, wanted to do something special for his mother birthday. He started saving money. On 1823 he purchased two tickets for “The Drama of King Shotaway” play at the African Grove Theater, the first black acting company founded in New York City.The Drama of King Shotaway was the first play written by an African American, William Henry Brown, which made Jim thought that it would be even nicer to attend such a historical event (Mapping the African American Past ). Catherine had always wanted to go to a play, but she could not afford it. So, Jim decided to take her to the play for her birthday. It was the best present anyone had ever given...
Leer documento completo
Regístrate para leer el documento completo. | 907 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The map below shows the planet Mars during the late Noachian Period, around 3.8 billion years ago, labeled with modern feature names.
Until around 3.5 billion years ago, Mars had a thicker atmosphere and was warmer than the present day, and evidence suggests that liquid water flowed on its surface, carving the many river channels that remain there today. The lakes shown on this map are lakes that are theorized to have existed around this time. In the north was an ocean, though it was probably never as high a sea level as shown here. At the north pole of the red planet was the ocean hundreds of meters deep. It is believed that much of this water was lost to space, carried away over time by the solar wind, and that which remains on Mars today is frozen in the polar ice caps and is also likely to be found frozen and buried across the planet under the surface layer of dust.
Many present-day geologic features and craters had yet to form or were in the process of forming, such as the Tharsis or Olympus volcanoes and the Valles Marineris canyon, but the map below uses modern terrain data so it doesn’t truly reflect how the terrain really would have looked back then. During this time period, Mars would have actually appeared to be more grey like the Moon or the planet Mercury, as the iron in the soil had yet to rust.
Also included on this map are the locations of the 7 successful Mars landers. | <urn:uuid:5b59fdb7-ccb9-448c-9bc4-323e110942a8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://vividmaps.com/ancient-mars/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00382.warc.gz | en | 0.983433 | 303 | 4.53125 | 5 | [
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0.2547574043273... | 2 | The map below shows the planet Mars during the late Noachian Period, around 3.8 billion years ago, labeled with modern feature names.
Until around 3.5 billion years ago, Mars had a thicker atmosphere and was warmer than the present day, and evidence suggests that liquid water flowed on its surface, carving the many river channels that remain there today. The lakes shown on this map are lakes that are theorized to have existed around this time. In the north was an ocean, though it was probably never as high a sea level as shown here. At the north pole of the red planet was the ocean hundreds of meters deep. It is believed that much of this water was lost to space, carried away over time by the solar wind, and that which remains on Mars today is frozen in the polar ice caps and is also likely to be found frozen and buried across the planet under the surface layer of dust.
Many present-day geologic features and craters had yet to form or were in the process of forming, such as the Tharsis or Olympus volcanoes and the Valles Marineris canyon, but the map below uses modern terrain data so it doesn’t truly reflect how the terrain really would have looked back then. During this time period, Mars would have actually appeared to be more grey like the Moon or the planet Mercury, as the iron in the soil had yet to rust.
Also included on this map are the locations of the 7 successful Mars landers. | 300 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Paper type: Essay Pages: 2 (439 words)
Characteristics shared by both dynasties Social Tang dynasty offered women a new opportunity for personal expression shown by the leadership of Empress Wu Neo-Confucianists movements in the late Song led to the deteriorating rank of women in society Neo-Confucianism also discouraged women from education and other career outlets Male-dominated society Men enjoyed more rights in areas such as remarrying and premarital sex Women were given protection in the event of a divorce
Strong laws were put in place to keep elders and males as the leaders in the family The Scholar-gentry class gained most of the power in the government due to the emerging bureaucracy Women’s families were forced to pay dowry’s to the husband’s family Political The Tang dynasty had a much more powerful military that the Song therfore they were able to capture a larger area of land all the to modern Afghanistan The civilian administrators were subordinate to military commanders which caused problems in the tang dynasty The Song Dynasty allowed for the Liao to continue living north of them in Manchuria This was costly because the liao (Khitans) continued to charge tribute and eventually led to the downfall of the Song dynasty When the empire collapsed, everyone moved
South Political power was held by a succession of imperial families and bureacrats Although the system allowed for more commoners to become scholar-gentry, being noble was still advantageous Interactions During the Tang dynasty, the invention of gunpoweder came about, but it was not used for military purposes until the Song Coal started to become used for fuel and heat especially in the cold winters of the North China plain Compasses were invented which dramitacally helped sea navigators The invention of the movable type and the abacus were also widely developed Chinese citizens began to move southward during both of these dynasties due to the expanding agrarian society New seeds introduced from Vietnam such as champa rice greatly improved rice yield in the southern part of the
Empire The Chinese capitals and large cities such as Hangzhou had some of the highest populations of people in the world pre-industrial revoltion Canals were created such as the Grand Canal were created to connect people from different parts of the empire and were bleto share their products Culture At he beginning of the Tang, there was Buddhist support from people like Empress Wu, but that changed and soon there was strong Buddhist backlash from the Toaists and the Confucianists Rival relgions claimed Buddhist monasteries were costing the government money because they were not taxed The Chinese educational system encouraged men to “dabble” with many different activities rather than specialize in one.
Cite this page
Spice Chart Tang vs. Song. (2016, May 21). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/spice-chart-tang-vs-song-essay | <urn:uuid:f8ba0442-4499-40f5-9c21-d7b54e3550ba> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studymoose.com/spice-chart-tang-vs-song-essay | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00226.warc.gz | en | 0.980925 | 596 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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Characteristics shared by both dynasties Social Tang dynasty offered women a new opportunity for personal expression shown by the leadership of Empress Wu Neo-Confucianists movements in the late Song led to the deteriorating rank of women in society Neo-Confucianism also discouraged women from education and other career outlets Male-dominated society Men enjoyed more rights in areas such as remarrying and premarital sex Women were given protection in the event of a divorce
Strong laws were put in place to keep elders and males as the leaders in the family The Scholar-gentry class gained most of the power in the government due to the emerging bureaucracy Women’s families were forced to pay dowry’s to the husband’s family Political The Tang dynasty had a much more powerful military that the Song therfore they were able to capture a larger area of land all the to modern Afghanistan The civilian administrators were subordinate to military commanders which caused problems in the tang dynasty The Song Dynasty allowed for the Liao to continue living north of them in Manchuria This was costly because the liao (Khitans) continued to charge tribute and eventually led to the downfall of the Song dynasty When the empire collapsed, everyone moved
South Political power was held by a succession of imperial families and bureacrats Although the system allowed for more commoners to become scholar-gentry, being noble was still advantageous Interactions During the Tang dynasty, the invention of gunpoweder came about, but it was not used for military purposes until the Song Coal started to become used for fuel and heat especially in the cold winters of the North China plain Compasses were invented which dramitacally helped sea navigators The invention of the movable type and the abacus were also widely developed Chinese citizens began to move southward during both of these dynasties due to the expanding agrarian society New seeds introduced from Vietnam such as champa rice greatly improved rice yield in the southern part of the
Empire The Chinese capitals and large cities such as Hangzhou had some of the highest populations of people in the world pre-industrial revoltion Canals were created such as the Grand Canal were created to connect people from different parts of the empire and were bleto share their products Culture At he beginning of the Tang, there was Buddhist support from people like Empress Wu, but that changed and soon there was strong Buddhist backlash from the Toaists and the Confucianists Rival relgions claimed Buddhist monasteries were costing the government money because they were not taxed The Chinese educational system encouraged men to “dabble” with many different activities rather than specialize in one.
Cite this page
Spice Chart Tang vs. Song. (2016, May 21). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/spice-chart-tang-vs-song-essay | 580 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the U. S. and sometimes in Canada, food banks don't typically give food direct to the hungry. Instead they act as warehouses, supplying front-line agencies like this Californian soup kitchen. (Picture taken in 2009, and shows members of the United States Navy serving visitors. ) The world's first food bank was St. Mary's Food Bank in Phoenix, Arizona, founded by John van Hengel in 1967. According to sociology professor Janet Poppendieck, hunger within the US was widely considered to be a solved problem until the mid-1960s. By the mid-sixties, several states had ended the free distribution of federal food surpluses, instead providing an early form of food stamps which had the benefit of allowing recipients to choose food of their liking, rather than having to accept whatever happened to be in surplus at the time. However, there was a minimum charge and some people could not afford the stamps, leading to severe hunger. One response from American society to the rediscovery of hunger was to step up the support provided by soup kitchens and similar civil society food relief agencies – some of these dated back to the Great Depression and earlier. In 1965, while volunteering for a community dining room, van Hengel learned that grocery stores often had to throw away food that had damaged packaging or was near expiration. He started collecting that food for the dining room but soon had too much for that one program. He thought of creating a central location from which any agency can receive donations. Described as a classic case of "if you build it they will come", the first food bank was created with the help of St. Mary's Basilica, which became the namesake of the organization. Food banks spread across the United States, and to Canada. By 1976, van Hengel had established the organization known today as Feeding America. As of the early 21st century, their network of over 200 food banks provides support for 90,000 projects. Other large networks exist such as AmpleHarvest. org, created by CNN Hero and World Food Prize nominee Gary Oppenheimer which lists more than 8,200 food pantries (1 out of every 5 in America) across all 50 states that can utilize overproduction of fresh produce. | <urn:uuid:7c288c44-af4e-433a-a039-328992d65aec> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://prso.info/europe/food-bank-logo.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00081.warc.gz | en | 0.981648 | 457 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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-0.0732037... | 1 | In the U. S. and sometimes in Canada, food banks don't typically give food direct to the hungry. Instead they act as warehouses, supplying front-line agencies like this Californian soup kitchen. (Picture taken in 2009, and shows members of the United States Navy serving visitors. ) The world's first food bank was St. Mary's Food Bank in Phoenix, Arizona, founded by John van Hengel in 1967. According to sociology professor Janet Poppendieck, hunger within the US was widely considered to be a solved problem until the mid-1960s. By the mid-sixties, several states had ended the free distribution of federal food surpluses, instead providing an early form of food stamps which had the benefit of allowing recipients to choose food of their liking, rather than having to accept whatever happened to be in surplus at the time. However, there was a minimum charge and some people could not afford the stamps, leading to severe hunger. One response from American society to the rediscovery of hunger was to step up the support provided by soup kitchens and similar civil society food relief agencies – some of these dated back to the Great Depression and earlier. In 1965, while volunteering for a community dining room, van Hengel learned that grocery stores often had to throw away food that had damaged packaging or was near expiration. He started collecting that food for the dining room but soon had too much for that one program. He thought of creating a central location from which any agency can receive donations. Described as a classic case of "if you build it they will come", the first food bank was created with the help of St. Mary's Basilica, which became the namesake of the organization. Food banks spread across the United States, and to Canada. By 1976, van Hengel had established the organization known today as Feeding America. As of the early 21st century, their network of over 200 food banks provides support for 90,000 projects. Other large networks exist such as AmpleHarvest. org, created by CNN Hero and World Food Prize nominee Gary Oppenheimer which lists more than 8,200 food pantries (1 out of every 5 in America) across all 50 states that can utilize overproduction of fresh produce. | 489 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Today marks the 2,069th anniversary of one of the most momentous decisions in history.
Julius Caesar was born in Rome around 100 B.C. He was the great military leader who managed to capture for the Roman Empire most of what became France and Great Britain.
In a series of dispatches from the battlefield, Caesar became his own war correspondent. Unlike many of the Roman poets and historians of the era, Caesar wrote short descriptive prose that was easy for ordinary people to understand. His stories of military victories turned him into a national hero, but the Roman Senate increasingly saw him as a threat. It passed legislation requiring him to lay down his military command and return to Rome.
But Caesar realized that he had the largest and most battle-tested army in the empire under his command. And if he returned to Rome, his political opponents would end his career. And so, on January 10, 49 B.C., Caesar crossed the Rubicon River with his army, directly challenging the authority of the Senate. The result was a civil war. Though he was outnumbered in many of the major battles, Caesar won the war. And he was extremely merciful with captured military leaders, because he wanted them as his allies. That might have been his biggest mistake, since it was a group of those men he spared that began to conspire against him.
He was an absolute dictator of Rome, with ambitious plans to redistribute wealth and land. But a group of senators, led by Brutus and Cassius, wanted to bring back the old republic. So they organized an assassination on the steps of the Senate.
The Roman republic never returned. Instead, Rome would be ruled by a series of emperors for the rest of the empire’s existence. | <urn:uuid:fcc0b705-6450-4f4d-9c89-273b0a864c96> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.davidgagne.net/2020/01/10/crossing-the-rubicon/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00082.warc.gz | en | 0.987668 | 358 | 4.09375 | 4 | [
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0.454080730676... | 26 | Today marks the 2,069th anniversary of one of the most momentous decisions in history.
Julius Caesar was born in Rome around 100 B.C. He was the great military leader who managed to capture for the Roman Empire most of what became France and Great Britain.
In a series of dispatches from the battlefield, Caesar became his own war correspondent. Unlike many of the Roman poets and historians of the era, Caesar wrote short descriptive prose that was easy for ordinary people to understand. His stories of military victories turned him into a national hero, but the Roman Senate increasingly saw him as a threat. It passed legislation requiring him to lay down his military command and return to Rome.
But Caesar realized that he had the largest and most battle-tested army in the empire under his command. And if he returned to Rome, his political opponents would end his career. And so, on January 10, 49 B.C., Caesar crossed the Rubicon River with his army, directly challenging the authority of the Senate. The result was a civil war. Though he was outnumbered in many of the major battles, Caesar won the war. And he was extremely merciful with captured military leaders, because he wanted them as his allies. That might have been his biggest mistake, since it was a group of those men he spared that began to conspire against him.
He was an absolute dictator of Rome, with ambitious plans to redistribute wealth and land. But a group of senators, led by Brutus and Cassius, wanted to bring back the old republic. So they organized an assassination on the steps of the Senate.
The Roman republic never returned. Instead, Rome would be ruled by a series of emperors for the rest of the empire’s existence. | 358 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The existence of Nigeria is as a result of Britain's commercial interest in West Africa.
The geographical region that is now modern day Nigeria was once known as the slave coast but by 1870 that had changed. Britain had lost its appetite for slaves and preferred palm oil. In the 19th century, Britain was the first industrialized nation in the world and it needed palm oil as a lubricant for its machines.
The region that is Nigeria today had a lot of palm oil, the majority of it tucked in the lush vegetation of the Niger Delta which ironically has been polluted by another type of oil.
The demand for Nigeria's palm oil was huge. A man known as George Goldie would be an important figure in Nigeria's palm oil business. In 1879, he formed the United African Company (later renamed the National African Company).
There was a lack of structure in the palm oil business. Niger-Deltans sold to the highest bidder and Goldie was able to control the region of the Lower Niger River. In 1884 his business had boomed that he had 30 trading points along the Lower Niger essentially creating a monopoly for the British to capitalize on.
The Berlin Conference should be highlighted here. The conference gave the British access to the Lower Niger and left very little for the Germans and French. In 1886, George Goldie started moving inwards into River Niger and Benue, a clear violation of the gentleman's agreement he had made with the chiefs. It was initially agreed that the United African Company would not pass the coastal areas.
Also within the same year, the United African Company was turned to Royal Niger Company.
George Goldie's business operation was far from fair. His company tricked the native chiefs (including Jaja of Opobo) into signing agreements that gave them the exclusive rights to export palm oil after initially agreeing that free trade would not be obstructed. The Chiefs fell for the promise and signed the dubious contracts that were written in English.
When Jaja of Opobo wanted to export his own palm oil, he was accused of obstructing commerce and sent into exile. On his way back home in 1891, he was poisoned with a cup of tea.
The story of Jaja of Opobo made chiefs and rulers to be wary of their deals with the Royal Niger Company. Frederick William Koko Mingi VIII of Nembe popularly known as King Koko was one of such rulers.
The born-again monarch who was formerly a school teacher detested the restriction on trading and did business with the Germans directly.
In 1894, after the Royal Niger Company introduced more restrictions, Koko Mingi VIII denounced Christianity and formed an alliance with the Bonny and Okpoma to take down the company.
Unfortunately, the Bonny refused the alliance. This did not stop the rebellion. History has it that Koko Mingi VIII led an attack on the Royal Niger Company headquarters on January 29, 1895. The headquarters was at Akassa in Bayelsa.
The attack saw the king capture, 60 white men, while losing forty of his soldiers. Using the 60 men as hostages, King Koko Mingi wanted the RNC to allow him to choose his trade partners. If the company granted his wish, he would release the men.
The Royal Niger Company did not yield. King Koko killed forty of the men he captured. As retaliation, the Britain’s Royal Navy attacked Brass and levelled it completely on February 20, 1895.
An uneasy calm was restored and the British had their way. King Koko was on the run. As punishment, the people of Brass were fined £500. Their weapons were taken from them also.
King Koko moved into exile after rejecting the terms of the British after the British Parliamentary Commission. He committed suicide as an outlaw in 1898.
The war was, however, a bad PR look for the Royal Niger Company. Great Britain revoked its charter in 1899.
The Royal Niger Company sold its territory (Nigeria) to the British government for £865,000. In 1914, the Southern protectorate and Northern protectorate were amalgamated by Lord Lugard.
Royal Niger Company changed its name to The Niger Company Ltd. It was later absorbed by UNILEVER which still operates in Nigeria till today. | <urn:uuid:6fbe0576-4803-4c93-a93e-aabb51dea8bf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.pulse.ng/news/local/unilever-royal-niger-company-and-how-nigeria-transformed-from-a-business-into-a/15tym8p | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00487.warc.gz | en | 0.984271 | 875 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.241504862904548... | 2 | The existence of Nigeria is as a result of Britain's commercial interest in West Africa.
The geographical region that is now modern day Nigeria was once known as the slave coast but by 1870 that had changed. Britain had lost its appetite for slaves and preferred palm oil. In the 19th century, Britain was the first industrialized nation in the world and it needed palm oil as a lubricant for its machines.
The region that is Nigeria today had a lot of palm oil, the majority of it tucked in the lush vegetation of the Niger Delta which ironically has been polluted by another type of oil.
The demand for Nigeria's palm oil was huge. A man known as George Goldie would be an important figure in Nigeria's palm oil business. In 1879, he formed the United African Company (later renamed the National African Company).
There was a lack of structure in the palm oil business. Niger-Deltans sold to the highest bidder and Goldie was able to control the region of the Lower Niger River. In 1884 his business had boomed that he had 30 trading points along the Lower Niger essentially creating a monopoly for the British to capitalize on.
The Berlin Conference should be highlighted here. The conference gave the British access to the Lower Niger and left very little for the Germans and French. In 1886, George Goldie started moving inwards into River Niger and Benue, a clear violation of the gentleman's agreement he had made with the chiefs. It was initially agreed that the United African Company would not pass the coastal areas.
Also within the same year, the United African Company was turned to Royal Niger Company.
George Goldie's business operation was far from fair. His company tricked the native chiefs (including Jaja of Opobo) into signing agreements that gave them the exclusive rights to export palm oil after initially agreeing that free trade would not be obstructed. The Chiefs fell for the promise and signed the dubious contracts that were written in English.
When Jaja of Opobo wanted to export his own palm oil, he was accused of obstructing commerce and sent into exile. On his way back home in 1891, he was poisoned with a cup of tea.
The story of Jaja of Opobo made chiefs and rulers to be wary of their deals with the Royal Niger Company. Frederick William Koko Mingi VIII of Nembe popularly known as King Koko was one of such rulers.
The born-again monarch who was formerly a school teacher detested the restriction on trading and did business with the Germans directly.
In 1894, after the Royal Niger Company introduced more restrictions, Koko Mingi VIII denounced Christianity and formed an alliance with the Bonny and Okpoma to take down the company.
Unfortunately, the Bonny refused the alliance. This did not stop the rebellion. History has it that Koko Mingi VIII led an attack on the Royal Niger Company headquarters on January 29, 1895. The headquarters was at Akassa in Bayelsa.
The attack saw the king capture, 60 white men, while losing forty of his soldiers. Using the 60 men as hostages, King Koko Mingi wanted the RNC to allow him to choose his trade partners. If the company granted his wish, he would release the men.
The Royal Niger Company did not yield. King Koko killed forty of the men he captured. As retaliation, the Britain’s Royal Navy attacked Brass and levelled it completely on February 20, 1895.
An uneasy calm was restored and the British had their way. King Koko was on the run. As punishment, the people of Brass were fined £500. Their weapons were taken from them also.
King Koko moved into exile after rejecting the terms of the British after the British Parliamentary Commission. He committed suicide as an outlaw in 1898.
The war was, however, a bad PR look for the Royal Niger Company. Great Britain revoked its charter in 1899.
The Royal Niger Company sold its territory (Nigeria) to the British government for £865,000. In 1914, the Southern protectorate and Northern protectorate were amalgamated by Lord Lugard.
Royal Niger Company changed its name to The Niger Company Ltd. It was later absorbed by UNILEVER which still operates in Nigeria till today. | 911 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In Koenker’s The Proliterian Tourist in the 1930s, and Reagin’s Comparing Apples and Oranges, both authors place emphasis on specific societal institutions. Tourism in the Soviet Union became very politically focused during the inter-war period. In Germany, the ideals of consumption were promoted by housewives. Both articles provide basic insights into each organization and their various contributions to society. It is clear that in both the Soviet Union and Germany, tourism and housewife organizations were utilized for the promotion of political and social ideologies.
Koenker’s description of tourism was both intriguing and surprising; she argued that a concept as seemingly casual as tourism had intentions of a larger political scheme, which was to promote socialism, and stray away from the bourgeois life. While there are many obvious ways in which they implemented this change, it is shocking that the Soviets would turn to organizations like tourism to solve these issues. This essay is substantial, because it depicts the significance of everyday activities with regards to a larger political agenda.
Comparing Apples and Oranges was similarly striking in terms of highlighting Germany’s reliance on everyday institutions to solve social and political issues. What was surprising in this article was the reliance on women to solve such substantial issues. During the inter-war period, it was clear that the woman’s place was in the home. While this article supports that ideal, it argues that being a housewife was actually a crucial responsibility. Housewife organizations were responsible for promoting German manufactured goods, rationalization, and natural ingredients. It is surprising that women, as second-class citizens at that time, would be relied upon for such pressing issues.
Why were everyday organizations like tourism and housewife organizations targeted as catalysts for political change? Why were these specific groups believed to be beneficial to the political agendas of the Soviet Union and Germany? | <urn:uuid:9acc674b-15e8-4552-9ea6-7515e12a4780> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://blogs.dickinson.edu/quallsk/2013/09/22/the-impact-of-german-and-soviet-organizations/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00341.warc.gz | en | 0.98558 | 381 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.548400104045... | 5 | In Koenker’s The Proliterian Tourist in the 1930s, and Reagin’s Comparing Apples and Oranges, both authors place emphasis on specific societal institutions. Tourism in the Soviet Union became very politically focused during the inter-war period. In Germany, the ideals of consumption were promoted by housewives. Both articles provide basic insights into each organization and their various contributions to society. It is clear that in both the Soviet Union and Germany, tourism and housewife organizations were utilized for the promotion of political and social ideologies.
Koenker’s description of tourism was both intriguing and surprising; she argued that a concept as seemingly casual as tourism had intentions of a larger political scheme, which was to promote socialism, and stray away from the bourgeois life. While there are many obvious ways in which they implemented this change, it is shocking that the Soviets would turn to organizations like tourism to solve these issues. This essay is substantial, because it depicts the significance of everyday activities with regards to a larger political agenda.
Comparing Apples and Oranges was similarly striking in terms of highlighting Germany’s reliance on everyday institutions to solve social and political issues. What was surprising in this article was the reliance on women to solve such substantial issues. During the inter-war period, it was clear that the woman’s place was in the home. While this article supports that ideal, it argues that being a housewife was actually a crucial responsibility. Housewife organizations were responsible for promoting German manufactured goods, rationalization, and natural ingredients. It is surprising that women, as second-class citizens at that time, would be relied upon for such pressing issues.
Why were everyday organizations like tourism and housewife organizations targeted as catalysts for political change? Why were these specific groups believed to be beneficial to the political agendas of the Soviet Union and Germany? | 372 | ENGLISH | 1 |
(Last Updated on : 23-04-2012)
Aniruddha was Buddha's other disciple. When Gautama Buddha
returned to his motherland at Kapilvastu
for the first time, six years after his enlightenment all the citizens celebrated his return. The people came out of their houses and lined up along the street where Buddha was about to pass by. The citizens of Kapilavastu wanted to see and pay respect to the well-known sage and saviour, who was once the beloved prince of the kingdom.
During his stay Buddha preached his father Suddhodana
and other members of the royal family as well as to the general public. Buddha noticed that his own brother Nanda was enamored with his concubine. When Buddha left the palace six years before, Nanda was chosen to be the heir of the throne. Buddha realized that it would not be good for the kingdom if Nanda took the responsibility. Another choice for the throne was his own son Rahula, but he was too young to bear the responsibility. Therefore Buddha decided to have both of them in his Sangha. The throne was transferred to someone who was more capable and thus his hometown was protected and had a bright future.
Rahula, Nanda and Ananada
became disciples of Buddha
. When these three young men joined Buddha's Sangha as monk, all their family members were shocked. Not only them, young men from each royal household also left to join the congregation of Buddha as they were attracted to Buddha's teachings.
The departure of all these young men from their family inspired Buddha's cousin Aniruddha
, too. He also decided to leave home; Aniruddha went to visit his elder brother Mahanama one day. Mahanama said to him that every Sakya family had one of their sons in the congregation of monks. But no one from their family had joined Buddha's Sangha. So Mahanama offered Aniruddha that either he stayed at home and looked after his family and Aniruddha joined the congregation or he took the shelter of the Sangha and his younger brother Aniruddha bore the responsibility of the family. Aniruddha replied to Mahanama that he was stronger and wiser than him and also elder to him, so it was better if he took the responsibility of their parents and the family. Aniruddha offered his elder brother to stay in his family and declared that he would leave home to join the Sangha of Buddha.
After seven days Aniruddha and several other princes left the palace, a servant named Upali
accompanied them. When the princes reached a forest, the princess ordered Upali to cut off their hair. They abandoned their clothes and adapted monk's robes. Their ornaments were given to Upali since they had no necessity of ornaments when they adapted the lives of monks. The princess gave their ornaments to Upali to show their appreciation of his services as a barber in the palace. The princes then reached at a palace, where they were asked to stay in a house for seven days by Buddha so that they could come out of their self-identities as princes. They could join the order after that.
When the princes came out of the house after seven days, they were formally consecrated as monks. The princes were very surprised when they found Upali among the Sangha, dressed up like a monk. Buddha explained them that Upali came to him and asked him to accept him. Buddha accepted his prayer and Upali joined the assembly. Since Upali was a senior monk to all of the princes Buddha asked them to prostrate before him to show him respect. Buddha made them remember that becoming a monk means they had come out of the slightest egoism. All the princess thereby prostrated before Upali.
One day, Aniruddha fall asleep during Buddha's lectures and Buddha reproved him for missing the opportunity of one of his precious sermons. Aniruddha was so embarrassed that he vowed in front of Buddha that he would not sleep again as long as he lived. Because of the lack of sleep Aniruddha gradually developed eye-ailment. Buddha listened that and went to see Aniruddha. Buddha told Aniruddha that one should eat to sustain life even during spiritual formation and convinced him that sleep is the food for his eyes. He also said that all creatures need food to stay alive and sleep is necessary to stay healthy. So one must sleep to protect the eyes. But Aniruddha replied to Buddha that he would observe his vow in any condition. So several days later Aniruddha became completely blind.
Once Aniruddha's robe was so torn that he needed a new one. He could not do it by himself as he lost his eyesight completely. So Aniruddha asked Ananda to weave a new robe for him. Ananda then asked all the other monks if they could help Aniruddha by weaving a new robe for him. When Buddha heard about the incident he asked Ananda that why did not he ask him too to weave the robe.
Ananada replied Buddha that he was very honorable man so he could not dare to ask him for such a small work. But Buddha replied that he was also the member of the congregation. He declared to help Aniruddha and asked Ananda not to ask anyone else for the task.
Ananda was moved to the core by Buddha's words. Buddha and Ananda went together to Aniruddha's residence. When they arrived, Buddha asked Aniruddha to give him his needles and thread and said him that he would weave a new robe for him.
Aniruddha was touched by Buddha's kind words. Tears came out from his eyes and he was so overwhelmed that he lost his words. Buddha's simple action touched everybody's heart. It also proved that Buddha treated all the members of the assembly equally. Then Buddha felt so compassionate for Aniruddha that he taught him the power of the divine eye, which was a special power that allowed one to see anything anywhere in the universe, hell and heaven, distant universe, future rebirth of all the animates. And thus Aniruddha was able to see again.
Once, Aniruddha was so delighted with his new power that he told Sariputra that his magical eyes allowed him to see anything in the universe, including heaven, hell, distant universe etc. He felt like he was flying in the sky without disturbing his tranquility.
warned him that he told he could see all the world with his eyes, which indicated his arrogance. He said that he could fly which meant that he had fantasy. And that he said that his tranquil mind was not infected, it indicated that he was full of ignorance. The person having these three things can never attain enlightenment. When Sariputra finished Aniruddha apologized to him for what he had said. After that Aniruddha never dared to talk to anybody about his enlightenment before other people.
One day Aniruddha asked Buddha about the ways of enlightenment and Buddha gave the sermon of eight ways to attain enlightenment. The first way was to observe the universe and this human world with an inner view that world is impermanent and full of sufferings, selfishness and impurity. The second way was to think the greed as the root of all sufferings. A person freed from greed can only be emancipated and attain enlightenment. The third way was to get rid of all cravings. One must have a simple life and seek wisdom. The fourth way was to seek blessings and wisdom to overcome all the obstacles. The fifth way was to learn all the knowledge and contribute the knowledge to the society. The sixth way is to help the poor and ignorant by providing them with material assistance and also aiding them with spiritual counseling, without disdaining them. The seventh way was to live a simple life without being enslaved by our five senses viz. sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch. The eighth way was to take a vow to save all the lives including oneself from the sufferings of earth.
When Aniruddha heard all this, he constantly thought about what Buddha had said about the eight possible ways of enlightenment and nirvana, and finally found the path to enlightenment. When Buddha was about to pass away, he asked his disciples if they had any questions. Aniruddha folded his hands and said to Buddha that they all believed the truth what he had taught the universe about the life. He also said that the world will change but his teachings will never change. After hearing this words Buddha smiled and passed away. | <urn:uuid:d0b94f51-f650-4732-8f41-9412608067be> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.indianetzone.com/21/aniruddha_disciple_gautama_buddha.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00552.warc.gz | en | 0.993367 | 1,789 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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Aniruddha was Buddha's other disciple. When Gautama Buddha
returned to his motherland at Kapilvastu
for the first time, six years after his enlightenment all the citizens celebrated his return. The people came out of their houses and lined up along the street where Buddha was about to pass by. The citizens of Kapilavastu wanted to see and pay respect to the well-known sage and saviour, who was once the beloved prince of the kingdom.
During his stay Buddha preached his father Suddhodana
and other members of the royal family as well as to the general public. Buddha noticed that his own brother Nanda was enamored with his concubine. When Buddha left the palace six years before, Nanda was chosen to be the heir of the throne. Buddha realized that it would not be good for the kingdom if Nanda took the responsibility. Another choice for the throne was his own son Rahula, but he was too young to bear the responsibility. Therefore Buddha decided to have both of them in his Sangha. The throne was transferred to someone who was more capable and thus his hometown was protected and had a bright future.
Rahula, Nanda and Ananada
became disciples of Buddha
. When these three young men joined Buddha's Sangha as monk, all their family members were shocked. Not only them, young men from each royal household also left to join the congregation of Buddha as they were attracted to Buddha's teachings.
The departure of all these young men from their family inspired Buddha's cousin Aniruddha
, too. He also decided to leave home; Aniruddha went to visit his elder brother Mahanama one day. Mahanama said to him that every Sakya family had one of their sons in the congregation of monks. But no one from their family had joined Buddha's Sangha. So Mahanama offered Aniruddha that either he stayed at home and looked after his family and Aniruddha joined the congregation or he took the shelter of the Sangha and his younger brother Aniruddha bore the responsibility of the family. Aniruddha replied to Mahanama that he was stronger and wiser than him and also elder to him, so it was better if he took the responsibility of their parents and the family. Aniruddha offered his elder brother to stay in his family and declared that he would leave home to join the Sangha of Buddha.
After seven days Aniruddha and several other princes left the palace, a servant named Upali
accompanied them. When the princes reached a forest, the princess ordered Upali to cut off their hair. They abandoned their clothes and adapted monk's robes. Their ornaments were given to Upali since they had no necessity of ornaments when they adapted the lives of monks. The princess gave their ornaments to Upali to show their appreciation of his services as a barber in the palace. The princes then reached at a palace, where they were asked to stay in a house for seven days by Buddha so that they could come out of their self-identities as princes. They could join the order after that.
When the princes came out of the house after seven days, they were formally consecrated as monks. The princes were very surprised when they found Upali among the Sangha, dressed up like a monk. Buddha explained them that Upali came to him and asked him to accept him. Buddha accepted his prayer and Upali joined the assembly. Since Upali was a senior monk to all of the princes Buddha asked them to prostrate before him to show him respect. Buddha made them remember that becoming a monk means they had come out of the slightest egoism. All the princess thereby prostrated before Upali.
One day, Aniruddha fall asleep during Buddha's lectures and Buddha reproved him for missing the opportunity of one of his precious sermons. Aniruddha was so embarrassed that he vowed in front of Buddha that he would not sleep again as long as he lived. Because of the lack of sleep Aniruddha gradually developed eye-ailment. Buddha listened that and went to see Aniruddha. Buddha told Aniruddha that one should eat to sustain life even during spiritual formation and convinced him that sleep is the food for his eyes. He also said that all creatures need food to stay alive and sleep is necessary to stay healthy. So one must sleep to protect the eyes. But Aniruddha replied to Buddha that he would observe his vow in any condition. So several days later Aniruddha became completely blind.
Once Aniruddha's robe was so torn that he needed a new one. He could not do it by himself as he lost his eyesight completely. So Aniruddha asked Ananda to weave a new robe for him. Ananda then asked all the other monks if they could help Aniruddha by weaving a new robe for him. When Buddha heard about the incident he asked Ananda that why did not he ask him too to weave the robe.
Ananada replied Buddha that he was very honorable man so he could not dare to ask him for such a small work. But Buddha replied that he was also the member of the congregation. He declared to help Aniruddha and asked Ananda not to ask anyone else for the task.
Ananda was moved to the core by Buddha's words. Buddha and Ananda went together to Aniruddha's residence. When they arrived, Buddha asked Aniruddha to give him his needles and thread and said him that he would weave a new robe for him.
Aniruddha was touched by Buddha's kind words. Tears came out from his eyes and he was so overwhelmed that he lost his words. Buddha's simple action touched everybody's heart. It also proved that Buddha treated all the members of the assembly equally. Then Buddha felt so compassionate for Aniruddha that he taught him the power of the divine eye, which was a special power that allowed one to see anything anywhere in the universe, hell and heaven, distant universe, future rebirth of all the animates. And thus Aniruddha was able to see again.
Once, Aniruddha was so delighted with his new power that he told Sariputra that his magical eyes allowed him to see anything in the universe, including heaven, hell, distant universe etc. He felt like he was flying in the sky without disturbing his tranquility.
warned him that he told he could see all the world with his eyes, which indicated his arrogance. He said that he could fly which meant that he had fantasy. And that he said that his tranquil mind was not infected, it indicated that he was full of ignorance. The person having these three things can never attain enlightenment. When Sariputra finished Aniruddha apologized to him for what he had said. After that Aniruddha never dared to talk to anybody about his enlightenment before other people.
One day Aniruddha asked Buddha about the ways of enlightenment and Buddha gave the sermon of eight ways to attain enlightenment. The first way was to observe the universe and this human world with an inner view that world is impermanent and full of sufferings, selfishness and impurity. The second way was to think the greed as the root of all sufferings. A person freed from greed can only be emancipated and attain enlightenment. The third way was to get rid of all cravings. One must have a simple life and seek wisdom. The fourth way was to seek blessings and wisdom to overcome all the obstacles. The fifth way was to learn all the knowledge and contribute the knowledge to the society. The sixth way is to help the poor and ignorant by providing them with material assistance and also aiding them with spiritual counseling, without disdaining them. The seventh way was to live a simple life without being enslaved by our five senses viz. sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch. The eighth way was to take a vow to save all the lives including oneself from the sufferings of earth.
When Aniruddha heard all this, he constantly thought about what Buddha had said about the eight possible ways of enlightenment and nirvana, and finally found the path to enlightenment. When Buddha was about to pass away, he asked his disciples if they had any questions. Aniruddha folded his hands and said to Buddha that they all believed the truth what he had taught the universe about the life. He also said that the world will change but his teachings will never change. After hearing this words Buddha smiled and passed away. | 1,771 | ENGLISH | 1 |
An overview of the causes of the french revolution in 1789 in paris
By 27 June, the royal party had overtly given in, although the military began to arrive in large numbers around Paris and Versailles.
French revolution for kids
In November of , soldiers loyal to Bonaparte took control over key points in Paris and begin the process of ending the reign of the Directory. Faced with opposition from the parlements, Calonne organised the summoning of the Assembly of Notables. Mistakes would be made when the accumulated experience of generations was pushed aside as so much routine, prejudice, fanaticism, and superstition. So, in , Turgot was dismissed and Malesherbes resigned. In good times, the taxes were burdensome; in harsh times, they were devastating. The financial crisis had become a political crisis as well, and the French Revolution loomed just beyond the horizon. This led to the French Revolutionary Wars, a series of military conflicts lasting from until The National Convention took over power from the Legislative Assembly and was much more radical in nature. These new ideas cause people in France to begin questioning the role and authority of Louis XVI and inspire French commoners to work to overthrow their absolute monarch. After trying in vain to raise Paris, the Robespierrist deputies and most members of the Commune were guillotined the next day, July Many were so destitute that they couldn't even feed their families and resorted to theft or prostitution to stay alive. The more radical revolutionaries, the Jacobins, were concerned that foreign and internal groups would threaten the revolution and used their power to stop any perceived threat.
Thousands of people were executed including Queen Marie Antoinette and many of Robespierre's political rivals. By France was broke. Robespierre Robespierre then declared a new religion called the Supreme Being and carried out a series of celebrations based around the new faith.
The Revolution nevertheless freed the state from the trammels of its medieval past, releasing such unprecedented power that the revolutionaries could defy, and Napoleon conquer, the rest of Europe.
His severed head was paraded for the gathered thousands and met with cries of "Vive la Republique! This practice was known as "taxation populaire", or popular taxation. They responded on July 14 by storming the Bastille fortress, which fell within a few hours.
Why did the french revolution start
In each country, servicing the debt accounted for about one-half the government's annual expenditure; where they differed was in the effective rates of interest. In France, the debt was financed at almost twice the interest rate as the debt across the Channel. Tax collection was farmed out privatized to "fermiers", through a system of public bidding. Napoleon Bonaparte leading his troops at the Battle of Arcole during the French Revolutionary Wars Coup of 18th Brumaire Internally, in , a new constitution was put in force which established the Directory, a five member committee which governed France. Insurrection broke out in Paris. Bankruptcy was averted by the confiscation of ecclesiastical land, and the church and law courts were reconstructed to conform with a rational and uniform system of local government by elected councils. In theory, this would eventually lead to a war of revenge and see France regain its colonies from Britain. Similarly, the destination of tithes which the peasants were obliged to pay to their local churches was a cause of grievance as it was known that the majority of parish priests were poor and the contribution was being paid to an aristocratic, and usually absentee, abbot. It began on July 14, when revolutionaries stormed a prison called the Bastille. Political causes[ edit ] During the reigns of Louis XV — and Louis XVI — , several ministers, most notably Turgot and Necker , proposed revisions to the French tax system so as to include the nobles as taxpayers, but these proposals were not adopted because of resistance from the parlements provincial courts of appeal. It had last met in The revolution itself unfolded as a series of significant events that displayed the growth of the peasant class and the fall of the French monarchy. Instead, the " Parkinson's law " of bureaucratic overextended waste prevailed, to the detriment of the gentry and other non-seigneurial classes. Worse, Louis seemed to be aware of the anti-monarchist forces that were threatening his family's rule, yet he failed to do anything to stop them.
It brought new ideas to Europe including liberty and freedom for the commoner as well as the abolishment of slavery and the rights of women. Marxist scholars emphasize material factors: as the population increased, food supplies grew short; land had become divided into such small parcels that most Frenchmen lived close to the subsistence level; and after agricultural recession forced property owners to exploit their sources of revenue.
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0.483280241489410... | 1 | An overview of the causes of the french revolution in 1789 in paris
By 27 June, the royal party had overtly given in, although the military began to arrive in large numbers around Paris and Versailles.
French revolution for kids
In November of , soldiers loyal to Bonaparte took control over key points in Paris and begin the process of ending the reign of the Directory. Faced with opposition from the parlements, Calonne organised the summoning of the Assembly of Notables. Mistakes would be made when the accumulated experience of generations was pushed aside as so much routine, prejudice, fanaticism, and superstition. So, in , Turgot was dismissed and Malesherbes resigned. In good times, the taxes were burdensome; in harsh times, they were devastating. The financial crisis had become a political crisis as well, and the French Revolution loomed just beyond the horizon. This led to the French Revolutionary Wars, a series of military conflicts lasting from until The National Convention took over power from the Legislative Assembly and was much more radical in nature. These new ideas cause people in France to begin questioning the role and authority of Louis XVI and inspire French commoners to work to overthrow their absolute monarch. After trying in vain to raise Paris, the Robespierrist deputies and most members of the Commune were guillotined the next day, July Many were so destitute that they couldn't even feed their families and resorted to theft or prostitution to stay alive. The more radical revolutionaries, the Jacobins, were concerned that foreign and internal groups would threaten the revolution and used their power to stop any perceived threat.
Thousands of people were executed including Queen Marie Antoinette and many of Robespierre's political rivals. By France was broke. Robespierre Robespierre then declared a new religion called the Supreme Being and carried out a series of celebrations based around the new faith.
The Revolution nevertheless freed the state from the trammels of its medieval past, releasing such unprecedented power that the revolutionaries could defy, and Napoleon conquer, the rest of Europe.
His severed head was paraded for the gathered thousands and met with cries of "Vive la Republique! This practice was known as "taxation populaire", or popular taxation. They responded on July 14 by storming the Bastille fortress, which fell within a few hours.
Why did the french revolution start
In each country, servicing the debt accounted for about one-half the government's annual expenditure; where they differed was in the effective rates of interest. In France, the debt was financed at almost twice the interest rate as the debt across the Channel. Tax collection was farmed out privatized to "fermiers", through a system of public bidding. Napoleon Bonaparte leading his troops at the Battle of Arcole during the French Revolutionary Wars Coup of 18th Brumaire Internally, in , a new constitution was put in force which established the Directory, a five member committee which governed France. Insurrection broke out in Paris. Bankruptcy was averted by the confiscation of ecclesiastical land, and the church and law courts were reconstructed to conform with a rational and uniform system of local government by elected councils. In theory, this would eventually lead to a war of revenge and see France regain its colonies from Britain. Similarly, the destination of tithes which the peasants were obliged to pay to their local churches was a cause of grievance as it was known that the majority of parish priests were poor and the contribution was being paid to an aristocratic, and usually absentee, abbot. It began on July 14, when revolutionaries stormed a prison called the Bastille. Political causes[ edit ] During the reigns of Louis XV — and Louis XVI — , several ministers, most notably Turgot and Necker , proposed revisions to the French tax system so as to include the nobles as taxpayers, but these proposals were not adopted because of resistance from the parlements provincial courts of appeal. It had last met in The revolution itself unfolded as a series of significant events that displayed the growth of the peasant class and the fall of the French monarchy. Instead, the " Parkinson's law " of bureaucratic overextended waste prevailed, to the detriment of the gentry and other non-seigneurial classes. Worse, Louis seemed to be aware of the anti-monarchist forces that were threatening his family's rule, yet he failed to do anything to stop them.
It brought new ideas to Europe including liberty and freedom for the commoner as well as the abolishment of slavery and the rights of women. Marxist scholars emphasize material factors: as the population increased, food supplies grew short; land had become divided into such small parcels that most Frenchmen lived close to the subsistence level; and after agricultural recession forced property owners to exploit their sources of revenue.
based on 1 review | 1,004 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Grace's Guide is the leading source of historical information on industry and manufacturing in Britain. This web publication contains 137,258 pages of information and 220,097 images on early companies, their products and the people who designed and built them.
James Perry was an educationalist in advance of his time. He lectured throughout the country on his method, based on what seems to have been a revolutionary idea then, that the pupil's interest be aroused in order to pursue their studies with enthusiasm. In order to test his theories, he ran two private schools, one for each sex, in London, where it can be assumed that the making and mending of quill pens was burdensome and time consuming and where a pupil remembered "the tedious waiting for the patient usher, who passed from desk to desk with his penknife, mending pens, and paying little attention to anything else."
No doubt this irked the energetic and methodical James, who invented a method of slitting a metal pen to give flexibility and ink flow. Metal pens of sorts had been in use since very early times, but won no popularity on account of their rigidity. While James did not patent the perfected nib until 1830, in the reign of George IV, pens made under his directions were in use as early as 1824, while it is recorded in 1819 he was giving metallic nibs of his design as rewards of merit in his schools.
It must be remembered that this was the age of the Scribe, in business, in the Law and in Schools. The typewriter was yet to come, and men spent their lives working for long hours, six days a week copying documents. The custom was that Law Scribes were allowed one quill per day, and a day's writing wore out the longest quill, so it can be imagined how much time was spent in trimming and mending and the difference the metal nibs must have made. One Robert Griffin, a Law Scribe, records that he wrote for eight weeks, eight hours a day, with a pen made by Perry, in 1824.
1824 James was joined by his brother, Stephen in starting a business in pen-making; pens were made for this, first in Manchester, then Birmingham and London.
John Mitchell of Birmingham, is credited with having introduced the machine-made steel pen point in 1828.
Two years later the English inventor James Perry sought to produce more-flexible steel points by cutting a centre hole at the top of a central slit and then making additional slits on either side.
The development of excellent steel pens by James Perry in the 1830s and the mass production by stamping pens from steel blanks led to the metal pens supplanting the quill. Nevertheless, artists only reluctantly adopted the steel pen, and most drawings in pen and ink done before the 20th century were still produced with quills.
After 1847, the company became Perry and Co.
By 1876, they equalled Esterbrook as being the largest manufacturers of pen nibs in the world.
James Perry died without issue and Stephen was succeeded by his sons John and Lewis. The former became Managing Director and then Chairman. In the course of time, Edmund, the second son of John, became Joint Managing Director under his father's Chairmanship, a position he held until 1918.
By 1918 the Company had diversified extensively, making not only carbon steel pens, pencils, rubber bands etc. but also bicycle accessories and light cars. Even today vintage Perry cars are still to be seen.
1918 On the death of his father, Edmund decided to leave the Company and to manufacture pens in North London, which he did very successfully working on the techniques of stainless steel pens which were perfected under his direction. E. S. Perry, the company he founded in 1918, was incorporated in 1921, and continued in North London until the outbreak of the second World War, when pen making ceased "for the duration" and the company made armament components. | <urn:uuid:8511c0c9-841a-4992-910c-af779cc19057> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.gracesguide.co.uk/James_Perry_and_Co | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00037.warc.gz | en | 0.987335 | 820 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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-0.0038108136... | 1 | Grace's Guide is the leading source of historical information on industry and manufacturing in Britain. This web publication contains 137,258 pages of information and 220,097 images on early companies, their products and the people who designed and built them.
James Perry was an educationalist in advance of his time. He lectured throughout the country on his method, based on what seems to have been a revolutionary idea then, that the pupil's interest be aroused in order to pursue their studies with enthusiasm. In order to test his theories, he ran two private schools, one for each sex, in London, where it can be assumed that the making and mending of quill pens was burdensome and time consuming and where a pupil remembered "the tedious waiting for the patient usher, who passed from desk to desk with his penknife, mending pens, and paying little attention to anything else."
No doubt this irked the energetic and methodical James, who invented a method of slitting a metal pen to give flexibility and ink flow. Metal pens of sorts had been in use since very early times, but won no popularity on account of their rigidity. While James did not patent the perfected nib until 1830, in the reign of George IV, pens made under his directions were in use as early as 1824, while it is recorded in 1819 he was giving metallic nibs of his design as rewards of merit in his schools.
It must be remembered that this was the age of the Scribe, in business, in the Law and in Schools. The typewriter was yet to come, and men spent their lives working for long hours, six days a week copying documents. The custom was that Law Scribes were allowed one quill per day, and a day's writing wore out the longest quill, so it can be imagined how much time was spent in trimming and mending and the difference the metal nibs must have made. One Robert Griffin, a Law Scribe, records that he wrote for eight weeks, eight hours a day, with a pen made by Perry, in 1824.
1824 James was joined by his brother, Stephen in starting a business in pen-making; pens were made for this, first in Manchester, then Birmingham and London.
John Mitchell of Birmingham, is credited with having introduced the machine-made steel pen point in 1828.
Two years later the English inventor James Perry sought to produce more-flexible steel points by cutting a centre hole at the top of a central slit and then making additional slits on either side.
The development of excellent steel pens by James Perry in the 1830s and the mass production by stamping pens from steel blanks led to the metal pens supplanting the quill. Nevertheless, artists only reluctantly adopted the steel pen, and most drawings in pen and ink done before the 20th century were still produced with quills.
After 1847, the company became Perry and Co.
By 1876, they equalled Esterbrook as being the largest manufacturers of pen nibs in the world.
James Perry died without issue and Stephen was succeeded by his sons John and Lewis. The former became Managing Director and then Chairman. In the course of time, Edmund, the second son of John, became Joint Managing Director under his father's Chairmanship, a position he held until 1918.
By 1918 the Company had diversified extensively, making not only carbon steel pens, pencils, rubber bands etc. but also bicycle accessories and light cars. Even today vintage Perry cars are still to be seen.
1918 On the death of his father, Edmund decided to leave the Company and to manufacture pens in North London, which he did very successfully working on the techniques of stainless steel pens which were perfected under his direction. E. S. Perry, the company he founded in 1918, was incorporated in 1921, and continued in North London until the outbreak of the second World War, when pen making ceased "for the duration" and the company made armament components. | 858 | ENGLISH | 1 |
National Saxophone Day
The saxophone is celebrated today, on the anniversary of the birth of its creator, Adolphe Sax. Sax was born in Belgium in 1814. He was an instrument maker who played clarinet and flute, and moved to Paris in 1842 to start a musical instrument business. Sax had worked on improving the bass clarinet, and had also made ophicleides. His work with these instruments gave him the skills to begin developing the saxophone. He wanted to create an instrument that had both the projection power of a brass instrument, and the agility of a woodwind, and that would fill the middle ground between the two instrument types. What he came up with had a single-reed mouthpiece similar to a clarinet, and a brass body similar to the ophicleide. In June 1846 Sax received a 15-year patent, which covered 14 types of saxophones. In one group there were saxophones in the keys of B♭ and E♭, and in the other group they were in the keys of C and F. They ranged in size from the large contrabass on the low end of the register, to the small sopranino on the high end of the register. The saxophones in the keys of B♭ and E♭ quickly became the standard type of saxophones. Since being invented, various keys and fingerings have been added to the instrument. Today saxophones range in size and pitch as follows: subcontrabass, contrabass, bass, baritone, tenor, alto, soprano, sopranino, and sopranissimo. Of all of these the most popular are the soprano, alto, tenor, and baritone.
The saxophone has been used or is used in various types of music. Originally the B♭ and E♭ saxophones were designed for military bands, while the C and F saxophones were designed to be used in orchestras. But, as the C and F saxophones never gained any prominence, the B♭ and E♭ saxophones were also used in orchestras. Beyond orchestras, saxophones are used to play classical music in concert bands, chamber music, and solo pieces. Saxophones are also used in marching bands, jazz groups, rock and roll, and other types of popular music.
How to Observe
If you are a saxophone player, celebrate the day by playing. If you don't play the saxophone it is never too late to start, and you could start taking lessons or teaching yourself how to play. The day could be celebrated by attending a performance or concert that includes saxophones. At the very least the day should be spent listening to saxophone music. You could listen to one of the best jazz saxophone albums, or one of the best jazz albums with a tenor sax. | <urn:uuid:9d1852d6-68e1-405b-95e1-6534f4ab0ce7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.checkiday.com/405eb01e50da63461f26aac2ac70f879/national-saxophone-day | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00344.warc.gz | en | 0.983543 | 606 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.03769525140... | 3 | National Saxophone Day
The saxophone is celebrated today, on the anniversary of the birth of its creator, Adolphe Sax. Sax was born in Belgium in 1814. He was an instrument maker who played clarinet and flute, and moved to Paris in 1842 to start a musical instrument business. Sax had worked on improving the bass clarinet, and had also made ophicleides. His work with these instruments gave him the skills to begin developing the saxophone. He wanted to create an instrument that had both the projection power of a brass instrument, and the agility of a woodwind, and that would fill the middle ground between the two instrument types. What he came up with had a single-reed mouthpiece similar to a clarinet, and a brass body similar to the ophicleide. In June 1846 Sax received a 15-year patent, which covered 14 types of saxophones. In one group there were saxophones in the keys of B♭ and E♭, and in the other group they were in the keys of C and F. They ranged in size from the large contrabass on the low end of the register, to the small sopranino on the high end of the register. The saxophones in the keys of B♭ and E♭ quickly became the standard type of saxophones. Since being invented, various keys and fingerings have been added to the instrument. Today saxophones range in size and pitch as follows: subcontrabass, contrabass, bass, baritone, tenor, alto, soprano, sopranino, and sopranissimo. Of all of these the most popular are the soprano, alto, tenor, and baritone.
The saxophone has been used or is used in various types of music. Originally the B♭ and E♭ saxophones were designed for military bands, while the C and F saxophones were designed to be used in orchestras. But, as the C and F saxophones never gained any prominence, the B♭ and E♭ saxophones were also used in orchestras. Beyond orchestras, saxophones are used to play classical music in concert bands, chamber music, and solo pieces. Saxophones are also used in marching bands, jazz groups, rock and roll, and other types of popular music.
How to Observe
If you are a saxophone player, celebrate the day by playing. If you don't play the saxophone it is never too late to start, and you could start taking lessons or teaching yourself how to play. The day could be celebrated by attending a performance or concert that includes saxophones. At the very least the day should be spent listening to saxophone music. You could listen to one of the best jazz saxophone albums, or one of the best jazz albums with a tenor sax. | 600 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Martin Luther King Jr. (1929-1968) was a Baptist minister and social activist who played a key role in the American civil rights movement from the mid-1950s until his assassination in 1968. Explore 10 surprising facts about the civil rights leader and 1964 Nobel Peace Prize winner.
1. King’s birth name was Michael, not Martin.
The civil rights leader was born Michael King Jr. on January 15, 1929. In 1934, however, his father, a pastor at Atlanta’s Ebenezer Baptist Church, traveled to Germany and became inspired by the Protestant Reformation leader Martin Luther. As a result, King Sr. changed his own name as well as that of his 5-year-old son.
2. King entered college at the age of 15.
King was such a gifted student that he skipped grades nine and 12 before enrolling in 1944 at Morehouse College, the alma mater of his father and maternal grandfather. Although he was the son, grandson and great-grandson of Baptist ministers, King did not intend to follow the family vocation until Morehouse president Benjamin E. Mays, a noted theologian, convinced him otherwise. King was ordained before graduating college with a degree in sociology.
3. King received his doctorate in systematic theology.
After earning a divinity degree from Pennsylvania’s Crozer Theological Seminary, King attended graduate school at Boston University, where he received his Ph.D. degree in 1955. The title of his dissertation was “A Comparison of the Conceptions of God in the Thinking of Paul Tillich and Henry Nelson Wieman.”
4. King’s “I Have a Dream” speech was not his first at the Lincoln Memorial.
Six years before his iconic oration at the March on Washington, King was among the civil rights leaders who spoke in the shadow of the Great Emancipator during the Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom on May 17, 1957. Before a crowd estimated at between 15,000 and 30,000, King delivered his first national address on the topic of voting rights. His speech, in which he urged America to “give us the ballot,” drew strong reviews and positioned him at the forefront of the civil rights leadership.
5. King was jailed 29 times.
According to the King Center, the civil rights leader went to jail nearly 30 times. He was arrested for acts of civil disobedience and on trumped-up charges, such as when he was jailed in Montgomery, Alabama, in 1956 for driving 30 miles per hour in a 25-mile-per-hour zone. | <urn:uuid:964ca1b2-8d0d-4fdb-b920-0d82a44123b3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.saobserver.com/single-post/2017/01/17/BET-YOU-DIDNT-KNOW | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00009.warc.gz | en | 0.984979 | 541 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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-0.24995580315589905,... | 3 | Martin Luther King Jr. (1929-1968) was a Baptist minister and social activist who played a key role in the American civil rights movement from the mid-1950s until his assassination in 1968. Explore 10 surprising facts about the civil rights leader and 1964 Nobel Peace Prize winner.
1. King’s birth name was Michael, not Martin.
The civil rights leader was born Michael King Jr. on January 15, 1929. In 1934, however, his father, a pastor at Atlanta’s Ebenezer Baptist Church, traveled to Germany and became inspired by the Protestant Reformation leader Martin Luther. As a result, King Sr. changed his own name as well as that of his 5-year-old son.
2. King entered college at the age of 15.
King was such a gifted student that he skipped grades nine and 12 before enrolling in 1944 at Morehouse College, the alma mater of his father and maternal grandfather. Although he was the son, grandson and great-grandson of Baptist ministers, King did not intend to follow the family vocation until Morehouse president Benjamin E. Mays, a noted theologian, convinced him otherwise. King was ordained before graduating college with a degree in sociology.
3. King received his doctorate in systematic theology.
After earning a divinity degree from Pennsylvania’s Crozer Theological Seminary, King attended graduate school at Boston University, where he received his Ph.D. degree in 1955. The title of his dissertation was “A Comparison of the Conceptions of God in the Thinking of Paul Tillich and Henry Nelson Wieman.”
4. King’s “I Have a Dream” speech was not his first at the Lincoln Memorial.
Six years before his iconic oration at the March on Washington, King was among the civil rights leaders who spoke in the shadow of the Great Emancipator during the Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom on May 17, 1957. Before a crowd estimated at between 15,000 and 30,000, King delivered his first national address on the topic of voting rights. His speech, in which he urged America to “give us the ballot,” drew strong reviews and positioned him at the forefront of the civil rights leadership.
5. King was jailed 29 times.
According to the King Center, the civil rights leader went to jail nearly 30 times. He was arrested for acts of civil disobedience and on trumped-up charges, such as when he was jailed in Montgomery, Alabama, in 1956 for driving 30 miles per hour in a 25-mile-per-hour zone. | 573 | ENGLISH | 1 |
January 30th 1933
Adolf Hitler was appointed Germany’s Chancellor on January 30th 1933. Little is known about what Hitler thought about the day but his future propaganda minister, Joseph Goebbels, kept a diary and his entries for January 30th 1933 give a good insight into what went on during that chaotic day.
In the November 1932 election for the Reichstag, the Nazi Party had gained most seats (196) but did not have a big enough number of Reich deputies to form a government. The largest parties after the Nazis were the Social Democratic Party (121) and the Communists (100). The thought of these two parties forming a left-wing coalition was unacceptable to the ailing President, and former Field Marshal, Hindenburg. It was the president’s right to appoint a chancellor and traditionally this was the leader of the largest party. If Hindenburg appointed Hitler he would have found it impossible to govern with such a large bloc of votes on the left. However, at this stage, parties politically to the right of centre remained wary of Hitler and he had no interest in sharing power with anyone. Hindenburg therefore appointed an army general, Kurt von Schleicher, to be Chancellor. Schleicher had a military background and found himself out of his depth as a political leader. Political deadlock occurred and the general political chaos that existed in Berlin suited Hitler as he touted himself to be the best man to sort it out.
The diary entry made by Goebbels for January 26th 1933 stated that:
“Von Schleicher’s position is definitely shaken. The last word lies with the President of the Reich.”
On the next day’s entry Goebbels noted that Hitler had a meeting with the Farmer’s Federation and that “all of these have taken up their stand against Schleicher. There is only one way out. Hitler must become Chancellor.”
In fact, Schleicher resigned on January 28th and Goebbels wrote that “nobody is left but the Leader (Hitler)” and that “the Leader’s assurance is marvellous. Once again he has been proved right.” On the same day, von Papen was sounded out by Hindenburg about forming a cabinet with Hitler. Von Papen was a conservative but his many friends warned him about going into such a political pact with Hitler. However, a rumour circulated that von Schleicher was going to use the army for a coup and “I (von Papen) made up my mind to get the cabinet (with Hitler) formed as quickly as we could.”
Goering apparently told Hitler that he would be appointed Chancellor on January 30th with the only issue causing any form of issue was Hitler’s belief that he could not work with the Reichstag that was formed in the November 1932 and that a new election had to be called.
On January 30th 1933, Goebbels made the following entry into his diary:
“Torturing hours of waiting. At last a car draws up. The Leader is coming. A few moments later he is with us. He says nothing and we all remain silent also. His eyes are full of tears. It has come! The Leader is appointed Chancellor of Germany. The final decision has been made. Germany is at a turning-point in her history.”
Von Papen is said to have commented on January 30th:
“No danger at all. We have hired him for our act. In two months time we’ll have pushed Hitler so far into a corner, he’ll be squeaking.”
While Hitler is not known to have recorded the events that unfolded after Hindenburg had offered him the position of Chancellor, Goebbels did. He wrote that a torch light procession through Berlin started at 19.00 and went on until 01.00 the next morning. The procession included the SA, Hitler Youth, “men and women with children held up high to see the Leader’s window.” Hitler took the salute of the procession at a window at the Chancellory building. A radio broadcast caught presumably members of the SA singing: “When the blood of the Jews spurts from our knives, everything in the world will be twice as fine.” Goebbels ended the entry for January 30thwith the words “Germany has awakened!”
However, the Nazi propaganda machine had yet to embed itself into Germany. It is said that there was no official photographer at the parade and that any film or photos that emerged were staged on the following day.
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Adolf Hitler was appointed Germany’s Chancellor on January 30th 1933. Little is known about what Hitler thought about the day but his future propaganda minister, Joseph Goebbels, kept a diary and his entries for January 30th 1933 give a good insight into what went on during that chaotic day.
In the November 1932 election for the Reichstag, the Nazi Party had gained most seats (196) but did not have a big enough number of Reich deputies to form a government. The largest parties after the Nazis were the Social Democratic Party (121) and the Communists (100). The thought of these two parties forming a left-wing coalition was unacceptable to the ailing President, and former Field Marshal, Hindenburg. It was the president’s right to appoint a chancellor and traditionally this was the leader of the largest party. If Hindenburg appointed Hitler he would have found it impossible to govern with such a large bloc of votes on the left. However, at this stage, parties politically to the right of centre remained wary of Hitler and he had no interest in sharing power with anyone. Hindenburg therefore appointed an army general, Kurt von Schleicher, to be Chancellor. Schleicher had a military background and found himself out of his depth as a political leader. Political deadlock occurred and the general political chaos that existed in Berlin suited Hitler as he touted himself to be the best man to sort it out.
The diary entry made by Goebbels for January 26th 1933 stated that:
“Von Schleicher’s position is definitely shaken. The last word lies with the President of the Reich.”
On the next day’s entry Goebbels noted that Hitler had a meeting with the Farmer’s Federation and that “all of these have taken up their stand against Schleicher. There is only one way out. Hitler must become Chancellor.”
In fact, Schleicher resigned on January 28th and Goebbels wrote that “nobody is left but the Leader (Hitler)” and that “the Leader’s assurance is marvellous. Once again he has been proved right.” On the same day, von Papen was sounded out by Hindenburg about forming a cabinet with Hitler. Von Papen was a conservative but his many friends warned him about going into such a political pact with Hitler. However, a rumour circulated that von Schleicher was going to use the army for a coup and “I (von Papen) made up my mind to get the cabinet (with Hitler) formed as quickly as we could.”
Goering apparently told Hitler that he would be appointed Chancellor on January 30th with the only issue causing any form of issue was Hitler’s belief that he could not work with the Reichstag that was formed in the November 1932 and that a new election had to be called.
On January 30th 1933, Goebbels made the following entry into his diary:
“Torturing hours of waiting. At last a car draws up. The Leader is coming. A few moments later he is with us. He says nothing and we all remain silent also. His eyes are full of tears. It has come! The Leader is appointed Chancellor of Germany. The final decision has been made. Germany is at a turning-point in her history.”
Von Papen is said to have commented on January 30th:
“No danger at all. We have hired him for our act. In two months time we’ll have pushed Hitler so far into a corner, he’ll be squeaking.”
While Hitler is not known to have recorded the events that unfolded after Hindenburg had offered him the position of Chancellor, Goebbels did. He wrote that a torch light procession through Berlin started at 19.00 and went on until 01.00 the next morning. The procession included the SA, Hitler Youth, “men and women with children held up high to see the Leader’s window.” Hitler took the salute of the procession at a window at the Chancellory building. A radio broadcast caught presumably members of the SA singing: “When the blood of the Jews spurts from our knives, everything in the world will be twice as fine.” Goebbels ended the entry for January 30thwith the words “Germany has awakened!”
However, the Nazi propaganda machine had yet to embed itself into Germany. It is said that there was no official photographer at the parade and that any film or photos that emerged were staged on the following day.
- Adolf Hitler led Germany throughout World War Two. His desire to create an aryan race was paramount in his ethos and political campaigns. Hitler had no… | 984 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Spain's history consists of many vibrant cultures, many of which influenced the others. Spain's traditional music originated with peoples such as the ancient Romans, who carried Greek music to Spain, and the Visigoths, whose music comprised melodic religious chants, as well as Jewish, Christian, and Moorish music. Different regions of Spain came to develop their own distinct sounds that integrate specific instruments.
Flamenco guitar, sometimes referred to as "toque," came from Andalusia — a small region in southern Spain. Flamenco is a way of playing a guitar that encompasses "cante," the Spanish word for "song." In flamenco guitar playing, the guitar is played in a way that weaves together charismatic rhythms and melodies. This style of guitar playing was originally developed to accompany "cante."
Castanets made their way into the music of various countries in the Mediterranean such as Turkey, Greece, Italy and Spain. These small, handheld instruments have been used in music for centuries and have become the national instrument of Spain. Castanets are traditionally made of castana wood, although they can also be made of metal, and consist of two cups that contain slightly curved dips on one side. The two cups are drilled to give off a distinct sound, with one being slightly higher in pitch and one being lower.
The Basque country of Spain often incorporated accordions into its music. Accordions were introduced to Basque country from Italy in the 19th century. Accordion playing within Basque music is known as "trikitixa," which means "hand-sound" in Basque. The style of accordion playing in Basque music involves rapid melodies and staccato triplets. Modern-day Basque music is a blend of trikitixa, tambourine and voice.
Bongo drums consist of two drums — the macho (larger drum) and the hembra (smaller drum) joined together by a bridge in the middle. Bongos came into existence in Cuba in the 1800s and are played with the hands of the musicians — no drumsticks are required. Bongos are played resting between the musician's legs or while on a stand, allowing for freer movement. The traditional beat of bongo drums is known as "marillo" — the Spanish word for "hammer."
- hemeroskopion/iStock/Getty Images | <urn:uuid:a5846296-dea7-4837-8abb-d71158ff042a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ourpastimes.com/spanish-music-traditional-instruments-12497706.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00345.warc.gz | en | 0.982307 | 495 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.20130133628... | 4 | Spain's history consists of many vibrant cultures, many of which influenced the others. Spain's traditional music originated with peoples such as the ancient Romans, who carried Greek music to Spain, and the Visigoths, whose music comprised melodic religious chants, as well as Jewish, Christian, and Moorish music. Different regions of Spain came to develop their own distinct sounds that integrate specific instruments.
Flamenco guitar, sometimes referred to as "toque," came from Andalusia — a small region in southern Spain. Flamenco is a way of playing a guitar that encompasses "cante," the Spanish word for "song." In flamenco guitar playing, the guitar is played in a way that weaves together charismatic rhythms and melodies. This style of guitar playing was originally developed to accompany "cante."
Castanets made their way into the music of various countries in the Mediterranean such as Turkey, Greece, Italy and Spain. These small, handheld instruments have been used in music for centuries and have become the national instrument of Spain. Castanets are traditionally made of castana wood, although they can also be made of metal, and consist of two cups that contain slightly curved dips on one side. The two cups are drilled to give off a distinct sound, with one being slightly higher in pitch and one being lower.
The Basque country of Spain often incorporated accordions into its music. Accordions were introduced to Basque country from Italy in the 19th century. Accordion playing within Basque music is known as "trikitixa," which means "hand-sound" in Basque. The style of accordion playing in Basque music involves rapid melodies and staccato triplets. Modern-day Basque music is a blend of trikitixa, tambourine and voice.
Bongo drums consist of two drums — the macho (larger drum) and the hembra (smaller drum) joined together by a bridge in the middle. Bongos came into existence in Cuba in the 1800s and are played with the hands of the musicians — no drumsticks are required. Bongos are played resting between the musician's legs or while on a stand, allowing for freer movement. The traditional beat of bongo drums is known as "marillo" — the Spanish word for "hammer."
- hemeroskopion/iStock/Getty Images | 483 | ENGLISH | 1 |
School-Wide Environmental Behavior: "Greening Up the Classrooms"
Teachers at Severna Park Middle School have embraced the practice of "greening up" their classrooms. In a school-wide professional development, a school based Girl Scout troop came and spoke to the staff about the benefits of having plants in the classroom. Each classroom teacher was given one plant for their room. Since then, the Green School Committee has challenged teachers to add more plants. Many teachers have taken the challenge and added many plants to their rooms. The custodial staff has been very instrumental as well. They care for the plants over the summers, so teachers do not have to worry about watering, etc. Teachers talk to the students at the beginning of the year about why they have plants and their importance. Currently, over 35 teachers have plants in their classrooms. Administrators have added plants to their offices as well. | <urn:uuid:594e1c49-aa2b-4801-9988-262f4e32a377> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.spmsgreenschool.com/131-school-wide-environmental-behavior.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00457.warc.gz | en | 0.986268 | 181 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.414851725... | 14 | School-Wide Environmental Behavior: "Greening Up the Classrooms"
Teachers at Severna Park Middle School have embraced the practice of "greening up" their classrooms. In a school-wide professional development, a school based Girl Scout troop came and spoke to the staff about the benefits of having plants in the classroom. Each classroom teacher was given one plant for their room. Since then, the Green School Committee has challenged teachers to add more plants. Many teachers have taken the challenge and added many plants to their rooms. The custodial staff has been very instrumental as well. They care for the plants over the summers, so teachers do not have to worry about watering, etc. Teachers talk to the students at the beginning of the year about why they have plants and their importance. Currently, over 35 teachers have plants in their classrooms. Administrators have added plants to their offices as well. | 179 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The beginning of week 8 has been building up to the concept of learning design. The first four activities have been very time consuming in terms of what was asked of us, and also of the thought space the ideas have occupied.
I think I have arrived at something of an epiphany though.
A learning narrative is simply telling the story of learning. All of us have learned and all of us have taught - even if only in a very informal sense. Any parent has taught their child simple things such as the names of colours, types of food, species of animal, different vehicles and so on. None of them write this down as a formal plan. No mum wakes up thinking 'I will teach my toddler about cows today and therefore we shall go to a farm' but if their activities take them past a field of cows and the child takes an interest then she may stop and point to the animals. Explain that they are eating the grass and that we get milk for our cereal from the cows. They may talk about how the cows are black and white and how they're bigger than a dog but not as big as a horse. This is all very informal and responsive to both the environment and the interests of the learner.
If the same mother was asked 'How did you teach your child about farm animals?' she may write down:
- We went for a walk past a field of cows and my child pointed at the animals
- We stopped to look at the cows and I asked my child what colour the cows were. My child said the cows were black and white. The child then remarked that the cows were big.
- I pointed to a dog walking by and said the cows were bigger than the dog and asked if the child could think of any animals the cows were smaller than. The child thought and then said that a horse was bigger than a cow.
- I asked the child what the cows were doing (they were grazing) and the child didn't know. I explained that the cows were eating grass. I told the child that the cows turned the grass into milk and asked when they ate milk. The child said they'd had milk on their cornflakes in the morning.
- The child then lost interest so we continued with our walk.
This list represents the encounter. It describes what happened, some of the thought processes and some of the ways the teacher (parent) directed the learning of the child by answering questions and offering new information. This is more of a report than a lesson plan but the same information is conveyed and the learning experience has been represented in a way which could be analysed, reproduced or repurposed by someone else.
If this encounter were to be 'planned' then the lesson plan may look like this:
- Take the child for a walk close to a field of cows
- Assess the child's interest in the cows. If the child seems interested encourage them to speak about the cows. The child may remark on the size, colour or physical characteristics of the animal
- Ask the child if they have any ideas about the behavior of the animal - what does it eat, where does it sleep, what does it do?
- If the child seems interested tell them about milk production and see if they can associate milk with their day to day lives.
- Continue chatting until the child has lost interest and then move on.
This lesson 'plan' is still very learner focused and is in-keeping with a constructivist theory of education - allowing the learner to build on their existing knowledge and learn that which engages their interest.
A learning design is the next step and may take a broader approach. It may involve planning for any necessary resources, extension activities, and have a more formal plan for setting a learning objective and assessing learning outcomes. It may be more generally worded so that the same lesson idea could be used for other animals!
I am finding it easier to grasp these concepts when I apply them to the education of young children. I think this may be because it is a setting I am familiar with even though I have never been a school-teacher. I have had four children, I have 'taught' in many mother and toddler / playgroup settings, I have taught Sunday school lessons for my entire adult life. I can easily see how informal, formal and specifically designed learning both differentiates and converges.
Applying this to classroom learning for adults (or lecture theatre, online tutor group) is more straightforward than applying it to my own setting where our e-learning platform essentially has no interaction between student and teacher. I am having to mentally separate interactive e-learning from online revision. What we actually provide is the latter. This is challenging but I hope that H800 will allow me to develop our services to be more broadly helpful to our learners. | <urn:uuid:b0c922ee-63e6-4339-9ced-eb6f0f26c8d2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://learn1.open.ac.uk/mod/oublog/viewpost.php?post=206312 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00179.warc.gz | en | 0.982747 | 982 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.317936956882... | 12 | The beginning of week 8 has been building up to the concept of learning design. The first four activities have been very time consuming in terms of what was asked of us, and also of the thought space the ideas have occupied.
I think I have arrived at something of an epiphany though.
A learning narrative is simply telling the story of learning. All of us have learned and all of us have taught - even if only in a very informal sense. Any parent has taught their child simple things such as the names of colours, types of food, species of animal, different vehicles and so on. None of them write this down as a formal plan. No mum wakes up thinking 'I will teach my toddler about cows today and therefore we shall go to a farm' but if their activities take them past a field of cows and the child takes an interest then she may stop and point to the animals. Explain that they are eating the grass and that we get milk for our cereal from the cows. They may talk about how the cows are black and white and how they're bigger than a dog but not as big as a horse. This is all very informal and responsive to both the environment and the interests of the learner.
If the same mother was asked 'How did you teach your child about farm animals?' she may write down:
- We went for a walk past a field of cows and my child pointed at the animals
- We stopped to look at the cows and I asked my child what colour the cows were. My child said the cows were black and white. The child then remarked that the cows were big.
- I pointed to a dog walking by and said the cows were bigger than the dog and asked if the child could think of any animals the cows were smaller than. The child thought and then said that a horse was bigger than a cow.
- I asked the child what the cows were doing (they were grazing) and the child didn't know. I explained that the cows were eating grass. I told the child that the cows turned the grass into milk and asked when they ate milk. The child said they'd had milk on their cornflakes in the morning.
- The child then lost interest so we continued with our walk.
This list represents the encounter. It describes what happened, some of the thought processes and some of the ways the teacher (parent) directed the learning of the child by answering questions and offering new information. This is more of a report than a lesson plan but the same information is conveyed and the learning experience has been represented in a way which could be analysed, reproduced or repurposed by someone else.
If this encounter were to be 'planned' then the lesson plan may look like this:
- Take the child for a walk close to a field of cows
- Assess the child's interest in the cows. If the child seems interested encourage them to speak about the cows. The child may remark on the size, colour or physical characteristics of the animal
- Ask the child if they have any ideas about the behavior of the animal - what does it eat, where does it sleep, what does it do?
- If the child seems interested tell them about milk production and see if they can associate milk with their day to day lives.
- Continue chatting until the child has lost interest and then move on.
This lesson 'plan' is still very learner focused and is in-keeping with a constructivist theory of education - allowing the learner to build on their existing knowledge and learn that which engages their interest.
A learning design is the next step and may take a broader approach. It may involve planning for any necessary resources, extension activities, and have a more formal plan for setting a learning objective and assessing learning outcomes. It may be more generally worded so that the same lesson idea could be used for other animals!
I am finding it easier to grasp these concepts when I apply them to the education of young children. I think this may be because it is a setting I am familiar with even though I have never been a school-teacher. I have had four children, I have 'taught' in many mother and toddler / playgroup settings, I have taught Sunday school lessons for my entire adult life. I can easily see how informal, formal and specifically designed learning both differentiates and converges.
Applying this to classroom learning for adults (or lecture theatre, online tutor group) is more straightforward than applying it to my own setting where our e-learning platform essentially has no interaction between student and teacher. I am having to mentally separate interactive e-learning from online revision. What we actually provide is the latter. This is challenging but I hope that H800 will allow me to develop our services to be more broadly helpful to our learners. | 964 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Later when he became the officer-in-charge of the British town of ‘Mafeking’ in South Africa, which was surrounded by a very large company of Boers (Dutch settlers), he was able to keep them at bay for six months merely due to his novel scout ways. In this task he was greatly helped by the young boys of the town. Baden Powell’s novel ideas of survival in the midst of enemy won him a great deal of acclaim and international praise.
Baden Powell thought that scouting would be a good training to the young, even in peace time as well. Therefore, in 1908 he organised a camp on the Brown Sea island near the coast of England to train his first group of scouts which consisted of 24 boys from all over England. For two weeks, these boys were taught the principles and methods of scouting. At night, they used to sit around the campfire, singing and telling stories. Thus, started the scout movement. Thereafter, Baden Powell published his ideas in a book named ‘Scouting for Boys’. In no time the movement became popular and scout troops were formed all over the world. Baden Powell left the army and devoted his entire life, until his death in 1941 to the development of this movement. He also started a similar movement for girls in 1910 with the help of his sister, Agnes.
The scout movement has a well-organised set-up. Boys from the age of 8 to 11 years are called cub scouts while boys from 11 to 15 years are known as scouts. The next group consists of boys between 15 to 18 years of age. They are called senior scouts, while boys from 18 to 24 years are known as Ranger Scouts.
Girl guides are also grouped in the same way as boy scouts. The main motto of scouts is ‘ Be Prepared’. They are taught to be prepared for all situations in life. They take three promises, namely, to do their duty to God and country, to help all people at all times and to obey the scout laws.
Scouting instills in the young, minds, several fine qualities. First and foremost, it makes them disciplined, self-reliant, helpful and courteous. It makes them brave and alert at all times. It teaches them to face the odds of life cheerfully and courageously. The movement promotes honesty, loyalty to the country, patriotism, brotherhood, respect for elders, etc. It enables them to be clean in thought, word and action. All these qualities would stand in good stead in the future and would make the youth of today, worthwhile citizens of the country.
Thus, there is very little doubt about the value of scout movement. It is indeed, a noble movement of young boys and girls. It promotes several fine qualities in the young and makes them worthwhile and disciplined citizens of the country. Therefore, all attempts should be made to promote this great movement wherever possible. | <urn:uuid:36024417-7750-4981-ae71-f91d2af280c1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://lucasdipasquale.com/606-words-essay-on-scout-movement/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00527.warc.gz | en | 0.985422 | 604 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.10812... | 5 | Later when he became the officer-in-charge of the British town of ‘Mafeking’ in South Africa, which was surrounded by a very large company of Boers (Dutch settlers), he was able to keep them at bay for six months merely due to his novel scout ways. In this task he was greatly helped by the young boys of the town. Baden Powell’s novel ideas of survival in the midst of enemy won him a great deal of acclaim and international praise.
Baden Powell thought that scouting would be a good training to the young, even in peace time as well. Therefore, in 1908 he organised a camp on the Brown Sea island near the coast of England to train his first group of scouts which consisted of 24 boys from all over England. For two weeks, these boys were taught the principles and methods of scouting. At night, they used to sit around the campfire, singing and telling stories. Thus, started the scout movement. Thereafter, Baden Powell published his ideas in a book named ‘Scouting for Boys’. In no time the movement became popular and scout troops were formed all over the world. Baden Powell left the army and devoted his entire life, until his death in 1941 to the development of this movement. He also started a similar movement for girls in 1910 with the help of his sister, Agnes.
The scout movement has a well-organised set-up. Boys from the age of 8 to 11 years are called cub scouts while boys from 11 to 15 years are known as scouts. The next group consists of boys between 15 to 18 years of age. They are called senior scouts, while boys from 18 to 24 years are known as Ranger Scouts.
Girl guides are also grouped in the same way as boy scouts. The main motto of scouts is ‘ Be Prepared’. They are taught to be prepared for all situations in life. They take three promises, namely, to do their duty to God and country, to help all people at all times and to obey the scout laws.
Scouting instills in the young, minds, several fine qualities. First and foremost, it makes them disciplined, self-reliant, helpful and courteous. It makes them brave and alert at all times. It teaches them to face the odds of life cheerfully and courageously. The movement promotes honesty, loyalty to the country, patriotism, brotherhood, respect for elders, etc. It enables them to be clean in thought, word and action. All these qualities would stand in good stead in the future and would make the youth of today, worthwhile citizens of the country.
Thus, there is very little doubt about the value of scout movement. It is indeed, a noble movement of young boys and girls. It promotes several fine qualities in the young and makes them worthwhile and disciplined citizens of the country. Therefore, all attempts should be made to promote this great movement wherever possible. | 614 | ENGLISH | 1 |
“The blood of martyrs is the seed of Christians.” This maxim, credited to the second-century ecclesiastical writer Tertullian, was profoundly evidenced by eight Jesuit missionaries who brought Jesus to the…
“The blood of martyrs is the seed of Christians.”
This maxim, credited to the second-century ecclesiastical writer Tertullian, was profoundly evidenced by eight Jesuit missionaries who brought Jesus to the Indians of North America during the 17th century. In the face of extreme suffering and hardship, these brave Frenchmen met violent deaths while serving God and the Church in remote areas of eastern Canada and New York state. They became known as the North American Martyrs.
There were six priests and two oblate laymen, Jesuits all, who the Church raised to sainthood as a result of their heroic missionary efforts between the years 1625 and 1649. In an eight-year period (1642-1649), they were all murdered while spreading the Gospel to the North American Indians and as a group were canonized by Pope Pius IX in 1930. Their feast day is Oct. 19.
Although each of these missionaries had heard about the severe environment of the area called New France, none could fathom what the situation was actually like: disease, severe weather, lack of food, unsanitary living conditions, impassable forests, solitude and a hostile population. Travel was by canoe on treacherous waterways or walking for miles through dense insect-filled and uncharted forests. The Jesuit mission was to witness to a population of Indians who spoke a different language, were violent enemies and were not opposed to the use of torture.
Despite the anticipated hardships and often being urged not to go, the Jesuits sought out, some even begged for, missionary duties in North America.
Hurons and Iroquois
The Indians they sought to evangelize were primarily the Huron nation made up of between 20,000 to 30,000 people. The Hurons lived mostly in the interior of Canada, some more than 1,000 miles from the primary Jesuit mission center at Québec. While generally hospitable, the Indians were suspicious of the Black Robes (which the Indians called the Jesuits) and their religion. Among those who did eventually accept baptism, there was always an uncertainty as to whether or not the individual was totally or sincerely converted to Christianity. Many never completely gave up their old pagan traditions, and some even turned on the missionaries.
The Jesuits were mostly accepted by the Hurons, but that was not the case with the Iroquois, who hated both the Hurons and the French. The French were trade partners with the Hurons and, as such, sided with them against their longtime enemies, the Iroquois. Aggravating the situation was the fact that in 1613 the early French explorers had used muskets against the Iroquois’ bow and arrows, slaughtering many Indians. The Iroquois fostered their hatred for more than 100 years.
John de Brebeuf and Gabriel Lalemant
The first of these Jesuits, Father John de Brebeuf, arrived in New France in 1625. Father Brebeuf was destined to become the founder of the Huron mission and has been referred to as the Apostle of the Hurons. He spent 24 years among the Indians and witnessed thousands of baptisms. Father Brebeuf worked hard at understanding the Huron language and actually prepared an invaluable dictionary as well as a catechism in the language. He had a special connection to the Hurons: they listened to his message about Jesus, and because of him, they allowed the Jesuits to baptize their children.
On March 16, 1649, Father Brebeuf and his Jesuit colleague Father Gabriel Lalemant were captured, severely tortured and murdered by marauding Iroquois. Their skin was cut off, hot irons were placed on their bodies and scalding water, mocking baptism, was poured over them. Kept alive for additional torture they were eventually tomahawked to death one day apart. Father Brebeuf is said to have suffered with such bravery that after killing him the Indians drank his blood and ate parts of his body seeking to acquire his courage. Father Lalemant followed Brebuef into the splendor of God’s kingdom on March 17.
Isaac Jogues and René Goupil
The story of Father Isaac Jogues, another of the Jesuit martyrs, is unique. Arriving in New France in 1635, he soon was dispatched to the mission headed by Father Brebeuf near Lake Huron. Seven years into his active and effective ministry, on Aug. 16, 1642, Jogues and René Goupil, an oblate and surgeon, were captured by the Iroquois. They were beaten with clubs and burned with hot coals. Some of their fingers were chewed off at the knuckle, and the thumb of Jogues was severed from his right hand. Despite the awful torture, they both initially survived and attempted to witness to their captors. During captivity, Goupil made the Sign of the Cross on the head of an Iroquois baby and was immediately murdered with a tomahawk. The child’s parents had been told of Goupil’s actions and believed that the Sign of the Cross was evil.
After being imprisoned and used as a slave for 13 months, Father Jogues escaped and made his way back to France where he was treated as a hero. Because of his mutilated fingers and lack of a thumb, he believed the Church would not allow him to distribute the Body and Blood of Christ. Pope Urban VIII, however, made an exception for the courageous priest, and in 1646 Father Jogues eagerly returned to New France where he met his martyrdom.
Father Jogues and an oblate missionary, John Lalande, were attempting to affect peace between the French, the Hurons and the Iroquois when they were accused of being the cause of a bad harvest. They were taken prisoner and brutally tortured by Mohawk Indians, who were part of the Iroquois nation. On Oct. 18, 1646, a Mohawk brave killed Father Jogues with a hatchet. The next day, the courageous Father Lalande met the same fate.
Father Anthony Daniel spent several years tirelessly instructing Huron youths at a seminary near Québec. He also repeatedly braved the wilderness, teaching the Christian faith and baptizing native Canadians. On July 4, 1648, after returning from one of his many exhausting trips and just finishing Mass, his mission at St. Joseph was attacked by an Iroquois war party; Father Daniel was murdered. Some accounts say he was shot with a musket and while still alive crawled among other victims bringing comfort, baptizing and giving absolution. Eventually, he was killed by a hatchet to his head.
In the same year that Fathers Brebeuf and Lalemant were martyred, a fellow Jesuit priest, Father Charles Garnier, was also murdered. He served in Canada for 13 years and like his Jesuit comrades performed his sacred ministry despite hunger, insults, deplorable living conditions and the ever present threat of death. Reports are that he would walk 30 miles a day in either heat or cold to spread the Gospel, lived in squalor and filth with the natives while caring for their sick and never counted the cost. On Dec. 7, 1649, he was born to heaven after being struck by a tomahawk during an Iroquois attack.
The next day, the feast of the Immaculate Conception, Father Noël Chabanel was returning to the mission hub at Sainte Marie, Canada, when he was killed, allegedly by one of his Huron converts. Among the Jesuits, Father Chabanel had experienced the most difficulties with the assignment. He disliked the Indian culture, never mastered the language and was often depressed. Despite these problems, which would have caused a lesser man to return home, Father Chabanel took a vow to never forsake his missionary duties or to deny the martyrdom he anticipated. He was the last of the eight Jesuits to die.
Scholars and writers have long debated the impact of the Jesuits in the overall history of New France. What can’t be debated is the well-documented story of eight heroic and faith-filled Frenchmen who never doubted they were planting the seed of Christianity and bringing Jesus Christ into the world of the Indian. Their zeal, courage and willingness to sacrifice to the point where they laid down their lives to witness for Jesus is a shining star on the North American continent and in the Church.
D.D. Emmons writes from Mount Joy, Pa.
North American Martyrs
- Father John de Brebeuf (1593-1649)
- Father Noël Chabanel (1613-1649)
- Father Antony Daniel (1601-1648)
- Father Charles Garnier (1606-1649)
- Oblate René Goupil (1608-1642)
- Father Isaac Jogues (1607-1646)
- Oblate John de Lalande (died 1646)
- Father Gabriel Lalemant (1610-1649) | <urn:uuid:657e5efb-2601-4f6b-ac55-79f5431f7a03> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.simplycatholic.com/tag/north-america/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00052.warc.gz | en | 0.983509 | 1,936 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.04863462224602... | 14 | “The blood of martyrs is the seed of Christians.” This maxim, credited to the second-century ecclesiastical writer Tertullian, was profoundly evidenced by eight Jesuit missionaries who brought Jesus to the…
“The blood of martyrs is the seed of Christians.”
This maxim, credited to the second-century ecclesiastical writer Tertullian, was profoundly evidenced by eight Jesuit missionaries who brought Jesus to the Indians of North America during the 17th century. In the face of extreme suffering and hardship, these brave Frenchmen met violent deaths while serving God and the Church in remote areas of eastern Canada and New York state. They became known as the North American Martyrs.
There were six priests and two oblate laymen, Jesuits all, who the Church raised to sainthood as a result of their heroic missionary efforts between the years 1625 and 1649. In an eight-year period (1642-1649), they were all murdered while spreading the Gospel to the North American Indians and as a group were canonized by Pope Pius IX in 1930. Their feast day is Oct. 19.
Although each of these missionaries had heard about the severe environment of the area called New France, none could fathom what the situation was actually like: disease, severe weather, lack of food, unsanitary living conditions, impassable forests, solitude and a hostile population. Travel was by canoe on treacherous waterways or walking for miles through dense insect-filled and uncharted forests. The Jesuit mission was to witness to a population of Indians who spoke a different language, were violent enemies and were not opposed to the use of torture.
Despite the anticipated hardships and often being urged not to go, the Jesuits sought out, some even begged for, missionary duties in North America.
Hurons and Iroquois
The Indians they sought to evangelize were primarily the Huron nation made up of between 20,000 to 30,000 people. The Hurons lived mostly in the interior of Canada, some more than 1,000 miles from the primary Jesuit mission center at Québec. While generally hospitable, the Indians were suspicious of the Black Robes (which the Indians called the Jesuits) and their religion. Among those who did eventually accept baptism, there was always an uncertainty as to whether or not the individual was totally or sincerely converted to Christianity. Many never completely gave up their old pagan traditions, and some even turned on the missionaries.
The Jesuits were mostly accepted by the Hurons, but that was not the case with the Iroquois, who hated both the Hurons and the French. The French were trade partners with the Hurons and, as such, sided with them against their longtime enemies, the Iroquois. Aggravating the situation was the fact that in 1613 the early French explorers had used muskets against the Iroquois’ bow and arrows, slaughtering many Indians. The Iroquois fostered their hatred for more than 100 years.
John de Brebeuf and Gabriel Lalemant
The first of these Jesuits, Father John de Brebeuf, arrived in New France in 1625. Father Brebeuf was destined to become the founder of the Huron mission and has been referred to as the Apostle of the Hurons. He spent 24 years among the Indians and witnessed thousands of baptisms. Father Brebeuf worked hard at understanding the Huron language and actually prepared an invaluable dictionary as well as a catechism in the language. He had a special connection to the Hurons: they listened to his message about Jesus, and because of him, they allowed the Jesuits to baptize their children.
On March 16, 1649, Father Brebeuf and his Jesuit colleague Father Gabriel Lalemant were captured, severely tortured and murdered by marauding Iroquois. Their skin was cut off, hot irons were placed on their bodies and scalding water, mocking baptism, was poured over them. Kept alive for additional torture they were eventually tomahawked to death one day apart. Father Brebeuf is said to have suffered with such bravery that after killing him the Indians drank his blood and ate parts of his body seeking to acquire his courage. Father Lalemant followed Brebuef into the splendor of God’s kingdom on March 17.
Isaac Jogues and René Goupil
The story of Father Isaac Jogues, another of the Jesuit martyrs, is unique. Arriving in New France in 1635, he soon was dispatched to the mission headed by Father Brebeuf near Lake Huron. Seven years into his active and effective ministry, on Aug. 16, 1642, Jogues and René Goupil, an oblate and surgeon, were captured by the Iroquois. They were beaten with clubs and burned with hot coals. Some of their fingers were chewed off at the knuckle, and the thumb of Jogues was severed from his right hand. Despite the awful torture, they both initially survived and attempted to witness to their captors. During captivity, Goupil made the Sign of the Cross on the head of an Iroquois baby and was immediately murdered with a tomahawk. The child’s parents had been told of Goupil’s actions and believed that the Sign of the Cross was evil.
After being imprisoned and used as a slave for 13 months, Father Jogues escaped and made his way back to France where he was treated as a hero. Because of his mutilated fingers and lack of a thumb, he believed the Church would not allow him to distribute the Body and Blood of Christ. Pope Urban VIII, however, made an exception for the courageous priest, and in 1646 Father Jogues eagerly returned to New France where he met his martyrdom.
Father Jogues and an oblate missionary, John Lalande, were attempting to affect peace between the French, the Hurons and the Iroquois when they were accused of being the cause of a bad harvest. They were taken prisoner and brutally tortured by Mohawk Indians, who were part of the Iroquois nation. On Oct. 18, 1646, a Mohawk brave killed Father Jogues with a hatchet. The next day, the courageous Father Lalande met the same fate.
Father Anthony Daniel spent several years tirelessly instructing Huron youths at a seminary near Québec. He also repeatedly braved the wilderness, teaching the Christian faith and baptizing native Canadians. On July 4, 1648, after returning from one of his many exhausting trips and just finishing Mass, his mission at St. Joseph was attacked by an Iroquois war party; Father Daniel was murdered. Some accounts say he was shot with a musket and while still alive crawled among other victims bringing comfort, baptizing and giving absolution. Eventually, he was killed by a hatchet to his head.
In the same year that Fathers Brebeuf and Lalemant were martyred, a fellow Jesuit priest, Father Charles Garnier, was also murdered. He served in Canada for 13 years and like his Jesuit comrades performed his sacred ministry despite hunger, insults, deplorable living conditions and the ever present threat of death. Reports are that he would walk 30 miles a day in either heat or cold to spread the Gospel, lived in squalor and filth with the natives while caring for their sick and never counted the cost. On Dec. 7, 1649, he was born to heaven after being struck by a tomahawk during an Iroquois attack.
The next day, the feast of the Immaculate Conception, Father Noël Chabanel was returning to the mission hub at Sainte Marie, Canada, when he was killed, allegedly by one of his Huron converts. Among the Jesuits, Father Chabanel had experienced the most difficulties with the assignment. He disliked the Indian culture, never mastered the language and was often depressed. Despite these problems, which would have caused a lesser man to return home, Father Chabanel took a vow to never forsake his missionary duties or to deny the martyrdom he anticipated. He was the last of the eight Jesuits to die.
Scholars and writers have long debated the impact of the Jesuits in the overall history of New France. What can’t be debated is the well-documented story of eight heroic and faith-filled Frenchmen who never doubted they were planting the seed of Christianity and bringing Jesus Christ into the world of the Indian. Their zeal, courage and willingness to sacrifice to the point where they laid down their lives to witness for Jesus is a shining star on the North American continent and in the Church.
D.D. Emmons writes from Mount Joy, Pa.
North American Martyrs
- Father John de Brebeuf (1593-1649)
- Father Noël Chabanel (1613-1649)
- Father Antony Daniel (1601-1648)
- Father Charles Garnier (1606-1649)
- Oblate René Goupil (1608-1642)
- Father Isaac Jogues (1607-1646)
- Oblate John de Lalande (died 1646)
- Father Gabriel Lalemant (1610-1649) | 2,012 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Men's repeated abandonment of women in Song of Solomon shows that the novel's woman characters suffer a twice burden. Not only are girls oppressed simply by racism, but they must also shell out the price for men's freedom. Acoustic guitar tells Milkman that dark-colored men are the unacknowledged workhorses of mankind, but the novel's events signify black ladies more correctly fit this description. The scenes that describe could abandonment demonstrate that inside the novel, males bear responsibility only for themselves, but ladies are responsible on their own, their families, and their communities. As an example, after having to endure slavery, Solomon flew house to The african continent without warning any individual of his departure. Nevertheless his better half, Ryna, who had been also a slave, was required to remain in Virginia to raise her twenty-one kids alone. Likewise, after Guitar's father is definitely killed in a factory accident, Guitar's grandma has to raise him great siblings. Even though she is older and sick, she helps her children financially, intellectually, and emotionally.
Relying on this skewed notion of gender roles, the contemporary society in the new judges people differently. When men who have fly far from their residential areas and people are venerated as heroes, women who the actual same are judged being irresponsible. Though Solomon abandoned his relatives with his air travel to Africa, generations later he is remembered as the brave patriarch of the whole community. Concurrently, Ryna, who was left to care for a brood of kids, is appreciated as a woman who proceeded to go mad mainly because she was too weakened to maintain her end of the good deal. Residents of Shalimar have got named a scary, dark gulch after Ryna, while they have given Solomon's name to a scenic mountain peak. The community benefits Solomon's desertion of his children but punishes Ryna's inability to manage them by itself. | <urn:uuid:5e5ac60e-af22-4d5d-b11d-ae44c3459797> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alcollegegop.org/music-of-solomon/10937-song-of-solomon-composition.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00447.warc.gz | en | 0.983282 | 385 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.2602810859680... | 1 | Men's repeated abandonment of women in Song of Solomon shows that the novel's woman characters suffer a twice burden. Not only are girls oppressed simply by racism, but they must also shell out the price for men's freedom. Acoustic guitar tells Milkman that dark-colored men are the unacknowledged workhorses of mankind, but the novel's events signify black ladies more correctly fit this description. The scenes that describe could abandonment demonstrate that inside the novel, males bear responsibility only for themselves, but ladies are responsible on their own, their families, and their communities. As an example, after having to endure slavery, Solomon flew house to The african continent without warning any individual of his departure. Nevertheless his better half, Ryna, who had been also a slave, was required to remain in Virginia to raise her twenty-one kids alone. Likewise, after Guitar's father is definitely killed in a factory accident, Guitar's grandma has to raise him great siblings. Even though she is older and sick, she helps her children financially, intellectually, and emotionally.
Relying on this skewed notion of gender roles, the contemporary society in the new judges people differently. When men who have fly far from their residential areas and people are venerated as heroes, women who the actual same are judged being irresponsible. Though Solomon abandoned his relatives with his air travel to Africa, generations later he is remembered as the brave patriarch of the whole community. Concurrently, Ryna, who was left to care for a brood of kids, is appreciated as a woman who proceeded to go mad mainly because she was too weakened to maintain her end of the good deal. Residents of Shalimar have got named a scary, dark gulch after Ryna, while they have given Solomon's name to a scenic mountain peak. The community benefits Solomon's desertion of his children but punishes Ryna's inability to manage them by itself. | 383 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Valerian Albanov (1881-1919)
At the end of the 19th century, the problem of the North-East passage had yet to be resolved. Explorers and merchants were interested in discovering whether or not there was a way to sail through the ice pack above Russia and Siberia and to access thereby the riches of the orient. Georgiy Brusilov and his uncle General Boris Brusilov became enthused about the financial opportunities proffered by successfully pioneering such a route and the General stated his willingness to foot the expenses of an expedition directed at that end.
They hired a crew -32 men -acquired a ship, the St. Anne, and left Murmansk in north-western Russia in August, 1912. Valerian Albanov was employed as navigator. The voyage was ostensibly purposed as a hunting expedition, as the market for furs of various sorts was a major component of the economy of the times.
Almost immediately the ship was caught in the pack ice. It drifted north in a zig-zag fashion for a year and half while the crew and officers became more and more lethargic and stultified. They still had plenty of food but they began to run out of essential materiel with which to maintain the ship and rigging. Shooting seals and polar bears had supplemented their dietary requirements, but to Albanov the future looked bleak. So he convinced 22 of the crew members to accompany him, with the captain’s permission, on a sledge/ski attempt to reach Cape Flora on Northbrook island in the Franz Joseph archipelago. This was a very small sealer’s haven that was regularly visited by hunters and seal oil ships. It was located about 200 miles south east of their position.
Albanov managed to build seven sledges and seven canoes from wood and iron salvaged from the ship and departed with the others in April, 1914. Almost immediately the heavy sledges proved immensely difficult to handle. They were so designed that the canoes were tied on top; each unit weighing about 400 pounds. Pressure ridges and jagged, uplifted blocks impeded progress and frequent open channels and fissures necessitated the expenditure of extra labor to detour around them. The first day they made three miles, and although they did better afterwords, they never were able to travel much more than 6 or 8 miles in a day. And the ice continued drifting north. After trekking for four days and struggling for 22 miles, Albanov’s noon sighting showed they had only attained 3 miles from the last location of the ship.
Accidents occurred in which the stove was lost in a polynya (an open pond) and men began disappearing. Three of them gave up and returned to the St. Anne and one wandered off, convinced that he saw land on the horizon. Both compasses broke and the chronometer was damaged, so Albanov was never sure about their exact location. Snow blindness was common and extremely painful. Occasionally the pack ice broke up. On one floe they discovered ski tracks and were disconcerted to realize that they were their own. Storms were frequent and soggy clothes, dirt and lice made them miserable.
But they were encouraged by finding sand on one floe and by the increase in bird sightings, particularly gulls that drove them mad with their overwhelming noise. Men had continued dying, and soon after actually spotting land off to the east, two members of the crew absconded with most of the remaining food and gear, leaving the rest to starve and drown. But those left managed to reach the land and to climb a steep ice barrier via a vertical crack in order to step onto rocks and dirt after two years of fighting to stay alive on the ice.
Eggs and Eider ducks were abundant and the survivors feasted to repletion. But they were all so tired and sluggish that they couldn’t decide what to do next. Cape Flora was their destination, but there was disagreement on how to get there. Four of the men decided to travel by land, on skis, but Albanov and two others knew that the only hope was to use the canoes, paddling from cape to cape until they arrived. So one morning the latter woke up to discover that the four had left, taking with them most of the supplies. The only thing left to do was to start paddling again. One of strongest remaining crew members was Alexander Konrad. He was in one canoe and Albanov was in the other. They faced violent storms, strong currents, aggressive walruses, occasional immersions and constant headaches, but they persevered, fighting their weariness and squeezing the last bit of energy and volition out of themselves until they reached Cape Flora at last. The last man besides Albanov and Konrad died, but when the two remaining reached their goal they found shacks and cabins in widely varying states of repair, some collapsed, some ruined, but a few in livable condition. They waited in hope of visitors and at last a ship was sighted in the offing and summoning up their remaining strength they canoed their way to it.
Rescued at last, they were soon discomfited by finding out that the ship was almost out of coal for its steam engine and that it was leaking a lot. Before they finally arrived at Archangel in north east Russia, they were once again briefly trapped in the ice and worn out from operating the hand pumps 24 hours a day to keep from sinking. The ship was reduced to a bare skeleton, all the superstructure having disappeared into the maw of the boiler furnace.
Some years later, the diary of Alexander Konrad was found and had some interesting additions to add to the epic story. It was worded in such a way as to indicate that Konrad had been one of the two mutineers who had left the rest to starve and die on the ice even though he had later returned to help Albanov survive. Whether this actually the case or not will probably never be known, as it was not specifically stated. But the truth remains that Konrad was probably, besides Albanov, the most capable and energetic member of the crew.
One of the symptoms of trichinosis, a parasitic roundworm found in polar bears, is lethargy and weakness. There’s some speculation that many if not all of the trekkers suffered from this condition, as they were reduced to eating raw meat for the last part of their journey. Albanov died in 1919, blown up in a railway station while returning to Moscow from Siberia: apparently related to the Russian Revolution. Konrad lived on until after the second World War. The St. Anne and the rest of the crew were never heard from again. | <urn:uuid:8b7f44ef-66b1-48ce-9da4-7a9fa501115e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://muddlet.wordpress.com/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00238.warc.gz | en | 0.988854 | 1,397 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.52744030952453... | 2 | Valerian Albanov (1881-1919)
At the end of the 19th century, the problem of the North-East passage had yet to be resolved. Explorers and merchants were interested in discovering whether or not there was a way to sail through the ice pack above Russia and Siberia and to access thereby the riches of the orient. Georgiy Brusilov and his uncle General Boris Brusilov became enthused about the financial opportunities proffered by successfully pioneering such a route and the General stated his willingness to foot the expenses of an expedition directed at that end.
They hired a crew -32 men -acquired a ship, the St. Anne, and left Murmansk in north-western Russia in August, 1912. Valerian Albanov was employed as navigator. The voyage was ostensibly purposed as a hunting expedition, as the market for furs of various sorts was a major component of the economy of the times.
Almost immediately the ship was caught in the pack ice. It drifted north in a zig-zag fashion for a year and half while the crew and officers became more and more lethargic and stultified. They still had plenty of food but they began to run out of essential materiel with which to maintain the ship and rigging. Shooting seals and polar bears had supplemented their dietary requirements, but to Albanov the future looked bleak. So he convinced 22 of the crew members to accompany him, with the captain’s permission, on a sledge/ski attempt to reach Cape Flora on Northbrook island in the Franz Joseph archipelago. This was a very small sealer’s haven that was regularly visited by hunters and seal oil ships. It was located about 200 miles south east of their position.
Albanov managed to build seven sledges and seven canoes from wood and iron salvaged from the ship and departed with the others in April, 1914. Almost immediately the heavy sledges proved immensely difficult to handle. They were so designed that the canoes were tied on top; each unit weighing about 400 pounds. Pressure ridges and jagged, uplifted blocks impeded progress and frequent open channels and fissures necessitated the expenditure of extra labor to detour around them. The first day they made three miles, and although they did better afterwords, they never were able to travel much more than 6 or 8 miles in a day. And the ice continued drifting north. After trekking for four days and struggling for 22 miles, Albanov’s noon sighting showed they had only attained 3 miles from the last location of the ship.
Accidents occurred in which the stove was lost in a polynya (an open pond) and men began disappearing. Three of them gave up and returned to the St. Anne and one wandered off, convinced that he saw land on the horizon. Both compasses broke and the chronometer was damaged, so Albanov was never sure about their exact location. Snow blindness was common and extremely painful. Occasionally the pack ice broke up. On one floe they discovered ski tracks and were disconcerted to realize that they were their own. Storms were frequent and soggy clothes, dirt and lice made them miserable.
But they were encouraged by finding sand on one floe and by the increase in bird sightings, particularly gulls that drove them mad with their overwhelming noise. Men had continued dying, and soon after actually spotting land off to the east, two members of the crew absconded with most of the remaining food and gear, leaving the rest to starve and drown. But those left managed to reach the land and to climb a steep ice barrier via a vertical crack in order to step onto rocks and dirt after two years of fighting to stay alive on the ice.
Eggs and Eider ducks were abundant and the survivors feasted to repletion. But they were all so tired and sluggish that they couldn’t decide what to do next. Cape Flora was their destination, but there was disagreement on how to get there. Four of the men decided to travel by land, on skis, but Albanov and two others knew that the only hope was to use the canoes, paddling from cape to cape until they arrived. So one morning the latter woke up to discover that the four had left, taking with them most of the supplies. The only thing left to do was to start paddling again. One of strongest remaining crew members was Alexander Konrad. He was in one canoe and Albanov was in the other. They faced violent storms, strong currents, aggressive walruses, occasional immersions and constant headaches, but they persevered, fighting their weariness and squeezing the last bit of energy and volition out of themselves until they reached Cape Flora at last. The last man besides Albanov and Konrad died, but when the two remaining reached their goal they found shacks and cabins in widely varying states of repair, some collapsed, some ruined, but a few in livable condition. They waited in hope of visitors and at last a ship was sighted in the offing and summoning up their remaining strength they canoed their way to it.
Rescued at last, they were soon discomfited by finding out that the ship was almost out of coal for its steam engine and that it was leaking a lot. Before they finally arrived at Archangel in north east Russia, they were once again briefly trapped in the ice and worn out from operating the hand pumps 24 hours a day to keep from sinking. The ship was reduced to a bare skeleton, all the superstructure having disappeared into the maw of the boiler furnace.
Some years later, the diary of Alexander Konrad was found and had some interesting additions to add to the epic story. It was worded in such a way as to indicate that Konrad had been one of the two mutineers who had left the rest to starve and die on the ice even though he had later returned to help Albanov survive. Whether this actually the case or not will probably never be known, as it was not specifically stated. But the truth remains that Konrad was probably, besides Albanov, the most capable and energetic member of the crew.
One of the symptoms of trichinosis, a parasitic roundworm found in polar bears, is lethargy and weakness. There’s some speculation that many if not all of the trekkers suffered from this condition, as they were reduced to eating raw meat for the last part of their journey. Albanov died in 1919, blown up in a railway station while returning to Moscow from Siberia: apparently related to the Russian Revolution. Konrad lived on until after the second World War. The St. Anne and the rest of the crew were never heard from again. | 1,412 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On Sept. 20, 1973 Billie Jean King was the first female tennis player to ever beat a male tennis champion. This famous tennis match is referred to as the “Battle Of The Sexes,” a significant event not only in the sports world but globally for women’s rights.
King first encountered inequality at the age of 12. She was unable to play in a tennis tournament because she was wearing shorts rather than the ‘appropriate’ outfit that included a tennis skirt. But problems of gender inequality were much greater than the dress code.
In the ’60s and ‘70s in professional tennis arenas, men were paid more than females. When King won the US Open in 1972 she received $15,000 less than Ilie Nastase, the men’s champion.
King noticed that change needed to happen, and soon.
“Unless I was number 1,” she said, “I wouldn’t be listened to.”
Thanks to King and other female athletes, the women’s movement started gaining momentum. In 1972, Title IX, which specifically prohibits sexual discrimination within schools, was offically being passed. The gender equality ball was rolling.
King started with advocating for equal pay in the US open in 1973. A sponsor agreed to level the field so the pay would be gender equal among champions. That same year Bobby Riggs, the No. 1 male tennis champion at the time, made the statement that “women’s game” was “inferior to men’s.” He challenged King to a match and she agreed.
This Tennis match would go down in history for its significance for women. There were 90 million viewers tuned in, which is still the record for people watching any tennis match to date. King beat Riggs soundly in a set of 6-4, 6-3, 6-3. The prize money was $100,000 which was the most money won by a female at that point.
“I thought it would set us back 50 years if I didn’t win that match,” said King. “It would ruin the women’s [tennis] tour and affect all women’s self-esteem. To beat a 55-year-old guy was no thrill for me. The thrill was exposing a lot of new people to tennis.”
Billie Jean King was also then the first president and co-founder of the Women’s Tennis Association, which is a large corporation today.
According to Billie Jean King Enterprises, “Perhaps no other sporting event has played a more significant role in developing greater respect and recognition for women athletes than the Battle of the Sexes.”
On this day in history, Billie Jean King made her mark in the history of female empowerment.
Story By: Moriah Spainhower
Photo Courtesy of: Google | <urn:uuid:ed7c499e-8c27-4d6a-954e-92d18dd16b96> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://suunews.net/2019/09/20/this-day-in-history-battle-of-the-sexes/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00115.warc.gz | en | 0.980149 | 608 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.0609562546014... | 7 | On Sept. 20, 1973 Billie Jean King was the first female tennis player to ever beat a male tennis champion. This famous tennis match is referred to as the “Battle Of The Sexes,” a significant event not only in the sports world but globally for women’s rights.
King first encountered inequality at the age of 12. She was unable to play in a tennis tournament because she was wearing shorts rather than the ‘appropriate’ outfit that included a tennis skirt. But problems of gender inequality were much greater than the dress code.
In the ’60s and ‘70s in professional tennis arenas, men were paid more than females. When King won the US Open in 1972 she received $15,000 less than Ilie Nastase, the men’s champion.
King noticed that change needed to happen, and soon.
“Unless I was number 1,” she said, “I wouldn’t be listened to.”
Thanks to King and other female athletes, the women’s movement started gaining momentum. In 1972, Title IX, which specifically prohibits sexual discrimination within schools, was offically being passed. The gender equality ball was rolling.
King started with advocating for equal pay in the US open in 1973. A sponsor agreed to level the field so the pay would be gender equal among champions. That same year Bobby Riggs, the No. 1 male tennis champion at the time, made the statement that “women’s game” was “inferior to men’s.” He challenged King to a match and she agreed.
This Tennis match would go down in history for its significance for women. There were 90 million viewers tuned in, which is still the record for people watching any tennis match to date. King beat Riggs soundly in a set of 6-4, 6-3, 6-3. The prize money was $100,000 which was the most money won by a female at that point.
“I thought it would set us back 50 years if I didn’t win that match,” said King. “It would ruin the women’s [tennis] tour and affect all women’s self-esteem. To beat a 55-year-old guy was no thrill for me. The thrill was exposing a lot of new people to tennis.”
Billie Jean King was also then the first president and co-founder of the Women’s Tennis Association, which is a large corporation today.
According to Billie Jean King Enterprises, “Perhaps no other sporting event has played a more significant role in developing greater respect and recognition for women athletes than the Battle of the Sexes.”
On this day in history, Billie Jean King made her mark in the history of female empowerment.
Story By: Moriah Spainhower
Photo Courtesy of: Google | 583 | ENGLISH | 1 |
American traitor and British Brigadier General Benedict Arnold enjoys his greatest success as a British commander on January 5, 1781. Arnold’s 1,600 largely Loyalist troops sailed up the James River at the beginning of January, eventually landing in Westover, Virginia. Leaving Westover on the afternoon of January 4, Arnold and his men arrived at the virtually undefended capital city of Richmond the next afternoon.
Only 200 militiamen responded to Governor Jefferson’s call to defend the capital–most Virginians had already served and therefore thought they were under no further obligation to answer such calls. Despite this untenable military position, the author of the Declaration of Independence was criticized by some for fleeing Richmond during the crisis. Later, two months after Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown, he was cleared of any wrongdoing during his term as governor. Jefferson went on to become the leader of the Democratic-Republican Party, and his presidential victory over the Federalists is remembered as The Revolution of 1800.
After the war, Benedict Arnold attempted and failed to establish businesses in Canada and London. He died a pauper on June 14, 1801, and lays buried in his Continental Army uniform at St. Mary’s Church, Middlesex, London. To this day, his name remains synonymous with the word “traitor” in the United States. | <urn:uuid:da912f24-f7c3-4613-bc34-b2da2b2bbcfb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/benedict-arnold-captures-and-destroys-richmond | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00298.warc.gz | en | 0.982755 | 276 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.256... | 3 | American traitor and British Brigadier General Benedict Arnold enjoys his greatest success as a British commander on January 5, 1781. Arnold’s 1,600 largely Loyalist troops sailed up the James River at the beginning of January, eventually landing in Westover, Virginia. Leaving Westover on the afternoon of January 4, Arnold and his men arrived at the virtually undefended capital city of Richmond the next afternoon.
Only 200 militiamen responded to Governor Jefferson’s call to defend the capital–most Virginians had already served and therefore thought they were under no further obligation to answer such calls. Despite this untenable military position, the author of the Declaration of Independence was criticized by some for fleeing Richmond during the crisis. Later, two months after Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown, he was cleared of any wrongdoing during his term as governor. Jefferson went on to become the leader of the Democratic-Republican Party, and his presidential victory over the Federalists is remembered as The Revolution of 1800.
After the war, Benedict Arnold attempted and failed to establish businesses in Canada and London. He died a pauper on June 14, 1801, and lays buried in his Continental Army uniform at St. Mary’s Church, Middlesex, London. To this day, his name remains synonymous with the word “traitor” in the United States. | 286 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The site of Fort Washington was originally selected by George Washington in 1794 as the location for a fortification to protect the new capital city. It was originally named Fort Warburton after the Warburton plantation, owned by the Digges family, on whose land it was built. The fort was finished in 1809 and re-named in honor of George Washington. Fort Washington is strategically located along the Potomac River where the channel narrows. The 1809 fort no longer exists but can be detected in aerial views of the site. It was located in front of (on the riverside) the present fort and was star shaped with a circular gun battery. The British described it as "most respectable."
Fort Armaments in 1814:
* Two 32 pounders
* Two 50 pounders
* Nine 24 pounders
* Approx. Ten 18 pounder Columbines
In August 1814, the Fort was manned by 49 men under the command of Captain Samuel T. Dyson, US Army. On August 27th, with British forces in Washington and British warships, under the command of Captain James Alexander Gordon, heading up the Potomac, Captain Dyson ordered the fort destroyed to prevent its capture.
Captain Dyson was arrested, relieved of his command and court-martialed for his actions. He was found guilty of destroying government property and abandoning his post. In his defense, Dyson stated that he was acting on orders from Brigadier General William H. Winder.
Twelve days after the destruction of the fort, orders were issued to construct new defenses; the work was finished by the US Army Corps of Engineers in 1824. | <urn:uuid:bcb39ebd-0abf-444e-817e-46a2539c0dd2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.bguthriephotos.com/graphlib.nsf/popIdentShow?OpenForm&FileName=BLADWV_170730_398.JPG&FileLink=/Graphlib/GraphData17.nsf/Images/2017_MD_Bladensburg_WParkVC_0640/$File/BLADWV_170730_398.JPG | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00240.warc.gz | en | 0.981335 | 340 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.46104791760... | 2 | The site of Fort Washington was originally selected by George Washington in 1794 as the location for a fortification to protect the new capital city. It was originally named Fort Warburton after the Warburton plantation, owned by the Digges family, on whose land it was built. The fort was finished in 1809 and re-named in honor of George Washington. Fort Washington is strategically located along the Potomac River where the channel narrows. The 1809 fort no longer exists but can be detected in aerial views of the site. It was located in front of (on the riverside) the present fort and was star shaped with a circular gun battery. The British described it as "most respectable."
Fort Armaments in 1814:
* Two 32 pounders
* Two 50 pounders
* Nine 24 pounders
* Approx. Ten 18 pounder Columbines
In August 1814, the Fort was manned by 49 men under the command of Captain Samuel T. Dyson, US Army. On August 27th, with British forces in Washington and British warships, under the command of Captain James Alexander Gordon, heading up the Potomac, Captain Dyson ordered the fort destroyed to prevent its capture.
Captain Dyson was arrested, relieved of his command and court-martialed for his actions. He was found guilty of destroying government property and abandoning his post. In his defense, Dyson stated that he was acting on orders from Brigadier General William H. Winder.
Twelve days after the destruction of the fort, orders were issued to construct new defenses; the work was finished by the US Army Corps of Engineers in 1824. | 367 | ENGLISH | 1 |
15 Interesting Facts About the RMS Titanic
Without a doubt, one of the most famous ships in nautical history, the RMS Titanic was built in Belfast. She set sail from Southampton on her maiden voyage to New York on the 10 April 1912.
The ship called at Cherbourg in France and Queenstown, Ireland (now known as Cork or Cobh), then headed out across the Atlantic towards North America.
On the night of 14 April 1912, the ship struck an iceberg, and within 3 hours, she had sunk beneath the waves, resulting in many lives being lost.
There has been much speculation raised over the years as to why exactly the ship sank so fast and why so many lives were lost, with blame being apportioned in differing portions to the ship's design, its construction, the behavior of the captain, the crew, and the passengers.
15 RMS Titanic Facts
- The Titanic was the biggest man-made moving object in the world at the time of her launch
- The ship was constructed in Belfast, Northern Ireland
- RMS stands for “Royal Mail Steamer”
- She began her voyage from Southampton, England
- The ship was designed to carry a maximum of 3,547 people
- The ship had 4 huge funnels, but only 3 of them released steam
- The ship’s top speed was 23 knots, the equivalent of over 26 miles per hour
- Four days into the crossing, Titanic hit an iceberg
- Six ice warnings were received by Titanic on the day of the collision, all were ignored
- After the lookouts sounded the warning, there were only 37 seconds to react
- The ship was originally designed to carry 64 lifeboats, but only had 20 on her maiden voyage
- It took Titanic two hours and forty minutes to sink after it hit the iceberg
The protocol of "women and children first" was generally followed
- Out of the 2,224 people on board, it is thought that 719 were saved and 1514 were lost
- It took seventy-four years before the wreck of RMS Titanic was found
I will give more detail below on each of the facts listed.
1. RMS Titanic was the biggest man-made moving object in the world at the time of her launch
She measured 882 feet 9 inches (269.06 m) long with a maximum breadth of 92 feet 6 inches (28.19 m) and had a height of 104 feet (32 m).
2. The ship was constructed in Belfast, Northern Ireland
She was built by the Harland and Wolff shipyard and cost $7.5 million. Two workers died during her construction. Thomas Andrews, the ship's architect, would end up dying in the disaster.
3. RMS stands for “Royal Mail Steamer”
As well as carrying an estimated 2,224 passengers and crew, the ship was also delivering 3,423 sacks of mail (7,000,000 individual pieces) for the British postal service.
4. She began her voyage from Southampton, England
Setting off on 14 April 1912, the plan was for her to land at New York Pier 54 on the morning of 17 April after calling in at Cherbourg and Queenstown and crossing the Atlantic. It was widely believed at the time that large vessels faced negligible threat from icebergs.
5. The ship was designed to carry a maximum of 3,547 people
There were an estimated 2,224 passengers and crew on her maiden voyage, including 13 honeymooning couples. There were 324 passengers in First Class, 284 in Second Class, and 709 in Third Class. Sixty-six percent of the passengers were male and thirty-four percent female. One hundred and seven children were aboard her.
6. The ship had 4 huge funnels, but only 3 of them released steam
The fourth funnel was mainly for show, but also provided some ventilation for the kitchen. Each funnel was painted buff with a black top. There were also two 155 foot (47 m) high masts.
7. The ship’s top speed was 23 knots, the equivalent of over 26 miles per hour
She had three main engines, two reciprocating four-cylinder, triple-expansion steam engines and a low-pressure Parsons turbine. Each engine powered its own propeller.
8. Four days into the crossing, Titanic hit an iceberg
The impact was at 11:40 pm ship's time. The ship was 375 miles (600 km) south of Newfoundland at the time. Although the hull wasn't punctured by the iceberg, the seams were pulled apart by buckling, letting water seep in.
9. Six ice warnings were received by Titanic on the day of the collision, all were ignored
It was a moonless night and the waters were still, making the iceberg difficult to spot. The iceberg was also a “blackberg”, which meant that due to continuous melting, it looked more dark and mirrored in its appearance, rather than white – the phenomenon is similar to the black ice found on roads.
"Come at once, we have struck a berg, it's a CQD old man."— Jack Phillips, Wireless Operator
10. After the lookouts sounded the warning, there were only 37 seconds to react
First Officer Murdoch ordered the ship to turn left and for the engine room to put the engines in reverse, but it was not enough to avoid the iceberg, and a number of holes developed below the waterline.
11. The ship was originally designed to carry 64 lifeboats, but only had 20 on her maiden voyage
This was in order to lower the amount of clutter on the decks. A lifeboat drill was supposed to take place on the day of the disaster, but for some reason, the captain had cancelled it. The crew had not been properly trained to deal with an evacuation and many of the lifeboats were barely half full when launched.
12. It took Titanic two hours and forty minutes to sink after it hit the iceberg
She began sinking bow first, and as the angle became steeper more and more cabins were flooded with water.There were only enough lifeboats for half of the people on board.
13. The protocol of "women and children first" was generally followed
This is why a larger percentage of adult men died. Many of the third class passengers were left below decks as the ship filled with water and so consequently more of them died proportionately, than second class ones.
14. Out of the 2,224 people on board, it is thought that 719 were saved and 1514 were lost
Two dogs also survived the disaster. There is some confusion about the exact numbers of people on board, however. This is due to the passenger list being inaccurate, as some people cancelled at the last minute due to a coal strike, and a smaller amount of people traveled under aliases for various reasons.
15. It took seventy-four years before the wreck of RMS Titanic was found
The ship had split in two at the time of sinking and was at a depth of 12,600 feet below the surface of the ocean. There is now a permanent exhibition of artifacts from the ship at the Luxor Las Vegas hotel and casino in Las Vegas, Nevada.
"I cannot imagine any condition which would cause a ship to founder. I cannot conceive of any vital disaster happening to this vessel. Modern ship building has gone beyond that."— Captain Smith, Commander of Titanic
Facts About Edward Smith, Captain of Titanic
Edward Smith, the captain of the Titanic, was born in Hanley, Staffordshire, England on 27th January 1850. Smith joined the White Star Line in 1880 and quickly rose in status. In September 1911, Smith was in command of Olympic, at that time the biggest vessel in the world, when it collided with a British warship, HMS Hawke. Smith died, along with around 1,500 others, after Titanic hit the iceberg and sank. His body was never recovered.
"When anyone asks how I can best describe my experience in nearly 40 years at sea, I merely say, uneventful. Of course there have been winter gales, and storms and fog the like, but in all my experience, I have never been in any accident of any sort worth speaking about. ...... I never saw a wreck and never have been wrecked, nor was I ever in any predicament that threatened to end in disaster of any sort. You see, I am not very good material for a story"— Captain Smith, Commander of Titanic
Titanic, The 1997 Movie
In 1997, James Cameron wrote and co-produced a movie of the shipping disaster. The fictional account of the event starred Leonardo DiCaprio and Kate Winslet and was an enormous commercial and critical success.
Cameron used footage of the actual Titanic wreck for the movie, and a reconstruction of the ship was constructed at Playas de Rosarito in Baja California. The movie also used computer graphics, which were highly advanced for the time to show the ship sinking.
The movie cost $200 million to make and was the most expensive film ever made at the time. Costs were more than recouped, however, and it is still the highest grossing movie ever made.
- Brewster, Hugh; Coulter, Laurie (1998). 882½ Amazing Answers to your Questions about the Titanic. Madison Press Book. ISBN 978-0-590-18730-5.
- Crosbie, Duncan; Mortimer, Sheila (2006). Titanic: The Ship of Dreams. New York, NY: Orchard Books. ISBN 978-0-439-89995-6.
- Merideth, Lee W. (2003). 1912 Facts About Titanic. Sunnyvale, CA: Rocklin Press. ISBN 978-0-9626237-9-0.
This content is accurate and true to the best of the author’s knowledge and is not meant to substitute for formal and individualized advice from a qualified professional.
Questions & Answers
© 2013 Paul Goodman | <urn:uuid:0cfdc172-fb40-4880-b7e0-294d995b4d74> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://owlcation.com/humanities/15-RMS-Titanic-Facts | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00012.warc.gz | en | 0.983006 | 2,074 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.16934651136... | 2 | 15 Interesting Facts About the RMS Titanic
Without a doubt, one of the most famous ships in nautical history, the RMS Titanic was built in Belfast. She set sail from Southampton on her maiden voyage to New York on the 10 April 1912.
The ship called at Cherbourg in France and Queenstown, Ireland (now known as Cork or Cobh), then headed out across the Atlantic towards North America.
On the night of 14 April 1912, the ship struck an iceberg, and within 3 hours, she had sunk beneath the waves, resulting in many lives being lost.
There has been much speculation raised over the years as to why exactly the ship sank so fast and why so many lives were lost, with blame being apportioned in differing portions to the ship's design, its construction, the behavior of the captain, the crew, and the passengers.
15 RMS Titanic Facts
- The Titanic was the biggest man-made moving object in the world at the time of her launch
- The ship was constructed in Belfast, Northern Ireland
- RMS stands for “Royal Mail Steamer”
- She began her voyage from Southampton, England
- The ship was designed to carry a maximum of 3,547 people
- The ship had 4 huge funnels, but only 3 of them released steam
- The ship’s top speed was 23 knots, the equivalent of over 26 miles per hour
- Four days into the crossing, Titanic hit an iceberg
- Six ice warnings were received by Titanic on the day of the collision, all were ignored
- After the lookouts sounded the warning, there were only 37 seconds to react
- The ship was originally designed to carry 64 lifeboats, but only had 20 on her maiden voyage
- It took Titanic two hours and forty minutes to sink after it hit the iceberg
The protocol of "women and children first" was generally followed
- Out of the 2,224 people on board, it is thought that 719 were saved and 1514 were lost
- It took seventy-four years before the wreck of RMS Titanic was found
I will give more detail below on each of the facts listed.
1. RMS Titanic was the biggest man-made moving object in the world at the time of her launch
She measured 882 feet 9 inches (269.06 m) long with a maximum breadth of 92 feet 6 inches (28.19 m) and had a height of 104 feet (32 m).
2. The ship was constructed in Belfast, Northern Ireland
She was built by the Harland and Wolff shipyard and cost $7.5 million. Two workers died during her construction. Thomas Andrews, the ship's architect, would end up dying in the disaster.
3. RMS stands for “Royal Mail Steamer”
As well as carrying an estimated 2,224 passengers and crew, the ship was also delivering 3,423 sacks of mail (7,000,000 individual pieces) for the British postal service.
4. She began her voyage from Southampton, England
Setting off on 14 April 1912, the plan was for her to land at New York Pier 54 on the morning of 17 April after calling in at Cherbourg and Queenstown and crossing the Atlantic. It was widely believed at the time that large vessels faced negligible threat from icebergs.
5. The ship was designed to carry a maximum of 3,547 people
There were an estimated 2,224 passengers and crew on her maiden voyage, including 13 honeymooning couples. There were 324 passengers in First Class, 284 in Second Class, and 709 in Third Class. Sixty-six percent of the passengers were male and thirty-four percent female. One hundred and seven children were aboard her.
6. The ship had 4 huge funnels, but only 3 of them released steam
The fourth funnel was mainly for show, but also provided some ventilation for the kitchen. Each funnel was painted buff with a black top. There were also two 155 foot (47 m) high masts.
7. The ship’s top speed was 23 knots, the equivalent of over 26 miles per hour
She had three main engines, two reciprocating four-cylinder, triple-expansion steam engines and a low-pressure Parsons turbine. Each engine powered its own propeller.
8. Four days into the crossing, Titanic hit an iceberg
The impact was at 11:40 pm ship's time. The ship was 375 miles (600 km) south of Newfoundland at the time. Although the hull wasn't punctured by the iceberg, the seams were pulled apart by buckling, letting water seep in.
9. Six ice warnings were received by Titanic on the day of the collision, all were ignored
It was a moonless night and the waters were still, making the iceberg difficult to spot. The iceberg was also a “blackberg”, which meant that due to continuous melting, it looked more dark and mirrored in its appearance, rather than white – the phenomenon is similar to the black ice found on roads.
"Come at once, we have struck a berg, it's a CQD old man."— Jack Phillips, Wireless Operator
10. After the lookouts sounded the warning, there were only 37 seconds to react
First Officer Murdoch ordered the ship to turn left and for the engine room to put the engines in reverse, but it was not enough to avoid the iceberg, and a number of holes developed below the waterline.
11. The ship was originally designed to carry 64 lifeboats, but only had 20 on her maiden voyage
This was in order to lower the amount of clutter on the decks. A lifeboat drill was supposed to take place on the day of the disaster, but for some reason, the captain had cancelled it. The crew had not been properly trained to deal with an evacuation and many of the lifeboats were barely half full when launched.
12. It took Titanic two hours and forty minutes to sink after it hit the iceberg
She began sinking bow first, and as the angle became steeper more and more cabins were flooded with water.There were only enough lifeboats for half of the people on board.
13. The protocol of "women and children first" was generally followed
This is why a larger percentage of adult men died. Many of the third class passengers were left below decks as the ship filled with water and so consequently more of them died proportionately, than second class ones.
14. Out of the 2,224 people on board, it is thought that 719 were saved and 1514 were lost
Two dogs also survived the disaster. There is some confusion about the exact numbers of people on board, however. This is due to the passenger list being inaccurate, as some people cancelled at the last minute due to a coal strike, and a smaller amount of people traveled under aliases for various reasons.
15. It took seventy-four years before the wreck of RMS Titanic was found
The ship had split in two at the time of sinking and was at a depth of 12,600 feet below the surface of the ocean. There is now a permanent exhibition of artifacts from the ship at the Luxor Las Vegas hotel and casino in Las Vegas, Nevada.
"I cannot imagine any condition which would cause a ship to founder. I cannot conceive of any vital disaster happening to this vessel. Modern ship building has gone beyond that."— Captain Smith, Commander of Titanic
Facts About Edward Smith, Captain of Titanic
Edward Smith, the captain of the Titanic, was born in Hanley, Staffordshire, England on 27th January 1850. Smith joined the White Star Line in 1880 and quickly rose in status. In September 1911, Smith was in command of Olympic, at that time the biggest vessel in the world, when it collided with a British warship, HMS Hawke. Smith died, along with around 1,500 others, after Titanic hit the iceberg and sank. His body was never recovered.
"When anyone asks how I can best describe my experience in nearly 40 years at sea, I merely say, uneventful. Of course there have been winter gales, and storms and fog the like, but in all my experience, I have never been in any accident of any sort worth speaking about. ...... I never saw a wreck and never have been wrecked, nor was I ever in any predicament that threatened to end in disaster of any sort. You see, I am not very good material for a story"— Captain Smith, Commander of Titanic
Titanic, The 1997 Movie
In 1997, James Cameron wrote and co-produced a movie of the shipping disaster. The fictional account of the event starred Leonardo DiCaprio and Kate Winslet and was an enormous commercial and critical success.
Cameron used footage of the actual Titanic wreck for the movie, and a reconstruction of the ship was constructed at Playas de Rosarito in Baja California. The movie also used computer graphics, which were highly advanced for the time to show the ship sinking.
The movie cost $200 million to make and was the most expensive film ever made at the time. Costs were more than recouped, however, and it is still the highest grossing movie ever made.
- Brewster, Hugh; Coulter, Laurie (1998). 882½ Amazing Answers to your Questions about the Titanic. Madison Press Book. ISBN 978-0-590-18730-5.
- Crosbie, Duncan; Mortimer, Sheila (2006). Titanic: The Ship of Dreams. New York, NY: Orchard Books. ISBN 978-0-439-89995-6.
- Merideth, Lee W. (2003). 1912 Facts About Titanic. Sunnyvale, CA: Rocklin Press. ISBN 978-0-9626237-9-0.
This content is accurate and true to the best of the author’s knowledge and is not meant to substitute for formal and individualized advice from a qualified professional.
Questions & Answers
© 2013 Paul Goodman | 2,209 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Thank you for reading Keep The Faith! If you enjoy our content, tell us by leaving a review here
The BBC has launched two new online series – Alt History and Black to Life – that take a look back at black British history that has been forgotten.
Over the years, people have been campaigning to make history more inclusive.
That means that instead of always telling the stories of white British and white European historical figures, people from black and minority ethnic communities should be represented as well.
What happens in the series?
Alt History takes a look into why black British people are often left out of the history books and how there have been black people living in the UK for hundreds of years.
Black to Life takes a slightly different approach and focuses more on the individual stories behind the black British people that have been forgotten about.
But who are some of the figures that appear in the series? Here are just a couple of people you may not have heard about.Edward Swarthye
When you think of Tudor England, you probably think of historical figures such as King Henry VIII.
The Tudor period was from 1485 to 1603.
Edward Swarthye was a porter during that time. That means he was employed to carry out jobs such as carrying luggage for people. He worked for a politician called Sir Edward Wynter in Gloucester, England, and was highly respected at the time.
In fact, he was so respected that Sir Edward Wynter once asked him to punish one of his white workers who was acting badly. This was a big deal at the time as black people would never be seen as having more authority than white people.Mary Fillis
Originally from Morocco, Mary Fillis was a Muslim woman who moved to England when she was just six years old.
She started off as a servant but because she was so skilled in making things, she became a respected dressmaker.
Historical records show that Mary changed her religion from being a Muslim to being a Christian by taking part in a religious ceremony called a baptism.
She was one of 60 black women who were baptised as a way to fit into British society.Omoba Aina Forbes-Bonetta
Omoba Aina was a princess from a Nigerian community called the Yoruba tribe.
After her parents died from being captured by slave traders, Omoba was given as a gift to Queen Victoria. Omobo had to lose her Yoruba identity when she arrived in Britain and that’s when her name was changed to Sarah Forbes-Bonetta.
In order for her to be accepted into British society, Omoba could no longer be a Nigerian princess and became property of the British Empire.
Records show that Queen Victoria cared about Omoba and ended up paying for her education and finding people to look after her.
Omoba eventually had a child of her own and it became Queen Victoria’s goddaughter.
Dido (Belle) Elizabeth Lindsay
Dido lived from 1761 to 1804 and her portrait still hangs in Kenwood House
Dido was born during a period of time where slaves were sold in the transatlantic slave trade.
Her mother was a West African woman and her dad was a white British man who was a Navy officer working in the Caribbean.
She’s often seen as the first black aristocrat which means she was part of the British upper class at the time. She was taken away from her mother and brought to the the UK to be looked after by her father’s family in Kenwood House in north London.
However, even though she was part of the upper class she was not always treated like that because she was mixed race and not white.
Historians say that even though her family loved her, they often would not let her be seen by guests who would visit the family.
Alt History and Black to Life can be watched here.
Main image copyright: BBC
First published 02.07.19: https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/48786804
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0.224336817860603... | 1 | Thank you for reading Keep The Faith! If you enjoy our content, tell us by leaving a review here
The BBC has launched two new online series – Alt History and Black to Life – that take a look back at black British history that has been forgotten.
Over the years, people have been campaigning to make history more inclusive.
That means that instead of always telling the stories of white British and white European historical figures, people from black and minority ethnic communities should be represented as well.
What happens in the series?
Alt History takes a look into why black British people are often left out of the history books and how there have been black people living in the UK for hundreds of years.
Black to Life takes a slightly different approach and focuses more on the individual stories behind the black British people that have been forgotten about.
But who are some of the figures that appear in the series? Here are just a couple of people you may not have heard about.Edward Swarthye
When you think of Tudor England, you probably think of historical figures such as King Henry VIII.
The Tudor period was from 1485 to 1603.
Edward Swarthye was a porter during that time. That means he was employed to carry out jobs such as carrying luggage for people. He worked for a politician called Sir Edward Wynter in Gloucester, England, and was highly respected at the time.
In fact, he was so respected that Sir Edward Wynter once asked him to punish one of his white workers who was acting badly. This was a big deal at the time as black people would never be seen as having more authority than white people.Mary Fillis
Originally from Morocco, Mary Fillis was a Muslim woman who moved to England when she was just six years old.
She started off as a servant but because she was so skilled in making things, she became a respected dressmaker.
Historical records show that Mary changed her religion from being a Muslim to being a Christian by taking part in a religious ceremony called a baptism.
She was one of 60 black women who were baptised as a way to fit into British society.Omoba Aina Forbes-Bonetta
Omoba Aina was a princess from a Nigerian community called the Yoruba tribe.
After her parents died from being captured by slave traders, Omoba was given as a gift to Queen Victoria. Omobo had to lose her Yoruba identity when she arrived in Britain and that’s when her name was changed to Sarah Forbes-Bonetta.
In order for her to be accepted into British society, Omoba could no longer be a Nigerian princess and became property of the British Empire.
Records show that Queen Victoria cared about Omoba and ended up paying for her education and finding people to look after her.
Omoba eventually had a child of her own and it became Queen Victoria’s goddaughter.
Dido (Belle) Elizabeth Lindsay
Dido lived from 1761 to 1804 and her portrait still hangs in Kenwood House
Dido was born during a period of time where slaves were sold in the transatlantic slave trade.
Her mother was a West African woman and her dad was a white British man who was a Navy officer working in the Caribbean.
She’s often seen as the first black aristocrat which means she was part of the British upper class at the time. She was taken away from her mother and brought to the the UK to be looked after by her father’s family in Kenwood House in north London.
However, even though she was part of the upper class she was not always treated like that because she was mixed race and not white.
Historians say that even though her family loved her, they often would not let her be seen by guests who would visit the family.
Alt History and Black to Life can be watched here.
Main image copyright: BBC
First published 02.07.19: https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/48786804
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This essay will establish the effect of slavery in Uncle Tom’s Cabin. During the 1850s, slavery was widespread in the United States. During the abolitionists’ fight against slavery, the usage of anti-slavery writings was particularly extensive. Abolitionists spread their message though newspapers, pamphlets, books, published sermons, poetry and the other forms of literature. Among the most famous abolitionists’ writings were David Walker’s Appeal and Frederick Douglass’ The North Star. Also, there were slave narratives which were composed of personal accounts of people suffering from slavery. These slavery narratives gave the Northerners a closer look at slavery. This triggered an undisputable counter to idyllic pictures describing slavery and pro-slavery arguments (Slave Narratives 35).
Uncle Tom’s Cabin is a novel that was written by Harriet Beecher Stowe. She passed an anti-slavery message through her novel. Although slave narratives were immensely popular, she was able to reach the largest audience. Her novel was easily accessible to many people. Although she was not an active abolitionist, she had solid anti-slavery feelings. Having grown up in an abolitionist home, she had experienced the pain felt by the victims of slavery. She had also spent valuable time visiting slave victims in Kentucky.
In 1850, she decided to make a strong statement against slavery. As a freelance journalist, Stowe had earned some skills in writing informative materials. Hence, in June 1885, she began publishing Uncle Tom’s Cabin in a serialised form. She got an amazing response from people who were lucky enough to see her work. They pressured her to release the anti-slavery document in a book form. Although it was a risky business selling novels those days, Stowe sold over 5000 copies of her book. It was later translated into different languages.
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The book relates to anti-slavery message really well. The character Tom is an African American who chooses to retain his integrity instead of betraying his fellow slaves (Reynolds 21). He was a hero to the whites as he was able to uphold his Christian principles even when faced with such brutality. This was in contrast to the Northerner slave-dealer, Simon Legree who enraged the whites with his level of cruelty. Through her novel, Stowe was able to convince readers that slavery was evil, because it braced cruel people such as Legree and confined innocent people like Uncle Tom. She was able to rally thousands of people to the anti-slavery cause because of her informative work.
Northerners recognized Stowe’s work, but it was protested by Southerners. The southerners were extremely outraged and declared her novel malicious, falsely and criminal. Subsequently, a bookseller in Alabama was chased away from town because of selling copies of Stowe’s work. To add salt to injury, she received intimidating letters from the irate Southerners. Also, the southerners wrote their own novels which depicted that the slaves were living a happy life as compared to the miserable lives of Northern white workers.
The Effects of Slavery
Throughout the novel, slavery is portrayed as hurtful to the slaves (Stowe et al. 32). Stowe ensured that the novel had a wrenching passionate effect upon the readers. Some of the examples in the novel showing the pain gotten from slavery include Tom’s broken-hearted farewell to his family, the cruel thrashings endured by Prue, Tom and George, and George being forced by Harris to kill his own dog. All these incidences pass the message that slavery indeed creates pain to the victims.
Stowe manages to clearly show the role of slavery in the creation of moral injury. For example, the morality of black Sam is compromised by his need to endorse himself as a darling to his master. Stowe evidently shows that whatever happens to slaves damages their moral and spiritual soundness. Although Tom tries to help Lucy on the steamboat, she fruitfully commits suicide. Old Prue dies in despair after articulating her frustration to Tom, telling him how she would rather go to hell rather than heaven where she would meet her tormentors, the white people. Also, another slave by the name Cassy is in dejection. Already she has tried murder and wants to kill Legree. A good number of slaves who have been exploited sexually or sold into sexual slavery are in severe moral danger (Reynolds 26).
Slavery does not primarily affect only slaves. For example, Marie St. Clare, a slave owner, suffers from narcissism as a result of the institution of slavery. She has been raised from childhood believing that she is a superior kind of human being. Her melancholy and sadism is a natural result of her condition. In the novel, Marie is quoted telling herself “if these people are not real as I am real, then I may hurt them without guilt”. However, she knows well that the slaves are real and not visionary elements. This self-contradiction is the source of her imaginary pain.
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Despite St. Clare being among the novel’s leading spokesmen against slavery, she had been morally injured by slavery. He finds it easier to accept slavery than fight it. As a result, he discards spirituality for both himself and his slaves.
On the other side, slavery has changed other people to be cold-hearted and merciless. For example, Legree is portrayed as the personification of slavery. It has encouraged and permitted him to become truly evil and inhumane. Also, a 12-year-old Henrique, presented to be a potential kid, is turning out to be as worthless to himself as the other people like Marie.
Slavery tries to turn people into objects that have no feelings to the other human beings. As a result of being emotionally affected, Cassy despairs and wants to kill Legree. Although Legree has been inhuman to slaves, it would not be good to revenge by killing him as this will complicate the scenario. Also, George shows no mercy to the dog and kills it after being instructed to do so by Harris. Evidently, slavery had robbed George of his humane feelings, and he no longer felt sympathy to anyone else.
Stowe was able to cleaarly explain the deplorable living conditions of slaves. For example, Legree wanted his slaves to sleep in an insecure place where they could be attacked by anything or anyone. Slavery allowed masters such as Simon Legree to harass their clients and offer them inhumane conditions of living. Although Legree was rich and slept in a comfortable place, he did not care how or where his slaves slept. It was essentially none of his business. The only thing that concerned him was whether slaves performed their tough tasks or not.
Nonetheless, Stowe was able to show that Christian humility can stand even in the presence of slavery. Uncle Tom saves his fellow slaves by defying the white authority. This was a sign of Christian humility. Tom is willing to forgive even in the face of cruelty he has suffered on the hands of his masters. He forgives and learns to love Simon Legree.
Also, slavery seemed to be overpowered by Christianity. For example, Tom is the only person who loves Legree. Tom believes that Christian love is stronger and believes that Christian dictates someone to love the sinner but abhor the sin. Through the guidance of Christ’s love, he distinguishes between the institution of slavery and the personal identity of Legree. Tom is able to forgive someone who represents evil and loves him. This personal triumph of Tom over Legree showed that Christianity is more powerful than slavery.
The Impact of Uncle Tom’s Cabin on the Modern Slavery
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Stowe provided a platform for modern readers to be aware of the effect of slavery on both the slaves and their masters. She has been able to depict the physical and emotional harm brought about by slavery (Stowe 15). According to Stowe, the impact of slavery was among its dominant evils. Hence, to object slavery was not the moral responsibility of slaves but of masters. Nevertheless, they were not able to make critical decisions concerning slavery when it mattered most. This made it hard for slaves to make their own personal choices as they were inhibited by their own selfish masters who treated them not like human beings.
Through the novel, the author advocated for respect of spiritual and moral matters. She argued that slavery contributed to disrespect for the spirituality of victims and immoral standings by them. Slavery made the slaves question the spirituality of their masters and wonder if they were actually human beings. The amount of harassment and cruelty showed to the slaves by their masters did not go well with them. They started even questioning their personal beliefs as displayed by Tom. At one time, he asks himself if Christ’s love is discriminatory or not. Nonetheless, he does not lose his spiritual standing and forgives Legree for his inhuman actions towards the salves.
In conclusion, I have been able to realise the effects of slavery through Stowe’s novel. She has clearly demonstrated the impact of slavery on both the masters and slaves. Hence, it is evident that slavery should be fought against at all cost.
Want to know what your projected final grades might look like?
Check out our easy to use grade calculator! It can help you solve this question.Calculate now | <urn:uuid:e0b2f74f-d699-4abb-90c3-f2e598db2682> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://marvelousessays.co.uk/essays/literature/the-effect-of-slavery-in-uncle-tom-s-cabin.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00396.warc.gz | en | 0.982853 | 2,019 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.2352820485830... | 1 | Buy custom The Effect of Slavery in Uncle Tom’s Cabin essay
This essay will establish the effect of slavery in Uncle Tom’s Cabin. During the 1850s, slavery was widespread in the United States. During the abolitionists’ fight against slavery, the usage of anti-slavery writings was particularly extensive. Abolitionists spread their message though newspapers, pamphlets, books, published sermons, poetry and the other forms of literature. Among the most famous abolitionists’ writings were David Walker’s Appeal and Frederick Douglass’ The North Star. Also, there were slave narratives which were composed of personal accounts of people suffering from slavery. These slavery narratives gave the Northerners a closer look at slavery. This triggered an undisputable counter to idyllic pictures describing slavery and pro-slavery arguments (Slave Narratives 35).
Uncle Tom’s Cabin is a novel that was written by Harriet Beecher Stowe. She passed an anti-slavery message through her novel. Although slave narratives were immensely popular, she was able to reach the largest audience. Her novel was easily accessible to many people. Although she was not an active abolitionist, she had solid anti-slavery feelings. Having grown up in an abolitionist home, she had experienced the pain felt by the victims of slavery. She had also spent valuable time visiting slave victims in Kentucky.
In 1850, she decided to make a strong statement against slavery. As a freelance journalist, Stowe had earned some skills in writing informative materials. Hence, in June 1885, she began publishing Uncle Tom’s Cabin in a serialised form. She got an amazing response from people who were lucky enough to see her work. They pressured her to release the anti-slavery document in a book form. Although it was a risky business selling novels those days, Stowe sold over 5000 copies of her book. It was later translated into different languages.
Buy The Effect of Slavery in Uncle Tom’s Cabin essay paper onlineBecome our VIP client
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The book relates to anti-slavery message really well. The character Tom is an African American who chooses to retain his integrity instead of betraying his fellow slaves (Reynolds 21). He was a hero to the whites as he was able to uphold his Christian principles even when faced with such brutality. This was in contrast to the Northerner slave-dealer, Simon Legree who enraged the whites with his level of cruelty. Through her novel, Stowe was able to convince readers that slavery was evil, because it braced cruel people such as Legree and confined innocent people like Uncle Tom. She was able to rally thousands of people to the anti-slavery cause because of her informative work.
Northerners recognized Stowe’s work, but it was protested by Southerners. The southerners were extremely outraged and declared her novel malicious, falsely and criminal. Subsequently, a bookseller in Alabama was chased away from town because of selling copies of Stowe’s work. To add salt to injury, she received intimidating letters from the irate Southerners. Also, the southerners wrote their own novels which depicted that the slaves were living a happy life as compared to the miserable lives of Northern white workers.
The Effects of Slavery
Throughout the novel, slavery is portrayed as hurtful to the slaves (Stowe et al. 32). Stowe ensured that the novel had a wrenching passionate effect upon the readers. Some of the examples in the novel showing the pain gotten from slavery include Tom’s broken-hearted farewell to his family, the cruel thrashings endured by Prue, Tom and George, and George being forced by Harris to kill his own dog. All these incidences pass the message that slavery indeed creates pain to the victims.
Stowe manages to clearly show the role of slavery in the creation of moral injury. For example, the morality of black Sam is compromised by his need to endorse himself as a darling to his master. Stowe evidently shows that whatever happens to slaves damages their moral and spiritual soundness. Although Tom tries to help Lucy on the steamboat, she fruitfully commits suicide. Old Prue dies in despair after articulating her frustration to Tom, telling him how she would rather go to hell rather than heaven where she would meet her tormentors, the white people. Also, another slave by the name Cassy is in dejection. Already she has tried murder and wants to kill Legree. A good number of slaves who have been exploited sexually or sold into sexual slavery are in severe moral danger (Reynolds 26).
Slavery does not primarily affect only slaves. For example, Marie St. Clare, a slave owner, suffers from narcissism as a result of the institution of slavery. She has been raised from childhood believing that she is a superior kind of human being. Her melancholy and sadism is a natural result of her condition. In the novel, Marie is quoted telling herself “if these people are not real as I am real, then I may hurt them without guilt”. However, she knows well that the slaves are real and not visionary elements. This self-contradiction is the source of her imaginary pain.
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Despite St. Clare being among the novel’s leading spokesmen against slavery, she had been morally injured by slavery. He finds it easier to accept slavery than fight it. As a result, he discards spirituality for both himself and his slaves.
On the other side, slavery has changed other people to be cold-hearted and merciless. For example, Legree is portrayed as the personification of slavery. It has encouraged and permitted him to become truly evil and inhumane. Also, a 12-year-old Henrique, presented to be a potential kid, is turning out to be as worthless to himself as the other people like Marie.
Slavery tries to turn people into objects that have no feelings to the other human beings. As a result of being emotionally affected, Cassy despairs and wants to kill Legree. Although Legree has been inhuman to slaves, it would not be good to revenge by killing him as this will complicate the scenario. Also, George shows no mercy to the dog and kills it after being instructed to do so by Harris. Evidently, slavery had robbed George of his humane feelings, and he no longer felt sympathy to anyone else.
Stowe was able to cleaarly explain the deplorable living conditions of slaves. For example, Legree wanted his slaves to sleep in an insecure place where they could be attacked by anything or anyone. Slavery allowed masters such as Simon Legree to harass their clients and offer them inhumane conditions of living. Although Legree was rich and slept in a comfortable place, he did not care how or where his slaves slept. It was essentially none of his business. The only thing that concerned him was whether slaves performed their tough tasks or not.
Nonetheless, Stowe was able to show that Christian humility can stand even in the presence of slavery. Uncle Tom saves his fellow slaves by defying the white authority. This was a sign of Christian humility. Tom is willing to forgive even in the face of cruelty he has suffered on the hands of his masters. He forgives and learns to love Simon Legree.
Also, slavery seemed to be overpowered by Christianity. For example, Tom is the only person who loves Legree. Tom believes that Christian love is stronger and believes that Christian dictates someone to love the sinner but abhor the sin. Through the guidance of Christ’s love, he distinguishes between the institution of slavery and the personal identity of Legree. Tom is able to forgive someone who represents evil and loves him. This personal triumph of Tom over Legree showed that Christianity is more powerful than slavery.
The Impact of Uncle Tom’s Cabin on the Modern Slavery
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Stowe provided a platform for modern readers to be aware of the effect of slavery on both the slaves and their masters. She has been able to depict the physical and emotional harm brought about by slavery (Stowe 15). According to Stowe, the impact of slavery was among its dominant evils. Hence, to object slavery was not the moral responsibility of slaves but of masters. Nevertheless, they were not able to make critical decisions concerning slavery when it mattered most. This made it hard for slaves to make their own personal choices as they were inhibited by their own selfish masters who treated them not like human beings.
Through the novel, the author advocated for respect of spiritual and moral matters. She argued that slavery contributed to disrespect for the spirituality of victims and immoral standings by them. Slavery made the slaves question the spirituality of their masters and wonder if they were actually human beings. The amount of harassment and cruelty showed to the slaves by their masters did not go well with them. They started even questioning their personal beliefs as displayed by Tom. At one time, he asks himself if Christ’s love is discriminatory or not. Nonetheless, he does not lose his spiritual standing and forgives Legree for his inhuman actions towards the salves.
In conclusion, I have been able to realise the effects of slavery through Stowe’s novel. She has clearly demonstrated the impact of slavery on both the masters and slaves. Hence, it is evident that slavery should be fought against at all cost.
Want to know what your projected final grades might look like?
Check out our easy to use grade calculator! It can help you solve this question.Calculate now | 1,979 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Birthed in African American communities in New Orleans Jazz, became a popular genre in the 1920’s. The Jazz age was a time where new music and dance emerged. Not only was this genre popular in Black communities but it was also popular in White middle class communities. Jazz derived from ragtime and blues influences. Jazz music was able to become popular quickly and played all over the United States as a result of the inventions of radio and phonograph. Potter Palm Shows was also another reason as to why jazz became so big in the 1920’s. It was a radio show where audiences were able to watch big-band jazz performances.
Louis Daniel Armstrong, born on Aug. 4, 1901 in New Orleans. Louis Armstrong was an American trumpeter and jazz singer. Louis Armstrong became one of the most influential musicians in jazz history. Armstrong came from a ratherly poor background and was raised by his mother and grandmother. Louis Armstrong was named “the single most influential figure in the history of Jazz” by Billboard magazine. He is known to be the first Jazz soloists. Louis was able to transform Jazz through his unorthodox style of improvisation and influence other artists who followed behind him.
Miles Dewey Davis III was born on May 26, 1926 in Alton, Illinois. He was an American trumpeter and composer. Davis made many contributions to Jazz during the 1940’s. Daviss’ style on the trumpet was nothing like other famous Jazz artists such as Armstrong. He played his trumpet with a straight vibratoless tone. His distinctive style of trumpet playing utilizing tone rather than speed changed the way jazz was performed any those who came after him followed his footsteps. Miles Davis unique style contributed to the development of jazz; he made way for the introduction of different styles of jazz like cool jazz, modern jazz, bebop, and etc. Miles Davis was awarded several grammys was considered one of the most influential trumpeters during the period of Jazz.
Edward Kennedy “Duke” Ellington was born on April 29, 1899 in Washington D.C. He was considered to be one of the greatest jazz composers of his time. His career lasted over 5 decades. He was the band leader of the Washingtonians who later performed regularly at Harlem’s famous Cotton Club which helped him to gain fame nationally. With what began with a 12 member orchestra later grew to 14 members, one being Billy Strayhorn. Duke composed almost all of the orchestra performances. , which is something you don’t see often. He toured the United States with his group traveling through the United States and several other countries.
Cool Jazz was introduced in the late 1940’s. It was the opposite of bebop; the style was a more relaxed playing.
Bebop which developed in the early 1940’s was usually a fast tempo with a rapid chord change. It was one of the most complex styles of jazz.
Swing Jazz became popular during the 1930’s. It is played by big bands . Swing music was smooth and had consisted of a solid beat with simple chords. | <urn:uuid:a7df63f7-f83c-4ccf-851e-f8fdfa2e92d8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://blackmusicscholar.com/all-about-jazz/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00480.warc.gz | en | 0.989957 | 638 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.0501648485660... | 1 | Birthed in African American communities in New Orleans Jazz, became a popular genre in the 1920’s. The Jazz age was a time where new music and dance emerged. Not only was this genre popular in Black communities but it was also popular in White middle class communities. Jazz derived from ragtime and blues influences. Jazz music was able to become popular quickly and played all over the United States as a result of the inventions of radio and phonograph. Potter Palm Shows was also another reason as to why jazz became so big in the 1920’s. It was a radio show where audiences were able to watch big-band jazz performances.
Louis Daniel Armstrong, born on Aug. 4, 1901 in New Orleans. Louis Armstrong was an American trumpeter and jazz singer. Louis Armstrong became one of the most influential musicians in jazz history. Armstrong came from a ratherly poor background and was raised by his mother and grandmother. Louis Armstrong was named “the single most influential figure in the history of Jazz” by Billboard magazine. He is known to be the first Jazz soloists. Louis was able to transform Jazz through his unorthodox style of improvisation and influence other artists who followed behind him.
Miles Dewey Davis III was born on May 26, 1926 in Alton, Illinois. He was an American trumpeter and composer. Davis made many contributions to Jazz during the 1940’s. Daviss’ style on the trumpet was nothing like other famous Jazz artists such as Armstrong. He played his trumpet with a straight vibratoless tone. His distinctive style of trumpet playing utilizing tone rather than speed changed the way jazz was performed any those who came after him followed his footsteps. Miles Davis unique style contributed to the development of jazz; he made way for the introduction of different styles of jazz like cool jazz, modern jazz, bebop, and etc. Miles Davis was awarded several grammys was considered one of the most influential trumpeters during the period of Jazz.
Edward Kennedy “Duke” Ellington was born on April 29, 1899 in Washington D.C. He was considered to be one of the greatest jazz composers of his time. His career lasted over 5 decades. He was the band leader of the Washingtonians who later performed regularly at Harlem’s famous Cotton Club which helped him to gain fame nationally. With what began with a 12 member orchestra later grew to 14 members, one being Billy Strayhorn. Duke composed almost all of the orchestra performances. , which is something you don’t see often. He toured the United States with his group traveling through the United States and several other countries.
Cool Jazz was introduced in the late 1940’s. It was the opposite of bebop; the style was a more relaxed playing.
Bebop which developed in the early 1940’s was usually a fast tempo with a rapid chord change. It was one of the most complex styles of jazz.
Swing Jazz became popular during the 1930’s. It is played by big bands . Swing music was smooth and had consisted of a solid beat with simple chords. | 651 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The RMS Titanic embarked on her maiden voyage from Southampton on the south coast of England on April 10, 1912. The first port of call was Cherbourg on the northern coast of France. Next, she sailed to Queenstown, which is now called Cobh, in Country Cork on the south coast of Ireland. After picking up more passengers there, the Titanic set off to cross the Atlantic. The ship left port at 1:30 pm on April 11th but never made it to New York.
Three days after the ship set off for New York, it struck an iceberg around 375 miles south of Newfoundland. The ship hit the iceberg at 11:40 pm, but the impact didn’t breach the ship’s hull. It did bend the steel plates in the vessels, which created gaps in between them. Five of the ship’s watertight sections began to fill with water. The ship was designed to sail with four of the compartments failing, but not five. This was the beginning of the end of the Titanic.
An Unbelievable Tragedy
It took just 2 ½ hours from the time of the collision for the ship to sink. There were 2,224 people on board of the vessel that was said to be unsinkable. Over 1,500 died. Some died after plunging into the freezing ocean, and some were still on the ship when he fell 12,500 feet to the bottom of the Atlantic.
White Star Line
White Star Line built the Titanic. They wanted to build the largest ship on the planet, which would also be the most extravagant for first-class passengers. The construction began on the last day of March 1909 in the Irish city of Belfast. It took two years to build the ship. The hull was made up of 2,000 steel plates that were six feet across, 30 feet long, and 1 ½ inch thick. They weighed a total of three tons. Building the ship was dangerous, and nine ironworkers died during the construction, and another 246 were injured.
The interior of the first-class and second-class sections was designed to look like a grand hotel. First-class passengers were able to enjoy facilities such as a gym, a swimming pool, and a Turkish bath. They were also able to dine in style on delicacies beyond their wildest imagination. The third-class passengers didn’t have access to all areas, but their accommodations were much better than on other ships.
When the ship was complete, she was 880-feet from bow to stern. There were only 20 lifeboats in place, which could hold a total of 1,178 people, despite the fact that there were 2,224 people on board. It was believed that since the ship was considered, unsinkable, there was no need to litter the decks with too many lifeboats. There were 14 wooden lifeboats, four collapsible boats, and two cutters. If the ship held 64 lifeboats, which the deck could have carried, over 4,000 people could have been saved. Sadly, White Star Line believed that only 20 lifeboats were necessary, which is why so many people died. The regulations at the time required ships of this size to carry only 16 boats with a capacity of 990. After the tragic sinking, these regulations were changed.
The Captain and Crew
Edward Smith was the ship’s senior captain. There were 885 crew members on board. Only 23 of them were women, while 66 worked on deck, and 325 worked below as engineers and stokers. There were also eight musicians on the ship, who went down in history even though they died. When the ship began to sink, first-class passengers were the first to be put in lifeboats. It was supposed to be women and children first. The richest man on the ship, John Jacob Astor IV, was traveling with his wife, Madeleine. Benjamin Guggenheim was also on board with his mistress, Leontine Aubert, and her maid. During the sinking, the women made it, but the men and their staff did not.
Finding the Wreck
In 1985, a French-American team led by Robert Ballard of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution discovered what was left on the Titanic. They used a remote-controlled sub called Argo, to take photos of the ship that were published all over the world. In 2005, the crew of a mini-submarine, Limiting Factor, reached a depth of 12.500-feet to get a look at the mangled remains. Using their high-tech 4K cameras, they got some very stunning photos.
Victor Vescovo was aboard another expedition in August 2019. It had been 14-years since the last time the ship was photographed, and the team found something incredibly shocking. Divers Explored The Titanic For The First Time In 14 Years – And They Made A Haunting Discovery. The Titanic was quickly disappearing. Patrick Lahey, a member of the expedition and the president of the company who owns the Limiting Factor, sent out a press release from the ship. He said, “The most fascinating aspect was seeing how the ocean is consuming the Titanic, and returning to its elemental form while providing refuge for a remarkably diverse number of animals.”
One part of the ship that has disappeared is the “Captain’s bathtub.” It can be seen in the older photos, but not the images that were taken in 2019. It is believed that the ocean currents and the corrosive action of saltwater and bacteria have been eating the metal, and contributing to its disappearance. Eventually, there will be nothing left. | <urn:uuid:c2c62fd1-26ad-42ae-8e31-b3e74e8e575b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://factsverse.com/divers-explored-the-titanic-for-the-first-time-in-14-years-and-they-made-a-haunting-discovery/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00288.warc.gz | en | 0.990688 | 1,162 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.305772513151... | 5 | The RMS Titanic embarked on her maiden voyage from Southampton on the south coast of England on April 10, 1912. The first port of call was Cherbourg on the northern coast of France. Next, she sailed to Queenstown, which is now called Cobh, in Country Cork on the south coast of Ireland. After picking up more passengers there, the Titanic set off to cross the Atlantic. The ship left port at 1:30 pm on April 11th but never made it to New York.
Three days after the ship set off for New York, it struck an iceberg around 375 miles south of Newfoundland. The ship hit the iceberg at 11:40 pm, but the impact didn’t breach the ship’s hull. It did bend the steel plates in the vessels, which created gaps in between them. Five of the ship’s watertight sections began to fill with water. The ship was designed to sail with four of the compartments failing, but not five. This was the beginning of the end of the Titanic.
An Unbelievable Tragedy
It took just 2 ½ hours from the time of the collision for the ship to sink. There were 2,224 people on board of the vessel that was said to be unsinkable. Over 1,500 died. Some died after plunging into the freezing ocean, and some were still on the ship when he fell 12,500 feet to the bottom of the Atlantic.
White Star Line
White Star Line built the Titanic. They wanted to build the largest ship on the planet, which would also be the most extravagant for first-class passengers. The construction began on the last day of March 1909 in the Irish city of Belfast. It took two years to build the ship. The hull was made up of 2,000 steel plates that were six feet across, 30 feet long, and 1 ½ inch thick. They weighed a total of three tons. Building the ship was dangerous, and nine ironworkers died during the construction, and another 246 were injured.
The interior of the first-class and second-class sections was designed to look like a grand hotel. First-class passengers were able to enjoy facilities such as a gym, a swimming pool, and a Turkish bath. They were also able to dine in style on delicacies beyond their wildest imagination. The third-class passengers didn’t have access to all areas, but their accommodations were much better than on other ships.
When the ship was complete, she was 880-feet from bow to stern. There were only 20 lifeboats in place, which could hold a total of 1,178 people, despite the fact that there were 2,224 people on board. It was believed that since the ship was considered, unsinkable, there was no need to litter the decks with too many lifeboats. There were 14 wooden lifeboats, four collapsible boats, and two cutters. If the ship held 64 lifeboats, which the deck could have carried, over 4,000 people could have been saved. Sadly, White Star Line believed that only 20 lifeboats were necessary, which is why so many people died. The regulations at the time required ships of this size to carry only 16 boats with a capacity of 990. After the tragic sinking, these regulations were changed.
The Captain and Crew
Edward Smith was the ship’s senior captain. There were 885 crew members on board. Only 23 of them were women, while 66 worked on deck, and 325 worked below as engineers and stokers. There were also eight musicians on the ship, who went down in history even though they died. When the ship began to sink, first-class passengers were the first to be put in lifeboats. It was supposed to be women and children first. The richest man on the ship, John Jacob Astor IV, was traveling with his wife, Madeleine. Benjamin Guggenheim was also on board with his mistress, Leontine Aubert, and her maid. During the sinking, the women made it, but the men and their staff did not.
Finding the Wreck
In 1985, a French-American team led by Robert Ballard of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution discovered what was left on the Titanic. They used a remote-controlled sub called Argo, to take photos of the ship that were published all over the world. In 2005, the crew of a mini-submarine, Limiting Factor, reached a depth of 12.500-feet to get a look at the mangled remains. Using their high-tech 4K cameras, they got some very stunning photos.
Victor Vescovo was aboard another expedition in August 2019. It had been 14-years since the last time the ship was photographed, and the team found something incredibly shocking. Divers Explored The Titanic For The First Time In 14 Years – And They Made A Haunting Discovery. The Titanic was quickly disappearing. Patrick Lahey, a member of the expedition and the president of the company who owns the Limiting Factor, sent out a press release from the ship. He said, “The most fascinating aspect was seeing how the ocean is consuming the Titanic, and returning to its elemental form while providing refuge for a remarkably diverse number of animals.”
One part of the ship that has disappeared is the “Captain’s bathtub.” It can be seen in the older photos, but not the images that were taken in 2019. It is believed that the ocean currents and the corrosive action of saltwater and bacteria have been eating the metal, and contributing to its disappearance. Eventually, there will be nothing left. | 1,218 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Imagine that nearly half of the people living in your city have died of the plague. The year is 1390 CE, and the kings, queens, and nobility are fighting wars that seem to drag on forever.
The Church used to provide some comfort, but now its leaders seem too busy with politics to care about the feelings of regular people. If you lived in this situation, what would you do?
In the city of Florence, located in what we now call Italy, people begin to change the way they thought. The city leaders wanted culture to flourish as it had in ancient Greece and Rome. They imagined a richer life, filled with the study of art, poetry, music, and history. Rather than specializing in one trade, city leaders said people should educate themselves in several subjects. They seemed to think, “Society should be reborn!”
The word renaissance is French for “rebirth” or “reawakening.” Let’s discover how the period we call the Renaissance began. | <urn:uuid:1730a428-0b92-4bbb-823a-13d57f5b1c73> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://online.kidsdiscover.com/unit/renaissance-and-reformation/topic/the-cradle-of-the-renaissance/3 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00424.warc.gz | en | 0.980125 | 210 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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... | 2 | Imagine that nearly half of the people living in your city have died of the plague. The year is 1390 CE, and the kings, queens, and nobility are fighting wars that seem to drag on forever.
The Church used to provide some comfort, but now its leaders seem too busy with politics to care about the feelings of regular people. If you lived in this situation, what would you do?
In the city of Florence, located in what we now call Italy, people begin to change the way they thought. The city leaders wanted culture to flourish as it had in ancient Greece and Rome. They imagined a richer life, filled with the study of art, poetry, music, and history. Rather than specializing in one trade, city leaders said people should educate themselves in several subjects. They seemed to think, “Society should be reborn!”
The word renaissance is French for “rebirth” or “reawakening.” Let’s discover how the period we call the Renaissance began. | 204 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The pioneer of the Pointillism technique of painting, Georges Seurat is considered one of the most important post-impressionist painters of all times. Through the invention of Pointillism, Seurat invented a technique which was ingenious and at the same time presented paintings in a very precise and focused manner. Pointillism added more depth, meaning and structure to paintings. It enabled the painter to focus more on the technique of painting in a way that the viewer is prone to looking more intently at the painting. Seurat came up with the concept of Pointillism by studying various techniques and theories about color and composition. What he managed to create was something very ground breaking for it paved the way for future artists to adapt this way and think out of the box when it came to painting. In many ways Seurat dared to break free from the usual tradition and succeeded.
Georges-Pierre Seurat was born in 1859 in Paris into a wealthy family of merchants. Seurat’s strong perceptive mind started asking the right questions from a young age, most were regarding art and it was his inquisitive mind which made him develop Pointillism. The viewer can see the gracefulness of Seurat’s paintings, and the secret to that is indeed Pointillism. What the technique is basically painting in small dots in a line to gain a symphonic composition of color, in simple words doting different divisions of colors. As easy as it sounds it was quite labor intensive. For Seurat, being the great thinker that he was, Pointillism was a more structured approach towards painting and it enabled him to depict modern urban life a lot more clearly. Seurat is famous for his quote ‘great things are done by a series of small things brought together’ which sums up Pointillism very easily. Seurat’s masterpiece A Sunday on La Grande Jatte is magnanimous in every degree, the painting stands seven feet tall and ten feet wide. Seurat was only 25 years old when he painted this, it took him two years to finish the painting with Pointillism – it is also the first painting he painted under this technique. With a paint brush, Seurat used small strokes of the color which gave a blended feel to the painting when viewed from afar. For Seurat each of his painting was not ‘poetry’ as many of his art lovers called it, for him it was science. The painting shows the middle class of Paris enjoying walks near the river Seine. Seurat’s technique was very anti-impressionist in certain ways; it drifted away from the normal practise of blending colors on the palette.
Seurat was seeking a sense of realism in her art through Pointillism, which is why he faced criticism for this new style once the painting was exhibited. Now art experts marvel and hail Seurat’s technique as one which was a game-changer for art post-impressionism. Seurat believed that every artist had their own vision of art and that they should be allowed the freedom to express it in their paintings and to not be afraid of change. At one point there was the sensible and soft Seurat and the other was a scientist who was searching madly for ways to make art more logical. For someone who revolutionised painting, he left the art world too soon – Seurat passed away at the age of 31. One can only marvel at the legacy he left behind. | <urn:uuid:c46699b1-807c-4854-82b1-b59a585b7aaa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.famouspainters.net/georges-seurat/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00014.warc.gz | en | 0.980142 | 710 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.354820400476... | 10 | The pioneer of the Pointillism technique of painting, Georges Seurat is considered one of the most important post-impressionist painters of all times. Through the invention of Pointillism, Seurat invented a technique which was ingenious and at the same time presented paintings in a very precise and focused manner. Pointillism added more depth, meaning and structure to paintings. It enabled the painter to focus more on the technique of painting in a way that the viewer is prone to looking more intently at the painting. Seurat came up with the concept of Pointillism by studying various techniques and theories about color and composition. What he managed to create was something very ground breaking for it paved the way for future artists to adapt this way and think out of the box when it came to painting. In many ways Seurat dared to break free from the usual tradition and succeeded.
Georges-Pierre Seurat was born in 1859 in Paris into a wealthy family of merchants. Seurat’s strong perceptive mind started asking the right questions from a young age, most were regarding art and it was his inquisitive mind which made him develop Pointillism. The viewer can see the gracefulness of Seurat’s paintings, and the secret to that is indeed Pointillism. What the technique is basically painting in small dots in a line to gain a symphonic composition of color, in simple words doting different divisions of colors. As easy as it sounds it was quite labor intensive. For Seurat, being the great thinker that he was, Pointillism was a more structured approach towards painting and it enabled him to depict modern urban life a lot more clearly. Seurat is famous for his quote ‘great things are done by a series of small things brought together’ which sums up Pointillism very easily. Seurat’s masterpiece A Sunday on La Grande Jatte is magnanimous in every degree, the painting stands seven feet tall and ten feet wide. Seurat was only 25 years old when he painted this, it took him two years to finish the painting with Pointillism – it is also the first painting he painted under this technique. With a paint brush, Seurat used small strokes of the color which gave a blended feel to the painting when viewed from afar. For Seurat each of his painting was not ‘poetry’ as many of his art lovers called it, for him it was science. The painting shows the middle class of Paris enjoying walks near the river Seine. Seurat’s technique was very anti-impressionist in certain ways; it drifted away from the normal practise of blending colors on the palette.
Seurat was seeking a sense of realism in her art through Pointillism, which is why he faced criticism for this new style once the painting was exhibited. Now art experts marvel and hail Seurat’s technique as one which was a game-changer for art post-impressionism. Seurat believed that every artist had their own vision of art and that they should be allowed the freedom to express it in their paintings and to not be afraid of change. At one point there was the sensible and soft Seurat and the other was a scientist who was searching madly for ways to make art more logical. For someone who revolutionised painting, he left the art world too soon – Seurat passed away at the age of 31. One can only marvel at the legacy he left behind. | 695 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Liber was a god of viticulture and wine, fertility and freedom. He was a patron deity of Rome’s plebeians.
Liber was closely, often interchangeably identified with Bacchus, Dionysus and their mythology but was not entirely subsumed by them. Liber, like his Aventine companions, carried various aspects of his older cults into official Roman religion. He protected various aspects of agriculture and fertility, including the vine and the “soft seed” of its grapes, wine and wine vessels, and male fertility and virility. As his divine power was incarnate in the vine, grape and wine, he was offered the first, sacred pressing of the grape-harvest, known as sacrima. | <urn:uuid:c6f0064a-921a-456c-8221-06beabc0a24d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://digitalmapsoftheancientworld.com/mythology/roman-mythology/dii-selecti/liber/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00533.warc.gz | en | 0.992267 | 151 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.06698218733072281... | 11 | Liber was a god of viticulture and wine, fertility and freedom. He was a patron deity of Rome’s plebeians.
Liber was closely, often interchangeably identified with Bacchus, Dionysus and their mythology but was not entirely subsumed by them. Liber, like his Aventine companions, carried various aspects of his older cults into official Roman religion. He protected various aspects of agriculture and fertility, including the vine and the “soft seed” of its grapes, wine and wine vessels, and male fertility and virility. As his divine power was incarnate in the vine, grape and wine, he was offered the first, sacred pressing of the grape-harvest, known as sacrima. | 149 | ENGLISH | 1 |
UNIT 6. Past continuous (I was doing)
A. Study this example situation:
Yesterday Karen and Jim played tennis. They began at 10 o’clock and finished at 11.30. So, at 10.30 they were playing tennis.
They were playing = ‘they were in the middle of playing’. They had not finished playing.
Was/were ~ing is the past continuous:
I/he/she/it was playing/doing/working etc.
we/you/they were playing/doing/working etc.
B. We use the past continuous to say that somebody was in the middle of doing something at a certain time. The action or situation had already started before this time but had not finished:
* This time last year I was living in Brazil.
* What were you doing at 10 o’clock last night?
* I waved to her but she wasn’t looking.
C. Compare the past continuous (I was doing) and past simple (I did):
Past continuous (in the middle of an action)
* I was walking home when I met Dave. (= in the middle of walking home)
* Ann was watching television when the phone rang.
Past simple (complete action)
* I walked home after the party last night. (= all the way, completely)
* Ann watched television a lot when she was ill last year.
D. We often use the past simple and the past continuous together to say that something happened in the middle of something else:
* Tom burnt his hand when he was cooking the dinner.
* I saw you in the park yesterday. You were sitting on the grass and reading a book.
* While I was working in the garden, I hurt my back.
But we use the past simple to say that one thing happened after another:
* I was walking along the road when I saw Dave. So I stopped and we had a chat.
* When Karen arrived, we were having dinner. (= We had already started dinner before Karen arrived.)
* When Karen arrived, we had dinner. (= First Karen arrived and then we had dinner.)
E. There are some verbs (for example, know/want/believe) that are not normally used in the continuous:
* We were good friends. We knew each other well. (not ‘we were knowing’)
* I was enjoying the party but Chris wanted to go home. (not ‘was wanting’) | <urn:uuid:ed10facd-eb23-4ac0-8cb9-d947cf7913fb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://englishtopik.ru/unit-6-past-continuous-i-was-doing/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00302.warc.gz | en | 0.993025 | 523 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.2387561202... | 2 | UNIT 6. Past continuous (I was doing)
A. Study this example situation:
Yesterday Karen and Jim played tennis. They began at 10 o’clock and finished at 11.30. So, at 10.30 they were playing tennis.
They were playing = ‘they were in the middle of playing’. They had not finished playing.
Was/were ~ing is the past continuous:
I/he/she/it was playing/doing/working etc.
we/you/they were playing/doing/working etc.
B. We use the past continuous to say that somebody was in the middle of doing something at a certain time. The action or situation had already started before this time but had not finished:
* This time last year I was living in Brazil.
* What were you doing at 10 o’clock last night?
* I waved to her but she wasn’t looking.
C. Compare the past continuous (I was doing) and past simple (I did):
Past continuous (in the middle of an action)
* I was walking home when I met Dave. (= in the middle of walking home)
* Ann was watching television when the phone rang.
Past simple (complete action)
* I walked home after the party last night. (= all the way, completely)
* Ann watched television a lot when she was ill last year.
D. We often use the past simple and the past continuous together to say that something happened in the middle of something else:
* Tom burnt his hand when he was cooking the dinner.
* I saw you in the park yesterday. You were sitting on the grass and reading a book.
* While I was working in the garden, I hurt my back.
But we use the past simple to say that one thing happened after another:
* I was walking along the road when I saw Dave. So I stopped and we had a chat.
* When Karen arrived, we were having dinner. (= We had already started dinner before Karen arrived.)
* When Karen arrived, we had dinner. (= First Karen arrived and then we had dinner.)
E. There are some verbs (for example, know/want/believe) that are not normally used in the continuous:
* We were good friends. We knew each other well. (not ‘we were knowing’)
* I was enjoying the party but Chris wanted to go home. (not ‘was wanting’) | 491 | ENGLISH | 1 |
St. Elizabeth of Hungary (Feast: November 17)
Also known as Elizabeth of Thuringia, she was born in Hungary in 1207. She was a daughter of King Andrew II of Hungary and his wife Gertrude, a member of the family of the Counts of Andechs-Meran; Elizabeth’s brother succeeded his father on the throne as Bela IV; St. Hedwig, the wife of Duke Heinrich I, the Bearded, of Silesia was her mother’s sister, while another saint, Queen St. Elizabeth of Portugal, the wife of the tyrannical King Diniz, was her great-niece.
In 1211 a formal embassy was sent by Landgrave Hermann I of Thuringia to Hungary to arrange a marriage between his eldest son Hermann and Elizabeth, who was then four years old. This marriage was the result of political considerations and intended as a ratification of an alliance against the German Emperor Otto IV, a member of the house of Guelph, who had quarreled with the Church. Not long after the little girl was taken to the Thuringian court to be brought up with her future husband and, in the course of time, to be betrothed to him.
The court of Thuringia was at this period famous for its magnificence. Its centre was the stately castle of the Wartburg, splendidly placed on a hill in the Thuringian Forest near Eisenach, where the Landgrave Hermann lived. Notwithstanding the turbulence and purely secular life of the court and the pomp of her surroundings, little Elizabeth grew up a very religious child with an evident inclination to prayer and pious observances and small acts of self-mortification. These religious impulses were undoubtedly strengthened by the sorrowful experiences of her life.
In the year 1213, Elizabeth’s mother was murdered by Hungarian nobles, probably out of hatred of the Germans. On December 31, 1216, the oldest son and heir of the landgrave, Hermann, who Elizabeth was to marry, died; after this she was betrothed to Ludwig, the second son. It was probably in these years that Elizabeth had to suffer the hostility of the more frivolous members of the Thuringian court, to whom the contemplative and pious child was a constant rebuke.
Ludwig, however, must have soon come to her protection against any ill-treatment and his mother, the Landgravine Sophia, a member of the reigning family of Bavaria and a deeply religious and very charitable woman, became a kindly mother to the little Elizabeth.
The political plans of the old Landgrave Hermann involved him in great difficulties and reverses; he was excommunicated, lost his mind towards the end of his life, and died on April 25, 1217, still unreconciled with the Church. He was succeeded by his son Ludwig IV, who, in 1221, was also made regent of Meissen and the East Mark.
The same year, Ludwig and Elizabeth were married, the groom being twenty-one years old and the bride fourteen. The marriage was in every respect a happy and exemplary one, and the couple were devotedly attached to each other. Ludwig proved himself worthy of his wife. He gave his protection to her acts of charity, penance, and her vigils, and often held Elizabeth’s hands as she knelt praying at night beside his bed. He was also a capable ruler and brave soldier.
They had three children: Hermann II (1222-41), who died young; Sophia (1224-84), who married Henry II, Duke of Brabant, and was the ancestress of the Landgraves of Hesse; and Gertrude (1227-97), Elizabeth’s third child, who was born several weeks after the death of her father and later in life became abbess of the convent of Altenberg.
The followers of St. Francis of Assisi had made their first permanent settlement in Germany the year of Elizabeth’s marriage to Ludwig. For a time, the German Franciscan Caesarius of Speier was her spiritual director and through him she became acquainted with the ideals of St. Francis. These strongly appealed to her and she began to put them into practice: she observed chastity, according to her state of life, and practiced humility, patience, prayer, and charity.
Her position, however, prevented her from living one she ardently desired: voluntary and complete poverty. In 1225, with Elizabeth’s assistance, the Franciscans founded a monastery in Eisenach.
Shortly after their marriage, Elizabeth and Ludwig made a journey to Hungary; Ludwig was often after this employed by the Emperor Frederick II, to whom he was much attached, in the affairs of the empire. During the spring of 1226, when floods, famine, and the plague wrought havoc in Thuringia, Ludwig was in Italy attending the Diet at Cremona on behalf of the emperor.
Under these disastrous circumstances Elizabeth assumed control of affairs, distributed alms, giving even state robes and ornaments to the poor. In order to care personally for the unfortunate she built below the castle of Wartburg a hospital with twenty-eight beds and visited the inmates daily to attend to their needs; at the same time she aided nine hundred poor daily. It is this period of her life that has preserved Elizabeth’s renown as the gentle and charitable chételaine of the Wartburg. Upon his return, Ludwig confirmed all that she had done in his absence.
The following year he set out with Emperor Frederick II on a crusade to Palestine but died of the plague on September 11 at Otranto. The news did not reach Elizabeth until October, just after she had given birth to her third child. Upon hearing the news the queen, who was only twenty years old, cried out: “The world with all its joys is now dead to me.” In that winter of 1227, Elizabeth directed the Franciscans to sing a Te Deum and left the castle of Wartburg, accompanied by two female attendants. Her brother-in-law, Heinrich Raspe, now acted as regent for her son Hermann, then only five years old.
At Pope Gregory IX’s recommendation, Master Conrad of Marburg, a well known preacher of the crusade and inquisitor, had become Elizabeth’s spiritual guide. He directed her by the road of self-mortification to sanctity, and after her death was very active in her canonization. Although he forbade her to follow St. Francis in complete poverty as a beggar, by the command to keep her dower she was enabled to perform works of charity and tenderness.
Elizabeth’s aunt, Matilda, Abbess of the Benedictine convent of Kitzingen near Würzburg, took charge of the widowed landgravine and sent her to her uncle Eckbert, Bishop of Bamberg. The bishop, however, was intent on arranging another marriage for her, although during the lifetime of her husband Elizabeth had made a vow of chastity in the event of his death; the same vow had also been taken by her attendants.
While Elizabeth was maintaining her position against her uncle the remains of her husband were brought to Bamberg by his faithful followers who had carried them from Italy. Weeping bitterly, she buried his body in the family vault of the landgraves of Thuringia in the monastery of Reinhardsbrunn. With the aid of Conrad she now received the value of her dower in money, namely two thousand marks; of this sum she divided five hundred marks in one day among the poor. On Good Friday, 1228, in the Franciscan house at Eisenach Elizabeth formally renounced the world; then going to Master Conrad at Marburg, she and her maids received from him the dress of the Third Order of St. Francis, thus being among the first tertiaries of Germany.
In the summer of 1228 she built the Franciscan hospital at Marburg and on its completion devoted herself entirely to the care of the sick, especially to those afflicted with the most loathsome diseases. Conrad of Marburg still imposed many self-mortifications and spiritual renunciations while at the same time he even took from Elizabeth her devoted domestics. Constant in her devotion to God, Elizabeth’s strength was consumed by her charitable labors, and she passed away in 1231 at the age of twenty-four.
Very soon after the death of Elizabeth miracles began to be worked at her grave in the church of the hospital. By papal command examinations were held of those who had been healed and at Pentecost of the year 1235, the solemn ceremony of canonization of the “greatest woman of the German Middle Ages” was celebrated by Pope Gregory IX at Perugia.
DAILY QUOTE for January 21, 2020
SAINT OF THE DAY
One night, the Blessed Virgin appeared to him and told him he must become a Christian. | <urn:uuid:add06d4f-8314-473b-a086-b3fddac093e0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.americaneedsfatima.org/Saints-Heroes/st-elizabeth-of-hungary.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00431.warc.gz | en | 0.986455 | 1,887 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.054033122956... | 1 | St. Elizabeth of Hungary (Feast: November 17)
Also known as Elizabeth of Thuringia, she was born in Hungary in 1207. She was a daughter of King Andrew II of Hungary and his wife Gertrude, a member of the family of the Counts of Andechs-Meran; Elizabeth’s brother succeeded his father on the throne as Bela IV; St. Hedwig, the wife of Duke Heinrich I, the Bearded, of Silesia was her mother’s sister, while another saint, Queen St. Elizabeth of Portugal, the wife of the tyrannical King Diniz, was her great-niece.
In 1211 a formal embassy was sent by Landgrave Hermann I of Thuringia to Hungary to arrange a marriage between his eldest son Hermann and Elizabeth, who was then four years old. This marriage was the result of political considerations and intended as a ratification of an alliance against the German Emperor Otto IV, a member of the house of Guelph, who had quarreled with the Church. Not long after the little girl was taken to the Thuringian court to be brought up with her future husband and, in the course of time, to be betrothed to him.
The court of Thuringia was at this period famous for its magnificence. Its centre was the stately castle of the Wartburg, splendidly placed on a hill in the Thuringian Forest near Eisenach, where the Landgrave Hermann lived. Notwithstanding the turbulence and purely secular life of the court and the pomp of her surroundings, little Elizabeth grew up a very religious child with an evident inclination to prayer and pious observances and small acts of self-mortification. These religious impulses were undoubtedly strengthened by the sorrowful experiences of her life.
In the year 1213, Elizabeth’s mother was murdered by Hungarian nobles, probably out of hatred of the Germans. On December 31, 1216, the oldest son and heir of the landgrave, Hermann, who Elizabeth was to marry, died; after this she was betrothed to Ludwig, the second son. It was probably in these years that Elizabeth had to suffer the hostility of the more frivolous members of the Thuringian court, to whom the contemplative and pious child was a constant rebuke.
Ludwig, however, must have soon come to her protection against any ill-treatment and his mother, the Landgravine Sophia, a member of the reigning family of Bavaria and a deeply religious and very charitable woman, became a kindly mother to the little Elizabeth.
The political plans of the old Landgrave Hermann involved him in great difficulties and reverses; he was excommunicated, lost his mind towards the end of his life, and died on April 25, 1217, still unreconciled with the Church. He was succeeded by his son Ludwig IV, who, in 1221, was also made regent of Meissen and the East Mark.
The same year, Ludwig and Elizabeth were married, the groom being twenty-one years old and the bride fourteen. The marriage was in every respect a happy and exemplary one, and the couple were devotedly attached to each other. Ludwig proved himself worthy of his wife. He gave his protection to her acts of charity, penance, and her vigils, and often held Elizabeth’s hands as she knelt praying at night beside his bed. He was also a capable ruler and brave soldier.
They had three children: Hermann II (1222-41), who died young; Sophia (1224-84), who married Henry II, Duke of Brabant, and was the ancestress of the Landgraves of Hesse; and Gertrude (1227-97), Elizabeth’s third child, who was born several weeks after the death of her father and later in life became abbess of the convent of Altenberg.
The followers of St. Francis of Assisi had made their first permanent settlement in Germany the year of Elizabeth’s marriage to Ludwig. For a time, the German Franciscan Caesarius of Speier was her spiritual director and through him she became acquainted with the ideals of St. Francis. These strongly appealed to her and she began to put them into practice: she observed chastity, according to her state of life, and practiced humility, patience, prayer, and charity.
Her position, however, prevented her from living one she ardently desired: voluntary and complete poverty. In 1225, with Elizabeth’s assistance, the Franciscans founded a monastery in Eisenach.
Shortly after their marriage, Elizabeth and Ludwig made a journey to Hungary; Ludwig was often after this employed by the Emperor Frederick II, to whom he was much attached, in the affairs of the empire. During the spring of 1226, when floods, famine, and the plague wrought havoc in Thuringia, Ludwig was in Italy attending the Diet at Cremona on behalf of the emperor.
Under these disastrous circumstances Elizabeth assumed control of affairs, distributed alms, giving even state robes and ornaments to the poor. In order to care personally for the unfortunate she built below the castle of Wartburg a hospital with twenty-eight beds and visited the inmates daily to attend to their needs; at the same time she aided nine hundred poor daily. It is this period of her life that has preserved Elizabeth’s renown as the gentle and charitable chételaine of the Wartburg. Upon his return, Ludwig confirmed all that she had done in his absence.
The following year he set out with Emperor Frederick II on a crusade to Palestine but died of the plague on September 11 at Otranto. The news did not reach Elizabeth until October, just after she had given birth to her third child. Upon hearing the news the queen, who was only twenty years old, cried out: “The world with all its joys is now dead to me.” In that winter of 1227, Elizabeth directed the Franciscans to sing a Te Deum and left the castle of Wartburg, accompanied by two female attendants. Her brother-in-law, Heinrich Raspe, now acted as regent for her son Hermann, then only five years old.
At Pope Gregory IX’s recommendation, Master Conrad of Marburg, a well known preacher of the crusade and inquisitor, had become Elizabeth’s spiritual guide. He directed her by the road of self-mortification to sanctity, and after her death was very active in her canonization. Although he forbade her to follow St. Francis in complete poverty as a beggar, by the command to keep her dower she was enabled to perform works of charity and tenderness.
Elizabeth’s aunt, Matilda, Abbess of the Benedictine convent of Kitzingen near Würzburg, took charge of the widowed landgravine and sent her to her uncle Eckbert, Bishop of Bamberg. The bishop, however, was intent on arranging another marriage for her, although during the lifetime of her husband Elizabeth had made a vow of chastity in the event of his death; the same vow had also been taken by her attendants.
While Elizabeth was maintaining her position against her uncle the remains of her husband were brought to Bamberg by his faithful followers who had carried them from Italy. Weeping bitterly, she buried his body in the family vault of the landgraves of Thuringia in the monastery of Reinhardsbrunn. With the aid of Conrad she now received the value of her dower in money, namely two thousand marks; of this sum she divided five hundred marks in one day among the poor. On Good Friday, 1228, in the Franciscan house at Eisenach Elizabeth formally renounced the world; then going to Master Conrad at Marburg, she and her maids received from him the dress of the Third Order of St. Francis, thus being among the first tertiaries of Germany.
In the summer of 1228 she built the Franciscan hospital at Marburg and on its completion devoted herself entirely to the care of the sick, especially to those afflicted with the most loathsome diseases. Conrad of Marburg still imposed many self-mortifications and spiritual renunciations while at the same time he even took from Elizabeth her devoted domestics. Constant in her devotion to God, Elizabeth’s strength was consumed by her charitable labors, and she passed away in 1231 at the age of twenty-four.
Very soon after the death of Elizabeth miracles began to be worked at her grave in the church of the hospital. By papal command examinations were held of those who had been healed and at Pentecost of the year 1235, the solemn ceremony of canonization of the “greatest woman of the German Middle Ages” was celebrated by Pope Gregory IX at Perugia.
DAILY QUOTE for January 21, 2020
SAINT OF THE DAY
One night, the Blessed Virgin appeared to him and told him he must become a Christian. | 1,891 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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A famous Jesuit missionary, commonly known as the Apostle of Brazil, born on the Island of Tenerife, in 1553, of noble family ; died in Brazil, 1596. After studying in Coimbra, he entered the Society of Jesus, at the age of seventeen, and when a novice nearly ruined his health by his excessive austerity, causing an injury to the spine which made him almost a hunchback. He was sent to the New World, with no idea of making him a missionary, but in the hope of restoring his shattered health. He reached Brazil in 1553, and laboured there among the colonists and savage natives for about forty-four years. His first work was teaching Latin to some of the junior members of the Society and to a certain number of externs. Very likely it was the first classical school in America. He was a perfect master of Latin, Castilian, and Portuguese, and quickly acquired a knowledge of the native tongue, as well as two books of religious instruction, to assist the missionaries in the work of converting the natives. He was a poet, and wrote canticles which immediately became very popular among the natives and Portuguese. To effect a reformation of morals, he composed and directed a drama which was acted in the open air at Bahia. By means of interludes in Brazilian the Indians were able to grasp its meaning. This also was possibly the first attempt at dramatic art in the New World . Though not a priest, he accompanied the missionaries on their apostolic journeys, and on one occasion remained a willing hostage among the wild Tamuins who were waging a fierce war against the settlers; twice he was on the point of being killed and eaten. During his captivity he is said to have composed a poem of nearly five thousand verses, and, as there were no means of putting it on paper, he committed it to memory and wrote it out after he returned to the colony. It was during the last military operations to suppress the Tamuin uprising that he was recalled from the expedition, and ordained a priest by Peter Leitano, the first bishop who arrived in Brazil. Apart from his supernatural gifts, he was remarkable for his captivating eloquence and gracefulness of speech. He had a fair knowledge of medicine, which he made of in helping his Indians, and he displayed an unusual skill in the details of business when, latter in life, he was called to the office of rector and provincial.
But it is chiefly as a thaumaturgus, as a daring missionary, and as a man of extraordinary holiness, that Anchieta is remembered. It is narrated of him that the birds of the forest submitted to his caresses; the waters of the sea formed a wall about him while he was praying ; the touch of his garments restored health to the sick. He possessed the gift of prophecy and frequently described events that were occurring at great distances. Though constantly suffering from bodily infirmities, he undertook the most laborious missions, and thus at times seemed to have a supernatural power to do without sleep or rest. The districts which he evangelized were always the most exhausting and dangerous. His power over men, both savage and civilized, was irresistible. His prayer was constant, and he was frequently, though unaware of it himself, surrounded by a dazzling light. He was almost absolutely without any earthly possessions, and went barefooted on his apostolic expeditions. Even before he was a priest he was entrusted with entrusted with the investigation of the houses of the Society ; and when he could be spared from his missions, he was made rector of the College of St. Vincent, and, subsequently, Provincial of Brazil, relinquishing this post only when his failing strength made it impossible for him to fulfill his duties. The people clamoured for his canonization, and he was declared Venerable by the Church. The process of his beatification is now being considered.
Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. All materials contained on this site, whether written, audible or visual are the exclusive property of Catholic Online and are protected under U.S. and International copyright laws, © Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. Any unauthorized use, without prior written consent of Catholic Online is strictly forbidden and prohibited.
Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law. | <urn:uuid:fd90b46e-32f8-4107-9eac-c06ca8c313ff> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.catholic.org/encyclopedia/view.php?id=719 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00199.warc.gz | en | 0.990068 | 937 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.43854519724845... | 1 | Help Now >
FREE Catholic Classes
A famous Jesuit missionary, commonly known as the Apostle of Brazil, born on the Island of Tenerife, in 1553, of noble family ; died in Brazil, 1596. After studying in Coimbra, he entered the Society of Jesus, at the age of seventeen, and when a novice nearly ruined his health by his excessive austerity, causing an injury to the spine which made him almost a hunchback. He was sent to the New World, with no idea of making him a missionary, but in the hope of restoring his shattered health. He reached Brazil in 1553, and laboured there among the colonists and savage natives for about forty-four years. His first work was teaching Latin to some of the junior members of the Society and to a certain number of externs. Very likely it was the first classical school in America. He was a perfect master of Latin, Castilian, and Portuguese, and quickly acquired a knowledge of the native tongue, as well as two books of religious instruction, to assist the missionaries in the work of converting the natives. He was a poet, and wrote canticles which immediately became very popular among the natives and Portuguese. To effect a reformation of morals, he composed and directed a drama which was acted in the open air at Bahia. By means of interludes in Brazilian the Indians were able to grasp its meaning. This also was possibly the first attempt at dramatic art in the New World . Though not a priest, he accompanied the missionaries on their apostolic journeys, and on one occasion remained a willing hostage among the wild Tamuins who were waging a fierce war against the settlers; twice he was on the point of being killed and eaten. During his captivity he is said to have composed a poem of nearly five thousand verses, and, as there were no means of putting it on paper, he committed it to memory and wrote it out after he returned to the colony. It was during the last military operations to suppress the Tamuin uprising that he was recalled from the expedition, and ordained a priest by Peter Leitano, the first bishop who arrived in Brazil. Apart from his supernatural gifts, he was remarkable for his captivating eloquence and gracefulness of speech. He had a fair knowledge of medicine, which he made of in helping his Indians, and he displayed an unusual skill in the details of business when, latter in life, he was called to the office of rector and provincial.
But it is chiefly as a thaumaturgus, as a daring missionary, and as a man of extraordinary holiness, that Anchieta is remembered. It is narrated of him that the birds of the forest submitted to his caresses; the waters of the sea formed a wall about him while he was praying ; the touch of his garments restored health to the sick. He possessed the gift of prophecy and frequently described events that were occurring at great distances. Though constantly suffering from bodily infirmities, he undertook the most laborious missions, and thus at times seemed to have a supernatural power to do without sleep or rest. The districts which he evangelized were always the most exhausting and dangerous. His power over men, both savage and civilized, was irresistible. His prayer was constant, and he was frequently, though unaware of it himself, surrounded by a dazzling light. He was almost absolutely without any earthly possessions, and went barefooted on his apostolic expeditions. Even before he was a priest he was entrusted with entrusted with the investigation of the houses of the Society ; and when he could be spared from his missions, he was made rector of the College of St. Vincent, and, subsequently, Provincial of Brazil, relinquishing this post only when his failing strength made it impossible for him to fulfill his duties. The people clamoured for his canonization, and he was declared Venerable by the Church. The process of his beatification is now being considered.
Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. All materials contained on this site, whether written, audible or visual are the exclusive property of Catholic Online and are protected under U.S. and International copyright laws, © Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. Any unauthorized use, without prior written consent of Catholic Online is strictly forbidden and prohibited.
Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law. | 958 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Why are the Parthenon sculptures and Elgin casts important?
The fine carving of Pentelic marble into an extraordinary array of scenes, both human and divine, means that the Parthenon sculptures are now perhaps the most recognised sculptures from ancient Greece. They are particularly important to archaeologists because their original architectural context on the Parthenon means they can be securely dated and they are connected with the great ancient Greek sculptor Phidias.
They are among a relatively small cohort of sculptures to have survived from the renowned classical period of fifth century BC Greece and their fame grew enormously when Lord Elgin controversially brought many of the sculptures to London.
More positively, Elgin also had plaster casts made of the sculptures he left on the Parthenon. These have become important records of the state of the sculptures in the very early 19th century before modern pollution would hasten their deterioration.
What were you trying to find out?
I was trying to answer two main questions. Firstly, how accurately did the 19th century plaster casts reproduce the Parthenon sculptures – were they of good quality? And secondly, do the casts preserve sculptural features that have since been worn away from the originals – do they now represent a form of time capsule, faithfully reflecting the condition of the sculptures in the early 19th century?
How did you go about finding this out?
I created 3D images of both the Parthenon casts and sculptures using a Breuckmann smartSCAN 3D scanner. Then, I overlaid the 3D images of the corresponding casts and marble sculptures to highlight similarities and differences between the two.
What were your results?
I found that, in general, the 19th century casts reproduce the marble sculptures more accurately than expected and they definitely preserve some features lost from the originals – the 3D imaging helps us to identify these features.
However, archaeologists have also known for some time that the people making the casts would sometimes reconstruct damaged areas and I found more evidence of this practice than anticipated. It seems that features like the broken tips of noses were quite commonly ‘corrected’ in the casts of the early 19th century, although this practice became much rarer later in the century.
Why does it matter?
Plaster casts of the Parthenon sculptures spread around the world in the 19th century and creating such casts became a widely-used method by archaeologists to transmit and preserve 3D records of sculptures during this period.
This use of casts became less common in the 20th century with the growth of photography, concerns that moulding procedures might harm the sculptures, and more recently, the development of non-contact 3D digital imaging techniques. But many museums still house large collections of casts, often in storage. This work helps us to understand the important role that such casts can play as 3D time capsules but also shows that we need to study
Dr Emma Payne’s results were published in the latest issue of Antiquity. | <urn:uuid:456ced35-dc0d-427b-ab23-fd08e0e91c8c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.kcl.ac.uk/elgin-marbles-new-research-reveals-lost-details-dr-payne | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00213.warc.gz | en | 0.981694 | 605 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.45764487981... | 5 | Why are the Parthenon sculptures and Elgin casts important?
The fine carving of Pentelic marble into an extraordinary array of scenes, both human and divine, means that the Parthenon sculptures are now perhaps the most recognised sculptures from ancient Greece. They are particularly important to archaeologists because their original architectural context on the Parthenon means they can be securely dated and they are connected with the great ancient Greek sculptor Phidias.
They are among a relatively small cohort of sculptures to have survived from the renowned classical period of fifth century BC Greece and their fame grew enormously when Lord Elgin controversially brought many of the sculptures to London.
More positively, Elgin also had plaster casts made of the sculptures he left on the Parthenon. These have become important records of the state of the sculptures in the very early 19th century before modern pollution would hasten their deterioration.
What were you trying to find out?
I was trying to answer two main questions. Firstly, how accurately did the 19th century plaster casts reproduce the Parthenon sculptures – were they of good quality? And secondly, do the casts preserve sculptural features that have since been worn away from the originals – do they now represent a form of time capsule, faithfully reflecting the condition of the sculptures in the early 19th century?
How did you go about finding this out?
I created 3D images of both the Parthenon casts and sculptures using a Breuckmann smartSCAN 3D scanner. Then, I overlaid the 3D images of the corresponding casts and marble sculptures to highlight similarities and differences between the two.
What were your results?
I found that, in general, the 19th century casts reproduce the marble sculptures more accurately than expected and they definitely preserve some features lost from the originals – the 3D imaging helps us to identify these features.
However, archaeologists have also known for some time that the people making the casts would sometimes reconstruct damaged areas and I found more evidence of this practice than anticipated. It seems that features like the broken tips of noses were quite commonly ‘corrected’ in the casts of the early 19th century, although this practice became much rarer later in the century.
Why does it matter?
Plaster casts of the Parthenon sculptures spread around the world in the 19th century and creating such casts became a widely-used method by archaeologists to transmit and preserve 3D records of sculptures during this period.
This use of casts became less common in the 20th century with the growth of photography, concerns that moulding procedures might harm the sculptures, and more recently, the development of non-contact 3D digital imaging techniques. But many museums still house large collections of casts, often in storage. This work helps us to understand the important role that such casts can play as 3D time capsules but also shows that we need to study
Dr Emma Payne’s results were published in the latest issue of Antiquity. | 610 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Taking folic acid (one of the B vitamins) can protect you from producing a baby with spina bifida.
That’s the finding of an eight year study conducted by the Medical Research Council of 1817 women who had produced an earlier baby with a neural tube defect.
The study found that 4 mg a day of folic acid had a 72 per cent protective effect on women who took it, compared to controls. In the group taking folic acid, the rate of neural tub defects was 1 per cent, compared with 3.5 per cent in the other two groups.
The results were so conclusive said the BMJ (27 July 1991), that the trial was stopped before the expected necessary 2000 pregnancies were obtained.
The chief medical office Sir Donald Acheson recommended that all women who had had an affected pregnancy should take one 5 mg tablet a day of folic acid supplements before starting another pregnancy and that all women who bear children should make sure an adequate amount is in their diet or in supplement form. | <urn:uuid:33e9805c-9fb5-4de5-90e0-bf747c877dc3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://healthy.net/2006/07/02/what-doctors-readspina-bifida-prevented/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00245.warc.gz | en | 0.982634 | 209 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.119041182... | 12 | Taking folic acid (one of the B vitamins) can protect you from producing a baby with spina bifida.
That’s the finding of an eight year study conducted by the Medical Research Council of 1817 women who had produced an earlier baby with a neural tube defect.
The study found that 4 mg a day of folic acid had a 72 per cent protective effect on women who took it, compared to controls. In the group taking folic acid, the rate of neural tub defects was 1 per cent, compared with 3.5 per cent in the other two groups.
The results were so conclusive said the BMJ (27 July 1991), that the trial was stopped before the expected necessary 2000 pregnancies were obtained.
The chief medical office Sir Donald Acheson recommended that all women who had had an affected pregnancy should take one 5 mg tablet a day of folic acid supplements before starting another pregnancy and that all women who bear children should make sure an adequate amount is in their diet or in supplement form. | 220 | ENGLISH | 1 |
BANGALORE : Mahatma Gandhi lived a life of nonviolence, and with his strength of character was able to lead an entire nation toward the dawn of independence. There are many interesting stories about Mahatma Gandhi related to nonviolence and non-attachment.
One such story describes how Mahatma Gandhi was boarding a train. One day, as he started to board, one of his shoes slipped off and became caught on the track.
He tried to loosen it but could not. People standing near him watched him. When they saw he was unable to free the shoe from the track, he took off the other shoe and threw it also on the track right at the spot where the first one was stuck.
The astonished passengers asked, “Why are you throwing the other shoe onto the track also?”
Gandhi sweetly replied, “The poor man who finds the shoe lying on the track will now have a pair he can use.”
Look at that high level of vision. There are many lessons in that one account. Firstly, most people would be so upset about losing their one shoe that their brain would only dwell on that loss.
They would be upset, hassled and distressed. If they had no other shoes with them, they would have to go barefoot, or wait to buy another pair. Their whole journey would be colored by the aggravation of losing the shoe.
What did Gandhi do? He did not let the loss of the shoe mar his clarity of thinking. Rather, he weighed the situation, and came up with a brilliant idea. If he could not benefit from having the shoe, then someone else who needed shoes might come along and find a pair to help them.
Rather than being stingy, he was generous and caring. He thought he could use this as an opportunity to make a contribution to some poor person who might need shoes and happen to have the good luck of finding them.
How many of us take a bad situation and turn it into a good one? How many of us can see the bright side of a difficult situation? How many of us can turn a negative into a positive? This attitude of Gandhi’s points the way for us to learn how to use problems to our benefit or the benefit of others.
The anecdote about Gandhi also shows us another aspect of his life, which is non-attachment. When we are not attached to anything, we are free. If someone were attached to his shoes, then his whole train ride and rest of the day would have been caught up in the web of anger, despair, and hopelessness.
That would have been all that the person would have thought about. That kind of thinking would have drained that person of several hours of his life.
By releasing his attachment to his shoes, Gandhi was showing that he was free. He could give them up and move on. He could spend the rest of his time in productive thoughts and not be a victim to the circumstance.
Thus, Gandhi freed himself from attachment and gained all those extra hours of his day free from bondage to those shoes. Let us think about how many attachments we have in our lives that keep us in bondage. If India could declare its independence from British rule through nonviolent means, we can also declare our independence from the attachments that the mind sends us.
Some of us may be attached to our money and possessions. The loss of money might devastate us.
Instead of looking forward to how we can earn money in the future, we are caught up in the agony of the loss of money that we experienced in the past.
The current moment in which we can get to work to make more money is instead spent in worry and anxiety. We dwell on what we lost instead of turning it into an opportunity to continue to gain.
Some people are attached to name and fame. They are so concerned about their reputations and what others think of them that if someone says something critical about them, they crack.
They become upset, angry, and irate and lash out at others. Some become depressed and cannot function. They are so attached to their name and what others think of them that they lose their precious life breaths in anger when someone makes a suggestion to them, criticises them or their ideas, or wants to point something out to them.
They lose sleep over what others have said about them. Instead of taking the situation and turning it into a positive one, they are devastated.
Instead of losing their life’s breaths over worry and hurt, they could look at what was said about them in a calm, rational manner, and see if there is even a grain of truth there. They can use that as an opportunity to work on themselves to make their lives better. They can improve their lives.
If after examining what was said about them and they find no truth there, they can take it as a misunderstanding on the part of the other person.
They can choose to fix the misunderstanding and move on, or just ignore it if the other person said it without any basis. In this way, we can remain independent from the bondage of attachment to our name and fame.
We can find freedom in our lives from the bondage of habits that deplete our energies.
If we are not attached to money, possessions, name, and fame, we too can develop a state of independence from these habits and find the joy of freedom. | <urn:uuid:f08695ac-a67b-4d32-a754-277e53f676ca> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/bengaluru/2014/oct/15/Lessons-From-the-Mahatmas-Book-of-Life-671752.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00100.warc.gz | en | 0.987339 | 1,111 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.4461128115653991... | 1 | BANGALORE : Mahatma Gandhi lived a life of nonviolence, and with his strength of character was able to lead an entire nation toward the dawn of independence. There are many interesting stories about Mahatma Gandhi related to nonviolence and non-attachment.
One such story describes how Mahatma Gandhi was boarding a train. One day, as he started to board, one of his shoes slipped off and became caught on the track.
He tried to loosen it but could not. People standing near him watched him. When they saw he was unable to free the shoe from the track, he took off the other shoe and threw it also on the track right at the spot where the first one was stuck.
The astonished passengers asked, “Why are you throwing the other shoe onto the track also?”
Gandhi sweetly replied, “The poor man who finds the shoe lying on the track will now have a pair he can use.”
Look at that high level of vision. There are many lessons in that one account. Firstly, most people would be so upset about losing their one shoe that their brain would only dwell on that loss.
They would be upset, hassled and distressed. If they had no other shoes with them, they would have to go barefoot, or wait to buy another pair. Their whole journey would be colored by the aggravation of losing the shoe.
What did Gandhi do? He did not let the loss of the shoe mar his clarity of thinking. Rather, he weighed the situation, and came up with a brilliant idea. If he could not benefit from having the shoe, then someone else who needed shoes might come along and find a pair to help them.
Rather than being stingy, he was generous and caring. He thought he could use this as an opportunity to make a contribution to some poor person who might need shoes and happen to have the good luck of finding them.
How many of us take a bad situation and turn it into a good one? How many of us can see the bright side of a difficult situation? How many of us can turn a negative into a positive? This attitude of Gandhi’s points the way for us to learn how to use problems to our benefit or the benefit of others.
The anecdote about Gandhi also shows us another aspect of his life, which is non-attachment. When we are not attached to anything, we are free. If someone were attached to his shoes, then his whole train ride and rest of the day would have been caught up in the web of anger, despair, and hopelessness.
That would have been all that the person would have thought about. That kind of thinking would have drained that person of several hours of his life.
By releasing his attachment to his shoes, Gandhi was showing that he was free. He could give them up and move on. He could spend the rest of his time in productive thoughts and not be a victim to the circumstance.
Thus, Gandhi freed himself from attachment and gained all those extra hours of his day free from bondage to those shoes. Let us think about how many attachments we have in our lives that keep us in bondage. If India could declare its independence from British rule through nonviolent means, we can also declare our independence from the attachments that the mind sends us.
Some of us may be attached to our money and possessions. The loss of money might devastate us.
Instead of looking forward to how we can earn money in the future, we are caught up in the agony of the loss of money that we experienced in the past.
The current moment in which we can get to work to make more money is instead spent in worry and anxiety. We dwell on what we lost instead of turning it into an opportunity to continue to gain.
Some people are attached to name and fame. They are so concerned about their reputations and what others think of them that if someone says something critical about them, they crack.
They become upset, angry, and irate and lash out at others. Some become depressed and cannot function. They are so attached to their name and what others think of them that they lose their precious life breaths in anger when someone makes a suggestion to them, criticises them or their ideas, or wants to point something out to them.
They lose sleep over what others have said about them. Instead of taking the situation and turning it into a positive one, they are devastated.
Instead of losing their life’s breaths over worry and hurt, they could look at what was said about them in a calm, rational manner, and see if there is even a grain of truth there. They can use that as an opportunity to work on themselves to make their lives better. They can improve their lives.
If after examining what was said about them and they find no truth there, they can take it as a misunderstanding on the part of the other person.
They can choose to fix the misunderstanding and move on, or just ignore it if the other person said it without any basis. In this way, we can remain independent from the bondage of attachment to our name and fame.
We can find freedom in our lives from the bondage of habits that deplete our energies.
If we are not attached to money, possessions, name, and fame, we too can develop a state of independence from these habits and find the joy of freedom. | 1,081 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A storehouse of ancient treasures, including precious jewels and gold beads, has been uncovered by archaeologists on an island near Crete devoted to making a precious purple dye from sea snails thousands of years ago.
The finds on Chrysi — a now uninhabited island — show the high value placed on the rare purple dye and the flourishing economy of the settlement between 3,800 and 3,500 years ago, during the Protopalatial and Neopalatial periods of the Minoan civilization on Crete.
Archaeologists think the largest building in the settlement was inhabited by a local elite who may have governed the Minoan settlement on the tiny island, south of the east end of Crete, Greece's culture ministry said in a statement.
The team found deep beds of thousands of the shells of spiny sea snails called Murex — which make the vivid purple substance within their bodies — in several small buildings in the settlement but not in the large building.
Instead, the large building was equipped with terraces, work desks, stoves, buckets and a stone staircase, suggesting that it was once inhabited by those who managed the settlement's production of the purple dye, and perhaps its promotion and trade to buyers who visited the island by ship, as well as payments wherein precious metals, jewelry and gemstones.
The prosperity of the island settlement was not shown by the remains of its simple buildings, but by the high quality of the artifacts found there, the statement said.
Archaeologists have investigated the settlement on Chrysi since 2008, revealing various discoveries, including the remains of large carved stone tanks near the waterline on the beach.
Based on their earlier work, the scientists suspect that the tanks were used to farm the shellfish — a species of Murex called Hexaplex trunculus — to increase their numbers and reduce the labor of harvesting them from the sea.
The tanks were also supplied with extra seawater from a cistern, the regional director of antiquities and leader of the excavations, Chryssa Sofianou, told Live Science. "We think the shellfish were cultivated."
The most recent excavations have centered on the largest of the several ancient buildings in the settlement, where the archaeologists found ancient artifacts, including wa ring, a bracelet and 26 beads made from gold. They also discovered beads made from silver, bronze and glass; and semiprecious gemstones, including amethyst and lapis lazuli.
The researchers also found a seal made from agate, adorned with a carving of a ship; three large vases made of copper; and ingots of bronze and tin — one of the largest caches of raw metal ever found in Crete.
Sofianou said it was not possible yet to say just how many people lived at the settlement, but that was one of the questions that archaeologists sought to answer. Although the purple-making settlement on Chrysi is old, it's not quite the earliest found on Crete. Archaeologists think the Minoans may have been the first to make the famous dye about 4,000 years ago.
The purple dye produced from Murex sea snails was a precious rarity in the Bronze Age Mediterranean region, explained bioarchaeologist Deborah Ruscillo of Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri.
Ruscillo has studied the production of the ancient purple dye, including experimenting with it to make colors from pink to blue to almost black, though she isn't involved in the excavations on Chrysi.
"Purple did not exist from any other source at the time," she told Live Science. "Cheaper plant substitutes, such as madder or woad, did not come around until the Middle Ages, so until that time Murex purple was the only source."
The shellfish make a small amount of the purple substance inside their bodies, and use it as a poisonous defense against predators.
It takes thousands of Murex sea snails to produce enough purple dye to color a single garment, a difficult and sometimes dangerous task. "There was danger and discomfort involved in harvesting the snails from the sea, strength required to break open the shells, [and] the smell was horrendous," she said.
The difficulty of making the dye led to it only being used by the wealthy and royal, and it became known as "Royal purple."
It was also known as "Tyrian purple," after the ancient Phoenican coastal city of Tyre, a source of the dye; and it's thought to be the Tekhelet dye described in Hebrew scriptures as the color of the curtains of the tabernacle and the vestments of the high priest, Ruscillo said.
Later in history, the use of the rare and expensive color purple was restricted by Roman sumptuary laws, which penalized ostentatious clothing and jewelry.
Eventually, the color purple became a signifier of the Roman emperor: The ascension of a new emperor became known as "donning the purple," and children of the Imperial family were said to be "born into the purple."
- 30 of the World's Most Valuable Treasures That Are Still Missing
- The 25 Most Mysterious Archaeological Finds on Earth
- Photos: Decapitated Romans Found in Ancient Cemetery
Originally published on Live Science. | <urn:uuid:d30f13d9-dd15-4b2c-bdc9-873f76fb69b4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.livescience.com/gold-jewels-found-on-island-purple.html?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+Livesciencecom+%28LiveScience.com+Science+Headline+Feed%29 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00219.warc.gz | en | 0.980233 | 1,094 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.757929086685... | 9 | A storehouse of ancient treasures, including precious jewels and gold beads, has been uncovered by archaeologists on an island near Crete devoted to making a precious purple dye from sea snails thousands of years ago.
The finds on Chrysi — a now uninhabited island — show the high value placed on the rare purple dye and the flourishing economy of the settlement between 3,800 and 3,500 years ago, during the Protopalatial and Neopalatial periods of the Minoan civilization on Crete.
Archaeologists think the largest building in the settlement was inhabited by a local elite who may have governed the Minoan settlement on the tiny island, south of the east end of Crete, Greece's culture ministry said in a statement.
The team found deep beds of thousands of the shells of spiny sea snails called Murex — which make the vivid purple substance within their bodies — in several small buildings in the settlement but not in the large building.
Instead, the large building was equipped with terraces, work desks, stoves, buckets and a stone staircase, suggesting that it was once inhabited by those who managed the settlement's production of the purple dye, and perhaps its promotion and trade to buyers who visited the island by ship, as well as payments wherein precious metals, jewelry and gemstones.
The prosperity of the island settlement was not shown by the remains of its simple buildings, but by the high quality of the artifacts found there, the statement said.
Archaeologists have investigated the settlement on Chrysi since 2008, revealing various discoveries, including the remains of large carved stone tanks near the waterline on the beach.
Based on their earlier work, the scientists suspect that the tanks were used to farm the shellfish — a species of Murex called Hexaplex trunculus — to increase their numbers and reduce the labor of harvesting them from the sea.
The tanks were also supplied with extra seawater from a cistern, the regional director of antiquities and leader of the excavations, Chryssa Sofianou, told Live Science. "We think the shellfish were cultivated."
The most recent excavations have centered on the largest of the several ancient buildings in the settlement, where the archaeologists found ancient artifacts, including wa ring, a bracelet and 26 beads made from gold. They also discovered beads made from silver, bronze and glass; and semiprecious gemstones, including amethyst and lapis lazuli.
The researchers also found a seal made from agate, adorned with a carving of a ship; three large vases made of copper; and ingots of bronze and tin — one of the largest caches of raw metal ever found in Crete.
Sofianou said it was not possible yet to say just how many people lived at the settlement, but that was one of the questions that archaeologists sought to answer. Although the purple-making settlement on Chrysi is old, it's not quite the earliest found on Crete. Archaeologists think the Minoans may have been the first to make the famous dye about 4,000 years ago.
The purple dye produced from Murex sea snails was a precious rarity in the Bronze Age Mediterranean region, explained bioarchaeologist Deborah Ruscillo of Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri.
Ruscillo has studied the production of the ancient purple dye, including experimenting with it to make colors from pink to blue to almost black, though she isn't involved in the excavations on Chrysi.
"Purple did not exist from any other source at the time," she told Live Science. "Cheaper plant substitutes, such as madder or woad, did not come around until the Middle Ages, so until that time Murex purple was the only source."
The shellfish make a small amount of the purple substance inside their bodies, and use it as a poisonous defense against predators.
It takes thousands of Murex sea snails to produce enough purple dye to color a single garment, a difficult and sometimes dangerous task. "There was danger and discomfort involved in harvesting the snails from the sea, strength required to break open the shells, [and] the smell was horrendous," she said.
The difficulty of making the dye led to it only being used by the wealthy and royal, and it became known as "Royal purple."
It was also known as "Tyrian purple," after the ancient Phoenican coastal city of Tyre, a source of the dye; and it's thought to be the Tekhelet dye described in Hebrew scriptures as the color of the curtains of the tabernacle and the vestments of the high priest, Ruscillo said.
Later in history, the use of the rare and expensive color purple was restricted by Roman sumptuary laws, which penalized ostentatious clothing and jewelry.
Eventually, the color purple became a signifier of the Roman emperor: The ascension of a new emperor became known as "donning the purple," and children of the Imperial family were said to be "born into the purple."
- 30 of the World's Most Valuable Treasures That Are Still Missing
- The 25 Most Mysterious Archaeological Finds on Earth
- Photos: Decapitated Romans Found in Ancient Cemetery
Originally published on Live Science. | 1,095 | ENGLISH | 1 |
King henry viii and his role in the history of the catholic church and the church of england Essay
King henry viii and his role in the history of the catholic church and the church of england If there are words that would best fit to describe King Henry VIII, one would agree that he was a man of dual powers: religious and political powers he exercised or shall we say employed in order to keep his throne and his famous name. He has the religious powers because he had been once an advocate of the Roman Catholic Church and a prominent name during the Church’ war against the Lutherans or the Reformists.
He has political powers, which he used to enable England the most powerful in Europe.
As a king, Henry VIII was able to develop those exemplary political skills by building, strengthening and keeping his political interests and good relationships with other countries like Italy and later with France. Henry VIII was undoubtedly politically witty as he was able to handle political pressures and even won over threats of his throne.
King Henry VIII also dubbed by Pope Leo X, as the “Defender of Faith” was famous for his then close relationship with the Catholic Church. He was in fact the one who had helped the church in the war against the Reformists who demanded for the reformation of the Catholic Church during the early 1500s.
One historian tagged Henry VIII as a “Serial Monogamist” and an “egotistical man” (Green, Robert 1998, p.263). It could have been because of the fact that the king was willing to compromise his religious orientation and the doctrine of the Catholic Church for just one thing: his desire to have a son as his heir. What was notable of Henry VIII in the world’s history was his ability to merge religious and political powers in order to keep his name clean in the eyes of ally countries and his people which especially manifested during his quest for a wife whom he can have a son to be an heir of his throne.
All these facts and observations merged together will somehow justify other observations of historians and biographers, which regard King Henry VIII as significant although with much criticisms, personalities in the histories of both the Catholic Church and the Church of England (Erickson, Carolly 1980, p.112).In this paper, we will look briefly into the family background of the king in order to have a better cue on the latter events of his political and religious life. We will focus on his role in the history of the Roman Catholic Church and the Church of England.
This paper also finds it important to examine the sequence of events, which covered the king’s quest for a wife who can bore him a son.Born on June 28, 1491, Henry VIII was the second son of King Henry VII of England and Elizabeth of York (Scarisbrick, J.J. 1968, p.
17). He was one of the most remembered and famous descendants belonging to the line of the Tudor Monarchs (Loades, David 1996, p.22). He had two brothers, Arthur and Edmund, Duke of Somerset and two sisters whose names were not mentioned in most history books and articles.
Died early of a disease in 1502, Henry VIII had to face the early responsibilities of getting into the political affairs of his kingdom (Erickson, Carolly, p.89). This is quite opposite to Henry’s earlier life spent with his father’s preparation of him to be in charge of the church.There were speculations and probably just conclusions drawn from the series of his life events that, Henry VIII was indeed theologically inclined.
Being trained early in the for the church and with known scholars in the kingdom, Henry VIII was believed to have been the well-educated, of good academic performance and one who has the innate cognitive skills (Pirenne, Henri 1958, p.201). We can probably say that the king was well rounded in the sense that he had excelled in the fields of arts and music, linguistics and sports aside from his accomplishments in the military and political arenas. It is not however the likely interest of young Henry to engage in the political realm since his early years in throne has been largely managed by his advisors Richard Foxe and the famous Cardinal Wolsey (Fry, Somerset 1990, p.
58). It is however contemplated that Henry has the gift of wit and the innate personality of handling political issues. This might have the very reason why he was able to re-establish his good political relations with France even if it was his top enemy in the previous wars. Despite his love for sports and his early devotion to enhancing his other skills, young Henry VIII have been proven to have equal excellence in the fields of literature and sports, including his academic skills (Ridley, Jasper 1985, p.
122).One of the two reasons Henry VIII was made famous was his relationship with the Roman Catholic Church before and after his split due to divorce issue. It is important that one should note that Henry VIII was one of the most prominent personalities in the history of the Roman Catholic Church especially during the period of reformation wherein Martin Luther was demanding the church for reformation. It is important to note that Luther was then a “Monk who was moved to indignation by the sale of indulgences and other abuses of the ecclesiastical system nailed his famous theses to the door of the church in Wittenberg and thus began a religious revolution in Germany” (Pinto, De Sola V.
1950, p.37).Luther was an enemy to Henry VIII so to speak that he literally had helped the Catholic Church against the Protestants. To prove his commitment and dedication to the Catholic Church, Henry VIII even wrote a book called Assertio Septem Sacramento rum (Defense of the Seven Sacraments).
It is to be stressed that the seven sacraments were just one aspect of the Catholic traditions and doctrines that Luther opposed. In the book, the King literally defended his faith in the Catholic Church of his belief of the power of the Seven Sacraments and that the book indeed became a bestseller (Green, Robert 1998, p.199).The King was indeed so attached with the Catholic Church.
Aside from defending the Seven Sacraments, Henry VIII stood to his religious belief of the doctrine of transubstantiation, a doctrine of the Church, which believed in the symbolic transformation of the bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ during the offering, as part of the Holy Mass or the Eucharist. Even during the course of the King’s negotiation relative to his request for the Pope’s grant of divorce to his marriage with Catherine, Henry’s dedication with the Church continued by appointing Thomas More to do the job against Luther. Meanwhile, Catherine of Aragon was the wife of his deceased brother Arthur, who was five years older than Henry VIII. Catherine was known to people as a loving and dedicated wife to Henry and commended for her service to the people (Roll, Winifred 1970, p.
65). Well-known to Luther as a devoted Catholic, the King was actually considered by Luther as a “damnable rottenness and worm”(Fraser, Antonia 1994, p.51). There was a notable evidence of the King’s good relationship with the Catholic Church before he split with it.
Henry VIII conferred by the Pope the title “Defender of Faith” (Murphy, Virginia 1995, p.145). The title was a reward for the King’s well-written and well-published book “Defense of the Seven Sacraments.” The title was so precious for Henry VIII that he has kept the title even after he split with the Catholic Church and established his own Church, which he called “The Church of England.
”It was not until the Pope refused to grant Henry VIII his desired divorce for his marriage with Catherine Aragon that the King was displeased with the Catholic Church (Sowerby, Tracey Amanda 1979, p.178). It could have been just a matter of disagreement or displeasure with the Pope so to speak that the matter should not amount to splitting with the Catholic Church. To the surprise of many, the King regarded the disagreement too personal not just with the Pope but also with the Church as a whole.
This action by the King could have been brought about by the fact that his ego was so hurt that his important request was declined. It was another thing that he King was expecting the Pope to side with him but the contrary happened.If we are to look closely into the matter, Henry wanted the Pope to grant him divorce not just for wanting to marry Anne Bolyen but also of wanting a son to be an heir to his throne. He had only a daughter with Catherine, Elizabeth and that fact dissatisfied the King with his marriage (Starkey, David 2003, p.
64). It is also important to note that Catherine was formerly married to Henry’s older brother Arthur but was asked by his father to be remarried to Henry after the former died of a disease. The King wanted the divorce so much that he even tried to ask Thomas Moore to sign a letter asking the Pope to grant him divorce which the latter refused. The King devised several reasons in defense for his plea for divorce but the still failed to get the approval of the people around him.
But in 1533, Henry got an ally in the person of Archbishop Thomas Cranmer, who was personally appointed by the King. Cranmer sided with the King stating in defense that Henry’s marriage to Catherine contradicted the laws of God” (Green, Robert 1998, p.272). Cutting it short, Bolyen and Henry secretly married with Cranmer’s power even before the annulment (Murphy, Virginia p.
184). The Church response was to excommunicate Cranmer, his loyal supporters including bishops and then the King.Henry VIII, although religious in his own rights, was willing to sacrifice the life of others and even his religion, for the sake of having what wanted. In this case for example, he did everything in his power, even to sacrifice Thomas Moore and his relationship with the Catholic Church in the name of Anne Bolyen and his dream of having a son.
In another case, Henry was willing to have peace with Rome in order to limit and eventually remove the power of the Pope over England. This plan Henry knew will not be consented by the Pope. So before Pope Clement VII gave his decision to Henry, the King had already devised a plan to ensure that he will get what he wanted.Henry was a man who wanted to keep his name clean and appealing to people.
He always wanted to keep his throne and whatever it takes to keep him in place, he will do everything to the extent of his powers as a King. If he was able to save his face from humiliation and criticism for divorcing Catherine Aragon, there was only one thing Henry utilized: his political powers. In the course of his reign, and for keeping his throne until his death, Henry probably has utilized his powers well enough for his own sake. For his plan of making Rome his political ally, there was just one thing, which made him think so: he wanted to ensure protection from his enemy, Charles V.
Charles V opposed to the divorce proposed by Henry VIII but for the sake of having Anne Bolyen, Henry VIII managed to breach with Charles V in 1527.Meanwhile, Henry’s strategy was to secure support from the parliament with which he succeeded. One step at a time, Henry VIII managed to send representatives to Wales and Calais for the purpose of defending the privileges of the Parliament. In this case, the King has the assurance that he has little by little strengthening and widening the scope of his political power through his representatives.
With his political wit and the unwavering support from those whom he had appointed, Henry VIII was successful in securing the Acts of Annates and Appeals and the Supremacy he had long been waiting for.At the completion of separation from Rome, Henry VIII had the complete assurance that he was completely out of the jurisdiction of the Pope. In his own powers and the supremacy he conferred unto his throne, Henry VIII was able to transfer enormous wealth from the church to the royal crown including the dissolution of the monasteries in his jurisdiction. Finally, the King had his marriage with Catherine Aragon legalized in 1533.
The supremacy Henry got have caused him a lot and maybe it was not as easy as we think it was on the part of Henry who have already established his personal relationships with these people. It was just sad to recall that Henry was able to have all these sacrificed for the sake of marrying a woman whom he expected to give him a son but was unable to do so.For the Catholic Church, Henry VIII could have been a hero and a defender of faith for a time. But with the sacrifices of Sir Thomas Moore, Bishop Fisher, the monks and the Carthusians, they might have the real heroes of faith.
They have shown that their faith with the Catholic Church was more important than political power that Henry VIII could have given them should they chose to side with him.The establishment of his supremacy, the execution of the people around him and the execution of Anne Bolyen for a charge of adultery did little to move Henry and feel a little insecurity in his throne. Accounts of Anne said that the King indeed falsely accused her in order that he gets a valid reason for granting him another divorce and of marrying another woman (Warnicke, Retha 1989, p.187).
With his political powers, he was able to manage the matter. However, the dissolution of the monasteries encouraged the people to protest in the north through the Pilgrimage of Grace. Henry VIII was however proven to be a man of great diplomacy and a man of political skills that he was able to suppress the protest. What Henry VIII was to renew his long been abandoned war with Charles V and Francis I so to avoid intervention of foreign countries.
Those who wanted to take Henry VIII out of the throne did not even succeed because of the absence of somebody to replace him. In the end, Henry VIII gained his victory.Being excommunicated from the Catholic Church and of having Anne Bolyen as his wife, the King established his own church, the Church of England. The said church was a duplicate of the Catholic Church only that he had made himself the head and the supreme ruler in place of the Pope.
Even if Henry was angry with the Catholic Church, he never had any of its doctrines replace nor revived. It is also important for everyone to know that remained an enemy of Luther although for political purposes, embraced Protestantism for a time even after he had established his own defined church.True enough to their views and opinions, Henry VIII was such a political figure that was likened to a puppet for siding to which he knows would protect his interests. Being the head of the Church of England, Henry VIII had all the power to execute three Catholics for affirming the primacy of the pope and three Protestants for affirming justification by faith alone, sending them to the same shambles in three pairs (Ridley, Jasper p.
151). Because it is the supremacy of the Pope which Henry hated so much of the Catholicism, he hated those to expressly affirm to the supremacy of the former.Henry’s established Church of England has almost similar doctrines with that of the Catholic Church aside of course from having a different head. Few differences exist but for the Catholics, these doctrines were significant and unique to their religion.
For example, the Church of England rejects the idea of monasticism, the cult of relics and the presence of the images inside the church. Henry’s Church rejects the idea of a purgatory although the church conducts prayers for the dead. However, as he had written in his book, “In Defense of the Seven Sacraments”, Henry retained his faith on the power of the Holy Eucharist and that he still carried to his church the belief on the real presence and sacrifice of the mass. More importantly, Henry VIII upheld the importance of freewill.
Henry, for his love of power and prestige always wanted that he have his own views and opinions be made supreme of all. Relative to his church, Henry was said to have that strategy of soliciting reviews of theological views from different sets of scholars. From here, he would listen to their rival views, their critiques of the matter including the aspects, which they appreciated. Henry would not choose to side to anyone.
What he usually did was to review the accumulated opinions and then would come to his own version by combining the rival thoughts, which would then result to him being at the middle.As to Henry’s supremacy in his church, one would probably agree that he was indeed a man of wit because he actually justified his reign as the head of the church biblically. To make this clear, Henry compared himself with the kingship of King David over Israel during the Old Testament. In Henry’s argument, Kind David in his reign has his power over the priests and the prophets.
Henry employed the same concept in defending his throne as a king and at the same time the head of the church. In Henry’s time, the Catholic Church denies the supremacy of the King over Church in the concept of “ecclesiastical liberty”. Henry’s refusal to recognize the supremacy of the Pope in the church was the main reason why the Catholic Church decided to excommunicate the King.Henry strongly believed that his kingship and his supremacy in the church were well justified by the models of kingship in the Biblical times.
He firmly believes that he has his “God-given authority” over the church. To justify his kingship and church supremacy, he looked forward to publishing an English version of the Bible in order that the people would be able to have hands on reading on the kingship model he had patterned in the Old Testament. However, to be fair with Henry, he wanted to have a vernacular version of the Bible so he could teach his people about their obligations to God, to the King and their neighbors. What Henry wanted to emphasize was that the Bible should ensure that the people would learn complete obedience with their rulers.
The publication of the Bible in the English version however has a hidden agendum: of instilling to the people their obedience to the King. Later in after Henry introduced the Bible as the “word of God” the King then have his hidden agendum be inculcated in the minds of the faithful. In the Ten Commandments for example, one of the commandments, which said, “Honor thy mother and thy father” Henry’s preachers somehow twisted the real meaning of the commandment. The commandment, in the view of the Church of England would mean obedience to the king, being the father of the whole nation.
Henry was successful enough in making the faithful in his church believe that the obedience that the Bible teaches is actually obedience to the king rather than the pope.Backed up by his political and religious interests, Henry also devised a doctrine of the Church of England, which eliminated idolatry, or the veneration of the graven images, as was a tradition in the Catholic Church. Later in the Church, a mere presence of a painting or any graven image in the church was considered an abuse. In the church view, the presence of the images inside the church could trigger anyone to abuse the goodness therein and be encouraged to have his adoration be converted to idolatry.
This doctrine was based on the Biblical event when king Hezekiah destroyed the image of the serpent made by Moses with God’s command because the people have abused its presence and regarded the image as an idol. The church later developed that doctrine, which prohibits the presence of decorative angels in altars, saints in stained glass, crucifixes and even the representation of Biblical stories. Henry remained faithful to these teachings and all these he pleased to b taught to his people.In 1534, Henry VIII as the head of the church summoned to his parliament to pass a law, which forbids the act of sodomy and warned the people that the offense will be penalized with death.
Again, Henry VIII found as basis of the law in the Bible and told his people that the law being passed was a revelation of God’s words. The concept of sodomy forbids marrying the wife of a brother which he believed was his offense when he married Catherine Aragon. This was also the same concept that the King blamed his inability to have a son with Catherine. With his unlimited power, being the king and the head of the church, Henry could undoubtedly have all these commandments be enforced to his people.
It is his dual supremacy that enabled him to begin with the church reformation.Let us remember that the King first ensured that the people would believe that his supremacy in the church was justified by the Old Testament accounts. He then taught the people that the laws or ordinances he passed were revelations of the word of God and so the people have to obey them. Henry also was able to correct religious errors he committed with the least obvious acceptance of his fault.
For example, he has once asked Richard Morrison to issue statement which said: “Where before he was called king, and yet had against all right and equity a ruler above him, which ever enforced himself to keep his highness and all the rest of his subjects in servitude, error, and idolatry; God has made him, as all his noble progenitors of right ought to have been, a full king, that is, a ruler, and not ruled in his own kingdom as others were” (D MacCulloch, 1995 p.69).The Church of England also holds the doctrine of Divine Providence, which Henry also had made church legacy. Henry believed that his inability to have a son with Catherine was his punishment for taking his brother’s wife.
Thus had assured his that his church fully implement the rule against sodomy. In this regard, Henry has this event connected to obedience and the Divine Providence. In his view, and of course by the advise of the people around him, the people should ensure their obedience to God’ laws in order that they be provided with the blessings. On the other hand, disobedience will eventually result to one’s punishment.
In comparison with the doctrines of the Catholic Church and Protestantism, this same doctrine is parallel to the two churches.It is true in the view of the Catholic Church and the Protestant tradition that it is the sole responsibility of man to obey God and that the payment for that obedience will be blessings and consequently disobedience will result to punishment. The difference however lies on the credibility of the laws being enforced. Let us remember that Henry VIII made his people believe that obedience of the people should be on the king rather than the Pope as the head of the Church.
It might be fair enough to say that the credibility of the doctrines in the Church of England was tainted since it was in fact devised out of political interests and hidden agenda of protecting the interest of the King. For example, the church doctrine of prohibiting sodomy is questionable not to its Biblical credibility but to the intent of the king of its implementation.Let us not forget that it was one of the few justifications Henry VIII made for divorcing Catherine Aragon and then consequently would have justified his marriage to Anne Bolyen. This just means that with the law, he had implied that his marriage with Catherine was indeed null and void in the eyes of God.
I believe that there is no question as to the validity of the doctrines of the Church of England on sodomy and of graven images relative to Biblical doctrines. The question lies on the intent of the King in imposing obedience to such laws. If not for the uncovered hidden agenda of the King, one would have to believe that the reformation of the Church is a religious one. However with several political and personal motives, the doctrines of Henry’s church were put into doubt.
The legacy of king Henry as with his view of matrimony had become the basis of matrimonial law in England even up to these days.Henry VIII was undoubtedly a man of dual powers: religious and political powers, which he successfully utilized to keep his throne during his reign. It was his wit in political matters that saved Henry VIII from wide criticism of having six wives and of justifying his divorce and marriages with these women. Henry was one of man who was willing to sacrifice his friends and trusted servants for the sake of serving his personal desires.
HE even had his religious life sacrificed for the sake of securing divorce and of having a son.For the Catholic Church, Henry VIII will remain an important figure in its history for Henry VIII once defended the faith against the Lutherans. For the Church of England, Henry VIII will remain recognized as the founder of their faith and their church. For England, Henry VIII will remain her once great king whose political powers truly formidable that no one during the course of his reign even until his death was able to threaten nor shook his throne.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Elton, G.R. England Under the Tudors. The Folio Society, London, 1997.
Erickson, Carolly. Great Harry: The Extravagant Life of Henry VIII. Summit Books, New York, 1980.Fraser, Antonia.
The Wives of Henry VIII. New York; Vintage Books, 1994Fry, Plantagenet Somerset. The Kings and Queens of England & Scotland. Grove Weidenfeld, London, 1990.
Green, Robert. King Henry VIII. New York; A Division of Grolier Publishing, 1998.Loades, David.
Chronicles of the Tudor Kings. Bramley Books, Surrey, England, 1996.MacCulloch,D. (1995).
“Henry VIII and the reform of the Church”. D MacCulloch (ed.), The Reign of Henry VIII: Politics, Policy and Piety. London 1995Mattingly, Garrett.
Catherine of Aragon. Vintage Books, New York, 1941.Murphy, Virginia. “The Literature and Propaganda of Henry VIII’s First Divorce”.
New York; St. Martin’s Press Inc, 1995.Pinto, V. De Sola.
“The English Renaissance”. New York City; Dover Publications Inc. 1950.Pirenne, Henri.
A History of Europe, Volume II. Doubleday & Co., Inc., 1958.
Ridley, Jasper. Henry VIII: The Politics of Tyranny. Viking Penguin, Inc., London, 1985.
Roll, Winifred. The Pomegranate & The Rose: The Story of Katherine of Aragon. Prentice-Hall, Inc., New Jersey, 1970.
Scarisbrick, J.J. Henry VIII. University of California Press, 1968.
Sowerby, Tracey Amanda (1979).The King’s Reformation: Henry VIII and the Remaking of the English Church (review).The Catholic Historical Review – Volume 93, Number 1, January 2007.Starkey, David.
Six Wives: The Queens of Henry VIII. HarperCollins Publishers, New York, 2003.Warnicke, Retha M. The Rise and Fall of Anne Boleyn.
Cambridge University Press, New York, 1989.;;;;
Cite this King henry viii and his role in the history of the catholic church and the church of england Essay
King henry viii and his role in the history of the catholic church and the church of england Essay. (2017, Mar 15). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/king-henry-viii-and-his-role-in-the-history-of-the-catholic-church-and-the-church-of-england/ | <urn:uuid:b6551791-62ec-46ed-a576-239955d4eaad> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://graduateway.com/king-henry-viii-and-his-role-in-the-history-of-the-catholic-church-and-the-church-of-england/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00110.warc.gz | en | 0.987102 | 5,805 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.4114735424518... | 1 | King henry viii and his role in the history of the catholic church and the church of england Essay
King henry viii and his role in the history of the catholic church and the church of england If there are words that would best fit to describe King Henry VIII, one would agree that he was a man of dual powers: religious and political powers he exercised or shall we say employed in order to keep his throne and his famous name. He has the religious powers because he had been once an advocate of the Roman Catholic Church and a prominent name during the Church’ war against the Lutherans or the Reformists.
He has political powers, which he used to enable England the most powerful in Europe.
As a king, Henry VIII was able to develop those exemplary political skills by building, strengthening and keeping his political interests and good relationships with other countries like Italy and later with France. Henry VIII was undoubtedly politically witty as he was able to handle political pressures and even won over threats of his throne.
King Henry VIII also dubbed by Pope Leo X, as the “Defender of Faith” was famous for his then close relationship with the Catholic Church. He was in fact the one who had helped the church in the war against the Reformists who demanded for the reformation of the Catholic Church during the early 1500s.
One historian tagged Henry VIII as a “Serial Monogamist” and an “egotistical man” (Green, Robert 1998, p.263). It could have been because of the fact that the king was willing to compromise his religious orientation and the doctrine of the Catholic Church for just one thing: his desire to have a son as his heir. What was notable of Henry VIII in the world’s history was his ability to merge religious and political powers in order to keep his name clean in the eyes of ally countries and his people which especially manifested during his quest for a wife whom he can have a son to be an heir of his throne.
All these facts and observations merged together will somehow justify other observations of historians and biographers, which regard King Henry VIII as significant although with much criticisms, personalities in the histories of both the Catholic Church and the Church of England (Erickson, Carolly 1980, p.112).In this paper, we will look briefly into the family background of the king in order to have a better cue on the latter events of his political and religious life. We will focus on his role in the history of the Roman Catholic Church and the Church of England.
This paper also finds it important to examine the sequence of events, which covered the king’s quest for a wife who can bore him a son.Born on June 28, 1491, Henry VIII was the second son of King Henry VII of England and Elizabeth of York (Scarisbrick, J.J. 1968, p.
17). He was one of the most remembered and famous descendants belonging to the line of the Tudor Monarchs (Loades, David 1996, p.22). He had two brothers, Arthur and Edmund, Duke of Somerset and two sisters whose names were not mentioned in most history books and articles.
Died early of a disease in 1502, Henry VIII had to face the early responsibilities of getting into the political affairs of his kingdom (Erickson, Carolly, p.89). This is quite opposite to Henry’s earlier life spent with his father’s preparation of him to be in charge of the church.There were speculations and probably just conclusions drawn from the series of his life events that, Henry VIII was indeed theologically inclined.
Being trained early in the for the church and with known scholars in the kingdom, Henry VIII was believed to have been the well-educated, of good academic performance and one who has the innate cognitive skills (Pirenne, Henri 1958, p.201). We can probably say that the king was well rounded in the sense that he had excelled in the fields of arts and music, linguistics and sports aside from his accomplishments in the military and political arenas. It is not however the likely interest of young Henry to engage in the political realm since his early years in throne has been largely managed by his advisors Richard Foxe and the famous Cardinal Wolsey (Fry, Somerset 1990, p.
58). It is however contemplated that Henry has the gift of wit and the innate personality of handling political issues. This might have the very reason why he was able to re-establish his good political relations with France even if it was his top enemy in the previous wars. Despite his love for sports and his early devotion to enhancing his other skills, young Henry VIII have been proven to have equal excellence in the fields of literature and sports, including his academic skills (Ridley, Jasper 1985, p.
122).One of the two reasons Henry VIII was made famous was his relationship with the Roman Catholic Church before and after his split due to divorce issue. It is important that one should note that Henry VIII was one of the most prominent personalities in the history of the Roman Catholic Church especially during the period of reformation wherein Martin Luther was demanding the church for reformation. It is important to note that Luther was then a “Monk who was moved to indignation by the sale of indulgences and other abuses of the ecclesiastical system nailed his famous theses to the door of the church in Wittenberg and thus began a religious revolution in Germany” (Pinto, De Sola V.
1950, p.37).Luther was an enemy to Henry VIII so to speak that he literally had helped the Catholic Church against the Protestants. To prove his commitment and dedication to the Catholic Church, Henry VIII even wrote a book called Assertio Septem Sacramento rum (Defense of the Seven Sacraments).
It is to be stressed that the seven sacraments were just one aspect of the Catholic traditions and doctrines that Luther opposed. In the book, the King literally defended his faith in the Catholic Church of his belief of the power of the Seven Sacraments and that the book indeed became a bestseller (Green, Robert 1998, p.199).The King was indeed so attached with the Catholic Church.
Aside from defending the Seven Sacraments, Henry VIII stood to his religious belief of the doctrine of transubstantiation, a doctrine of the Church, which believed in the symbolic transformation of the bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ during the offering, as part of the Holy Mass or the Eucharist. Even during the course of the King’s negotiation relative to his request for the Pope’s grant of divorce to his marriage with Catherine, Henry’s dedication with the Church continued by appointing Thomas More to do the job against Luther. Meanwhile, Catherine of Aragon was the wife of his deceased brother Arthur, who was five years older than Henry VIII. Catherine was known to people as a loving and dedicated wife to Henry and commended for her service to the people (Roll, Winifred 1970, p.
65). Well-known to Luther as a devoted Catholic, the King was actually considered by Luther as a “damnable rottenness and worm”(Fraser, Antonia 1994, p.51). There was a notable evidence of the King’s good relationship with the Catholic Church before he split with it.
Henry VIII conferred by the Pope the title “Defender of Faith” (Murphy, Virginia 1995, p.145). The title was a reward for the King’s well-written and well-published book “Defense of the Seven Sacraments.” The title was so precious for Henry VIII that he has kept the title even after he split with the Catholic Church and established his own Church, which he called “The Church of England.
”It was not until the Pope refused to grant Henry VIII his desired divorce for his marriage with Catherine Aragon that the King was displeased with the Catholic Church (Sowerby, Tracey Amanda 1979, p.178). It could have been just a matter of disagreement or displeasure with the Pope so to speak that the matter should not amount to splitting with the Catholic Church. To the surprise of many, the King regarded the disagreement too personal not just with the Pope but also with the Church as a whole.
This action by the King could have been brought about by the fact that his ego was so hurt that his important request was declined. It was another thing that he King was expecting the Pope to side with him but the contrary happened.If we are to look closely into the matter, Henry wanted the Pope to grant him divorce not just for wanting to marry Anne Bolyen but also of wanting a son to be an heir to his throne. He had only a daughter with Catherine, Elizabeth and that fact dissatisfied the King with his marriage (Starkey, David 2003, p.
64). It is also important to note that Catherine was formerly married to Henry’s older brother Arthur but was asked by his father to be remarried to Henry after the former died of a disease. The King wanted the divorce so much that he even tried to ask Thomas Moore to sign a letter asking the Pope to grant him divorce which the latter refused. The King devised several reasons in defense for his plea for divorce but the still failed to get the approval of the people around him.
But in 1533, Henry got an ally in the person of Archbishop Thomas Cranmer, who was personally appointed by the King. Cranmer sided with the King stating in defense that Henry’s marriage to Catherine contradicted the laws of God” (Green, Robert 1998, p.272). Cutting it short, Bolyen and Henry secretly married with Cranmer’s power even before the annulment (Murphy, Virginia p.
184). The Church response was to excommunicate Cranmer, his loyal supporters including bishops and then the King.Henry VIII, although religious in his own rights, was willing to sacrifice the life of others and even his religion, for the sake of having what wanted. In this case for example, he did everything in his power, even to sacrifice Thomas Moore and his relationship with the Catholic Church in the name of Anne Bolyen and his dream of having a son.
In another case, Henry was willing to have peace with Rome in order to limit and eventually remove the power of the Pope over England. This plan Henry knew will not be consented by the Pope. So before Pope Clement VII gave his decision to Henry, the King had already devised a plan to ensure that he will get what he wanted.Henry was a man who wanted to keep his name clean and appealing to people.
He always wanted to keep his throne and whatever it takes to keep him in place, he will do everything to the extent of his powers as a King. If he was able to save his face from humiliation and criticism for divorcing Catherine Aragon, there was only one thing Henry utilized: his political powers. In the course of his reign, and for keeping his throne until his death, Henry probably has utilized his powers well enough for his own sake. For his plan of making Rome his political ally, there was just one thing, which made him think so: he wanted to ensure protection from his enemy, Charles V.
Charles V opposed to the divorce proposed by Henry VIII but for the sake of having Anne Bolyen, Henry VIII managed to breach with Charles V in 1527.Meanwhile, Henry’s strategy was to secure support from the parliament with which he succeeded. One step at a time, Henry VIII managed to send representatives to Wales and Calais for the purpose of defending the privileges of the Parliament. In this case, the King has the assurance that he has little by little strengthening and widening the scope of his political power through his representatives.
With his political wit and the unwavering support from those whom he had appointed, Henry VIII was successful in securing the Acts of Annates and Appeals and the Supremacy he had long been waiting for.At the completion of separation from Rome, Henry VIII had the complete assurance that he was completely out of the jurisdiction of the Pope. In his own powers and the supremacy he conferred unto his throne, Henry VIII was able to transfer enormous wealth from the church to the royal crown including the dissolution of the monasteries in his jurisdiction. Finally, the King had his marriage with Catherine Aragon legalized in 1533.
The supremacy Henry got have caused him a lot and maybe it was not as easy as we think it was on the part of Henry who have already established his personal relationships with these people. It was just sad to recall that Henry was able to have all these sacrificed for the sake of marrying a woman whom he expected to give him a son but was unable to do so.For the Catholic Church, Henry VIII could have been a hero and a defender of faith for a time. But with the sacrifices of Sir Thomas Moore, Bishop Fisher, the monks and the Carthusians, they might have the real heroes of faith.
They have shown that their faith with the Catholic Church was more important than political power that Henry VIII could have given them should they chose to side with him.The establishment of his supremacy, the execution of the people around him and the execution of Anne Bolyen for a charge of adultery did little to move Henry and feel a little insecurity in his throne. Accounts of Anne said that the King indeed falsely accused her in order that he gets a valid reason for granting him another divorce and of marrying another woman (Warnicke, Retha 1989, p.187).
With his political powers, he was able to manage the matter. However, the dissolution of the monasteries encouraged the people to protest in the north through the Pilgrimage of Grace. Henry VIII was however proven to be a man of great diplomacy and a man of political skills that he was able to suppress the protest. What Henry VIII was to renew his long been abandoned war with Charles V and Francis I so to avoid intervention of foreign countries.
Those who wanted to take Henry VIII out of the throne did not even succeed because of the absence of somebody to replace him. In the end, Henry VIII gained his victory.Being excommunicated from the Catholic Church and of having Anne Bolyen as his wife, the King established his own church, the Church of England. The said church was a duplicate of the Catholic Church only that he had made himself the head and the supreme ruler in place of the Pope.
Even if Henry was angry with the Catholic Church, he never had any of its doctrines replace nor revived. It is also important for everyone to know that remained an enemy of Luther although for political purposes, embraced Protestantism for a time even after he had established his own defined church.True enough to their views and opinions, Henry VIII was such a political figure that was likened to a puppet for siding to which he knows would protect his interests. Being the head of the Church of England, Henry VIII had all the power to execute three Catholics for affirming the primacy of the pope and three Protestants for affirming justification by faith alone, sending them to the same shambles in three pairs (Ridley, Jasper p.
151). Because it is the supremacy of the Pope which Henry hated so much of the Catholicism, he hated those to expressly affirm to the supremacy of the former.Henry’s established Church of England has almost similar doctrines with that of the Catholic Church aside of course from having a different head. Few differences exist but for the Catholics, these doctrines were significant and unique to their religion.
For example, the Church of England rejects the idea of monasticism, the cult of relics and the presence of the images inside the church. Henry’s Church rejects the idea of a purgatory although the church conducts prayers for the dead. However, as he had written in his book, “In Defense of the Seven Sacraments”, Henry retained his faith on the power of the Holy Eucharist and that he still carried to his church the belief on the real presence and sacrifice of the mass. More importantly, Henry VIII upheld the importance of freewill.
Henry, for his love of power and prestige always wanted that he have his own views and opinions be made supreme of all. Relative to his church, Henry was said to have that strategy of soliciting reviews of theological views from different sets of scholars. From here, he would listen to their rival views, their critiques of the matter including the aspects, which they appreciated. Henry would not choose to side to anyone.
What he usually did was to review the accumulated opinions and then would come to his own version by combining the rival thoughts, which would then result to him being at the middle.As to Henry’s supremacy in his church, one would probably agree that he was indeed a man of wit because he actually justified his reign as the head of the church biblically. To make this clear, Henry compared himself with the kingship of King David over Israel during the Old Testament. In Henry’s argument, Kind David in his reign has his power over the priests and the prophets.
Henry employed the same concept in defending his throne as a king and at the same time the head of the church. In Henry’s time, the Catholic Church denies the supremacy of the King over Church in the concept of “ecclesiastical liberty”. Henry’s refusal to recognize the supremacy of the Pope in the church was the main reason why the Catholic Church decided to excommunicate the King.Henry strongly believed that his kingship and his supremacy in the church were well justified by the models of kingship in the Biblical times.
He firmly believes that he has his “God-given authority” over the church. To justify his kingship and church supremacy, he looked forward to publishing an English version of the Bible in order that the people would be able to have hands on reading on the kingship model he had patterned in the Old Testament. However, to be fair with Henry, he wanted to have a vernacular version of the Bible so he could teach his people about their obligations to God, to the King and their neighbors. What Henry wanted to emphasize was that the Bible should ensure that the people would learn complete obedience with their rulers.
The publication of the Bible in the English version however has a hidden agendum: of instilling to the people their obedience to the King. Later in after Henry introduced the Bible as the “word of God” the King then have his hidden agendum be inculcated in the minds of the faithful. In the Ten Commandments for example, one of the commandments, which said, “Honor thy mother and thy father” Henry’s preachers somehow twisted the real meaning of the commandment. The commandment, in the view of the Church of England would mean obedience to the king, being the father of the whole nation.
Henry was successful enough in making the faithful in his church believe that the obedience that the Bible teaches is actually obedience to the king rather than the pope.Backed up by his political and religious interests, Henry also devised a doctrine of the Church of England, which eliminated idolatry, or the veneration of the graven images, as was a tradition in the Catholic Church. Later in the Church, a mere presence of a painting or any graven image in the church was considered an abuse. In the church view, the presence of the images inside the church could trigger anyone to abuse the goodness therein and be encouraged to have his adoration be converted to idolatry.
This doctrine was based on the Biblical event when king Hezekiah destroyed the image of the serpent made by Moses with God’s command because the people have abused its presence and regarded the image as an idol. The church later developed that doctrine, which prohibits the presence of decorative angels in altars, saints in stained glass, crucifixes and even the representation of Biblical stories. Henry remained faithful to these teachings and all these he pleased to b taught to his people.In 1534, Henry VIII as the head of the church summoned to his parliament to pass a law, which forbids the act of sodomy and warned the people that the offense will be penalized with death.
Again, Henry VIII found as basis of the law in the Bible and told his people that the law being passed was a revelation of God’s words. The concept of sodomy forbids marrying the wife of a brother which he believed was his offense when he married Catherine Aragon. This was also the same concept that the King blamed his inability to have a son with Catherine. With his unlimited power, being the king and the head of the church, Henry could undoubtedly have all these commandments be enforced to his people.
It is his dual supremacy that enabled him to begin with the church reformation.Let us remember that the King first ensured that the people would believe that his supremacy in the church was justified by the Old Testament accounts. He then taught the people that the laws or ordinances he passed were revelations of the word of God and so the people have to obey them. Henry also was able to correct religious errors he committed with the least obvious acceptance of his fault.
For example, he has once asked Richard Morrison to issue statement which said: “Where before he was called king, and yet had against all right and equity a ruler above him, which ever enforced himself to keep his highness and all the rest of his subjects in servitude, error, and idolatry; God has made him, as all his noble progenitors of right ought to have been, a full king, that is, a ruler, and not ruled in his own kingdom as others were” (D MacCulloch, 1995 p.69).The Church of England also holds the doctrine of Divine Providence, which Henry also had made church legacy. Henry believed that his inability to have a son with Catherine was his punishment for taking his brother’s wife.
Thus had assured his that his church fully implement the rule against sodomy. In this regard, Henry has this event connected to obedience and the Divine Providence. In his view, and of course by the advise of the people around him, the people should ensure their obedience to God’ laws in order that they be provided with the blessings. On the other hand, disobedience will eventually result to one’s punishment.
In comparison with the doctrines of the Catholic Church and Protestantism, this same doctrine is parallel to the two churches.It is true in the view of the Catholic Church and the Protestant tradition that it is the sole responsibility of man to obey God and that the payment for that obedience will be blessings and consequently disobedience will result to punishment. The difference however lies on the credibility of the laws being enforced. Let us remember that Henry VIII made his people believe that obedience of the people should be on the king rather than the Pope as the head of the Church.
It might be fair enough to say that the credibility of the doctrines in the Church of England was tainted since it was in fact devised out of political interests and hidden agenda of protecting the interest of the King. For example, the church doctrine of prohibiting sodomy is questionable not to its Biblical credibility but to the intent of the king of its implementation.Let us not forget that it was one of the few justifications Henry VIII made for divorcing Catherine Aragon and then consequently would have justified his marriage to Anne Bolyen. This just means that with the law, he had implied that his marriage with Catherine was indeed null and void in the eyes of God.
I believe that there is no question as to the validity of the doctrines of the Church of England on sodomy and of graven images relative to Biblical doctrines. The question lies on the intent of the King in imposing obedience to such laws. If not for the uncovered hidden agenda of the King, one would have to believe that the reformation of the Church is a religious one. However with several political and personal motives, the doctrines of Henry’s church were put into doubt.
The legacy of king Henry as with his view of matrimony had become the basis of matrimonial law in England even up to these days.Henry VIII was undoubtedly a man of dual powers: religious and political powers, which he successfully utilized to keep his throne during his reign. It was his wit in political matters that saved Henry VIII from wide criticism of having six wives and of justifying his divorce and marriages with these women. Henry was one of man who was willing to sacrifice his friends and trusted servants for the sake of serving his personal desires.
HE even had his religious life sacrificed for the sake of securing divorce and of having a son.For the Catholic Church, Henry VIII will remain an important figure in its history for Henry VIII once defended the faith against the Lutherans. For the Church of England, Henry VIII will remain recognized as the founder of their faith and their church. For England, Henry VIII will remain her once great king whose political powers truly formidable that no one during the course of his reign even until his death was able to threaten nor shook his throne.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Elton, G.R. England Under the Tudors. The Folio Society, London, 1997.
Erickson, Carolly. Great Harry: The Extravagant Life of Henry VIII. Summit Books, New York, 1980.Fraser, Antonia.
The Wives of Henry VIII. New York; Vintage Books, 1994Fry, Plantagenet Somerset. The Kings and Queens of England & Scotland. Grove Weidenfeld, London, 1990.
Green, Robert. King Henry VIII. New York; A Division of Grolier Publishing, 1998.Loades, David.
Chronicles of the Tudor Kings. Bramley Books, Surrey, England, 1996.MacCulloch,D. (1995).
“Henry VIII and the reform of the Church”. D MacCulloch (ed.), The Reign of Henry VIII: Politics, Policy and Piety. London 1995Mattingly, Garrett.
Catherine of Aragon. Vintage Books, New York, 1941.Murphy, Virginia. “The Literature and Propaganda of Henry VIII’s First Divorce”.
New York; St. Martin’s Press Inc, 1995.Pinto, V. De Sola.
“The English Renaissance”. New York City; Dover Publications Inc. 1950.Pirenne, Henri.
A History of Europe, Volume II. Doubleday & Co., Inc., 1958.
Ridley, Jasper. Henry VIII: The Politics of Tyranny. Viking Penguin, Inc., London, 1985.
Roll, Winifred. The Pomegranate & The Rose: The Story of Katherine of Aragon. Prentice-Hall, Inc., New Jersey, 1970.
Scarisbrick, J.J. Henry VIII. University of California Press, 1968.
Sowerby, Tracey Amanda (1979).The King’s Reformation: Henry VIII and the Remaking of the English Church (review).The Catholic Historical Review – Volume 93, Number 1, January 2007.Starkey, David.
Six Wives: The Queens of Henry VIII. HarperCollins Publishers, New York, 2003.Warnicke, Retha M. The Rise and Fall of Anne Boleyn.
Cambridge University Press, New York, 1989.;;;;
Cite this King henry viii and his role in the history of the catholic church and the church of england Essay
King henry viii and his role in the history of the catholic church and the church of england Essay. (2017, Mar 15). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/king-henry-viii-and-his-role-in-the-history-of-the-catholic-church-and-the-church-of-england/ | 5,817 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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Since the development of time girls have always had to submit to the power and authority of men; beginning with ancient civilizations such as Egyptian and Greek and up into the Renaissance period women had always come second to guys. The forces in government, roles in society, and duties at home during both of these time periods have moderately changed over time but continued to be suppressed by the man dominant figure leading up to through out the Renaissance period. Therefore continuing to restrict the advancement of women by making an unequal and mediocre social order. Ancient Egyptian girls had more rights and liberty than many women had in other ancient civilizations. The women of this age had distinct roles and liberty and if it had been in society, or in the home they were important in shaping who they had been at that time. When it came to government laws Egyptian girls had the same rights as men; women during this period could afford, own, and sell private property' they might also trade, negotiate, and inherit land. Unlike women in other early civilizations like Greece, women in Egypt could play a part in the court system; they were able to institute litigation, appeal to the court of the vizier, awarded legal decisions, and may act as legal opinion in a court of lawenforcement. Girls could go out in public without a male protector and much more ordinary girls worked alongside male household members as midwives, beer vendors, healers, market vendors amongst other things. Women in ancient Egypt had the chance to get as much freedoms since they might have; and unlike most girls in other ancient civilizations they were able to inherit money without a male guardian administering it. Even with all th... | <urn:uuid:df323795-0392-4da4-a98a-733a1ddbda48> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studybay.com/example-works/essay/arts_entertainment/1002414/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00242.warc.gz | en | 0.982053 | 354 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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-0.311049... | 1 | Get help with any kind of project - from a high school essay to a PhD dissertation
|Subject area||Arts Entertainment|
Since the development of time girls have always had to submit to the power and authority of men; beginning with ancient civilizations such as Egyptian and Greek and up into the Renaissance period women had always come second to guys. The forces in government, roles in society, and duties at home during both of these time periods have moderately changed over time but continued to be suppressed by the man dominant figure leading up to through out the Renaissance period. Therefore continuing to restrict the advancement of women by making an unequal and mediocre social order. Ancient Egyptian girls had more rights and liberty than many women had in other ancient civilizations. The women of this age had distinct roles and liberty and if it had been in society, or in the home they were important in shaping who they had been at that time. When it came to government laws Egyptian girls had the same rights as men; women during this period could afford, own, and sell private property' they might also trade, negotiate, and inherit land. Unlike women in other early civilizations like Greece, women in Egypt could play a part in the court system; they were able to institute litigation, appeal to the court of the vizier, awarded legal decisions, and may act as legal opinion in a court of lawenforcement. Girls could go out in public without a male protector and much more ordinary girls worked alongside male household members as midwives, beer vendors, healers, market vendors amongst other things. Women in ancient Egypt had the chance to get as much freedoms since they might have; and unlike most girls in other ancient civilizations they were able to inherit money without a male guardian administering it. Even with all th... | 354 | ENGLISH | 1 |
"Ir is not all Latin" Image Contest - May 2013
Early Roman enemy
1)This coin shows a famous general, who was the best known leader of a series of wars fought against the Romans. a) give his name. b) give the name of the empire for whom he fought. c) In which Middle Eastern country did their culture originate? d)What was the name of these wars? e) How many were there? f)Name an island where this power conquered about half the territory? g) give the name of the Roman general who eventually defeated them?
which country was defeated
2) The reverse of this coin shows the ruler of another country, (reigned over many years before by Philip II,) defeated by the Romans with his 2 sons a) Which Country was defeated? b) At which battle? c) In what year? d) which King was defeated at that time?
3) This man was a famous Roman general, who was living at the time of Julius Caesar - a) what was his name? b) what was the name of his wife? c) he was in the first triumvirate with Caesar - who was the third member? d) At which battle was he defeated by Julius Caesar? e) in what country was he murdered?
4) This ruler was a famous Greek king, who was eventually defeated by the Roman general shown in the previous question # 3. a) What was his name? b) Over which kingdom did he originally rule? c) What number king of that name and that country was he? d) One of his early conquests was a country connected with the Golden Fleece - give its name? e) How did he die?
5) a)Into how many parts did this Roman general divide Gaul? b) Who wrote "De Bello Gallico" (most of it)
c) Which Gallic leader was defeated at Alesia?
Give the names of the Roman Provinces in Southern Gaul: d) the west-most province e) the southern central province; f) the East-most province to the North of the Italian peninsula.
had 2 famous lovers
6) This famous Queen had 2 famous Roman lovers. a) give her name b) What country did she rule? c) what number Queen of that name and country was she? d) Who were her brothers and original co-rulers of that country - give their names and the numeral behind the names. e) Was she alive at the same time as the general in question 3 above ? ( Y or N). f) who was her first famous Roman lover g) What was their child together called? ( give Latin & Egyptian names) h) Who was her second famous Roman lover? i) At which battle were their troops defeated? j)When did that battle take place? k) give the name of the particular general who engineered their defeat? l) give the name of the Roman leader, for whom this general acted, and whom he was meant to succeed. ( give 2 names - both his pre-Imperial and Imperial name.)
Celtic coins ( British)
7) a) Which Roman Emperor officially conquered Britannia? b) In what year? c)when the native Britons revolted against the Romans, who led them? d) Give the name of the British tribe that this person led? Give the Latin names of 2 major cities which were destroyed in this revolt? e) Colchester f) St Albans g) Which Roman Legion was destroyed in this revolt. h) Which Roman general finally put down the revolt? .
8)This Emperor founded a new dynasty after the Julio-Claudians ..a) give the name of the last Julio-Claudian ruler? b) Give the name of this Emperor? c) give the name of his dynasty? d) On the reverse side of this coin is shown a special type of column called.... ? e) what do the side protuberances on the column represent?
Son who also ruled
9)This is the next Emperor after #8 above.... a) what is his name b) how is he related to #8 above. c) this obverse shows an elephant - what other animal is shown on his coins together with her young?
10) the image on the reverse of this coin shows a) the capture of which province? b) Which famous city was captured? c) when was it captured? d) By whom was it captured e)This coin was minted during which Dynasty?
11) This Emperor defeated a Dacian king in his wars a) what was the name of that Dacian king b) What was the name of this Emperor shown on the coin. c) the reverse of this coin shows a goat, but a goat from where?
12) Here on another coin are both another Emperor and different column. a) give the name of this Emperor? b)On this column are depicted Roman conquest scenes of which province? c) Does this column still exist? ( Y or N)
13) a) Give the name of the Emperor who ruled " before" the rule of this famous Emperor and general ? b) Over which river did the Emperor shown build this bridge?
surrounded by conquest trophies
14) This shows the Emperor and his trophies indicating battles won. He had considerable success in the East, and after Dacia, he subdued several far Eastern provinces,including Armenia, and a) also one furthest East which allowed him to claim the title "?" b) in which province did he die?
15) The next Emperor was called a) ? ( give his full 3 word names) b) what mythological animal was shown on the reverse?
Emperor on horseback greeting soldiers
16) This is a coin of the same Emperor, who travelled through the Empire and did much building... a) where did he build a famous Wall which still exists? b) in his reign there was a revolt in Judaea named after its leader. (2 words)?
17) Just over a half century after the Emperor shown above, a new dynasty was founded.... a) It was called...? b) Who was the Emperor who founded it? c) where was he born? d) where did he die? ( give the Latin name)
18) About another half century later, a Roman Emperor was captured by a foreign ruler a) who was the Roman Emperor? b) who was the foreign ruler? c) Over which ancient Empire did he rule? d) what was the name of his dynasty?
e) what sort of altar is shown on the reverse of this coin?
19) This ruler first recognised Christianity as an official religion a) Give his full name ( 3 words) b) who was his father? c) who was his mother? d) However, which two Roman deities were still shown on his coins? ( X and Y)
20) This coin showing on its reverse a barbarian rider defeated by a Roman soldier was issued by the longest ruling son of Constantine the Great....a) who was? b) give the Latin inscription on the reverse of this coin which roughly translates as " the Return of Happy Times"
21) This Constantinian relative wished to go back to the worship of the old pagan gods...a) what was his name?
b) where was he born? c) what is shown around his head on this coin? d) He died from a wound during a campaign in the East...Outside which city was his body first buried? | <urn:uuid:c50d5442-665b-481e-b699-ab5d69970a06> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://ancientcoinsforeducation.org/gallery2/main.php?g2_view=slideshow.Slideshow&g2_itemId=5534 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00180.warc.gz | en | 0.980345 | 1,560 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.34385958313941... | 14 | "Ir is not all Latin" Image Contest - May 2013
Early Roman enemy
1)This coin shows a famous general, who was the best known leader of a series of wars fought against the Romans. a) give his name. b) give the name of the empire for whom he fought. c) In which Middle Eastern country did their culture originate? d)What was the name of these wars? e) How many were there? f)Name an island where this power conquered about half the territory? g) give the name of the Roman general who eventually defeated them?
which country was defeated
2) The reverse of this coin shows the ruler of another country, (reigned over many years before by Philip II,) defeated by the Romans with his 2 sons a) Which Country was defeated? b) At which battle? c) In what year? d) which King was defeated at that time?
3) This man was a famous Roman general, who was living at the time of Julius Caesar - a) what was his name? b) what was the name of his wife? c) he was in the first triumvirate with Caesar - who was the third member? d) At which battle was he defeated by Julius Caesar? e) in what country was he murdered?
4) This ruler was a famous Greek king, who was eventually defeated by the Roman general shown in the previous question # 3. a) What was his name? b) Over which kingdom did he originally rule? c) What number king of that name and that country was he? d) One of his early conquests was a country connected with the Golden Fleece - give its name? e) How did he die?
5) a)Into how many parts did this Roman general divide Gaul? b) Who wrote "De Bello Gallico" (most of it)
c) Which Gallic leader was defeated at Alesia?
Give the names of the Roman Provinces in Southern Gaul: d) the west-most province e) the southern central province; f) the East-most province to the North of the Italian peninsula.
had 2 famous lovers
6) This famous Queen had 2 famous Roman lovers. a) give her name b) What country did she rule? c) what number Queen of that name and country was she? d) Who were her brothers and original co-rulers of that country - give their names and the numeral behind the names. e) Was she alive at the same time as the general in question 3 above ? ( Y or N). f) who was her first famous Roman lover g) What was their child together called? ( give Latin & Egyptian names) h) Who was her second famous Roman lover? i) At which battle were their troops defeated? j)When did that battle take place? k) give the name of the particular general who engineered their defeat? l) give the name of the Roman leader, for whom this general acted, and whom he was meant to succeed. ( give 2 names - both his pre-Imperial and Imperial name.)
Celtic coins ( British)
7) a) Which Roman Emperor officially conquered Britannia? b) In what year? c)when the native Britons revolted against the Romans, who led them? d) Give the name of the British tribe that this person led? Give the Latin names of 2 major cities which were destroyed in this revolt? e) Colchester f) St Albans g) Which Roman Legion was destroyed in this revolt. h) Which Roman general finally put down the revolt? .
8)This Emperor founded a new dynasty after the Julio-Claudians ..a) give the name of the last Julio-Claudian ruler? b) Give the name of this Emperor? c) give the name of his dynasty? d) On the reverse side of this coin is shown a special type of column called.... ? e) what do the side protuberances on the column represent?
Son who also ruled
9)This is the next Emperor after #8 above.... a) what is his name b) how is he related to #8 above. c) this obverse shows an elephant - what other animal is shown on his coins together with her young?
10) the image on the reverse of this coin shows a) the capture of which province? b) Which famous city was captured? c) when was it captured? d) By whom was it captured e)This coin was minted during which Dynasty?
11) This Emperor defeated a Dacian king in his wars a) what was the name of that Dacian king b) What was the name of this Emperor shown on the coin. c) the reverse of this coin shows a goat, but a goat from where?
12) Here on another coin are both another Emperor and different column. a) give the name of this Emperor? b)On this column are depicted Roman conquest scenes of which province? c) Does this column still exist? ( Y or N)
13) a) Give the name of the Emperor who ruled " before" the rule of this famous Emperor and general ? b) Over which river did the Emperor shown build this bridge?
surrounded by conquest trophies
14) This shows the Emperor and his trophies indicating battles won. He had considerable success in the East, and after Dacia, he subdued several far Eastern provinces,including Armenia, and a) also one furthest East which allowed him to claim the title "?" b) in which province did he die?
15) The next Emperor was called a) ? ( give his full 3 word names) b) what mythological animal was shown on the reverse?
Emperor on horseback greeting soldiers
16) This is a coin of the same Emperor, who travelled through the Empire and did much building... a) where did he build a famous Wall which still exists? b) in his reign there was a revolt in Judaea named after its leader. (2 words)?
17) Just over a half century after the Emperor shown above, a new dynasty was founded.... a) It was called...? b) Who was the Emperor who founded it? c) where was he born? d) where did he die? ( give the Latin name)
18) About another half century later, a Roman Emperor was captured by a foreign ruler a) who was the Roman Emperor? b) who was the foreign ruler? c) Over which ancient Empire did he rule? d) what was the name of his dynasty?
e) what sort of altar is shown on the reverse of this coin?
19) This ruler first recognised Christianity as an official religion a) Give his full name ( 3 words) b) who was his father? c) who was his mother? d) However, which two Roman deities were still shown on his coins? ( X and Y)
20) This coin showing on its reverse a barbarian rider defeated by a Roman soldier was issued by the longest ruling son of Constantine the Great....a) who was? b) give the Latin inscription on the reverse of this coin which roughly translates as " the Return of Happy Times"
21) This Constantinian relative wished to go back to the worship of the old pagan gods...a) what was his name?
b) where was he born? c) what is shown around his head on this coin? d) He died from a wound during a campaign in the East...Outside which city was his body first buried? | 1,554 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Friendships may serve as a buffer against the negative effects of social rejection and help children in managing their stress levels, according to a study conducted by Dutch researchers.
In a small study (subscription required) involving 100 fourth graders, researchers identified students who were often bullied or excluded by their peers and asked these children about their number of friends and quality of friendships. Additionally, parents provided information about the children's behavior problems and researchers measured each student's cortisol levels through saliva collections five times on each of two consecutive school days. Science Daily reports:
Children who were excluded by their classmates had elevated levels of cortisol at school, the study found. And they had a smaller decline in cortisol over the course of the day. Both of these findings may indicate that exclusion is stressful. This was even more pronounced for excluded kids who had few friends or had friendships that were characterized as low in quality.
Researchers said the study results indicate that while friends can't completely eliminate the stress of exclusion the close relationships can reduce it. The findings add to the growing scientific research suggesting that children's friends can provide a strong calming influence on them and that these relationships have a measurable effect on stress hormones during tense times.
Previously: To be healthier in the new year, resolve to be more social, How social ties can influence our health, happiness and Examining the connection between unstructured playtime and children's emotional health
Photo by Lisa M Photography | <urn:uuid:3b42d5df-ba2c-447a-823b-8c33e40e7afb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://scopeblog.stanford.edu/2011/10/27/study-offers-insights-into-how-friendships-help-children-manage-stress/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00190.warc.gz | en | 0.982178 | 288 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.540581047534942... | 11 | Friendships may serve as a buffer against the negative effects of social rejection and help children in managing their stress levels, according to a study conducted by Dutch researchers.
In a small study (subscription required) involving 100 fourth graders, researchers identified students who were often bullied or excluded by their peers and asked these children about their number of friends and quality of friendships. Additionally, parents provided information about the children's behavior problems and researchers measured each student's cortisol levels through saliva collections five times on each of two consecutive school days. Science Daily reports:
Children who were excluded by their classmates had elevated levels of cortisol at school, the study found. And they had a smaller decline in cortisol over the course of the day. Both of these findings may indicate that exclusion is stressful. This was even more pronounced for excluded kids who had few friends or had friendships that were characterized as low in quality.
Researchers said the study results indicate that while friends can't completely eliminate the stress of exclusion the close relationships can reduce it. The findings add to the growing scientific research suggesting that children's friends can provide a strong calming influence on them and that these relationships have a measurable effect on stress hormones during tense times.
Previously: To be healthier in the new year, resolve to be more social, How social ties can influence our health, happiness and Examining the connection between unstructured playtime and children's emotional health
Photo by Lisa M Photography | 285 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Agrarian Justice: Excerpt
In this excerpt from Agrarian Justice, Thomas Paine argues for using land taxes to fund what we would today call a universal basic income.
Starting from the idea that in the state of nature land is not unowned but rather owned by all people in common, Paine notes that while private property surely makes many better off, some, lacking land and the means to obtain it, are actually rendered worse off than they might be in a state of nature. A land-tax-funded universal basic income ensures that even the worse off are better off than they would be without private property, and gives them access to the goods cultivated by others. Paine views this payment as just compensation to people excluded from privately held land, rather than some kind of positive welfare right. Paine’s argument in his 1797 pamphlet prefigures similar arguments made by Henry George in the 19th century.
To preserve the benefits of what is called civilized life, and to remedy at the same time the evil which it has produced, ought to be considered as one of the first objects of reformed legislation.
Whether that state that is proudly, perhaps erroneously, called civilization, has most promoted or most injured the general happiness of man, is a question that may be strongly contested. On one side, the spectator is dazzled by splendid appearances; on the other, he is shocked by extremes of wretchedness; both of which it has erected. The most affluent and the most miserable of the human race are to be found in the countries that are called civilized.
To understand what the state of society ought to be, it is necessary to have some idea of the natural and primitive state of man; such as it is at this day among the Indians of North America. There is not, in that state, any of those spectacles of human misery which poverty and want present to our eyes in all the towns and streets in Europe. Poverty, therefore, is a thing created by that which is called civilized life. It exists not in the natural state. On the other hand, the natural state is without those advantages which flow from agriculture, arts, science, and manufactures.
The life of an Indian is a continual holiday, compared with the poor of Europe; and, on the other hand it appears to be abject when compared to the rich. Civilization, therefore, or that which is so called, has operated two ways: to make one part of society more affluent, and the other more wretched, than would have been the lot of either in a natural state.
It is always possible to go from the natural to the civilized state, but it is never possible to go from the civilized to the natural state. The reason is, that man in a natural state, subsisting by hunting, requires ten times the quantity of land to range over to procure himself sustenance, than would support him in a civilized state, where the earth is cultivated. When, therefore, a country becomes populous by the additional aids of cultivation, art, and science, there is a necessity of preserving things in that state; because without it there cannot be sustenance for more, perhaps, than a tenth part of its inhabitants. The thing, therefore, now to be done is to remedy the evils and preserve the benefits that have arisen to society by passing from the natural to that which is called the civilized state.
In taking the matter upon this ground, the first principle of civilization ought to have been, and ought still to be, that the condition of every person born into the world, after a state of civilization commences, ought not to be worse than if he had been born before that period. But the fact is, that the condition of millions, in every country in Europe, is far worse than if they had been born before civilization began, or had been born among the Indians of North America at the present day. I will shew how this fact has happened.
It is a position not to be controverted that the earth, in its natural uncultivated state was, and ever would have continued to be, the common property of the human race. In that state every man would have been born to property. He would have been a joint life proprietor with the rest in the property of the soil, and in all its natural productions, vegetable and animal.
But the earth in its natural state, as before said, is capable of supporting but a small number of inhabitants compared with what it is capable of doing in a cultivated state. And as it is impossible to separate the improvement made by cultivation from the earth itself, upon which that improvement is made, the idea of landed property arose from that inseparable connection; but it is nevertheless true, that it is the value of the improvement only, and not the earth itself, that is individual property. Every proprietor, therefore, of cultivated land, owes to the community a ground-rent (for I know of no better term to express the idea) for the land which he holds; and it is from this ground-rent that the fund proposed in this plan is to issue.
It is deducible, as well from the nature of the thing as from all the histories transmitted to us, that the idea of landed property commenced with cultivation, and that there was no such thing as landed property before that time. It could not exist in the first state of man, that of hunters. It did not exist in the second state, that of shepherds: neither Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, nor Job, so far as the history of the Bible may be credited in probable things, were owners of land. Their property consisted, as is always enumerated, in flocks and herds, and they travelled with them from place to place. The frequent contentions at that time, about the use of a well in the dry country of Arabia, where those people lived, also shew that there was no landed property. It was not admitted that land could be claimed as property.
There could be no such thing as landed property originally. Man did not make the earth, and, though he had a natural right to occupy it, he had no right to locate as his property in perpetuity any part of it; neither did the creator of the earth open a land-office, from whence the first title-deeds should issue. Whence then, arose the idea of landed property? I answer as before, that when cultivation began the idea of landed property began with it, from the impossibility of separating the improvement made by cultivation from the earth itself, upon which that improvement was made. The value of the improvement so far exceeded the value of the natural earth, at that time, as to absorb it; till, in the end, the common right of all became confounded into the cultivated right of the individual. But there are, nevertheless, distinct species of rights, and will continue to be so long as the earth endures.
It is only by tracing things to their origin that we can gain rightful ideas of them, and it is by gaining such ideas that we discover the boundary that divides right from wrong, and teaches every man to know his own. I have entitled this tract Agrarian Justice, to distinguish it from Agrarian Law. Nothing could be more unjust than Agrarian Law in a country improved by cultivation; for though every man, as an inhabitant of the earth, is a joint proprietor of it in its natural state, it does not follow that he is a joint proprietor of cultivated earth. The additional value made by cultivation, after the system was admitted, became the property of those who did it, or who inherited it from them, or who purchased it. It had originally no owner. Whilst, therefore, I advocate the right, and interest myself in the hard case of all those who have been thrown out of their natural inheritance by the introduction of the system of landed property, I equally defend the right of the possessor to the part which is his.
Cultivation is at least one of the greatest natural improvements ever made by human invention. It has given to created earth a tenfold value. But the landed monopoly that began with it has produced the greatest evil. It has dispossessed more than half the inhabitants of every nation of their natural inheritance, without providing for them, as ought to have been done, an indemnification for that loss, and has thereby created a species of poverty and wretchedness that did not exist before.
In advocating the case of the persons thus dispossessed, it is a right, and not a charity, that I am pleading for. But it is that kind of right which, being neglected at first, could not be brought forward afterwards till heaven had opened the way by a revolution in the system of government. Let us then do honour to revolutions by justice, and give currency to their principles by blessings.
Having thus in a few words, opened the merits of the case, I shall now proceed to the plan I have to propose, which is,
To create a National Fund, out of which there shall be paid to every person, when arrived at the age of twenty-one years, the sum of fifteen pounds sterling, as a compensation in part, for the loss of his or her natural inheritance, by the introduction of the system of landed property:
And also, the sum of ten pounds per annum, during life, to every person now living, of the age of fifty years, and to all others as they shall arrive at that age. | <urn:uuid:70060d4e-8f6e-40ec-b028-28f828f10c4e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.libertarianism.org/publications/essays/agrarian-justice-excerpt | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00258.warc.gz | en | 0.981023 | 1,946 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.34829825162887... | 1 | Agrarian Justice: Excerpt
In this excerpt from Agrarian Justice, Thomas Paine argues for using land taxes to fund what we would today call a universal basic income.
Starting from the idea that in the state of nature land is not unowned but rather owned by all people in common, Paine notes that while private property surely makes many better off, some, lacking land and the means to obtain it, are actually rendered worse off than they might be in a state of nature. A land-tax-funded universal basic income ensures that even the worse off are better off than they would be without private property, and gives them access to the goods cultivated by others. Paine views this payment as just compensation to people excluded from privately held land, rather than some kind of positive welfare right. Paine’s argument in his 1797 pamphlet prefigures similar arguments made by Henry George in the 19th century.
To preserve the benefits of what is called civilized life, and to remedy at the same time the evil which it has produced, ought to be considered as one of the first objects of reformed legislation.
Whether that state that is proudly, perhaps erroneously, called civilization, has most promoted or most injured the general happiness of man, is a question that may be strongly contested. On one side, the spectator is dazzled by splendid appearances; on the other, he is shocked by extremes of wretchedness; both of which it has erected. The most affluent and the most miserable of the human race are to be found in the countries that are called civilized.
To understand what the state of society ought to be, it is necessary to have some idea of the natural and primitive state of man; such as it is at this day among the Indians of North America. There is not, in that state, any of those spectacles of human misery which poverty and want present to our eyes in all the towns and streets in Europe. Poverty, therefore, is a thing created by that which is called civilized life. It exists not in the natural state. On the other hand, the natural state is without those advantages which flow from agriculture, arts, science, and manufactures.
The life of an Indian is a continual holiday, compared with the poor of Europe; and, on the other hand it appears to be abject when compared to the rich. Civilization, therefore, or that which is so called, has operated two ways: to make one part of society more affluent, and the other more wretched, than would have been the lot of either in a natural state.
It is always possible to go from the natural to the civilized state, but it is never possible to go from the civilized to the natural state. The reason is, that man in a natural state, subsisting by hunting, requires ten times the quantity of land to range over to procure himself sustenance, than would support him in a civilized state, where the earth is cultivated. When, therefore, a country becomes populous by the additional aids of cultivation, art, and science, there is a necessity of preserving things in that state; because without it there cannot be sustenance for more, perhaps, than a tenth part of its inhabitants. The thing, therefore, now to be done is to remedy the evils and preserve the benefits that have arisen to society by passing from the natural to that which is called the civilized state.
In taking the matter upon this ground, the first principle of civilization ought to have been, and ought still to be, that the condition of every person born into the world, after a state of civilization commences, ought not to be worse than if he had been born before that period. But the fact is, that the condition of millions, in every country in Europe, is far worse than if they had been born before civilization began, or had been born among the Indians of North America at the present day. I will shew how this fact has happened.
It is a position not to be controverted that the earth, in its natural uncultivated state was, and ever would have continued to be, the common property of the human race. In that state every man would have been born to property. He would have been a joint life proprietor with the rest in the property of the soil, and in all its natural productions, vegetable and animal.
But the earth in its natural state, as before said, is capable of supporting but a small number of inhabitants compared with what it is capable of doing in a cultivated state. And as it is impossible to separate the improvement made by cultivation from the earth itself, upon which that improvement is made, the idea of landed property arose from that inseparable connection; but it is nevertheless true, that it is the value of the improvement only, and not the earth itself, that is individual property. Every proprietor, therefore, of cultivated land, owes to the community a ground-rent (for I know of no better term to express the idea) for the land which he holds; and it is from this ground-rent that the fund proposed in this plan is to issue.
It is deducible, as well from the nature of the thing as from all the histories transmitted to us, that the idea of landed property commenced with cultivation, and that there was no such thing as landed property before that time. It could not exist in the first state of man, that of hunters. It did not exist in the second state, that of shepherds: neither Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, nor Job, so far as the history of the Bible may be credited in probable things, were owners of land. Their property consisted, as is always enumerated, in flocks and herds, and they travelled with them from place to place. The frequent contentions at that time, about the use of a well in the dry country of Arabia, where those people lived, also shew that there was no landed property. It was not admitted that land could be claimed as property.
There could be no such thing as landed property originally. Man did not make the earth, and, though he had a natural right to occupy it, he had no right to locate as his property in perpetuity any part of it; neither did the creator of the earth open a land-office, from whence the first title-deeds should issue. Whence then, arose the idea of landed property? I answer as before, that when cultivation began the idea of landed property began with it, from the impossibility of separating the improvement made by cultivation from the earth itself, upon which that improvement was made. The value of the improvement so far exceeded the value of the natural earth, at that time, as to absorb it; till, in the end, the common right of all became confounded into the cultivated right of the individual. But there are, nevertheless, distinct species of rights, and will continue to be so long as the earth endures.
It is only by tracing things to their origin that we can gain rightful ideas of them, and it is by gaining such ideas that we discover the boundary that divides right from wrong, and teaches every man to know his own. I have entitled this tract Agrarian Justice, to distinguish it from Agrarian Law. Nothing could be more unjust than Agrarian Law in a country improved by cultivation; for though every man, as an inhabitant of the earth, is a joint proprietor of it in its natural state, it does not follow that he is a joint proprietor of cultivated earth. The additional value made by cultivation, after the system was admitted, became the property of those who did it, or who inherited it from them, or who purchased it. It had originally no owner. Whilst, therefore, I advocate the right, and interest myself in the hard case of all those who have been thrown out of their natural inheritance by the introduction of the system of landed property, I equally defend the right of the possessor to the part which is his.
Cultivation is at least one of the greatest natural improvements ever made by human invention. It has given to created earth a tenfold value. But the landed monopoly that began with it has produced the greatest evil. It has dispossessed more than half the inhabitants of every nation of their natural inheritance, without providing for them, as ought to have been done, an indemnification for that loss, and has thereby created a species of poverty and wretchedness that did not exist before.
In advocating the case of the persons thus dispossessed, it is a right, and not a charity, that I am pleading for. But it is that kind of right which, being neglected at first, could not be brought forward afterwards till heaven had opened the way by a revolution in the system of government. Let us then do honour to revolutions by justice, and give currency to their principles by blessings.
Having thus in a few words, opened the merits of the case, I shall now proceed to the plan I have to propose, which is,
To create a National Fund, out of which there shall be paid to every person, when arrived at the age of twenty-one years, the sum of fifteen pounds sterling, as a compensation in part, for the loss of his or her natural inheritance, by the introduction of the system of landed property:
And also, the sum of ten pounds per annum, during life, to every person now living, of the age of fifty years, and to all others as they shall arrive at that age. | 1,923 | ENGLISH | 1 |
4 year old toddlers common game highlights
The favorite activity for children aged 3-4 is games.
In the process of playing with children, his knowledge, imagination and various social abilities can be fully developed.
This kind of autonomous activity with the help of partners can make him realize the existence of self.
Children’s imagination is very active during this period, so their games are also very interesting.
They can add symbolic meaning to what they imagine, for example, a leaf can be considered a vegetable when playing house, and money can be considered when buying something.
When they were playing together, a doll fell into the sea on the carpet, and a toy ambulance would drive to rescue immediately.
Every kind of game has the meaning of the child’s self-hit, and any game has the key to open the door of the child’s heart.
Another feature of toddler games in this period is common games. They no longer play each other as they did when they were 1-2 years old. They like to play with their companions.
Therefore, creating opportunities for young children to interact with many partners during this time is very important for their psychological development.
Kindergarten is a good place for children to meet partners. | <urn:uuid:77ddba9f-2a76-45ad-b14c-4d3ff8952311> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.120jobs.cn/yewang/109.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00140.warc.gz | en | 0.98223 | 258 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.181616649031... | 3 | 4 year old toddlers common game highlights
The favorite activity for children aged 3-4 is games.
In the process of playing with children, his knowledge, imagination and various social abilities can be fully developed.
This kind of autonomous activity with the help of partners can make him realize the existence of self.
Children’s imagination is very active during this period, so their games are also very interesting.
They can add symbolic meaning to what they imagine, for example, a leaf can be considered a vegetable when playing house, and money can be considered when buying something.
When they were playing together, a doll fell into the sea on the carpet, and a toy ambulance would drive to rescue immediately.
Every kind of game has the meaning of the child’s self-hit, and any game has the key to open the door of the child’s heart.
Another feature of toddler games in this period is common games. They no longer play each other as they did when they were 1-2 years old. They like to play with their companions.
Therefore, creating opportunities for young children to interact with many partners during this time is very important for their psychological development.
Kindergarten is a good place for children to meet partners. | 242 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Mansa Musa, also known as Musa Keita I of Mali, was the tenth Sultan of the Mali Empire. He is believed to be one of the richest individuals to have walked on this planet. He belonged to the Keita Dynasty and came to power after Abu-Bakra-Keita II left on an expedition to explore the Atlantic Ocean, leaving Musa as his deputy and never returned. Musa ruled in an era when Europe was reeling under an economic crisis and his kingdom flourished due to rich deposits of gold and salt in abundance. Mansa Musa became very famous in Europe and West Africa after he made the hajj pilgrimage to Mecca, which was a difficult proposition in those days. His cavalcade consisted of about 60,000 soldiers, slaves and followers who escorted him through the kingdoms en-route where he spent lavishly and distributed alms to the poor that upset the economy of the region. He became famous by annexing neighbouring states and bringing in reforms in line of Islamic practises in his kingdom. He also built many mosques and established madrasas, some of which are still standing today. He took special interest in Timbuktu and converted it into a centre for trade and learning in West Africa. Unfortunately, his successors failed to carry on his legacy for long and fell to invaders from Morocco and the kingdom of Songhai.
- Mansa Musa was born into the Keita Dynasty in 1280s in Mali as Musa Keita. His grandfather, Abu-Bakra-Keita, was the brother of Sundiata Keita, the founder of the Malian Empire. His father, Faga Laye, did not play any role in the kingdom. However, Mansa Musa ascended the throne in 1312 through the practice of appointing a deputy when a king goes on a pilgrimage or important mission and is away for a long period.He was appointed deputy to Abu-Bakra-Keita II who reportedly embarked on an expedition to explore the Atlantic Ocean and never returned. Thus, the throne passed on to Musa Keita who picked up the title of Mansa, meaning King, becoming the 10th Sultan of the wealthy West African kingdom.Continue Reading BelowAccession, Expansion of Empire & Rule
- When Musa came to power, Europe was reeling under an economic crisis due to civil wars. However, the West African state was flourishing with riches due to large deposits of gold, precious stones and salt. His kingdom originally consisted of what is today Ghana, Mauritania and Mali.He expanded his empire by annexing the city of Timbuktu and re-establishing control over Gao. He is believed to have conquered 24 cities and their neighbouring villages during his reign to stretch his kingdom over 2000 miles covering parts of Nigeria, Ethiopia, Chad and Gambia in addition to the original boundaries of his kingdom. As he gained power, he adopted many titles such as ‘Emir of Melle’, ‘Lord of the Mines of Wangara’ and ‘Conqueror of Ghanata’.He established diplomatic ties with North Africa that facilitated unprecedented Trans-Sahara trade which further enriched his kingdom and ushered in prosperity among his people. His main sources of income were from gold and salt that were found in abundance in his empire.He embarked upon a mission to build mosques and madrasas in his kingdom and the places he brought under his influence. Some of the architectural wonders that came up during his time are the ‘Sankore Madrasah’ in Timbuktu and the ‘Hall of Audience’ in his capital, Niani.Timbuktu soon became a centre for trade and learning in the Sub-Sahara African region. Its markets flourished and it propagated Islamic religion and culture to its neighbours. The University of Sankore in Timbuktu became famous, drawing scholars from Africa and the Middle-East.Though his kingdom was invaded after his death, his rich legacy lived on for generations to come and to this day there are mausoleums, libraries and mosques that stand as testimony to his golden era of rule.Mecca Pilgrimage
- Musa was a pious Muslim and undertook a pilgrimage to Mecca during 1324-1325. What set him apart from his contemporaries is the opulence with which he went about his journey. It is said that he moved with a large cavalcade of men and animals including 12,000 slaves who were laden with gold and riches that were given out as alms in the Arab cities he passed through on his way to the holy city. He also built a new mosque in every city that he halted on a Friday.His journey was documented by eyewitnesses and his reputation spread far and wide to soon reach Europe, putting Mali on the world map as a rich and prosperous kingdom. He amassed so much wealth and power that he came to be known as one of the most powerful and influential rulers of all time.Musa was ordained with the coveted title of ‘Al-Hajji’ on completion of his pilgrimage to Mecca and gained knowledge about orthodox Islam from his experience. He returned to Mali with North African scholars and architects to reform Islam and bring about development in his country.Mansa Musa’s pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca was a major landmark in his life. The experience inspired him to reform Islam in his kingdom and build famous mosques like the legendary Djinguereber Mosque that stands till today.Personal Life & Legacy
- Mansa Musa is said to be one of the richest individuals to have ever lived on this earth. His riches in terms of today’s economic value would amount to about $ 400 billion. He was married to Inari Kunate and had two sons.The exact date of death of Mansa Musa is not recorded. However, as per calculations made by historians, he died around the year 1337, after reigning for 25 years. He was succeeded by his elder son, Mansa Maghan, who carried on his legacy. However, his successors failed to maintain his empire, which remained in a state of decadence due to civil wars and invading armies of Morocco and the kingdom of Songhai.Trivia
- He took special interest in Timbuktu where he built schools, mosques and a university. The legendary Djinguereber Mosque, which is part of the University of Timbuktu, built by him still stands today.It is said that a descendant of the prophet Muhammad went to Timbuktu to teach Malian Muslims, but failed the entrance test to the Madrasa and had to study for three years before becoming a student in the Madrasa.Upon his visit to Cairo, he spent so much gold and made donations to the poor that it took years for the city to recover from the risen inflation.
How To CiteArticle Title- Mansa Musa BiographyAuthor- Editors, TheFamousPeople.comWebsite- TheFamousPeople.comURL- https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/mansa-musa-33307.phpLast Updated- July 25, 2017
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0.0593579262495040... | 1 | Mansa Musa, also known as Musa Keita I of Mali, was the tenth Sultan of the Mali Empire. He is believed to be one of the richest individuals to have walked on this planet. He belonged to the Keita Dynasty and came to power after Abu-Bakra-Keita II left on an expedition to explore the Atlantic Ocean, leaving Musa as his deputy and never returned. Musa ruled in an era when Europe was reeling under an economic crisis and his kingdom flourished due to rich deposits of gold and salt in abundance. Mansa Musa became very famous in Europe and West Africa after he made the hajj pilgrimage to Mecca, which was a difficult proposition in those days. His cavalcade consisted of about 60,000 soldiers, slaves and followers who escorted him through the kingdoms en-route where he spent lavishly and distributed alms to the poor that upset the economy of the region. He became famous by annexing neighbouring states and bringing in reforms in line of Islamic practises in his kingdom. He also built many mosques and established madrasas, some of which are still standing today. He took special interest in Timbuktu and converted it into a centre for trade and learning in West Africa. Unfortunately, his successors failed to carry on his legacy for long and fell to invaders from Morocco and the kingdom of Songhai.
- Mansa Musa was born into the Keita Dynasty in 1280s in Mali as Musa Keita. His grandfather, Abu-Bakra-Keita, was the brother of Sundiata Keita, the founder of the Malian Empire. His father, Faga Laye, did not play any role in the kingdom. However, Mansa Musa ascended the throne in 1312 through the practice of appointing a deputy when a king goes on a pilgrimage or important mission and is away for a long period.He was appointed deputy to Abu-Bakra-Keita II who reportedly embarked on an expedition to explore the Atlantic Ocean and never returned. Thus, the throne passed on to Musa Keita who picked up the title of Mansa, meaning King, becoming the 10th Sultan of the wealthy West African kingdom.Continue Reading BelowAccession, Expansion of Empire & Rule
- When Musa came to power, Europe was reeling under an economic crisis due to civil wars. However, the West African state was flourishing with riches due to large deposits of gold, precious stones and salt. His kingdom originally consisted of what is today Ghana, Mauritania and Mali.He expanded his empire by annexing the city of Timbuktu and re-establishing control over Gao. He is believed to have conquered 24 cities and their neighbouring villages during his reign to stretch his kingdom over 2000 miles covering parts of Nigeria, Ethiopia, Chad and Gambia in addition to the original boundaries of his kingdom. As he gained power, he adopted many titles such as ‘Emir of Melle’, ‘Lord of the Mines of Wangara’ and ‘Conqueror of Ghanata’.He established diplomatic ties with North Africa that facilitated unprecedented Trans-Sahara trade which further enriched his kingdom and ushered in prosperity among his people. His main sources of income were from gold and salt that were found in abundance in his empire.He embarked upon a mission to build mosques and madrasas in his kingdom and the places he brought under his influence. Some of the architectural wonders that came up during his time are the ‘Sankore Madrasah’ in Timbuktu and the ‘Hall of Audience’ in his capital, Niani.Timbuktu soon became a centre for trade and learning in the Sub-Sahara African region. Its markets flourished and it propagated Islamic religion and culture to its neighbours. The University of Sankore in Timbuktu became famous, drawing scholars from Africa and the Middle-East.Though his kingdom was invaded after his death, his rich legacy lived on for generations to come and to this day there are mausoleums, libraries and mosques that stand as testimony to his golden era of rule.Mecca Pilgrimage
- Musa was a pious Muslim and undertook a pilgrimage to Mecca during 1324-1325. What set him apart from his contemporaries is the opulence with which he went about his journey. It is said that he moved with a large cavalcade of men and animals including 12,000 slaves who were laden with gold and riches that were given out as alms in the Arab cities he passed through on his way to the holy city. He also built a new mosque in every city that he halted on a Friday.His journey was documented by eyewitnesses and his reputation spread far and wide to soon reach Europe, putting Mali on the world map as a rich and prosperous kingdom. He amassed so much wealth and power that he came to be known as one of the most powerful and influential rulers of all time.Musa was ordained with the coveted title of ‘Al-Hajji’ on completion of his pilgrimage to Mecca and gained knowledge about orthodox Islam from his experience. He returned to Mali with North African scholars and architects to reform Islam and bring about development in his country.Mansa Musa’s pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca was a major landmark in his life. The experience inspired him to reform Islam in his kingdom and build famous mosques like the legendary Djinguereber Mosque that stands till today.Personal Life & Legacy
- Mansa Musa is said to be one of the richest individuals to have ever lived on this earth. His riches in terms of today’s economic value would amount to about $ 400 billion. He was married to Inari Kunate and had two sons.The exact date of death of Mansa Musa is not recorded. However, as per calculations made by historians, he died around the year 1337, after reigning for 25 years. He was succeeded by his elder son, Mansa Maghan, who carried on his legacy. However, his successors failed to maintain his empire, which remained in a state of decadence due to civil wars and invading armies of Morocco and the kingdom of Songhai.Trivia
- He took special interest in Timbuktu where he built schools, mosques and a university. The legendary Djinguereber Mosque, which is part of the University of Timbuktu, built by him still stands today.It is said that a descendant of the prophet Muhammad went to Timbuktu to teach Malian Muslims, but failed the entrance test to the Madrasa and had to study for three years before becoming a student in the Madrasa.Upon his visit to Cairo, he spent so much gold and made donations to the poor that it took years for the city to recover from the risen inflation.
How To CiteArticle Title- Mansa Musa BiographyAuthor- Editors, TheFamousPeople.comWebsite- TheFamousPeople.comURL- https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/mansa-musa-33307.phpLast Updated- July 25, 2017
People Also Viewed | 1,478 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Tarshish is a city referred to about a dozen times in the Bible and has been widely accepted as another version of Tartessos. Josephus, the Jewish historian who wrote during the 1st century AD, was confident that it referred to Tarsus in Cilicia, Turkey, the birthplace of St. Paul. The Septuagint Bible uses Karkendonos where it refers to Tarshish in Isaiah 23:1, which was the Greek form of the name for North African Carthage. This could imply that the founders of Carthage and Tarsus were the same. We know that Carthage was founded by Tyrians and we also know that Cilix, a Tyrian, gave his name to Cilicia when he settled it. Andis Kaulins has claimed that Carthage was possibly built on the remains of Tartessos.
Utica was a Phoenician port city on the northern coast of what is now Tunisia. It no longer exists and its site is now some miles inland because of silting. It is also one of a number of suggested locations for Tarshish(f).
Tarshish/Tartessos is thought by many others to be alternative names for Atlantis. There is a consensus that it was a coastal city in Southern Spain, near modern Cadiz. Despite the efforts of many, its location is still unknown, which can probably be explained by the fact that the coastline has altered considerably over time. Adolf Schulten, who was convinced that Tartessos was Atlantis, spent many years searching, unsuccessfully, for Tarshish in Andalusia.
Other locations have been suggested, such as Tharros in Sardinia, Troy and even Malta where Tarxien may be considered an echo of Tarshish. Tharros, sometimes referred to as a ‘second Carthage’ had its port located as recently as 2008(d). The suggestion that Tharros was Tarshish was based on their similar sounding names and the reference to Tarshish in the Phoenician inscription on the ‘Nora Stone’ discovered at Nora on the south coast of Sardinia in 1773.
Quite a variety of locations have been offered as the site of Tarshish(f).
It is accepted that biblical silver was sourced from ‘Tarshish’, initially assumed to be Tartessos in Spain. Recent studies employing lead isotope tests, when applied to Phoenician silver hoards(g) revealed that both Spain and Sardinia were possible sources. However, it might be argued that the Nora Stone may give Sardinia a somewhat stronger claim.
A more radical idea was put forward in 2012 by the Spanish researcher, José Angel Hernández, who proposed that the Tarshish of the Bible was to be found on the coastal region of the Indus Valley and that Tartessos was a colony of the Indus city of Lhotal and had been situated on both sides of the Strait of Gibraltar!(a)(b) This view is apparently supported by biblical references (1 Kings 9:26, 22:48; 2 Chr. 9:21) that note that the ‘ships of Tarshish’ sailed from Ezion-geber on the Red Sea’s Gulf of Aqaba!
However, if Tarshish was another name for Atlantis and according to the bible it existed at the time of Solomon, circa 1000 BC, we are confronted with a contradiction of Plato’s 9,000 years elapsing since the destruction of Atlantis and the visit of Solon to Sais. King Jehoshaphat reigned around 860 BC and planned to send a fleet to Tarshish, just 200 years before Solon, so the likelihood of Tarshish being Atlantis is a rather remote possibility.
*A recent suggestion by a Dutch commentator, Leon Elshout, places the biblical Tarshish in Britain(h).* | <urn:uuid:647e0d7e-c8db-49b8-b1b6-25819222b225> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://atlantipedia.ie/samples/tarshish/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00179.warc.gz | en | 0.982351 | 816 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.2455790... | 4 | Tarshish is a city referred to about a dozen times in the Bible and has been widely accepted as another version of Tartessos. Josephus, the Jewish historian who wrote during the 1st century AD, was confident that it referred to Tarsus in Cilicia, Turkey, the birthplace of St. Paul. The Septuagint Bible uses Karkendonos where it refers to Tarshish in Isaiah 23:1, which was the Greek form of the name for North African Carthage. This could imply that the founders of Carthage and Tarsus were the same. We know that Carthage was founded by Tyrians and we also know that Cilix, a Tyrian, gave his name to Cilicia when he settled it. Andis Kaulins has claimed that Carthage was possibly built on the remains of Tartessos.
Utica was a Phoenician port city on the northern coast of what is now Tunisia. It no longer exists and its site is now some miles inland because of silting. It is also one of a number of suggested locations for Tarshish(f).
Tarshish/Tartessos is thought by many others to be alternative names for Atlantis. There is a consensus that it was a coastal city in Southern Spain, near modern Cadiz. Despite the efforts of many, its location is still unknown, which can probably be explained by the fact that the coastline has altered considerably over time. Adolf Schulten, who was convinced that Tartessos was Atlantis, spent many years searching, unsuccessfully, for Tarshish in Andalusia.
Other locations have been suggested, such as Tharros in Sardinia, Troy and even Malta where Tarxien may be considered an echo of Tarshish. Tharros, sometimes referred to as a ‘second Carthage’ had its port located as recently as 2008(d). The suggestion that Tharros was Tarshish was based on their similar sounding names and the reference to Tarshish in the Phoenician inscription on the ‘Nora Stone’ discovered at Nora on the south coast of Sardinia in 1773.
Quite a variety of locations have been offered as the site of Tarshish(f).
It is accepted that biblical silver was sourced from ‘Tarshish’, initially assumed to be Tartessos in Spain. Recent studies employing lead isotope tests, when applied to Phoenician silver hoards(g) revealed that both Spain and Sardinia were possible sources. However, it might be argued that the Nora Stone may give Sardinia a somewhat stronger claim.
A more radical idea was put forward in 2012 by the Spanish researcher, José Angel Hernández, who proposed that the Tarshish of the Bible was to be found on the coastal region of the Indus Valley and that Tartessos was a colony of the Indus city of Lhotal and had been situated on both sides of the Strait of Gibraltar!(a)(b) This view is apparently supported by biblical references (1 Kings 9:26, 22:48; 2 Chr. 9:21) that note that the ‘ships of Tarshish’ sailed from Ezion-geber on the Red Sea’s Gulf of Aqaba!
However, if Tarshish was another name for Atlantis and according to the bible it existed at the time of Solomon, circa 1000 BC, we are confronted with a contradiction of Plato’s 9,000 years elapsing since the destruction of Atlantis and the visit of Solon to Sais. King Jehoshaphat reigned around 860 BC and planned to send a fleet to Tarshish, just 200 years before Solon, so the likelihood of Tarshish being Atlantis is a rather remote possibility.
*A recent suggestion by a Dutch commentator, Leon Elshout, places the biblical Tarshish in Britain(h).* | 825 | ENGLISH | 1 |
France Section 1770 – 1789 – Crisis In The Old Reg
imeThe causes of tensions and conflicts generated in the old regime that contributed to the outbreak of revolution
The composition of society was a major contributing factor to the tensions and conflicts generated under the old regime. Society was divided into Three Estates, the first Estate comprised of the clergy (1%), the nobility, and rest of the population was classified as the Third Estate. Not only was the Third Estate heterogeneous, comprising of the bourgeoise (lawyers, doctors, intellectuals, businessman, the traders, merchants, factory owners), peasants, and beggars, but all three Estates. Their were many distinguishing factors that set the three Estates apart. The first two Estates were associated with the monarchy and avoided or paid little taxes, whilst at the same time earning the most money. The Third Estate paid the highest taxes and earnt the least. Lefebvre saw the bourgeoisie as becoming stronger economically but still maintaining the same legal status as that of the poorest peasant. The bourgeois resented their nobles, who were simply ‘born’ into their position of wealth. They nobles believed that their noble birth’ set them apart from the rest of society.’ However, the nobility were also dissatisfied under the ancien regime, where they had little, yet still more then the bourgeois, influence in politics. Although the upper clergy enjoyed many privileges, including being exempt from paying taxes, owned about 10 per cent of the land, and received their wealth from the land they owned and the collection of the tithes. Yet, the lower clergy did not enjoy these same privileges, while the ‘Bishop plays the great nobleman and spends scandalous sums on hounds, horses, furniture, servants, food and carriages, the parish priest does not have the wherewithal to buy himself a new cassockthe bishops treat their priests , not as honest footman, but as stable-boys.’ It is clear that social unrest was felt by the whole population.
Prior to 1780s the people of France blindly accepted the foudations of the Ancien Regime. The period known as the Enlightenment or ‘Age of Reason’ saw philosophes such as Voltaire and Rousseau attack the Church, and the absolute power of the King and the inequitable social composition of society. For the first time people were questioning the society in which they lived. It became the fashionable conversation of the times, and this propoganda took place in salons, cafes and even educational institutions such as the museum of Paris. Members ‘included not only the bourgeosie but priests, nobles and even the brothers of Louis XVI.’ External factors such as the American War of Indepedence only contributed to the ideas of the philosophes. Marquis de Lafayette, who became knows as ‘the hero of two worlds’ infiltrated ideas to the French people, such as ‘all men are created equal’ a notion not familiar to those under the Ancien Regime.
Reasons governments were unwilling or unable to adjust to changing circumstances
As Louis’ power was absolute, there were several checks on his power. The most important of these were the privileges of the corporate bodies known as the parlements. There were 13 of them in total, of which the Parlement of Paris was by far the most important, its jurisdiction covering about a third of France. The 2300 magistrates who sat in the courts were all noblesse de robe. Because the magistrates bought their position they could not be dismissed, unless the King bought them out. No law could be applied until it had been registered by each of the parlements. Although the Parlement had the power to critisise and make amendments to an edict, the King could ignore these through a lit de justice. As the parlements opposed many of the edicts aimed to change the system of taxation, nearly all historians up the 1960s accuse them of defending their own selfish interests and privileges, when they claimed to be representing the nation. They were seen as the main obstacle to a reforming monarchy. Arthur Young commented on the corruption of the Parlements, where judges could be swayed by ‘either the beauty of a handsome wife or by other methods’ Many historians blamed the Parlements for preventing the Crown from reforming but it was in fact the character of the King. The King alone had the power to carry through reforms, so if the old regime did not reform it was the King’s fault.
Louis XVI, was himself a cause of tension and conflict to the people. He ruled over France with ‘divine right answerable only to g-d.’ The character of Louis are best summed up by Louis’s brother the Compte de Provence: ‘The weakness and indecision of the Kingare beyond description.’ Louis possessed the virtues pleasing in a private individual,’ which consequently ‘denied him the qualities of one destined to rule.’ When Louis XIV died he established a new beuracracy which denied the Second Estate a political say. However, he did not simultaneously abolish the institutions they once had power over, thus left an opportunity for conflict to arrive – especially under the weak leadership of Louis XVI. The weakness of Louis made it impossible for him to deal with the other problems facing France.
The impact of war, civil war or economic or religious crisis on the creation of a revolutionary situation
Between 1740 and 1783 France financed four wars, the most recent being the American War of Independence. France’s involvement in these wars depleted the royal coffer. The bad harvest of 1788 worried the proletariat peasants about the increasingly high price of bead, under normal circumstances they could expect to pay up to 50% of their wages on bread. By 1789 workers could expect to be paying up to 88% of their wages on bread. The bad harvest was exacerbated by the administration of France, which according to Calonne, Controller General of Finance, was so internally divided that Provinces were ‘foreign to one another.’ Not only did the inequitable system of tax collection exist, whereby the First Two Estates paid little if any of the taxes and the full burden of the taxes fell on the Third Estate, but there were also varying systems of weights and measures. Northern and Central France bore a heavier tax burden than in the South.
Attempts at reform:
Jacques Necker, a protestant banker from Geneva, was made Director-General of Finance. It has been maintained that he financed the Americal war and borrowed huge sums of money. This only increased the Crown’s debt, so much so that 50 per cent of its income went to pay the interest on the debt. Necker was to cause future Controllers serious trouble. As Necker was seen to run a costly war without raising taxes, they could no longer increase taxation in peacetime. According to J.F. Bosher, he regards Necker as ‘the most determined of the reformers.’ Necker’s attempts to reform were put down by the King. Necker wanted to replace the independent, venal financiers by dependent, salried officials, whom the Controller General could appoint and dismiss. He was successful in getting rid of 50 of the most powerful Receivers-General. Calonne, to replace him undid much of his work, and borrowed even more heavily. Calonne proposed a single tax payable by everyone including the clergy, to replace the capitation and vingtieme. Calonne knew that the Parlements were likely to reject this. The King called upon the Assembly of Notables, whose members were chosen by the King, included members of the Church – who were likely to oppose as they had the most to lose. Although Notables not opposed to all changes, and agreed taxation should be based on equal basis, claimed approval of the nation was necessary, and thus led to the calling of the Estates-General which has last met in 1614. | <urn:uuid:58182648-c948-48a4-b80d-70771bf0b5c6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://e-lib.info/france-section-1770-1789-crisis-in-the-old-reg-54080/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00161.warc.gz | en | 0.980906 | 1,658 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.350856... | 1 | France Section 1770 – 1789 – Crisis In The Old Reg
imeThe causes of tensions and conflicts generated in the old regime that contributed to the outbreak of revolution
The composition of society was a major contributing factor to the tensions and conflicts generated under the old regime. Society was divided into Three Estates, the first Estate comprised of the clergy (1%), the nobility, and rest of the population was classified as the Third Estate. Not only was the Third Estate heterogeneous, comprising of the bourgeoise (lawyers, doctors, intellectuals, businessman, the traders, merchants, factory owners), peasants, and beggars, but all three Estates. Their were many distinguishing factors that set the three Estates apart. The first two Estates were associated with the monarchy and avoided or paid little taxes, whilst at the same time earning the most money. The Third Estate paid the highest taxes and earnt the least. Lefebvre saw the bourgeoisie as becoming stronger economically but still maintaining the same legal status as that of the poorest peasant. The bourgeois resented their nobles, who were simply ‘born’ into their position of wealth. They nobles believed that their noble birth’ set them apart from the rest of society.’ However, the nobility were also dissatisfied under the ancien regime, where they had little, yet still more then the bourgeois, influence in politics. Although the upper clergy enjoyed many privileges, including being exempt from paying taxes, owned about 10 per cent of the land, and received their wealth from the land they owned and the collection of the tithes. Yet, the lower clergy did not enjoy these same privileges, while the ‘Bishop plays the great nobleman and spends scandalous sums on hounds, horses, furniture, servants, food and carriages, the parish priest does not have the wherewithal to buy himself a new cassockthe bishops treat their priests , not as honest footman, but as stable-boys.’ It is clear that social unrest was felt by the whole population.
Prior to 1780s the people of France blindly accepted the foudations of the Ancien Regime. The period known as the Enlightenment or ‘Age of Reason’ saw philosophes such as Voltaire and Rousseau attack the Church, and the absolute power of the King and the inequitable social composition of society. For the first time people were questioning the society in which they lived. It became the fashionable conversation of the times, and this propoganda took place in salons, cafes and even educational institutions such as the museum of Paris. Members ‘included not only the bourgeosie but priests, nobles and even the brothers of Louis XVI.’ External factors such as the American War of Indepedence only contributed to the ideas of the philosophes. Marquis de Lafayette, who became knows as ‘the hero of two worlds’ infiltrated ideas to the French people, such as ‘all men are created equal’ a notion not familiar to those under the Ancien Regime.
Reasons governments were unwilling or unable to adjust to changing circumstances
As Louis’ power was absolute, there were several checks on his power. The most important of these were the privileges of the corporate bodies known as the parlements. There were 13 of them in total, of which the Parlement of Paris was by far the most important, its jurisdiction covering about a third of France. The 2300 magistrates who sat in the courts were all noblesse de robe. Because the magistrates bought their position they could not be dismissed, unless the King bought them out. No law could be applied until it had been registered by each of the parlements. Although the Parlement had the power to critisise and make amendments to an edict, the King could ignore these through a lit de justice. As the parlements opposed many of the edicts aimed to change the system of taxation, nearly all historians up the 1960s accuse them of defending their own selfish interests and privileges, when they claimed to be representing the nation. They were seen as the main obstacle to a reforming monarchy. Arthur Young commented on the corruption of the Parlements, where judges could be swayed by ‘either the beauty of a handsome wife or by other methods’ Many historians blamed the Parlements for preventing the Crown from reforming but it was in fact the character of the King. The King alone had the power to carry through reforms, so if the old regime did not reform it was the King’s fault.
Louis XVI, was himself a cause of tension and conflict to the people. He ruled over France with ‘divine right answerable only to g-d.’ The character of Louis are best summed up by Louis’s brother the Compte de Provence: ‘The weakness and indecision of the Kingare beyond description.’ Louis possessed the virtues pleasing in a private individual,’ which consequently ‘denied him the qualities of one destined to rule.’ When Louis XIV died he established a new beuracracy which denied the Second Estate a political say. However, he did not simultaneously abolish the institutions they once had power over, thus left an opportunity for conflict to arrive – especially under the weak leadership of Louis XVI. The weakness of Louis made it impossible for him to deal with the other problems facing France.
The impact of war, civil war or economic or religious crisis on the creation of a revolutionary situation
Between 1740 and 1783 France financed four wars, the most recent being the American War of Independence. France’s involvement in these wars depleted the royal coffer. The bad harvest of 1788 worried the proletariat peasants about the increasingly high price of bead, under normal circumstances they could expect to pay up to 50% of their wages on bread. By 1789 workers could expect to be paying up to 88% of their wages on bread. The bad harvest was exacerbated by the administration of France, which according to Calonne, Controller General of Finance, was so internally divided that Provinces were ‘foreign to one another.’ Not only did the inequitable system of tax collection exist, whereby the First Two Estates paid little if any of the taxes and the full burden of the taxes fell on the Third Estate, but there were also varying systems of weights and measures. Northern and Central France bore a heavier tax burden than in the South.
Attempts at reform:
Jacques Necker, a protestant banker from Geneva, was made Director-General of Finance. It has been maintained that he financed the Americal war and borrowed huge sums of money. This only increased the Crown’s debt, so much so that 50 per cent of its income went to pay the interest on the debt. Necker was to cause future Controllers serious trouble. As Necker was seen to run a costly war without raising taxes, they could no longer increase taxation in peacetime. According to J.F. Bosher, he regards Necker as ‘the most determined of the reformers.’ Necker’s attempts to reform were put down by the King. Necker wanted to replace the independent, venal financiers by dependent, salried officials, whom the Controller General could appoint and dismiss. He was successful in getting rid of 50 of the most powerful Receivers-General. Calonne, to replace him undid much of his work, and borrowed even more heavily. Calonne proposed a single tax payable by everyone including the clergy, to replace the capitation and vingtieme. Calonne knew that the Parlements were likely to reject this. The King called upon the Assembly of Notables, whose members were chosen by the King, included members of the Church – who were likely to oppose as they had the most to lose. Although Notables not opposed to all changes, and agreed taxation should be based on equal basis, claimed approval of the nation was necessary, and thus led to the calling of the Estates-General which has last met in 1614. | 1,640 | ENGLISH | 1 |
August 27, 2019
What a mother does and consumes during her pregnancy often has a direct effect on her baby. However, most of these effects – both positive or negative – are not necessarily thought to surface in the baby's 60's.
But a new study out of Temple University's Lewis Katz School of Medicine found that consuming a high-fat diet as an expecting mother may help prevent Alzheimer's disease for her child.
This is the first study — which was conducted in mice, not humans — to suggest that high maternal fat consumption during pregnancy protects against the changes in the brain that can lead to late-onset Alzheimer's, researchers said.
“In humans, it has been known that individuals whose mothers develop Alzheimer's disease after age 65 are at increased risk of also developing the disease around the same age,” said Dr. Domenico Praticò, the study's senior investigator.
This research, published Tuesday in the journal Molecular Psychiatry, suggests that lifestyle habits picked up during pregnancy may influence offspring's risk of developing disease later in life because the mother and her children are so connected throughout gestation.
To better understand the unique relationship between maternal Alzheimer's disease and the risk in her offspring, Dr. Praticò and his colleagues focused on fat intake during pregnancy in a set of mice engineered to have Alzheimer's disease.
Pregnant mice were fed a high-fat diet throughout pregnancy, but as soon as their offspring were born, the mothers were switched to a regular diet. The offspring were fed a standard diet throughout their life.
"Surprisingly, we found that animals from mothers fed a high-fat diet during gestation had better learning and memory skills than their counterparts born to mothers fed a regular diet during gestation,” Praticò said.
Mice born to mothers who consumed a high-fat diet also had lower levels of amyloid-beta, a protein which can lead to problems with memory and learning.
“Our findings suggest that, to be effective, Alzheimer's disease prevention probably needs to start very early in life, during gestation,” Praticò said. “Diet at this specific life stage can have critical, but underestimated, long-term impacts on brain health.”
The researchers' next step will be comparing the effects of a high-fat diet to other diets in humans.
The study was funded in part by a National Institutes of Health grant. | <urn:uuid:0611943a-875c-4268-b51b-62333b94f7ed> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.phillyvoice.com/pregnancy-high-fat-diet-alzheimers-disease/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00119.warc.gz | en | 0.982585 | 500 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.2720293104... | 4 | August 27, 2019
What a mother does and consumes during her pregnancy often has a direct effect on her baby. However, most of these effects – both positive or negative – are not necessarily thought to surface in the baby's 60's.
But a new study out of Temple University's Lewis Katz School of Medicine found that consuming a high-fat diet as an expecting mother may help prevent Alzheimer's disease for her child.
This is the first study — which was conducted in mice, not humans — to suggest that high maternal fat consumption during pregnancy protects against the changes in the brain that can lead to late-onset Alzheimer's, researchers said.
“In humans, it has been known that individuals whose mothers develop Alzheimer's disease after age 65 are at increased risk of also developing the disease around the same age,” said Dr. Domenico Praticò, the study's senior investigator.
This research, published Tuesday in the journal Molecular Psychiatry, suggests that lifestyle habits picked up during pregnancy may influence offspring's risk of developing disease later in life because the mother and her children are so connected throughout gestation.
To better understand the unique relationship between maternal Alzheimer's disease and the risk in her offspring, Dr. Praticò and his colleagues focused on fat intake during pregnancy in a set of mice engineered to have Alzheimer's disease.
Pregnant mice were fed a high-fat diet throughout pregnancy, but as soon as their offspring were born, the mothers were switched to a regular diet. The offspring were fed a standard diet throughout their life.
"Surprisingly, we found that animals from mothers fed a high-fat diet during gestation had better learning and memory skills than their counterparts born to mothers fed a regular diet during gestation,” Praticò said.
Mice born to mothers who consumed a high-fat diet also had lower levels of amyloid-beta, a protein which can lead to problems with memory and learning.
“Our findings suggest that, to be effective, Alzheimer's disease prevention probably needs to start very early in life, during gestation,” Praticò said. “Diet at this specific life stage can have critical, but underestimated, long-term impacts on brain health.”
The researchers' next step will be comparing the effects of a high-fat diet to other diets in humans.
The study was funded in part by a National Institutes of Health grant. | 477 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1937, provincial elections were held and the Congress came into power in eight of the eleven provinces. This was a mark of the support for complete self-rule by the Indian people. The self-rule was demanded by the top leaders of the Indian National Congress and other political parties. Many agitations were done to gain the freedom and to establish self-rule.
Tension also grew in the world as Germany had annexed a part of Poland in the leadership of Adolf Hitler. There was a state of confusion and the violent insurgencies and revolts were being observed everywhere in India during that time.
The Government of India Act 1935
To weaken the control of the British over the Indian population several efforts and movements had been initiated. The British imposed the Government of India Act 1935 which was not relevant. It was a long and complex Act.
This Act had 321 sections and 10 schedules. The growing demand for the transfer of power and the feeling of nationality in Indians compelled the British to amend the whole system of governance to ensure their interests.
Through this Act the British had tried to keep all the powers instead of transferring them into the Indian hands. Actually the outline of the Act was a hindrance in the development process. The legislative assembly had no power to amend any clause of the Act. The main powers belonged to the Governor General.
The Act had provided the power to vote to the Indians but it all was merely an illusion because of the elaborate and special powers were still in the hands of governors and the governor general. Provincial government had become a puppet. Therefore Nehru commented it an involuntary, anti-democratic and anti-national rules. He said,” The Government of India Act is a declaration of slavery”.
In the Government of India Act 1935 following points had been mentioned:
An all India Union will be formed in which all the British provinces and the kingdoms will be included.
Provinces will have the right of self-governance and they had become autonomous.
A federal court will be established.
Reserve Bank of India was established.
Burma and Aden were separated from the Indian land.
Two new provinces Sindh and Orissa had been formed.
Dyarchy was renewed for the Central and provincial level.
Declaration of Provincial Elections by the British
The Indian National Congress had decided to participate into the provincial election in its Lucknow session. In the Lucknow session Dr. Rajendra Prasad and Sardar Ballabh Bhai Patel had decided to face the British through the election. The provincial election was held in all the 11 provinces where Indian National Congress was able to win eight provinces. It was a great success of INC.
Formation of the Cabinet
The INC sent their representatives to Mumbai, Madras, Central province, Orissa, Bihar and United province to frame the cabinet. Later on Assam and North-West province were also included in the INC. Gandhiji wanted that the powers of ministers will be used in achieving the goals of Nationalism and will not be as the Government of India Act 1935. He told that the ministers will use their powers for the well being and welfare of the people.
Hence a working committee was formed by INC, in which Ballabh Bhai Patel, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, and Dr. Rajendra Prasad were the main advisor of the committee. The main objective of the committee was to put the problems before the British Government and to find the solution in favour of the Indian people and the nation.
They had stipulated the task to establish more police stations to strengthen the citizen liberty, agricultural reforms, promotion of common education, and common justice to all. The decisions of the INC are the following:
Many bills had been passed by the cabinet by which farmers and tenants were relived from the moneylenders. Apart from this, it was tried that the bills will provide forest land as pastures, demolition of land revenue, and the end of bestowment and forced labour.
In 1938 the Industrial Dispute bill was proposed for the reform in the life of cloth mill labours in Mumbai.
Special programme were arranged to boost the education and health in the rural areas.
The land of the people had been returned to their owners who had donated during The Civil Disobedience Movement.
All the blames and bans on the press had been removed.
Revolt in Madras Presidency
In 1937, when the provincial government had been established in Madras Presidency, the INC leader C. Rajagopalacharimade Hindi compulsory in schools. He believed that India could prosper in Hindi well despite English, as other countries like Russia, China, France or Germany had progressed in their own language. Many Periyar and Tamil leaders protested resulting in the violent movement. Police had to use force in many places and loss of lives and property were the evidences.
The Round Table Conference and the Partition
The Dandi Yatra covered by Gandhi and his 78 followers against the malice “Salt Act” had shaken the roots of the British Empire and they started thinking to give independence to India. For the constitutional reforms the British had organised three Round Table Conferences in between 1930-32.
The conferences were based on the report provided by Simon Commission. These conferences couldn’t get success to achieve their objective and the demand of Swaraj was coined by the Congress. On the other hand, the Muslim League leaders raised their demand for another Free State, Pakistan– a part of India. Therefore the seeds of partition were sown in the third round table conference that turned into a violent and brutal violence.
Participation of Women in the Movement
Women had also stood parallel to the men in the freedom struggle. In 1936 Smt. Vijay Laxmi Pandit was elected for Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly and was appointed as the minister in 1937. She had participated in many movements led by the INC. In 1928, Latika Ghosh had established Mahila Rastriya Sangh.
This association had taken part in the violent movements of revolutionaries like Arbindo Ghosh, Subhash Chandra Bose etc. Beena Das, who tried to shoot bullets on the Governor of Bengal, Kamala das Gupta, Kalyani Das and many were active in their related groups. Many of them were good organizers, orators, promoters, and volunteers. | <urn:uuid:78ebe1af-69db-46ba-9770-e3673aab7d09> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://leadershiptroy.org/self-rule-movement-in-india-1937/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00071.warc.gz | en | 0.983647 | 1,303 | 4.125 | 4 | [
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0.0621298700571... | 2 | In 1937, provincial elections were held and the Congress came into power in eight of the eleven provinces. This was a mark of the support for complete self-rule by the Indian people. The self-rule was demanded by the top leaders of the Indian National Congress and other political parties. Many agitations were done to gain the freedom and to establish self-rule.
Tension also grew in the world as Germany had annexed a part of Poland in the leadership of Adolf Hitler. There was a state of confusion and the violent insurgencies and revolts were being observed everywhere in India during that time.
The Government of India Act 1935
To weaken the control of the British over the Indian population several efforts and movements had been initiated. The British imposed the Government of India Act 1935 which was not relevant. It was a long and complex Act.
This Act had 321 sections and 10 schedules. The growing demand for the transfer of power and the feeling of nationality in Indians compelled the British to amend the whole system of governance to ensure their interests.
Through this Act the British had tried to keep all the powers instead of transferring them into the Indian hands. Actually the outline of the Act was a hindrance in the development process. The legislative assembly had no power to amend any clause of the Act. The main powers belonged to the Governor General.
The Act had provided the power to vote to the Indians but it all was merely an illusion because of the elaborate and special powers were still in the hands of governors and the governor general. Provincial government had become a puppet. Therefore Nehru commented it an involuntary, anti-democratic and anti-national rules. He said,” The Government of India Act is a declaration of slavery”.
In the Government of India Act 1935 following points had been mentioned:
An all India Union will be formed in which all the British provinces and the kingdoms will be included.
Provinces will have the right of self-governance and they had become autonomous.
A federal court will be established.
Reserve Bank of India was established.
Burma and Aden were separated from the Indian land.
Two new provinces Sindh and Orissa had been formed.
Dyarchy was renewed for the Central and provincial level.
Declaration of Provincial Elections by the British
The Indian National Congress had decided to participate into the provincial election in its Lucknow session. In the Lucknow session Dr. Rajendra Prasad and Sardar Ballabh Bhai Patel had decided to face the British through the election. The provincial election was held in all the 11 provinces where Indian National Congress was able to win eight provinces. It was a great success of INC.
Formation of the Cabinet
The INC sent their representatives to Mumbai, Madras, Central province, Orissa, Bihar and United province to frame the cabinet. Later on Assam and North-West province were also included in the INC. Gandhiji wanted that the powers of ministers will be used in achieving the goals of Nationalism and will not be as the Government of India Act 1935. He told that the ministers will use their powers for the well being and welfare of the people.
Hence a working committee was formed by INC, in which Ballabh Bhai Patel, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, and Dr. Rajendra Prasad were the main advisor of the committee. The main objective of the committee was to put the problems before the British Government and to find the solution in favour of the Indian people and the nation.
They had stipulated the task to establish more police stations to strengthen the citizen liberty, agricultural reforms, promotion of common education, and common justice to all. The decisions of the INC are the following:
Many bills had been passed by the cabinet by which farmers and tenants were relived from the moneylenders. Apart from this, it was tried that the bills will provide forest land as pastures, demolition of land revenue, and the end of bestowment and forced labour.
In 1938 the Industrial Dispute bill was proposed for the reform in the life of cloth mill labours in Mumbai.
Special programme were arranged to boost the education and health in the rural areas.
The land of the people had been returned to their owners who had donated during The Civil Disobedience Movement.
All the blames and bans on the press had been removed.
Revolt in Madras Presidency
In 1937, when the provincial government had been established in Madras Presidency, the INC leader C. Rajagopalacharimade Hindi compulsory in schools. He believed that India could prosper in Hindi well despite English, as other countries like Russia, China, France or Germany had progressed in their own language. Many Periyar and Tamil leaders protested resulting in the violent movement. Police had to use force in many places and loss of lives and property were the evidences.
The Round Table Conference and the Partition
The Dandi Yatra covered by Gandhi and his 78 followers against the malice “Salt Act” had shaken the roots of the British Empire and they started thinking to give independence to India. For the constitutional reforms the British had organised three Round Table Conferences in between 1930-32.
The conferences were based on the report provided by Simon Commission. These conferences couldn’t get success to achieve their objective and the demand of Swaraj was coined by the Congress. On the other hand, the Muslim League leaders raised their demand for another Free State, Pakistan– a part of India. Therefore the seeds of partition were sown in the third round table conference that turned into a violent and brutal violence.
Participation of Women in the Movement
Women had also stood parallel to the men in the freedom struggle. In 1936 Smt. Vijay Laxmi Pandit was elected for Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly and was appointed as the minister in 1937. She had participated in many movements led by the INC. In 1928, Latika Ghosh had established Mahila Rastriya Sangh.
This association had taken part in the violent movements of revolutionaries like Arbindo Ghosh, Subhash Chandra Bose etc. Beena Das, who tried to shoot bullets on the Governor of Bengal, Kamala das Gupta, Kalyani Das and many were active in their related groups. Many of them were good organizers, orators, promoters, and volunteers. | 1,316 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Guy Fawkes (1570 – 31 January 1606),[a]Dates in this article before 14 September 1752 are given in the Julian calendar. The beginning of the year is treated as 1 January even though it began in England on 25 March. also known as Guido Fawkes while fighting for the Spanish, was a member of the group of provincial English Catholics who planned the failed Gunpowder Plot of 1605. He was born and educated in York; his father died when Fawkes was eight years old, after which his mother married a recusant Catholic.
Fawkes converted to Catholicism and left for mainland Europe, where he fought for Catholic Spain in the Eighty Years’ War against Protestant Dutch reformers in the Low Countries. He travelled to Spain to seek support for a Catholic rebellion in England without success before meeting Thomas Wintour, with whom he returned to England. Wintour introduced him to Robert Catesby, who planned to assassinate King James I and restore a Catholic monarch to the throne. The plotters leased an undercroft beneath the House of Lords, and Fawkes was placed in charge of the gunpowder they stockpiled there. The authorities were prompted by an anonymous letter to search Westminster Palace during the early hours of 5 November, and found Fawkes guarding the explosives. He was questioned and tortured over the next few days, and confessed his intention to blow up the House of Lords.
Immediately before his execution on 31 January, Fawkes fell from the scaffold where he was to be hanged and broke his neck, thus avoiding the agony of being hanged, drawn and quarteredTo be hanged, drawn and quartered was from 1352 a statutory penalty in England for men convicted of high treason. . He became synonymous with the Gunpowder Plot, the failure of which has been commemorated in the UK as Guy Fawkes Night since 5 November 1605, when his effigy is traditionally burned on a bonfire, commonly accompanied by fireworks.
Guy Fawkes was born in 1570 in Stonegate, York. He was the second of four children born to Edward Fawkes, a proctor and an advocate of the consistory court at York,[b]Edward Fawkes may also have been registrar of the Archbishop of York’s exchequer court, as his father had been before him. and his wife, Edith Jackson. Guy’s mother’s family were recusant Catholics, and his cousin, Richard Cowling, became a Jesuit priest.
The date of Fawkes’s birth is unknown, but he was baptised in the church of St Michael le Belfrey, York on 16 April. As the customary gap between birth and baptism was three days, he was probably born on 13 April. In 1579, when Guy was eight years old, his father died. His mother remarried several years later, to the Catholic Dionis Baynbrigge (or Denis Bainbridge) of Scotton, Harrogate. Fawkes may have been persuaded to Catholicism by the Baynbrigge family’s recusant tendencies, but also as a result of his time at St. Peter’s School in York. A governor of the school had spent about twenty years in prison for recusancy, and its headmaster, John Pulleyn, came from a family of noted Yorkshire recusants. Fawkes’s fellow students included John Wright and his brother Christopher (both later involved with Fawkes in the Gunpowder Plot) and Oswald Tesimond, Edward Oldcorne and Robert Middleton, who became priests (the latter executed in 1601).
After leaving school Fawkes entered the service of Anthony Browne, 1st Viscount Montagu. The Viscount took a dislike to Fawkes and after a short time dismissed him; he was subsequently employed by Anthony-Maria Browne, 2nd Viscount Montagu, who succeeded his grandfather at the age of 18. At least one source claims that Fawkes married and had a son, but no known contemporary accounts confirm this.
In October 1591 Fawkes sold the estate in Clifton in York that he had inherited from his father.[c]Although the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography claims 1592, multiple alternative sources give 1591 as the date. Peter Beal’s, A Dictionary of English Manuscript Terminology, 1450 to 2000, includes a signed indenture of the sale of the estate dated 14 October 1591. (pp. 198–199) He travelled to the continent to fight in the Eighty Years War for Catholic Spain against the new Dutch Republic and, from 1595 until the Peace of Vervins in 1598, France. Although England was not by then engaged in land operations against Spain, the two countries were still at war, and the Spanish Armada of 1588 was only five years in the past. He joined Sir William Stanley, an English Catholic and veteran commander in his mid-fifties who had raised an army in Ireland to fight in Leicester’s expedition to the Netherlands. Stanley had been held in high regard by Elizabeth I, but following his surrender of Deventer to the Spanish in 1587 he, and most of his troops, had switched sides to serve Spain. Fawkes became an alférez or junior officer, fought well at the siege of Calais in 1596, and by 1603 had been recommended for a captaincy. That year he travelled to Spain to seek support for a Catholic rebellion in England. He used the occasion to adopt the Italian version of his name, Guido, and in his memorandum described James I (who became king of England that year) as “a heretic”, who intended “to have all of the Papist sect driven out of England.” He denounced Scotland, and the King’s favourites among the Scottish nobles, writing “it will not be possible to reconcile these two nations, as they are, for very long”. Although he was received politely, the court of Philip III was unwilling to offer him any support.
In 1604 Fawkes became involved with a small group of English Catholics, led by Robert Catesby, who planned to assassinate the Protestant King James and replace him with his daughter, third in the line of succession, Princess Elizabeth. Fawkes was described by the Jesuit priest and former school friend Oswald Tesimond as “pleasant of approach and cheerful of manner, opposed to quarrels and strife … loyal to his friends”. Tesimond also claimed Fawkes was “a man highly skilled in matters of war”, and that it was this mixture of piety and professionalism that endeared him to his fellow conspirators. The author Antonia Fraser describes Fawkes as “a tall, powerfully built man, with thick reddish-brown hair, a flowing moustache in the tradition of the time, and a bushy reddish-brown beard”, and that he was “a man of action … capable of intelligent argument as well as physical endurance, somewhat to the surprise of his enemies.”
The first meeting of the five central conspirators took place on Sunday 20 May 1604, at an inn called the Duck and Drake, in the fashionable Strand district of London.[d]Also present were fellow conspirators John Wright, Thomas Percy, and Thomas Wintour (with whom Fawkes was already acquainted). Catesby had already proposed at an earlier meeting with Thomas Wintour and John Wright to kill the King and his government by blowing up “the Parliament House with gunpowder”. Wintour, who at first objected to the plan, was convinced by Catesby to travel to the continent to seek help. Wintour met with the Constable of Castile, the exiled Welsh spy Hugh Owen, and Sir William Stanley, who said that Catesby would receive no support from Spain. Owen did, however, introduce Wintour to Fawkes, who had by then been away from England for many years, and thus was largely unknown in the country. Wintour and Fawkes were contemporaries; each was militant, and had first-hand experience of the unwillingness of the Spaniards to help. Wintour told Fawkes of their plan to “doe some whatt in Ingland if the pece with Spaine healped us nott”, and thus in April 1604 the two men returned to England. Wintour’s news did not surprise Catesby; despite positive noises from the Spanish authorities, he feared that “the deeds would nott answere”.[e]Philip III made peace with England in August 1604.
One of the conspirators, Thomas Percy, was promoted in June 1604, gaining access to a house in London that belonged to John Whynniard, Keeper of the King’s Wardrobe. Fawkes was installed as a caretaker and began using the pseudonym John Johnson, servant to Percy. The contemporaneous account of the prosecution (taken from Thomas Wintour’s confession) claimed that the conspirators attempted to dig a tunnel from beneath Whynniard’s house to Parliament, although this story may have been a government fabrication; no evidence for the existence of a tunnel was presented by the prosecution, and no trace of one has ever been found; Fawkes himself did not admit the existence of such a scheme until his fifth interrogation, but even then he could not locate the tunnel. If the story is true, by December 1604 the conspirators were busy tunnelling from their rented house to the House of Lords. They ceased their efforts when, during tunnelling, they heard a noise from above. Fawkes was sent out to investigate, and returned with the news that the tenant’s widow was clearing out a nearby undercroft, directly beneath the House of Lords.
The plotters purchased the lease to the room, which also belonged to John Whynniard. Unused and filthy, it was considered an ideal hiding place for the gunpowder the plotters planned to store. According to Fawkes, twenty barrels of gunpowder were brought in at first, followed by sixteen more on 20 July. On 28 July however, the ever-present threat of the plague delayed the opening of Parliament until Tuesday, 5 November.
In an attempt to gain foreign support, in May 1605 Fawkes travelled overseas and informed Hugh Owen of the plotters’ plan. At some point during this trip his name made its way into the files of Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury, who employed a network of spies across Europe, one of whom, Captain William Turner, may have been responsible. Although the information Turner provided to Salisbury usually amounted to no more than a vague pattern of invasion reports, and included nothing regarding the Gunpowder Plot, on 21 April he told how Fawkes was to be brought by Tesimond to England. Fawkes was a well-known Flemish mercenary, and would be introduced to “Mr Catesby” and “honourable friends of the nobility and others who would have arms and horses in readiness”. Turner’s report did not, however, mention Fawkes’s pseudonym in England, John Johnson, and did not reach Cecil until late in November, well after the plot had been discovered.
It is uncertain when Fawkes returned to England, but he was back in London by late August 1605, when he and Wintour discovered that the gunpowder stored in the undercroft had decayed. More gunpowder was brought into the room, along with firewood to conceal it. Fawkes’s final role in the plot was settled during a series of meetings in October. He was to light the fuse and then escape across the Thames. Simultaneously, a revolt in the Midlands would help to ensure the capture of Princess Elizabeth. Acts of regicide were frowned upon, and Fawkes would therefore head to the continent, where he would explain to the Catholic powers his holy duty to kill the King and his retinue.
A few of the conspirators were concerned about fellow Catholics who would be present at Parliament during the opening. On the evening of 26 October, Lord Monteagle received an anonymous letter warning him to stay away, and to “retyre youre self into yowre contee whence yow maye expect the event in safti for … they shall receyve a terrible blowe this parleament”. Despite quickly becoming aware of the letter – informed by one of Monteagle’s servants – the conspirators resolved to continue with their plans, as it appeared that it “was clearly thought to be a hoax”. Fawkes checked the undercroft on 30 October, and reported that nothing had been disturbed. Monteagle’s suspicions had been aroused, however, and the letter was shown to King James. The King ordered Sir Thomas Knyvet to conduct a search of the cellars underneath Parliament, which he did in the early hours of 5 November. Fawkes had taken up his station late on the previous night, armed with a slow match and a watch given to him by Percy “becaus he should knowe howe the time went away”. He was found leaving the cellar, shortly after midnight, and arrested. Inside, the barrels of gunpowder were discovered hidden under piles of firewood and coal.
Fawkes gave his name as John Johnson and was first interrogated by members of the King’s Privy chamber, where he remained defiant. When asked by one of the lords what he was doing in possession of so much gunpowder, Fawkes answered that his intention was “to blow you Scotch beggars back to your native mountains.” He identified himself as a 36-year-old Catholic from Netherdale in Yorkshire, and gave his father’s name as Thomas and his mother’s as Edith Jackson. Wounds on his body noted by his questioners he explained as the effects of pleurisy. Fawkes admitted his intention to blow up the House of Lords, and expressed regret at his failure to do so. His steadfast manner earned him the admiration of King James, who described Fawkes as possessing “a Roman resolution”.
James’s admiration did not, however, prevent him from ordering on 6 November that “John Johnson” be tortured, to reveal the names of his co-conspirators. He directed that the torture be light at first, referring to the use of manacles, but more severe if necessary, authorising the use of the rack: “the gentler Tortures are to be first used unto him et sic per gradus ad ima tenditur [and so by degrees proceeding to the worst]”. Fawkes was transferred to the Tower of London. The King composed a list of questions to be put to “Johnson”, such as “as to what he is, For I can never yet hear of any man that knows him”, “When and where he learned to speak French?”, and “If he was a Papist, who brought him up in it?” The room in which Fawkes was interrogated subsequently became known as the Guy Fawkes Room.
Sir William Waad, Lieutenant of the Tower, supervised the torture and obtained Fawkes’s confession. He searched his prisoner, and found a letter addressed to Guy Fawkes. To Waad’s surprise, “Johnson” remained silent, revealing nothing about the plot or its authors. On the night of 6 November he spoke with Waad, who reported to Salisbury “He [Johnson] told us that since he undertook this action he did every day pray to God he might perform that which might be for the advancement of the Catholic Faith and saving his own soul”. According to Waad, Fawkes managed to rest through the night, despite his being warned that he would be interrogated until “I had gotton the inwards secret of his thoughts and all his complices”. His composure was broken at some point during the following day.
The observer Sir Edward Hoby remarked “Since Johnson’s being in the Tower, he beginneth to speak English”. Fawkes revealed his true identity on 7 November, and told his interrogators that there were five people involved in the plot to kill the King. He began to reveal their names on 8 November, and told how they intended to place Princess Elizabeth on the throne. His third confession, on 9 November, implicated Francis Tresham. Following the Ridolfi plot of 1571 prisoners were made to dictate their confessions, before copying and signing them, if they still could. Although it is uncertain if he was tortured on the rack, Fawkes’s scrawled signature suggests the suffering he endured at the hands of his interrogators.
Trial and execution
The trial of eight of the plotters began on Monday 27 January 1606. Fawkes shared the barge from the Tower to Westminster Hall with seven of his co-conspirators.[f]The eighth, Thomas Bates, was considered inferior by virtue of his status, and was held instead at Gatehouse Prison. They were kept in the Star Chamber before being taken to Westminster Hall, where they were displayed on a purpose-built scaffold. The King and his close family, watching in secret, were among the spectators as the Lords Commissioners read out the list of charges. Fawkes was identified as Guido Fawkes, “otherwise called Guido Johnson”. He pleaded not guilty, despite his apparent acceptance of guilt from the moment he was captured.
The jury found all the defendants guilty, and the Lord Chief Justice Sir John Popham pronounced them guilty of high treason. The Attorney General Sir Edward Coke told the court that each of the condemned would be drawn backwards to his death, by a horse, his head near the ground. They were to be “put to death halfway between heaven and earth as unworthy of both”. Their genitals would be cut off and burnt before their eyes, and their bowels and hearts removed. They would then be decapitated, and the dismembered parts of their bodies displayed so that they might become “prey for the fowls of the air”. Fawkes’s and Tresham’s testimony regarding the Spanish treason was read aloud, as well as confessions related specifically to the Gunpowder Plot. The last piece of evidence offered was a conversation between Fawkes and Wintour, who had been kept in adjacent cells. The two men apparently thought they had been speaking in private, but their conversation was intercepted by a government spy. When the prisoners were allowed to speak, Fawkes explained his not guilty plea as ignorance of certain aspects of the indictment.
On 31 January 1606, Fawkes and three others – Thomas Wintour, Ambrose Rookwood, and Robert Keyes – were dragged (i.e. “drawn”) from the Tower on wattled hurdles to the Old Palace Yard at Westminster, opposite the building they had attempted to destroy. His fellow plotters were then hanged and quartered. Fawkes was the last to stand on the scaffold. He asked for forgiveness of the King and state, while keeping up his “crosses and idle ceremonies” (Catholic practices). Weakened by torture and aided by the hangman, Fawkes began to climb the ladder to the noose, but either by jumping to his death or climbing too high so the rope was incorrectly set, he managed to avoid the agony of the latter part of his execution by breaking his neck. His lifeless body was nevertheless quartered, and as was the custom, his body parts were distributed to “the four corners of the kingdom”, to be displayed as a warning to other would-be traitors.
On 5 November 1605 Londoners were encouraged to celebrate the King’s escape from assassination by lighting bonfires, provided that “this testemonye of joy be carefull done without any danger or disorder”. The Thanksgiving Act of 1606 designated each 5 November as a day of thanksgiving, and remained in force until 1859.
Fawkes was one of thirteen conspirators, but he is the individual most associated with the plot. In Britain, 5 November has variously been called Guy Fawkes Night, Guy Fawkes Day, Plot Night, and Bonfire Night (which can be traced directly back to the original celebration of 5 November 1605). Bonfires were accompanied by fireworks from the 1650s onwards, and it became the custom after 1673 to burn an effigy (usually of the pope) when the heir presumptive James, Duke of York, converted to Catholicism. Effigies of other notable figures have found their way onto the bonfires, including Margaret Thatcher, although most modern effigies are of Fawkes.
James Sharpe, professor of history at the University of York, has described how Guy Fawkes came to be toasted as “the last man to enter Parliament with honest intentions”. William Harrison Ainsworth’s 1841 historical romance Guy Fawkes; or, The Gunpowder Treason portrays Fawkes in a generally sympathetic light, and his novel transformed Fawkes in the public perception into an “acceptable fictional character”. Fawkes subsequently appeared as “essentially an action hero” in children’s books and penny dreadfuls such as The Boyhood Days of Guy Fawkes; or, The Conspirators of Old London, published around 1905. According to historian Lewis Call, Fawkes is now “a major icon in modern political culture” whose face has become “a potentially powerful instrument for the articulation of postmodern anarchism” in the late 20th century.
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Notes [ + ]
|a.||^||Dates in this article before 14 September 1752 are given in the Julian calendar. The beginning of the year is treated as 1 January even though it began in England on 25 March.|
|b.||^||Edward Fawkes may also have been registrar of the Archbishop of York’s exchequer court, as his father had been before him.|
|c.||^||Although the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography claims 1592, multiple alternative sources give 1591 as the date. Peter Beal’s, A Dictionary of English Manuscript Terminology, 1450 to 2000, includes a signed indenture of the sale of the estate dated 14 October 1591. (pp. 198–199)|
|d.||^||Also present were fellow conspirators John Wright, Thomas Percy, and Thomas Wintour (with whom Fawkes was already acquainted).|
|e.||^||Philip III made peace with England in August 1604.|
|f.||^||The eighth, Thomas Bates, was considered inferior by virtue of his status, and was held instead at Gatehouse Prison.| | <urn:uuid:660343c2-0600-4ffc-b0e9-404125a64f13> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://engole.info/guy-fawkes/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00227.warc.gz | en | 0.982996 | 5,111 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.297359049... | 1 | Guy Fawkes (1570 – 31 January 1606),[a]Dates in this article before 14 September 1752 are given in the Julian calendar. The beginning of the year is treated as 1 January even though it began in England on 25 March. also known as Guido Fawkes while fighting for the Spanish, was a member of the group of provincial English Catholics who planned the failed Gunpowder Plot of 1605. He was born and educated in York; his father died when Fawkes was eight years old, after which his mother married a recusant Catholic.
Fawkes converted to Catholicism and left for mainland Europe, where he fought for Catholic Spain in the Eighty Years’ War against Protestant Dutch reformers in the Low Countries. He travelled to Spain to seek support for a Catholic rebellion in England without success before meeting Thomas Wintour, with whom he returned to England. Wintour introduced him to Robert Catesby, who planned to assassinate King James I and restore a Catholic monarch to the throne. The plotters leased an undercroft beneath the House of Lords, and Fawkes was placed in charge of the gunpowder they stockpiled there. The authorities were prompted by an anonymous letter to search Westminster Palace during the early hours of 5 November, and found Fawkes guarding the explosives. He was questioned and tortured over the next few days, and confessed his intention to blow up the House of Lords.
Immediately before his execution on 31 January, Fawkes fell from the scaffold where he was to be hanged and broke his neck, thus avoiding the agony of being hanged, drawn and quarteredTo be hanged, drawn and quartered was from 1352 a statutory penalty in England for men convicted of high treason. . He became synonymous with the Gunpowder Plot, the failure of which has been commemorated in the UK as Guy Fawkes Night since 5 November 1605, when his effigy is traditionally burned on a bonfire, commonly accompanied by fireworks.
Guy Fawkes was born in 1570 in Stonegate, York. He was the second of four children born to Edward Fawkes, a proctor and an advocate of the consistory court at York,[b]Edward Fawkes may also have been registrar of the Archbishop of York’s exchequer court, as his father had been before him. and his wife, Edith Jackson. Guy’s mother’s family were recusant Catholics, and his cousin, Richard Cowling, became a Jesuit priest.
The date of Fawkes’s birth is unknown, but he was baptised in the church of St Michael le Belfrey, York on 16 April. As the customary gap between birth and baptism was three days, he was probably born on 13 April. In 1579, when Guy was eight years old, his father died. His mother remarried several years later, to the Catholic Dionis Baynbrigge (or Denis Bainbridge) of Scotton, Harrogate. Fawkes may have been persuaded to Catholicism by the Baynbrigge family’s recusant tendencies, but also as a result of his time at St. Peter’s School in York. A governor of the school had spent about twenty years in prison for recusancy, and its headmaster, John Pulleyn, came from a family of noted Yorkshire recusants. Fawkes’s fellow students included John Wright and his brother Christopher (both later involved with Fawkes in the Gunpowder Plot) and Oswald Tesimond, Edward Oldcorne and Robert Middleton, who became priests (the latter executed in 1601).
After leaving school Fawkes entered the service of Anthony Browne, 1st Viscount Montagu. The Viscount took a dislike to Fawkes and after a short time dismissed him; he was subsequently employed by Anthony-Maria Browne, 2nd Viscount Montagu, who succeeded his grandfather at the age of 18. At least one source claims that Fawkes married and had a son, but no known contemporary accounts confirm this.
In October 1591 Fawkes sold the estate in Clifton in York that he had inherited from his father.[c]Although the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography claims 1592, multiple alternative sources give 1591 as the date. Peter Beal’s, A Dictionary of English Manuscript Terminology, 1450 to 2000, includes a signed indenture of the sale of the estate dated 14 October 1591. (pp. 198–199) He travelled to the continent to fight in the Eighty Years War for Catholic Spain against the new Dutch Republic and, from 1595 until the Peace of Vervins in 1598, France. Although England was not by then engaged in land operations against Spain, the two countries were still at war, and the Spanish Armada of 1588 was only five years in the past. He joined Sir William Stanley, an English Catholic and veteran commander in his mid-fifties who had raised an army in Ireland to fight in Leicester’s expedition to the Netherlands. Stanley had been held in high regard by Elizabeth I, but following his surrender of Deventer to the Spanish in 1587 he, and most of his troops, had switched sides to serve Spain. Fawkes became an alférez or junior officer, fought well at the siege of Calais in 1596, and by 1603 had been recommended for a captaincy. That year he travelled to Spain to seek support for a Catholic rebellion in England. He used the occasion to adopt the Italian version of his name, Guido, and in his memorandum described James I (who became king of England that year) as “a heretic”, who intended “to have all of the Papist sect driven out of England.” He denounced Scotland, and the King’s favourites among the Scottish nobles, writing “it will not be possible to reconcile these two nations, as they are, for very long”. Although he was received politely, the court of Philip III was unwilling to offer him any support.
In 1604 Fawkes became involved with a small group of English Catholics, led by Robert Catesby, who planned to assassinate the Protestant King James and replace him with his daughter, third in the line of succession, Princess Elizabeth. Fawkes was described by the Jesuit priest and former school friend Oswald Tesimond as “pleasant of approach and cheerful of manner, opposed to quarrels and strife … loyal to his friends”. Tesimond also claimed Fawkes was “a man highly skilled in matters of war”, and that it was this mixture of piety and professionalism that endeared him to his fellow conspirators. The author Antonia Fraser describes Fawkes as “a tall, powerfully built man, with thick reddish-brown hair, a flowing moustache in the tradition of the time, and a bushy reddish-brown beard”, and that he was “a man of action … capable of intelligent argument as well as physical endurance, somewhat to the surprise of his enemies.”
The first meeting of the five central conspirators took place on Sunday 20 May 1604, at an inn called the Duck and Drake, in the fashionable Strand district of London.[d]Also present were fellow conspirators John Wright, Thomas Percy, and Thomas Wintour (with whom Fawkes was already acquainted). Catesby had already proposed at an earlier meeting with Thomas Wintour and John Wright to kill the King and his government by blowing up “the Parliament House with gunpowder”. Wintour, who at first objected to the plan, was convinced by Catesby to travel to the continent to seek help. Wintour met with the Constable of Castile, the exiled Welsh spy Hugh Owen, and Sir William Stanley, who said that Catesby would receive no support from Spain. Owen did, however, introduce Wintour to Fawkes, who had by then been away from England for many years, and thus was largely unknown in the country. Wintour and Fawkes were contemporaries; each was militant, and had first-hand experience of the unwillingness of the Spaniards to help. Wintour told Fawkes of their plan to “doe some whatt in Ingland if the pece with Spaine healped us nott”, and thus in April 1604 the two men returned to England. Wintour’s news did not surprise Catesby; despite positive noises from the Spanish authorities, he feared that “the deeds would nott answere”.[e]Philip III made peace with England in August 1604.
One of the conspirators, Thomas Percy, was promoted in June 1604, gaining access to a house in London that belonged to John Whynniard, Keeper of the King’s Wardrobe. Fawkes was installed as a caretaker and began using the pseudonym John Johnson, servant to Percy. The contemporaneous account of the prosecution (taken from Thomas Wintour’s confession) claimed that the conspirators attempted to dig a tunnel from beneath Whynniard’s house to Parliament, although this story may have been a government fabrication; no evidence for the existence of a tunnel was presented by the prosecution, and no trace of one has ever been found; Fawkes himself did not admit the existence of such a scheme until his fifth interrogation, but even then he could not locate the tunnel. If the story is true, by December 1604 the conspirators were busy tunnelling from their rented house to the House of Lords. They ceased their efforts when, during tunnelling, they heard a noise from above. Fawkes was sent out to investigate, and returned with the news that the tenant’s widow was clearing out a nearby undercroft, directly beneath the House of Lords.
The plotters purchased the lease to the room, which also belonged to John Whynniard. Unused and filthy, it was considered an ideal hiding place for the gunpowder the plotters planned to store. According to Fawkes, twenty barrels of gunpowder were brought in at first, followed by sixteen more on 20 July. On 28 July however, the ever-present threat of the plague delayed the opening of Parliament until Tuesday, 5 November.
In an attempt to gain foreign support, in May 1605 Fawkes travelled overseas and informed Hugh Owen of the plotters’ plan. At some point during this trip his name made its way into the files of Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury, who employed a network of spies across Europe, one of whom, Captain William Turner, may have been responsible. Although the information Turner provided to Salisbury usually amounted to no more than a vague pattern of invasion reports, and included nothing regarding the Gunpowder Plot, on 21 April he told how Fawkes was to be brought by Tesimond to England. Fawkes was a well-known Flemish mercenary, and would be introduced to “Mr Catesby” and “honourable friends of the nobility and others who would have arms and horses in readiness”. Turner’s report did not, however, mention Fawkes’s pseudonym in England, John Johnson, and did not reach Cecil until late in November, well after the plot had been discovered.
It is uncertain when Fawkes returned to England, but he was back in London by late August 1605, when he and Wintour discovered that the gunpowder stored in the undercroft had decayed. More gunpowder was brought into the room, along with firewood to conceal it. Fawkes’s final role in the plot was settled during a series of meetings in October. He was to light the fuse and then escape across the Thames. Simultaneously, a revolt in the Midlands would help to ensure the capture of Princess Elizabeth. Acts of regicide were frowned upon, and Fawkes would therefore head to the continent, where he would explain to the Catholic powers his holy duty to kill the King and his retinue.
A few of the conspirators were concerned about fellow Catholics who would be present at Parliament during the opening. On the evening of 26 October, Lord Monteagle received an anonymous letter warning him to stay away, and to “retyre youre self into yowre contee whence yow maye expect the event in safti for … they shall receyve a terrible blowe this parleament”. Despite quickly becoming aware of the letter – informed by one of Monteagle’s servants – the conspirators resolved to continue with their plans, as it appeared that it “was clearly thought to be a hoax”. Fawkes checked the undercroft on 30 October, and reported that nothing had been disturbed. Monteagle’s suspicions had been aroused, however, and the letter was shown to King James. The King ordered Sir Thomas Knyvet to conduct a search of the cellars underneath Parliament, which he did in the early hours of 5 November. Fawkes had taken up his station late on the previous night, armed with a slow match and a watch given to him by Percy “becaus he should knowe howe the time went away”. He was found leaving the cellar, shortly after midnight, and arrested. Inside, the barrels of gunpowder were discovered hidden under piles of firewood and coal.
Fawkes gave his name as John Johnson and was first interrogated by members of the King’s Privy chamber, where he remained defiant. When asked by one of the lords what he was doing in possession of so much gunpowder, Fawkes answered that his intention was “to blow you Scotch beggars back to your native mountains.” He identified himself as a 36-year-old Catholic from Netherdale in Yorkshire, and gave his father’s name as Thomas and his mother’s as Edith Jackson. Wounds on his body noted by his questioners he explained as the effects of pleurisy. Fawkes admitted his intention to blow up the House of Lords, and expressed regret at his failure to do so. His steadfast manner earned him the admiration of King James, who described Fawkes as possessing “a Roman resolution”.
James’s admiration did not, however, prevent him from ordering on 6 November that “John Johnson” be tortured, to reveal the names of his co-conspirators. He directed that the torture be light at first, referring to the use of manacles, but more severe if necessary, authorising the use of the rack: “the gentler Tortures are to be first used unto him et sic per gradus ad ima tenditur [and so by degrees proceeding to the worst]”. Fawkes was transferred to the Tower of London. The King composed a list of questions to be put to “Johnson”, such as “as to what he is, For I can never yet hear of any man that knows him”, “When and where he learned to speak French?”, and “If he was a Papist, who brought him up in it?” The room in which Fawkes was interrogated subsequently became known as the Guy Fawkes Room.
Sir William Waad, Lieutenant of the Tower, supervised the torture and obtained Fawkes’s confession. He searched his prisoner, and found a letter addressed to Guy Fawkes. To Waad’s surprise, “Johnson” remained silent, revealing nothing about the plot or its authors. On the night of 6 November he spoke with Waad, who reported to Salisbury “He [Johnson] told us that since he undertook this action he did every day pray to God he might perform that which might be for the advancement of the Catholic Faith and saving his own soul”. According to Waad, Fawkes managed to rest through the night, despite his being warned that he would be interrogated until “I had gotton the inwards secret of his thoughts and all his complices”. His composure was broken at some point during the following day.
The observer Sir Edward Hoby remarked “Since Johnson’s being in the Tower, he beginneth to speak English”. Fawkes revealed his true identity on 7 November, and told his interrogators that there were five people involved in the plot to kill the King. He began to reveal their names on 8 November, and told how they intended to place Princess Elizabeth on the throne. His third confession, on 9 November, implicated Francis Tresham. Following the Ridolfi plot of 1571 prisoners were made to dictate their confessions, before copying and signing them, if they still could. Although it is uncertain if he was tortured on the rack, Fawkes’s scrawled signature suggests the suffering he endured at the hands of his interrogators.
Trial and execution
The trial of eight of the plotters began on Monday 27 January 1606. Fawkes shared the barge from the Tower to Westminster Hall with seven of his co-conspirators.[f]The eighth, Thomas Bates, was considered inferior by virtue of his status, and was held instead at Gatehouse Prison. They were kept in the Star Chamber before being taken to Westminster Hall, where they were displayed on a purpose-built scaffold. The King and his close family, watching in secret, were among the spectators as the Lords Commissioners read out the list of charges. Fawkes was identified as Guido Fawkes, “otherwise called Guido Johnson”. He pleaded not guilty, despite his apparent acceptance of guilt from the moment he was captured.
The jury found all the defendants guilty, and the Lord Chief Justice Sir John Popham pronounced them guilty of high treason. The Attorney General Sir Edward Coke told the court that each of the condemned would be drawn backwards to his death, by a horse, his head near the ground. They were to be “put to death halfway between heaven and earth as unworthy of both”. Their genitals would be cut off and burnt before their eyes, and their bowels and hearts removed. They would then be decapitated, and the dismembered parts of their bodies displayed so that they might become “prey for the fowls of the air”. Fawkes’s and Tresham’s testimony regarding the Spanish treason was read aloud, as well as confessions related specifically to the Gunpowder Plot. The last piece of evidence offered was a conversation between Fawkes and Wintour, who had been kept in adjacent cells. The two men apparently thought they had been speaking in private, but their conversation was intercepted by a government spy. When the prisoners were allowed to speak, Fawkes explained his not guilty plea as ignorance of certain aspects of the indictment.
On 31 January 1606, Fawkes and three others – Thomas Wintour, Ambrose Rookwood, and Robert Keyes – were dragged (i.e. “drawn”) from the Tower on wattled hurdles to the Old Palace Yard at Westminster, opposite the building they had attempted to destroy. His fellow plotters were then hanged and quartered. Fawkes was the last to stand on the scaffold. He asked for forgiveness of the King and state, while keeping up his “crosses and idle ceremonies” (Catholic practices). Weakened by torture and aided by the hangman, Fawkes began to climb the ladder to the noose, but either by jumping to his death or climbing too high so the rope was incorrectly set, he managed to avoid the agony of the latter part of his execution by breaking his neck. His lifeless body was nevertheless quartered, and as was the custom, his body parts were distributed to “the four corners of the kingdom”, to be displayed as a warning to other would-be traitors.
On 5 November 1605 Londoners were encouraged to celebrate the King’s escape from assassination by lighting bonfires, provided that “this testemonye of joy be carefull done without any danger or disorder”. The Thanksgiving Act of 1606 designated each 5 November as a day of thanksgiving, and remained in force until 1859.
Fawkes was one of thirteen conspirators, but he is the individual most associated with the plot. In Britain, 5 November has variously been called Guy Fawkes Night, Guy Fawkes Day, Plot Night, and Bonfire Night (which can be traced directly back to the original celebration of 5 November 1605). Bonfires were accompanied by fireworks from the 1650s onwards, and it became the custom after 1673 to burn an effigy (usually of the pope) when the heir presumptive James, Duke of York, converted to Catholicism. Effigies of other notable figures have found their way onto the bonfires, including Margaret Thatcher, although most modern effigies are of Fawkes.
James Sharpe, professor of history at the University of York, has described how Guy Fawkes came to be toasted as “the last man to enter Parliament with honest intentions”. William Harrison Ainsworth’s 1841 historical romance Guy Fawkes; or, The Gunpowder Treason portrays Fawkes in a generally sympathetic light, and his novel transformed Fawkes in the public perception into an “acceptable fictional character”. Fawkes subsequently appeared as “essentially an action hero” in children’s books and penny dreadfuls such as The Boyhood Days of Guy Fawkes; or, The Conspirators of Old London, published around 1905. According to historian Lewis Call, Fawkes is now “a major icon in modern political culture” whose face has become “a potentially powerful instrument for the articulation of postmodern anarchism” in the late 20th century.
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Notes [ + ]
|a.||^||Dates in this article before 14 September 1752 are given in the Julian calendar. The beginning of the year is treated as 1 January even though it began in England on 25 March.|
|b.||^||Edward Fawkes may also have been registrar of the Archbishop of York’s exchequer court, as his father had been before him.|
|c.||^||Although the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography claims 1592, multiple alternative sources give 1591 as the date. Peter Beal’s, A Dictionary of English Manuscript Terminology, 1450 to 2000, includes a signed indenture of the sale of the estate dated 14 October 1591. (pp. 198–199)|
|d.||^||Also present were fellow conspirators John Wright, Thomas Percy, and Thomas Wintour (with whom Fawkes was already acquainted).|
|e.||^||Philip III made peace with England in August 1604.|
|f.||^||The eighth, Thomas Bates, was considered inferior by virtue of his status, and was held instead at Gatehouse Prison.| | 5,388 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On April 15, Notre Dame, a cathedral dating back to 1365, was severely damaged by a fire. Just a month earlier, on March 23, Notre Dame turned 856 years old. The cathedral’s 300 foot spire collapsed, and two thirds of its roof were destroyed. The fire originated in the cathedral’s attic, which held dry wood beams that instantaneously burst into flames. The source has not yet been confirmed but was most likely caused by human error or an electrical problem. Recently it has been determined that fire could have been a result of smoking on site (which was prohibited) or a short-circuit. There are no signs indicating that the fire was an act of terrorism or foul play. Notre Dame had been undergoing renovations on the Church’s spire for months when it burst into flames. The safety planners obviously underestimated the risk of a fire and misjudged how easily and quickly it could damage the cathedral. In the event of a fire, the wooden beams in the attic were expected to burn slowly, allowing firefighters more time to combat the flames before the fire could do too much damage. The fire alarms in the cathedral were late to alert the fire dispatchers, and the first person to catch a glimpse of the quickly-burning attic was a security guard instead of a firefighter. The original safety plan for the fire included a 20-minute delay of the arrival of fire dispatchers. The built-in setback in addition to the faulty fire alarms delayed the firefighters long enough to do serious damage to the Cathedral. The oak with which the cathedral’s roof was constructed burnt faster than anyone could have anticipated, which investigators have attributed to the wood’s age. 500 firefighters worked to combat the blaze for nearly five hours. The fire, which started at around 6, had been contained by 11pm.
Notre Dame’s two towers were preserved but the roof of the cathedral and its main spire had been decimated by the flames. The people of Paris, who had expected Notre Dame to be completely destroyed by the fire, were relieved when they realized that a good part of the Cathedral had survived the fire. President Macron promised France that the Cathedral would be rebuilt within five years. In the days following the fire, 845 million euros were raised for the reconstruction of the cathedral. The cathedral received hundred million-euro pledges from French millionaires, and companies and people from all over Europe and the world offered Paris their support. In an interview with NPR, French ambassador to the United States Gérard Araud explained the effect of the fire and partial destruction of the Cathedral. ‘Something really essential to my identity was destroyed,’ he said. Notre Dame was an integral part of the Paris skyline as well as its cultural landscape. Even in France’s modern-day secular society, Notre Dame was a reminder of France’s Christian roots. During the French revolution, hordes of people looted Notre Dame and publicly decapitated the statues held inside. The Catholic French, enraged by the all-encompassing power of the Catholic Church in Europe, attempted to strip churches of their religious symbolism. Notre Dame has survived much worse, and it will continue to survive. | <urn:uuid:f603522d-ff19-4f06-9cd0-de42de3ec439> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://scrollonline.net/16110/uncategorized/notre-dame-fire/?print=true | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00404.warc.gz | en | 0.982993 | 653 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.47723853588... | 3 | On April 15, Notre Dame, a cathedral dating back to 1365, was severely damaged by a fire. Just a month earlier, on March 23, Notre Dame turned 856 years old. The cathedral’s 300 foot spire collapsed, and two thirds of its roof were destroyed. The fire originated in the cathedral’s attic, which held dry wood beams that instantaneously burst into flames. The source has not yet been confirmed but was most likely caused by human error or an electrical problem. Recently it has been determined that fire could have been a result of smoking on site (which was prohibited) or a short-circuit. There are no signs indicating that the fire was an act of terrorism or foul play. Notre Dame had been undergoing renovations on the Church’s spire for months when it burst into flames. The safety planners obviously underestimated the risk of a fire and misjudged how easily and quickly it could damage the cathedral. In the event of a fire, the wooden beams in the attic were expected to burn slowly, allowing firefighters more time to combat the flames before the fire could do too much damage. The fire alarms in the cathedral were late to alert the fire dispatchers, and the first person to catch a glimpse of the quickly-burning attic was a security guard instead of a firefighter. The original safety plan for the fire included a 20-minute delay of the arrival of fire dispatchers. The built-in setback in addition to the faulty fire alarms delayed the firefighters long enough to do serious damage to the Cathedral. The oak with which the cathedral’s roof was constructed burnt faster than anyone could have anticipated, which investigators have attributed to the wood’s age. 500 firefighters worked to combat the blaze for nearly five hours. The fire, which started at around 6, had been contained by 11pm.
Notre Dame’s two towers were preserved but the roof of the cathedral and its main spire had been decimated by the flames. The people of Paris, who had expected Notre Dame to be completely destroyed by the fire, were relieved when they realized that a good part of the Cathedral had survived the fire. President Macron promised France that the Cathedral would be rebuilt within five years. In the days following the fire, 845 million euros were raised for the reconstruction of the cathedral. The cathedral received hundred million-euro pledges from French millionaires, and companies and people from all over Europe and the world offered Paris their support. In an interview with NPR, French ambassador to the United States Gérard Araud explained the effect of the fire and partial destruction of the Cathedral. ‘Something really essential to my identity was destroyed,’ he said. Notre Dame was an integral part of the Paris skyline as well as its cultural landscape. Even in France’s modern-day secular society, Notre Dame was a reminder of France’s Christian roots. During the French revolution, hordes of people looted Notre Dame and publicly decapitated the statues held inside. The Catholic French, enraged by the all-encompassing power of the Catholic Church in Europe, attempted to strip churches of their religious symbolism. Notre Dame has survived much worse, and it will continue to survive. | 652 | ENGLISH | 1 |
- What is meant by “Fragmentation of land”?
- What is the smallest size of farm that can be worked economically?
- How does collective farming succeed?
- A result of experiments in Russia.
We have often heard the expresion, “Fragmentation of Land” in our country. For many years, under Muslim law, it has been ther custom to divide a man’s land according to shares between all his heirs when he dies. This means that a fairs-sized estate is divded up, and then sub-divided in the next generation, till we have a large number of independent owners trying to make a living out of very small estates. It is a common thing to find a man and his family trying to make a living from the cultivation of two acres, or even less. This may give a very bare livelihood, and such a man is better off than a labourer who has no land of his own, but works for a large land-owner.
Opinions differ as to the smallest size of farm which can yield a good living to a single family. It has been estimated at six acres for Pakistan, out of course it will depend very much on the quality of the land. In practice, every peasant’s ambitionis to own his larid. In Russia at the time of the revolution, there were a number of big estates in the possession of largescale land-owners called Kulaks. The laborer’s ore those estate hoped that the estates would be broken up to give each of them a small plot of land.
Instead the Soviets kept up the large estates as Government nationalized farms, under a manager, while the peasants were kept as workers. The only difference for them was that they became laborers for the State instead of for their original landlords. They have still no chance of owning land.
In some ways, this system has points to recommend it. If a large number of tiny holdings are combined into one collective farm, Government managers can use everything to the best advantage. A small holding may be useful for one crop, and yet the owner may try other crops at the same time for which it is not so good. In the large collective farm Government supervision may ensure that steam. tractors are supplied to break up the ground, modern machinery can be sent to plough, reap and bind, which the small holder would never be able to obtain. There is little doubt that the production over the area, as a whole, will be increased: If the Government is efficient, the wages will enable the labourer to earn as much as he did from his individual small holding. But, from the human point of view, the peasants have lost that sense of independence they felt when they had the hope of owning a small farm. They feel that they are now like factory workers, and like parts of a machine rather than a free class of agriculturists. | <urn:uuid:e895a380-6e2a-402a-af15-17885f599c21> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thecollegestudy.net/2016/05/paragraph-on-fragmentation-or-collective-farming.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00183.warc.gz | en | 0.981545 | 602 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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- What is the smallest size of farm that can be worked economically?
- How does collective farming succeed?
- A result of experiments in Russia.
We have often heard the expresion, “Fragmentation of Land” in our country. For many years, under Muslim law, it has been ther custom to divide a man’s land according to shares between all his heirs when he dies. This means that a fairs-sized estate is divded up, and then sub-divided in the next generation, till we have a large number of independent owners trying to make a living out of very small estates. It is a common thing to find a man and his family trying to make a living from the cultivation of two acres, or even less. This may give a very bare livelihood, and such a man is better off than a labourer who has no land of his own, but works for a large land-owner.
Opinions differ as to the smallest size of farm which can yield a good living to a single family. It has been estimated at six acres for Pakistan, out of course it will depend very much on the quality of the land. In practice, every peasant’s ambitionis to own his larid. In Russia at the time of the revolution, there were a number of big estates in the possession of largescale land-owners called Kulaks. The laborer’s ore those estate hoped that the estates would be broken up to give each of them a small plot of land.
Instead the Soviets kept up the large estates as Government nationalized farms, under a manager, while the peasants were kept as workers. The only difference for them was that they became laborers for the State instead of for their original landlords. They have still no chance of owning land.
In some ways, this system has points to recommend it. If a large number of tiny holdings are combined into one collective farm, Government managers can use everything to the best advantage. A small holding may be useful for one crop, and yet the owner may try other crops at the same time for which it is not so good. In the large collective farm Government supervision may ensure that steam. tractors are supplied to break up the ground, modern machinery can be sent to plough, reap and bind, which the small holder would never be able to obtain. There is little doubt that the production over the area, as a whole, will be increased: If the Government is efficient, the wages will enable the labourer to earn as much as he did from his individual small holding. But, from the human point of view, the peasants have lost that sense of independence they felt when they had the hope of owning a small farm. They feel that they are now like factory workers, and like parts of a machine rather than a free class of agriculturists. | 580 | ENGLISH | 1 |
O F course all the spectators cheered the victorious general when he thus marched through Rome in triumph; and they praised him so highly that there was some danger that his head would be turned by their flattery.
To prevent his becoming too conceited, however, a wretched slave was perched on a high seat just behind him. This slave wore his usual rough clothes, and was expected to bend down, from time to time, and whisper in the conqueror's ear:
"Remember you are nothing but a man."
Then, too, a little bell was hung under the chariot, in such a way that it tinkled all the time. This ringing was to remind the conqueror that he must always be good, or he would again hear it when he was led to prison, or to gallows; for the passage of a criminal in Rome was always heralded by the sound of a bell.
If the victory was not important enough to deserve a triumph, such as has just been described, the returning general sometimes received an ovation. This honor was something like a triumph, but was less magnificent, and the animal chosen as the victim for sacrifice was a sheep instead of a bull.
The Roman who received an ovation came into the city on foot, wearing a crown of myrtle, and escorted by flute players and other musicians. The procession was much smaller than for a triumph, and the cheers of the people were less noisy.
Now you must not imagine that it was only the generals and consuls who were publicly honored for noble deeds. The Romans rewarded even the soldiers for acts of bravery. For instance, the first to scale the walls of a besieged city always received a crown representing a wall with its towers. This was well known as a mural crown, and was greatly prized. But the man who saved the life of a fellow-citizen received a civic crown, or wreath of oak leaves, which was esteemed even more highly.
All those who fought with particular bravery were not only praised by their superiors, but also received valuable presents, such as gold collars or armlets, or fine trappings for their horses. The soldiers always treasured these gifts carefully, and appeared with them on festive occasions. Then all their friends would admire them, and ask to hear again how they had been won.
All Roman soldiers tried very hard to win such gifts. They soon became the best fighters of the world, and are still praised for their great bravery. | <urn:uuid:7f1160cb-fd75-4eb2-b588-014f397be167> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.gatewaytotheclassics.com/browse/displayitem.php?item=books/guerber/romans/triumph2 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00394.warc.gz | en | 0.994132 | 505 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.3071928322315216... | 1 | O F course all the spectators cheered the victorious general when he thus marched through Rome in triumph; and they praised him so highly that there was some danger that his head would be turned by their flattery.
To prevent his becoming too conceited, however, a wretched slave was perched on a high seat just behind him. This slave wore his usual rough clothes, and was expected to bend down, from time to time, and whisper in the conqueror's ear:
"Remember you are nothing but a man."
Then, too, a little bell was hung under the chariot, in such a way that it tinkled all the time. This ringing was to remind the conqueror that he must always be good, or he would again hear it when he was led to prison, or to gallows; for the passage of a criminal in Rome was always heralded by the sound of a bell.
If the victory was not important enough to deserve a triumph, such as has just been described, the returning general sometimes received an ovation. This honor was something like a triumph, but was less magnificent, and the animal chosen as the victim for sacrifice was a sheep instead of a bull.
The Roman who received an ovation came into the city on foot, wearing a crown of myrtle, and escorted by flute players and other musicians. The procession was much smaller than for a triumph, and the cheers of the people were less noisy.
Now you must not imagine that it was only the generals and consuls who were publicly honored for noble deeds. The Romans rewarded even the soldiers for acts of bravery. For instance, the first to scale the walls of a besieged city always received a crown representing a wall with its towers. This was well known as a mural crown, and was greatly prized. But the man who saved the life of a fellow-citizen received a civic crown, or wreath of oak leaves, which was esteemed even more highly.
All those who fought with particular bravery were not only praised by their superiors, but also received valuable presents, such as gold collars or armlets, or fine trappings for their horses. The soldiers always treasured these gifts carefully, and appeared with them on festive occasions. Then all their friends would admire them, and ask to hear again how they had been won.
All Roman soldiers tried very hard to win such gifts. They soon became the best fighters of the world, and are still praised for their great bravery. | 498 | ENGLISH | 1 |
17 Jun Archaeological Site of Akrotiri
This fascinating archaeological site was first discovered in the late 1860s but its buildings date back to earlier than 17th century B.C. This former Minoan outpost, which, according to the Greek Ministry of Culture, is considered one of the most important prehistoric settlements of the Aegean Sea, was once a thriving port town. The city was later destroyed by a massive volcanic eruption, the same one that made Santorini look like it is today. Thanks to years of excavation, enough of the site has been uncovered (only one-third of the site is said to have been excavated) to allow visitors to explore. Here, travelers can look at multi-level buildings, loads of pottery and even drainage systems. What is absent, however, is any sign of its former residences. This has led scientists to believe that Akrotiri’s previous inhabitants knew of the eruption and fled the island accordingly. | <urn:uuid:e172c7c6-b68a-4638-9190-df28a5ee00ca> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.acquavatos.com/maps/archaeological-site-of-akrotiri/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00328.warc.gz | en | 0.987342 | 195 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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This fascinating archaeological site was first discovered in the late 1860s but its buildings date back to earlier than 17th century B.C. This former Minoan outpost, which, according to the Greek Ministry of Culture, is considered one of the most important prehistoric settlements of the Aegean Sea, was once a thriving port town. The city was later destroyed by a massive volcanic eruption, the same one that made Santorini look like it is today. Thanks to years of excavation, enough of the site has been uncovered (only one-third of the site is said to have been excavated) to allow visitors to explore. Here, travelers can look at multi-level buildings, loads of pottery and even drainage systems. What is absent, however, is any sign of its former residences. This has led scientists to believe that Akrotiri’s previous inhabitants knew of the eruption and fled the island accordingly. | 198 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Leonardo da vinci mirror writing alphabet worksheet
Mirror writing gifted child
Make sure they understand what we mean by writing backwards. Generate hypotheses about Leonardo's reasons for writing this way. Post these hypotheses where they are visible to everyone. His papers were at some stage folded into booklets and later bound, possibly under the ownership of the Spanish sculptor Pompeo Leoni — Codex Forster I. Time: 45 — 60 minutes Materials: paper, pencils, pens, markers, mirrors Procedure: Be sure students have visited the Mirror Writing web page and encourage them to discuss what they learned from it. He also made sketches showing his own left hand at work. Writing masters at the time would have made demonstrations of mirror writing, and his letter-shapes are in fact quite ordinary: he used the kind of script that his father, a legal notary, would have used. For example, writing left handed from left to right would have been messy because the ink just put down would smear as his hand moved across it. Having the one hand mirror the other hand's action may help the brain coordinate the movements. Codex Forster II. Is one kind of writing tool easier to use this way than another? The notes on Leonardo da Vinci 's famous Vitruvian Man image are in mirror writing. The purpose of this practice by Leonardo remains unknown, though several possible reasons have been suggested. Further Thought Not all languages are normally written from left to right.
No one knows the true reason Leonardo used mirror writing, though several possibilities have been suggested: He was trying to make it harder for people to read his notes and steal his ideas.
The notebooks contain careful sketches and diagrams annotated with notes in 16th-century Italian mirror writing, which reads in reverse and from right to left.
Learning Objectives: Experience writing in reverse. In the case of one practice he eventually mastered and with which he stuck, he tried his hand in a more literal sense than usual: Leonardo, the evidence clearly shows, had a habit of writing backwards, starting at the right side of the page and moving to the left.
As a lefty, this mirrored writing style would have prevented him from smudging his ink as he wrote. For someone who learns to write backwards as easily as they write forwards, what advantages might there be to backwards writing? This shows that it was begun when he was in Florence, just after he had undertaken to produce his famous Battle of Anghiari mural in the Palazzo della Signoria, the centre of the city's government.
As with left-handedness, mirror writing is sometimes "corrected" in children.
based on 102 review | <urn:uuid:73784bb1-4394-4bd7-8173-53b389d80aad> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://puzaginejeh.ettroisptitspointscompagnie.com/leonardo-da-vinci-mirror-writing-alphabet-worksheet332906429rl.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00457.warc.gz | en | 0.980499 | 548 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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Mirror writing gifted child
Make sure they understand what we mean by writing backwards. Generate hypotheses about Leonardo's reasons for writing this way. Post these hypotheses where they are visible to everyone. His papers were at some stage folded into booklets and later bound, possibly under the ownership of the Spanish sculptor Pompeo Leoni — Codex Forster I. Time: 45 — 60 minutes Materials: paper, pencils, pens, markers, mirrors Procedure: Be sure students have visited the Mirror Writing web page and encourage them to discuss what they learned from it. He also made sketches showing his own left hand at work. Writing masters at the time would have made demonstrations of mirror writing, and his letter-shapes are in fact quite ordinary: he used the kind of script that his father, a legal notary, would have used. For example, writing left handed from left to right would have been messy because the ink just put down would smear as his hand moved across it. Having the one hand mirror the other hand's action may help the brain coordinate the movements. Codex Forster II. Is one kind of writing tool easier to use this way than another? The notes on Leonardo da Vinci 's famous Vitruvian Man image are in mirror writing. The purpose of this practice by Leonardo remains unknown, though several possible reasons have been suggested. Further Thought Not all languages are normally written from left to right.
No one knows the true reason Leonardo used mirror writing, though several possibilities have been suggested: He was trying to make it harder for people to read his notes and steal his ideas.
The notebooks contain careful sketches and diagrams annotated with notes in 16th-century Italian mirror writing, which reads in reverse and from right to left.
Learning Objectives: Experience writing in reverse. In the case of one practice he eventually mastered and with which he stuck, he tried his hand in a more literal sense than usual: Leonardo, the evidence clearly shows, had a habit of writing backwards, starting at the right side of the page and moving to the left.
As a lefty, this mirrored writing style would have prevented him from smudging his ink as he wrote. For someone who learns to write backwards as easily as they write forwards, what advantages might there be to backwards writing? This shows that it was begun when he was in Florence, just after he had undertaken to produce his famous Battle of Anghiari mural in the Palazzo della Signoria, the centre of the city's government.
As with left-handedness, mirror writing is sometimes "corrected" in children.
based on 102 review | 539 | ENGLISH | 1 |
From 1674 to 1913, The Central Criminal Court of England (popularly known as the Old Bailey for the road adjacent) was the major case court for most of England and Wales. Now built on the site of medieval Newgate Prison, it continues to hear major criminal cases.
Before the Great Fire of 1666, the criminal courts were a room off Newgate prison made possible by Sir Richard Whiittington. In 1674, it was rebuilt as an open air (can you imagine in winter?) to prevent diseases…which turned out being wise for when it was reinforced in 1734 and closed off, disease spread quickly. The most notable was an outbreak of typhus in 1750 that killed approximately sixty people include two judges and the Lord Mayor.
Reconstructed in 1774, it remained as one large room until a second court was added in 1824.
Prior to cultural shifts in the early 20th century when crime became perceived as a masculine problem, women accounted for a little less than half to a quarter of the proceedings in Old Bailey, particularly around the late Georgian period. As prostitution was not proscecuted at the Central Court, this was by in large cases of larceny, murder, and other offences concerning childbirth (including infanticide and concealing a birth).
Crime was often seen as a particularly Town problem, not without merit. The first census in 1801 recorded London’s population at one million people, and understanding current difficulties with counting transient or homeless populations, it is not difficult to imagine that this number may have been greater. Most of the influx of people to the capital city (which expanded to 7 million by 1911!) could be attributed to migrant populations looking for work. As industrialization nipped at Regency London’s heels and the agrarian economy slowly wilted into history, the desperation of manys situation would have been compounded and thus forced more folks returning to the city for work.
Prior to this, the masses were the responsibility of parishes and counties. But as disease, pollution, and disorder rose as a response to overcrowding and limited gainful employment, naturally there was a need for a greater rule of law. Unfortunately, it wasn’t until the Victorian era that the Metropolitan Police force came to be.
From the late 1600s until the 1830s, criminals were primarily apprehended by private citizens before being turned over to constables or justices. This gave rise to the occupation of thief-taker, an individual employed by a victim to apprehend suspects. Many thief-takers eventually became Bow Street Runners, appoiteed by Henry and John Fielding after 1748. There were also night watch men, often managed by the local parish (for more info on this, read Before the Bobbies)
Many of these characters are featured in hist-ro, often called in when an author depicts a crime. But although the 1792 Middlesex Justices Act created seven polices offices in London (including the Thames Police Office to patrol the docks), it is hard to imagine that in reality this even scraped the surface of crime in a city of more than a million. | <urn:uuid:a465eb7b-b22a-4730-b6e7-d95f808f3efb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://anneglover.wordpress.com/2009/03/27/regency-hnot-spots-old-bailey/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00305.warc.gz | en | 0.980952 | 642 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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-0.1143... | 2 | From 1674 to 1913, The Central Criminal Court of England (popularly known as the Old Bailey for the road adjacent) was the major case court for most of England and Wales. Now built on the site of medieval Newgate Prison, it continues to hear major criminal cases.
Before the Great Fire of 1666, the criminal courts were a room off Newgate prison made possible by Sir Richard Whiittington. In 1674, it was rebuilt as an open air (can you imagine in winter?) to prevent diseases…which turned out being wise for when it was reinforced in 1734 and closed off, disease spread quickly. The most notable was an outbreak of typhus in 1750 that killed approximately sixty people include two judges and the Lord Mayor.
Reconstructed in 1774, it remained as one large room until a second court was added in 1824.
Prior to cultural shifts in the early 20th century when crime became perceived as a masculine problem, women accounted for a little less than half to a quarter of the proceedings in Old Bailey, particularly around the late Georgian period. As prostitution was not proscecuted at the Central Court, this was by in large cases of larceny, murder, and other offences concerning childbirth (including infanticide and concealing a birth).
Crime was often seen as a particularly Town problem, not without merit. The first census in 1801 recorded London’s population at one million people, and understanding current difficulties with counting transient or homeless populations, it is not difficult to imagine that this number may have been greater. Most of the influx of people to the capital city (which expanded to 7 million by 1911!) could be attributed to migrant populations looking for work. As industrialization nipped at Regency London’s heels and the agrarian economy slowly wilted into history, the desperation of manys situation would have been compounded and thus forced more folks returning to the city for work.
Prior to this, the masses were the responsibility of parishes and counties. But as disease, pollution, and disorder rose as a response to overcrowding and limited gainful employment, naturally there was a need for a greater rule of law. Unfortunately, it wasn’t until the Victorian era that the Metropolitan Police force came to be.
From the late 1600s until the 1830s, criminals were primarily apprehended by private citizens before being turned over to constables or justices. This gave rise to the occupation of thief-taker, an individual employed by a victim to apprehend suspects. Many thief-takers eventually became Bow Street Runners, appoiteed by Henry and John Fielding after 1748. There were also night watch men, often managed by the local parish (for more info on this, read Before the Bobbies)
Many of these characters are featured in hist-ro, often called in when an author depicts a crime. But although the 1792 Middlesex Justices Act created seven polices offices in London (including the Thames Police Office to patrol the docks), it is hard to imagine that in reality this even scraped the surface of crime in a city of more than a million. | 675 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Appeasement in the 1930s
From the standpoint of domestic policy, there was no alternative to Chamberlain's course. Taylor said that appeasement ought to be seen as a rational response to an unpredictable leader, appropriate to the time both diplomatically and politically.
Appeasement in the 1930s
Looking the Other Way As a former chancellor of the exchequer, Chamberlain was also keenly aware that the weary empire was stretched too thin, facing, as it did, challenges from Italy in the Mediterranean, from Japan in the Far East, and from Germany and the Stalinist Soviet Union in continental Europe. Taylor argued that Hitler did not have a blueprint for war and was behaving much as any other German leader might have done. Czechoslovakia had been created under Versailles , and included a large German minority mostly living in the Sudetenland on the border with Germany. Czechoslovakia was not to be a party to these talks, nor was the Soviet Union. His officers had orders to withdraw if they met French resistance. Six months later, in September , Germany invaded Poland and Britain was at war. Chamberlain was confident that he had secured 'peace for our time'.
The constitutions of both the Weimar Republic and the First Austrian Republic included the aim of unification, which was supported by democratic parties. Britain and France declared war on Germany on 3 Septembertwo days after the German invasion of Poland.
The League of Nations was intended to resolve international disputes peacefully. Insurance companies in London were no longer issuing policies with coverage against war damage. In December there was a clash between Italian and Abyssinian troops at Walwal , near the border between British and Italian Somaliland, in which Italian troops took possession of the disputed territory and in which Abyssinians and 50 Italians were killed. Chamberlain, faced with the prospect of a German invasion, flew to Berchtesgaden on 15 September to negotiate directly with Hitler. Chamberlain pursued a policy of appeasement and rearmament. The Western view is that they were pressured in order to save Czechoslovakia from total annihilation. France consulted Britain and lodged protests with the League, but took no action. Related Content. Two years later, in March , he annexed Austria. Hitler then altered his criteria, demanding all the Sudetenland. As a result, in the summer of all eyes were on Prime Minister Chamberlain who, despite his 69 years, was inexperienced when it came to foreign policy. Eighteen months later, they would take the final step into World War II. The appeasers were later accused of have lost their moral compass.
The BBC also suppressed the fact that 15, people protested the prime minister in Trafalgar Square as he returned from Munich in 10, more than welcomed him at 10 Downing St. Most closely associated with British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, it is now widely discredited as a policy of weakness.
Czechoslovakia was told that if it did not submit, it would stand alone. For this reason, the premier was willing to give the Germans free rein in dealing with the Sudeten "problem.
based on 103 review | <urn:uuid:3755af45-fca0-4c94-aa18-e5e926fdd9be> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://hogypupacilob.ettroisptitspointscompagnie.com/appeasement-in-the-1930s501007311sh.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00082.warc.gz | en | 0.98648 | 631 | 4.0625 | 4 | [
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0.2085748314... | 3 | Appeasement in the 1930s
From the standpoint of domestic policy, there was no alternative to Chamberlain's course. Taylor said that appeasement ought to be seen as a rational response to an unpredictable leader, appropriate to the time both diplomatically and politically.
Appeasement in the 1930s
Looking the Other Way As a former chancellor of the exchequer, Chamberlain was also keenly aware that the weary empire was stretched too thin, facing, as it did, challenges from Italy in the Mediterranean, from Japan in the Far East, and from Germany and the Stalinist Soviet Union in continental Europe. Taylor argued that Hitler did not have a blueprint for war and was behaving much as any other German leader might have done. Czechoslovakia had been created under Versailles , and included a large German minority mostly living in the Sudetenland on the border with Germany. Czechoslovakia was not to be a party to these talks, nor was the Soviet Union. His officers had orders to withdraw if they met French resistance. Six months later, in September , Germany invaded Poland and Britain was at war. Chamberlain was confident that he had secured 'peace for our time'.
The constitutions of both the Weimar Republic and the First Austrian Republic included the aim of unification, which was supported by democratic parties. Britain and France declared war on Germany on 3 Septembertwo days after the German invasion of Poland.
The League of Nations was intended to resolve international disputes peacefully. Insurance companies in London were no longer issuing policies with coverage against war damage. In December there was a clash between Italian and Abyssinian troops at Walwal , near the border between British and Italian Somaliland, in which Italian troops took possession of the disputed territory and in which Abyssinians and 50 Italians were killed. Chamberlain, faced with the prospect of a German invasion, flew to Berchtesgaden on 15 September to negotiate directly with Hitler. Chamberlain pursued a policy of appeasement and rearmament. The Western view is that they were pressured in order to save Czechoslovakia from total annihilation. France consulted Britain and lodged protests with the League, but took no action. Related Content. Two years later, in March , he annexed Austria. Hitler then altered his criteria, demanding all the Sudetenland. As a result, in the summer of all eyes were on Prime Minister Chamberlain who, despite his 69 years, was inexperienced when it came to foreign policy. Eighteen months later, they would take the final step into World War II. The appeasers were later accused of have lost their moral compass.
The BBC also suppressed the fact that 15, people protested the prime minister in Trafalgar Square as he returned from Munich in 10, more than welcomed him at 10 Downing St. Most closely associated with British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, it is now widely discredited as a policy of weakness.
Czechoslovakia was told that if it did not submit, it would stand alone. For this reason, the premier was willing to give the Germans free rein in dealing with the Sudeten "problem.
based on 103 review | 664 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Royal Governor 1774 -1776
The royal governor of New Jersey at the time Proprietary House was completed was William Franklin (c.1730-1813), the illegitimate son of Benjamin Franklin.
During King George’s War, in 1746, William had served in the American Regiment and, in 1752, he had accompanied his father during his
legendary kite experiment. In 1757, William joined Benjamin Franklin on an official mission to Great Britain and stayed on to study law at
London’s Inns of Court.
Both Franklins remained in England until 1762, when King George III appointed William royal governor of New Jersey. Before leaving for America during the fall of 1762, William married Elizabeth Downes, daughter of a wealthy Barbados planter.
In February 1763, William was invested as New Jersey’s royal governor on the steps of what today is Perth Amboy’s City Hall. For most of his time as governor, William was held in high regard. He ran lotteries to fund roads and bridges, introduced a farmers welfare program, and established America’s first Indian reservation at Brotherton, near present-day Indian Mills in Burlington County. Franklin also helped to found Queen’s College, now Rutgers University.
The Franklins didn’t move into Proprietary House until 1774. Their time there would be short but fateful. With the outbreak of hostilities between the colonies and Britain in 1775, high drama played out at the governor’s mansion when Ben Franklin visited and tried in vain to win his Loyalist son over to the cause of independence. But William remained loyal to the crown. The New Jersey Assembly ordered the Governor held under house arrest at Proprietary House in January 1776 and removed him for trial in June of the same year. Soon convicted of treason, William was imprisoned in Connecticut. He had been not only New Jersey’s last royal governor, but also the last in the colonies still trying to cling to power.
June 19, 1776, was the last day William was ever to see his wife or his Perth Amboy mansion. Elizabeth Franklin remained at Proprietary House until June 1777, when British forces evacuated Perth Amboy and she moved to Loyalist-held New York City. She died there just one month later at the age of 48. William was not permitted to attend her funeral. But he designed a plaque that later was installed in her memory at New York’s St. Paul’s Chapel. Today, William’s hand-drawn sketch of the plaque is on display at Proprietary House. Not only did William lose his wife, but additionally all of the couple’s possessions from Proprietary House were lost in a warehouse fire during the Revolution.
Freed in a prisoner exchange in 1778, William Franklin fled to New York, where he remained active in the Loyalist community. In 1782, William moved to England, where he lived until his death in 1813. A staunch Loyalist, William never reconciled with his father. After the Revolution, father and son were to meet only once more, in a brief meeting when the elder Franklin was in England in 1785. The two tied some loose business ends, but could not heal the wounds between them.
During the Revolution, Proprietary House had been occupied by both Patriot and British troops and, for a time, served as headquarters for both American General Hugh Mercer and British General Sir William Howe. After the war, Proprietary House was abandoned, vandalized, and nearly destroyed by fire. Exposed to the elements, the ruins stood as mute witness to the wrenching personal costs of the American Revolution. Yet, its fortunes would be revived along with those of the new nation. | <urn:uuid:7d2d649d-8bc7-403b-9cbc-05ffdbe31672> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theproprietaryhouse.org/royal-governor | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00426.warc.gz | en | 0.983252 | 783 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.362297624349594... | 13 | Royal Governor 1774 -1776
The royal governor of New Jersey at the time Proprietary House was completed was William Franklin (c.1730-1813), the illegitimate son of Benjamin Franklin.
During King George’s War, in 1746, William had served in the American Regiment and, in 1752, he had accompanied his father during his
legendary kite experiment. In 1757, William joined Benjamin Franklin on an official mission to Great Britain and stayed on to study law at
London’s Inns of Court.
Both Franklins remained in England until 1762, when King George III appointed William royal governor of New Jersey. Before leaving for America during the fall of 1762, William married Elizabeth Downes, daughter of a wealthy Barbados planter.
In February 1763, William was invested as New Jersey’s royal governor on the steps of what today is Perth Amboy’s City Hall. For most of his time as governor, William was held in high regard. He ran lotteries to fund roads and bridges, introduced a farmers welfare program, and established America’s first Indian reservation at Brotherton, near present-day Indian Mills in Burlington County. Franklin also helped to found Queen’s College, now Rutgers University.
The Franklins didn’t move into Proprietary House until 1774. Their time there would be short but fateful. With the outbreak of hostilities between the colonies and Britain in 1775, high drama played out at the governor’s mansion when Ben Franklin visited and tried in vain to win his Loyalist son over to the cause of independence. But William remained loyal to the crown. The New Jersey Assembly ordered the Governor held under house arrest at Proprietary House in January 1776 and removed him for trial in June of the same year. Soon convicted of treason, William was imprisoned in Connecticut. He had been not only New Jersey’s last royal governor, but also the last in the colonies still trying to cling to power.
June 19, 1776, was the last day William was ever to see his wife or his Perth Amboy mansion. Elizabeth Franklin remained at Proprietary House until June 1777, when British forces evacuated Perth Amboy and she moved to Loyalist-held New York City. She died there just one month later at the age of 48. William was not permitted to attend her funeral. But he designed a plaque that later was installed in her memory at New York’s St. Paul’s Chapel. Today, William’s hand-drawn sketch of the plaque is on display at Proprietary House. Not only did William lose his wife, but additionally all of the couple’s possessions from Proprietary House were lost in a warehouse fire during the Revolution.
Freed in a prisoner exchange in 1778, William Franklin fled to New York, where he remained active in the Loyalist community. In 1782, William moved to England, where he lived until his death in 1813. A staunch Loyalist, William never reconciled with his father. After the Revolution, father and son were to meet only once more, in a brief meeting when the elder Franklin was in England in 1785. The two tied some loose business ends, but could not heal the wounds between them.
During the Revolution, Proprietary House had been occupied by both Patriot and British troops and, for a time, served as headquarters for both American General Hugh Mercer and British General Sir William Howe. After the war, Proprietary House was abandoned, vandalized, and nearly destroyed by fire. Exposed to the elements, the ruins stood as mute witness to the wrenching personal costs of the American Revolution. Yet, its fortunes would be revived along with those of the new nation. | 814 | ENGLISH | 1 |
St. Elizabeth of Portugal
FREE Catholic Classes
Queen (sometimes known as the PEACEMAKER); born in 1271; died in 1336. She was named after her great-aunt, the great Elizabeth of Hungary, but is known in Portuguese history by the Spanish form of that name, Isabel. The daughter of Pedro III, King of Aragon, and Constantia, grandchild of Emperor Frederick II, she was educated very piously, and led a life of strict regularity and self-denial from her childhood: she said the full Divine Office daily, fasted and did other penances, and gave up amusement. Elizabeth was married very early to Diniz (Denis), King of Portugal, a poet, and known as Ré Lavrador , or the working king, from his hard work in is country's service. His morals, however, were extremely bad, and the court to which his young wife was brought consequently most corrupt. Nevertheless, Elizabeth quietly pursued the regular religious practices of her maidenhood, whilst doing her best to win her husband's affections by gentleness and extraordinary forbearance. She was devoted to the poor and sick, and gave every moment she could spare to helping them, even pressing her court ladies into their service. Naturally, such a life was a reproach to many around her, and caused ill will in some quarters. A popular story is told of how her husband's jealousy was roused by an evil-speaking page; of how he condemned the queen's supposed guilty accomplice to a cruel death; and was finally convinced of her innocence by the strange accidental substitution of her accuser for the intended victim.
Diniz does not appear to have reformed in morals till late in life, when we are told that the saint won him to repentance by her prayers and unfailing sweetness. They had two children, a daughter Constantia and a son Affonso. The latter so greatly resented the favours shown to the king's illegitimate sons that he rebelled, and in 1323 war was declared between him and his father. St. Elizabeth, however, rode in person between the opposing armies, and so reconciled her husband and son. Diniz died in 1325, his son succeeding him as Affonso IV. St. Elizabeth then retired to a convent of Poor Clares which she had founded at Coimbra, where she took the Franciscan Tertiary habit, wishing to devote the rest of her life to the poor and sick in obscurity. But she was called forth to act once more as peacemaker. In 1336 Affonso IV marched his troops against the King of Castile, to whom he had married his daughter Maria, and who had neglected and ill-treated her. In spite of age and weakness, the holy queen dowager insisted on hurrying to Estremoz, where the two king's armies were drawn up. She again stopped the fighting and caused terms of peace to be arranged. But the exertion brought on her final illness; and as soon as her mission was fulfilled she died of a fever, full of heavenly joy, and exhorting her son to the love of holiness and peace. St. Elizabeth was buried at Coimbra, and miracles followed her death. She was canonized by Urban VIII in 1625, and her feast is kept on 8 July.
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Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law. | <urn:uuid:e4254a08-9875-43de-9b48-c0e88ab7081b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.catholic.org/encyclopedia/view.php?id=4239 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00396.warc.gz | en | 0.987707 | 813 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.2647378146... | 1 | St. Elizabeth of Portugal
FREE Catholic Classes
Queen (sometimes known as the PEACEMAKER); born in 1271; died in 1336. She was named after her great-aunt, the great Elizabeth of Hungary, but is known in Portuguese history by the Spanish form of that name, Isabel. The daughter of Pedro III, King of Aragon, and Constantia, grandchild of Emperor Frederick II, she was educated very piously, and led a life of strict regularity and self-denial from her childhood: she said the full Divine Office daily, fasted and did other penances, and gave up amusement. Elizabeth was married very early to Diniz (Denis), King of Portugal, a poet, and known as Ré Lavrador , or the working king, from his hard work in is country's service. His morals, however, were extremely bad, and the court to which his young wife was brought consequently most corrupt. Nevertheless, Elizabeth quietly pursued the regular religious practices of her maidenhood, whilst doing her best to win her husband's affections by gentleness and extraordinary forbearance. She was devoted to the poor and sick, and gave every moment she could spare to helping them, even pressing her court ladies into their service. Naturally, such a life was a reproach to many around her, and caused ill will in some quarters. A popular story is told of how her husband's jealousy was roused by an evil-speaking page; of how he condemned the queen's supposed guilty accomplice to a cruel death; and was finally convinced of her innocence by the strange accidental substitution of her accuser for the intended victim.
Diniz does not appear to have reformed in morals till late in life, when we are told that the saint won him to repentance by her prayers and unfailing sweetness. They had two children, a daughter Constantia and a son Affonso. The latter so greatly resented the favours shown to the king's illegitimate sons that he rebelled, and in 1323 war was declared between him and his father. St. Elizabeth, however, rode in person between the opposing armies, and so reconciled her husband and son. Diniz died in 1325, his son succeeding him as Affonso IV. St. Elizabeth then retired to a convent of Poor Clares which she had founded at Coimbra, where she took the Franciscan Tertiary habit, wishing to devote the rest of her life to the poor and sick in obscurity. But she was called forth to act once more as peacemaker. In 1336 Affonso IV marched his troops against the King of Castile, to whom he had married his daughter Maria, and who had neglected and ill-treated her. In spite of age and weakness, the holy queen dowager insisted on hurrying to Estremoz, where the two king's armies were drawn up. She again stopped the fighting and caused terms of peace to be arranged. But the exertion brought on her final illness; and as soon as her mission was fulfilled she died of a fever, full of heavenly joy, and exhorting her son to the love of holiness and peace. St. Elizabeth was buried at Coimbra, and miracles followed her death. She was canonized by Urban VIII in 1625, and her feast is kept on 8 July.
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Lunar science: An overview
Before spacecraft exploration, facts about the Moon were restricted to information about the lunar orbit, angular momentum and density. Speculations about composition and origin were unconstrained. Naked eye and telescope observations revealed two major terrains, the old heavily cratered highlands and the younger mostly circular, lightly cratered maria. The lunar highlands were thought to be composed of granite or covered with volcanic ash-flows. The maria were thought to be sediments, or were full of dust, and possibly only a few million years old. A few perceptive observers such as Ralph Baldwin (Baldwin 1949) concluded that the maria were filled with volcanic lavas, but the absence of terrestrial-type central volcanoes like Hawaii was a puzzle.
The large circular craters were particularly difficult to interpret. Some thought, even after the Apollo flights, that they were some analogue to terrestrial caldera (e.g., Green 1971), formed by explosive volcanic activity and that the central peaks were volcanoes. The fact that the craters were mostly circular was difficult to accommodate if they were due to meteorite impact, as meteorites would hit the Moon at all angles. The rilles were taken by many as definitive evidence that there was or had been, running water on the lunar surface. Others such as Carl Sagan thought that organic compounds were likely present (see Taylor 1975, p. 111, note 139).
Volume 129, 2020
Continuous Article Publishing mode
Click here for Editorial Note on CAP Mode | <urn:uuid:f471dca4-3c4e-4837-a45a-85644679ce88> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ias.ac.in/describe/article/jess/114/06/0587-0591 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00439.warc.gz | en | 0.98554 | 313 | 4.28125 | 4 | [
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0.36794835329055... | 1 | Lunar science: An overview
Before spacecraft exploration, facts about the Moon were restricted to information about the lunar orbit, angular momentum and density. Speculations about composition and origin were unconstrained. Naked eye and telescope observations revealed two major terrains, the old heavily cratered highlands and the younger mostly circular, lightly cratered maria. The lunar highlands were thought to be composed of granite or covered with volcanic ash-flows. The maria were thought to be sediments, or were full of dust, and possibly only a few million years old. A few perceptive observers such as Ralph Baldwin (Baldwin 1949) concluded that the maria were filled with volcanic lavas, but the absence of terrestrial-type central volcanoes like Hawaii was a puzzle.
The large circular craters were particularly difficult to interpret. Some thought, even after the Apollo flights, that they were some analogue to terrestrial caldera (e.g., Green 1971), formed by explosive volcanic activity and that the central peaks were volcanoes. The fact that the craters were mostly circular was difficult to accommodate if they were due to meteorite impact, as meteorites would hit the Moon at all angles. The rilles were taken by many as definitive evidence that there was or had been, running water on the lunar surface. Others such as Carl Sagan thought that organic compounds were likely present (see Taylor 1975, p. 111, note 139).
Volume 129, 2020
Continuous Article Publishing mode
Click here for Editorial Note on CAP Mode | 330 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Containing The Interval Of Two Hundred And Twenty Years.
From The Death Of Isaac To The Exodus Out Of Egypt.
How The Hebrews Under The Conduct Of Moses Left Egypt..
1. So the Hebrews went out of Egypt, while the Egyptians wept, and repented that they had treated them so hardly. - Now they took their journey by Letopolis, a place at that time deserted, but where Babylon was built afterwards, when Cambyses laid Egypt waste: but as they went away hastily, on the third day they came to a place called Beelzephon, on the Red Sea; and when they had no food out of the land, because it was a desert, they eat of loaves kneaded of flour, only warmed by a gentle heat; and this food they made use of for thirty days; for what they brought with them out of Egypt would not suffice them any longer time; and this only while they dispensed it to each person, to use so much only as would serve for necessity, but not for satiety. Whence it is that, in memory of the want we were then in, we keep a feast for eight days, which is called the feast of unleavened bread. Now the entire multitude of those that went out, including the women and children, was not easy to be numbered, but those that were of an age fit for war, were six hundred thousand.
2. They left Egypt in the month Xanthicus, on the fifteenth day of the lunar month; four hundred and thirty years after our forefather Abraham came into Canaan, but two hundred and fifteen years only after Jacob removed into Egypt. (28) It was the eightieth year of the age of Moses, and of that of Aaron three more. They also carried out the bones of Joesph with them, as he had charged his sons to do.
3. But the Egyptians soon repented that the Hebrews were gone; and the king also was mightily concerned that this had been procured by the magic arts of Moses; so they resolved to go after them. Accordingly they took their weapons, and other warlike furniture, and pursued after them, in order to bring them back, if once they overtook them, because they would now have no pretense to pray to God against them, since they had already been permitted to go out; and they thought they should easily overcome them, as they had no armor, and would be weary with their journey; so they made haste in their pursuit, and asked of every one they met which way they were gone. And indeed that land was difficult to be traveled over, not only by armies, but by single persons.
Now Moses led the Hebrews this way, that in case the Egyptians should repent and be desirous to pursue after them, they might undergo the punishment of their wickedness, and of the breach of those promises they had made to them. As also he led them this way on account of the Philistines, who had quarreled with them, and hated them of old, that by all means they might not know of their departure, for their country is near to that of Egypt; and thence it was that Moses led them not along the road that tended to the land of the Philistines, but he was desirous that they should go through the desert, that so after a long journey, and after many afflictions, they might enter upon the land of Canaan. Another reason of this was, that God commanded him to bring the people to Mount Sinai, that there they might offer him sacrifices.
Now when the Egyptians had overtaken the Hebrews, they prepared to fight them, and by their multitude they drove them into a narrow place; for the number that pursued after them was six hundred chariots, with fifty thousand horsemen, and two hundred thousand foot-men, all armed. They also seized on the passages by which they imagined the Hebrews might fly, shutting them up (29) between inaccessible precipices and the sea; for there was [on each side] a [ridge of] mountains that terminated at the sea, which were impassable by reason of their roughness, and obstructed their flight; wherefore they there pressed upon the Hebrews with their army, where [the ridges of] the mountains were closed with the sea; which army they placed at the chops of the mountains, that so they might deprive them of any passage into the plain.
4. When the Hebrews, therefore, were neither able to bear up, being thus, as it were, besieged, because they wanted provisions, nor saw any possible way of escaping; and if they should have thought of fighting, they had no weapons; they expected a universal destruction, unless they delivered themselves up to the Egyptians. So they laid the blame on Moses, and forgot all the signs that had been wrought by God for the recovery of their freedom; and this so far, that their incredulity prompted them to throw stones at the prophet, while he encouraged them and promised them deliverance; and they resolved that they would deliver themselves up to the Egyptians. So there was sorrow and lamentation among the women and children, who had nothing but destruction before their eyes, while they were encompassed with mountains, the sea, and their enemies, and discerned no way of flying from them.
5. But Moses, though the multitude looked fiercely at him, did not, however, give over the care of them, but despised all dangers, out of his trust in God, who, as he had afforded them the several steps already taken for the recovery of their liberty, which he had foretold them, would not now suffer them to be subdued by their enemies, to be either made slaves or be slain by them; and, standing in midst of them, he said,
(28) Why our Masorete copy so groundlessly abridges this account in Exodus 12:40, as to ascribe 430 years to the sole peregrination of the Israelites in Egypt, when it is clear even by that Masorete chronology elsewhere, as well as from the express text itself, in the Samaritan, Septuagint, and Josephus, that they sojourned in Egypt but half that time, and that by consequence, the other half of their peregrination was in the land of Canaan, before they came into Egypt, is hard to say. See Essay on the Old Testament, p. 62, 63.
(29) Take the main part of Reland's excellent note here, which greatly illustrates Josephus, and the Scripture, in this history, as follows:
"[A traveler, says Reland, whose name was] Eneman, when he returned out of Egypt, told me that he went the same way from Egypt to Mount Sinai, which he supposed the Israelites of old traveled; and that he found several mountainous tracts, that ran down towards the Red Sea. He thought the Israelites had proceeded as far as the desert of Etham, Exodus 13:20, when they were commanded by God to return back, Exodus 14:2, and to pitch their camp between Migdol and the sea; and that when they were not able to fly, unless by sea, they were shut in on each side by mountains. He also thought we might evidently learn hence, how it might be said that the Israelites were in Etham before they went over the sea, and yet might be said to have come into Etham after they had passed over the sea also. Besides, he gave me an account how he passed over a river in a boat near the city Suez, which he says must needs be the Heroopolia of the ancients, since that city could not be situate any where else in that neighborhood."
As to the famous passage produced here by Dr. Bernard, out of Herodotus, as the most ancient heathen testimony of the Israelites coming from the Red Sea into Palestine, Bishop Cumberland has shown that it belongs to the old Canaanite or Phoenician shepherds, and their retiring out of Egypt into Canaan or Phoenicia, long before the days of Moses. Sanchoniatho, p. 374, &c. | <urn:uuid:db6465f3-79e8-422a-abea-4abb95e1b808> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.christianwalks.org/ancient_writings/AntiquitiesJews/ajb02c15.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00506.warc.gz | en | 0.98993 | 1,703 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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-0.0625869184... | 4 | Containing The Interval Of Two Hundred And Twenty Years.
From The Death Of Isaac To The Exodus Out Of Egypt.
How The Hebrews Under The Conduct Of Moses Left Egypt..
1. So the Hebrews went out of Egypt, while the Egyptians wept, and repented that they had treated them so hardly. - Now they took their journey by Letopolis, a place at that time deserted, but where Babylon was built afterwards, when Cambyses laid Egypt waste: but as they went away hastily, on the third day they came to a place called Beelzephon, on the Red Sea; and when they had no food out of the land, because it was a desert, they eat of loaves kneaded of flour, only warmed by a gentle heat; and this food they made use of for thirty days; for what they brought with them out of Egypt would not suffice them any longer time; and this only while they dispensed it to each person, to use so much only as would serve for necessity, but not for satiety. Whence it is that, in memory of the want we were then in, we keep a feast for eight days, which is called the feast of unleavened bread. Now the entire multitude of those that went out, including the women and children, was not easy to be numbered, but those that were of an age fit for war, were six hundred thousand.
2. They left Egypt in the month Xanthicus, on the fifteenth day of the lunar month; four hundred and thirty years after our forefather Abraham came into Canaan, but two hundred and fifteen years only after Jacob removed into Egypt. (28) It was the eightieth year of the age of Moses, and of that of Aaron three more. They also carried out the bones of Joesph with them, as he had charged his sons to do.
3. But the Egyptians soon repented that the Hebrews were gone; and the king also was mightily concerned that this had been procured by the magic arts of Moses; so they resolved to go after them. Accordingly they took their weapons, and other warlike furniture, and pursued after them, in order to bring them back, if once they overtook them, because they would now have no pretense to pray to God against them, since they had already been permitted to go out; and they thought they should easily overcome them, as they had no armor, and would be weary with their journey; so they made haste in their pursuit, and asked of every one they met which way they were gone. And indeed that land was difficult to be traveled over, not only by armies, but by single persons.
Now Moses led the Hebrews this way, that in case the Egyptians should repent and be desirous to pursue after them, they might undergo the punishment of their wickedness, and of the breach of those promises they had made to them. As also he led them this way on account of the Philistines, who had quarreled with them, and hated them of old, that by all means they might not know of their departure, for their country is near to that of Egypt; and thence it was that Moses led them not along the road that tended to the land of the Philistines, but he was desirous that they should go through the desert, that so after a long journey, and after many afflictions, they might enter upon the land of Canaan. Another reason of this was, that God commanded him to bring the people to Mount Sinai, that there they might offer him sacrifices.
Now when the Egyptians had overtaken the Hebrews, they prepared to fight them, and by their multitude they drove them into a narrow place; for the number that pursued after them was six hundred chariots, with fifty thousand horsemen, and two hundred thousand foot-men, all armed. They also seized on the passages by which they imagined the Hebrews might fly, shutting them up (29) between inaccessible precipices and the sea; for there was [on each side] a [ridge of] mountains that terminated at the sea, which were impassable by reason of their roughness, and obstructed their flight; wherefore they there pressed upon the Hebrews with their army, where [the ridges of] the mountains were closed with the sea; which army they placed at the chops of the mountains, that so they might deprive them of any passage into the plain.
4. When the Hebrews, therefore, were neither able to bear up, being thus, as it were, besieged, because they wanted provisions, nor saw any possible way of escaping; and if they should have thought of fighting, they had no weapons; they expected a universal destruction, unless they delivered themselves up to the Egyptians. So they laid the blame on Moses, and forgot all the signs that had been wrought by God for the recovery of their freedom; and this so far, that their incredulity prompted them to throw stones at the prophet, while he encouraged them and promised them deliverance; and they resolved that they would deliver themselves up to the Egyptians. So there was sorrow and lamentation among the women and children, who had nothing but destruction before their eyes, while they were encompassed with mountains, the sea, and their enemies, and discerned no way of flying from them.
5. But Moses, though the multitude looked fiercely at him, did not, however, give over the care of them, but despised all dangers, out of his trust in God, who, as he had afforded them the several steps already taken for the recovery of their liberty, which he had foretold them, would not now suffer them to be subdued by their enemies, to be either made slaves or be slain by them; and, standing in midst of them, he said,
(28) Why our Masorete copy so groundlessly abridges this account in Exodus 12:40, as to ascribe 430 years to the sole peregrination of the Israelites in Egypt, when it is clear even by that Masorete chronology elsewhere, as well as from the express text itself, in the Samaritan, Septuagint, and Josephus, that they sojourned in Egypt but half that time, and that by consequence, the other half of their peregrination was in the land of Canaan, before they came into Egypt, is hard to say. See Essay on the Old Testament, p. 62, 63.
(29) Take the main part of Reland's excellent note here, which greatly illustrates Josephus, and the Scripture, in this history, as follows:
"[A traveler, says Reland, whose name was] Eneman, when he returned out of Egypt, told me that he went the same way from Egypt to Mount Sinai, which he supposed the Israelites of old traveled; and that he found several mountainous tracts, that ran down towards the Red Sea. He thought the Israelites had proceeded as far as the desert of Etham, Exodus 13:20, when they were commanded by God to return back, Exodus 14:2, and to pitch their camp between Migdol and the sea; and that when they were not able to fly, unless by sea, they were shut in on each side by mountains. He also thought we might evidently learn hence, how it might be said that the Israelites were in Etham before they went over the sea, and yet might be said to have come into Etham after they had passed over the sea also. Besides, he gave me an account how he passed over a river in a boat near the city Suez, which he says must needs be the Heroopolia of the ancients, since that city could not be situate any where else in that neighborhood."
As to the famous passage produced here by Dr. Bernard, out of Herodotus, as the most ancient heathen testimony of the Israelites coming from the Red Sea into Palestine, Bishop Cumberland has shown that it belongs to the old Canaanite or Phoenician shepherds, and their retiring out of Egypt into Canaan or Phoenicia, long before the days of Moses. Sanchoniatho, p. 374, &c. | 1,722 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1917 the American Senate put forward a proposed Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution to ban the sale and manufacture of alcohol in the United States. This amendment was put forward because of the abuse of alcohol by a percentage of Americans during this post World War One period.
This period of the Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution banning alcohol is seen as the Noble Experiment, but is officially the Prohibition in the United States.
Today you will find out why the United States brought in prohibition, what happened during the prohibition period and why it stopped.
Throughout the 18th century and 19th century physicians and temperance movements talked about the illness of drunkenness and a likened it to physically and mental problems. With America being a very religious country the excesses of alcohol were also seen as an excess of the deadly sins too.
The prohibition movement started moving more quickly in 1869 when the Prohibition Party was set up and the Woman's Christian Temperance Union followed a few years later.
By 1881 Kansas outlawed alcoholic drinks as part of its constitution and by 1890 until the prohibition of the 1920’s the “dry” folk who wished for prohibition advanced their desire for prohibition. It was also during this time that many people starting turning against the saloons, not only from an anti-alcohol point of view but also because of the influence saloons carried in political circles.
In 1917 the 65th Congress was formed and of the 204 members 140 were people who favoured prohibition. It was also during this period a renewed case for prohibition was caused, the only people who countered it seemed to be the German-American immigrants whom many ignored because of the ongoing World War One which America had joined.
Because of this renewed case and the high percentage of pro-prohibition members of Congress the proposed Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution was put forward to ban alcohol. By the end of 1917 the new amendment was passed 36 states ratified the amendment.
In January 1920 the Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution came into effect and it was then illegal to sell or manufacture alcohol. The name of the amendment was the National Prohibition Act otherwise known as the Volstead Act
Alcohol consumption did reduce because of the act but there were further reaching consequences.
One of the interesting wording terms in the Volstead Act was that it was not illegal to drink alcohol and people were allowed to make alcohol at home for their own consumption as long as it was made of fruit. This meant many vineyards were started with the view to sell the fruit on to the public to make their own alcohol.
It was also found that many people simply bought massive quantities of alcohol prior to Prohibition and simply stored it at home so they still had a source of alcohol.
The Federal Law enforcement agencies were known not to actively enforce the new Volstead Act when they found persons selling alcohol illegally. This meant a new type of saloon sprang up called a Speakeasy; a term meaning the people within had to talk in a more quiet fashion (speakeasy) so not to draw attention to the premises.
The number of Speakeasy illegal saloons was huge and they sprang up at a rampant pace. In fact it is said that by 1925 there were at least 30,000 to as many as 100,000 of these illegal premises in New York alone.
The problem with these illegal saloons was that many were run by criminal gangs and underground criminals. Furthermore the people who made the illegal alcohol and shipped it for sale were clearly of a criminal nature. This meant the prohibition movement was generating more criminal activity.
The repeal of the prohibition in the 1920's
The first sign of people trying to repeal the Volstead Act actually came in the form of the medical community as they had many alcohol related medicines and the Act also made alcohol medicines illegal.
Countries neighbouring America such as Mexico and Canada found their alcohol trade flourished as many came into neighbouring countries to purchase alcohol and take it into America; this was deemed to show that it was also affecting the American economy.
By the late 1920’s the trade of illegal alcohol became a source of criminal gangs gaining more and more power. This all came to a head in 1929 when two warring criminal gangs faced one another in Chicago on the 14th February and the resulting in the Saint Valentine's Day massacre where seven Irish criminal gang members were gunned down.
The criminal and economical issues along with the unrest among the everyday people of the large American cities forced the government to review the prohibition situation. By March 1933 the United States government decided to repeal the National Prohibition Act with President Franklin Roosevelt amending the Volstead Act to include the Cullen-Harrison Act which allowed the sale of alcohol that carried a percentage of up to 3.2%.
By December in 1933 the act was fully repealed and alcohol could be sold once again.
- Organized Crime in the 1920’s and Prohibition
- Martin Luther King Jr Facts
- When the Killing of Martin Luther King Shook the World
- The Stealing of the Mona Lisa
- The Power of Organized Crime in America
- The Legendary of Bonnie and Clyde
- Saint Valentine's Day Massacre - The Bloodiest Valentine Day 1929
- Cybercrime and How to Stop It.
- Crimes at the Highest Level of Government
- Columbine Massacre - A Horrible Crime Carried Out by Children | <urn:uuid:10a5aca0-63eb-4eb3-8480-f57ebb5e406a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thefinertimes.com/20th-Century-Crime-Articles/prohibition-in-the-1920s.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00085.warc.gz | en | 0.983137 | 1,084 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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-0.162657380104064... | 1 | In 1917 the American Senate put forward a proposed Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution to ban the sale and manufacture of alcohol in the United States. This amendment was put forward because of the abuse of alcohol by a percentage of Americans during this post World War One period.
This period of the Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution banning alcohol is seen as the Noble Experiment, but is officially the Prohibition in the United States.
Today you will find out why the United States brought in prohibition, what happened during the prohibition period and why it stopped.
Throughout the 18th century and 19th century physicians and temperance movements talked about the illness of drunkenness and a likened it to physically and mental problems. With America being a very religious country the excesses of alcohol were also seen as an excess of the deadly sins too.
The prohibition movement started moving more quickly in 1869 when the Prohibition Party was set up and the Woman's Christian Temperance Union followed a few years later.
By 1881 Kansas outlawed alcoholic drinks as part of its constitution and by 1890 until the prohibition of the 1920’s the “dry” folk who wished for prohibition advanced their desire for prohibition. It was also during this time that many people starting turning against the saloons, not only from an anti-alcohol point of view but also because of the influence saloons carried in political circles.
In 1917 the 65th Congress was formed and of the 204 members 140 were people who favoured prohibition. It was also during this period a renewed case for prohibition was caused, the only people who countered it seemed to be the German-American immigrants whom many ignored because of the ongoing World War One which America had joined.
Because of this renewed case and the high percentage of pro-prohibition members of Congress the proposed Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution was put forward to ban alcohol. By the end of 1917 the new amendment was passed 36 states ratified the amendment.
In January 1920 the Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution came into effect and it was then illegal to sell or manufacture alcohol. The name of the amendment was the National Prohibition Act otherwise known as the Volstead Act
Alcohol consumption did reduce because of the act but there were further reaching consequences.
One of the interesting wording terms in the Volstead Act was that it was not illegal to drink alcohol and people were allowed to make alcohol at home for their own consumption as long as it was made of fruit. This meant many vineyards were started with the view to sell the fruit on to the public to make their own alcohol.
It was also found that many people simply bought massive quantities of alcohol prior to Prohibition and simply stored it at home so they still had a source of alcohol.
The Federal Law enforcement agencies were known not to actively enforce the new Volstead Act when they found persons selling alcohol illegally. This meant a new type of saloon sprang up called a Speakeasy; a term meaning the people within had to talk in a more quiet fashion (speakeasy) so not to draw attention to the premises.
The number of Speakeasy illegal saloons was huge and they sprang up at a rampant pace. In fact it is said that by 1925 there were at least 30,000 to as many as 100,000 of these illegal premises in New York alone.
The problem with these illegal saloons was that many were run by criminal gangs and underground criminals. Furthermore the people who made the illegal alcohol and shipped it for sale were clearly of a criminal nature. This meant the prohibition movement was generating more criminal activity.
The repeal of the prohibition in the 1920's
The first sign of people trying to repeal the Volstead Act actually came in the form of the medical community as they had many alcohol related medicines and the Act also made alcohol medicines illegal.
Countries neighbouring America such as Mexico and Canada found their alcohol trade flourished as many came into neighbouring countries to purchase alcohol and take it into America; this was deemed to show that it was also affecting the American economy.
By the late 1920’s the trade of illegal alcohol became a source of criminal gangs gaining more and more power. This all came to a head in 1929 when two warring criminal gangs faced one another in Chicago on the 14th February and the resulting in the Saint Valentine's Day massacre where seven Irish criminal gang members were gunned down.
The criminal and economical issues along with the unrest among the everyday people of the large American cities forced the government to review the prohibition situation. By March 1933 the United States government decided to repeal the National Prohibition Act with President Franklin Roosevelt amending the Volstead Act to include the Cullen-Harrison Act which allowed the sale of alcohol that carried a percentage of up to 3.2%.
By December in 1933 the act was fully repealed and alcohol could be sold once again.
- Organized Crime in the 1920’s and Prohibition
- Martin Luther King Jr Facts
- When the Killing of Martin Luther King Shook the World
- The Stealing of the Mona Lisa
- The Power of Organized Crime in America
- The Legendary of Bonnie and Clyde
- Saint Valentine's Day Massacre - The Bloodiest Valentine Day 1929
- Cybercrime and How to Stop It.
- Crimes at the Highest Level of Government
- Columbine Massacre - A Horrible Crime Carried Out by Children | 1,155 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Propaganda was a form of yellow journalism to provoke international sympathy for countries such as Belgium, who were innocent yet invaded by Central Powers such as Germany. The accounts in Belgium were exaggerated to portray Germany as an intruder and the ruthless monster of the situation. Britain fabricated exaggerated stories in Belgium to attract American support. For example, the story of Belgian nuns being tied to the clappers of church bells and crushed to death when the bells were rung. All propaganda during the war was used to inflate events of war. Majority of the propaganda was used to point the finger at Germany to portray them as a brutal and bloodthirsty nation. The propaganda was persuasive in which many other nations not participating in war were emotionally affected by Germany's ruthless behavior/portrayal. The trend of propaganda was to condemn one nation of a crime they committed. For example, the Rape of Belgium where neutral Belgium was violently attacked by German troops. The German troops believed that Belgium, a very small nation, would used brutal tactics against them while Germany was attempting to reach France so in return the German army intentionally attacked, murdered, and burned Belgium property and civilians. Propaganda of "Remember Belgium" and "The Rape of Belgium" emotionally affected nations of the Allied powers and other neutral countries such as the United States. Propaganda is a weapon of war used to persuade and questions morals of the people to gain support and recognition of other countries. | <urn:uuid:eb15712a-cadd-44f3-985c-a396ce7c22d5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://remember-belgium.fandom.com/wiki/Summary_Analysis | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00498.warc.gz | en | 0.980283 | 284 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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... | 1 | Propaganda was a form of yellow journalism to provoke international sympathy for countries such as Belgium, who were innocent yet invaded by Central Powers such as Germany. The accounts in Belgium were exaggerated to portray Germany as an intruder and the ruthless monster of the situation. Britain fabricated exaggerated stories in Belgium to attract American support. For example, the story of Belgian nuns being tied to the clappers of church bells and crushed to death when the bells were rung. All propaganda during the war was used to inflate events of war. Majority of the propaganda was used to point the finger at Germany to portray them as a brutal and bloodthirsty nation. The propaganda was persuasive in which many other nations not participating in war were emotionally affected by Germany's ruthless behavior/portrayal. The trend of propaganda was to condemn one nation of a crime they committed. For example, the Rape of Belgium where neutral Belgium was violently attacked by German troops. The German troops believed that Belgium, a very small nation, would used brutal tactics against them while Germany was attempting to reach France so in return the German army intentionally attacked, murdered, and burned Belgium property and civilians. Propaganda of "Remember Belgium" and "The Rape of Belgium" emotionally affected nations of the Allied powers and other neutral countries such as the United States. Propaganda is a weapon of war used to persuade and questions morals of the people to gain support and recognition of other countries. | 288 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The purpose of the Egyptian pyramids was to protect the pharaohs in their afterlife. The Egyptians were deeply religious and believed in over 2000 gods and goddesses. They believed death as a transition into another world. Pharaohs were believed to become gods in the next world. Individuals had three souls: “ka”, “ba”, and “akh”. Care of the mortal remains after a person’s death was very important to help these souls travel easily to afterlife. It’s this belief that inspired Egyptians to construct such magnificent tombs for the high and mighty.
Most ancient Egypt pyramids are located at Giza, just outside Cairo. The earliest structures, however, were found 12 miles away from Cairo at Saqqara. Giza was chosen for many practical reasons. For one, it was close to the Nile and the limestone could be carried easily to the site on boats. Also, Giza was (and still is) situated on the west of the river. According to Egyptian mythology, west was the land of the setting sun, and hence the land of the dead. The pyramids were erected on the edge of a desert because dry conditions helped withstand the vagaries of nature.
Archaeologists are almost united in opinion that the Great Sphinx was constructed to guard the other pyramids. It’s the world’s oldest and biggest statue, believed to have been constructed around 2500BC, and has the body of a lion and head of a human. Arguably modeled on pharaoh Khafra, the Sphinx is 241 feet long, 66 feet high, and 20 feet wide. It was once painted in bright colors but nature has taken its toll and it now looks different than when it was first built.
The missing nose of the Great Sphinx has been subject to much speculation and conspiracy theories. You may think that the nose was vandalized when Napoleon arrived at Egypt or during one of the World Wars. But all these events took place many years after the first known sketches of the Great Sphinx without a nose appeared around in the 1730s. There’s no documentation lead regarding the missing nose, though Sa’im al-dahr, an Islamic cleric vandalized the statue in the 1370s and was punished in this regard. The broken nose is still a mystery.
The child pharaoh Tutankhamun, popularly known as King Tut, ruled Egypt from 1332 to 1323BC. His tomb was discovered almost in perfect condition by George Herbert and Howard Carter in 1922. Unlike other tombs that were raided by robbers, King Tut’s tomb escaped their eyes. Artifacts inside the tomb were exactly as they were left by the Egyptians when the pharaoh was buried. Tutankhamun’s burial mask was one of the most iconic discoveries and is now housed at the Museum of Egyptian Antiquities, Cairo.
Foodie, lazy, bookworm, and internet junkie. All in that order. Loves to floor the accelerator. Mad about the Himalayas and its trekking trails. Former life forester. Also an occasional writer and editor | <urn:uuid:ee47d2ac-1cc5-4e9d-955e-c848dfd4a6b6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historyly.com/egypt-history/egyptian-pyramids-facts/2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00092.warc.gz | en | 0.982275 | 647 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.3382963836193... | 2 | The purpose of the Egyptian pyramids was to protect the pharaohs in their afterlife. The Egyptians were deeply religious and believed in over 2000 gods and goddesses. They believed death as a transition into another world. Pharaohs were believed to become gods in the next world. Individuals had three souls: “ka”, “ba”, and “akh”. Care of the mortal remains after a person’s death was very important to help these souls travel easily to afterlife. It’s this belief that inspired Egyptians to construct such magnificent tombs for the high and mighty.
Most ancient Egypt pyramids are located at Giza, just outside Cairo. The earliest structures, however, were found 12 miles away from Cairo at Saqqara. Giza was chosen for many practical reasons. For one, it was close to the Nile and the limestone could be carried easily to the site on boats. Also, Giza was (and still is) situated on the west of the river. According to Egyptian mythology, west was the land of the setting sun, and hence the land of the dead. The pyramids were erected on the edge of a desert because dry conditions helped withstand the vagaries of nature.
Archaeologists are almost united in opinion that the Great Sphinx was constructed to guard the other pyramids. It’s the world’s oldest and biggest statue, believed to have been constructed around 2500BC, and has the body of a lion and head of a human. Arguably modeled on pharaoh Khafra, the Sphinx is 241 feet long, 66 feet high, and 20 feet wide. It was once painted in bright colors but nature has taken its toll and it now looks different than when it was first built.
The missing nose of the Great Sphinx has been subject to much speculation and conspiracy theories. You may think that the nose was vandalized when Napoleon arrived at Egypt or during one of the World Wars. But all these events took place many years after the first known sketches of the Great Sphinx without a nose appeared around in the 1730s. There’s no documentation lead regarding the missing nose, though Sa’im al-dahr, an Islamic cleric vandalized the statue in the 1370s and was punished in this regard. The broken nose is still a mystery.
The child pharaoh Tutankhamun, popularly known as King Tut, ruled Egypt from 1332 to 1323BC. His tomb was discovered almost in perfect condition by George Herbert and Howard Carter in 1922. Unlike other tombs that were raided by robbers, King Tut’s tomb escaped their eyes. Artifacts inside the tomb were exactly as they were left by the Egyptians when the pharaoh was buried. Tutankhamun’s burial mask was one of the most iconic discoveries and is now housed at the Museum of Egyptian Antiquities, Cairo.
Foodie, lazy, bookworm, and internet junkie. All in that order. Loves to floor the accelerator. Mad about the Himalayas and its trekking trails. Former life forester. Also an occasional writer and editor | 647 | ENGLISH | 1 |
(Last Updated on : 16/11/2011)
Military administration of Rashtrakuta Empire
was supervised by able generals. However there is no record regarding the exact strength of its infantry, cavalry and elephant corps. It can be presumed that the Rashtrakuta army was not less than half a million strong. A considerable portion was concentrated at the capital. South sections also possessed an army usually under the Banavasi viceroy, and an army of the North commanded by a prince of the blood royal. The standing armies were maintained for the protection of the empire from enemies. They also carried out aggressive expeditions whenever the central government felt the need for it.
The army was famous for its infantry divisions. Cavalry also played a major role. Some of the battalions consisted of men from military castes, the soldiers of which followed their profession as a matter of heredity; these usually enjoyed the reputation of crack divisions. Some battalions were supplied by feudatories and provincial governors. When important military ventures had to be undertaken they were summoned. Troops of the military castes received professional training in their villages before they joined the divisions. Some were trained and led by adventurous mercenaries or condottieri who were paid directly by the government. The army consisted of persons from all castes. Even Brahmans and Jains were also represented. Many of the famous Rashtrakuta generals like Bankeya, Srivijaya and Marasimha were Jains.
The Rashtrapathi as head of the state was also responsible for military administration. A well developed and disciplined army was maintained. The two wings were infantry and cavalry. Almost all the ministers had to serve in the military. All cabinet ministers possessed military training.
This article is a stub. You can enrich by adding more information to it. Send your Write Up to email@example.com | <urn:uuid:ae34ef20-18cb-4ffe-ba39-05bd6770f8bb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.indianetzone.com/57/military_administration_rashtrakuta_empire.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00185.warc.gz | en | 0.987143 | 380 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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... | 1 | (Last Updated on : 16/11/2011)
Military administration of Rashtrakuta Empire
was supervised by able generals. However there is no record regarding the exact strength of its infantry, cavalry and elephant corps. It can be presumed that the Rashtrakuta army was not less than half a million strong. A considerable portion was concentrated at the capital. South sections also possessed an army usually under the Banavasi viceroy, and an army of the North commanded by a prince of the blood royal. The standing armies were maintained for the protection of the empire from enemies. They also carried out aggressive expeditions whenever the central government felt the need for it.
The army was famous for its infantry divisions. Cavalry also played a major role. Some of the battalions consisted of men from military castes, the soldiers of which followed their profession as a matter of heredity; these usually enjoyed the reputation of crack divisions. Some battalions were supplied by feudatories and provincial governors. When important military ventures had to be undertaken they were summoned. Troops of the military castes received professional training in their villages before they joined the divisions. Some were trained and led by adventurous mercenaries or condottieri who were paid directly by the government. The army consisted of persons from all castes. Even Brahmans and Jains were also represented. Many of the famous Rashtrakuta generals like Bankeya, Srivijaya and Marasimha were Jains.
The Rashtrapathi as head of the state was also responsible for military administration. A well developed and disciplined army was maintained. The two wings were infantry and cavalry. Almost all the ministers had to serve in the military. All cabinet ministers possessed military training.
This article is a stub. You can enrich by adding more information to it. Send your Write Up to email@example.com | 380 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Albert Einstein was a German American scientist. He is best known for his theories on relativity and theories of matter and heat. Einstein is considered one of the greatest physicists of all time because he is thought to have changed the way one looks at the universe.
Einstein was born in Ulm, southern Germany, to Jewish parents. A year after he was born, he moved to Munich, Germany. Einstein showed no signs of being a genius at an early age. He did not like to receive instructions in school. Therefore, his education had to begin at home. He would still have to attend school in Munich though, and would get exceptional grades, especially in Mathematics. However, he hated it. For that reason, his teacher suggested him to leave and study at home because of his dislike toward the school. Merely his presence caused the other students to disrespect the teachers.
A story that Einstein loved to tell was that he once saw a compass and saw that the needle had a northward swing. He knew there was something behind it, and he wanted to know the hidden mysteries. Einstein first learned algebra and the Pythagoras’ theorem when his uncle taught it to him. His uncle would visit the family frequently and was Einstein’s mentor. He would help and encourage him to go on and never give up. Einstein loved to solve the algebraic and geometrical problems on his own. At the age of twelve, he read a couple of books on Euclid Geometry and learned the whole thing on his own. At the age of fourteen, he read a few science books, and the books had an immense influence on his life.
One of the interesting facts that the majority of people do not know about Albert Einstein is that he was actually very talented in the area of music. His mother played the piano very well, and she believed that music had to be an integral part of the life of her boy. Albert started taking violin lessons at the age of five. It is known that the boy hated it until one day, he heard Mozart. After that, he always dedicated time to music for the rest of his life.
At the age of fifteen, his parents moved to Milan, Italy. Einstein took this opportunity to drop out of school in Munich. He spent a year just living with his parents and reading. Albert then realized that he needed to do something in life. He decided to finish school in Aarau, Switzerland. In 1895, he tried to enter the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (a type of university). He took the entrance exam, but he failed it. Luckily, he passed it the second time. In the institute, Albert realized that his true love was Physics. Albert hated that school, as well. Actually, the future genius hated the school so much that he would not even attend the classes. He would rather stay at home, do experiments, and have his friend take notes for him. Then he would just study the notes on his own and take the tests.
Albert graduated from the university with low grades. He tried to get a job at a university as a professor but failed to find one. He even became a Swiss citizen to find a job in Switzerland, but it did not work out either.
In 1902, he found a job at the patent office in Bern. All he had to do was putting applications in for patents. This provided him with time he needed to devote to the Physics questions that he had and do scientific papers. In 1903, he married Mileva Marić, with whom he had two sons. It is known that Albert Einstein had an illegitimate daughter with Mileva, who was his fellow student at the time. According to some historical facts, their first child died because of an infection aged one. It is believed that this happened in 1903. Albert discussed his ideas with his wife all the time.
Interestingly, Albert Einstein lived with Mileva Marić on certain conditions that the woman agreed to. They laid a special list of conditions that helped them during the times when they had marriage difficulties. In the contract, Albert Einstein specified that his wife had to always make sure that his clothes and laundry were kept in good order, while Albert received his three meals regularly in his room that had to be kept clean and neat, no matter what. Above that, Mileva had to forgo her husband’s sitting at home, going out, or traveling with her. In addition to everything mentioned above, the woman would obey that she would never expect any kind of intimacy from her husband, nor would she reproach him in any way. Additionally, Mileva had to immediately stop talking to Albert the very moment he asked her to. And finally, the wife was obliged to the fact that she had to leave her husband’s bedroom straightaway without protest if he requested her to.
Einstein started calling attention to himself when he began to publish his papers. In 1905, he got hired as a professor at the University of Zurich for his Annus Mirabilis – the four major papers that he wrote in his life. The first one was about the theoretical dissertations on the dimensions of molecules. The second was about the Brownian Motion. He made predictions about the motion of particles. The third one was about the Photoelectric Effect, which contained a revolutionary hypothesis on the nature of light. In this paper, Albert Einstein wrote about the photon being proportional to frequency. His Fourth and most revolutionary paper was the one about the Theory of Special Relativity. It contained the interaction viewed simultaneously by an observer at rest, and by an observer moving at a uniform speed.
Albert did not really become world-famous until some of the things in his Theory of Special Relativity proved to be true. In his theory, he explained the unexplained variations in the orbital motion of the planets. This was proved in 1919 when there was an eclipse. After the eclipse, people realized that what he had stated was true. From that time on, Albert Einstein became world-known. He was invited to many special meetings. On one of them, he met one of his favorite scientists Max Planck and others that he relished.
As for the other special meetings, it is interesting to know that Albert Einstein loved to smoke and was actually a life member of the Montreal Pipe Smokers Club. According to the words of the world-famous theoretical physicist, pipe smoking was his special technique that helped him to calm down when needed and judge things objectively.
It was in the same year that he married his cousin Elsa. In 1921, he won the Nobel Prize for Physics for the research he did on the PhotoElectric effect.
Since Albert was a publicly declared Zionist, he was the target of many anti-Semitism representatives. He would be ridiculed in Germany because of his beliefs. Albert had moved to Germany to work at the University in Prague. When Hitler came to power, he immediately moved to Princeton, New Jersey. Albert later learned that some German scientists had discovered how to split the uranium atom. Albert and other scientists sent a letter to President Roosevelt with the request to start an atomic bomb project as well. That is how the Manhattan project was started. Albert Einstein helped to make the first two nuclear Bombs.
Albert Einstein died in 1955 in Princeton, New Jersey. He was happy about the fact that he was able to see his own people returning to their homeland. It was something that he wanted to see throughout his life. One of the greatest scientists alive accomplished many things in life because of his hard work, and all his work has helped our world today.
The author of the iconic theory of general relativity was born Jew and a German. However, he renounced his German citizenship in 1896. Later, in 1901, Albert Einstein became a Swiss citizen. Nonetheless, the scientist passed away as a citizen of the United States of America in 1955.
According to historians, Albert Einstein could have lived longer. The thing is that before his death, the doctors suggested surgery to the physicist. However, the man refused on the grounds that it was utterly tasteless to prolong one’s life artificially.
Einstein was one of the most creative minds of all time. That was clear from the fact that even after his death, extraordinary things happened. Right after the death of the famous scientist and physicist, his body was cremated and ashes scattered. Nevertheless, one of his body parts was retained. Dr. Thomas Harvey, the pathologist who did the autopsy of Albert Einstein at Princeton Hospital, carefully removed and stole the scientist’s brain without any permission. Harvey lost both – his job and license. | <urn:uuid:8a574f2e-c34f-43be-b8ea-1f298d6355ae> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://howtowrite.customwritings.com/post/albert-einstein-essay/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00280.warc.gz | en | 0.993297 | 1,748 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.364215463... | 10 | Albert Einstein was a German American scientist. He is best known for his theories on relativity and theories of matter and heat. Einstein is considered one of the greatest physicists of all time because he is thought to have changed the way one looks at the universe.
Einstein was born in Ulm, southern Germany, to Jewish parents. A year after he was born, he moved to Munich, Germany. Einstein showed no signs of being a genius at an early age. He did not like to receive instructions in school. Therefore, his education had to begin at home. He would still have to attend school in Munich though, and would get exceptional grades, especially in Mathematics. However, he hated it. For that reason, his teacher suggested him to leave and study at home because of his dislike toward the school. Merely his presence caused the other students to disrespect the teachers.
A story that Einstein loved to tell was that he once saw a compass and saw that the needle had a northward swing. He knew there was something behind it, and he wanted to know the hidden mysteries. Einstein first learned algebra and the Pythagoras’ theorem when his uncle taught it to him. His uncle would visit the family frequently and was Einstein’s mentor. He would help and encourage him to go on and never give up. Einstein loved to solve the algebraic and geometrical problems on his own. At the age of twelve, he read a couple of books on Euclid Geometry and learned the whole thing on his own. At the age of fourteen, he read a few science books, and the books had an immense influence on his life.
One of the interesting facts that the majority of people do not know about Albert Einstein is that he was actually very talented in the area of music. His mother played the piano very well, and she believed that music had to be an integral part of the life of her boy. Albert started taking violin lessons at the age of five. It is known that the boy hated it until one day, he heard Mozart. After that, he always dedicated time to music for the rest of his life.
At the age of fifteen, his parents moved to Milan, Italy. Einstein took this opportunity to drop out of school in Munich. He spent a year just living with his parents and reading. Albert then realized that he needed to do something in life. He decided to finish school in Aarau, Switzerland. In 1895, he tried to enter the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (a type of university). He took the entrance exam, but he failed it. Luckily, he passed it the second time. In the institute, Albert realized that his true love was Physics. Albert hated that school, as well. Actually, the future genius hated the school so much that he would not even attend the classes. He would rather stay at home, do experiments, and have his friend take notes for him. Then he would just study the notes on his own and take the tests.
Albert graduated from the university with low grades. He tried to get a job at a university as a professor but failed to find one. He even became a Swiss citizen to find a job in Switzerland, but it did not work out either.
In 1902, he found a job at the patent office in Bern. All he had to do was putting applications in for patents. This provided him with time he needed to devote to the Physics questions that he had and do scientific papers. In 1903, he married Mileva Marić, with whom he had two sons. It is known that Albert Einstein had an illegitimate daughter with Mileva, who was his fellow student at the time. According to some historical facts, their first child died because of an infection aged one. It is believed that this happened in 1903. Albert discussed his ideas with his wife all the time.
Interestingly, Albert Einstein lived with Mileva Marić on certain conditions that the woman agreed to. They laid a special list of conditions that helped them during the times when they had marriage difficulties. In the contract, Albert Einstein specified that his wife had to always make sure that his clothes and laundry were kept in good order, while Albert received his three meals regularly in his room that had to be kept clean and neat, no matter what. Above that, Mileva had to forgo her husband’s sitting at home, going out, or traveling with her. In addition to everything mentioned above, the woman would obey that she would never expect any kind of intimacy from her husband, nor would she reproach him in any way. Additionally, Mileva had to immediately stop talking to Albert the very moment he asked her to. And finally, the wife was obliged to the fact that she had to leave her husband’s bedroom straightaway without protest if he requested her to.
Einstein started calling attention to himself when he began to publish his papers. In 1905, he got hired as a professor at the University of Zurich for his Annus Mirabilis – the four major papers that he wrote in his life. The first one was about the theoretical dissertations on the dimensions of molecules. The second was about the Brownian Motion. He made predictions about the motion of particles. The third one was about the Photoelectric Effect, which contained a revolutionary hypothesis on the nature of light. In this paper, Albert Einstein wrote about the photon being proportional to frequency. His Fourth and most revolutionary paper was the one about the Theory of Special Relativity. It contained the interaction viewed simultaneously by an observer at rest, and by an observer moving at a uniform speed.
Albert did not really become world-famous until some of the things in his Theory of Special Relativity proved to be true. In his theory, he explained the unexplained variations in the orbital motion of the planets. This was proved in 1919 when there was an eclipse. After the eclipse, people realized that what he had stated was true. From that time on, Albert Einstein became world-known. He was invited to many special meetings. On one of them, he met one of his favorite scientists Max Planck and others that he relished.
As for the other special meetings, it is interesting to know that Albert Einstein loved to smoke and was actually a life member of the Montreal Pipe Smokers Club. According to the words of the world-famous theoretical physicist, pipe smoking was his special technique that helped him to calm down when needed and judge things objectively.
It was in the same year that he married his cousin Elsa. In 1921, he won the Nobel Prize for Physics for the research he did on the PhotoElectric effect.
Since Albert was a publicly declared Zionist, he was the target of many anti-Semitism representatives. He would be ridiculed in Germany because of his beliefs. Albert had moved to Germany to work at the University in Prague. When Hitler came to power, he immediately moved to Princeton, New Jersey. Albert later learned that some German scientists had discovered how to split the uranium atom. Albert and other scientists sent a letter to President Roosevelt with the request to start an atomic bomb project as well. That is how the Manhattan project was started. Albert Einstein helped to make the first two nuclear Bombs.
Albert Einstein died in 1955 in Princeton, New Jersey. He was happy about the fact that he was able to see his own people returning to their homeland. It was something that he wanted to see throughout his life. One of the greatest scientists alive accomplished many things in life because of his hard work, and all his work has helped our world today.
The author of the iconic theory of general relativity was born Jew and a German. However, he renounced his German citizenship in 1896. Later, in 1901, Albert Einstein became a Swiss citizen. Nonetheless, the scientist passed away as a citizen of the United States of America in 1955.
According to historians, Albert Einstein could have lived longer. The thing is that before his death, the doctors suggested surgery to the physicist. However, the man refused on the grounds that it was utterly tasteless to prolong one’s life artificially.
Einstein was one of the most creative minds of all time. That was clear from the fact that even after his death, extraordinary things happened. Right after the death of the famous scientist and physicist, his body was cremated and ashes scattered. Nevertheless, one of his body parts was retained. Dr. Thomas Harvey, the pathologist who did the autopsy of Albert Einstein at Princeton Hospital, carefully removed and stole the scientist’s brain without any permission. Harvey lost both – his job and license. | 1,764 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By Canessa Taylor and Macy Ward
Asbestos is a material made of six naturally occurring fibrous minerals. Asbestos fibers are resistant to heat, electricity, and corrosion. It is an effective insulator that was used in the U.S. for many years until the ugly truth was discovered: Asbestos exposure is highly toxic!
If someone were to inhale or ingest asbestos dust, the mineral fibers it contains could become trapped inside of their body forever. Over time, those trapped fivers can cause inflammation, scarring, and eventually genetic damage to the cells of the body. Asbestos causes progressive lung disease and certain forms of cancer. In fact, asbestos exposure is the primary cause of the rare and aggressive form of cancer known as mesothelioma.
As explained by Vice Principal Jarvis, the asbestos was used in the ceiling tiles when the school was built in the 70s. Because the asbestos was in the ceiling tiles, it would not release fibers until the tile was disturbed or damaged in some way. Therefore, the asbestos in our school was not considered harmful. However, the decision was made to remove the asbestos anyway. It was professionally removed a couple of weekends ago to ensure the safety of students and staff in the school’s environment. | <urn:uuid:3a350da7-5dcb-4112-b1a8-4a82fddd0b74> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://nchs.news/2019/12/19/asbestos-found-in-auditorium-ceiling/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00526.warc.gz | en | 0.981554 | 255 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.38257098197937... | 5 | By Canessa Taylor and Macy Ward
Asbestos is a material made of six naturally occurring fibrous minerals. Asbestos fibers are resistant to heat, electricity, and corrosion. It is an effective insulator that was used in the U.S. for many years until the ugly truth was discovered: Asbestos exposure is highly toxic!
If someone were to inhale or ingest asbestos dust, the mineral fibers it contains could become trapped inside of their body forever. Over time, those trapped fivers can cause inflammation, scarring, and eventually genetic damage to the cells of the body. Asbestos causes progressive lung disease and certain forms of cancer. In fact, asbestos exposure is the primary cause of the rare and aggressive form of cancer known as mesothelioma.
As explained by Vice Principal Jarvis, the asbestos was used in the ceiling tiles when the school was built in the 70s. Because the asbestos was in the ceiling tiles, it would not release fibers until the tile was disturbed or damaged in some way. Therefore, the asbestos in our school was not considered harmful. However, the decision was made to remove the asbestos anyway. It was professionally removed a couple of weekends ago to ensure the safety of students and staff in the school’s environment. | 251 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Waiting for answer This question has not been answered yet. You can hire a professional tutor to get the answer.
Need help with my writing homework on Title Even young children can be involved in decision making in the family and in schools. Use the course materials to illustrate how children can be involved and
Need help with my writing homework on Title Even young children can be involved in decision making in the family and in schools. Use the course materials to illustrate how children can be involved and also why involvement might be difficult. Write a 1000 word paper answering; Parents who are aware of these issues can begin to interact with their babies from the start. When a child is older, especially when they get to preschool or school age, it is important to begin the process of their decision making by allowing them to make decisions of what they want to wear or about a particular toy they want to use in their play. Another very important aspect of involving children into the decision making process is to help them form secure attachments when they are very young. Secure attachments make a child fell loved and help them to understand that they can talk about anything they need to talk about with a parent. Establishing this type of opportunity when children are young will give them another opportunity to find their place in the family.
Decisions making for many things are easy for a parent to involve their child in, but when it comes to something like bedtime the child may not have much of a choice. According to the text book, there are many ways that a parent can work with a child who does not want to go to bed at a certain time. The challenge for parents is that sometimes they are working to get a child to conform to their wishes and the child has no reason to do so. A parent may decide that the child has several options for bedtime that are around the same time. They can then allow the child to pick one of those bedtimes and the child will think they have made their own choice. One of the challenges when a child does not conform or do what a parent says is that the parent may want to use corporal punishment (spanking) for the child. According to the text, this is never a good idea because children can bully other children with hitting, a child is taught to repress strong emotions, smacking can often make defiant or uncooperative behaviour worse and children can become angry and resentful which can change their attitude towards their family members (69). | <urn:uuid:780bbfcb-b4b2-455e-81ce-c2f993c431be> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studydaddy.com/question/need-help-with-my-writing-homework-on-title-even-young-children-can-be-involved | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00328.warc.gz | en | 0.982264 | 496 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.33015519380569... | 2 | Waiting for answer This question has not been answered yet. You can hire a professional tutor to get the answer.
Need help with my writing homework on Title Even young children can be involved in decision making in the family and in schools. Use the course materials to illustrate how children can be involved and
Need help with my writing homework on Title Even young children can be involved in decision making in the family and in schools. Use the course materials to illustrate how children can be involved and also why involvement might be difficult. Write a 1000 word paper answering; Parents who are aware of these issues can begin to interact with their babies from the start. When a child is older, especially when they get to preschool or school age, it is important to begin the process of their decision making by allowing them to make decisions of what they want to wear or about a particular toy they want to use in their play. Another very important aspect of involving children into the decision making process is to help them form secure attachments when they are very young. Secure attachments make a child fell loved and help them to understand that they can talk about anything they need to talk about with a parent. Establishing this type of opportunity when children are young will give them another opportunity to find their place in the family.
Decisions making for many things are easy for a parent to involve their child in, but when it comes to something like bedtime the child may not have much of a choice. According to the text book, there are many ways that a parent can work with a child who does not want to go to bed at a certain time. The challenge for parents is that sometimes they are working to get a child to conform to their wishes and the child has no reason to do so. A parent may decide that the child has several options for bedtime that are around the same time. They can then allow the child to pick one of those bedtimes and the child will think they have made their own choice. One of the challenges when a child does not conform or do what a parent says is that the parent may want to use corporal punishment (spanking) for the child. According to the text, this is never a good idea because children can bully other children with hitting, a child is taught to repress strong emotions, smacking can often make defiant or uncooperative behaviour worse and children can become angry and resentful which can change their attitude towards their family members (69). | 495 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Frank Lloyd Wright was born on June 8th, 1867 in Wisconsin. His heritage was Welsh. His father's name was William Carey Wright; his occupation was a musician and a preacher of his faith, Unitarian. His mother's name was Anna Lloyd Jones; her occupation was a schoolteacher. It was said that his mother placed pictures of great buildings on the walls of his nursery in order to train him to become an architect. He spent most of is life on his Uncle's farm near Spring Green, Wisconsin.
Frank briefly studied civil engineering at the University of Wisconsin in Madison. When Frank was twenty years old, he moved to Chicago. After he moved there, he got hisfirst job in an Architectural Firm of J. Lyman Silsbee, he worked there for about a year.In 1887, he got a job as a draftsman for Adler and Sullivan; here he eventually became chief draftsman and residential design. Under Sullivan he began to develop his architectural ideas. In 1889 he married hisfirst wife Catherine Tobin. After awhile of developing his own ideas he started to design "bootlegged homes" which meant that he was going against the firm's policy of moonlighting. When the firm found out what Frank was doing, he was fired. These were the start of Wright's low, sheltering rooflines, the prominence of the central fireplace and "destruction of the box" open floor plans.
In 1893, Wright started his own firm; hefirst worked out of the Schiller Building (designed by Adler and Sullivan). Then he moved into a studio which was built onto his home in Oak Park. Oak Park was an affluent suburb of Chicago, which was located to the west of centercity. From 1893 to 1901, about 49 building designed by Wright were built. This period was brought together by concepts of "prairie house" ideas.
In 1909 he developed and refined his prairie style. He founded the "Prairie School" of architecture. His art of this early produ… | <urn:uuid:d90c0214-8919-40a9-84a8-f09bcfcfd08e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/should-frank-lloyd-wright/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00283.warc.gz | en | 0.994555 | 414 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.4647155... | 1 | Frank Lloyd Wright was born on June 8th, 1867 in Wisconsin. His heritage was Welsh. His father's name was William Carey Wright; his occupation was a musician and a preacher of his faith, Unitarian. His mother's name was Anna Lloyd Jones; her occupation was a schoolteacher. It was said that his mother placed pictures of great buildings on the walls of his nursery in order to train him to become an architect. He spent most of is life on his Uncle's farm near Spring Green, Wisconsin.
Frank briefly studied civil engineering at the University of Wisconsin in Madison. When Frank was twenty years old, he moved to Chicago. After he moved there, he got hisfirst job in an Architectural Firm of J. Lyman Silsbee, he worked there for about a year.In 1887, he got a job as a draftsman for Adler and Sullivan; here he eventually became chief draftsman and residential design. Under Sullivan he began to develop his architectural ideas. In 1889 he married hisfirst wife Catherine Tobin. After awhile of developing his own ideas he started to design "bootlegged homes" which meant that he was going against the firm's policy of moonlighting. When the firm found out what Frank was doing, he was fired. These were the start of Wright's low, sheltering rooflines, the prominence of the central fireplace and "destruction of the box" open floor plans.
In 1893, Wright started his own firm; hefirst worked out of the Schiller Building (designed by Adler and Sullivan). Then he moved into a studio which was built onto his home in Oak Park. Oak Park was an affluent suburb of Chicago, which was located to the west of centercity. From 1893 to 1901, about 49 building designed by Wright were built. This period was brought together by concepts of "prairie house" ideas.
In 1909 he developed and refined his prairie style. He founded the "Prairie School" of architecture. His art of this early produ… | 437 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Jewelry In Ancient Rome
Jewelry (joias) is a fascinating fashion accessory that has been popular from ancient times. It has played a variety of roles including political, religious and ornamental, and jewelry artefacts have helped modern historians shape pictures of the daily lives of ancient civilisations.
yahoo.comJewelry in ancient Rome is no exception. There are literary accounts and pictorial depiction such as in the Regina tombstone, plus an abundance of other artefacts available that help us to understand the role jewelry played during this fascinating time.
Jewelry (joias) was worn by men and women though it was subject to conventions of the time; particularly with regards to the appearance of men. Male jewelry was typically practical in nature. Men usually wore a single ring. The ring would serve a functional purpose. Typically a signet ring, the male jewelry item was used to seal official documentation. The male signet ring was initially iron but was later produced in gold as it displayed status and wealth more clearly.
Other practical uses of the signet ring included the inlay being a type of key for a strong box. Literary evidence suggests that propriety regarding male jewelry (joias) was ignored by a minority of fashion fanatics, as with any other social group. Trends and attitudes also changed from the time of Emperor Augustus. The emperors were established with official state clothing during his reign which included jewelry as a display of status and power.
Jewelry also had a protective function in ancient Rome. Boys wore an item of jewelry known as a bullah. This was worn from being a baby. It was worn around the neck and was a form of chain with a pouch which contained an amulet. This was a jewelry item worn by most classes, but the rich upper class had bullahs made of gold. The amulet was often phallic in design, as boys were considered to be the stronger species and so needed protection. Another jewelry (joias) item worn by boys was a small gold ring which was again carved with a phallus for good luck
With regards to women, jewelry (joias) was first and foremost a display of wealth and status. Women had no obvious status distinction through their dress like Roman men. Therefore, hairstyles and jewelry were the only distinction possible. The importance of jewelry to the status of women is apparent through certain historical events. When the Oppian law was passed in 195BC curbing the use of jewelry and suggesting it be handed over for war materials, women demonstrated against this in the streets. During the campaigns of Marcus Curellius, women chose to donate their jewelry (joias) to get enough gold to send a huge gold vase as an offering to Delphi. Their behaviour was rewarded with speeches at funerals which had previously been only for men.
The type and amount of jewelry worn by women varied, but the richest women were the most flamboyant in terms of amount and style. Amber jewelry (joias) was only worn by lower class women and was thought vulgar by the wealthy who favoured gold jewelry. Other items used to make jewelry include pearls, coloured glass beads and polished stones. These would be inset in gold and would vary in size and style, depending upon status. It was possible to tell a lot about a woman in ancient rome by the jewelry she wore.
The types of jewelry worn include necklaces with adornments such as pendants, amulets. Fibula which are similar to safety pins were used as fasteners and so were often adorned to make them a piece of jewelry that was both function and beautiful. Earrings were popular and came in both hoop and drop styles. Rings were usually inset with stones or carvings.
Particularly popular jewelry (joias) items were engraved gems which were referred to as intaglio. These were gems such as carnelian, jasper and chalcedony that had a sunken or engraved image, created with the use of wheels and drills.
Tomb jewelry findings suggest that bracelets were usually worn in pairs with one on each arm. Some tombs have revealed up best site to build a computer 7 items of jewelry on each arm which shows how the conventions for men and women differed. Even gold thread hairnets have been discovered.
This article is under GNU FDL license and can be distributed without any previous authorization from the author. However the author's name and all the URLs (links) mentioned in the article and biography must be kept. | <urn:uuid:0bd59e38-3ff6-4fc6-b26e-45965b0c8c67> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://linuxgataw.ourproject.org/index.php?title=Jewelry_In_Ancient_Rome | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00302.warc.gz | en | 0.986158 | 922 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.5756051540374756,... | 1 | Jewelry In Ancient Rome
Jewelry (joias) is a fascinating fashion accessory that has been popular from ancient times. It has played a variety of roles including political, religious and ornamental, and jewelry artefacts have helped modern historians shape pictures of the daily lives of ancient civilisations.
yahoo.comJewelry in ancient Rome is no exception. There are literary accounts and pictorial depiction such as in the Regina tombstone, plus an abundance of other artefacts available that help us to understand the role jewelry played during this fascinating time.
Jewelry (joias) was worn by men and women though it was subject to conventions of the time; particularly with regards to the appearance of men. Male jewelry was typically practical in nature. Men usually wore a single ring. The ring would serve a functional purpose. Typically a signet ring, the male jewelry item was used to seal official documentation. The male signet ring was initially iron but was later produced in gold as it displayed status and wealth more clearly.
Other practical uses of the signet ring included the inlay being a type of key for a strong box. Literary evidence suggests that propriety regarding male jewelry (joias) was ignored by a minority of fashion fanatics, as with any other social group. Trends and attitudes also changed from the time of Emperor Augustus. The emperors were established with official state clothing during his reign which included jewelry as a display of status and power.
Jewelry also had a protective function in ancient Rome. Boys wore an item of jewelry known as a bullah. This was worn from being a baby. It was worn around the neck and was a form of chain with a pouch which contained an amulet. This was a jewelry item worn by most classes, but the rich upper class had bullahs made of gold. The amulet was often phallic in design, as boys were considered to be the stronger species and so needed protection. Another jewelry (joias) item worn by boys was a small gold ring which was again carved with a phallus for good luck
With regards to women, jewelry (joias) was first and foremost a display of wealth and status. Women had no obvious status distinction through their dress like Roman men. Therefore, hairstyles and jewelry were the only distinction possible. The importance of jewelry to the status of women is apparent through certain historical events. When the Oppian law was passed in 195BC curbing the use of jewelry and suggesting it be handed over for war materials, women demonstrated against this in the streets. During the campaigns of Marcus Curellius, women chose to donate their jewelry (joias) to get enough gold to send a huge gold vase as an offering to Delphi. Their behaviour was rewarded with speeches at funerals which had previously been only for men.
The type and amount of jewelry worn by women varied, but the richest women were the most flamboyant in terms of amount and style. Amber jewelry (joias) was only worn by lower class women and was thought vulgar by the wealthy who favoured gold jewelry. Other items used to make jewelry include pearls, coloured glass beads and polished stones. These would be inset in gold and would vary in size and style, depending upon status. It was possible to tell a lot about a woman in ancient rome by the jewelry she wore.
The types of jewelry worn include necklaces with adornments such as pendants, amulets. Fibula which are similar to safety pins were used as fasteners and so were often adorned to make them a piece of jewelry that was both function and beautiful. Earrings were popular and came in both hoop and drop styles. Rings were usually inset with stones or carvings.
Particularly popular jewelry (joias) items were engraved gems which were referred to as intaglio. These were gems such as carnelian, jasper and chalcedony that had a sunken or engraved image, created with the use of wheels and drills.
Tomb jewelry findings suggest that bracelets were usually worn in pairs with one on each arm. Some tombs have revealed up best site to build a computer 7 items of jewelry on each arm which shows how the conventions for men and women differed. Even gold thread hairnets have been discovered.
This article is under GNU FDL license and can be distributed without any previous authorization from the author. However the author's name and all the URLs (links) mentioned in the article and biography must be kept. | 913 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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